A SYSTEM
OF
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
GEOGRAPHY,
FOR
THIE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D.,
PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE,
NEW YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL.
Omnia mortali mutantur lege creata,
Nec se cognoscunt terra vertentibus annis.
MANILIUS.
NEW   YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.
1871.




Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
eight hundred and forty - nine, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern )is-luct
of New York.




PREFACE.
THE present work is intended as a text-book for the
combined study of ancient Geography and History,
two branches of education that ought never to be separated, but of which the former is either entirely neglected among us, or else only taught out of superficial
and defective compends. Now that classical instruction aspires to be something more than a mere ringing
of changes on letters and syllables, and the recitationrooms of our colleges are beginning to have the dull
routine of mere verbal translation enlivened by inquiries and investigations calculated at once to interest and improve, a knowledge of ancient sites and
localities, that are more or less identified with the
stirring events of former days, can not but prove an
important aid in advancing the good work. The volume here offered may also be found of service to those
of our young countrymen who intend to pursue a
course of foreign travel, and may prepare them for
some of the scenes on which they are about to enter,
or, at all events,.may save them from the mortification of discovering only after their return from abroad
how many objects of deep and abiding interest have
been passed by completely unnoticed.
In preparing the work, no pains have been spared
as regards the collecting of materials. The best sources
of information have been consulted, and every thing
calculated to interest or instruct, from whatever quarter it could be obtained, has been freely used. Instead, however, of ostentatiously encumbering each




iv                 PREFACE.
page with authorities, it has been deemed sufficient to
make this general acknowledgment in the preface, and
to append to it a list of the different works, exclusive
of the classical writings, that have either been consulted, or have furnished materials for the volume.
The main sources of supply, however, have been the
treatises of Cramer, on the ancient geography of Italy,
Greece, and Asia Minor, of which the present work
will be found to furnish a brief, but yet comprehensive abridgment; and the London Penny Cyclopaedia,
in' which are embodied a variety of the most valuable
articles on the subject of ancient geography and history, as well as the results of numerous recent investigations, made by modern travellers, and forming the
subject of communications to the Royal Geographical
Society of Great Britain.. The historical sketches are
principally derived from this latter source. To these
may be added, Prichard's "Researches into the Physical History of Mankind," Forbiger's " Handbuch der
alten Geographie," and Sickler's "Handbuch der alten Geographie."
The present work professes to be a systel, not merely of ancient, but also of mediaeval geography. This
latter division of the subject, however, has only been
so far attended to as was rendered absolutely necessary for the clearer understanding of particular cases.
To have entered more minutely into mediaeval details
would have made the work too voluminous, without
adding much to its utility. Even as it is, the book is
a large one, but by no means too large for the object
in view. Ancient geography, in order to be studied
to advantage, must be studied thoroughly and carefully; and it is a very mistaken idea to suppose that
a mere enumeration of names of places, with a few
brief remarks appended, or a regular historical work.
with short sketches added in order to give it a geo



PREFACE.                   V
graphical appearance, can prove of any real advantage, or produce any lasting impression on the mind
of the learner. Besides, the arrangement of the present volume is such as to answer for two courses of instruction: the first a general one, confined to the more
prominent and leading topics; the second, one entering more into details, and intended for advanced students; for it ought to be carefully borne in mind, that
geographical and historical studies, particularly the
former, should accompany the pupil, in a greater or
less degree, throughout every stage of his academic
and collegiate career.
It was the intention of the editor to have prepared a
series of maps and plans for the present work, but the
recent appearance of Findlay's Classical Atlas has for
the present obviated any necessity for so doing. This
Atlas (which may be procured from the publishers of
the present volume) will be found to answer all the
purposes of the student. It is undoubtedly the best collection of Classical Maps, for its size, that has hitherto
appeared, and the interesting information contained in
the Introduction renders the work doubly valuable. It
must be borne in mind, however, that whenever discrepancies. occur between our text and the Atlas of
Findlay, the former is to be followed, as being based
on later or more reliable authority. These discrepancies, however, are comparatively few in number, and
are principally confined to the Maps of Ancient Spain.
Our guides in fixing sites and localities have been the
best and most recent European Atlases, a list of
w hich will be found below.
It only remains for the editor to express his acknowledgments, as usual, to his friend and colleague,
Professor Drisler, for his valuable co-operation in, and
supervision of the present work; and to his friend
and former pupil, Mr. John M'Mullen, to whom he is




vi                      LIST OF WORKS.
indebted for many important maps and plans brought
by him from Europe, and also for not a few valuable
suggestions, the fruit of well-directed foreign travel.
CHARLES ANTHON.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE, Sept. 10th, 1849.
LIST OF WORKS
FROM WHICH MATERIALS HAVE BEEN OBTAINED FOR THE PRESENT VOLUME
Adrichomius Theatrum Terrme Sanctte. Col. Agripp., 1628, fol.
Ainsworth, Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks. London, 1844,
12mo.
Ainsworth, Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, &c., 2 vols., 12mo. London,
1842.
Arndt, Ueber den U;sprung der Europaischen Sprachen. Frankfort, 1827, 8vo
Arundell, Visit to the Seven Churches of Asia, 8vo. London, 1828.
"    Discoveries in Asia Minor, 8vo. London, 1834, 2 vols.
Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, fol. Paris, 1826.
Beaufort, Caramania, &c., 8vo. London, 1818.
Billerbeck, Handbuch der Alten Geographie, 8vo. Leipsic, 1826.
Bischoffund M6ller, W6rterbuch der Geographie, 8vo. Gotha, 1829.
Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, 8vo. London, 1849, vol. i.
Bobrik, Geographie des Herodot, 8vo. K6nigsberg, 1838.
Buckingham, Travels in Assyria, &c., 8vo. London, 1830, 2 vols.
Cambden, Britannia, 4to. London, 1600.
Cellarius, Notitia Orbis Antiqui, ed. Schwartz, 4to, 2 vols. Lips., 1773.
Clarke, E. D., Travels, &c., 8vo. London, 1816-1824, 11 vols.
Clinton,,fasti Hellenici, 4to. Oxford, 1827-1830, 3 vols.
Cluverius, Introductio in Universam Geographiam, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1682.
"    Germania Antiqua, fol. Lugd. Bat., 1616.
Coghlan, Hand-Book for Italy, 12mo. London, 1847.
Cramer, Description of Ancient Italy, 8vo. Oxford, 1826, 2 vols., "            "     t"  Greece, 8vo. Oxford, 1828, 3 vols..... Asia Minor, 8vo. Oxford, 1832, 2 vols.
Cramer and Wickham, Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps,
8vo. London, 1828.
D'Anville, Ancient Geography, 8vo. New York, 1814, 2 vols.
"    Antiquit6 Geographique de l'Inde, 8vo. Paris, 1775.
E'tats formes en Europe, &c., 4to. Paris, 1771.
"  M6moires sur 1'E'gypte, &c., 4to. Paris, 1766.
D'Arc, Histoire des Conqu6tes des Normands en Italie, &c., 8vo. Paris, 1830.
Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 8vo. London, 1848, 2 vols.
Dieffenbach, Celtica, 8vo. Stuttgart, 1839.
Dodwell, Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece, 4to. London, 1819
2 vols.
Dufau und Guadet, Vollstandiges HandwSrterbuch der alten Erdkunde, 8vo.
Weimar, 2 vols.
Dumbeck, Geographia Pagorum Germanie, 8vo.. Berol., 1818.




LIST OF WORKS.                             vii
Dureau de la Malle, G6ographie Physique de la'Mer Noire, 8vo. Paris, 1807... "          Recherches sur la Topographie de Carthage, 8vo. Parisg
1835.
Eadie, Biblical Cyclopaedia, 8vo. London, 1849.
Eichwald, Alte Geographie des Kaspischen Meeres, 8vo. Berlin, 1838.
Encyclopaedia Americana, 8vo. Philadelphia, 13 vols.
Eustace, Classical Tour through Italy, 8vo. London, 1815, 4 vols.
Fellows, Tour in Asia Minor, 4to. London, 1839.
"    Discoveries in Lycia, 4to. London, 1841.
Forbiger, Handbuch der alten Geographie, 8vo. Leipsic, 3 vols., 1842-1847..
Gell, Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca, 4to. London, 1807.
" Itinerary of Argolis, 4to. London, 1807.
" Pompeiana, 8vo. London, 1832, 2 vols.
"  Rome and its Vicinity, 8vo. London, 1834, 2 vols.
G'eorgii, Alte, Geographie, &c., 8vo. Stuttgart, 2 vols.
Goller, De Situ et origine Syracusarum, 8vo. Lips., 1818.
Gossellin, Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens, 4to. Paris, 4 vols.
Gliddon, Otia Egyptiaca, 8vo. London, 1849.
Grote, History of Greece, 8vo. London.
Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, &c., 8vo. London, 1842, 2 vols.
Heeren, Historical Researches, &c., 8vo. Oxford, 1832-1833, 5 vols,
Hoare, Tour through Italy and Sicily, 8vo. London, 1819, 2 vols.
Hobhouse, Journey through Albania, &c., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1817, 2 vols.
HOck, Kreta, 8vo. G~ttingen, 1823, 3 vols.
Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia, 4to. London, 1835.
Hutton, History of the Roman Wall, 8vo. London, 1802.
Itinerarium Antonini, ed. Parthey et Pinder, 8vo. Berol., 1848.
Karcher, Handbuch der alten Classischen Geographie, 8vo. Heidelberg, 1836.
Kinneir, Journey through Asia Minor, &c., 8vo. London, 1818.
Kitto, Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, 8vo. New York, 2 vols.
Knight's Pictorial History of England, 8vo. New York, 1846-1848, 4 vols.
Laurent, Introduction to the Study of Ancient Geography, 8vo. Oxford, 1830.
Layard's Nineveh and its Remains, 8vo. London, 1849, 2 vols.
Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, 8vo. London, 1835, 4 vols.
"   Travels in the Morea, 8vo. London, 1830, 3 vols.?'  Tour in Asia Minor, 8vo. London, 1824.
Letronne, Cours E'l6mentaire de Geographie, 12mo. Paris, 1846.
Long, Ancient Geography, 8vo. Charlottesville, 1829.
Lynch. Narrative of the Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea, 8vo. Philadelphia, 1849.
Malte-Brun, Geographie Universelle, 8vo. Bruxelles, 1830, 4 vols.
Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und R6mer, 8vo. Leipsic, 1799-i825, 10 vols
Milner, History of the Seven Churches of Asia, 8vo. London, 1832.
Murray's Hand-Book for Spain, 12mn. London, 1847.
"         "      "France, 12mo. London, 1848.
t"        "         Switzerland, &c. London, 1846.
"         "' Northern Italy. London, 1846.
r"        "         " Central Italy. London, 1843.
s" " the East. London, 1845.
r"    "      "(r Egypt. London, 1847.
National Encyclopedia, 8vo. London, 1847, &c., 4 vols.
Nibby, Viaggio Antiquario, &c., 8vo. Rome, 1819, 2 vols.
Pacho, Voyage dans la Marmarique, &c., 4to. Paris, 1828.




viii                     LIST    OF MAPS.
Penny Cyclopaedia, 8vo. London, 1833-1846, 29 vols.
Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. London, 1841-1847,
5 vols., 8vo.
Pltz, Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums. K6ln,
1839, 2 vols.
Reichard, Kleine Geographische Schriften, 8vo. Gtins, 1836.
Reingarum, das alte Megaris, 12mo. Berlin, 1825.
Rennell, Geography of Herodotus, 8vo. London, 1830, 2 vols.
"'        "'   of Western Asia, 8vo. London, 1831, 2 vols.
"    Illustrations of Xenophon's Anabasis, 4to. London, 1816.
Rich, Journey to the Site of Babylon, &c., 8vo. London, 1839.
Ritter, Die Erdkunde, &c., 8vo.
Robinson, Biblical Researches, &c., 8vo. Boston, 1841, 3 vols.
Rosenmuller, Biblical Geography of Central Asia, &c. translated by Morren,
12mo. Edinburgh, 1836, 2 vols.
Schacht, Lehrbuch der Geographie, 8vo. Mainz, 1846.
Schirlitz, Handbuch der alten Geographie, 8vo. Halle, 1837.
Sickler, Handbuch der alten Geographie, 8vo. Cassel, 1832, 2 vols.
St. John, Adventures in the Libyan Desert, 12mo. New York, 1849.
Strabo, Geographie, traduite du Grec en Franqais, 4to. Paris, 1805-1819, 5 vols.
Thirlwall, History of Greece, 8vo. London, 1845, &c., 8 vols.
Ukert, Geographie der Griechen und R6mer, 8vo. Weimar, 1816, &c., 4 vols.
Vincent, Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, &c., 4to. London, 1807,
2 vols.
Vyse, Pyramids of Gizeh, 4to. London, 1840, &c., 3 vols.
Walpole, Memoirs relating to European and Asiatic Turkey, 4to. London, 1818,
2 vols.
Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, &c., 8vo. London, 1835.
Williams, Essays on the Geography of Ancient Asia, 8vo. London, 1829.
Wilson, Ariana Antiqua, 4to. London, 1841.
Wordsworth, Pictorial History of Greece, 8vo. London, 1839.
LIST OF MAPS
CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT WORK.
Arrowsmith, Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography. London and
Eton, 1828.
Atlas Antiquus, Dr. E. Spruner. Gotha, 1848.
Carte du Royaume de la Grece, &c., apres la carte de Lapie par Ferd. Aldenhoven. Athens, 1838.
Cramer's Map of Ancient Italy. Oxford.
"    Map of Ancient Greece. Oxford.
"    Map of Asia Minor. Oxford.
D'Anville, Atlas Antiquus, London, 1805.
Kiepert, TopographischHistorischer Atlas von Hellas and den Hellenisehen
Colonien. Berlin, 1846.
Kruse, Atlas zu Kruse's Hellas.
Maps of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London.
Schul-Atlas der alten Welt, nach D'Anville, &c., von C, H. Weise. Leipsic.
I"      "      "         t"  "y von F. S. F. Hoffman. Leipsic, 1841.
4"      "      "         ""  I     Gotha (Perthes), 1847.




EUROPA.
1. NAME.
I. THE name "Europe" (Evp6rrl) first occurs in the so-called
Homeric hymn to Apollo, where it embraces merely Greece,
exclusive of the Peloponnesus, together with Macedonia, Illyricum, and Italy.
II. Herodotus says he does not know how the appellation
came to be given to Europe, except it were from Europa, the
daughter of Agenor, king of Tyre; but he seems hardly satisfied with this explanation.
III. In all probability, the name is of Phoenician origin, and
denotes the "Evening-Land," that is, the land of sunset or
gloom, in opposition to Asia, the " Land of Light."
OBS. 1. The passage referred to above, in the Hymn to Apollo, occurs at v.?3, sq., and is as follows:
7Ii.Ev Oaot eoo7row6vviaov wrmelpav exovatv,
7i6' aot Ei'vpTTlv re Kal afiutpvrovt Kara v7jaovf.
tReiz, however, proposes to read here "'Hretpov for Evp6nrv. Compare Ilgen
and Hermann, ad loc.
2. The passage of Herodotus referred to in ~ II. occurs at iv., 45. It is important as giving a hint respecting the true origin of the name in the language
of Phoenicia.
3. The Phoenician term, from which the name of Europe is probably derived,
may be traced in the Hebrew Ereb, i. e., "Evening." Bochart is altogether too
anciful in deducing the name of Europe from the Semitic Ur-appa, or terra
4eviKOrpop6frof. (Phaleg., col. 298.)
2.'EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE circuit and boundaries of Europe do not appear to
nave been clearly and definitely settled among the Greeks and
Romans until the time of Ptolemy the geographer.
II. At the period when Herodotus flourished, the River Phasis was regarded by some as the eastern boundary of Europe;
by others, the Tanais.    In the time of Plato the Phasis was
viewed as the boundary; but in that of Eratosthenes, the TaA




2                   ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
nais.  In this latter opinion Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy also
agree.
III. According to Ptolemy, the boundaries of Europe are as
follows: on the north, the Northern Ocean or Icy Sea; on the
west, the Atlantic; on the south, the Mediterranean; on the
east and southeast, the River Tanais (now Don), the Palus
Meotis (now Sea of Azof or Assow), the Pontus Euxinus
(now Black Sea), the Propontis (now        Sea of Marmara), the
Hellespont (now Dardanelles), and a part of the gEgean.
OBS. 1. The language of Herodotus is as follows (iv., 45): ovpia~lara avr,
(yy) NE?6OC re O Alyv'rrlog WroraFao eTEr077, Kali aidat 6 K6OXo' ol d6 TU(vaiv 7roraoi6v rTO MaLtriT Knai HopO6iuia Tr. Kipif.upa;4yovat.
2. The passage of Plato referred to occurs in the Phaedon (109, B.): iuaC
otKeLv uiXpti'HpaKleiuv aCt2iv t 7ro daiqt6So eiv atoUKp(5 rtvi foopiw, K. r. A. Compare Agathem., i., 1:'Aaia de Kcai EvpGrwq ol pev apXalot 7iyovat qatv iroralbov
Kal TOrv ESu Kaarlaf IWaOt6v.
3. The Phasis was the principal river in ancient Colchis, and is called at the
present day the Faz, and sometimes the Rion. It flows in a westerly direction
into the Euxine. Its having been selected by some as the eastern boundary of
Europe appears to have arisen from the circumstance of its having been better
known to the earlier Greeks than the Tanais, through the legend of the Argonautic expedition, in which mention is made of it. (Cellarius, Geog. Ant., i., 11.)
4. Eratosthenes (ap. Strab., i., p. 174, ed. Tzsch.) makes the Tanais the more
commonly recognized boundary between Europe and Asia. He adds, however,
that some regarded as the eastern boundary the neck of land between the Caspian and Euxine. Compare Mela, i., 3, 1: "Europa terminos habet ab Oriente
Tcnaim, et Mceotida, et Pontum," &c.
3. ANCIENT POPULATION, &c.
I. THE original population of Europe appears to have consisted of Finnish nations, belonging probably to the same stock
with the primitive nations of Southern India, or the Dekhan.
II. Many ages after the settlement of these Finnish tribes,
the great Celtic race came in from the East, and thus formed
the first and earliest branch of the great Indo-European family
III. This Celtic race consisted originally of the priestly and
military classes only; but, on coming in contact with the
Finnish nations already established in Europe, they reduced
these to vassalage; and hence we find in.all Celtic countries a
lower caste, deprived of all civil rights, and looked upon as
mere vassals or serfs.
IV. After the Celtic race had spread themselves over and
subjugated a large portion of Europe, the Teutonic tribes came
in from the east and drove the Celtia farther toward the west;




EURoPA.                        3
and it is from the fact of the Celtic nations, when first noticed
in history, occupying the western extremities of Europe, that.
we draw the inference of their having been among the earliest
tribes that migrated from Asia.
V. The Teutonic tribes were of a pure Indo-European origin, and did not mix with any conquered race, as is plainly
shown by the perfect equality which prevailed among them,
and from the people being all free.
VI. After the Teutonic tribes came the great Sclavonic race,
which spread itself over a wide extent of both Asia and Europe, namely, from the Pacific to the Baltic, from the Adriatic
to the Arctic Sea. And the boundary in early times between
the Sclavonic and Teutonic tribes was the River Vistula.
VII. The different tribes that spoke the Sclavonic tongue
were known to the ancients'nder the names of Rhoxolani,
Krobyzi, Sarmatoe, Sauromate, Pannonians, Illyrians, and Venedi or Wenide. At present the Sclavonic language is spoken
by the Russians, Poles, Bulgarians, Bohemians, Moravians, &c.
VIII. It appears, moreover, from the researches of philologists, that the common or Pelasgian element of the Greek and
Latin languages was allied to the Sclavonic tongue. In support of which opinion it may be stated, that the resemblance
of the Russian to the Latin tongue is very remarkable, and
that coincidences equally striking may be found between the
Sclavonic tongues and the most ancient monuments of the
Greek language.
IX. The additional or Hellenic element of the Greek, which
afterward pervaded the whole language, seems to have come
from the East by Asia Minor; at any Fate, we find that the
Hellenes make their first appearance in the northeastern quarter of Greece.
X. On the other hand, the Latin language appears to have
arisen from an intermingling of the Sclavonic element with
both a Celtic and a Teutonic one, it being highly probable that
Celtic and Teutonic tribes had previously settled in succession
in the Italian peninsula.
OBS. 1. On the settlement of the Finnish nations in Europe, compare the remarks of Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, vol. iv., p.
605. Arndt has shown very clearly that a connection existed, in point of language, between the Celtic nations and the Finns, Samoiedes, &c., and in this
way we may account for the striking resemblance between so many words in




4                   ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the Basque language, a branch of the Celtic, and the Samoiede and other Finnish tongues. (Arndt, Ursprung der Europ. Sprachen, p. 17, seqq.)
2. The claims of the.Celtic to be regarded as one of the Indo-European languages have been fully established by Prichard, in his Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, Oxford, 1831; and by Pictet, De l'Afinite des Langues Celtiques avec
le Sanscrit, Paris, 1837.
3. The origin of the Indo-European languages is traceable to Iran, a country
bounded on the north by the Caspian, on the south by the Indian Ocean, on the
east by the Indus, and on the west by the Euphrates. This region, therefore,
is regarded by the best authorities as the original home of the great Indo-European race. (Donaldson, New Cratylus, p. 80, seq.)
4. On the affinity between the Russian and the Latin, consult the work of
Galiffe, " Italy and its Inhabitants," &c., vol. i., p. 356, seqq.; and compare the
remarks of Winning, "Manual of Comparative Philology," p. 121. In relation
to the affinity between the Sclavonic and the Greek, consult the work of Dankovsky, " Homerus Slavicis dialectis cognata lingua scripsit," &c., Vindob., 1829;
and compare Donaldson, New Crat., p. 92.
5. On the origin of the Latin tongue, consult the work of Klotz, " Itandbuch
der lat. Literaturgesch., vol. i., p. 157, seqq.
4. PROGRESSIVE        GEOGRAPHY.
I. THE earliest notices of the history of Europe are in the
writings of the Greeks, who inhabited the southeastern corner
of that continent.
II. From this country the geographical knowledge of Europe
extended by degrees to the west and north.
III. Homer; who probably lived about one thousand years
before the Christian era, was acquainted with the countries
around the ZEgean Sea, or Archipelago.
IV. He had also a pretty accurate general notion respecting
those countries which lie on the south coast of the Euxine;
but what he says about the countries west of Greece, on the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, is a mixture of fable and
truth, in which the fabulous part prevails.
V. It would seem     that in his age these seas were not yet
visited by his countrymen, and that he obtained his knowledge
from the Phoenicians, who had probably for some time sailed
to these countries, but who, according to the common policy of
trading nations, spread abroad false accounts of these unknown
regions, in order to deter other nations from following their
track, and sharing in the advantages of this distant commerce.
VI. It is probable, also, that the Phoenicians long excluded
the Greeks from the navigation of the Mediterranean; for.
when the (reeks began to form        settlements beyond their na



EUROPA. 
tive country, they first occupied the shores of the AEgean, and
afterward those of the Euxine.
VII. As the European shores of the Euxine are not well
adapted for agriculture, except a comparatively small tract of
the Peninsula of Crimea, their early settlements were mostly
made on the Asiatic shores, and consequently little addition
was made by these colonies to the geographical knowledge of
Europe.
VIII. But the navigation of the Phoenicians was checked,
in the middle of the sixth century before Christ, apparently by
their country being subjugated by the Persians.
IX. About this time, also, the Greeks began to form settlements in the southern parts of Italy, and on the island of Sicily, and to navigate the Mediterranean Sea in its full extent.
X. Accordingly we find that, in the time of Herodotus (450
B.C.), not only the countries on each side of the Mediterranean,
and the northern shores of the Euxine, were pretty well known
to the Greeks, but that, following the track of the Phoenicians,
they ventured to pass the Columns of Hercules, and to sail as
far as the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, by which name the
southwestern part of England must be understood.
XI. It is even said that some of their navigators sailed
through the English Channel, and entered the North Sea, and
perhaps even the Baltic.
XII. It must be observed, howevevor, that Herodotus professes
himself totally unacquainted with the islands called Cassiterides; and Strabo expresses a very unfavorable opinion of the
alleged voyages to the north.
XIII. Thus a considerable part of the coasts of Europe was
discovered, while the interior remained almost unknown.
XIV. When the Romans began their'conquests, this deficiency was partly filled up. The conquest of Italy was followed
by that of Spain and the southern parts of Gaul, and, not long
afterward, Sicily, Greece, and Macedonia were added.
XV. Casar conquered Gaul and the countries west of the
Rhine, together with the districts lying between the different
arms by which that river enters the sea. His two expeditions
into Britain made known, also, in some measure, the nature
of that island and its inhabitants.
XVI. Thus, in the courne of little more than two hundred




6               ANCIENT   IEOGRAPHY.
years, the interior of all those countries was discovered, the
shoies alone of which had been previously known.
XVII. In the mean time nothing was added to the knowledge of the coasts, the Greeks having lost their spirit of discovery by sea with their liberty, and the Romans not being inclined to naval enterprise.
XVIII. After the establishment of imperial power at Rome,
the conquests of the Romans went on at a much slower rate,
and the boundaries of the empire soon became stationary.
This circumstance must be chiefly attributed to the nature of
the countries which were contiguous to the boundaries. The
regions north of the Danube are mostly plains, and at that
time were only inhabited by wandering nations, who could not
be subjected to a regular government. Such, at least, are the
countries extending between the Carpathian Mountains and
the Euxine; and, therefore, the conquest of Dacia by Trajan
was of short continuance, and speedily abandoned.
XIX. The most important addition to the empire and to geographical knowledge was the conquest of England during the
first century after Christ, to which, in the following century,
the south of Scotland was added.
XX. Nothing seems to have been added afterward. The
geography of Ptolemy contains a considerable number of names
of nations, places, and rivers in those countries which were not
subjected to the Romans. Probably they were obtained from
natives, and from Roman traders who had ventured to penetrate
beyond the boundaries of the empire. But these brief notices
are very vague, and, in most cases, it is very difficult to determine what places and positions are indicated.
XXI. The overthrow of the Roman empire by the northern
barbarians destroyed a large part of the geographical knowledge previously obtained, except, perhaps, as to that part of
Germany which was subject to the Franks, and which, by degrees, became better known than it was before.
XXII. Two sets of men, however, soon made their appearance, who contributed largely to extend the geographical knowledge of Europe, namely, missionaries and pirates.
XXIII. The Christian religion had been introduced into all
the countries subject to the Roman power. The barbarians
who subverted the empire soon became converts to the Chris



EUR6PA.                       7
tian faith, and some of them ventured among other barbarous
nations for the purpose of converting them also.
XXIV. They visited the natives who inhabited the eastern
part of Germany, but here their progress was at first slow;
they did not cross the River Oder, or at least they did not venture far beyond it, and the geographical knowledge of this part
of Europe was, consequently, not much increased.
XXV. The progress of those missionaries was more important who penetrated from Constantinople into the interior of
Russia, where they succeeded in converting to the Greek
Church the different tribes into which the Russians were then
divided. This was effected in the ninth century.
XXVI. In the tenth century the western missionaries penetrated into and gradually converted Poland, and in the thirteenth century Christianity was introduced among the Prussians by force of arms, the Knights of St. John having conquered the country.
XXV1I. To the pirates we are indebted for our acquaintance
with the northern parts of Europe, especially the Scandinavian
peninsula; this, however, was not owing to pirates who went
to, but to pirates who came from these countries.
XXVIII. The Northmen or Normans, who inhabited Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, first laid waste and then settled
in part of France, and afterward conquered England. In their
new settlements they maintained a communication with their
native countries, which thus gradually became known wherever
the Normans had settled.
5. OCEANS, SEAS, AND GULFS.
I. THE seas and numerous gulfs by which the European
peninsula is washed constitute one of the characteristic features of this part of the world. No such vast bodies of water,
penetrating deeply inland, are found in Asia or Africa, or even
in the New World, to the same extent as in Europe.
II. The influence of these on the temperature, which they
render humid and variable, is sensibly felt. They serve also
to assist communication and trade, and, conjointly with the
mountain chains, they form barriers to defend the independence
of nations.
III. On the west lies that wide sea, till the time of Colum



6~8          ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
bus unpassed, by which the Old World is d&vided from the
New. This was called by the Greeks 7'Ariavrti1Kj Odaaaa, by
the Romans Mare Atlanticum, and is now the Atlantic Ocean.
IV. In the north we find the Arctic Ocean, with that deep
and frozen inlet known by the name of the White Sea. These
two were called by the general name of 6 Kp6vtoq'K2eavog,
Mare Cronium, or Pigrum.
V. Descending from the high north, we enter, below Cape
Stat in Norway, a gulf called the North Sea, extending from
the Shetland Isles to the Straits of Dover and coast of England. This was called Mare Germanicum.
VI. To the entrance of the channel which lies between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, three small straits leave openings
for communication with the Mediterranean of the North, the
Baltic Sea. The Baltic was called Mare Suevicum, and its
southwestern part the Sinus Codanus.
VII. Retracing our course, we pass the Straits of Dover,
called anciently Fretum Gallicum, and enter the British Chan.
nel, or Oceanus Britannicus, narrow and of little depth, but
exposed to the winds and tides of the Atlantic.
VIII. Crossing the Bay of Biscay, or Oceanus Cantabricus,
and sailing through the Straits of Gibraltar, or Fretum Herculeum, we find ourselves in the Mediterranean Sea, called by
the Romans Mare Internum, or Nostrum.
IX. The western portion of the MIediterranean ends at Cape
Bon, on the coast of Africa, the ancient Hermceum Promontorium, and at Messina in Sicily, the ancient Zancle, or Messana.
X. This western portion is itself divided into two unequal
parts by the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, of which parts
the more western one contains the Baleares and Pityusse Insule; while the eastern one, or Sea of Italy, is scattered with
volcanic islands, connected, no doubt, with the common focus
which feeds the fires of Vesuvius and.Etna.
XI. The second, or eastern portion of the Mediterranean,
nearly double the extent of the western one mentioned under
~ IX., stretches uninterrupted from the coasts of Sicily and
Tunis to those of Syria and Egypt.
XII. In the north of this eastern portion of the Mediterranean
are found two inlets, celebrated in history, and important in
geography. These are the Adriatic, or Sinus Hadriaticus, and




EUROPA.                               9
the Archipelago, or Mare        Egceumn, the latter covered with
groups of islands.
XIII. But the most remarkable of the seas connected with
the Mediterranean is the Black Sea, or Pontus Euxinus.
XIV. The magnificent entrance to this is formed, 1. By the
Strait of the Dardanelles, or ancient Hellespontus; then, 2.
By the Sea of Marnara, the ancient Propontis; and, lastly,
3. By the Strait of Constantinople, or the ancient Bosporus
Thracius.
XV. The Black Sea, or Euxine, fed by the largest rivers of
Europe, receives through the Strait of Caffa, or Feodosia,
called anciently Bosporus Cimmerius, the waters of the Sea of
Azof or Assow, the ancient Palus ilMctis.
XVI. Here terminates the series of inland seas, which, separating Europe from Asia and Africa, serve as the medium of
communication between the more important parts of those
quarters of the globe.
XVII. It has been conjectured that a strait, subsequently filled up by the soil torn from Caucasus, united, at a period beyond
the reach of authenticated history, but posterior to the great
convulsions of the globe, the Palus Meotis to the Caspian Sea.
OBS. 1. Various other names for the Atlantic, besides those given in ~ I., are
found in the ancient writers, a few of which may be here mentioned: x7 ic)
a. R&wJv Oda6aaaa, and 7'Araav7ri (HIerod., i., 202; Aristot., Meteor., ii., 1; Agathem., de Geogr., ii., 14, p. 56); 7 Ito Kcat teyari7 ar Latrrta (Aristot., Probl., xxvi.,
55); 4 lKcrOf ObcLara (Polyb., xvi., 29); Mare Magnum, Mare externum, &c.
(Flor., iv., 2). The Mediterranean is called by the Greeks "H6e 4 Oda;aaaa, Hdt.
2. Other names for the Arctic Ocean are Oceanus Borealis, Arctdus, Septentrionalis, Mare glaciale, &c. According to Philemon, as quoted by Pliny (H.
NV., iv., 27), the Cronian Sea lay beyond the Rubeas Promontorium, while on this
side of the same promontory lay what the Cimbric nations called Morimarusa,
or " the Dead Sea," a name derived from its frozen state. The Mare Amalchiutm, or " the congealed sea," also a native term, extended, according to Hecateus (Plin., 1. c.), along the coast of Scythia. The explanation of the term
Cronium has been sought in the Celtic croinn, "thick," "coagulated" (Class.
Journ., vol. vi., p. 297), while others, far less plausibly, deduce the appellation
from the Danish groen, " green," a root existing also in the name of Greenland.
(Plin., H. N., Panckoucke, vol. iii., p. 312.) The name Morimarusa has been traced
to the Cymric or Welsh mor, " sea," and mary, " dead." (Class. Journ., 1. c.)
3. It is a very common error to make the Sinus Codanus an ancient appellation for the entire Baltic. On the contrary, it answers merely to the Gulf of
Kattegat, in the southwestern part; In the name Codanus we may see a resemblance to that of the great Gothic race. The term Baltic appears to be derived from the northern bait, or belt, denoting a collection of water; whence,
also, the name of the straits, Great and Little Belt.




1.0                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
4. The Euxine, or Ilbvro' Evfevoc, was originally called "ASevor by the
Greeks, that is, " the inhospitable sea," from the savage tribes surrounding it.
When commerce became extended, and colonies were planted along its borders,
it changed its name to Evietivoc, or "the hospitable."
5. The term Bosporus (commonly, but erroneously, written Bosphorus) is the
Greek B6rrnopoc, and means strictly ox-ford (fovg, 7r6por), and is generally supposed to be connected with the legend of lo. Some, however, maintain, that
7ropof, when said of a river, does not mean a ford or pass across the stream, but
the passage or road which the stream itself affords in the direction of its length;
and that, taking Bof (or fovg) merely as an intensive prefix, we will have B6ofropor, signifying, properly, a large and broad stream or river. (Griffiths, ad
JEsch., P. V., 733.)
6. RIVERS.
1. THE main rivers of Europe are six in number, arranged
as follows, according to their respective sizes:
1. The Volga, anciently called Rha.
2.   "   Danube,      "         "    Danubius, or Ister.
3.   "   Dnieper,     "         "    Borysthenes.
4.   "   Don,                   "     Tanis.
5.   "   Rhine,       "         "    Rhenus.
6.   "   Dwina,       "         "     Carambacis.
II. Those next to them in rank are eight in number, namely,
1. The Po,      anciently    called  Padus.
2.   "   Rhone,       "         "    Rhodanus.
3.   "   Ebro,        "              Iberus.
4.   "   Guadalquivir,         "t    Betis.
5.   "   Tagus,       "         "    Tagus.
6.   "   Loire,       "         "    Liger.
7.   "   Elbe,                  "    Albis.
8.   "   Vistula,     "         "    Vistula.
III. All of these eight united would scarcely be equivalent
to the Volga alone.
(BS. 1. The name Rha appears to be an appellative term, having an affinity
with Rhea or Reka, which in the Sclavonic tongue signified  a river;" and from
the Russian denomination of Velika Rheka, or " Great River," appears to be
formed the name Volga. In the Byzantine and other writers of the Middle
Ages, this stream is called Atel or Etel, a term signifying, in many northern languages, great " or ( illustrious," with which we may compare the German Adl.
2. The Borysthenes was called, in a later age, Danapris, or Danaperis (Aavirpir), whence the modern name is formed. The appellation Danapris first occurs in an anonymous periplus of the Euxine. (Geogr. Gr. Min., iii., p. 298, ed.
Gail.) The root of the name (Dan-) is found, also, in that of the Tanais, Danubius, Rhodanus, Eridanus, &c., and is supposed to mean " water," or " river."
3. The Carambacis is mentioned by Pliny (H. N., vi., 13). Hardouin makes it




EUR PA.                      11
correspond to the Dwina, while others seek to identify it with the Niemen.
(Plin., ed. Panck., v., p. 220.) The former appears to be the true opinion.
7. MOUNTAINS.
I. THE Ural Mountains, probably the ancient Montes Rhipcei, or Hyperborei, are common to Europe and Asia. They
van not be said to constitute a regular chain, but rise gradually and insensibly from the centre of Russia, in a direction
east-northeast.
II. Far in the west, the Scandinavian Alps (Mount Kj6len),
probably the Sevo Mons of antiquity, present a more marked
chain, but wholly unconnected with the rest of the European
mountains. They extend from Cape Lindesnces in Norway, to
Cape North in the island of Mageroc.
III. The Grampian or Caledonian Mountains, in Britannia,
the Mons Grampius of the ancients, constitute an insulated
group of several parallel chains of no great comparative height.
Of these the Welsh Mountains, and those in the northwest of
England, appear to be inferior branches.
IV. The north and east of Europe may therefore be considered- as one uniform plain, over which, in the west, the Caledonian and Scandinavian Mountains rise insulated. Very different, however, is the character of central and southern Europe. From the Columns of Hercules to the Bosporus, from
AEtna to Blocksberg, all the mountains constitute in reality
but one system, which custom has divided into four masses.
V. The most celebrated of these are the Alps, called by the
Romans Alpes, of which one of the principal chains, Alpes Pennince, contains Mont Blanc, the highest point in Europe.
VI. South of these are the Apennines, called by the Romans
Apennini, a branch of the Alps, extending through Italy.
VII. An eastern branch of the Alps passes between the affluents of the Danube and the Adriatic, and thus unites the
Alpine chain to that of Mount Hcemus, the modern Balkan.
VIII. The northern branch of the Alps comprises the Jura
range, or Mons Jura, and that of the Vosges, or Mount Vogesus. The latter is connected with the mountains of Central
Germany, and consequently with the Carpathian range, the
ancient Montes Carpati or Carpatici.
IX. The Cevennes, the ancient Mons Cebenna, or Montes




12              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Cebennici, although connected with the Pyrenees by the Black
Mountain, and separated from the Alps by the narrow valley
of the Rhone, are regarded as forming part of the system of
the Alps.
X. The peninsula of the Pyrenees, or Montes Pyrenei, may
be regarded as a central plateau of considerable elevation, on
which rise various distinctly-marked chains of mountains. The
Pyrenees in the north, and the Alpujarras, or Sierra Nevada
in the south, the Mons Iliptla of the Romans, are the grand
bulwarks.
XI. At the other' extremity of Europe, Hemus and its
branches fill a peninsula, not less remarkable than those of
Italy and Spain.  Witoscha Berg, or the ancient Scomius,
north of Macedonia, may be regarded as a centre, whence proceed four chains: that of the Albano-Dalmatian Mountains,
the ancient Scardus, Bertiscus, Adrius, Bebii Montes, and
Albanus, which connect themselves with the Alps; that of
Hcemus, properly so called, the modern Balkan, which extends
due east to the Euxine; that of Rhod6pe, now Despoto Dag,
running down through Thrace, along the River Nestus, not far
from the western boundary; and, finally, the fourth, which,
under the poetical names of Olympus, Pindus, (Eta, Parnassus, Helicon, and Lycceus, crosses the whole of Greece.
XII. The Carpathian or Hercynian system is separated from
the Alps and Hemus by the basin of the Danube. In two
places, namely, in Austria, and between Servia and Wallachia, the branches of these systems approach so closely that
the river is obliged to work its way through real defiles.
XIII. The principal parts of the Carpathian system are the
Transylvanian Mountains, or Alpes Bastarnicce; the Carpathian Mountains, or Montes Carpatici, between Hungary and
Poland; the Riesengebirge (Giant-mountains), or Vandalici
Montes, between Silesia and Bohemia, and the Erzgebirge,
or Metalliferi Montes, between Bohemia and Saxony; and,
finally, the different small chains of central Germany, comprised anciently in the Hercynian forest, or Silva Hercynia.
Having given this slight sketch of the physical geography of
Europe, we shall now proceed to examine how far the knowledge of the ancients extended respecting each of its parts, commencing from the west with Hispania, or Spain.




HISPANIA.
1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.
I. UNDER the name of Hispania the Romans comprehended
the whole of that peninsula which is now divided into the separate kingdoms of Spain and Portugal.
II. It was bounded on the north by the Montes Pyrenaei, or
Pyrenees, which separated it from Gallia, or France, and also
by the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Bay of Biscay; on the west
by the Oceanus Atlanticus, or Atlantic Ocean; on the east by
the Mare Internum, or Mediterranean Sea; and on the south
by the Oceanus Atlanticus and Mare Internum, which unite
in the Fretum Gaditanum or Herculeum, now the Strait of
Gibraltar.
2. NAMES.
I. TIE name Hispania is probably of Phoenician origin, and
appears to have been borrowed, with a slight alteration, by the
Romans from the Carthaginians, through whom they first became acquainted with the land.
II. The Greeks gave the country the name of Iberia ('IJ6pia),
but attached to this appellation different ideas at different times.
III. The earlier Greeks, down to the time of the Acha-an
league, when they began to be better acquainted with Roman
affairs, understood by Iberia the whole Mediterranean coast
from the Fretum Herculeum to the mouth of the Rhodanus or
Rhone; while they gave the name of Tartessus (Tapryaao6) to
a district on the Atlantic coast, near the Fretum Herculeum
and Gades, or Cadiz.
IV. The interior of the country, on the other hand, for which
the natives themselves had no common appellation, the earlier
Greeks designated as part of the great region of Celtica (i Ker7rK7j) a name which they gave to the whole of western and
northwestern Europe.




14                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
V. The lapse of time gradually brought about a change in
these geographical ideas, and the later Greeks understood by
Iberia the same country which the Romans called Hispania.
VI. The writers of the second and third centuries of our era
were the first who regularly introduced the Latin name into the
Greek language, namely,'Io7ravia, although both this and the
form  Y ravia are occasionally found in somewhat earlier writers.
VII. Spain was also called by the Romans, especially the
poets, Hesperia, or the Western land, from its lying west of
Italy; but, as Italy itself was denominated Hesperia ('Eanrepa)
by the Greek poets, a distinction was sometimes made, and
Spain was called Hesperia ultima.
OBS. 1. The name Hispania is said to come from the Phoenician saphan, or,
as some write the word, span, "a rabbit," as meaning "the land of rabbits,"
and the Phoenicians are reported to have given it this name from the great
number of these animals which they found there, as well as from the injury
which they did to the crops, &c., by their burrowing. (Bochart, Geogr. Sac7.,
iii., 7, col. 168.) Others derive the word from the Phonician span, in the sense
of " hidden," and make it indicate "a hidden," that is, "a remote," or " fardistant land." (Malte Brun, Precis de la Geogr., t. iv., p. 318.) Others, however, regard the Spanish form Espanna as the original one, and derive it from
Ezpanna, the Basque term for "a border" or "edge,"'that is, the outermost
part of any thing, and hence, according to them, the country in question was so
called from its position at the southwestern extremity of Europe. (Compare
W. Von Humboldt, Prifung, &c., p. 60.)
2. Pliny (H. N., iii., 4) deduces the name Iberia from that of the River Iberus,
the modern Ebro. Humboldt, with good reason, regards this as very improbable, and thinks that the true etymology may be traced in the Basque term Ibarra, "a dale" or "valley." (Prifung, &c., 1. c.) Others refer the term to the
Phoenician Iber, or Eber, "beyond," or "over," and make Iberia mean "the
country beyond the sea." (Sickler, Handbuch d. alt. Geogr., i., p. 4.) This last
appears to be the most plausible derivation.
3. C:mpare, as regards Tartessus, Scymn., Ch., v. 164, v. 198; Bihr, ad
Herod., i., 163, and page 43 of this volume. With respect to the general meaning of Celtica, consult Mannert, Geogr., i., p. 234.
4. Among the writers prior to, or in the early part of the second century of
our era, in whom the forms'la7ravia and Z7ravia occasionally appear, may be
mentioned Strabo, iii., p. 252, Casaub.; Plutarch, de Flumin., p. 32; and also
St. Paul, Ep. ad Rom., xv., 24, 28.
5. As regards the term Hesperia, compare Mannert, Geogr., i., p. 234; Georgiz,
Alte Geogr. Abth., ii, p. 7. Horace has Hesperia ultima, Od., i., 36, 4.
3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS.
I. THE earliest inhabitants of the land with whom history
makes us acquainted were the Cynesii or Cynetes, the Cempsz
and Smfes, the Tartessii, and the Iberi.




HISPANIA.                     15
II. These five early communities appear, as far as we can
gather from the imperfect and scattered accounts of the Greek
writers, to have been settled in this country before the period
of the first Persian war, or about 600 B.C. It is more than
probable, however, that the primitive population of Hispania all
belonged to one great race, namely, the Iberian.
III. The Cynesii (Kvvatros), called, also, Cynetes (Kvvreg),
are said to have dwelt on both banks of the River Anas, or
Guadiana, near its mouth. Their western limit coincides
with the modern Faro in Algarve, and their eastern one with
the bay and islands formed by the small rivers Luxia and Urium, the modern Odiel and Tinto.
IV. To the west of the Cynesii, in the part subsequently
called Cuneus, dwelt the Cempsi and Smfes.
V. On the lower coast, in a northwest direction from the
Fretum Herculeum, and in the vicinity of Gades, now Cadiz,
and the mouth of the Baetis, or Guadalquivir, were the Tartessii (TapTr4aato), who, at the period when the Phoceans settled in Spain, were ruled over by a king named Arganthonius.
VI. The Iberi occupied the Mediterranean coast of the country in its whole extent, and also a large portion of the interior.
They even extended into Gaul, occupying the coast as far as
the mouth of the Rhodanus, or Rhone.
VII. We come next in order to the immigrating nations and
the foreign settlers who subsequently established themselves
in the land. These were, 1. The Celte; 2. The Phmenicians;
3. The Phocceans; 4. The Rhodians; 5. The llassaliots; 6.
The Zacynthians; 7. The Carthaginians; 8. The Romans.
VIII. The Celtae appear to have crossed the Pyrenees, and
passed into Spain, at a period long antecedent to positive history. After penetrating into the interior of the country, and
waging long and bloody wars with the powerful race of the
Iberi, they finally united with a portion of them, and formed
one people, who, under the name of Celtiberi, distinguished
themselves at a later period in their resistance to the Carthaginian, and subsequently to the Roman sway.
IX. Some of the Celtse, however, separating from the main
body, settled on both banks of the Anas, toward its mouth;
while another portion of them wandered as far as the northwestern extremity of the land, where later geographical writers




16              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
found them under the name of Artabri. The portion, however,
which had settled on the Anas, retained their original appellation of Celtae. or Celtici.
X. The Phoenicians also appear to have become acquainted
with Spain long prior to positive history, but whether before oi
after the great Celtic immigration is altogether uncertain. It
was doubtless, however, long befbre the foundation of either
Rome or Carthage. For some time their settlements, of which
Ghadir, called by the Romans Gades, now Cadiz, was the
principal, were limited to the coasts of Baetica, whence they
supplied the natives with the products of Asia, in exchange for
the gold, silver, iron, and other valuable products of the Peninsula. But as they became better acquainted with the country, they penetrated into the interior, where they founded Kartabah, called by the Romans Cordfiba, and now Cordova, and
explored the mountainous districts of Navarre in search of iron.
XI. The Phoenicians, however, were not the only maritime
nation which had settlements on the coast of Spain. The Phoceans founded the town of Dianium, which is now Denia, and
probably, also, that of Chersonesus, now Peniscola, on the eastern coast.
XII. The Rhodians visited the shores of what is now Catalonia, and founded a town which they called Rhodos or Rhoda,
now Rosas.
XIII. The Massaliots, or Massilians, founded the town of
Emporion, now Ampurias, and the Zacynthians Saguntum.
XIV. The Carthaginians also directed their views toward
Spain. Having insidiously possessed themselves of Ghadir, or
Cadiz, which they took from the Phoenicians, they proceeded
into the interior with a view to the subjugation of the country,
an attempt, however, in which they completely failed.
XV. The Romans came after the Carthaginians, and succeeded in subjugating the whole of the country and making it
a portion of their empire.
XVI. From what has here been said, a natural division presents itself of all the Spanish tribes, though many in number,
namely, into unmixed native tribes, and tribes mixed with those
that had wandered into or settled in the land.
XVII. The first of these divisions occupied the whole north.
ern and western coasts (excepting the portions possessed by the




HIsPANIA.                      17
Artabri, in the northwest, and the Celtae, on the Anas), the
Pyrenees, and the greater part of the country lying east of the
Iberus, or Ebro.
XVIII. The tribes coming under this division are the Lusitani, Carpetani, Callaici, and Vaccaei, on the western side; the
Astiires, Cantabri, and Vascones, on the northern side; the innahitants of the Pyrenees, through which mountain regions foreign tribes had, it is true, passed, but had not settled therein,
together with other Iberian communities as far as the River
Iberus; and, on the south side, some of the inhabitants of the
range of Mount Ortospeda, between the Celtiberi and the tribes
along the coast; for example, the Oretani, Olcades, Bastitani, &c.
XIX. The second of these divisions, or the mixed tribes, consisted of the Celtiberi, and the communities along the southern
coast.
XX. The Celtiberi, in an extended sense, comprehended all
the midland tribes. On the first entrance of the Celtae into
Spain, they came into contact with the Iberi, on the River Iberus. After the union of the two races, this combined people
possessed the mountainous district from the western bank of
the Iberus to the sources of the Durius, now Douro, and the
Tagus.
XXI. The limits which have just been mentioned mark the
possessions of the Celtiberi in the stricter sense. The race,
however, grew gradually more numerous and powerful, until,
at length, they proved an overmatch for their neighbors, and
settled themselves in part among the possessions of the latter.
Hence some writers reckoned the Vaccaei, Carpetani, Oretani,
&c., among the Celtiberian communities, though this, perhaps,
is going too far.
XXII. The tribes along the coast were, on the side immediately beyond the Straits of Hercules, a mixture of the earliest
inhabitants with Phoenician settlers, and, on the Mediterranean side of the straits, with Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthagin.
ians, and Romans. This intermingling with strangers caused all national peculiarities gradually to disappear. The traffic, too, which they carried on, disposed them the more readily
to the receiving of foreign customs and habits; and hence the
tribes in the interior held them in contempt, and made frequent
inroads into their territories, from which inroads the communiB




18                   ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ties on the coast found it difficult to defend themselves, even
with the aid of the foreigners who had settled among them.
OBS. 1. The Iberian race was undoubtedly Caucasian. Its connection with
the Finnish nations of Northern Europe has already been referred to. Many of
the Spanish writers trace the descent of the Iberians from Tubal, son of Noah!
(Minnano, Diccion., t. iv., p. 2.)
2. Herodotus uses both appellations, Kvv5atct (ii., 33) and KdvvrTec (iv., 49).
We obtain an account of their territory from Avienus. (Ora Marit., 200, seqq.)
They are probably the same with the Conii or Cunii of the Roman writers, and
their name is connected with the district called Cuneus (the modern Algarve),
a name which the Romans erroneously sought to explain in their own language
by making it refer to the wedge-like form of the country. (Compare Schlichthorst, fiber den Wohnsitz der Kynesier: Gitting., 1793.)
3. Herodotus gives the account of the Phocaean settlement in Spain, and of
King Arganthonius (i., 163). According to a fragment of Hecataeus of Miletus, the Tartessii dwelt immediately to the west of the straits. (Compare
Herod., iv., 152, 192; Creuzer, ad Hec. Mil., p. 51; Bdhr, ad Herod., i., 163;
Heeren, Ideen, i., 2, p. 46, seqq.)
4. That the Celtae were invaders of Spain, and long posterior to the Iber,
and that the latter were the aborigines, was the general persuasion of the ancient writers. (Strab., iii., p. 162, Cas., Appian, Bell. Hisp., 2; Diod. Sic., v.,
33; Lucan., iv., 9; Sil. Ital., iii., 140.) Recently, however,'an opinion has beer
started in direct opposition to this, which makes the Celtae to have come first
into Spain, and the Iberians some time after, and the Celtae to have given way
to these through a great part of the Peninsula. (Prichard, vol. iii., p. 46.) This
opinion, however, though advocated by Niebuhr and Humboldt, especially the
latter, is decidedly erroneous. An insurmountable difficulty is in the way
Had the Celtae preceded the Iberians, valiant bands of hardy Celtic mountaineers could never have been expelled from the fastnesses of the Pyrenees by.
the less warlike Iberians. Yet this whole tract of country was occupied solely
by Iberian tribes. (Diefenbach, Versuch einer genealog. Gesch. der Kelten: Stuttgart, 1840.)
5. On the traffic of the Phoenicians with Spain, consult Heeren, Ideen, i., 2, p.
44, seqq. (vol. ii., p. 63, seqq., Eng. transl.). The prodigious quantity of the
precious metals which the Phcenicians found here on their first arrival, so excited their astonishment, that the traditions preserved respecting them seem
very remarkably to suit the pictures given by the Spanish discoverers of Peru.
6. Strabo has m'Podor (iii., p. 160, Cas.); Stephanus Byzantinus,'P6d.
(Compare Liv., xxxiv., 8; Mela, ii., 6; Scymn. Ch., 205; Meurs. Rhod., i., 28;
Marca Hisp., ii., c. 18.)
4. HISTORICAL        EPOCHS.
I. THE Iberi, or aborigines, are disturbed in their possessions
by the Celte, who invade the Peninsula from Gaul.          From   the
union of a part of these Celtm with a portion of the Iberian
race arises the mixed nation of the Celtiberi.
II. The rich corn-lands, the mines, and sea-ports of the Pen.
insula attract the attention of the early Phoenician navigators




HISPANIA.                     19
who form settlements in various parts, especially along the
coasts.
III. Settlements formed on the eastern shores by the Rhodians, Phocaeans, and others of the Greeks.
IV. The Carthaginians also direct their views toward Spain,
possess themselves of Gades, or Cadiz, which they take from
the Phoenicians, and proceed into the interior with a view to
the subjugation of the country, but completely fail; for, although the Carthaginian generals, Hamilcar, his brother Hasdrubal, and his far more celebrated nephew Hannibal, completely reduced the southern part of the Peninsula, they were
unable to subdue the warlike tribes of the interior.
V. This attempt on the part of the Carthaginians leads to
the second Punic war, and Spain is freed, before its close, from
the Carthaginian yoke by the elder Africanus. The Spaniards, however, only change masters. Spain is made a Roman
province, and divided into Citerior and Ulterior, or Hither and
Farther Spain.
VI. Until the time of Augustus, the Cantabri, the Callaici,
and the Astures, who inhabited the northwestern parts of the
Peninsula, are not even nominally subjected to the republic;
and the other portions of Spain, Celtiberia in the northeast,
Baetica in the south, and Lusitania in the west, become the
scene of constant warfare and rebellion.
VII. The most remarkable of the native insurrections during
the period just referred to, is that organized in Lusitania by
Viriathus, who, during more than eleven years, defeats the
ablest generals of the republic, and is only put down by the
treachery of Csepio, B.C. 140.
VIII. Spain, soon after this, becomes the theatre of the civil
war between Marius and Sulla, Sertorius, a leader of the defeated party, having fled hither, and carrying on the war for
some time with great ability and success.
IX. Spain having espoused the cause of Pompey, Julius Ceesar repairs hither in person, and by his military skill triumphs
over his enemies. Cneius, the son of Pompey, is defeated at
Munda, and peace is restored to the country.
X2. It is only under Augustus that Spain is completely subdued. Augustus himself visits Spain, and divides the country
into three great provinces, Beetica, Lusitania, and Tarraconen-'




20                ANCIENT GECORAPHY.
sis, a division which subsists until the reign of Constantine the
Great. During this period, Spain is considered one of the most
valuable and flourishing provinces of the empire.
XI. About the beginning of the fifth century, the Suevi, under their king Hermeric; the Alans, under Atace, and the
Vandals, or Silingi, under Gunderic, after overrunning the
provinces of Gaul, cross the Pyrenees, and settle in the Peninsula. They are speedily followed by a host of Visigoths (A.D.
411), led by their king Athaulf, who establishes himself in Catalonia, though nominally dependent upon his brother-in-law
1Honorius, the Roman emperor.
XII. It is not, however, until the time of Euric (A.D. 46683), that the Goths become complete masters of the Peninsula;
and the Gothic dynasty continues until the time of Roderic
in whose reign (A.D. 711) the Arabs of Africa, commanded
by Tarik Ibn Zeyad, cross the straits, and, after defeating the
whole force of the Gothic monarchy on the banks of the Gua
ealete, take the capital Toledo, the ancient Toletum.
Ocs. For an able sketch of the remaining history of Spain, consult Penny Cy
clopedia, vol. xxii., p. 293, seqq., from which work the above sketch is taken
And, as regards the movements of the barbarous nations that invaded, in succession, this quarter of the Roman empire, consult D'Anville, Etats formes en
Europe, &c., p. 144, seqq.
5. DIvisioN OF HISPANIA BY THE ROMANS.
I. THE Romans, after having overthrown the Carthaginian
power in Spain, and conquered a considerable portion of the
country, divided their possessions into two provinces, distinguished by the names of Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, or
Hither and Farther Spain. The former of these embraced a
great part of the Mediterranean coast, together with as much
of the country lying back of it, in the interior, as the Roman
arms had thus far reduced; the latter comprehended very nearly what was afterward called Baetica.
II. The limits of both these provinces became gradually extended as the Roman arms advanced, but particularly Hispania
Citerior, since most of the Roman conquests were made from
this quarter toward the north and west. The Roman commanders of the other province were principally employed in
operations against the neighboring Lusitani, and hence the




HI SP      I A.               21
country of the latter, after their subjugation, became part of
Hispania Ulterior.
III. In process of time, Hispania Citerior changed its name
to Tarraconensis, from Tarraco, now Tarragona, the residence
of the Roman praetor, and, consequently, the capital, of the province. Its limits, also, became definitely established, and were
as follows: it extended from the River Magrada, at the foot of
the Pyrenees, on the upper coast, to the mouth of the River
Durius, now Douro, on the Atlantic shore, comprehending all
the north of Spain, together with the south as far as a line
brawn from Baria,' now Vera, below Carthago Nova, now Carthagena, and continued upward in an oblique direction to the
vicinity of Complutica, now Compludo, above Salmantica, now
Salanzanca, until it struck the banks of the Durius.
IV. This was the arrangement up to the time of Augustus.
That emperor, or rather Agrippa, made an alteration in it.
The province of Tarraconensis, indeed, although embracing
more than two thirds of the whole of Hispania, remained the
same as before; but Farther Spain, or Hispania Ulterior, was
now subdivided into two provinces, Bcetica and Lusitania.
V. Batica extended from Baria, where Tarraconensis terminated, to the mouth of the River Anas, or Guadiana, which
river formed also its western and northern boundary. Its limit
on the northeast and east was formed by a line drawn from a
point on the RFiver Anas, northeast of Sisapo, in an oblique direction to Baria. This province, therefore, comprised the modern Andalusia, a part of the Portuguese province of Alentejo,
that portion of Spanish Estremadura which lies south of the
Anas, and a large part of La Mancha.
VI. Lusitania was bounded on the south and west by the
ocean, on the north by the River Durius, and on the east by
Tarraconensis. It comprehended, therefore, modern Portugal,
with the exception of the two provinces north of the Douro,
namely, Entre Douro y Minho and Tras os Montes. It embraced, also, the greater part of Spanish Estremadura, Salamanca, and part of New Castile and Toledo.
VII. Independently, however, of this distinction of provinces,
Spain, under the Roman government, was divided into jurisdictions called Conventus, that is, judicial districts or circuits,
in which the Roman proconsul or governor dispensed justice.




22                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Of these there were fourteen, each one formed of the union of
several cities. This arrangement was an extremely politic one
on the part of the Romans, since it tended directly to break up
the nationality of the different tribes, and, of course, to confirm
the Roman sway.
VIII. In the writers of the fourth and following centuries we
find a new arrangement of provinces prevailing. Spain was
now divided into seven of these, the namues of which are as follows: 1. Bctica; 2. Lusitania; 3. Callcecia; 4. Tarraconensis; 5. Carthaginiensis; 6. Insulce Balearicce; 7. Mauritania Tingitana.
IX. This last-mentioned arrangement is commonly ascribed
to the Emperor Hadrian, but it owed its origin, more probably,
to Constantine. Of these seven provinces, moreover, Bcetica
and Lusitania remained the same in size as before. Callcecia,
however, comprehended all the Conventus and communities
north of the Durius and west of the Vascones. Carthaginiensis, again, had Carthago Nova for its capital, and answered to
Murcia, a part of New Castile, and southern Valencia. And,
finally, Tingitana in Africa was added, in order to equalize
the provinces as much as possible.
OBs. 1. In giving Baria as the point of separation between Baetica and Tarraconensis, we have followed D'Anville. Mannert and others, however, give
Murgis, now Mujakar, as the limit.
2. The Roman language, and, along with it, Roman customs, became established in a great part of the land soon after the Sertorian war; and it was this
that led, of course, to the establishment of Conventus. These received their full
development under Augustus.
6. MOUNTAINS.
THE principal mountain-chains of Hispania are eight in
number, namely,
1. Pyrencei Montes.           5. Mons Solorius.
2. Mons Idubeda.              6. Mons Herminius.
3. Mons Orospeda.             7. I/ons Medullus.
4. Saltus Castulonensis.      8. 1Mons Vindius.
I. Pyrencei Montes, now the Pyrenees, divided Hispania
from Gallia, closing the isthmus between the Mediterranean
and the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Bay of Biscay. After this
they continued westward, along the northern coast of the Peninsula, and sent out various branches, encumbering the north.




HISPANIA.                     23
west corner of Hispania, or the modern provinces of Gallicia
and Asturias.
The Romans were acquainted with only three main passes
over these mountains. The northernmost of these ran by Fons
Rapidus, the modern Fontarabia, a place situate at the mouth
of the Menlascus, now the Bidassoa. The second, a more central one, led to Beneharnum, in Aquitania, now Orthes; and
the third, or southernmost one, to Ruscino, in Gallia Narbonensis, now Roussillon, on the Mediterranean. At the present
day there are six government roads through these mountains,
the northernmost of which, and the principal one, corresponds
to the Roman one running by Fons Rapidus.
Historically, these mountains are associated with the celebrated march of Hannibal, and the warfare of Caesar against
the Pompeian party in Spain. At a later period they formed
the limit of the Frankish conquests under Clovis, but were
passed by the ambition and power of Charlemagne, who, however, lost his rear guard among the defiles. The range of the
Pyrenees is about 294 miles in length.
II. yons Idubeda ('ldov6eSa), now Sierra d' Oca, commenced
among the Cantabri, near the sources of the River Iberus, in
what is now Asturias and Burgos, and, running nearly parallel with the Pyrenees, terminated on the coast of the Mediterranean, near Saguntum, which place lay at its foot.
III. Mons Orospeda, or, according to Ptolemy, Ortospeda
('Opo6oreda,'Opr6a7resa), was properly a continuation of the
range of Idubeda, springing from this last near the southern
termination of its course, and not far from the sources of the
River Bsetis, or Guadalquivir. Strabo calls a part of it the Silver Mountain ("Opo~'Apyvpoiv), and Pliny, Saltus Tugiensis
It first ran through the Spartarius Campus in the shape of a
chain of small hills, until, increasing in height, one part of it
terminated in the form of a segment of a circle on what is now
the coast of Murcia and Granada. The other part, divided
into two arms, ran off to Baetica. One of these arms pursued
nearly a western direction, and was called Mons Marianus, or
Montes Ariani, now Sierra Morena, while the other ran more
to the southwest, near the coast, and was called Mons Ilipula
('IXltrov;a), now Alpujarra, or Sierra Nevada, and ended at
Calpe, or Gibraltar.




24                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAP IIY.
IV. Saltus Castulonensis, now Sierra de Cazorle, a branch
of the Mons Marianus, taking its ancient name from the town
of Castulo, on the River Baetis.
V. Mons Solorius, now      Sierra de Solorio or Soloria, commencing at the sources of the River Baetis, and stretching in a
southern direction. It formed in a part of its course the separation between Tarraconensis and Baetica.
VI. Mons Herminius (rb "Opo'Eptvtov), now Sierral de la
Estrella, south of the River Munda, or Mondego, in Lusitania, and running in a southwestern direction until it touched
the coast of the Atlantic near Olisippo, or Lisbon. This chain
is sometimes erroneously placed between the Tagus and the
Anas, and is thus confounded with the mountains of Portalegre and Evora.     It is the highest mountain range in modern
Portugal. In this chain the Lusitani had their places of refuge, and it was here that they afforded so much trouble to Ccmsar and his lieutenants.
VII. Mons Medullus, in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the
Piver Minius, or Minho.      It was a continuation of the chain
of Mons Vindius, and is now las Medulas.
VIII. IIons Vindius, or Vinnius, a range of mountains traversing the country of the Cantabri from east to west, now
Montanos de Europa.
OBS. 1. The name of the Pyrenees is written by Strabo usually in the singular, Ivpjvr. This name Ilvpjlr, occurs also in Herodotus (ii., 33), but it is there
given to a city near which the River "Iarpor, or Danube, has its source. Others of the Greek writers employ the plural, -ra IvpTvafa 6p7. Among the Latin
writers, Caesar has the plural, Pyrencsi Montes; Pliny, indifferently, the singular
or plural; and Lucan has given (Pharsal., i., 689) the Greek form Pyiren.
2. The name of the Pyrenees was commonly supposed to be derived from
the Greek term 7rwp, "fire," they having been said to have been at one time
devastated by fire. The true derivation, however, is probably to be sought in
the Cynric (Welsh) Brynn, or the Celtic Byrin,,( a mountain," " a rocky mountain," from which same source may be deduced, also, the name of Mount Brenner and Mount Ferner in the Tyrol, that of Pyern in Upper Austria, and many
others. (Adelung, Mithradates, vol. ii., p. 67.) Diefenbach is in favor of an
Iberian origin for the name (Celtica, i., p. 178), but it is far more probable that
the appellation originated among the Celtie in Gaul, and was brought by themr
into Spain.
7. PROMONTORIES.
THE   ancient geographers have enumerated         twenty-t/lres
promontories along the coast of Hispania; the principal or.e,
however, may be reduced to thirteen, as follows:




HISPANIA.                      25
1. OYn thle Mlediterranean Coast.
I. Pyrenwrumt Proimnontorium, at the northeastern extremity
of Hispania, now Cape Creux (Cabo de Creux). It was also
called Pyrence Proi inoitozrium, and, by Strabo, r6TO r  Ilvpv'S
uKpOv.
II. Dian7umc Promontoriumn, in the territory of the Contestani, and below the mouth of the River Sucro, now Cape St.
Martin. It was also called Artenmisium and Ferraria.  The
inhabitants in the vicinity term it Artemus.
III. Saturni Promontoriumn, near Carthago Nova, now Cape
Palos.
IV. Charidzmi Promontorumz, southwest of Carthago Nova,
in the territory of the Bastetani, now Cape Gata.
V. Caloe Y1ons sive Promontoriunm, now Gibrailar
2. On the Atlantic Coast.
VI. Junonis ]PromonttoriuZm, below Gades, and near the gJwn
of BIaSsippo, now Cape Trafalgar.
VTII. Cuzneus Promontorium, in the southern part of the Cuneus Ager, or Algarve, now Cape St. Maria (Cabo de St. MIaria), forming the southernmost extremity of modern Portugal.
VIII. Sacrum Promontorium, Strabo's'Iepbv dacpCoriptov, the
southwestern extremity of the Cuneus Ager, now Cape St. Vincent. It was regarded by the ancients as the most westerly
point of the earth; and it was fabled to be the spot where the
sun, at his setting, plunged his chariot into the sea. Hence its
name of Sacred Promontory. The earliest name of this promontory appears to have been Promontorium Cepresicum.
IX. Barbarium Promontorium, below the mouth of the Ta-'us, now Cape Espichel.
X. Promontorium Magnum sive Olisiponense, a little to the
northwest of Olisipo, or Lisbon, now Cape Roca (Cabo da Roca).
XI. Promontorium Artabrum, called also Nerium and Celticum, in the northwestern angle of Spain, in the country of
the Artabri, now Cape Finisterre (Cabo de Finisterra).
3. On the coast of the Bay of Biscay.
XII. Trileucum Promontorium, called also Coru, the northernm6st point of Spain, in the territory of the Callaici, now
Cape Ortegal.
XIII. (Easo Promontorium, at the northern extremity of the




26                  ANCIENT      GEOGRAPIY.
Pyrenees, now    Cape Iliguera (Cabo de la Higuera).           Near
it lay the town of the same name. Pliny calls this promontory
Olarso, and Marcianus larso.
OBS. 1. According to the ancient writers, the Promontory of Calpe was one
of the Pillars of Hercules, the other being Mount Abila, on the African shore.
The name of the latter is written by Dionysius (Perieg., 336)'A;r67, Alyba.
Eustathius informs us (ad Dionys., p. 64) that in his time the promontory on
the Spanish side was called Calpe by the barbarians, but Alyba by the Greeks;
and that Abila, on the African shore, was called by the natives Abenna. At
what time, however, the present Gibraltar began to be called Calpe is difficult
to determine, but it was certainly long antecedent to the time of Eustathius.
Calpe itself is only Alyba shortened, and pronounced with a strong Oriental aspirate. In the word Alyba we likewise detect the root of the term Alp, or rather
the term itself, which may be traced directly to the Celtic radical Alb, indicating a lofty mountain.
2. A great variety of opinions were entertained among the ancients as to the
spot where the Pillars of Hercules were to be sought for, and also what these
Pillars actually were. Some placed them at Gades, as, for example, Pindar,
who calls them IIHac I   radepida~ (Nem., iii., 36); some, again, were in doubt
whether they were pillars, cities, mountains, or promontories; while some made
them actual statues of Hercules. Tacitus makes mention of Columns of Hercules in the north of Europe, which tradition placed somewhere in the vicinity
of the Baltic. (Germ., c. 3 and 34. Compare Serv. ad Virg., En., xi., 262.)
So, again, the appellations for the Columns of Hercules were various. Many
of the Greek writers knew them merely by the name of 2riLjat. (Herod., iv.,
42, 181; Scylax, 1; Polyb., iii., 35; Diod. Sic., iv., 18.) The Latin writers, on
the other hand, called them Herculis Columnc, or Heraclcce Colunnce, and Florus, in his florid phraseology, Herculis Speculce (iv., 2). Dionysius styled them
Tepyuara'i2Keavolo. (Compare Schwartz., Diss. de Col. Here.: Altorf, 1749, 4to.
Popowitsch, Untersuch. vont Mlere, &.c. Gosselin, Rech., t. iv., &c.)
8. CHEF:      RIVERS.
THE chief rivers of Hispania are eight in number, namely,
the Iberus, Sucro, Bcetis, Anas, Tagus, Munda, Durius, and
Minius.
I. Iberus, called by the Greeks "I61p and "I7po9, now          the
Ebro, a large, navigable river, rose in the territory of the Cantabri, not far from   Juliobriga, in what is now      the range of
Mount Santillana, forming part of the ancient cnain of IduLeda. Its whole course, including windings, is rather more than
four hundred miles. According to the ancient accounts, it was
navigable from   Varia, now    Varea, in the territory of the Verones, not far from    Lograno.     Modern statements, however,
make it now begin to be navigable for boats at Tudela, the
ancient Tutola, below     Calagurris.     The Iberus ran directly
through Hispania Tarraconensis, in a southeastern direction,




HISPANIA.                     27
after having first pursued a course east-southeast as far as the
town of Doubriga, in the territory of the Berones; and it falls
into the Meditertanean, by the Tenebrium Promontorium, in
a southeast direction from Dertosa, the modern Tortosa. The
valley of this river, lying between the great Pyrenean chain
and the highlands of modern Castile, forms a natural division
between the northern provinces of Spain and the rest of the
Peninsula, and the course of the Ebro, therefore, has been often
assumed as a military line in the wars of this country. Previous to the second Punic war, it formed the line of demarkation between the dominions of Carthage and those of Rome.
It afterward formed the boundary between the dominions of
Charlemagne and his successors and those of the Moors. The
French, in their Spanish wars, have repeatedly purposed to
make the Ebro the boundary between France and Spain.
II. Sucro, called by the Greek writers;ovcpwv, now the Xucar, a river of Hispania Tarraconensis, rose in the chain of
Mount Mlubeda, and, separating the territories of the Contestani from those of the Edetani, flowed into the Mediterranean
below Saguntum, giving name to the Sucronensis Sinus, or
Gulf of Valencia. Its whole course considerably exceeds two
hundred miles. At its mouth lay the town of Sucro, answering, probably, to the modern Cullera. Strabo says it could be
passed on foot. The river at the present day also loses a considerable portion of its waters by the irrigation of the adjacent
country. Were it not for this, it would probably be navigable
for the last thirty or forty miles from its mouth.
III. Bcetis, called by the Greek writers Bat-rt~, now the Guadalquivir, the principal river of Hispania Baetica, to which it
also gave name, rose in the Saltus Tugiensis, near Tugia, now
Toia, in the chain of Mons Argentarius, now Sierra Segura.
It ran for the most part in a southwestern direction, and entered the Atlantic near G ades. The whole course of the Betis is given by the ancients at about three thousand stadia;
according to modern authorities, the length is short of three
hundred miles. From the sea to Hispalis, the modern Seville,
it was navigable for large vessels; from Hispalis to Ilipa, the
modern Penaflor, for vessels of smaller size; and from Ilipa to
Cordiuba, now Cordova, for boats. At the present day, it is
first navigable for river boats below Cordova, immediately after




2S8             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
it s joined by the River Genil, or Xenil, the ancient Singilis,
and sloops may ascend it to Seville. The banks of the river,
or their immediate vicinity, are said to have been covered with
numerous cities and towns. From a short distance below Hispalis, the Baetis, which has at present but one mouth, was continued anciently by two streams to the sea, embracing an island, which, in remote antiquity, was celebrated, according to
some, under the name of Tartessus. Of these two arms, the
lower one exists no more. The upper mouth of the river was
difficult of navigation, on account of the numerous sand-banks,
and also the sunken rocks; and hence a pharos, or light-house,
was erected here, on the northwestern extremity of the island'
of Tartessus, called Cepio's Tower, Ccepionis Turis. The
modern name of this stream is corrupted from the Arabic Tldda-l-Kebir, " the Great River."
IV. Anas, called by the Greeks "Avag, now the Guadiana
(corrupted from the Arabic Wadi-Ana, " the River Ana"), rose
in the territory of the Oretani, in the chain of Mount Orospeda,
near the ancient Laminium, now Montiela in New Castile.
The ancient accounts agree substantially with the modern.
The Guadiana rises in a series of small lakes, and, after having run a few miles, disappears under ground, and continues
to run under ground for more than twelve miles, when it issues
from the earth as a strong stream between Villarta and Daymiel. The place where the river reappears is called Los ojos
de la Guadiana ("the eyes of the Guadiana"), and consists
of several small lakes. The Anas, after this, ran in a westerly
direction for a considerable distance, until, near Pax Augusta,
it bent around, and flowed in a southwestern, and then southern direction, into the Atlantic, to the east of the Cuneus Promontorium. Its course exceeds four hundred and fifty miles.
According to Strabo and others, it entered the sea with two
mouths. It has little water, notwithstanding its length, and
can only be ascended by flat-bottomed, small river-barges to
MJIertola in Portugal, the ancient Myrtilis, not much more
than thirty miles from its mouth.
V. Tagus, in Greek Tdyoc, called now Tajo by the Spaniards, and Tejo by the Portuguese, while in our own language
we have adopted the Roman name, rose among the Celtiberi,
between the ranges of Orospeda and Idubeda, in what is now




HIS PAN IA.                   29
the Sierra Albarracin. It flowed in a direction between west
and southwest through the territories of the Vettones, Carpetani, and Lusitani, into the Atlantic, a short distance above
the Barbarium Promontorium, and had at its mouth Olisipo,
the modern Lisbon or Lisboa. The whole course of the river
exceeds five hundred and fifty miles. It is described by the
ancient writers as abounding in oysters and fish, and as having
auriferous sands. Grains of gold are said to be still obtained
from it.
VI. Munda, now Mondego, rose in the territory of the Vettones, in Lusitania, near the town of Lancia Oppidana, now
Guarda, and flowing by Conimbriga, now Coimbra, fell into
the Atlantic nearly midway between the Tagus and Durius.
It was not navigable far. Pliny calls it JMunda; Mela, however, Monda, and Ptolemy, also, IM6vda. Strabo styles it Mov-,cidac. It must not be confounded with the city of Munda,
among the Bastuli Peni, near Malaca, where Caesar fought his
desperate battle with the son of Pompey.
VII. Durius, called by Strabo aov'ptog, by Ptolemy and Appian Alxptog, is now in Portuguese the Douro, in Spanish the
Duero. This river, one of the principal streams of the Peninsula, rose amofng the Pelendones, not far from Numantia, which
was situate upon it, in the range now called Sierra de Urbion,
part of the ancient range of Idubeda. It ran first for a short
distance to the south, then turned in a western direction until
it reached the confines of Lusitania, when it again bent off to
the south for some distance, when, resuming its westerly course,
it flowed on to the Atlantic coast, entering the sea near Calle,
the modern Oporto. The whole course of the Douro, with its
numerous windings, is nearly five hundred miles. According
to the ancients, it was navigable for eight hundred stadia, about
ninety English miles, from its mouth, and gold was said to be
found in its bed.
VIII. Minius, called in Greek Mivtog, and by Strabo BaZvir
(Beenis), now the lMinho, rose in the northern part of the territory of the Callaici, a little distance above Lucus Augusti,
the modern Lugo, in that part of the range of Mons Vinnius
which answers to the modern llontaias de Asturias. It ran
in a southwestern direction, receiving in its course a large trib.
utary coming in from the east, now called the Sil, but which




30                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the ancients appear to have regarded as the main stream, and
to have confounded with the Minius itself; and it flowed into
the Atlantic nearly midway between the mouth of the Durius
and the Artabrum Promontorium. The course of this river, in
a straight line, is about one hundred and fifteen miles, and,
along the windings, one hundred and sixty miles. Though
abundantly supplied with water, however, it is not navigable
within modern Spain, on account of its great rapidity.
OBs. 1. Various etymologies have been assigned for the ancient names of
some of the principal rivers of Spain, a specimen of which may here be given:
1. The Iberus, in all probability, derived its name from Iberia, one of the early
appellations of Spain, and an explanation of which may be found under Q 2,
Obs. 2. 2. The Bvetis is supposed to have been so called from the Phoenician
bitsi, "marshy," the tsade (ts) having been changed by the Greek and Roman
writers into t. This etymology may not be incorrect, the river being swampy
in some parts, especially toward its mouth, where the low and swampy islands
of Menor and Mayor are formed. Hence, too, the Libystinus lacus, in this quarter, mentioned by Avienus (Or. Mar., 289), which seems to contain the same root.
3. The Anas appears to derive its name from the Phcenician hanas, the explanation of which is sought to be obtained from the Arabic hanasa, " to withdraw
or hide one's self," and is thought to allude to the subterranean nature of the
stream in the early part of its course. 4. The Tagus is supposed to have been
so called from the Phoenician dag, " a fish," or dagi, " fishy," " abounding in fish,"
a character which the ancients expressly assign to this stream. 5. The Minius,
according to Isidorus, took its name from the miniulm, or vermilion, which was
found abundantly in the country which it traversed. On all these etymologies,
consult the remarks of Bochart, Phaleg., col. 626, seqq.; col. 606.
2. According to Stephanus Byzantinus, the name given to the Baetis by the
natives themselves was Perkes (HI1pcy). Out of this Bochart makes Perka,
and derives this from the Phoenician berca, " stagnum," an etymology agreeing
with the one given above. In Livy, the ignorant copyists have corrupted this
into Certes or Certis. (Liv., xxviii., 22.)
3. In giving the source of the Sucro we have followed Mannert. The editors
of the French Strabo maintain that Mannert is here in error, and that the chain
in which the river rises is not that of Idubeda, but of Orospeda. Their opinion,
however, is an untenable one.
9. SMALLER       RIVERS.
TIE smaller rivers of Hispania may be enumerated as follows:
1. Of the tributaries of the Iberus, on the northern side, we
may name the Gallicus, the Cinga, and the Sicoris. The
Gallicus is now    the Gallego, and flows into the Ebro near
Saragossa. The Cinga is now the Cinca, and flowed into the
Sicoris. The Sicoris is now the Seg re. It flowed past Ilerda,
now Lerida, and received the Cinga just before falling into the
[berus.




HISPANIA.                    31.
II. Of the tributaries of the Iberus, on the southern side,
may be named the Salo, called also the Bilbilis, and running
by the town of Bilbilis, in the territory of the Celtiberi. The
waters of this river were famed for their property of tempering
iron. The modern name is Xalon.
III. Between the Iberus and Beetis we may name, 1. The
Uduba, now the Mijares; 2. The Turia, now the Guadalaviar; 3. The Scetabis, falling into the Sucro near its mouth,
now the Montesa; 4. The Tader, now the Segura; 5. The
Mcen6ba, a little to the east of Malaca, now the Velez; 6. The
Malaca, now the Guadalmedina; 7. The Salduba, below
Munda, now the Verda; 8. The Barbesula, near Carteia, now
the Guadiaro; 9. The Belck, on the Atlantic side of the straits,
at the mouth of which stood the town of Belon; now the Bar
bate.
IV. Between the Bmetis and the Anas we may name the
Urium, now the Tinto, and the Luxia, now the Odiel.
V. Between the Munda and Durius we find the Vacua, now
Vouga.
VI. Among the tributaries of the Durius may be named the
Astira, now the Esla, and Areva, now the Urcero.
VII. Between the Durius and the Minius we have the Avo,
now Ave; the Celddus, now Celado; the Nebis, now Neya;
and the Limia, now Lima.
VIII. We find the following flowing into the Oceanus Cantabricus: 1. The Navilubio, now Navia; 2. The Melsus, now
Abono; 3. The Salia, now Sulla; 4. The Saunium, now Saja, near Portus Victoriae; 5. The Magrada, now Urumca.
IX. Between the Iberus and the Pyrenees we have the Tulcis, now the Francoli, at Tarraco; the Rubricatus, now Llobregat; and the Alba, now the Ter.
10. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS.
I. THE Iberi, before they yielded obedience to the Romans,
occupied a kind of middle station between barbarism and civilization, with a preponderance, however, in favor of the former.
They were equally formidable as cavalry and infantry; for,
when the horse had broken the enemy's ranks, the men dismounted and fought on foot. Their dress consisted of a sa gum.n
or coarse woollen mantle; they wore greaves made of hair, an




3 2             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
iron helmet adorned with a red feather, a round buckler, and a
broad two-edged sword, of so fine a temper as to pierce through
the enemy's armor. They were moderate in eating and drinking, especially the latter; fond of decorating their persons, of
dancing and song, and of robbery and war. Their habitual
drink was a sort of hydromel, or mead, brought into the oountry by foreign traders. The land was equally distributed, and
the harvests were divided among all the citizens; the law punished with death the person who appropriated more than his
just share. They were hospitable-nay, they considered it a
special favor to entertain a stranger. They sacrificed human
victims to their divinities, and the priests pretended to read future events in their palpitating entrails. At every full moon
they celebrated the festival of a god without a name, and from
this circumstance their religion has been considered a corrupt
deism. They were acquainted with the art of writing. The
Turduli, an Iberian tribe, are said to have had among them
very ancient historical records, and also written poems and laws
in many thousand verses.
II. The Lusitani, a nation of freebooters, were distinguished
by their activity and their patient endurance of fatigue. Their
usual food was flour and sweet acorns; beer was their common
beverage. They were swift in the race. They had a martial
dance, which the men danced while they advanced to battle.
III. The Turdetani were more enlightened than any other
people in Bsetica, and were skilled in different kinds of industry
long before their neighbors. When the Phoenicians arrived on
their coasts, silver was so common among them that their ordinary utensils were made of it. What was afterward done
by the Spaniards in America was then done by the Phoenicians
in Spain: they exchanged iron and other articles of little value
for silver; nay, if ancient authors can be credited, they not only
loaded their ships with the same metal, but, if their anchors at
any time gave way, others of silver were used in their place.
IV. The Callaici or Gallceci, according to the ancients, had
no religious notions. The Vacccei were the least barbarous of
the Celtiberians. The fierce Cantabri had a custom for two
to mount on the same horse when they went to battle. The
Concdni, a Cantabrian tribe, showed their ferocity by mingling
the blood of horses with their drink. Among the Celtiberi, an




HIS PANT A.                         3
assembly, composed of old men, was held every year, a part of
whose duty it was to examine what the women had made with
their own hands within the twelvemonth, and to her, whose
work the assembly thought the best, a reward was given. An
ancient author mentions that corpulency was considered a reproach by the same people; for, in order to preserve their bodies light and active, the men were measured every year by a
cincture of a certain breadth, and some sort of punishment was
inflicted upon those who had become too large.
V. Strabo enters into some details concerning the dress of
the ancient Spaniards. The Lusitani covered themselves with
black mantles, because their sheep were mostly of that color
The Celtiberian women wore iron collars, with rods of the same
metal rising behind and bent in front; to.these rods was attached a veil, their usual ornament. Others wore a sort of
broad turban, and some twisted their hair round a small ring
about a foot above the head, and unto the ring was appended a
black veil. Lastly, a shining forehead was considered a great
beauty; and on that account they pulled out their hair, and
rubbed their brows with oil.
OBS. 1. The authorities from which the above has been drawn are as follows:
Strab., iii., p. 139, 158, 163, 164; Diod. Sic., v., 33, seq.; Justin., xliv., 2; Liv.,
xxiii., 26; xxiv., 42; xxviii., 12; Plut., Vit. Mar., 6; Yal. Max., iii., 3; Hirt.,
Bell. Hisy., 8; Sil. Ital., i., 225; iii., 389; xvi., 471; Flor., ft.. 18 Oros, v., 7;
Sickler, Hand. der alt. Geogr., i., p. 14; Malte Brun, Pricis de ta Geogr. Univ.,
iv., p. 318, seqq.
2. The passage relative to the Turduli is quoted by Strabo (iii., p. 189) from
Polybius, as follows: Zo~0brarot 6d' ECrdaovTat Trv'6Igpwuv oiVrot, Kai ypayttarsK
Xpwvrai, Kia rTiy iraatau fiV7jl.trft eXo Taa avyypaplara, cat lrotuuara, Kai vo/lovE
fi't[rpovq efaKtrfXtioyv EIrCv, 4(f aaa' Kai oi aX1ot'I617pef Xpt3vraT ypapucartIcf, ov
Jult iL6a, oV6s yap yiuCrrTT n  a. In giving the meaning of this passage, we have
adopted the emendation of Palmerius, namely, erwnv for Eriv  It is much to be
regretted that all these curious monuments of early civilization were effaced by
Roman conquests.
11. PRODUCTS.
THE products of ancient Hispania may be summed up briefly
as follows:
I. Good horses, similar to those of the Parthians; mules;
excellent wool.
II. Fish of different kinds, such as mackerel and tunny, salted and dried.
IlI. Oil, figs, wine, corn, honey, beer, flax, linen, Spanish
C




34                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
broom (spartum), used in the manufacture of mattresses, shoes,
shepherds' cloaks, cordage, &c.; various plants used in dyeing;
ship-timber.
IV. Copper, silver, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, tin, lead,
steel, &c.
OBs. The spartum, or Spanish broom, grew abundantly along the coast above
Carthago Nova, and gave to this region the name of Spartarius Campus. Pliny
says, that " in the part of Hispania Citerior about New Carthage, whole mountains were covered with spartum." The true Latin name was genzsta, the term
spartum being borrowed from the. Greek (aTraorov), and the use of the Greek
name in Hispania Citerior having been owing, probably, to the Grecian settlements on that coast from Massilia and other quarters. On the whole subject
of the spartunm, consult the learned and able remarks of Yates, in his Textrinum
Antiquorum, p. 318, seqq.
12. MINES, &C.
I. SPAIN was the Peru of antiquity. She was the richest
country in the ancient world for silver, and she alsp abounded
in gold, and in the less precious metals, especially tin.
II. The mine-works of the Phoenicians for the precious met.
als seem to have been confined to the region afterward known
by the name of Betica.     According to Strabo, the oldest of
these were situate on the Silver Mountain ("Opog'Apyvpovv),
near which the Boetis took its rise, in the southeastern angle
of the country. Gold and silver were both found in Boetica;
the former, it is said, exclusively, unless we except the white
gold, as it was termed, that was found among the Callaici, and
that appears to have been a mixture of gold and silver, but
with a decided preponderance of the latter.  The Phoenicians,
however, opened in other parts of the Peninsula valuable mines
of lead and iron, and they likewise had tin mines on the northern coast of Spain beyond Lusitania.
III. The Carthaginians, who succeeded the Phcenicians, displayed much more energy in searching for the precious as well
as the more ordinary metals. The silver mines, about twenty
stadia from Carthago Nova, were particularly famous. In Roman times, these works comprised a circuit of four hundred
stadia, kept employed forty thousand laborers, and yielded daily
twenty-five thousand drachmas' worth of metal, or about $4400.
IV. Cinnabar was found at Sisapo, in the northeastern angle
of Bsetica; vermilion among the Callaici; tin and lead among
this same people, and also in the vicinity of Castulo, on the




IISPANIA.                     35
Bstis. Iron was found nearly every where, but of a peculiarly
excellent quality on the Promontorium Dianium, at the northeastern extremity of the Spartarius Campus, now Cape St.
Martin.
13. HISPANIA MORE IN DETAIL.
1. LUSITANIA.
(A.) BOUNDARIES.
I. LUSITANIA must be considered under two aspects: 1. Its
extent prior to the Roman division of Hispania into three provinces; and, 2. Its dimensions under that division.
II. Lusitania, strictly speaking, meant at first merely the
territory of the Lusitani, and this territory extended only from
the Durius to the Tagus, and from the coast of the Atlantic to
what are now the eastern limits of the kingdom of Portugal
As, however, these Lusitani were for the most part seen, during their inroads into the more southern parts of the country,
united with other tribes, which, though different in name, yet
resembled them in language, manners, mode of warfare, &c.,
the name Lusitani became gradually extended, and applied to
several of the communities dwelling south of the Tagus. This
is the earlier aspect under which the name is to be regarded.
III. When, however, the Romans divided the land into the
three provinces of Tarraconensis, Bcetica, and Lusitania, the
boundaries of Lusitania were as follows: On the north, the
River Durius or Dduro; on the south, the Atlantic, from the
month of the River Anas, or Guadiana, to the Sacrum Promontoriurn, or Cape St. Vincent; on the west, the Atlantic; on
the east, a line separating it from Tarraconensis, drawn -from
the Durius near Complutica, to the Anas above Sisapo; and
on the southeast, the Anas to its mouth, separating it from
Bfetica.
IV. Lusitania, therefore, according to this latter division,
comprehended, as we have before remarked, a less extent than
modern Portugal from north to south, since it did not embrace
the two provinces of Entre Minho y Douro and Tras os Montes, which lie to the north of the Douro; but it extended further than Portugal from west to east, since it took in also the
modern Salamanca, a large part of Spanish Estremadura, and
a portion of New Castile and Toledo.




36              A N CIE NT G EOGRAPHI Y.
(B.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY.
ACCORDING to Strabo, the eastern part was mountainous and
rugged, and not very productive. From this quarter to the
sea, however, the country became gradually more level and
productive, its increased fertility being principally owing to the
larger and smaller rivers along the coast.
(C.) T.RIBES OF LUSITANIA.
I. TIIE Lusitani, dwelling between the Tagus and Durius,
and reaching eastward as far as modern Portugal now'extends.
II. The Turduli (TovpSovo), called Turduli Veteres, to distinguish them from the Turduli in Bietica, came originally
from this latter province, and made an expedition into Lusitania along with some Celtic bands from the vicinity of the Anas;
but, having quarrelled arnoug themselves, the Turduli settled
on the southern side of the Durius, while the Celte passed onward to the northwestern extremity of the Peninsula. These
Turduli soon became blended with the Lusitani, and hence
Pliny and Mela are the only two writers who mention th:.l
separately.
III. The Vettones (OerrTove6) occupied the eastern siie 03 ftjh:
province to its very frontiers, so that their territory correspcnded
to Salamanca and a great part of Estremadura. They ap,.-i:'-'
to have been distinguished from the Lusitani only in name.
IV. The Celtici lay below the Tagus, and extended from
the Anas to the western coast, occupying what is now the province of Alentejo, and the southern part of Portuguese Estremadura. A part of them, on the eastern side of the Anas, belonged to the territory of Bietica.
V. The Turdetdni occupied the southern extremity of the
land, extending into Lusitania from the country around the
Baetis, where their territory commenced. It is very probable
that the portion of them which dwelt to the west of the Anas
were the same with the people whom ancient historians call
Cunii or Conii (Kovvtot, K6vtoI). The Romans called the
strip of land from the Anas to' the Sacrum Promontorium by
the name of Cuneus, from its resemblance to a " wedge;" but
there is great reason to believe that the Roman appellation is
a mere corruption, and that the true name points to settlements
in this quarter on the part of the Cunii or Conii, and is, of




HISPANIA.                            37
course, earlier than Roman times.       The n odern name of the
Cuneus Ager is Algarve, signifying "thc West," from             the
Arabic al, "the," and garb, "west."
OBS. Strabo, among others, alludes to the pretended Roman origin of the
name Cuneus: Tr Aartivp  ov0 KaTaov~at Kooveov, aijva a7zailvetv fPovf6,ievo (iii.,
p. 137). The arguments against this derivation are many and forcible, and
show conclusively that the name existed prior to Roman times. For example,
when Publius Scipio came into Spain, he learned that the force of the Carthaginians was divided into three parts, and that one portion, under Mago, was stationed beyond the Columns of Hercules, among the so-called Konii (Iv rolc Koviotr. Polyb., x., 7). Now, as the Romans had not yet come into these regions,
they could not, of course, be at all acquainted with the name of this people, nor
have given them a Latin appellation instead of their real one. Again, Appian
relates that the Lusitani, on one occasion, took Conistorgis, the great city of
the Cunii (de Reb. Hisp., c. 56), and Strabo also makes mention of Conistorgis
as the most celebrated city of the Celtici (iii., p. 141). Appian, moreover, frequently makes mention of the Conii. From these and similar authorities, it
may very reasonably be inferred, that the Romans merely corrupted an ancient
name when they called the country in this quarter Cuneus, and that the Cunii
are none other than the Cynesii or Cynetes of Herodotus, already mentioned.
(Vid. p. 16.)
(D.) CONVENTUS JURIDICI.
THE Conventus, where all legal controversies were decided,
were three in number: 1. Emeritensis, held at Augusta Emerita, now Merida; 2. Pacensis, held at Pax Julia, now Beja:
and, 3. Scalabitanus, held at Scalabis, now Santaremn.
(E.) CITIES OF LUSITANIA.
THESE may be arranged in two classes: 1. Cities between
the Anas, and Tagus; and, 2. Cities between the Tagus and
Durius.
1. Cities between the Anas and Tagus.
Cities on the coast.
1. Balsa, west of the mouth of the Anas, now        Tavira.    It
appears from coins to have been a municipium. 2. Ossonoba,
now Estoy, a little north of the modern Faro, where there are
still numerous ruins. The promontory in this vicinity is the
Cuneus Promontorium, now Cape St. Maria.           3. Portus Hannibalis, near the modern Albor, where Punic remains still exist. 4. Lacobriga, at the commencement of the Sacrum Promontorium, or Cape St. Vincent.       It is now Lagos.     The termination briga, in Celtic, means "a city."          5. Merobrzga,
north of the Sacrum     Promontorium, near the modern St. Ia



38              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
go de Cagem, and answering probably to Sines. 6. Cetobriga,
the Cmtobrix of Ptolemy, north of Merobriga, and situate near
the modern Setuval.  7. We then come to the Barbarium
Promontorium, now Cape Espichel, and, above this, to the
mouth of the Tagus, on a bend within which stood Equabona,
now Coyna, and, on the opposite or northern bank of the stream,
Olisipo, now Lisbon. This place is called by Mela Ulisippo,.and was fabled to have been founded by Ulysses during his
pretended wanderings in the Atlantic. The name is variously
written in the MSS. This place was the only municipium of
Roman citizens in the whole province, and, as such, had the
appellation of Felicitas Julia. The neighboring territory was
remarkable for the swiftness of the horses reared in it. The
Promontorium Magnum, or Olisiponense, is now Cape Roca
(Cabo da Roca).
OBS. For some remarks on the endings of Celtic names of places, consult
page 160, seq.
Cities in the Interior.
OF THE TURDETANL
1. ]lyrtilis, on the Anas, now Mertola. It was a Latin colony, and had the right of coinage. The name given to the place
on its coins is Julia Myrtilis. 2. Arandi, southwest of Myrtilis, is now Ourique. The range called Mons Sacer, lying
below this place and Myrtilis, gets its name from being connected with the Sacrum Promontorium, which forms its southwestern extremity. 3. Pax Julia, northwest of Myrtilis, was
a Latin colony, and the seat of a Conventus. Pliny calls it
Colonia Pacensis. It answers, undoubtedly, to the modern
Beja. Some make it correspond to Badajoz, but this last belonged to the province of Bmtica. 4. Rarapia, west of Pax Julia, is now Ferreira. 5. Salacia, an old Latin colony, with the
cognomen of Urbs Imperatoria, was situate on the River Callipos, to the northwest of Rarapia. It was a municipium, and
answers to the modern AlcaFer do Sal. 6. Conistorgis, a
large city, according to Strabo, and of which mention is also
made by Appian. It may have been destroyed by the Lusitani in one of their numerous inroads, and is probably the same
with the Anistorgis of Livy. The name Conistorgis evidently
contains the same root with the national appellation of the Conii or Cunii. Its termination would seem to make it the name
of a Celtic city.




HI'PANIA.                     39
OF THE CELTICI.
1. Ebora, now Evora, lay to the north of Pax Julia. It
was a municipium, and is called in inscriptions Liberalitas
Julia. Mela evidently errs when he places an Ebora on the
Promontorium Magnum, by Olisipo. 2. Langobriga, on the
southern bank of the Tagus, not far from its mouth, in the vicinity of-the modern Benavente. Metellus laid siege to it without success in the war against Sertorius.. The Itinerarium Antonini makes mention of another Langobriga in the neighborhood of the Durius. 3. Medubrica, or Medobriga, now Marvao, in the neighborhood and to the west of the modern Portalegre. It lay northeast of Ebora. Pliny calls the inhabitants
Plumbarii, probably from their lead mines. Near it was one of
the mountain strong-holds of the predatory Lusitani, and which
was reduced by Q. Cassius Longinus, Caesar's lieutenant.
OF THE VETTONES AND LUSITANI.
1. Emerita Augusta, on the Anas, southeast of Medobrigd,
and now Merida in Estremadura. It was a Roman colony of
veterans, settled by Augustus after the close of the Cantabrian
war, and the seat of a Conventus, whence it was regarded as
the capital of the province. The neighborhood of this place was
famed for producing in abundance the coccus, or scarlet-berry,
as it was thought to be, and also sweet olives. 2. Badia, to
the west of Emerita, supposed to correspond to the modern
Badajoz, but without any certainty. 3. Castra Ccecilia, north
of Emerita, now Caceres. 4. Castra Julia, or Trogilium,
southeast of the former, now Truxillo. 5. Norba Ccesarea, to
the'northwest, on the Tagus, now Alcantara. It was a Roman
colony, and was also called Norba Ccesariana, and Colonia
Norbensis. 6. Moron, to the southwest, on the Tagus, made
by the Romans a place of arms in their wars with the Lusitani.
It answers, probably, to the modern Montalvao. 7. Oxthracce,
according to Appian, the largest city of the Lusitani. Its site
is unknown. 8. Scalabis, below Moron, on the northern side
of the Tagus. As a Roman colony, it bore the name Prnesidium Julium. It was the seat of the Conventus for all the country north of the Tagus, and is now Santarem, a name corrupted from St. Irene.




40              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
2. Cities between the Tagus and Durius.
Crossing the range of Mount Tagrus, we come to, 1. Conirm
briga, now Coimbra, on the River Munda, now Mondego, and,
to the north of this, 2. Lavara, as given on some maps, just below the mouth of the Vacua, now Vouga. Its existence, how.
ever, is very doubtful, and it is only another name, probably, for,
3. Talabriga, a little to the north, on the Vacua. This was one
of the largest and most turbulent cities of Lusitania. Brutus
took it in his march against the Callaici. Polybius calls it Ercobriga. It occupied the site of the modern Aveiro, according
to Ukert. D'Anville, however, makes it answer to the modern
Torocas. 4. Langobriga, further north, near the mouth of the
Durius, in the vicinity of the modern Villa Feira. 5. Augustobriga, to the southeast of Langobriga, on the western frontier
of the Vettones, and nearly midway between the Durius and
Tagus, near the modern Puente de Arzobispo. 6. Lancia Oppidana, a little to the southeast of Augustobriga, and near the
sources of the Munda, answers, probably, to the modern Guarda.
7. Lancia Transcudana, to the east of the former, was so called
because lying on the other side of the River Cuda, now Coa, a
tributary of the Durius, which ran between the two places. It is
supposed to correspond to the modern Ciudad Rodrigo. 8. Igaedita, called also Egitania, lay below Lancia Oppidana, and
now answers to Idanha la Vieja. 9. Rusticiana, to the east
of the former, now Corchuela. 10. Capara, north of Rusticiana, now las Ventas de Caparra. 11. Ad Lippos, to the northeast, near the modern Calzada. 12. Salmantica, farther to
the north, now Salamanca, on the River Tormes. It is'the
same, in all probability, with the Elmantica of Polybius, and
the Hermantica of Livy. It was a large city, and from the
circumstance of the Vettones being often confounded with the
Lusitani, it was assigned by some of the ancient writers to the
former people, by others to the latter. It was properly a city
of the Vettones. Hannibal took it in his expedition against
the Vaccai.




HISPANIA.                        41
2. B AETICA.
(A.) BOUNDARIES.
I. BY Bcetica originally was meant merely the strip of land
on both sides of the River Betis, between the mountain chains
of Ilipula to the south, and Mons Marianus to the north. And
even this strip of land was in still earlier times, according to a
tradition mentioned by Strabo, known by the name of Tartessis.
II. The country also received from the Turdetani, its most
powerful tribe, the name of Turdetania; but the part toward
the northwest, between Mons Marianus and the Anas, had also
the special appellation of Baeturia, while along the southern
coast, also, the Bastuli were separately numbered. The Turduli, who are placed by Polybius to the north of the Turdetani,
appear to have been merely a branch of the same race with
these.
III. Augustus brought in a new arrangement, and created
the province of Baetica, the boundaries and extent of which
were as follows: The northwestern and western boundary of
the country was formed by the River Anas, the northeastern
and eastern boundary by a line drawn from the Anas above
Sisapo, and striking the coast near Baria, at the mouth of what
is now the Almanzor.
IV. Bcetica, therefore, according to this arrangement, comprehended the modern Andalusia, a part of the Portuguese
province of Alentejo, the southern part of Spanish Estremadu~ra, and a large portion of La Mancha.
OBS. Stephanus Byzantinus makes Baetica and Turditania synonymous: TovpStravia, 7} Kca BatrtK/ KaXelrat. He adds, that Artemidorus gave to this country
the name of Turtytania (TovpTvravia), and called its inhabitants Turti (ToIpruT)
and Turtutani (Tovprovravol). It has been supposed that the Tartessus of the
Greeks is to be traced to this name of Tovprvravia, the word having been somewhat changed in form to adapt it to Grecian ears. This would serve to throw
some light on the tradition mentioned by Strabo, and referred to under ~ 1.
Co:npare the French Strabo, vol. i., p. 390, not.)
(B.) SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY.
ACCORDING to Strabo and Pliny, Betica abounded in valuable
products. In the mountains, and more particularly Mons Marianus, were found gold, silver, copper, iron, cinnabar, marble,
and lapis specularis.  The range of Mount Ilipula yielded excellent naval timber, honey, wax, tar, &c., and contained rich
pastures, where were fed sheep remarkable for the richness of




42                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
their fleeces: (Merinos?) The coasts afforded very productive
fisheries, especially of the tunny, and abundance of good salt.
An active traffic was hence carried on in these varied products.
(C.) TRIBES OF BAETICA.
I. THE Turdetani and Turduli, two branches of the same
race, and hence commonly regarded as forming but one people.
The Turduli, however, dwelt to the northeast of the Turdetani,
while the latter occupied the western half of the province from
the River Singilis, now' the Genil, and a part of the chain of
Mons Marianus to the River Anas. They had even, as we
have already remarked, spread beyond this river.
II. The Bastuli, a mixed race, consisting of Phoenician settlers blended with the old inhabitants of the land, occupied the
whole coast from Junonis Promontorium, now Cape Trafalgar,
to the easternmost limits of the province.  Whatever Grecian
colonies were settled in any part of this tract became soon forgotten, and were all merged into the common name of Bastuli,
or Bastuli Peni. The Bastuli, however, possessed nothing but
the mere coast; the nearest cities in the interior belonged to
the Turdetani and Turduli.
III. The Celtici.-These were a horde that had separated
from  the great host of the Celtme that once crossed the Pyrenees and occupied a large part of the Pehinsula. A portion
of them passed into Lusitania, and settled in the vicinity of the
Anas, where it begins to bend round to the south, and gradually spread themselves from   this quarter to the shores of the
Western Ocean.     The part that remained in Baetica occupied
a portion of the country immediately east of the Anas.
IV. The Bastitani, to the northeast of the Bastuli Peni.
They were properly one people with the Bastuli, except that
they were not intermingled with Phoenician settlers. They
extended into Tarraconensis, and are even assigned by some,
though incorrectly it would seem, entirely to that province.
OBs. 1. We have followed D'Anville as regards the position of the Bastitani.
If, however, the dividing line between Baetica and Tarraconensis be made to
strike the coast at Murgis, the Bastitani will be entirely included within Tarraconensis. This appears by no means correct.
2. Appian (Hisp., c. 56) calls the Bastuli BXaaro6oivtKES. Marcianus speaks
of the BMaarovpoi ol Kaaov/ievoi TlIoloi, and Ptolemy of the Baarovaol ol KaOOVpevot Ioivoi. Schweigheuser proposes Baarov2oooiviKec (ad Appian, 1. c.), but
consult Ukert, Geogr. der Gr. und R., vol. ii., p. 408, n.




H1ISPANIA.                    43
(D.) CONVENTUS JURIDICI.
The Conventus were four in number, namely, 1. Cordubensis, held at Corduba, now Cordova. 2. Astigiensis, held at
Astigi, on the Singilis, now Ecija. 3. Hispalensis, at Hispalis, now Seville. 4. Gaditanus, at Gades, now Cadiz.
(E.) CITIES OF B.ETICA.
I. ACCORDING to Strabo, Bsetica contained two hundred cities.
Pliny, however, makes the number one hundred and seventyfive, and Ptolemy only ninety-two.
II. The cities of Baetica may be arranged in two classes:
1. Cities on the coast, and, 2. Cities in the interior of the
country.
1. Cities on the Coast.
Cities between the mouth of the Anas and the Straits of Hercules.
1. Lcepa, now Lepe, by Ayamonte. 2. Onoba, between the
rivers Luxia, now Odiel, and Urius, now Tinto. Strabo places
it on an estuary, having in front of it the island of Hercules.
It is now Huelva, where many Roman ruins still remain. The
island is now called Saltes. We then come upon a range of
sand-hills, called by Pliny Arenee Montes, now Arenas Gordas.
About the middle of this tract we find Olintigi, probably Moguer. Coins are often dug up here with the inscription Olont.
We then reach the Baetis, or Guadalquivir, which, as already
remarked, entered the sea by two mouths, embracing between
them an island, extending far inward, and having along the sea
a breadth of one hundred stadia, or over eleven English miles.
The island now no longer exists, the lower mouth of the river
having been dried up; but where this mouth once was, the
River Guadalete enters the sea. On the northwestern extremity of the island stood a pharos, or light-house, called Ccepionis
Turris, or " Caepio's Tower," the navigation here being rendered difficult by sand-banks and sunken rocks. In this island
many place the Tartessus of antiquity, supposed to have been
the same with the Tarshish of Scripture, and the island itself
has been called by some Tartessus, while others make it the
poetic Erythea, connected with the legend of Geryon. We
have already referred to the opinion of those who make Turdetania to have been the ancient Tartessis. Mannert's view is
not much unlike this, since he makes Tartessus, or the city it



44.vNC ENT GEOGRAPHY.
self, to have been Hispalis, the modern Seville; so that the
country around, occupied by the Turdetani, would then be called Tartessis, or the region of Tartessus.
OBS. 1. The opinion, which makes the island at the mouth of the Baetis to
have been Tartessus, or, at least, to have contained the city of that name, is
alluded to by Strabo, as previously quoted (iii., p. 148). Others of the ancient
geographers, as, for example, Eratosthenes (ap. Strab., 1. c.), sought to identify
Tartessus with the city of Carteia, within the straits, near Calpe, which place
Appian calls Carpessus, and regards as the ancient Tartessus. (Bell. Ilisp., c.
2, 63.) This same opinion is advocated by Dionysius Perieg., v. 336, seqq.
According to this view, the couitry around Calpe and Carteia will be Tartessis, and here, also, we are to place the poetic Erythia. The whole matter, however, must be left in uncertainty.
2. It may not be out of place here to say a few words relative to the Tarshish
of Scripture. This place is particularly mentioned in connection with the commerce of the Hebrews and Phoenicians. In Genesis, x., 4, the name occurs
among the sons of Javan, who are supposed to have peopled the southern parts
of Europe. (Compare Ps. lxxii., 10; Isaiah, lxvi., 19.) In other passages it is
mentioned as sending to Tyre silver, iron, tin, and lead (Ezekiel, xxvii., 12;
Jerem., x., 9); and from Isaiah, xxiii., 10. some have inferred that it was subject to the Phoenicians. The prophet Jonah, attempting to avoid his mission
to Nineveh, fled from Joppa in a ship bound to Tarshish. (Jonah, i., 3; iv., 2.)
In several passages of the Bible "ships of Tarshish" are spoken of, especially
in connection with Tyre. From a comparison, therefore, of the above passages,
the majority of critics have concluded that Tarshish must be sought in the
western parts of the Mediterranean, or even outside the straits, and it has been
generally identified with the Phoenician. emporium of Tartessus in Spain, wherever the particular site of this last may have been. They who are in favor,
moreover, of an Oriental derivation for the name Tartessus, find one in the Phcenician term Tarshish, which in the Aramrean pronunciation would be Tarthesh,
and would yield, of course, a striking resemblance to the Greek Tapr7aa-6f.
1. On an estuary immediately below the island formed by
the mouths of the Baetis, or, according to some maps, on the
lower arm of the Baetis itself, stood Asta Regia, a Roman colony. Although some distance inland, it was still an important
commercial place, and one of the most considerable cities of
the province. According to Ptolemy, the territory of the Turdetani reached up to Asta, along this part of the coast, and
they were accustomed to hold in this city their national assemblies. There is at the present day, near Xeres de la Frontrera,
a height still called Mesa de Asta, where Roman ruins exist.
2. Gades, called by the Greeks rddeepa, is now Cadiz. This
place lay on the west end of a small island, separated anciently
from the main-land by a channel about six hundred feet wide,
and at this end stood the famous Temple of Hercules.        Modern




HISPANIA.                     45
Cadiz now stands on the extremity of a low, narrow tongue of
land, and is surrounded on three sides by water. The bay between Gades and the main land was called Sinus Tartessius,
and the shore facing the island, Littus Corense. Gades was
founded by the Phoenicians many centuries before the Christian era, but there is no historical evidence as to the time of
the settlement. Its Phoenician name was Gadir, meaning " an
inclosed place," or, according to others, " a limit," from its having been thought at the time that here were the western limits
of the world. The island on which it stood was in early times
covered with wild olive-trees, and hence received from the
Greeks the name of Cotinousa (KoTivovaa), from KOTCLvo~, "a
wild olive-tree." It was also called rd6etpa and Gades, like the
city itself, and is now the isle of Leon. The tongue of land on
which the modern city is built projects from this island. Gades was a famous commercial place from the earliest times,
and under the Romans, also, it became, from its commerce, one
of the richest provincial towns in the empire. It received from
Julius Cmsar the title and rights of a Roman colony, and from
Augustus the honorary appellation of Augusta Julia Gaditana.
in the immediate vicinity of the larger island lay a smaller one,
remarkable for its fertility and rich pastures, called Erythea,
which the ancient fabulists made the scene of the legend of
Geryon and his oxen. Some of the later writers called it
Aphrodisias. The inhabitants themselves gave it the name
of Junonis Insula. The harbor of Menestheus, which is mentioned by the ancient geographers in connection with this part
of the coast, was on the main-land opposite to Gades, and at
the mouth of what is now the River Guadalete. Here also
was the oracle of Menestheus. The harbor is now Puerto de
St. Maria. Bochart makes the name of MeveaOog AttyXuv, or
Menesthei Portus, to have arisen by corruption from the Phaenician Min-Asda or Esda, "the'harbor of Asda," or Asta.
Leaving this part of the coast, and moving downward, we
come to Junonis Promontorium, now Cape Trafalgar. By
Juno is here supposed to be meant the Phoenician goddess Astarte. Next follows Bcesippo, now Porto Barbato, where Roman ruins still exist; and then Belon, on a river of the same
name. From this harbor passage was taken for Tingis, on
the opposite coast of Africa, now Tangier. The salting of fish




46              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
was carried on extensively at Belon. The remains of this
place are found at the present day three Spanish miles west of
Tarifa, at a spot called Balonia. Further on was Mellaria,
another place where the salting of fish was carried on, now
Torre de la Penna, where the same business is still pursued.
Sertorius had a naval battle with Cotta off this place.
We now come to the extreme southern point of Spain, and
begin a new enumeration of the places on the remaining portion
of the coast of Beetica, with, 1. Traducta, the modern Tarifa.
This place owed its origin to the Romans, who transported hither (whence the name of the settlement) the inhabitants of Zelas, a town in Africa, near Tingis, and, adding some colonists of
their own to the number, gave the place the name of Julia Traducta, or Joza (this last term being the corresponding Punic
one for Traducta). 2. Portus Albus, or the White Haven, now
Algesiras. The promontory of Calpe follows next, the modern Gibraltar, on the ancient and present names of which we
have already made some remarks. Calpe and Abyla (the latter lying opposite, in Africa) were called by the ancients the
Pillars of Hercules, and the strait between them was termed
Fretumn Gaditanum or Herculeum, now the Straits of Gibraltar. The ancients fabled that Hercules separated with his
hands the mountains of Calpe and Abyla, and that the sea,
rushing in upon the Mediterranean, then a small lake, formed
the present body of waters there; that the hero, moreover, either erected columns on these two mountains, or else that the
mountains themselves were regarded as monuments of his progress westward, and beyond which no mortal could pass. The
Straits of Gibraltar are about twelve leagues in.extent from
Cape Spartel to Ceuta point, on the African coast, and from
Cape Trafalgar to Europa point, on the coast of Spain. Their
width at the western extremity is about eight leagues, but at
the eastern extremity it does not exceed five.
3. Carteia, to the northwest of Calpe, at the head of a gulf
setting in between Portus Albus and Calpe. The ruins of this
place exist, according to Gosselin, under the name of Rocadillo.
Mariana erroneously seeks to identify Carteia with the modern
Tarifa. The place was of Phcenician origin, but fabled to have
been built by Hercules, and hence called also Heraclea, according to some. Bochart makes the Phoenician name to have been




HISPANIA.                      47
at first McJcartheia, " City of Hercules" (thus agreeing with
the Greek tradition), shortened afterward to Carteia. This
place was one of great trade,. and was by many pf the ancients
regarded as the Tartessus of the Phoenician navigators. The
error appears to have arisen from confounding the name of Carpessus with Tartessus, Carteia having been also called Carpessus, probably from the Phoenician carphesa, " a shell," because
shells of a very large size were found here, as Strabo informs
us. 4. Suel, northeast of Carteia, another Phoenician settlement, now Fuengirola. Bochart derives the name from the
Phoenician sual, "a fox," in allusion, probably, to the large
number of these animals in its vicinity. 5. Malaca, above
Suel, at the mouth of a river called also Malaca. This place
is now Malaga, the principal sea-port in the province of Granada. The modern name of the river is the Guadalmedina, a
mere brook in summer, but a considerable stream in winter.
Malaca was a place of great antiquity, and claims to have been
founded by the Phoenicians eight or nine centuries before our
era; and the name is sought to be deduced from the Phoenician
malcha, " royal," to intimate the estimation in which they held
the place. But of this high antiquity there is no evidence,
and Humboldt says that Malaca is a pure Basque word, signifying " the side of a mountain."  Malaca was the great staple-place for the sale of all commodities from the interior, as
well as of foreign imports. The Romans made it a municipium
and confederate city.
6. Man6ba or Maendca, which some make to have been the
same with Malaca, though without good reason. It is now
Velez-Malaga, on the River Velez. 7. Saxctanum, famed for
its salted fish, is now lMotril. Probably the same place with
Sexti Firmum Julium. 8. Abdera, a Phoenician settlement,
now Adra. 9. Murgis, now Almeria; according to some, the
eastern limit of Batica,'though this is more correctly to be
fixed at Baria, now Varea, some distance above, on the coast.
The Charidemum Promontorium, between Murgis and Baria,
is now Cape Gata.
2. Cities in the Interior.
1. Cities between the Anas and Beetis.
1. Ilipa or Ilipula, northeast of Onoba, on the River Urius,




48              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
or Tinio. It is now Niebla. 2. Italica, east of lipa, on the
Baetis. A municipium founded by Scipio, in order to settle
therein his veteran soldiers. It was the birth-place of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The ruins still exist at Sevilla la
Vieja. 3. Ilzpa, or Ilipula, called, for distinction' sake from the
one just mentioned, Ilipula Magna, on the Bwetis, northeast of
Italica, and just below the junction of the Singilis. Here Scipio
obtained a victory over the Lusitani.  It is now Pennaflor.
4. Cordiba, higher up on the Bsetis, now Cordova. It was the
capital of Baetica, and a place of great trade, the river being
navigable for boats up to this point. According to Strabo, the
first Roman colony sent into Spain was established here by
Marcellus, A.U.C. 600. The place itself, however, was of
Phoenician origin, having been founded under the name of Kartabiah. Both the Senecas and also the poet Lucan were born
here. It was also the seat of a Conventus, to which the greater part of the Turduli, on the north and south of the river, belonged. Finally, the place had the honor of receiving a patrician colony, a later Marcellus having transferred hither a number of poor but noble Romans, and having divided among them
the property of the richer Pompeians. Hence the place was
also called Colonia Patricia Cordubensis.
5. Mirobriga, north of Corduba, on the other side of Mons
Marianus, and in the district of Beturia, a mountainous country, abounding in strong positions. Mirobriga is now Capilla.
6. Sisdpo Vetus, to the southeast of the preceding; and Sisdpo Nova, to the northeast. Both these places were remarkable for their rich silver and cinnabar mines. They are now
Almadan and Guadalcanal. In the Itinerarium    Antonini,
the latter is called Sisalone, an evident corruption of its true
name. 7. Illiturgis, or Iliturgi, to the northeast of Corduba,
now Andujar del Vejo. This was a large and important place
during the first and second Punic wars. It was destroyed by
the younger Africanus, but rebuilt, 197 B.C., under the name
of Forum Julium. 8. Castulo, also to the northeast of Corduba, now Caslona, on the Gaudalimnar, a municipium, with the
Jus Latii, large of size, and situate in a very romantic country,
near the silver mines of the Saltus Castulonensis. It was.also
called Castulo.Parnassia, from the resemblance which the
double-peaked mountain on which it lay, and the spring in its




HISPANIA.                      49
vicinity, bore to Mount Parnassus and the Castalian spring in
Greece, and hence Silius Italicus makes the inhabitants to
have been of Phocian origin; a poetic fable, of course. Some
geographers, who assign narrower limits to Baetica on the east,
make the boundary line pass a little distance to the west of
Castulo, and consequently assign Castulo to the province of
Tarraconensis.  9. Tugia, or, according to Ptolemy, Tuia, to
the southeast of Castulo. Its ruins still exist near Toya. In
the vicinity of this place was the Saltus Tugiensis, now Sierra de Cazorla, where the Baetis rose.
2. Cities between the Beetis and the Coast.
(a) Between the Boetis and the Singilis,from West to East.
1. Nebrissa, situate, according to Strabo, on one of the lagunes of the Betis, near its mouth. Called, also, Nebrissa Veneria, and now Lebrija.  2. Hispalis, on the Buetis, 500 stadia from the sea, and reached by large vessels. It was, next
to Corduba and Gades, the most distinguished city of Turdetania: it was also a Roman colony, and the seat of a Conventus, and was likewise a place of great trade. Some modern
writers, as, for example, Bochart and Mannert, make it to have
been the ancient Tartessus, the Tarshish of Scripture. It is
now Seville. 3. Basilippo, a little to the northeast of the preceding, now El Biso. 4. Astigi, called, also, Augusta Firma, on
the River Singilis, the seat of a Conventus, and one of the most
important cities of the province. It is now Ecija. 5. Singlli, or Singilis, on the river of the same name, the remains of
which are found at Castillon. 6. M7unda, to the southwest,
not far from Malaca, famed for the overthrow of the Carthaginians in the second Punic war, and also for the victory gained here by Caesar, after a desperate battle, over the son of Pompey. It is now Monda. 7. Arunda, to the northwest, now
Ronda, where inscriptions are found. 8. Urso, or Urson, the
last refuge of the partisans of Pompey. It had the cognomen
of Genua Urbanorum, and is now Osuna.
(b) Between the Singilis and the BRetis,from West to East.
1. Carbala, on the Baetis, at the junction of the Singilis,
near the present Guadalcazar. 2. Ulia, to the southeast, a
municipkim; called, also, Julia, and probably the same with the
D




50              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Fidentia of Hirtius. The remains are now found at Monte
Ulia. 3. Illiberis, or Illiberi Liberini, to the southeast, now
Granada. Hardouin and D'Anville, however, make Granada
to have been of Moorish origin, and find traces of the name
of Illiberi in the neighboring mountains of Sierra d'Elvira.
4. Acci, to the east, called also Colonia Accitana Julia Gemella. It had the Jus Italicum, and its site was in the vicinity of
Guadix el Viejo. 5. Bastia, called, also, Mentesa Bastia, to
the northeast, the chief city of the Bastitani in this quarter.
The ruins are found near La Guardia. 6. Urgaon, or Urcao,
with the cognomen of Alba, to the northwest. It was a municipium, and is now Arjona, as inscriptions show.
3. TARRACONENSIS.
(A.) BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. THE province of Tarraconensis derived its name, as al
ready remarked, from the city of Tarraco, now Tarragona, its
capital; and it was by far the largest of the three provinces
into which Hispania was divided by the Romans.
II. Tarraconensis, as we have already shown, comprehended
all the north of Spain, together with the south as far as a line
drawn from Baria, now Varea, below Carthago Nova, and continued upward, in an oblique direction, to a point on the Durius, in the vicinity of Complutica.
III. The climate and character of this large region was, of
course, different in different quarters. That part which lay
along the Mediterranean was very warm and fruitful. The
northern parts, however, were unproductive, and had a raw
and cold climate. A large portion of the surface in this
quarter was covered with mountains and forests, while the
plains were in general poorly watered, and suffered also from
the cold. The winters here were very severe, and the snow
fell to a great depth.
(B.) TRIBES.
1. Tribes of the Western and Northern Coasts,from West to East.
I. Callalci (Ka?1aiazoi), called also, by the Latin writers, Calleci, and, at a later period, Galleci. These formed one of the
most widely extended of the Spanish tribes. They occupied
the whole western coast, from the Durius upward, except the




HISPANIA.                     51
northwestern corner, where the Artabri, a Celtic race, had fixed their seats, and possessed also the northern coast, as far as
the River Melsus, the western limit of the Astures. In the interior of the country they followed the course of the Durius as
far as the eastern boundary in this quarter of modern Portugal.
They occupied, therefore, what are now the Portuguese provinces of Entre Duero e Minho and Tras os Montes, almost all
Gallicia, a portion of Asturias, and the westernmost part of
Leon.
This large tribe was divided by the Romans into two main
branches, named respectively after their capital cities, the Callaici Bracdres or Bracarii, and the Callaici Lucenses. The
former of these were on the west side, between the Durius and
Minius; the latter, partly on the west, between the Minius
and the Ulla, but principally along the northern coast. According to Pliny, the Bracares numbered among them 175,000
freemen, and the Lucenses about 166,000.
II. Celtce.-These were situate in the northwestern corner
of the territory of the Callaici. They were generally called by
the common name of Artabri, but there were, in fact, four
small tribes, the Prcesamarci, Nerii, Tamarici, and Artdbri,
or Artotre~be. They were a branch of the Celtae on the Anas,
and their wandering hither has already been alluded to (p.
16, ~ ix.).
III. Astures ('AaroVpot and AaUTvpEg), between the Callaici on
the west, the Cantabri on the north, the Vaccaei on the south,
and the Celtiberi on the east. The dividing point between
their territory and that of the Callaici Lucenses, on the coast,
was formed by the mouth of the small river Melsus, now the
Narcea, which stream fell into the sea a little to the west of
the Arce Sestiance. Their country, therefore, comprehended
the greater part of modern Asturias, together with a considerable portion of the kingdom of Leon. According to Pliny,
the Astures numbered twenty-two communities or tribes, and
240,000 free persons. In language and habits they showed a
common origin with the Callaici and Lusitani.
IV. Cantabri, to the east of the Astures, to the west of the
Autrigones, and to the north of the Vaccsei and some Celtiberian tribes. They occupied what corresponds now to the western portion of La Montana, and the northern half of Palencia




52              AN CIEANCIENT GEOGRAP'HY.
and Toro. They were the most ferocious and warlike people of
Spain, and long resisted the Roman power. Their final reduction was effected by Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus, after
they had withstood the arms of Rome for more than two hundred years. The Oceanus Cantabricus, which derived its name
from them, as it washed their coasts, is now the Bay of Biscay.
V. Caristi, or, as Pliny calls them, Carieti, to the east of
the Cantabri. Their territory was very limited in extent.
Pliny joins to them the Vennenses, and gives the two combined only five cities. Their territory corresponded to a part of
modern Biscay.
VI. Varduli, still farther to the east, and extending inland
from the coast to the Iberls. They occupied what is now the
eastern half of Biscay, and Alava, and the westernmost part
of Navarra.
VII. Vasc6nes, southeast of the Varduli, in the modern NVavarra. Mela makes no separate mention of them, but includes
the Vascones and Varduli under the name ogthe latter.
2. Tribes in the Interior, from.West to East.
I. Vacccei (OvaKKaloL), to the east of the Callaici, and southeast of the Astures. Their eastern limit was the River Pisoraca, now Pisuerga, near which stood Palantia, now Palencia, their greatest and most important city. Toward the south
they reached beyond the Durius, as far as the Carpetani.
Their territory answered, therefore, to the greater part of Valladolid, Leon, Palencia, and Toro.  This tribe was a very
numerous one, and were the mildest and most cultivated of the
Iberian communities. They paid great attention to agriculture. Ptolemy assigns them twenty cities, and Pliny names
eighteen.
II. Carpetani, one of the most important of the Iberian
tribes, and occupying the very centre of the Peninsula. Their
territory comprehended what.is now the southern part of Valladolid, the old Castilian provinces of Avila and Segovia, the
largest portion of Guadalaxara, and a part of the province of
Toledo. Their land was productive, and the inhabitants, like
the Vacceei, were a numerous and active race. According to
some of the ancierit writers, they were able to bring into the
field against Hannibal more than 100,000 men.




HISPANIA.                     53
III. Oretani, to the east of Lusitania and Baetica, especially
the latter; to the north of Betica and the country of the Bastitani; to the south of the Carpetani, and to the west of the
Celtiberi. They occupied, therefore, what is now the eastern
part of Granada, La Mancha, and the western part of ~Xurcia.
Strabo makes them extend to the lower coast, in which there
is, after all, nothing contradictory, since they were mingled
more or less with the neighboring Bastitani, from whom, in
fact, they differed merely in name. It appears better, however, to follow the arrangement of Ptolemy and Pliny.
IV. Celtiberi, the most numerous and wide-spread race in
all Spain. They were, as we have already remarked, a mixed
people, being composed of Celtae and Iberians. Taken in their
widest extent, the Celtiberi comprehended six tribes, namely,
the Berones or Verones, Arevaci, Pelendones, Lusones, Belli,
and Ditthi or Titthi. The former three lay to the north, while
the last three dwelt toward the south, along the range of Idubeda, as far as that of Orospeda, and they alone were sometimes, in a narrower sense, named Celtiberi. The Celtiberi
were distinguished from the neighboring Iberians by a difference of language, a much ruder mode of life, by the great number of mountain strong-holds scattered over their country, by
the fashion of their arms (for example, the large Celtic shield,
while the Iberi had merely a small round one), and their whole
mode of carrying on war. They relied more on open valor and
less on stratagem than the Iberian tribes, and their wedge-like
form of battle proved often formidable to the Romans themselves. Serving for hire, they were often employed as Roman
auxiliaries, a means of increasing both their wealth and power,
so that, soon after the second Punic war, they exercised a preponderating influence among the other Spanish communities.
All their neighbors lived in some degree of dependence upon
them, and this is the reason why, in many passages of ancient
writers, the Vaccei and Oretani are also numbered among the
Celtiberi. They did not pay much attention to agriculture.
Their country answered to what is now the greatest part of
New Castile, a portion of Old Castile, and some part of Arragon.
V. Jacetani, between the Vascones and Ilergetes. Their
territory extended from near Coesar-Augusta, now Saragossa,




54               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
in a northeastern direction as far as the Pyrenees, so that they
occupied a part of the northeastern quarter of Arragon.
VI. Ilergetes, to the southeast, below the Cerretani, and occupying what now corresponds to a large portion of Arragon,
on the left bank of the Ebro. Some of the ancient writers
reckoned as part of them the smaller communities of the Bargusii, Bergistani, Vescitani, Suessitani, and Surdaones.
VII. Cerretani, north and northeast of the Ilergetes, and
stretching far into the valleys of the Pyrenees; occupying,
therefore, what is now the northernmost part of Catalonia.
They were a pure Iberian race, and were divided into the Juliani and Augustani.
VIII. Lacetani, below the Cerretani, and occupying.a part
of modern Catalonia.
3. Tribes along the Southern Coast from West to East.
I. Contestani, next above the Bastetani, in what is now the
eastern part of ]lfurcia, and the western part of Valencia.
II. Edetani, between the Celtiberi and Ilercaones, and reaching up to the Iberus. They dwelt, therefore, in what is now
the eastern and northern part of Valencia, and the southern
part of Arragon, below the right bank of the Ebro. Their
chief cities were Valencia, Saguntum, and Caesar-Augusta.
III. Ilercaones, between the Edetani and the coast, and extending as far as the Iberus. Their territory is now the northeastern part of Valencia, and a small portion of southeastern
Arragon.
IV. Cosetani, between the Iberus and Rubricatus, and below
the Ilergetes and Lacetani. They dwelt in what is now the
southern part of Catalonia.
V. Laletani, above the Rubricatus, and having the Ausetani to the north. They dwelt in what is now nearly the central part of Catalonia.
VI. Ausetani, north of the Laletani, also in part of Catalonia, particularly that around Vich and Gerona.
VII. Indigetes, northeast of the Ausetani. They dwelt in
what is now the northeastern part of Catalonia, and also in
the Pyrenees, on the borders of Gallia.




HiSPANIA.                      55
(C.) CITIES OF TARRACONENSIS.
1. Cities belonging to the Tribes along the Western and
Northern Coasts.
Cities of the Callaci Bracarii.
1. Bracdra Augusta, capital of the Callaici Bracarii, and
the seat of a Conventus, now Braga; destroyed by Theodoric,
king of the Visigoths. 2. Cale, called at a later period Portus
Cale, to the south, at the mouth of the Durius, now Oporto.
From Portus Cale came by corruption the modern name Portugal. 3. Aqua Flavie, northeast of Bracara Augusta, now
Chaves, on the Tamego. 4. Roboretum, to the east, the site
of which is marked by Mount Roveredo. 5. Veniatia, to the
cast of the preceding, now Vinhaes.  6. Forum Limicorum,
northwest of Bracara. Its site is indicated by ruins on Mount
Viso, near the town of Ginzo. 7. Tyde or Tudce, to the
north, on the Minius, now Tuy. Pliny makes it belong to
the Conventus of Bracara, although north of the Minius, and
although the Bracarii extended merely up to, and not beyond
that river.
Cities of the Callaici Lucenses.
1. Lucus Augusti, capital of the Callaici Lucenses, and the
seat of a Conventus, now Lugo. It stood near the head waters of the Minius. 2. Brigantium, to the northwest, on the
coast, with a lofty pharos, now Corunna. 3. Ardobrica, near
the preceding, now Ferrol.  The Brigantinus vel Magnus
Portus, in this quarter, seems to be the same with the Bay of
Vorunna and Ferrol. 4. Iria Flavia, to the southwest, now
31 Padron.  5. Glandomirum or Grandimirum, to the northxvest, at the mouth of the Tamaris (called by Ptolemy the
tamara), now Muros, at the mouth of the Tambre. 6. Two
cities occupied by Grecian settlers are also mentioned as existing in the territory of the Lucenses, namely,'EXA&yve and'Ajzi~XoXot. They are supposed to have been situated near
Aqute Cilenac or Cilenorum, north of Tyde.
Cities of the Astures.
1. Asturica, called, also, Augusta, the chief city of the Astures, and the seat of a Conventus. It is now Astorga. Pliny




56              ANCIENT G.EOGRAPHY.
calls it " urbs magnifica." It was destroyed by the Visigoths..
2. Forum Gigurrorum, to the west of the preceding, the chief
town of the Gigurri, and now Cigarossa. Harduin, following
a false reading in Ptolemy, gives the name of the place as Fo.
rum Egurrorum, and the error appears also on the maps of
D'Anville and others. 3. Palantia, to the southeast of Asturica, on the River Astfira, and not to be confounded with Pallantia, the city of the Vaccaei. Its ruins are near the modern
Villamoros. 4. Bergidium Flavium, to the northwest of Asturica, now La Vega, on the Coa, in western Leon. 5. Interamnium Flavium, to the southeast of Bergidium, now Pon.
ferrada, on the River Sil. 6. Nemetobriga, to the southwest,
near the junction of the Sil with the Minho, now Mendaya.
7. Legio Septima Gemina, to the northeast of Asturica, now
Leon. The place was originally called Brigaecium, and was
the chief city of the Brigaicini. From the time of Augustus,
however, two legions were posted here, in order to keep the
northern tribes in subjection. These two legions appear in
process of time to have been united into one, whence the name
Legio Septima gemina. The place, for brevity's sake, was
called Legio, whence the modern appellation. 8. Lance, or
Lancia, to the southeast of Legio. It was the strongest place
of the still free Astures, until the Romans burned down the
walls and destroyed the city. The greater part of the towns
in these regions had wooden ramparts. 9. Lucus Asturum,
called, also, Ovetum, to the north, toward the coast, now
Oviedo. 10. Noega, on the coast, to the northeast of the preceding, near an estuary which formed the boundary between
the Astures and Cantabri. It lay in what is now the territory
of Gijon. 11. Zoelce, not far from the ocean, famed for its flax.
Cities of the Cantabri.
1. Juliobriga, near the sources of the Iberus, now Retortillo.
2. Uxembarca, to the northeast, now Osma. 3. Vellica, or
Belgica, to the west of the preceding, rfiar the modern Villelba.  4. Concana, to the west, now   Santillana, or Onis.
5. Vereasueca, on the coast, now  Puerto de S. Martin.
6. Blendium, to the east of the preceding, now Santander.
7. Portus Victorie, now Santonna. 8. Strabo remarks that
many of the Greek writers make various settlements of Greeks




HISPANIA.                     57
to have been made on the northern and northwestern coasts of
Spain. Opsikellas, for instance, a follower of the mythic Antenor, is said to have founded, among the Cantabri, a city
named Opsikella. No mention of this name, however, occurs
elsewhere, and no trace of such a city is any where found.
Cities of the Autrigones, Caristii, and Varduli.
1. Flaviobriga, the chief city of the Autrigones, situate on
the coast. Its previous name was Amanum Portus, which it
changed to Flaviobriga on becoming a Roman colony. Florez
makes it answer to the modern Portugalete, but Gosselin to
St. Vicente de la Barquera.  Mannert is in favor of Santander. 2. Virovesca, in the interior, on a branch of the Iberus,
southwest of Flaviobriga. Its site appears to be near the
modern Briviesca. 3. Deobriga, or Doubriga, northeast of
Virovesca, now Brinnos. 4. Belia, the only city of the Caristii deserving of mention, on a branch of the Iberus coming in
from the northeast, and south of Flaviobriga. In the Itinerary
it is called Beleia; and is now Belchite. 5. Alba, now Alvanna, belonging to the Conventus of Clunia, among the Arevaci.
6. Mienosca, on the coast, now Sumaya. 7. Morosgi, also on
the coast, now St. Sebastian. These last three are cities of
the Varduli.
Cities of the Vascones.
1. Calagurris, on the Iberus, a large and beautiful city, and
the capital of the Vascones. It was celebrated in the war with
Sertorius, and was besieged by Pompey. It was also the native city of Quintilian. Now Calahorra. Pliny distinguishes
between the Calagurritani Nassici and Fibularenses. The former of these two places appears to be the Calagorina of Ptolemy, the latter the modern Calahorra. 2. Graccurris, to the
southwest. Its earlier name was Ilurcis, which it changed to
Graccurris when Sempronius Gracchus, after defeating the
Celtiberi, settled some new inhabitants in the place. It lay
near the modern Corella. 3. Cascantum, to the northeast,
near the Iberus. It was a municipium, and is now Cascante.
4. Jacca, northeast of the preceding, and now Jaca. 5. Pompelo, to the northwest, now Pampelona. It belonged to the
Conventus of Cesar-Augusta, or Saragossa. According to




58              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Strabo, this city was founded by Pompey (IIoiTEAcv ig av
Inor7t'6rro7rXt), a remark, however, which is, in all probability,
erroneous.  6. Summum   Pyrenceum, northeast of Pampelo,
among the Pyrenees, now Sumport. There was another
place of the same name among the Indigetes, where the trophies of Pompey were erected. 7. (Eso, on the coast, at the
northern extremity of the Pyrenees, where the River Magrada, now Urumea, runs into the sea. It was the same, probably, with the Olarso of Pliny, and it lay near the modern
Oyarzun or Oyarfo, iii the territory of Irun and Fontarabia.
2. Cities of the Tribes in the Interior.
Cities of the Vacccei and Carpetani.
Among the Vaccsi we find, 1. Pallantia, now Palencia, a
large and celebrated city, often besieged by the Romans. It
must not be confounded with Palantia among the Astures, on
the River Astura. Strabo assigns Pallantia to the Arevaci, on
whose confines it lay. 2. Lacobriga, north of the preceding, on
the River Pisoraca, now the Pisuerga. It was the northernmost city of the Vaccei, and answers to the modern Lobera.
3. Cauca, some distance below Pallantia. It contained 20,000
inhabitants, who were nearly all perfidiously murdered by the
Romans after the place had surrendered. The site answers to
the modern Coca. The Emperor Theodosius was born here.
4. Pintia, southwest of Pallantia, near the River Durius. It
is now Valladolid. 5. Albucella, southwest of Pallantia, and
between Pintia and Amallobriga. According to Polybius, it
was the largest city of the Vaccaei, and was taken by Hannibal. It is named by this writer Arbucala. Now Villa Fasila.
6. Amallobriga, on the Durius, in the southwestern corner of
the land, now Medina del Rioseco.
Among the Carpetani we find, 1. Toletum, the capital city,
now Toledo. It was famed for its steel articles. Between it
and Hippo, to the southeast, the Romans were defeated by the
Celtiberi. 2. Ebuzra, or Libora, to the southwest, called on
coins.Epora and Apora, now    Cuerva.  3. Contrebia, a
strongly fortified city, well known in ancient history, but the
site of which is altogether uncertain.  It was probably destroyed in war, and seems to have answered to the modern
Santaver, which would make it to have been to the northeast




HISPANIA.                     59
of Toletum, and on the borders of the Celtiberi. 4. Consa.
bruaz, to the south of Toletum, a municipium, now Consuegra. 5. Vicus Cuminarius, northeast of Toletum, near the
Tagus, and celebrated for its cumin, whence the name of
the place. It is now S. Cruz de la Zarza, and is still famed
for the same product. 6. Complutmn, to the north of the preceding, now Alcala de Henarez. 7. Mantua, to the southwest of the preceding, now Mondejar: erroneously regarded
by some as corresponding to the modern Madrid. 8. Caraca,
laid down on some ancient maps as a city above Complutum,
on the Tagonius. This, however, is an error, the country in
this quarter being occupied by the Characitani, who had no
cities, but dwelt in caves, as we are informed by Plutarch in
his life of Sertorius.
Cities of the Oretani.
1. Oretum, on the Anas, called sometimes Oretum Germanorum; the northern portion of the Oretani being, according
to Pliny, also named Germani. It was the chief city of the
race. Stephanus calls it Orisia. Its site is marked by a spot
named De Oreto, where there are ruins, and remains of a Roman bridge. 2. Laminium, to the east, near the sources of
the Anas. Its site is in the vicinity of Fuenllana, between
Montiel and Alcaraz. 3. Libisosia, to the east of the preceding, called, also, Forum Augusti and Colonia Libisosanorum.
It was a Latin colony, and possessed the Jus Italicum. Now
Lesuza, in New Castile.  4. Murus, to the northwest, now
Mortales. 6. Althlea, called, also, Carteia, north of the preceding. It was the chief city of a tribe named Olcades, and
was taken by Hannibal, who transported the whole tribe, along
with other Iberians, to Africa, prior to his invasion of Italy, as
he feared lest they might occasion disturbances in Spain during his absence. Their country was subsequently possessed
by the Oretani. The site answers probably to Orgaz, in New
Castile.
Cities of the Celtiberi.
1. Segobriga, nearly due west from the mouth of the Iberus,
and southwest of Cuesar-Augusta. It was the capital city,
and the site is to be found near the modern Priego. Strabo




60              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
informs us that Sertorius for a long time carried on his warfare in the region lying between this place and Bilbilis.'According to Pliny, excellent lapis specularis was obtained in the
vicinity, deep pits having been dug for that purpose, traces of
which are said still to remain.  2. Ergavica, to the southwest, a Latin colony, and a large and powerful place. It lay
where the Guardiela now flows into the Tagus, and the ruins
are still extensive. 3. Bilbllis, northeast of Segobriga, on the
River Bilbilis, now the Xalon, the waters of which were famous for their property of hardening iron. The place was
celebrated for its horses, arms, iron, and gold. It was also the
native city of the poet Martial. It is now Baubola. 4. Turidso, some distance to the south of Ergavica, on a branch of
the Sucro.  The waters here were also famed for hardening
iron. Now Tarrazona.
Among the Arevaci we find, 1. Numantia, a city celebrated
for its long resistance to the Roman power. It was situate on
the River Durius, at no great distance from its source, and appears to have been the capital of the Arevaci, though Pliny
makes it a town of the Pelendones. Numantia was situate on
a steep hill of moderate size, and, according to Florus, possessed
no walls, but was surrounded on three sides by very thick woods,
and could only be approached on one side, which was defended
by ditches and palisades. Its position has been a subject of
considerable dispute; but it appears most probable that it was
situate near the modern town of Soria, at a place called Puente de Don Garray. Numantia is memorable in history for
the war which it carried on against the Romans for the space
of fourteen years. Strabo states that the war lasted twenty
years, but he appears to include in this period the war carried
on by Viriathus. After the Numantines had defeated several
Roman commanders, the Romans appointed Scipio Africanus,
the younger, consul, B.C. 134, for the express purpose.of the
conquest of this city. He invested the place, and after having
in vain endeavored to take it by storm, he turned the siege into
a blockade, and obtained possession of the place (B.C. 133) at
the end of a year and three months from the time of his first attack. The Numantines displayed the greatest courage and heroism during the whole of the siege, and when their provisions
had entirely failed, they set fire to the city and perished amid




HISPANIA.                     61
the flames. The population capable of bearing arms amounted to only 8000. 2. Uxdma, to the southwest of the preceding,
famous for its horses, now Osma.  3. Clunia, to the northwest of Uxama, a colonial city, and the seat of a Conventus.
It was situate near the modern village of Corunna del Conde,
and first grew into importance after the reduction of the Cantabri. 4. Segontia or Saguntia, to the southeast of the preceding, near the modern Siguenza.
Among the Berones or Verones we find, 1. Tritium Metallum, now Tricio. 2. Varia, to the northeast, the Verela of the
Itinerary, now Varea.  Here was a crossing-place or ford
over the Iberus, and up to this point the river was navigable.
3. Contrebia, called, also, Leucas, on the Iberus, not far from
Varia, and corresponding to the Cantabria of the Middle Ages.
Its site is now marked by ruins between Lograno and Piana.
Among the Pelendones we find, 1. Termes, the same, probably, with the Termantia of Appian. It was a place of great
celebrity during the war with Sertorius. The site is indicated
at the present day by a spot called Ermita de nuestra Sennora de Tiermes. 2. Voluce, now Velacha. 3. Augustobriga,
now Aldea el Muro, near Soria.
Among the Lusones we find merely Lutia, said to have
been 300 stadia from Numantia, and mentioned by Appian.
Its site is unknown. Among the Belli, who are also called
Belitani, we have Belea or Beleia, probably the modern Bel4
chite. No cities of the Titthi are mentioned.
Cities of the IBergetes.
1. Ilerda, on a height on the River Sicoris, now the Segre.
It was a colonial and municipal city, and is now Lerida. The
place was a strong one, and is mentioned in the account given
of Caesar's movements against Afranius and Petreius, the
lieutenants of Pompey. 2. Osca, to the northwest of the preceding, now Huesca. This was the place where Sertorius
caused the children of the noblest parents among the different
nations of Spain to be educated in Greek and Roman learning,
and where they were, in reality, kept as so many hostages.
It was.a large and strong city. 3. Athanagia, the capital of
the Ilergetes, and in the vicinity of Ilerda, now probably Age
ramaut. It was taken by Scipio. 4. Celsa, on the River




62              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Iberus, to the southwest. There was here a stone bridge over
the stream. It is now Xelsa. 5. Gallicum, to the southwest
of Osca, on the River Gallicus, not far from its junction with
the Iberus. Now Zunra, on the Gallego. 6. Forum Gallo.
rum, to the north of the preceding, and also on the Gallicus.
Now Gurrea.
3. Cities of the Tribes on the Southern and Eastern Coasts.
Cities of the Contestani.
1. Ilorci, the same, probably, with the Eliocroca of the Itinerary, now Lorca, on the River Sangonera, a tributary of
the Segura, the ancient Tader.  2. Carthago Nova, to the
east of the preceding, on the coast, and now Cartagena. It is
said to have been built by Hasdrubal Barcas, who succeeded
Hamilcar Barcas, the father of Hannibal, in the government
of Spain, and who intended it for the metropolis of the Carthaginian possessions in this country. The situation of the place
was very favorable for commerce, since it lay almost in the
middle of the southern coast of Spain, which had hardly any
good harbors, besides this along its whole extent. It lay at the
head of a bay which formed a safe and spacious harbor. The
city was, moreover, strongly fortified, and twenty stadia in circuit. In its neighborhood were rich silver mines, and valuable
fisheries were carried on along its coasts. Here, also, were great
salting establishments. It was also the great outlet for the
trade of the interior. Scipio Africanus took the place during
the second Punic war, and, on falling into the hands of the Romans, it became a colony under the title of Colonia Victrix
Julia Nova Carthago. The governor of the province of Tarraconensis spent the winter either in this city or in Tarraco.
This city was sometimes also called Carthago Spartaria, from
the spartum, or Spanish broom, which grew so abundantly il
its vicinity, and from which a whole tract of country here, oi e
hundred miles in length and thirty in breadth, was called Spartarius Campus. Strictly speaking, however, the spartum was
not confined to this portion of the country merely, but was
found also on the mountains farther inland. The Greek name
for the city was Kapx1dov r vea, and it was also sometimes
called Katvrj 7rroi, or the " New City."  The name, however,
is, in fact, a double pleonasm, since KapXrdc7v and Carthago




IIISPANIA.                    63
are both corruptions from the Punic Karth-hadtha, meaning
itself "the new city," in reference to Old Tyre. The place
was all but destroyed by the Goths. The Scombraria Insula,
off the mouth of the harbor, received its name from the scombri, or mackerel, that were caught here, and from which the
garum, or pickle, was made, for which Carthago Nova was so
famous. It is now La Islota, or " little island."
We then come to, 3. Alone or Alonce, at the mouth of the
Tader or Segura, and now, probably, Torre de Salinas. -the
place appears to have been of Grecian origin, and to have derived its name, as Mannert thinks, from salt-works in its
neighborhood (6 gap, " salt"). 4. Ilicis, north of the preceding, now Elche. It was a colonial city, and a place of considerable trade, giving name to the Sinus Ilicitanus, a wide
bay in this quarter, now the Bay of Alicante. The name of
the place is also written Illici and Illice. Near this city Hamilcar is supposed to have founded the settlement called Acra
Leuce, on the coast, and which is probably the same with Livy's
Castrum Album. 5. Lucentum, to the northeast, now Alicante.
This was also a colonial city. 6. Dianium, or Artemisium,
to the northeast, above the Dianium Promontorium. This was
a strong place, situate on a height, and was made by Sertorius the station for his fleet. It was celebrated, also, for its
temple of Diana. The place is now Denia. 7. Lauron, to the
northwest, on the coast, now Laury, and anciently famed for
its wine. It was taken by Sertorius under the very eyes of
Pompey, and laid in ashes. Near this place, also, Cneius Pompeius, the elder son of Pompey, was slain. 8. Aspis, inland,
northwest of Ilicis, and now Aspe. 9. Setabis or Saetabis, to
the northeast of the preceding, and near Lauron, called, also,
on coins, Scetabi Augustanorum. It was a municipal city, and
famed for its flax and fine manufactures. Some assign the
place to the Edetani. It is now*Iativa.
Cities of the Edetani.
1. Sucro, on the river of the same name, near its mouth. It
is often mentioned by historical writers, and is now, according
to Ukert, Uullera. It was destroyed already in Pliny's time,
who speaks of it as "quondam oppidum."  2. Valentia, nortl
of the preceding, now Valencia. It was founded by the con




64              ANCIENT (CEOGRAPII Y.
sul Brutus, who settled lfere some of the soldiers of Viriathus.
The city was destroyed by Pompey, but soon after repeopled.
Mela speaks of it subsequently as an important place. It was
the capital of the Edetani, and situate on the River Turia, now
the Guadalaviar, or Rio Turia. 3. Saguntum, called, also,
Saguntus, and, by the Greek writers, da'yovvrov, ZccvvOo, and
ZdiavOa. It lay a short distance above Valentia, on a height,
about 1000 paces from the sea, according to the common account. Polybius, however, says seven stadia, and Pliny 3000
paces. This place is said to have been founded by a colony
from the island of Zacynthus (now Zante), together with some
Rutulians from Ardea in Italy, whence it also obtained the appellation of Graia and Ausonia. It lay on the River Pallantias, now the Palancia, in a fruitful country, and became very
wealthy by both inland and foreign commerce. Saguntum
was a firm and steadfast ally of the Romans, and hence was
besieged and taken by Hannibal. The siege lasted eight
months, and, being an infraction of the treaty between the
Carthaginians and Romans, led at once to the second Punic
war. Hannibal's object was to prevent the Romans retaining
so important a place of arms, and so powerful an ally in a country from which he was about to depart on his march for Italy.
The desperate valor of the citizens, however, who chose to perish with all their effects rather than fall into the enemy's hands,
deprived the conqueror of a great part of his anticipated spoils.
Still, the booty which he saved from this wreck enabled him,
by his acts of liberality, to secure the affections of his army,
and provide, at the same time, for the execution of his design
against Italy. The ruins of Saguntum still remain at Murviedro, a corruption of Muri Veteres.
4. Edeta, the "H6dra of Ptolemy, called, also, Liria, west of
Saguntum, and now Lyria. 5. Segobriga, on the Pallantias,
to the northwest of Saguntui, and now Segorbe. Not to be
confounded with Segobriga, the city of the Celtiberi, further
inland, to the northwest. 5. Etobema or Etobesa, to the northwest of the preceding, and now Oropesa. It was probably the
same with the Honosca of Livy. 7. Cacsar-Augusta, to the
north, on the Iberus, and at the confluence of the Gallego (the
ancient Gallicus) and the Huerva. Its original name was Salduba or Saldyva, which it changed for Caesar-Augusta when




HISPANIA.                     65
the Elperor Augustus colonized it with the veterans of the
fourth, sixth, and tenth legions. It was a very flourishing city
under the Romans, and gave name to one of the seven Conventus of Hispania Tarraconensis. The Goths took it, under their
king Euric, about 470, and the Arabians in 712. The latter
people corrupted the name into Saracosta, whence its present
name Saragossa or Zaragoza. The ancient naae Ccesar-Augusta is itself a shortened form of Ccesarea Augusta.
Cities of the Ilercaones and Cosetani.
Among the Ilercaones we find, 1. Dert6sa, on the left bank
of the Iberus, about thirteen English miles from the mouth,
and now Tortosa. It was a Roman municipium, and the capital of the Ilercaones, and is probably the same with the Julia
Ilercavonia Dertosa, called, also, Colonia Julia Augusta on
coins. Pliny calls the inhabitants " celeberrimos civium Romanorum." Tortosa became a flourishing city, also, under the
Moors, owing to its favorable situation for trade, being placed
on a navigable river, and.not far from the harbors of Fang as
and Alfaques, which last still retains its Moorish name, the
expression Al fakk meaning "a jaw," and "a harbor in the
sea." 2. Adeba, on the right bank of the Iberus, nearer its
mouth than the preceding, now Amposta. 3. Ibera, a short
distance below the preceding, and situate on the coast, below
the mouth of the Iberus. Livy speaks of it as existing in the
time of the second Punic war, and describes it as the most important place in this quarter. Its site is uncertain. Coins
have been dug up near the spot where it is commonly supposed
to have stood, bearing the inscription Ilercavonia on one side,
and, on the other, Hibera Julia. This place is confounded by
some with Dertosa. 4. Tria Capita, called in the Itinerary
Traja Capita, above the mouth of the Iberus, and on the right
bank of the stream, northeast of Dertosa. Its site is unknown.
5. Carthago Vetus, not far, as Mannert thinks, from Ilerda,
the modern Lerida. Its site can not be precisely determined,
but it probably answers to Carta Vieja.
Among the Cosetani, the only city worth mentioning is their
capital Tarraco, the modern Tarragona, one of the earliest
Phcenician settlements in Spain, and a place of great trade.
During the second Punic war it became a Roman colony, and
E




66              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
had, from its favorable position, been even before this a place
of arms for the Romans, from their first entrance into Spain.
Under Augustus it became the capital of Hispania Citerior or
Tarraconensis, and obtained, also, the additional appellation of
Augusta. Its harbor was greatly enlarged by Antoninus Pius.
Tarraco was also the seat of one of the seven Conventus of
Hispania Citerior. It was taken by Euric, king of the Goths,
in 467, and levelled with the earth. Recovering from this blow,
it was again taken by the Arabs in 710, and completely destroyed, and it remained desolate until 1038, when it was rebuilt by Bernardo, archbishop of Toledo. Tarragona has many
interesting Roman remains, and among them those of a splendid aqueduct, which once supplied the city with water, brought
from a distance of sixteen miles, and affords proof of the importance attached to the place by the Romans. About three
miles east of the city there is a very fine mausoleum, which the
vulgar call " El Sepulcro de los Scipiones" (the tomb of the
Scipios), from a belief that Cneius and Publius Scipio are buried under it.
Cities of the Laletani, Ausetani, and Indigetes.
Among the Laletani we find, 1. Barcino, now Barcelona, the
capital of the tribe, situate on the coast, between the River
Bcetulo, now Besos, to the east, and the Rubricatus, now Llobregat, to the west. It was a place of great trade, and was, probably, one of the colonies formed by the Greeks on the eastern
coast of the peninsula. Be this, however, as it may, a town
appears to have been built here by Hamilcar Barcas or Barcino, about 235 B.C., who gave to it the name of his family.
When the Carthaginians were expelled from Spain in 206 B.C.,
Barcino fell into the hands of the Romans, who made it a colony, with the additional name of Faventia. On coins and in
inscriptions it is called Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta. In
A.D. 411, the Gothic king Artaulphus made his triumphal entrance into it. In 718 it fell into the hands of the Mohammedans, who kept it until 801. 2. Betuilo, northeast of the preceding, on the coast; now Badalona. 3. Iliro, northeast of Betulo,
also on the coast, now Mataro. 4. Prcetorium, northwest of
Iluro. Large remains of this place still exist near La Roca.
5. Secerrce, to the northeast of the preceding, now probably
St. Pere de Sercada.




HISPANIA.                     67
Among the Ausetani we find, 1. Ausa, the chief city, on
the River Alba, the modern Ter. This place now answers
to Vique. 2. Gerunda, situate on a mountain, near the Alba,
and to the northeast of Ausa, now Gerona. 3. Blanda, on the
coast, above Prsetorium, the modern Blanes.
Among the Indigetes we find, 1. Emporice or Emporium, a
municipium and colony, planted by Julius Casar after his victory at Munda. It was originally a settlement of Phocaans
from Massilia, and is now Ampurias. It lay, according to
Mela, on the River Clodianus, now the Mugra, or Llobregat
Menor, and was the usual landing-place for vessels that had
doubled the Promontorium Pyrenaeum. The settlement was
originally made on a small island, which was afterward called
" the Old City," and was subsequently extended to the coast
of the main-land. 2. Rhoda or Rhodos, above Emporim, and
a colony of Rhodians, according to some, but, according to others, of Massilians. It is now Rosas. 3. Portus Veneris, at the
northeastern extremity of Spain, and near the Promontorium
Pyreneum, now Port de Vendre. According to Ptolemy, there
was a temple of Venus on the promontory itself. Some made
this promontory mark, also, the limit between Hispania and
Gallia, while others fixed that limit at the Summum Pyrenceum
of the Itinerary, where stood the " Trophies of Pompey," -a
IoTlrrrtov rp6onraa.
ISLANDS ADJACENT TO HISPANIA.
1. Islands in the Mediterranean.
I. Baleares, called, also, Gymnesice, and now Majorca and
Minorca. Both the ancient names are from the Greek, namely, BaAXtapeld (for which we have, also, Ba~eapisEf, BaArFpiat,
&c.) and rvv7oaiatw vaot.
II. The word Baleares is from the Greek a3dUAw, " to throw,"
the original inhabitants having been very expert in the use of
the sling, to which they were trained in their infancy, and their
dexterity as slingers, while serving in the Carthaginian and
Roman armies, is often noticed by ancient authors. The name
Gymnesice has a more general reference to the. same skill, on the
part of these islanders, in the use of missiles.
III. Strabo calls the present Majorca and Minorca by the




68              ANCIENT GEOGRAP II Y.
name of G&yJgnesice, while he applies the term Pityusce to two
smaller islands nearer the coast of Spain; and he gives the
name of Baleares to the whole group. The Pityusee, however,
are more correctly kept distinct.
IV. The name Pityfsce (lItivovaal) is also of Greek origin,
meaning "Pine Islands" (from mriv', "a pine-tree"), and has
reference to the thick growth of pine-trees with which the two
islands, but especially the larger one, abounded. The two
Pityusse were called by the Greeks, respectively, Ebisus and
Ophiusa (snake island), which last the Romans translated into
Colubraria.
V. The small island Capraria (goat island), to the south of
Majorca, is the modern Cabrera.
VI. The Phoenicians, it appears, were the first settlers of
the Balearic islands, which, however, had a race of original inhabitants. The Carthaginians, under Hanno, having made
themselves masters of the whole group, proceeded to form new
settlements, and founded the town of Mago, now Mahon, and
Jamno, now Ciudadela, in the smaller one. These islands
furnished them with considerable bodies of troops in their wars
against Sicily and Rome, and a large force of their slingers accompanied Hannibal in his passage across the Alps.
VII. When the Carthaginians were driven from Spain, the
islanders obtained their freedom, which they made use of to apply themselves to piracy, till they were subdued by the Roman
consul Q. Metellus, who founded the cities of Palma and Pollentia in Majorca, and took the surname of Balearicus. They
continued attached to the Roman republic as part of Hispania
Citerior, and subsequently to the empire, and belonged to the
Conventus of Carthago Nova.
VIII. From the reign of Constantine the Great till that of
Theodosius they had their own government. When Spain,
however, fell into the hands of the Vandals and Huns, a body
passed over to these islands, which became an easy conquest,
and afterward, with that peninsula, were subdued by the
Moors. We will now speak of the Baleares and Pityusae more
in detail.
1. Balearis Major.
The name Majorca comes from the Latin Major (Insula),




HISPANIA.                      69
"the Larger" (island). Both Majorca and Minorca produced
anciently wheat, wine, rosin, timber, &c., and mules of large
size. The rabbits, however, did great injury to the crops here,
as in Spain.
In Majorca we find the following cities: 1. Palma. founded
by Metellus, now Palma, on the south side, lying on a spacious
bay. 2. Pollentia, also founded by Metellus, on the northern
side, now Pollenza. 3. Cinium, now probably Sineu, although
some are in favor of Calalonga. 4. Cunici, now Alcudia.
5. Bocch6rum. Site unknown. The place was in ruins as
early as the time of Pliny.
2. Balearis Minor.
The name Minorca comes from the Latin Minor (Insula),
"the Smaller" (island). In this island we find, 1. Jamno or
Jamna, now Ciudadela. The ancient name, which is sometimes, also, written Jammona, has reference, according to
Bochart, to the western situation of the place as compared
with that of the parent country, being derived from the Phoe.
nician Jamma, " the West." 2. Sanisera. It appears to have
been situate near the middle of the island, and to answer to the
modern Alajor. 3. MIago, or Magonis Portus, now Port 3Iahon. The place derived its name, as already remarked, from
its founder, the Carthaginian Mago.
3. Pityusee Insulee.
These islands, as already remarked, were two in number,
Ebusus and Ophiasa, and received their names from the numerous pine-trees that grew upon them. Ebusus is now Ivifa
or Ivyza. It was celebrated for its figs, which are still held in
high repute. It contained, also, as it still does, very good pastures. Its capital was Ebusus or Ebusium, which has now the
same modern name as the island. Bochart derives the name
from the Phaenician lebuso or Ibuso, answering to the Latin
" exsiccatce," i. e., exsiccata ficus, "dried figs," in allusion to
the fruit for which the island was anciently so famous.
The island of Ophiusa ('Ootovaa), or " Snake Island," received its name, as already remarked, from the Greeks, in
whose language optc means " a snake."  The modern name
is Las Columbretas, or Montcolibre.




7 s             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
2. Islands in the Atlantic.
1. Cotinusa, already mentioned. Another name for the island on which Gades was situated. 2. Land6bris, off the coast
of Lusitania, and to the northwest of the Promontorium Olisiponense. Marcianus calls it Lanucris. It is now Berlinguas.
3. Cicac, Aunios, and Corticata, three small islands just above
the mouth of the Minius, now respectively Cies, Ons, and Salvora.




GALLIA.
1. EXTENT     AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE term Gallia was employed by the Romans in a double
sense: 1. As indicating Gaul proper, or Gaul beyond the Alps,
called Gallia simply, and also Gallia Ulterior and Gallia
Transalpina; and, 2. Gaul this side of the Alps, with reference to Rome, called Gallia Cisalpina, and forming subsequently the northern part of Italy.
II. The consideration of Gallia Cisalpina belongs to the geography of Italy. We will now proceed to that of Gaul proper, or Gallia Transalpina.
III. Gaul proper, or Transalpine Gaul, comprised modern
France, the Netherlands, the countries along the west bank of
the Rhine, and the greatest part of Switzerland.
IV. It was bounded on the south by the Mediterranean and
Hispania; on the east by the Rhine, and a line drawn from
the sources of that river to the small river Varus, now the Var;
or, in more general language, by the Rhine and the Alps; on
the north by the Oceanus Britannicus or English Channel,
and the Lower Rhine, and on the west by the Atlantic.
OBS. In speaking of the Alps as forming part of the eastern boundary, it
must be borne in mind that the precise line of separation in this quarter, between Gallia and Italia, was different at different times, according to the
progress of the Roman arms. Thus, for example, it differed, while the principality of Cottius existed, from what became the dividing line after the possessions of that Alpine chieftain formed part of the Roman empire. Pliny even
after this assigns the Centrones, Caturiges, and Vagienni to Italy, and so, too,
does Ptolemy, but they belong correctly to Gaul. The River Varus became
the limit in the time of Augustus, and remained so thereafter.
2. NAMES.
I. WE find the first mention of Gaul among the Greek writers, who name the country KEsrTLKc, Celtica; but the term was
at first applied by them, in a very extended sense, to the whole
of western and northwestern Europe.




72                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPrY.
II. From the time of Timoeus the name raaaTria, Galatia,
came into use, and at a later period the Greek writers are found
employing also the term     raX/ia (Gallia), borrowed from the
Romans.
III. The Romans, on the other hand, gave the name of Gallia to the whole country between the Rhine and Pyrenees; and
afterward, in order to designate the division into provinces, they
employed the plural form Galliax. In order, moreover, to distinguish between Gaul proper and Upper Italy, in the latter of
which countries Gallic tribes were also settled, they called th3
former Gallia Ulterior or Transalpina, as already remarked,
and the latter Gallia Citerior or Cisalpina.
IV. Another name employed by the Romans was Gallia Conafa.   This was given to Gaul proper, with the exception of
Gallia Narbonensis, in the south, and had reference to the custom prevalent among the inhabitants of wearing the hair long.
as a badge of valor.
V. We find, also, two other appellations in use, namely,
Gallia togata and Gallia braccata. The former of these was
given to Gallia Cisalpina, or, as Mannert thinks, to that part
of it which lay south of the Po, called otherwise Gallia Cispadana, and had reference to the adoption of the Roman dress
and customs on the part of the inhabitants, while the name of
Gallia braccata was given to the province of Narbonensis, in
allusion to the braccce worn by the inhabitants; not that braccce were not also worn by the other Gauls, but because the
Romans saw them for the first time worn in this quarter.
OBS. 1. To designate Gallia Transalpina, as distinguished from Cisalpina, the
Greek writers use the expressions,j irnp rT)'AAirowv KELTt-Klt: VT7rePpd(7lrto
KeTtCK:' Esi KeX;tK7, &c., while they call Gallia Cisalpina } rSv K7car2 rTy'Tra;7tav KeXrCTv XOpa: Kerti7LcK  7 evrbO'Arrewv: i7 KaTr( ra;aaria. At a later
period we find Ptolemy employing the term KE0roya;Laria for Gaul proper, or
beyond the Alps. This last-mentioned name derives elucidation from the remark of Diodorus Siculus (v., 32), that the inhabitants of the land to the north
of Massilia, and between the Pyrenees and the Alps, were called Celtce (Ke;roi); those, however, farther north, extending to the ocean and the Scythians,
were called Galatve (raarat).
2. The Romans were well acquainted with the Cisalpine Gauls in the course
of the long wars which commenced with the attack upon Rome, and terminated
in the subjugation of Gallia Cisalpina. They were aware of the identity of
these Gauls with the Ke;Lroi of the Massilians. Caesar, moreover, in dividing
the inhabitants of Gaul without the province, and as yet unconquered by the
Romans, into three nations, and appropriating to one of them the name of Gal



GALLIA.                             73
li, identifies this particular nation with the previously-known Gauls or Celti in
Cisalpine Gaul and in the province. When he says, however, that the Romans
termed them Galli, and they themselves Celt~c, his statement would probably
have been more correct had he reported that by the Greeks they were termed
Celti (KeTroi), and by the Romans Galli. It does not appear clear that the
Gauls ever recognized the name of Celtce as a national appellation. It probably grew into general use among the Greeks from some particular tribe at first
so named. This may be collected from Strabo. (Prichard, Researches, vol. iii.,
p. 61, seq.)
3. The name Galli is evidently Gael Latinized. In like manner, the Greek
raXarai may be traced to the same root. Etymologists derive this last from
Galltachd, " the land of the Gauls," but Celtic derivations begin to be looked upon
with an eye of suspicion, since of the language of the people of Gaul we have
now, in the opinion of the best scholars, few undoubted specimens; and although there are strong grounds for believing that it was a kindred tongue with
the dialects of the British isles, yet it is evidently unsafe to have recourse, in
such a case as the present, to the modern Gaelic or any of its branches. The
meaning of the name Gael, therefore, must be left uncertain, although many regard it as a contracted form of Gadhel or Gaidheal, and think that it denotes
"'strangers," or "foes." A summary of all the learning on this subject may
be found in Diefenbach's Celtica, vol. ii., p. 6, seqq.
4. The earlier history of the Celtic people is a subject of great interest, but
of difficult investigation. Were they aborigines of Gaul or of Germany 1 According to all the testimony of history, or, rather, of ancient tradition collected
by the writers of the Roman empire, the migrations of the Gauls were always
from west to east; the Celtic nations in Germany, as well as in Italy and in
the East, were supposed to have been colonies from Gaul, and the Celtae have
been considered, therefore, by many, to have been the immemorial inhabitants
of western Europe. But this opinion is altogether untenable. The remains of
the Celtic language prove them to have been a branch of the Indo-European
stock, and to have come, therefore, from the East; and as we find so many
parts of Germany overspread by them in early times, whence they were afterward expelled by German tribes, a strong suspicion forces itself upon our minds
that a part of the Celtic population may have always remained to the eastward
of the Rhine, which perhaps received accessions from tribes of the same race
returning in a later age from Gaul. (Prichard, Researches, vol. iii., p. 50, seq.)
5. It is impossible to determine with certainty whether the west of Europe
was wholly uninhabited at the era when the Celte first occupied it. It is probable, however, that, as they preceded the Teutonic tribes, they must have come
into contact with nations of the Finnish stock. This would especially have
beer. the case on the shores of the Baltic, where they would have met with
the Jotuns or Finns, whom the Teutonic people afterward found in possession
of Scandinavia. (Prichard, 1. c. Compare remarks on page 2 of this work.)
3. EARLY     AND    LATER    INHABITANTS.
I. The primitive inhabitants of Gallia were probably, as already remarked, of Finnish origin, and these were reduced to
subjection by the Celtie on the great immigration of the latter
race from the East.
II. At the period of Cesar's invasion we find the Celtic race




74              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
separated into three great divisions, the Celtce, in the centre of
the country, the Belge, to the north, and the Aquitani, to the
south.
III. The tribes whom Caesar calls the Celtce, and who ap.
pear to have been, in fact, the main Gallic race, or, as we may
term them, the Gauls proper, occupied at this time nearly all
the midland, western, and southern parts of the country, extending in one directibn from the Gob-um Promontorium, now
Cape St. Mahe, in Bretagne, to the mountains of Switzerland
and Savoy, and perhaps to the frontiers of the Tyrol, and, in
another direction, from the banks of the Garumna, or Garonne,
to those of the Sequana and Matr6na, or Seine and Marne
IV. The northeastern parts of the country, from the Sequana
and Matrona to the Channel and the Rhine, were occupied by
the BelgcB, a race, probably, of mixed Celtic and Germanic
blood, and the immediate vicinity of the Rhine was occupied
by some tribes of purer and more immediate German origin.
Prichard thinks, that in Caesar's time, some of the most warlike
tribes in the Belgic confederation were of the number of emigrants from Germany, who had lately taken their place among
the inhabitants of Belgica, and had, perhaps, assumed the name
of Belge. The great mass of the nation, however, were undoubtedly Gauls.
V. The southwestern corner of the country was occupied by
the Aquitani, whose territory extended from the Garonne to
the Pyrenees; and probably some Ligurian tribes were intermingled with the Celtae on the shores of the Mediterranean.
Some Greek settlements also occurred along that coast, and
Greek blood, though in a minute proportion, has mingled in
that of the modern inhabitants of Languedoc and Provence.
VI. Previously to Cesar's conquest, the Romans had formed
a praetorian province in the southern part of the country, on
the coast of the Mediterranean. More particular mention (4t
this, however, will be made under the succeeding section.
VII. The subjugation of Gaul by the Romans produced an
intermixture, though probably not a great one, of Romans with
the natives; but it was not until the overthrow of the vast
fabric of the Roman empire, and the settlement of the northern
barbaric nations within its limits, that the population of Gaul
underwent any important modification. But, however little




GAI LIA.                    75
the population might have bee: affected, the habits of the Celts
had undergone material changes under the Roman dominion;
and the modern French language shows how extensive and how
permanent has been the influence of the Latin tongue.
VIII. At the breaking up of the Roman empire, three of the
invading tribes possessed themselves of Gaul, namely, the Visigoths, south and west of the Loire; the Burgundians, in the
southeast, extending from the Saone and the Rhone to the Jura
and the Alps; and the Franks, in the north and east. A branch
of the Celtic nation, moreover, migrating from the British isles,
and differing in dialect and language from their kindred tribes
in Gaul, settled in the extreme west, and have transmitted to
the present age their peculiarity of language, and the name of
the island (Bretagne or Britain) from which they came.
IX. Politically, the ascendency of the Franks extinguished
the independence of their co-invaders; but the tribes which
succumbed to their yoke remained in the settlements they had
acquired, and have influenced more or less the characteristics
of their descendants. But, notwithstanding these admixtures,
the Celtae may still be regarded as the main stock of the French
people, and it has been considered that the national characters
of the ancient and the modern race bear no inconsiderable resemblance to each other.
X. As the predominance of the Celtic race may be inferred
from that of their adopted language in the greater part of
France, so the local predominance of other tribes is indicated
by that of their peculiar tongue. The Breton, an adulterated
form of the language imported by the British settlers, is still
the language of the rural districts and of the poorer classes in
Bretagne, and is subdivided into four dialects: the Basque is
yet found at the foot of the Pyrenees, and may be considered
as the representative of the ancient dialect of the Aquitani:
the Lampourdan, one of its principal dialects, is spoken in the
Pays de Labour and in Basse Navarre. In Alsace the German language is predominant; a circumstance which may be
ascribed to that province's having been more completely occupied by those tribes which overthrew the Roman empire, and
which have preserved their own language, and also to the long
incorporation of Alsace with Germany, and its comparatively
late annexation to the rest of France.




76              ANCIENT GEOGRAPI-HY.
4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS.
I. IMMIGRATION of the great'Celtic race from the East, consisting of the priestly and military classes. They find the
country occupied by Finnish nations, whom they reduce to
vassalage, and hence arises a lower caste, deprived of all civil
rights, and looked upon as mere vassals or serfs.
II. The wants of an increasing population lead the Celtic
tribes settled in Gallia to send out two vast emigrating bodies,
during the reign of the elder Tarquin at Rome, about B.C. 600.
One of these enters Italy, the northern part of which was subdued and peopled by them, while the other moves eastward
into Germany and what is now Hungary.
III. Greek colonies settle on the Mediterranean coast of
Gaul. The earliest and most important of these was MaaaCfia
or Massilia (now Mllarseilles), founded by the people of Phocaea,
itself a Greek colony of Asia Minor, B.C. 600, and augmented
by the emigration of the main body of the Phocaeans, when
they sought refuge, B.C. 546, from the pressure of the Persian
monarchy.
IV. The power or influence of Massilia extends over the
neighboring districts, and several colonies are founded on the
coasts of Gaul, Italy, Spain, or Corsica, such as Agatha, non
Agde; Antipolis, now Antibes; Nicaea, now Nice, &c.
V. At the commencement of the second Punic war, Hannibal marches through Gaul, in his route from Spain into Italy;
and Scipio, the Roman consul, who had conveyed his army by
sea to Massilia, in order to intercept him, sends a small body
of cavalry up the banks of the Rhodanus or Rhone, to reconnoitre, and these have a smart skirmish with a body of Hannibal's Numidians. Hannibal, however, marches onward into
Italy, to which country Scipio also returns, sending his army
forward under his brother Cnaeus into Spain.
VI. After the close of the Punic wars the Romans gradually
extend their power in Gaul. Fulvius Flaccus, and his successor
Sextius Calvinus, conquer the Salyes, Vocontii, and some other
tribes. The coast of the Mediterranean is now secured by the
foundation of the Roman colony of Aquae Sextiae, now Aix, B.C.
122, and that portion of Transalpine Gaul which the Romans
had subdued is shortly after formed into a pratorian province




GALLIA.                      77
(B.C. 118), of which Narbo Martius, now Narbonnei colonized
the following year (B.C. 117), becomes the capital. Massilia,
nominally in alliance with, but really in subjection to Rome,
lies within this province.
VII. In the migratory invasion of the Cimbri, Teutones,
and Ambrones, the Roman province in Gaul is for several
years the seat of war.  The Roman armies are repeatedly
defeated. In one dreadful battle (B.C. 104) they are said to
have lost 80,000 men. The province is, however, rescued from
the invaders by the great victory obtained by Marius (B.C. 101)
over the Teutones and Ambrones near Aqua Sextike. The
Cimbri have meantime marched into Italy.
VIII. The conquests of Caesar reduced nearly the whole
country between the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, the
Pyrenees, and the Ocean, into subjection to Rome. The Aquitani, and the tribes inhabiting the Alps, are not subdued till
afterward; the former are conquered by Messala, but some of
the Alpine tribes retain their independence till the time of Nero.
IX. Under Augustus, Gaul is divided into four provinces, of
which, together with other subdivisions afterward made, mention will be found under the succeeding section.
X. In the decline of the Roman power, Gaul is ravaged by
the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Lygians (who had been
all driven out by Probus, A.D. 277); by the Bagauds, a body
of peasants, themselves Gauls, driven into rebellion (A.D. 284,
285) by the weight of their oppressions, and the distress 6onsequent on the ravages of the barbarians, as well as the civil
dissensions of the empire; again by the Franks and the Allemanni, who are repulsed by the emperors Julian (A.D. 355 to
361) and Valentinian (A.D. 365 to 375), and by the piratical
Saxons who ravage the coasts. The Roman power, however,
still suffices to keep these barbarians from settling in Gaul,
though it can not abate the pressure on the distant frontier, and
the decaying strength of the empire only protracts, but can not
avert, the final catastrophe.
XI. The Franks (i. e., the Freemen), a confederacy of German nations, are found in the fourth century settled on the
right bank of the Rhine, from the junction of the River Mayn
to the sea, and in the latter part of this same century, and
during a considerable portion of the next, appear to have been




78              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
in alliance with the empire. These Franks preserve their independence even while confederated, and each tribe has its king.
Like the Saxon chieftains, who professed all to derive their lineage from Woden, the Frankish princes claimed a common ancestor Meroveus (Meerwig, "' warrior of the sea"), from whom
they bore the common title of Merovingians. The era of Meroveus is not ascertainable.
XII. Upon the downfall of the Roman empire, Gaul becomes
a prey to the barbarous nations by which the empire is dismembered. There is no revival of national independence as
in Britain. The nationality of the Gauls had been lost when
the extension of the rights of Roman citizenship to all the natives of the provinces by Caracalla, A.D. 212, merged the distinction previously maintained between the conquerors of the
world and their subjects; and the national religion, Druidism,
had sunk beneath the edicts of the emperors and the growing
influence of Christianity.
XIII. On the last day of the year 406 the Rhine is crossed
by a host of barbarians, who never repass that frontier stream.
They consist of Vandals, Alans, Suevians, Burgundians, and
other nations. The Vandals, who first reach the bank, are defeated by the Franks, who defend, as the allies of the empire,
the approach to the frontier; but, on the arrival of the Alans,
the Franks in their turn are overcome, and the passage is effected. The devastation of Gaul by this horde of invaders is
terrible; the inhabitants of many towns are slaughtered or carried into captivity, the sanctity of the churches is violated, and
the open country is laid waste. Armorica (the present Bretagne), into which the settlement of the British soldiers who
had followed Maximus the usurper into Gaul, had infused a
military spirit, assumes and establishes its independence, but
the rest of Gaul becomes a prey.
XIV. The Suevians, the Alans, and the Vandals cross the
Pyrenees into Spain. The Burgundians settle, with the sanction of the Roman government, in the east of Gaul, on both
sides of the Jura range, and on the west bank of the Rhine,
from the Lake of Geneva to the confluence of the Rhine and
the Moselle. The Visigoths, moreover, who had been long ravaging both the eastern and western empires, are induced, just
before the settlement of the Burgundians (A.D. 412 to 414), to




GALLIA.                      79
accept the cession of that part of Gaul which lies to the south
and west of the Loire. Toulouse becomes their capital. Both
Burgundians and Visigoths take the name of Romans, and profess subjection, which is, however, merely nominal, to the emperor of the west. The lands in the district ceded to them are
divided between the original possessors and the new comers,
who give up their unsettled migratory course of life on receiving a permanent interest in the soil.
XV. Hostilities are before long renewed between the troops
of the empire and these new-settled nations; but their settlement opportunely supplies Gaul with the means of defence
against a fresh invasion.
XVI. In A.D. 451, Attila, king of the Huns, with an immense host of barbarians, passes the Rhine at or near the confluence of the Neckar, destroys Divodurum or Mediomatrici,
now Mletz, and Aduatuca or Tungri, now Tongres, and lays
siege to Genabum or Aureliani, now Orleans. Aetius, the
Roman general, supported by the Visigoths and the Burgundians, and numbering in his ranks Franks, Saxons, Alans, and
other barbarians, advances against'Attila, and obliges him to
raise the siege and retire toward the frontier. At Durocatalaunum  or Catalauni, now Chalons-sur-Marne, a battle is
fought, in which victory is doubtful, but which is attended
with a dreadful slaughter of his forces, and induces Attila to
evacuate Gaul.
XVII. During these events the Franks have attracted little
notice: their subdivision into tribes has weakened their power;
and perhaps their fidelity to the empire restrains them from
pressing it with their attacks. They retain their possessions
on the right bank of the Rhine, but have obtained by concession or conquest some settlements on the left bank, or along the
banks of the Schelde and the Meuse. In the invasion of Attila,
some of their tribes march under the banners of Aetius, while
others attach themselves to the invading host.
XVIII. It is not until the reign of Clovis, who commences
his career as king of the Salyans, one of the Frankish tribes
settled at Tournay, about A.D. 481, that the Franks assume
a commanding position. The empire of the west has now fallen, and Italy is under the government of the Ostrogoths; but
a relic of the empire remains in Gaul, and the territory in




80             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
which the patricians JEgidius and his son Syagrius uphold the
name of Rome is between the possessions of the Visigoths and
Burgurndians and the settlements of the Franks. This territory is among the early conquests of Clovis (A.D. 486). He then
defeats the people of Tongres, and (in A.D. 496) subdues a
portion of the Allemanns, who have made an inroad into Gaul.
The conquered people recognize Clovis as their king; his opportune conversion to Christianity advances his popularity and
his power in Gaul, as well as his profession of the faith in
what was deemed an orthodox form, while all the other princes,
who share among them the once extensive territories of the empire, are the supporters of Arianism or some other form of doctrine that is looked upon as heretical.
XIX. The sway of Clovis extends from the banks of the Lower Rhine, the cradle of his power, to the Loire, the Rhone, and
the Ocean, for Armorica had submitted to him. He now determines, under the pretext of uprooting Arianism, a plea calculated to secure him numerous supporters beyond his own confines, to attack Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, whom he defeats and slays at Vougle, in Poitou. The Burgundians, hoping to share in the spoils of the conquered nation, support Clovis, but the Ostrogoths of Italy support the Visigoths, and prevent their entire subjection. A large part of their territory, including Bourdeaux and Toulouse, and extending, perhaps, to
the foot of the Pyrenees, falls into the hands of Clovis; but the
Visigoths preserve the coast of the Mediterranean, together
with Spain, which they have conquered. The Ostrogoths have
Provence, and their king Theodoric holds the sovereignty of
the Visigoths, also, as guardian of their king, his grandson
Amalric. The assassination of the various Frankish kings by
Clovis renders him undisputed head of the tribes of his own nation, and his sovereignty extends over Gaul, with the exception
of the parts retained by the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Burgundians. Clovis may be considered the real founder of the
French monarchy. He dies A.D. 511.
5. DIVISION OF GAUL BY THE ROMAN S.
I. AUGUSTUS, holding an assembly of the states of Gaul, B.C.
27, made a new division of the country, in which he paid more
attention to equality in the extent of provinces than to any
distinction of the several tribes that inhabited them.




GALLIA.                      81
II. This arrangement divided Gaul into four provinces:
1. Narbonensis; 2. Lugadunensis; 3. Belgica; 4. Aquitania.
III. The province of Aquitania comprised not only the old
territory of the Aquitani, in the southwest, reaching up to the
Garumna or Garonne, but also all that portion of Celtic Gaul,
or the old territory of the Celtie, comprehended between the
Garumna and the Ligeris or Loire.
IV. The province of Belgica comprised not only the old territory of the Belgae, but also all that portion of Celtic Gaul
that lay to the east of the Arar or Saone, and the range of
Mons Vogesus or' Vosge, and extended to the Rhine.
V. The province of Lugdunensis comprised all that remained of Celtic Gaul, which had thus lost one half of its former
extent. Its capital was Lugdfinum, now Lyons, which gave
name to it.
VI. The province of Narbonensis was the same with what
had been before the Roman province, in the south. Its new
name was derived from the city of Narbo, its capital, now Narbonne.
VII. Not long afterward the province of Belgica was dismembered by two provinces being formed out of the districts
along the Rhine, to which the names of Germania Prima and
Germania Secunda, or the First and Second Germany, were
given; and at a subsequent period the number of provinces
reached, by successive dismemberments of the larger provinces,
its maximum of seventeen.
VIII. These seventeen divisions were as follows: the province of Narbonensis comprised five; Aquitania, three; Lugdunensis, four; and Belgica, five.
IX. The.five subdivisions of Narbonensis were called, respectively, 1. Narbonensis Prima; 2. Narbonensis Secunda;
3. Alpes Mlaritimce; 4. Viennensis; 5. Alpes Graiae et Pennine. The limits of these five provinces were as follows:
Narbonensis Prima comprehended all that portion of the old
Roman province which lay between the Rhone and the Pyrenees, and answered, therefore, to the modern Languedoc and
Roussillon. Its capital was Narbo, now Narbonne. Languedoc now corresponds to the departments of the Haute Loire,
Ardeche, Lo'ere, Gard, Herault, Aude, Tarn, and Haute Garonne; and Roussillon to the department of the Pyrenees OriFs




82              ANCIENT GE O GRAPY.
entales. At the beginning of the fifth century, when this part
of Gaul was under the sway of the Visigoths, the province of
Narbonensis Prima changed its name to Septimania, and then
took in, also, the adjacent part of Aquitania Secunda, lying
along the Garonne; and its capital was now no longer Narbo,
but Tolosa, the modern Toulouse. This name of Septimania,
however, before it became ao general term for the whole province, indicated merely the territory around the city of Biterre
or Baeterra, now Beziers, where the soldiers of the seventh legion (Septimani) had been settled as a military colony. Sidonius Apollinaris, and the chroniclers of the time, make frequent
mention of the province of Septimania.
Narbonensis Secunda corresponded to the modern Provence,
with the exception of an eastern portion lying among the Alps,
and excepting, also, the cities along the Rhone, together with
Massilia, now Marseilles. Its capital was Aquae Sextiae, now
Aix. Provence now corresponds to the departments of the
Bouches du Rhone, Far, and Basses Alpes.
Alpes Maritime comprehended the Alps on the eastern side
of Provence, and in the territory of Nice, together with the
easternmost portion of Dauphine. According to the earlier division, the eastern part of this province belonged to Italy. Its
capital was Ebrodunum, now Embrun. The eastern part of
Dauphine now answers to that of the departments of Isere and
Hautes Alpes.
Viennensis comprehended the western part of Savoy, all
Dauphine (except thec easternmost portion, which belonged to
the Alpes Maritimae), and the territories of Avenio, now Avignon, Arelate, now Aries, and Massilia, now Marseilles. Its
capital was Vienna, now Vienne. Dauphine now answers to
the departments of the Hautes Alpes, Isere, and Drome.
Alpes Graiae et Penninae comprehended the modern Valais,
and the western part of Savoy. Its capital was Civitas Centr5num, now Montiers.
X. The three subdivisions of Aquitania were called, respectively, 1. Novem Populana; 2. Aquitania Prima; 3. Aquitania Secunda. The limits of these three provinces were as
follows:
Novem Populana comprehended what had previously been
Aquitania in the stricter sense of the term, that is, Aquitania




GALLIA.                      83
before the enlargement of the province by Augustus, or the
country in the southwest between the Pyrenees and Garonne.
Who the nine tribes or communities were that gave name to
this subdivision is not clearly known. Its capital was Civitas
Aqsciorum, now Auch.
Aquitania Prima comprehended the eastern half of that portion of Gallia Celtica which Augustus had added to Aquitania
proper. It corresponded, therefore, to what used to be Berri,
Bourbonnois, Auvergne, Rouergue, Querci, and Limousin, or
the present departments of Cher, Indre, Allier, Cantal, Puy
de Dome, Tarn et Garonne, Correze, and Haute Vienne. Its
capital was Civitas Biturigum, now Bourges.
Aquitania Secunda comprehended that part of Guyenne that
lay to the north of the Garonne, and also Angoumois, Poitou,
Saintonge, and part of Bordelois, or a portion of the present
departments of Lot, Tarn et Garonne, and Gironde,. together
with those of Vendee, Deux Sevres, Vienne, and Charente Inferieure. Its capital was Civitas Burdigalensium' or Burdi
gala, now Bourdeaux.
XI..The four subdivisions of Lugdunensis were called, respectively, 1. Lugdunensis Prima; 2. Lugdunensis Secunda;
3. Lugdunensis Tertia; 4. Lugdunensis Quarta, or Senonia.
The limits of these four provinces were as follows:
Lugdunensis Prima comprehended the modern Lyonnais,
Bourgogne, Nivernois, and a part of Champagne, or the present departments of the Rhone, Loire, Yonne, Cote d' Or, Saone
et Loire, Ain, Nievre, and Haute Marne. Its capital was Lugdunum, now Lyons.
Lugdunensis. Secunda comprehended modern Normandie, or
the present departments of Seine Inferieure, Eure, Calvados,
Manche, and Orne. Its capital was Rotomagus, rrow Rouen.
Lugdunensis Tertia comprehended modern Touraine, Le
Maine, L'Anjou, and all Bretagne, or the present departments
of Indre et Loire, Sarthe, Mayenne, Loire Inferieure, Morbihan, Finisterre, Cotes du Nord, and Ile et Vilaine. Its capital was Civitas Turonum, now Tours.
Lugdunensis Quarta, or Senonia, which last name is derived from that of the Sen6nes, comprehended nearly all Champagne south of the IMarne (the ancient Matrona), the southern part of the Isle de France, Chartrain, Peiche, and Orle



84              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
annais, or a part of the present departments of M1Iarne, Seine
et Marne, and Oise, together with those of Eure et Loire,
Loiret, Loir et Cher, Yonne, &c. Its capital was Civitas Senonum, now Sens.
XII. The five subdivisions of Belgica were called, respectively, 1. Belgica Prima; 2. Belgica Secunda; 3. Germania Prima, or Superior; 4. Germania Secunda, or Inferior; 5. Maxima Sequanorum. The limits of these five provinces were as
follows:
Belgica Prima comprehended the modern duchy of Treves,
a part of Luxembourg, and Lorraine. At the present day Lorraine answers to the departments of the Meuse, Moselle,
]lJeurthe, and Vosges. Its capital was Civitas Treviroram,
now Treves.
Belgica Secunda comprehended the northern part of Chanmpagne, the northern half of the Isle de France, Picardie, Artois, French Hainault, and the territory of Tournay, or the
present departments of Ardennes, Seine et Oise, north of the
Seine, Oise, Somme, Pas de Calais, &c.   Its capital was
Civitas Remorum, now Rheims.
Germania Prima comprehended all the country along the
left bank of the Rhine, from the range of Mount Vocetius,
an eastern arm of Jura, on the northern confines of the Helvetii,
down to the confluence of the Obringa with the Rhine, near
the modern Bingen. The French departments of the Haut
Rhin and Bas Rhin correspond to a part of this, the remainder
lying at present out of France. Its capital was Civitas Magontiacensium or Alagontiacum, now Mainz or Mayence.
Germania Secunda comprehended all the country along the
left bank of the Rhine, from the mouth of the Obringa to the
Vahalis in: length1 and from the Rhine to the territory of the
Nervii in breadth. It answered, therefore, to a part of the
Netherlands, and to a portion, also, of the Prussian possessions
west of the Rhine.  Its capital was Colonia Agrippina or
Agrippinensis, now Cologne. The land of the Batavi, at this
period, did not any longer belong to Gaul, but was possessed
by the Franks and Frisii.
Maxima Sequanorum comprehended all the country which
Augustus had taken from Gallia Celtica on the east side of the:Arar.or Saone, and had added to Belgica. It answered, therefore,




GALLIA.                         85
to Franche Comte, the western half of Switzerland, and southern Alsace, or to the present departments of Haute Saone,
Doubs, Jura, &c.    Its capital was Civitas Vesontiensium or
Besontium, now Besanfon.
OBS. 1. This arrangement of provinces is taken from the Notitia Provinciarum Gallice, which, in all probability, dates from the time of Dioclesian and Constantine. The division, however, must have existed at a much earlier period,
since we find allusions long before this to the existence of numerous provinces
in Gaul.
2. Of the seventeen provinces enumerated above, the two Germanys, the two
Belgicas, and Viennensis, had consular governors; the others had praesides at
their head. (Notit. dig. Imp., c. 48.)
6. MOUNTAINS.
THE principal mountain chains of Gallia are six in number,
namely:
1. Montes Pyrencei.       4. Mons Jura.
2. Alpes.                 5. Mons VJogesus.
3. Mons Cebenna.          6. Mons (et Silva) Arduenna.
I. The Montes Pyrencei have already been described in the
account'given of ancient Hispania. The whole range, as before remarked, is about two hundred and ninety-four miles in
length.
II. Alpes, called by the Greek writers at "AItrz, and by us
the Alps, is the name of a large mountain system separating
Gallia, Helvetia, and Germania from Italia. The appellation
is supposed to come from a Celtic word Aib or Alp, signifying " lofty," in allusion to the superior elevation of the chain.
The Alps extend firm the Sinus Flanaticus, or Gulf of Car.
nero, at the top of the Gulf of Venice, and the sources of the
River Colapis, now the Kulpe, to Vada Sabatia, now Savona,
on the Gulf of Genoa.   The whole extent, which is in a crescent form, is nearly six hundred British miles. It is very difficult to obtain any precise measure of the breadth of the chain.
If we take the direct distance from Bellinzona, on the Italian
side, to Altorf, on the Swiss side, which certainly does not
comprehend the whole breadth of the Alpine mass, we find this
to be about fifty miles of direct distance. From,4osta to Fribourg, across the Valley of the Rhone, the direct distance is
about seventy miles; but this measurement comprehends the
breadth of the main chain, and the offset which runs from St.
Gothard to the Jura, with the intervening valley. East of the




86              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Grisons the range increases considerably in breadth; fiomn the
Wurmn See to a point a little-.north of Verona is a direct distance of one hundred and fifty miles. As the Alps belong more
naturally to the geography of Italy, a more particular account
of them will be given in the description of that country.
III. Mons Cebenna, commencing in the country of the Volcae
Tectosages, in the south of Gaul. This chain ran in a northeastern direction along the borders of Narbonensis, communicated by a side chain with the mountains of the Arverni to the
northwest, and, continuing still its northeastern direction, finally connected itself with the range of Jura among the Sequani
and Helvetii. A northern arm also connected it with Mount
Vogesus. The modern name is the Cevennes. These mountains are spoken of by both Greek and Latin writers. The
more ordinary form of the name is Cevenna; Pliny, however,
uses Gebenna; and some editors of Caesar give the preference
to Cevenna. The root of the name is supposed to exist in the
Cymric cefn, " a mountain ridge."  Strabo calls the range rT
KepYievov opof, while Ptolemy uses the plural form ra Keuyteva
Oip7. Caesar crossed these mountains in his contest with the
Arverni and their confederates, under Vercingetorix. The
presumed difficulty of the passage had encouraged the Arverni,
who deemed themselves covered from attack by these mountains as by a wall. The passage was made early in the year,
and Caesar had to open a road through snow six feet deep. The
fastnesses of these mountains afforded refuge to the Huguenots
in the religious wars of France.
IV. lMons Jura, extending from the Rhodanus, or Rhone, to
Augusta Rauracorum, now Augst, on the Rhine, separated
Helvetia from the territory of the Sequani. The range retains
its ancient name, which is said to come from the Celtic Jourag, "the domain of God, or Jupiter."
V. Mlions Vogesus, or, according to some MSS. of Caesar,
Vosegus, now Vosges (in German Vogesen or Wasgan), a
chain of mountains commencing in the territory of the Lingones, and separating the Leuci from the Sequani, and the
Mediomatrici from the Rauraci, Triboci, and Nemetes. They
belong to Belgic Gaul, and for a great part of their course rur
nearly parallel with the Upper Rhine. Caesar places in these
mountains the sources of the Mosa, or Meuse.




GALLIA.                      87
VI. Mions (et Silva) Arduenna, a mountainous, or, rather,
hilly and woody region in Gallia Belgica, reaching, according
to Casar, from the Rhine and the territories of the Tre~veri to
those of the Nervii. The heights in this tract were anciently
covered with an immense forest, though Strabo says that the
trees were not very lofty. The modern name for the chain is
the Ardennes, though the.region is more commonly called the
Forest of Ardennes. The forest is much reduced in extent at
the present day, but still it renders the department which bears
its name one of the best wooded in France. The name is said
to come from the Celtic Arden, "a forest." If such be the
meaning of the term, it will account for the fact that the Roman goddess of forests, Diana, appears sometimes with the epithet Arduenna; and Montfaucon shows that a superstitious
belief in this goddess existed in the Ardennes till the thirteenth
century.
7. PROMONTORIES.
THE principal promontories of Gallia were ten in number,
namely, five along the western and northwestern coast, and
five along the southern coast, as follows:
1. On the Western and Northwestern Coast.
I. Curianum Promontoriumn, on the coast of Aquitania, in
a western direction from Burdigala, and near the town of Boii,
the modern Buch. It is now Cape Feret, in Guienne, or the
department of the Gironde, below which the Bay of Arcachon
runs into the land.
II. Sant6num Promontorium, at the mouth of the Garumna, and just below the island of Uliarus, or Oleron. It is now
Pointe d'Arvert. Gosselin, however, is in favor of Pointe de
l'Aiguillon.
III. Pict6num Promontorium, to the north of the island of
Uliarus. According to D'Anville, it is the modern Pointe de
l'Aiguillon, at the mouth of the Sevre Niortoise. Gosselin,
however, makes it Pointe de Boisvinet.
IV. Gobceum Promontorium, in the territory of the Osismii,
and near Brivates Portus, or Brest. It is now Cape St. Mahe
in Bretagne, department of Finisterre.
V. Itium Promontorium, near the Portus Itius, on the Fre



88              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
turn Gallicum. It is now Cape Grisnez, between Boulogne
and Calais.
P    2. On the Southern Coast.
I. Aphrodisium Promontorium, called, also, Pyrenceum Prom.
ontorium, and Pyrence Promontorium, the termination of the
Pyrenees, on the Mediterranean coast. It is now Cape Creux.
Strabo calls it ro ThT IlvprjvgS "Aipov.  It derived the name
Aphrodisium from the circumstance of there being upon it a
temple of Venus Pyrencea, or'AqpodSit.r Ivpqvaia. This promontory has already been mentioned in the account of ancient
Hispania (p. 25).
II. Setium Promontorium, to the northeast of Agatha, the
modern Agde. It is now Cape Cette. Strabo speaks of an island near this promontory named Blascon, which is evidently
the modern Brescon.
III. Mesua Collis, described by Mela as almost entirely surrounded by the sea, and only connected with the continent by
a narrow causeway or neck of land. It has been confounded
by some with the Setium Promontorium, but must be looked
for farther east, where the modern IMse, though now inland,
recalls apparently the ancient name.
IV. Zao Promontorium,'described by Pliny as lying to
the east of Massilia. According to Ukert, it is now Bec
de Sormion.   Others, however, are in favor of Cape de la
Croisette.
V. Citharistes Promontorium, placed by Avienus to the
west of Massilia, but by Ptolemy between Taurentum and
Olbia. It is now probably Cape de l'Aigle.
8. CHIEF RIVERS.
THE chief rivers of Gallia are eight in number, and may be
divided into three classes, namely, 1. Those falling into the
Sinus Aquitanicus, or the large bay between the mouth of the
Garumna and the confines of Spain, and which is now regarded as part of the Bay of Biscay, though once accustomed to
be called the Gulf of Gascony, and the Bay of France.
2. Those falling into the Oceanus Britannicus, Fretum Gallicum, and OceanicAz Germanicus. 3. Those falling into the
Sinus Gallicus.




GALLIA                       89
1. Rivers falling into the Sinus Aquitanicus.
I. Aturis (o "Arovplt), called by Lucan Aturus, and by Tibullus Alur, and now the Adour, rose in the Pyrenees, in the
territory of the Bigerrones, flowed through the territory of the
Tarbelli, and fell into the sea at Lapurdum, now Bayonne.
The length of this river is about one hundred and ninety-four
miles. The root of the name has been sought by some in the
Cymric dur, 1' water."
II. Garumna (o rapovvaS), called, also, Garunna, now the
Garonne, rose in the Pyrenees, in the territory of the Convence, flowed through the country of the Volce Tectosages,
Tol6sates, Nitiobrigts, Vasates, Civisci, and Bituriges, passed
by Burdigala, or Bourdeaux, and fell into the sea at Novioregum, below the Santonum Promontorium, and now Royan.
Opposite Novioregum lay the island of Antros, now probably
Corduan. There was a popular belief that this island rose
and fell with the ti&e, being merely suspended, as it were,
upon the waters. Mela describes the Garumna as shallow,
and not well fitted for navigation, except when its waters
were increased by the winter rains, or the melting of the snow
in the spring. Near its mouth, however, it acquired considerable volume from the sea-water and the tides. The Garonne
is now navigable to Toulouse, the ancient Tolosa, whence the
Canal of Languedoc is cut to the Mediterranean. Its length
is about three hundred and sixty miles. * Among the tributaries of the Garumna the three following may be named as the
principal ones: 1. The Tarnis, now the Tarn, rising in
Mons Cebenna, among the Gabdli, in what is now the department of Lozere, and falling into the Garumna about twentytwo miles above Agennum, the modern Agen.    It was remarkable for the clearness of its waters, and its sands were
auriferous. 2. The Oltis, now the Lot, rising among the Gabali, and falling into the Garumna in the territory of the Nitiobriges. It receives, in the early part of its course, a tributary of its own, namely, the Triobris, now the Truyere.
3. The Duranius, now the Dordogne, rising among the Arverni, and falling into the Garumna below Burdigala. After
the junction of the Dordogne, the united rivers now bear the
name of the Gironde.




90              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHIY.
III. Liger (6 Aedyrp), now the Loire, rose in Mons Cebenna,
among the Helvii, in what is now the department of Ardeche.
For about the first half of its course it flowed in a northern direction, and then, turning to the west, fell into the sea, between
the Pict6nes and Namnetes. The whole course of the Loire is
estimated at six hundred and seventy miles, of which five hundred and twelve are navigable. Among the tributaries of the
Liger may be named the following: 1. The Elaver, now the
Allier, rising in Mons Cebenna, and falling into the Liger near
Noviodunum, the modern Nevers. By the later writers it was
called Elaris and Elauris. 2. The Caris, now the Cher, rising
among the Bituriges Cubi, and falling into the Liger on the
southern side, near Ccesarodunum, or Tours. 3. The Vigenna,
now the Vienne, rising among the Lemovices, and falling into
the Liger a little below the junction of the Caris. 4. The
Meduana, now the Mayenne, coming in from the north, and
falling into the Liger near Andecavi, now Angers, which lay on
its banks a short distance above the junction.
2. Rivers falling into the Oceanus Britannicus, Fretum Gallicum, and Oceanus Germanicus.
I. Sequana (6 rKcodvag), now the Seine, rose in the territory of the Ling6nes, flowed through the country of the Senones, Parisii, Ebur6nes, and Velocasses, and fell into the sea
between the Caletes and Lexovii. The entire course of the
Seine is estimated at five hundred miles, for nearly three hundred and fifty of which it is navigable. By IEthicus, a writer
of the fourth century, this river is called the Geon or Geobonna.
Among the tributaries of the Sequana may be mentioned the
following: 1. The Autura or Audura, now the Eure, coming in
from the south, and falling into the Sequana at Uggadis, now
Pont de l'Arche, between Rouen and Evreux. 2. The Icatna, now the Yonne, also coming in from the south, and fallilg
into the Sequana at Condate, the modern Montereaufault.
3. The Matr6na, now the Marne, rising in the territory of the
Lingones, and falling into the Sequana at Carentonium, now
Charenton, a little above Lutetia, or Paris. 4. The Isara,
called, also, lEsia and (Esia, now the Oise, which receives the
Ax6na, now Aisne, and falls into the Sequana a short distance
below Lutetia.




GALLIA.                      91
II. Scaldis (called by Ptolemy 6 Ta6ovdag), now the Schelde,
as the Germans call it, or the Escaut, as it is termed in French.
Its more usual English name is Scheldt. This river rose in
the territory of the Veromandui, and fell into the Fretum Gallicum, where the Oceanus Germanicus commences, between
the Nervii and Caninefates. The total length of this river is
estimated at about two hundred and ten miles.
III. Mosa (o M6aaS), now the Meuse, or, as the Dutch call
it,'the Maas, rose among the Lingones, in a part of the chain
of Mons Vogesus, received the Sabis, now Sambre, at Namurcum, now Namur, and, not far from its mouth, the Vahalis,
now Waal, the left or southern arm of the Rhine, and then fell
into the sea at no great distance below the mouth of the Rhine.
The mouth of the Mosa was called Helium Ostium, now Brihel and Helfoet. Ptolemy, however, calls this the western
mouth of the Rhine, TO dVuftitbv'Pr/voiv roraToa oi6ompa.
IV. Rhenus, now the Rhine. A description of this stream
will be found under the head of Germania, to which country it
naturally belongs.
3. Rivers falling into the Sinus Gallicus and Mediterranean.
I. Rhodanus (O'Podav6g), now the Rhone, rose in the Lepontine Alps, not far from the sources of the Rhine, flowed through
the land of the Nantuates, Seduni, Allobr6ges, Helvii, Segalauni, and Vocontii, and fell into the Sinus Gallicus, or Guli
of Lyons. It was, and still is, a large and rapid river, and, in.
the earlier part of its course, passed through the Lacus Lemdnus, or Lake of Geneva. Its whole course is about four
hundred miles.. In Strabo's time it was navigable some distance up; but its mouths are now so full of rocks, brought down
from the mountains by its impetuous current, that no ship can
enter them. The upward navigation in smaller vessels can
only, on account of the rapid current, be performed by draught
or steam. The Rhone at present enters the Mediterranean by
four mouths. The number in former days is differently given
by different writers, varying from two to seven. The discrepancy arose, probably, from the changes constantly made by the
rapid current of the stream, so that a small number of mouths
might be in a short time increased, and again a large number
rapidly diminished. Pliny speaks of three mouths, namely, 1




92              ANCIFNT GEOGRAPHY.
Os Hispaniense, on the side toward Spain; 2. Os Metapinum, or
more probably Metnunm, taking its name from the island of Metina, now Tines; 3. Os Mlassalioticurm, the largest of the three.
As far as any certainty can be arrived at, the first of these answers to the Grau d' Orgon, while the second is subdivided now
into three openings, le Grand Grau, le Grau St. Anne, and le
Grau de Sauzette. The term Grau, written, also, Gras, is corrupted, in all probability, from the Latin ad Gradus, the later
appellation for the bay formed by the eastern mouth of the
stream. In the war with the Cimbri,, the mouth of the Rhone
being choked up with mud and sand, it was dangerous, if not
impracticable, for vessels of burden to enter. Marius, therefore, set his army to work at it, and having caused a cut to be
made capable of receiving large ships, he turned a great part
of the river into it, thus drawing it, says Plutarch, to a part
of the coast where the opening into the sea was easy and secure. This cut was called Fossa Mariana, or, in the plural
form, Fossce Jlariance. Traces of this canal still remain, and
the name Fossa is still preserved in that of the village of Foz,
which stands on the spot where the canal entered the sea.
Among the tributaries of the Rhone may be mentioned the following: 1. The Arar or Araris ("Apap, 6), now the Saone, rose in
Mons Vogesus, and fell into the Rhone at Lugdctnum, now Lyons.
Caesar speaks of it as a remarkably'smooth running river, and
hence some derive the name from the Cymric arav, "mild,"
" gentle."  Ammianus Marcellinus, who flourished toward the
close of the fourth century, first calls the Arar by the name of
Saucona, speaking of the latter as a common appellation on
the part of the inhabitants in that quarter,." Ararim quem
Sauconam appellant" (xv., 11). Gregory of Tours, at a later
period, styles it Saugona. From this the transition to the
modern name is an easy one. 2. The Dubis (Aoitg), now
Doubs, rose in the Jura range, flowed by Vesontio or Besontium, now Besanlon, and fell into the Arar. Some of the MSS.
of Caesar give the ancient name of this river as ldduabis, Alduabis, &c., but these are mere corruptions. 3. The Isdra,
called,'also, the Isar (o "Ioap), now Isere, rose in, the Alpes
Graim, and fell into the Rhodanus above Valentia, now Valence. 4. The Druentia, now Durance, rose at the foot of the
Cottian Alps, and fell into the Rhodanus a short distance be



G-ALLIA.                     93
low Avenio, now Avignon. 5. The Vardo, flowing to the north
of Nemausus, or Nismes, and falling into the Rhodanus near
Ugernum, now Beaucaire.
II. Yarus, now the Var,' rose in the Alpes Maritimce, in
Mons Cema, now Camelione, and fell into the Mediterranean
to the west of Nicaea, or Nice. It formed the boundary, at one
period, between Gallia and Italia in this quarter.
9. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS, &C.
I. AT the period when they first became known in history,
the Gauls were by no means destitute of the arts of life and of
social and national culture. The Celti, known to the Massilians, practiced hospitality and held public assemblies, in which
they cultivated music, including bardic poetry. The states of
Armorica (Normandy and Bretagne) were existing in the time
of Pytheas, who termed the inhabitants honorable or respectable people. The Veneti, forming part of these states, were
skillful in ship-building and in maritime affairs before the intercourse between them and the Romans began. Gaul seems
to have had a sort of feudal constitution, in which the influ.
ence ofclanship and alliances between kindred tribes was a
very prominent feature, and this system appears to have been
established previously to the earliest historical accounts of the
Gauls, namely, before the invasion of Italy by the Bituriges
and their confederated elans.
II. No two nations were ever more contrasted in their social
and political institutions than the Gauls and Germans. Among
the latter, all the members of the community were freemen
and warriors, wore the arms of freemen, and took their place
in battle and in the deliberative assemblies of the people. The
case was widely different among the Gauls. Caesar informs
us that throughout all Gaul there were two dignified orders;
these were the sacerdotal order, or Druids, and the military
caste.'" These alone," says Caesar, " are held in any respect;
the common people are regarded nearly in the light of slaves,
and undertake nothing of themselves, nor are they admitted to
councils. Many, oppressed by debts, or by the exaction of excessive tributes, or the injuries of the powerful, surrender themselves into slavery under the nobles, who exercise over them
the right of masters. The Druids manage all the affairs of re



94              ANCIENT' GEOGRAPHY.
ligion, public and private sacrifices, and are the interpreters of
all divine things. They are held in great respect as the instructors of youth. It is their business to settle all disputes,
private and public. In controversies respecting boundaries, or
succession to property, and in criminal accusations, they are
judges and appoint punishments. If any person, in either a
private or public capacity, refuses to submit to their decision,
they interdict him from sacrifices.  This is the most severe
punishment.   The interdicted are regarded as impious and
abominable, and they are outlawed, and avoided by all. One
chief Druid presides over the rest, and on his death a successor
is appointed by election. The Druids, at a certain time of the
year, hold a sitting in a consecrated place within the territory
of the Carnutes, which is considered the centre of Gaul. To
this assembly a final appeal is made in all controversies."
III. Strabo gives a somewhat different account of the dignified orders among the Gauls. He says that there are three
classes of men held in great esteem among them, the Bards,
the Ouates (Vates), and the Druids: the Bards, he adds, are
singers and poets; the Ouates perform sacred rites and study
the doctrine of nature; and the Druids, in addition to'natural
philosophy (QvoutoAoyLa), devote themselves also to the study of
ethics. It seems that these three classes, mentioned by Strabo,
come under the Druidical order of Ce.sar, otherwise two are
omitted by that writer. Ammianus Marcellinus mentions the
same three orders of Strabo under the names of Bardi, Euhages, and Druidc.  The Bards -are mentioned also by Festus:
" Bardus Gallice cantor appellatur, qui virorum fortium laudes
canit." The same description and epithet were given to them
by Posidonius in a passage preserved by Athenmeus, and cited
from the latter writer by Casaubon in his comnientary on Strabo.
IV. We learn from Strabo that women sometimes took part
in the performances of the Druids, and that in an island near
the mouth of the Loire, ceremonies were performed similar to
those of Ceres and Proserpina. Vopiscus declares, from the
testimony of contemporary writers, that British Druidesses
predicted the death of Dioclesian.- He also relates that Aure.
lian consulted Gaulish Druidesses. In the life of Numerian.
he says, that Dioclesian first conceived the hopes of his future
greatness from the prediction of a Gaulish Druidess.




GALLIA.                       95
V. The several states of Gaul were aristocratical republics.
In these it was customary to elect a prince or chief governor
annually, and a general was likewise appointed by the multitude to take the command in war. Strabo says that they had
one peculiar custom in their assemblies. If any person present made a noise and disturbed the speaker, an officer was sent
to him with a drawn sword, who at first, by threats, endeavored to enforce silence, and if not obeyed, cut off a part of the
cloak of the offender, of sufficiently large size to render what
remained completely useless.
VI. Boldness, levity, and fickleness, a want of firmness and
self-command, are by the ancient writers universally ascribed
to the Gauls as their prominent characteristics  Strabo describes them in rather a favorable point of view. He says
that " the Gauls in general are irascible, and always ready to
fight, but otherwise honest and good natured. When irritated,
they speedily hasten in crowds to arms, and that openly and
without circumspection, so that they are easily circumvented
and defeated by stratagem, for at all times aid places it is easy
to provoke them to engage in quarrels, to which they bring no
other resources than violence and boldness. They are likewise easily persuaded to a good purpose, and are ready for instruction and intellectual culture. They are all naturally fond
of war; they fight better on horseback than on foot; the further they live toward the north and the ocean, the more warlike they are. The Belgme are said to be the most valiant of
all.  Among the Belgse, the Bellovaci are the bravest, aad
next to them the Suessi6nes."
VII. All the ancient writers ascribe to the Gauls the greatest degree of unchastity and impurity in their manners. Diodorus Siculus, Athenueus, and other writers have preserved accounts of them, which indicate that they lived in a way which
betokened an almost total absence of modesty or shame.
VIII. The Gauls practiced agriculture, and were not unskillful in tillage, otherwise their country would not have supported so great a multitude of inhabitants as it is said to have maintained. Strabo states that most of the Gauls were accustomed
to sleep upon the ground, and they sat on couches when they
took their meals. Their food was chiefly of milk and flesh of
various kinds, especially of swirie, either fresh or salted. Their




96              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
hogs, which were kept in the fields, were of remarkable height,
strength, and swiftness, and as dangerous to those who approached them without heed as wolves. The Gauls built their
houses of planks and hurdles, and of a round form, with large
roofs. So numerous were their herds of oxen and swine, that
not only Rome, but the rest of Italy, was supplied from them
with salt provisions.
IX. To the open and impetuous disposition of the Gauls belonged, according to the ancient writers, much of folly and boastful arrogance, and a remarkable fondness for ornament and display. They wore bracelets around their arms and wrists, and
those who were in office had robes dyed, and embroidered with
gold. In consequence of this levity of disposition, they were
intolerably arrogant when conquerors, and when defeated they
became dismayed. They had the barbarous and strange habit,
common to many northern nations, of carrying, when they returned from battle, the heads of their enemies suspended from
their horses' necks, and of hanging them up against the gates
of their towns, or of preserving them at home in chests.
X. The dress and personal habits of the Gauls were so remarkable as to afford epithets for national distinctions. Gallia
Braccata and Gallia Togata are terms that have been already
explained by us. The epithet Comata also had reference to
the custom of the Gauls in leaving the hair uncut. Like the
long-haired princes of the race of Meroveus, the warriors of ancient Gaul were celebrated for their -long, flowing locks of flaxen or yellow hair, rhich they kept tied in tufts behind their
heads. The Gallic sagum, or cloak, was parti-colored and emlroidered. Not only the women, but the men, ornamented
their necks and arms with a profusion of golden chains, rings,
and bracelets. The whole nation are said to have been remarkable for personal cleanliness.
XI. The arms of the Gauls were commonly battle-axes and
swords. But the gcesum, or heavy javelin, was their most remarkable weapon. The chariots, armed with scythes, used by
the Britons in battle, were not peculiar to them; some of the
Gauls had a similar custom of fighting, as Strabo informs us.
Niebuhr's account of the appearance of a Gallic army is an extremrly graphic one. " Every wealthy Gaul adorned himself
with gold: even when he appeared in battle he wore golden




GALLIA.                      97
chains upon his arms and golden ring a.wund his neck. Their
mantles, checkered, and displaying all the co).lr of the rainbow,
are still the picturesque costume of their kindred race the Highlanders, who have laid aside the bracce of the ancient Gauls.
Their great bodies, long, shaggy yellow hair, and uncouth features, made their appearance frightful; their figures, their savage courage, their immense numbers, the deafening noise of
the numerous horns and trumpets in their armies, and the terrible devastation which followed their victories, paralyzed with
terror the nations whom they invaded."
XII. From the accounts of all the ancient writers, carefully
compared together, the Gauls appear to have been a remarkably tall, large-bodied, fair, blue-eyed, yellow-haired people. As,
however, the Germans are no longer a light-haired race, so the
descendants of the Gauls have lost the yellow hair of their forefathers. Although there is a great intermixture of northern
German races in the present population of France, the Visigoths and Burgundians having settled in the south, and the Allemanni, Franks, and Northmen in the northern parts, all of
whom had a complexion at least equally fair with that of the
ancient Gauls, yet the modern are far from being a very fair
people. Black hair is, in the middle provinces of France, more
frequent than very light. In Paris it has been observed that a
chestnut color is the most frequent hue of the hair. This appears from the average number of those admitted in some hospitals. Neither are the French so huge and almost gigantic in
their stature as were the ancient Gauls. We must infer, therefore, that the physical character of the race has varied materially within fifteen centuries.
XIII. Although so much has been written on the religion of
the Gauls, the extent of our real information on this subject is
extremely limited. The Greeks and Romans fancied that they
recognized the objects of their own worship in the gods adored
by all other nations; and when Caesar therefore informs us
that the Gauls rendered divine honors to five of the Roman divinities, we are to understand by the assertion that the five
principal objects of adoration among.the Celtic people bore
some resemblance in their attributes, and in the ceremonial of
the worship paid to them, to the Roman gods with whom
Caesar identified them. These five divinities were Mercury,
G




98              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. Mercury, as Caesar de;
clares, was the principal object of religious worship, and to him
the most numerous images were erected. It seems that the
Gauls were idolaters, and that their principal god was, like
Mercury, the inventor of arts, the conductor and guardian in
journeys, and the patron of gain and profit in merchandise.
Such, we are told, were the attributes of the Gaulish Mercury.
Apollo, or the Gaulish deity taken for Apollo by the Romans,
was a protector against diseases; Minerva was the promoter
of arts; Jupiter, the ruler. of the heavenly firmament; Mars,
the god of war. It is probable that Taranis was the Celtic
god whom the Romans identified with Jupiter, because taran
is the Cymric word for thunder.
XIV. Of all the pagan nations, the Gauls appear to have had
the most sanguinary rites. They may well be compared in
this respect with the Ashantees, Dahomehs, and other nations
of Western Africa. Caesar says that, in threatening diseases,
and the imminent dangers of war, they made no scruple to sacrifice men, or engage themselves by a vow to such sacrifices.
In these they made use of the ministry of the Druids; for it
was a prevalent opinion among them that nothing but the life
of a man could atone for the life of a man, insomuch that they.
had established even public sacrifices of that kind. Some prepared huge colossal figures of osier twigs, into which they put
men alive, and, setting fire to them, consumed those within in
the flames. They preferred for victims such as had been convicted of theft, robbery, or other crimes, believing them the most
acceptable to the gods; but, when real criminals were wanting, the innocent were often made to suffer. Strabo says that
there were also other immolations of human beings; some they
shot with arrows or hung upon crosses, and a colossus being
made of rushes fastened with wood, sheep and beasts of every
kind, and men also, were burned together therein.
XV. The funeral rites of the Gauls were connected with their
notions respecting the state of the dead. They believed in a
future state, and the transmigration of souls. Their funerals were, as Caesar informs us, magnificent and sumptuous
according to their means. They brought to the funeral pile all
the objects to which the deceased had been most attached, even
his favorite animals; and a little before the age of Caesar it had




GALLIA.                      99
been the custom to burn with the dead even slaves and dependents who were known to have been objects of his affection. It
is added by another writer that these immolations were sometimes voluntary, and that friends and relations cast themselves
upon the funeral pile willingly, in order to live in' a future
world with the deceased.-(Prichard, Researches, vol. iii., p.
174, seqq.)
10. PRODUCTIVENESS OF GAUL.
I. STRABO declares that Gallia Narbonensis produced the same
fruits of the earth as Italy. " To the northward of Mons Cebenna," he adds, " olives and figs are wanting, but the soil is
fertile in other productions, though it hardly brings grapes to
full maturity."
II. Every other produce, according to the same authority,
abounded throughout Gaul, which bore much corn, millet, &c.,
and supported herds of all kinds. There was no waste land,
exceprt some tracts occupied by forests and morasses, and even
these were not desert, but contained inhabitants, whose number was greater than their civilization.
III. Rorrme consumed a large quantity of the hams and sausages of Ganl, which were of an excellent quality. The orig-'
inal breed of swine, which existed in Celtic times, is still found
in Normanly, especially in the valley of Auge.
IV. Some of the'rivers of Gaul contained in their sands pellets of gold. The Ruteni, whose country corresponds to the
modern Rovergne, worked mines of silver. Iron appears to
have been the metal best known. The Gauls had invented a
combination of copper and tin, which had the appearance of
silver, and they made out of this various ornaments for their
vehicles and harness. They were also skilled in the manufacture of glass-ware.
11. GALLIA   MORE I.N DETAIL.
PROVINCES. 
1. NARBONENSIS.
(A.) NAMES.
L IHIS division of Gallia was, as we have already remarked,
called at first Provincia Romana, from the first part of which
name was'subsequently derived the modern appellation of




100                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Provenice. (For an account of the brigin of this province, consult ~ vi., p. 76.)
II. It was also called Gallia Narbonensis, from its capital
Narbo, the modern       Narbonne.      The   corresponding    Greek
names for Narbonensis are Nap6owvTtf and Nap6wvrlqtaa.
III. It was also termed Gallia Braccata, from         the braccce
worn by the inhabitants.      Thlese braccc    were a kind of trowsers or pantaloons, and were worn by all the Gauls; but the
Romans, having seen them        for the first time in this quarter,
thought that they were peculiar to this section of the country,
and therefore named this part of Gaul after them.
OBs. Braccae were not peculiar to the Gauls, but were common to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population, extending from the Indian to the Atlantic Ocean. Hence Aristagoras, king of Miletus, in his interview with Cleomenes, king of Sparta, described the attire of a large portion of
them in these terms: "They carry bows and a short spear, and go to battle in
trowsers, and with hats upon their heads." (Herod., v., 49.) Hence, also, the
phrase " Braccati militis arcus," signifying that those who wore trowsers were
in general armed with the bow. (Propert., iii., 3, 17.) In particular, we arc
informed of the use of trowsers or pantaloons among the following nations. 1.
The Medes and Persians; 2. The Parthians and Armenians; 3. The Phrygians;
4. The Sacae; 5. The Sarmatae; 6. The Dacians and Getae; 7. The Teutones;
8. The Franks; 9. The Belgoe; 10. The Britons; 11. The Gauls. The Gallic
term " brakes," which Diodorus Siculus has preserved in speaking of the Gauls
(Xpdvrat avaFvpiat, a: EKECtVOt ppaKaf r pocayopevovat, lv., 30), also remains in the
Scottish " breeks," and the English " breeches."  Corresponding terms are used
in all the northern languages (compare Ihre, Glossar. Suio-Goth., a. v. Brackor).
Also the Cossack and Persian trowsers of the present day differ in no material
respect from those which were worn anciently in the same countries. Trow-'
sers were principally woollen, but Agathias states (Hist., ii., 5) that in Europe
they were also made of linen and of leather; probably the Asiatics made them
of cotton and of silk. Sometimes they were striped, ornamented with a woof
of various colors, or embroidered. They gradually came into use at Rome under the emperors.
(B., BOU NDARIEs.
GALLIA NARBONENSIS was bounded on the south by thbe Mediterranean, on the east by the Alps, on the west by Aquitania,
and on the north by the Rhodanus in the western part of its
course.   Pliny gives its length as two hundred and seventy
Roman miles, and its breadth as two hundred and forty-eight
of the same.    Ptolemy compares its shape to that of a parallelogram.




GALLIA.                     101
(C.) TRIBES OF NARBONENSIS.
Larger Communities.
THE larger communities were seven in number, and may be
subdivided into two classes, namely, 1. Tribes dwelling on the
west side of the Rhodanus, and, 2. Tribes dwelling on the eastern side of the same stream.
J. Tribes dwelling on the wet side of the Rhoddnus.
I. Bebryces (Be6pv ec), called, also, Sard6nes (ydp6ovec), a
mountaineer race, occupying a part of the Pyrenees, and extending thence along the shore as far as Narbo, the modern
Narbonne. They were called Bebryces prior to Roman times,
and Sardones afterward. They were of Iberian descent. Their
territory corresponded to the modern department of Pyrenees
Orientdles, and the southern part of the department of Aude.
II. Volcce (Ov6cKaL and Bocai[), subdivided into bhe Volcce
Tectosages and the Volcce Areconici.  The territory of the
former answered to the departments of Arriege, Haute Garonne, Tarn, and the southwestern part'of the department of
Aveiron, and that of the latter to the departments of Herault,
Gard, and the southeastern part of the department of Aveiron
and that of Lozere. The Volcs were a large and powerful
tribe of Celtic origin, and comprehended under the two main
divisions just mentioned many minor communities, of whom
-the JEtacini appear to have been thte most important.
III. Helvii ('EEovoi), a tribe also of Celtic origin, to the
north of the Arecomici, and occupying what is now the department of Ardeche. They are also called Elui.
2. Tribes dwelling on the east side of the Rhoddnus.
I. Allobr6g'es ('A;A66poyes and'AX;66pvyse), between the
Rhodanus anl Isara, in what is now the northern part of the
department of Drome, the departments of Isere and Ifont
Blanc, and the western portion of the department of Leman.
They were a large and powerful tribe of Celtic origin. Their
chief city was Vienna, now Vienne, and their farthest city to
the north was Geneva, which still retains its name.
II. Cavares or Cavari (Kavapeq), between the Rhodanus, the
Druentia, and the Isara, in what is now the department of
Vaucluse, and the western portion of the department of Drome;




102             _......T GEOGRAPHY.
they dwelt, therefore, around what are now Avigrnon, Carpentras, Orange, and Montelimart.
III. Vocontii or Vocuntii (Ovoi6vrtot), a powerful, tribe, in
alliance with the Romans, and therefore enjoying their own
laws. They occupied what is now the largest portion of the
western division of the departments of the Hautes and Basses
Alpes.
IV. Saljes (aiaveS), called, also, Salluvii, Salici, or Sallyi.
Their territory corresponded to what is now the departments
of the Rhone and Var. They were a large and savage tribe,
of Lygian or Ligurian origin.
Smaller Tribes.
Besides the larger tribes just mentioned, we find the following smaller ones, partly surrounded by the larger communities,
and partly belonging to the same, namely, 1. Nantuates, in
the northernmost part of the province, just below the Lacus
Lemanus, or Lake of Geneva. Caesar speaks of this tribe in
connection with the Verdgri and Seduni, who lay to the east
and southeast of them, and he makes the territories of the three
extend from the confines of the Allobroges, and the Lacus Lemanus, and Rhodanus, as far as the Alps. The object, of the
Roman commander was to open a secure route for traders over
the Alps in this quarter, and one on which they woi' not be
subject to heavy imposts, and he appears to have succeeded in
this. The chief city of the Veragri was Octodurus, now Mllartigni or Mfartinach; and that of the Seduni was Civitas
Sedunorum, now Sion.    2. Centrones, to the south of the
Nantuates, among the Graian Alps. Their territory answered
to the modern Tarantaise. 3. Caturzges, to the south of the
preceding, among the Cottian Alps. 4. Tricorii, to the west
of the preceding. 5. Vulgientes, Memini, and Albiceci, to the
south of the preceding. 6. Suelteri and Commoni, toward the
coast. 7. Oxybii, to the northeast of the preceding, between
Forum Julii, now Frejus, and Antipolis, now Antibes.
(D.) CITIES OF NARBONENSIS.
1. Cities between the Pyrenees and the Rlhodanus.
I. THESE may be divided into two classes, namely, 1. Cities
on the coast, and, 2. Cities in the interior of the country.




GA, L I A.                 103
11. They will comprise the cities of the Bebrycts, Volce
Tectosages, Volcce Arecomici, and Helvii.
1. Cities on the Coast.
In the territory of the Bebryces we find, 1. Illiberis or Eliberri, on the River Illiberis, and where Hannibal pitched his
camp after crossing the Pyrenees. It was at first a place of
some importance, but subsequently declined, until Constantine
the Great re-established it, and called it Helena, in honor of
his mother. Here the Emperor.Constans was overtaken and
slain by the cavalry of the usurper Magnentius. It is now
Elne, on the River Tech.  2. Ruscino (r'Povaidivw), to the
north of the preceding, on the River Ruscino. The'city is now
La Tour de Roussillon, and the river is now the Tet.
In the territory of the Volcce Tectosages we find, 1. Narbo
Martius (r Ndp6ovY), now Narbonne, on the little river Atax
or Adax, now the Aude, in the northeastern angle of the Lacus
Rubresus, now L'E'tang de Sigean. It was an old city, and
the capital of the province, to which it gave name. Even before the arrival of the Romans in Gaul, Narbo was an important commercial place, and hence the first colony planted by
Rome in this country was established here (B.C. 116). The
new settlement was called Colonia Atacinorum, from the
Atac' a tribe of the Tectosages, who dwelt in this quarter,
and with whom the Roman settlers became intermingled.
This name was subsequently changed to' Colonia Ataeinorum
Decumanorumque, the additional part, Decumanorum, having
been derived from the L egio Decumana, or tenth legion, the
remains of which were settled here by Julius Caesar, whence
also the city of Narbo received the appellation of Martius.
The traces of a large canal are still shown here, which the Romans cut in order to connect the lake into which the Atax flowed
with the sea. The main road from Italy to Spain ran through
this place. Cicero calls Narbo "Specula Populi Romani ac
propugnaculum," and Strabo designates it as being in his time
the emporium of all Gaul. It fell into the hands of the Visigoths, A.D. 462, and was shortly afterward made the capital
of their kingdom. In 720 it was taken by the Saracens, and
in 759 by Pepin-le-bref.
2. BWterree Septinmanorum, to the northeast, now Bezidres.




104             ANCIENT GE;OGRAPIIY.
It was situate on the left bank of the Obris,.now Orbe. The
epithet Septimnanorum was derived from the soldiers of the
seventh legion, who were settled here as a colony.
In the territory of the Volce Arecomici we find, 1. Agatha
or Agathe ('AycOr1), now Agde. It was a settlement of the
Massilians, as Strabo informs us, and situate at the mouth of
the River Arauris, now the Herault. 2. Mesua, now ]iPse,
called Mansa by Avienus, 3. Ledus, now Lattes.
2. Cities in the Interior.
In the territory of the Volcce Tectosagces we find, 1. Tolosa
Tectosagum (ToAuCoa), now Toulouse. This was a very old
city, and famed for its size and wealth before the arrival of the
Romans in Gaul, and contained a temple held in great veneration by all who dwelt around the place, and remarkable for its
riches, arising from pious offerings.  The gold obtained by
Brennus from the plunder of Delphi is said also to have been
deposited here. Servilius Capio, the Roman commander, on
the capture of the city, seized upon the treasures of the temple for his own use; but the misfortunes which subsequently
befell him, and which were ascribed to this act of sacrilege,
gave rise to the proverb " Aurum Tolosanum." The Romans
made this place a colony, and under their dominion it became
celebrated as a seat of the sciences. 2. Carcaso or Carcdsum,
now Carcassone, on the Atax. 3. Usuerva or Hosuerva, near
Narbo, now Aubere.
In the territory of the Volcce Arecomici we find, 1. Nemausus, now Nismes, a place of great antiquity. It lay on the Roman military road from Italy to Spain, on the southernmost
slope of Mons Cebenna, and was distant one hundred stadia
from the Rhodanus, and seven hundred and twenty from Narbo. Strabo makes it the capital of the Arecomici, and states
that, though inferior to Narbo in the number of strangers and
others resorting to it for the purposes of trade, it was superior
in the number of its citizens. The town exercised authority
over twenty-four populous villages, and enjoyed the Jus Latii,
by virtue of which those elected to the adileship or questorship in Nemausus acquired the rights of Roman citizens.
Nemausus was fortified with walls and gates by the Emperor
Augustus, about fourteen years before the Christian era. It




GALLIA.                     105
was the birth-place of Antoninus Pius. In the downfall of the
Roman empire, Nemausus suffered much; still, however, of all
the towns in France, it preserves the most striking memorials
6f its ancient grandeur. It has been styled, in fact, " a second
Rome." The two most remarkable remains are the ancient
building known as "La Maison Carree" (the square house),
though not square, as its name would imply, but a parallelogram, and the amphitheatre. The former of these buildings
was a temple erected to M. Aurelius and L. Verus. The amphitheatre is in better preservation than the Coliseum at Rome,
and of greater extent than the amphitheatre of Verona. It has
been computed to have been capable of holding 17,000 persons.
2. Ugernum, to the southeast of Nemausus, now Beaucaire,
on the Rhone. Strabo calls the place Oivyepvov. Here Avitus
was raised to the empire, A.D. 456, by the assistance of the
Visigoths. 3. Vindomagus, in the territory of the Adricomii,
now Vigan. 4. Andusia, to the northeast of the preceding,
now Anduze.
In the territory of the Helvii we find, 1. Alba Augusta, the
capital of the tribe, and more commonly called Alba Helviorum. Ptolemy, in mentioning it, corrupts the latter part of
the name, and calls the Helvii by the appellation of Elicoci,
and errs still further in placing the city on the east instead of
the west side of the Rhone. It is now Alps or Aps, according to D'Anyille. Some, however, are in. favor of Viviers.
2. Apollinarium, now Aubenas.   3. Batiana, northeast of
Alba Augusta, now Bais.
2. Cities between the Rhodanus and the Alps.
I. These may also be divided into two classes, like those
just enumerated, namely, 1. Cities on the coast, and, 2. Cities
in the interior.
II. They will comprise the cities of the Salyes, Cavares,
Vocontii, A4lobroges, and some of the smaller tribes.
1. Cities on the Coast.
In the territory of the Salyes, or between the IDruentia and
the sea, we find, 1. Tarasco, a small place called TroXiXvtov by
Strabo, and lying opposite to Nemausus, on the other.side of
the Rhodanus. It is now Tarascon. 2. Ar'elate, to the south




106             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of the preceding, situate on the Rhodanus, just where the river
divided into two channels, and now Aries. It is first mentioned by Caesar (B. C., i., 36; ii., 5), who built here twelve ships
of war previous to the siege of Massilia. Strabo speaks of it
as a place of no small trade in his time. Pomponius Mela, a
writer somewhat later than Strabo, describes it as one of the
richest cities of Gallia Narbonensis. Other authors make it a
Roman colony; and it was probably from the circumstance of
some of the colonists belonging to the sixth legion that it got
the name of Arelate Sextanorum.   The name is variously
written. Arelate is most common, but we find also Arelas
(especially in the poets), Arelatce ('ApeRdrat, Strabo), and Arelatum  ('ApXarov, Ptolemy), and in ltfer times Arelatus.
This city appears to have suffered considerably from the Allemanni during the decline of the Roman empire, but in the
early part of the fourth century it rose to greatness and distinction under the patronage of Constantine the Great. This
prince appears to have built that part of Arelate which lay beyond the Rhone, and which forms, in the present day, the suburb of Trinquetaille, in the island La Camargzue. He also
gave to Arelate the name of Constantina, which it continued
to bear in the time of Honorius (a century later), who transferred to it the seat of the pretorian prefect of Gallia, which
had been previously fixed at Augusta Trevirorum, or Treves.
The dignity of Arelate survived the fall of the western empire.
It was the residence of a king of the Visigoths, and of a prefect
under Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Under the Merovingian Franks it declined.
In the vicinity of Arelate were the celebrated Campi Lapi
dei, called, also, Campi Lapidarii (r, AiOtvov rredov), " the sto
ny fields,"' the poetic tradition respecting which made this re
gion the scene of the combat between Hercules and the two
brothers Albion and Bergion, the giant sons of Neptune. TI.3
hero, when about crossing the Rhone with the oxen of Geryon,
was opposed by these two giants, and, having exhausted his arrows in the conflict, prayed to Jove for aid, who thereupon sent
him a shower of stones, with which he proved victorious. The
plain was well known to the ancients, and is described very accurately by Strabo, except that he assigns it too small an extent. It lies near the eastern bank of the east channel of the




GALLIA.                     107
Rhone, between it and the E'tang de Berre, and, according to.
modern accounts, contains from 140,000 to 170,000 English
acres. It is composed entirely of shingle, or, in other words, is
covered all over with rolled boulders and pebbles, the stones varying in size from that of a pea to tfat of a pumpkin; and it
is as free from any intermixture of soil as the shingle upon the
sea-shore. Vegetation is poor and miserable, yet the district
supplies winter pasturage to immense flocks of sheep. The
modern name is the plain of La Crau.   This whole region
must at ohe time have been entirely submerged, and the stones
must have been deposited by the Rhone and its tributaries, especially the Durance, under circumstances very different from
their present physical condition.
On the route from Arelate to Massilia lay, 3. Maritima Aduaticorum, now Miramas, according to Reichard and Mannert,
while others are in favor of lartigues. It was' also called
Mariti'ma Colonia and Anatiliorum Urbs, since it lay in the
territory of the Anatilii. It was a place of considerable trade.
4. Calcaria, now Calissane.
We now come to, 5. Ilassilia, called by the Greeks MaaaaXi.a, and now Marseilles. This place was founded by the Phoceaans of Asia Minor, and was perhaps the earliest, as it certainly was the most important of their settlements in the western part of the Mediterranean. Two colonies of Phocaeans
successively established themselves in the place, the first about
B.C. 600, while Phocaa was yet flourishing. The second colonization of Massilia took place about B.C. 544, on occasion of
the Phocemans quitting their native city to avoid the subjection
with which they were threatened by the Persians. The Massilians were early involved in hostilities with the native tribes,
Ligurian and Celtic, over whom they obtained several victories,
and established new settlements along the coast, in order to retain them in subjection. The surrounding barbarians acquired
from the new settlers some of the arts of civilized life: they
learned to prune and train the vine, and to plant the olive.
The Massilians had also to contend with the power of the Carthaginians (the commercial rivals of the Greeks in western
Europe), whom they defeated in a sea-fight of early but un-.certain date. The Massilian Constitution was aristocratic;
their laws and their religious rites were similar to those of the




108             ANGluNT C'OCR.:.PHY.
Ionians of Asia. The governing body was a senate of six hundred persons, called Timuchi ({rv1XOLt); who were appointed
for life. This senate had fifteen presidents (rrpoear-re5), who
formed a sort of committee, by which the ordinary business of
the government was managed. Of this committee three persons possessed the chief power. The Timuchi were chosen
from among those who had children, and in whose family the
right of citizenship had been possessed by three generations.
The Massilians, like the Phoceans, were a naval people, and
planted several colonies on the coasts of Gaul, Spain, and Italy. They early and steadily cultivated an alliance with the
Romans, which alliance was gradually converted into subjection. In the civil war of Pompey and Caesar, they embraced
the party of the former, and closed their gates upon Caesar, under pretence of preserving neutrality (B.C. 49). After contending for some time against Cesar's lieutenants, Trebonius
and Brutus, they surrendered to that commander himself on
his return from his victory over thle Pompeians in Spain. CTsar, however, did not reduce them to entire subjection, but left
two legions in garrison, while he marched forward into Italy.
The municipal government of Massilia remained unaltered, but
its political independence was virtually overthrown. The attention of the Massilians was now more directed to literature
and philosophy, of which, indeed, they were already diligent
cultivators. They had spread through the south of Gaul the
knowledge of the Greek written character, which Caesar found
in use among the Helvetii, and now their city became to the
west of.Europe what Athens was to the east. The moderate
charges and frugal habits of the citizens added to the advantages of the spot as a place of study, and the most illustrious
of the Roman youth resorted thither. Cicero has recorded in
the strongest language the praises of the Massilians (Orat. pro
L. Flacco, c. 26). Livy has put a high encomium upon them
in the mouth of a Rhodian embassador (xxxvii., 54); and Tacitus (Agric., c. 4) has spoken in the same strain. For more
than three centuries the history of Massilia presents no events
of interest. In the troubles which followed the abdication of
Dioclesian and Maximian, the latter (A.D. 310) attempted to
resume the purple at Arelate, to the prejudice of the Emperor
Constantine, his son-in-law; but, being baffled in his attempt,




GALLIA.                     109
he fled to Massilia, which he vainly attempted to defend. The
city was taken by Constantine, and Maximian became his own.
executioner. In the reign of Honorius, Massilia repelled the
attempt of the Visigothic king, Ataulphus, to take possession,
but it afterward becamne the prey of the Burgundians, Visigoths,
and Franks. It was taken from the Franks by Theodoric the
Ostrogoth, king of Italy. Toward the middle of the sixth century, it was ceded with the rest of Provence by Vitiges the
Ostrogoth to the Franks.
Leaving Massilia, and following the line of the coast, we come
next to, 6. Tauroentum, called, also, Tauroeis and Taurentiunz, the site of which is to be sought between Ceireste and
Toulon. Vkert places it at Tcrento. 7. Telo Martius, now
Toulon. This place is noticed as a harbor in the " Itinerarium
Maritimum" of Antoninus. It is noticed, also, by the anonymous geographer of Ravenna, who calls it simply Telo; and
from the " Notitia Dignitatum per Gallias," which enumerates,
among other officers, the " Procurator Baphii Telonensis Galliarum" (Overseer of the dye-house for the provinces of Gaul
at Telo), it appears that the principal government dye-house in
Gaul was here.'A bishopric was established here in the fourth
century, which continued till the Revolution: the bishop was
a suffragan of the Archbishop of Arelate. In the Middle Ages,
Telo Martius was repeatedly ruined by the Saracens, and as
often recovered from the disaster. 8. Olbia, a Massilian colony, now, according to D'Anville, Eoubes, not far from Hieres.
Along this coast are three islands, called, respectively, Prote,
Mese, and Hypcea, or, by a general name, Stcechades, of which
mention will be made in speaking of the islands of Narbonensis. 9. Forum. Julii, to the northeast of the preceding, now
Frejus. This place is supposed to have been originally a colony of the Massilians, but the time of its foundation is unknown. It took its Roman name from Julius Caesar, who may
possibly have commenced the excavation of the port, which was
completed in the time of Augustus. This emperor established
here the station of a fleet destined to protect the coast of Gaul.
A Roman colony was also fixed here at the same time, and the
town became wealthy and populous. It was the birth-place
of the celebrated Agricola. 10. Aquce Sextice, now Aix, northeast'of Massilia, and just above the River Ccenus, now the




[10             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Arc. It owed its origin and name to the Romans, for the proconsul C. Sextius Calvinus, having defeated the Saluvii or
Salyes, founded a colony here about 120 B.C., and gave it, on
account of its medicinal springs, the name of Aquc Sextice,
i. e., "the waters of Sextius."  These springs have been discovered in modern days, but are now in small repute. 11. Ad
Horrea, now Cannes. 12. Antip6lis, now Antibes. This place
was founded by the Massilians as a barrier against the incursions of the Salyes and Ligurians. Some accounts state that
the Massilians took it from a tribe of the Ligurians. It was
taken from under the jurisdiction of Massilia, in the time of
Augustus, and placed in the rank of an Italic city; anid it appears to have been a flourishing place, to which the tunny fishery may have contributed. The remains of a theatre and some
other ancient buildings attest its former importance. During
the Roman dominion there was an arsenal here, and the town
was protected by fortifications, of which two strong towers yet
remain. 13. Niccea (Niicata), lying to the east of the Varus or
Var, now Nice. It was founded by the Massilians, and fortified by them to repress the neighboring tribes, and secure the
navigation of the adjacent sea. It continued subject to the
Massilians after the establishment of the Varus as the boundary of Gaul and Italy. In the Middle Ages it was a strong
fortress.
2. Cities in the Interior of the Country.
I. These may be subdivided into four classes, namely, 1.
Cities between the left or southern arm of the Druentia and the
places along the coast which have just been mentioned; 2. Cities between the right and left arms of the Druentia; 3. Cities
between the right arm of the Druentia and the River Isara;
4. Cities between the Isara and the Rhodanus.
II. The first of these classes will comprehend cities belonging
to the Oxybii, Suetri, Nerusi, and Vediantii;'the second, cities belonging to the Albixaci, Avantici, and Bodiontici; the
third, cities belonging to the Memini, Vulgientes, Vocontii,
Cavares, Segalauni, and Tricorii; and the fourth, cities belonging to the Allobroges, Tricastini, and Nantuates.
First Class. 1. Alba Augusta, now Aups. Not to be confounded with Alba Helviorum, also called Alba Augusta, Which




GALLIA.                     111
lay on the other side of the Rhone, in the territory of the Helvii. 2. Antece or Anteis, now Ampuis. 3. Salinc, a city of
the Suetri, taking its name from the salt springs in its neighborhood, now Castellane, in the Maritime Alps. 4. Vergunni,
the name of a city and people among the Alps, now Vergons.
5. Ectini, another Alpine city and people, now Estene. 6.
Glannativa or Glamnateva, mentioned by the writers of the
Middle Ages, now Glandeves.
Second Class. 1. Griselum, in the angle between the two
arms of the Druentia. There were medicinal springs in this
quarter, and hence the place was also called Aquce Griselicce.
An inscription, in which the words Nymiphis Griselicis occur,
was found at the baths of Greoulx, and therefore fixes the locality. 2.. Reii Apollinares, or simply Reii, to the northeast
of the preceding,-now Riez. It was a Roman colony. The
earlier name was Albece or Albiwee, and it was the capital of
the Albiceci. 3. Sanitium or Civitas Saniciensium, to the
northeast, now Senez. 4. Dinia or Civitas Dienensium, now
Digne, to the northwest of Sanitium.
Third Class. 1. Apta Julia, the capital of the Vulgientes,
north of the Druentia, and east of Avenio. It is now Apt. It
was a Roman colony, as the latter part of the name indicates.
2. Cabellio, the capital of the Cavares, to the west of the preceding, and lying on the Druentia; now Cavaillon, on the Durance. 3. Avenio, in the angle between the Rhodanus and
Druentia, now Avignon. Some writers ascribe the origin of
Avenio to a colony from Massilia; according to another opinion, it was the original capital of the Cavares, from whom it
was called Avenio Cavarum. It came into the hands of the
Romans at an early period of their dominion in Gaul, and a
Roman colony appears to have been established here. Upon
the downfall of the Roman empire in the west of Europe, it
was possessed by the Burgundians, and afforded to the king of
that people a secure asylum.from the power of Clovis, king of
the Franks, who besieged it in vain. It subsequently became
subject, perhaps for a short time, to the Visigoths, certainly to
the Ostrogoths, Franks, and Saracens. The Saracens took it
twice, but could not retain it. 4. Carpentoracte, to the northeast of Avenio, now Carpentras, on the River Auzom. It belonged to the Cavares, and became a Roman colony under




112             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Julius Caesar. Valesius makes it identical with Ptolemy's
Forumi Neronis'Ileminorum, but this is rather Forcalquier.
At Carjpntoracte may still be seen the remains of a triumphal
arch of Domitius Ahenobarbus, who defeated here the Allobroges and Arverni. 5. Arausio ('Apavoiov), now Orange, north
of Avenio. This was also a city of the Cavares. Mela and
Pliny call it Arausio Secunddnorum, from the soldiers of the
second legion, who were settled there as colonists. On coins
the full title is Colonia Arausio Secundanorun  Cohortis
XXXIII. Orange contains more Roman antiquities than most
other towns in France, and may vie with the cities of Italy.
The principal of these is a triumphal arch, called, by the inhabitants of the district, the Arch of Marius, but which is probably of the age of Augustus. The Visigoths and Burgundians
got possession of this place on the downfall of the Roman empire,
and from them it passed to the Franks. In the Middle Ages it
was the capital of a principality, which, after passing through
different families, came to that of Nassau. The title of Prince
of Orange is still retained by the royal family of Holland.
6. Vasio, now Vaison, to the northeast of Arausio, called by
Pliny "' Colonia et Caput Vocontiorum."  It was the native
place of Trogus Pompeius.
7. NComdgus, called, also, Augusta, now Nion, northwest
of Vasio. 8. Mons Seleucus or Saleucus, to the east, the name
of a mountain and city where Magnentius met with his second defeat from Constantius. Many remains of antiquity are
still found here. The name of the spot, as given by Ukert, is
La bdtie Mont Saleon. 9. Dea Vocontiorum, now Die, to
the northwest. A Roman colony was settled here, with the
title of Colonia Dea Augusta Vocontiorum. 10. Valentia, to
the northwest, now Valence. It was situate on the Rhodanus,
a short distance below the junction of the Isara with that stream.
It was the capital of the Segalauni or Segovellauni, and is
mentioned by Ptolemy as a colony. In the time of the later
western emperors it was a place of considerable strength, and
afforded a refuge to Constantine, who had assumed the purple
in Britain, and was fruitlessly besieged here by Sarus the Goth,
whom Stilicho had sent against him. Jovinus, another usurper, sought refuge here, but the town was taken by the Visigoths,
who, under their king Ataulphus, had taken part against him.




GALLIA.                    113
It was afterward subject to the Burgundians, and passed from
them to the Franks. In the Middle Ages it formed part of
1he kingdom of Aries, and was the capital of Valentinois, a
district of Dauphine.
On the eastern side of the River Tricus or Tracus, now the
Drac, which flowed into the Isara just below Gratianopolis,
now Grenoble, dwelt the Tricorii. Among their cities, continuing our enumeration of those composing the third class, we
may mention, 1. Gratianopolis. In the'6 Theodosian Table,"
and in the "' Notitia Imperii," it is designated by the name of
Cularo. Inscriptions, which have been dug up, speak of the
fortifications and the edifices within the town, which were
erected by the emperors Dioclesian and Maximian, from whose
assumed designations of Jovius and Herculius two of the gates
were named Porta Jovia and Porta Herculea. In the fourth
century the name Gratianopolis was given to the town, in
compliment to the Emperor Gratianus; and this name gradually superseded the old one, Cularo, and was the origin of the
modern one, Grenoble. In Cicero's time, Cularo was a frontier
town of the Allobroges, to which tribe the Tricorii appear originally to have belonged. 2. Ucense Castrum, to the southeast of
the preceding, the site of which, according to Durandi, is to be
sought in the vicinity of either Oze (called in the Middle Ages
Ossis) or in that of Huez. 3. Catorissium, to the northeast,
now, according to Reichard, Petit Chat. 4. Caturigee, called,
also, Caturigomagus or Catorimagus, to the southeast of the
preceding, near the Druentia. It was the capital of the Caturiges, and is now Chorges. 5. Eburodunum or Ebrodunum,
now Embrun, to the northeast of the preceding, on a mountain, the roots of which were washed by the Druentia. In the
1" Notitia Civit. Prov. Max. Sequan." it is called Castrumn
Ebredunense. This place obtained various privileges from the
Roman emperors.
Fourth Class. 1. Vienna, now Vienne, on the Rhodanus,
and the capital of the Allobroges. This place was already in
existence in the time of Caesar, who makes mention of it in
his commentaries. Ptolemy writes the name OzVtvva, which
is also the orthography of Strabo, while in the Peutinger Table it is written Vigenna; this last, however, is very probably
a mistake. It was a Roman colony, and the rival of its neighH




114             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
bor Lugdunum, or Lyons. In the civil war at the close of
Nero's reign, it embraced the party of Galba, from whom it re.
ceived many honors. Tradition fixes Vienna as the place of
Pilate's banishment after he had been displaced from his government of Judsea, and a Roman structure, still standing, is
popularly called his tomb. The people of this place appear to
have been great admirers of the epigrams of Martial, which has
been taken as an indication that literature was cultivated among
them. Martial gives to Vienna the epithet " vitifera" (vinebearing), and the vineyards on the Rhone, immediately opposite, still produce the Cote Rotie, one of the finest of the French
red wines, while the hills around Vienne, on both sides of the
river, are covered with vineyards, which' produce abundance of
good red wine. 2. Geneva, now Geneve, as the name is written in French, or Genf, according to the German orthography,
while in English we still call it Geneva. It was situate at
the southwestern extremity of the Lacus Lemanus, or Lake of
Geneva, where the Rhodanus issued from it, and on the south
ern bank of the stream. The place is mentioned by Caesar,
who speaks of it as the farthest city of the Allobroges in this
quarter, and close to the confines of the Helvetii, with whose
territory it was connected by a bridge across the Rhodanus.
Modern Geneva occupies both banks of the stream, though the
larger portion of the city is still on the southern side. It is
somewhat surprising that, down to the time of the " Itineraries" and the " Theodosian Table," no one of the geographical
writers subsequent to the time of Casar makes any mention of
the place. By the writers of the Middle Ages it is often alluded to, but under the name of Genana, Jenna, &c. 3. Tarnaja, called, also, Acaunum, now St. Maurice, on the Rhone.
4. Octodurus, now Martigny or Martinach. 5. Centronum
Civitas, called, in the Notitia, Darantasia, the capital of the
Centrones, on the Isara, now Montiers, on the Isere.
Islands belonging to Gallia Narbonensis, and lying in the
Sinus Gallicus.
I. Blascon (rj BRaaGov), now Brescon, belonging to the Volca Arecomici, and not far from Agatha, and the mouth of the
Arauris, or Herault.
II. M2etmna, lying anciently, according to Pliny, in the mouth




GALLIA.                     115
of the Rhone, " in Rhodani ostio."  As, however, he gives the
river three mouths, and as the island is not any further mentioned, its position can not be determined with certainty. Mannert is in favor of identifying it with the small island of Jamatan, which, along with two others, lies in front of the eastern
mouth of the Rhone.
III. Stechddes (atl zotXadde v7cot), now Isles d'Hieres, belonging to the territory of the Salyes, and lying in a southeast
direction from Telo Martius, or Toulon. The Greek name has
reference to their being ranged on the same line, or in a row
(from aToZyo, " a row"). They received this appellation from
the Massilians, who colonized some of them. Strabo and Ptolemy make the number to have been five, three large and two
small, but give the names of only three, Prote, now Parquerolles; Miese or Pomponiana, now Portcros; and Hypcea, now
du Levant or Titan. The two smaller ones Mannert thinks
are the modern Ribandas and Bageaux. Mela comprehends
under the name of Stcechades all the islands along the coast
of Gaul from Liguria to Massilia. Ammianus Marcellinus
places them near Nicaea and Antipolis. Dioscorides calls these
islands i-tXcdF6, and Apollonius Rhodius, AlyvaTr5eq, from their
being inhabited by Ligyans, who, as before remarked, are the
same with the Salyes. Tacitus styles them Massiliensium
insulce.
IV. Planasia, called, also, Lerina, now St. Honorat, near
Antipolis.
V. Leron (? A"?pwv), now St. Marguerite, also near Antipolis. All the islands in this quarter, including the Stechades,
&c., were held by the Massilians, who fortified them against
the incursions of pirates. On the island of Leron they erected
a temple to the hero Leron, after whom the island was named
2. AQUITANIA.
(A.) NAMES.
I. THE name Aquitania, as we have already seen, was originally applied to the southwestern corner of Gaul, from the
Garumna to the Pyrenees, but was afterward, in the time of
Augustus, extended to that portion of Celtic Gaul comprehended between the Garumna and Ligeris.
II. According to Pliny, the earlier name of Aquitania proper




116               ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
was Armorica, a Celtic appellation, denoting a region bordering on the sea, and derived from the Celtic words ar mor, " on
the sea."
OBS. Ukert thinks that Pliny is here in error, the term Armorica properly denoting the tract of country along the Atlantic, between the mouth of the Ligeris
and that of the Sequana. Mannert, on the other hand, defends the correctness
of Pliny's remark. According to Mannert, the Gauls gave the name of Armorica to all the country on the coast of Gaul, as a general appellation; and as the
Romans before Caesar's time knew no other coast of Gaul but that of Aquitania, he supposes that they considered the term Armorica to apply in a special
sense to this whole country, and he even thinks that the name Aquitania is
nothing more than a Latin form of the word Armorica.
(B.) EARLY AND SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF AQUITANIA.
[. THE original inhabitants of Aquitania proper are supposed
to have been of Iberian origin, and distinct from the Celtic
race. The names of places among the tribes of Aquitanian
origin, therefore, are in the Iberian form, and not a single one
of such places had a Celtic appellation.
II. Still, however, we must not suppose that, even in Aquitania proper, there were not some tribes of Celtic origin, as the
names of their towns denote. These were, however, comparatively very few in number, and the most important one appears
to have been that of the Bituriges Vibisci.
III. Coesar did not go into Aquitania, but his lieutenant, the
younger Crassus, made an incursion into it.     The country,
however, was not finally subjugated until the year'28 B.C.,
when Augustus sent Marcus Valerius Messala to conquer it.
The poet Tibullus accompanied Messala in this expedition,
which he has commemorated in his poems.
IV. Under the reign of Honorius, the Visigoths, after ravaging Italy, passed into Gaul, and took possession of Aquitania,
which they kept until Clovis, king of the Franks, defeated
them in a great battle near Poictiers, A.D. 507, and killed their
king, Alaric II. Aquitania then became part of the monarchy
of the Franks, but under the weak successors of Clovis it was
detached from it again, and given as an appanage to Charibert,
a younger son of Clotarius II.
V. At a later period, Aquitania underwent another change
in its southern limits. The Vasc6nes, a Spanish people, finding themselves hard pressed by the Visigoths, crossed the Pyr



GAILLIA.                   117
enees, and settled in the southern part of Aquitania, which
from them took the name of Vasconia or Gascony, which it has
retained ever since, while the more northern parts of the same
province continued to be called Aquitaine, and afterward, by
corruption, Guienne.
(C.) TRIBES OF AQUITANIA.
THE tribes of Aquitania, in the extended sense of the name,
may be divided into two great classes, namely, 1. Tribes between the Pyrenees and Garumna, and, 2. Tribes between the
Garumna and the Ligeris.
1. Tribes between the Pyrenees and Garumna.
(a) Larger Communities.
I. Tarbelli (Tdp6eW)ot), on the Atlantic coast, extending fronm
the Pyrenees to the territory of the Bituriges Vibisci, who dwelt
around the mouth of the Garumna. They occupied what would
now correspond to the departments of the Basses Pyrenees and
Landes.
II. Auscii (AVcacLot), between the Aturis and the Garumna
Their country would correspond now to portions of the present
departments of Hautes Pyrenees, Gers, &c. Mela calls them
the most renowned of the Aquitani, "A Aquitanorum clarissimi
sunt Auscii;" and Strabo calls their country a beautiful one;.a)rj 62s cai r -rv AvacotWv.
IIL Bituriges Vibisci (BtroVptyei ol OVit6tCLot), called by Strabo'Iooaot, and by Pliny " Bituriges Liberi, cognomnine Ubisci,"
a large and powerful people of Celtic origin, on both sides of
the Garumna, near its mouth. They dwelt, therefore, in what
would be now the country around Bourdeaux, in the department of Gironde. The Boii, whom Ausonius first mentions
in this quarter, dwelt still nearer the mouth of the river, and
the Vasates and Nitiobriges occupied small tracts of country
along the left banks of the Rhodanus. These three last mentioned tribes were also Celtic ones.
(b) Smaller Communities.
Of these the most worthy of mention were the following:
1. Convnce, on both sides of the Garumna, at the foot of the
Pyrenees. They were a mixed race of deserters and robbers,




118             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
and were finally settled by Pompey in the town of Lugdunum
Convenaruzm, now St. Bertrand. 2. Bigerrones, between the
Tarbelli and Convenae. 3. Elisdtes, to the northwest of the
Auscii. Their chief city was Elisa, now Eauze, on the Gelize, in the department of Gers. 4. Cocossates, called by Pliny
Cocossates Sexsignani, dwelling in what is now the neighborhood of Chalosse, between Dax and Mont de Marsan. 5. Onobrisates, dwelling in the vicinity of the modern Nlbousan.
6. Tarusates, around what is now Tursan, in the department
of Landes. 7. Vasates, called by Caesar Vacates, and the same,
probably, with the Basabocades of Pliny. Their territory lay
on the left bank of the Garumna, and corresponded to what
used to be Bazadois.
2. Tribes between the Garnumna and Ligeris.
(a) Larger Communities.
I. Pictones (lIitroveg), called by Ammianus Marcellinus Pictavi, dwelling immediately south of the Ligeris, in the lower
part of its course. Their territory answered to what is now
the department of La Vendee, and the southern and western
parts of the department of Loire inferieure, the department of
Deux Sevres, and the southern part of the department of Mayenne et Loire. In other words, their territory corresponded to
what was formerly Poitou.
II. BitiurCges Cubi (BtrTptyes oi Kog6ot), dwelling to the
northeast of the preceding, in what is now the departments of
Vienne, Indre, and Cher.
III. Sant6nes (YdvrovoL), to the north of the Garumna, near
its mouth, now the departments of Charente inferieure and
Charente superieure.
IV. Lemovices (Aego6ileg), to the east of the Pictones and
Santones, in what is now the department of Haute Vienne,
formerly Limosin.
V. Arverni ('Apovepvot), to the southeast of the preceding.
They occupied what is now the department of Coneze, and
also those of Haute Vienne, Creuze, and Puy de Dome.
VI. Petrocorii (reIrpolr6ptot), to the southwest of the Lernovices, in what used to be called Perigord, but is now the department of Dordogne.




GALLIA.                     119
VII. Cadurci (Kad6ogpoe), to the southeast of the preceding,
in what is now the department of Lot.
VIII. Ruteni ('Povrrvoi), to the southeast of the preceding,
in what was formerly Rouergne, but what answers now to
portions of the departments of Lot, Tarn, and Aveiron.
(b) Smaller Communities.
The most important of these were, 1. Nitiobriges, on both
sides of the Garumna, but especially on the northern side.
Their territory answered to what is now the eastern portion of
the department of Lot et Garonne, and the southwestern portion
of the department of Lot. 2. Gabali or Gabales (ra6a:elS), to
the east of the Ruteni. They were a mountaineer race, and
principally occupied in working silver mines. Their country
answered to portions of the departments of Aveiron, Lozere, and
Cantal. 3. Velavi (OVela'ot), called by Caesar Vellauni, to
the northeast of the Gabali, and at one time under the dominion of the Arverni, as we are informed by Caesar and Strabo.
They dwelt among the Cevennes (Mons Cebenna), in the modern Velay.
(D.) CITIES OF AQUITANIA.
THESE may be divided in the same manner as the tribes,
namely, 1. Cities between the Pyrenees and the Garumna,
and, 2. Cities between the Garumna and the Ligeris.
1. Cities between the Pyrenees and Garumna.
Among the Tarbelli we find, 1. Lapurdum, now Bayonne,
in the Tractus Lapurdensis, now Labour. 2. Carasce, to the
southeast of the preceding, called by Caesar Garites, now Garis. 3. Beneharnum, to the northeast of the preceding, now
Lascar. 4. Aquce Tarbellicce or Augustce, on the coast, northwest of Lapurdum, now Dax. 5. Sibusates, to the northeast
of Lapurdum, now Sobusse. 6. Atura, called, also, Vicus Julii and Aturres, situate on the Aturis or Adour. It is now
Aire. 7. Boii or Boates, in the territory of the Boii, now Tete
de Buch. The resin furnished by the pines in this district obtained for the Boii the appellation of " Piceos Boios."
Among the Bituriges Vibisci we find, 1. Burdigala (BovpdtyaOta), now Bourdeaux, on the Garumna. It was an import



1.20           ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ant place in the time of Strabo, who mentions it as the chief
trading place of the Bituriges. He describes the town as situate itpLvoOaaTTr j Trtvi which D'Anville interprets as meaning a
place up to which the sea (or tide) flows. The importance of
Burdigala is shown by the circumstance of its being made the
capital of Aquitania Secunda. Ausonius, a Latin poet of the
fourth century, himself a native of this place, has left a description of it in his poem Clarc Urbes, or Ordo Nobiliunm
Urbium, and describes it as " renowned for wine, and streams,
and the manners and talents of its inhabitants."  Under the
Romans, Burdigala was not the scene of any important historical event, except the assumption of the purple by Tacitus,
in the reign of Gallienus, in the third century. It derives its
reputation rather from the zeal with which literature was here
cultivated. 2. Noviomagus, to the northwest of Burdigala,
now Castillon, according to Mannert; but, according to Reichard, Castelnau de Medoc. 3. Serio, to the southeast of Burdigala, now Rions. 4. Varadetum, to the northeast of Burdigala, now Caraye.
Among the Vasates we find Vasate, now Bazas, the chief
city of this tribe; among the Elusates, the city of Elusa, called
by Mela Elusaberris, now Eauze, the capital of this commu.
nity; among the Auscii, the city of Climberris, or Augusta
Ausciorum, now Auch, their capital; among the Bigerrones,
their chief city Turba, called in the Notitia Civitas Turba
cum castro Bigorra, now Tarbes; and Aquce Onesiorum, with
its baths, now Barreges; among the Convence, the city of
Lugdunum Convenarum, now St. Bertrand, already mentioned; Crodunum, now Gourdan, on the upper Garumna; Aquce
Convenarum, now Bagneres; and Aginnum, now Agen, on the
right bank of the Garumna.
2. Cities between the Garumna and Ligeris.
Among the Pictones we find, 1. Limonum, called, also, Pictavi, and now Poitiers. It was probably the capital of the
tribe. In the Peutinger Table it is called Lemuno. Upon the
downfall of the western empire this city repeatedly suffered.
It was pillaged, A.D. 410, by the Vandals, and subsequently
came into the hands of the Visigoths, who extended their dominion over all the countries south and west of the Loire. In




GALLIA.                    121
the subsequent invasion of the Visigothic kingdom by Clovis,
the vicinity of Poitiers was distinguished by the first of the
three great contests that have rendered it the most remarkable battle-field of France. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, was
defeated and killed by Clovis at Vougle, the same with Vouill&,
a village on the River Auzance, a few miles west of Poitiers.
In A.D. 732, the Saracens were defeated here by Charles Martel, and western Europe was thereby saved from the Mohammedan yoke; and at a later period the memorable battle was
fought here between the English and French. 2. Agesinates,
the capital of a tribe of the same name, dwelling on the very
coast. It is now Lusignan. 3. Rauranum, to the southwest
of Limonum, now Raum. 4. Ratiatum, in the northwestern
corner, at the mouth of the Ligeris, now Machecou. The pa.,gus Ratiensis is Le pays de Retz.
Among the Santones we have, 1. Mediolanum, afterward
Santones, now Saintes.  It was the capital of the tribe.
2. Santonum Portus, now Tonnay-Charente, near Rochefort.
3. Sesuvii, now  Soubise.  4. Iculisma, now Angouleme.
5. Tamnum, now Mortagne. 6. Novioregumn, to the northwest of the preceding, now Royan.
Among the Petrocorii we find, 1. Vesunna, afterward Petrocorii, now Perigueux. A tower, part of the remains of the
ancient city, is still called Visonne, an evident modification of
the ancient name, and the suburb in which it stands retains
the designation of La Cite. This place passed from the hands
of the Romans into those of the Visigoths, and subsequently
of the Franks. 2. Bercorates, now Bergerac. 3. Diolindun,
now La Linde.
Among the Cadurci we find, 1. Divona, afterward Cadurci,
and now Cahors. Ptolemy calls it Aovrorva, and in the Theodosian Table it is Bibona, but Ausonius is considered by D'Anville to have given the true orthography, Divona, a word which,
in the Celtic language, denoted a fountain sacred to the gods.
On the downfall of the western empire it came successively into
the hands of Goths and Franks, and was afterward subjected to
the Counts of Toulouse, and then to its own bishop. There are
some Roman remains here, the ruins of a theatre and aqueduct,
and a monument to M. Lucterius, erected in the reign of Augustus. 2. Uxellodunum, to the north of the preceding, on




122             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the Duranius, now Pueche d'Issolu. 3. Varadetum, now Va.
raye.
Among the Lemovices we find, 1. Augustoritum, afterward
Lemovices (though Cmsar already gives it this latter name),
now Limoges, the chief city of the tribe. Under the Romans
it was a place of considerable importance, and in the third
century it became the seat of a bishopric. It stood at the convergence of several Roman roads. There was an amphitheatre here, said to have been rebuilt by Trajan. In the fifth
century this city came into the power of the Visigoths, and
was successively pillaged or destroyed by the Franks (twice)
and Northmen. 2. Cassinomagus, now Chabannois. 3. Andecamulum, to the northwest of Lemovices, now Ranfon.
4. Acitodunum, to the east of the preceding, now Ahun.
Among the Biluriges Cubi we have, 1. Argantomagus, in
the southwest angle of their territory, now Argenton. 2. Alerea, to the northeast of the preceding, now St. Vincent d'Ardentes, on the Andria, now Indre, one of the tributaries of the
Loire. 3. Noviodunum, now Nouan. 4. Avaricum, afterward
Bituriges, now Bourges, the capital of the tribe. In Caesar's
time it was a place of importance, and a strong city, being surrounded on almost every side either by marshes, or by the waters of the Avara or Eure. In the struggle against the Romans, at the head of which was Vercingetorix, near the close
of Caesar's proconsulship, the territory of the Bituriges became
the seat of war. Agreeably to the defensive plans of the natives,
upon the approach of Caesar's army, above twenty towns of the
Bituriges were given to the flames, and in a general council it
was debated whether Avaricum should be burned or defended.
It was spared through the entreaties of the Bituriges, who besought the other Gauls not to compel them to destroy a city,
almost the finest of all Gaul, and the bulwark and ornament
of their state. Contrary to the opinion of Vercingetorix, a
stand was made at Avaricum, and a suitable garrison was selected. But the Romans took the city after a siege of twenty-five days, and out of 40,000 persons who had been shut up
in the place, scarcely eight hundred escaped to the camp of
Vercingetorix. By what degrees Avaricum recovered from
this dreadful blow is not known. Augustus made it the capital of Aquitania. It was improved and fortified by the Ro.




GALLIA.                     123
mans, was taken by the Visigoths, but fell into the hands of
the Franks after the victory of Clovis at Vouille.
Among the Arverni we find, 1. Augustonometum, now Clermont, on the River Elaver, now the Allier, and the capital of
the tribe. It is not known whether this existed when Caesar
invaded Gaul: it was certainly not the Gergovia, in attacking
which he experienced his most considerable check.. Strabo
mentions it under the name of Nefwoa6o. In the Middle Ages,
the castle by which the town was defended was named Clarus Mons, and this name, which was at first restricted to the
castle, was afterward extended to the whole town, whence the
modern appellation. 2. Gergovia. The position of this place
has given rise to great difference of opinion, and the difficulty
has been increased by the circumstance of there being two
places of this name, one among the Boii, and the other in the
territory of the Arverni. The latter is supposed, by the best
gographical writers, to have been Augustonometum, and D'Anville places its site a few leagues to the southeast of Clermont,
between Perignal, Jussat, and Le Crest. After the capture
of Avaricum, Coesar laid siege to this place, but was compelled
to raise it after a murderous attempt to storm the city. 3. Brivas, on the Elaver, to the southeast of Augustonometum, now
Brioude. 4. Aquce Calidce, to the north of Augustonometum,
also on the Elaver, now Vichy.
In the country of the Gabali we find, 1. Anderitum, called,
also, Civitas Gabalum, now Javoux, among the Cevennes; in
the country of the Ruteni we have, 1. Segodunum, or Civitas
Rutenorum, now Rhodez; 2. Albiga, or Urbs Albigensis, now
Alby.
3. LUGDUNENSIS.
(A.) NAMES.
I. THE name Lugdunensis is derived from that of Lugdu.
num, now Lyons, its capital.
II. This province was also called Gallia Celtica, from its inhabitants, the Celtce.
(B.) TRIBES OF LUGDUNENSIS.
THESE may be divided into two classes, namely, 1. Tribes
between the Ligeris and sea-coast, and, 2. Tribes between the
Ligeris, Rhodanus, Arar, and Sequana.




124             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
1. Tribes between the Ligeris and Sea-coast.
(a) Larger Communities.
I. Veneti or Venetes (Oiveerot), a large and powerful tribe,
in a northwestern direction from the mouth of the Ligeris, and
on the shores of the ocean. Their country answered to what
is now the department of Morbihan, and was formerly a part
of Bretagne. The Veneti possessed almost the only havens
that offered a secure shelter along a considerable extent of
coast, and this advantage, with their superior skill in maritime
affairs, enabled them to acquire the sovereignty of the nations
which frequented that part of the ocean, and to render them
tributary. They used vessels of small draught of water, suited to the shallows which they had to navigate, and which received but little damage when left aground by the receding
tide, while their lofty stern and prow, and the general strength
of their construction and equipment, enabled them to ride out
the tempests to which they were exposed. In these vessels
the Veneti carried on a trade with the British islands and with
other parts. Their towns and strong-holds were situate on
tongues of land running out into the sea, surrounded by banks
and shallows, which, being covered by the flood-tide, admitted
of no assault by a land force, and, being left dry by the ebb,
kept off the attacks of a hostile navy. Confiding in the extensive confederation of which they were the head, in their nautical skill, and in the advantages of their situation, they ventured to bid defiance to Caesar (B.C. 56); but the extraordinary genius and resources of the Roman general overcame all
obstacles, and enabled him to achieve the reduction of the Veneti and their supporters.
II. Redones or Rhedones ('Pi.dove), a tribe to the northeast
of the Veneti, in what is now the department of Ille et Villaine.
III. Namnetes or Namnetce (NatviTrat), to the southeast of
the Veneti, on the right bank of the Ligeris, near its mouth,
in what is now a portion of the department of Loire inferieure.
IV. Aulerci, divided into three branches, namely, the Aulerci Cenomani, Aulerci Diablintes, and Aulerci Eburovices
(Avt'ipLot'E6ovpdiiKot). The last formed the most powerful division, and occupied what is now the department of Eure.
V. Carnutes, Carnutce, or Carnuti (Kaopvoivrat), called by




GALLIA.                     125
Plutarch, in his Life of Cesar, Kapvovrtvot, between the Ligeris and Sequana. They occupied what is now the northern
portion of the department of Loir, the western portion of that
of Loiret, the whole department of Eure et Loir, and the northwestern portion of the department of Seine et 1' Oise.
VI. Armoricce Civitates, the name given in the time of Caesar to the maritime districts of Celtic Gaul, situated between
the mouth of the Ligeris and that of the Sequana. The word
is derived from the Celtic ar mor, which means " near the sea."
It has been supposed that Armorica was a general appellation
for the whole coast of Gaul, and that in Caesar's time the
name became more restricted in its use. Be this as it may,
we find in Cesar's time the Armoric states consisting of the
Veneti, Osismii, Curiosolites, Redones, Caletes, &c., who formed a sort of confederacy. Their towns and fortresses were built
along the coast, and they carried on a commercial intercourse
with the opposite coast of Britain. The maritime districts
comprehended under the name of Armoricanus Tractus nearly
corresponded in extent to the modern French provinces of Brit.
tany and Normandy.
(b) Smaller Communities.
Following first the line of the coast, up to the mouth of the
Sequana, we come in succession to, 1. Coriosopiti or Corisopiti, in what is now the southern portion of the department of
Finisterre. 2. Osismii (i^GaLoL), north of the preceding, in the
northern portion of the department of Finisterre. 3. Curiosolites or'Curiosolitce, to the east of the preceding, in the northwestern portion of the department of Cotes du Nord. 4. Veneli (OQZveot), called by Caesar Unelli. Their country ran out
into the ocean, and answered to the department of La Manche.
The Abrincatui were subject to them. 5. Boiocasses or Baiocasses, and the Viducasses, facing one another, and on opposite
sides of the River Argenus, now the Arguenon. They occupied
the western portion of the department of Calvados. 6. Lexovii or Lexobii, to the east of the preceding, and in the eastern
portion of the department of Calvados.
Proceeding next into the interior of the country, we come
to, 1. Andecavi, or, as Caesar calls them, Andes, immediately
north of the Ligeris, and to the east of the Namnetes, in what




126            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
is now the department of Mayenne, around Angers. 2. Turones, to the southeast of the preceding, on both sides of the Ligeris, in what was formerly Touraine, but is now the department of Indre et Loire. 3. Aureliani, to the northeast of the
preceding, in what was formerly Orleannois, but answers now
to the department of Loiret, and a portion of that of Cher.
4. Boii, inhabiting the city and territory of Gergovia, erroneously placed by Pliny between the Carnutes and Senones, but who
lived in what is now a portion of the department of Loiret.
Their city was called by the Romans Gergovia Boiorum, to
distinguish it from Gergovia Arvernorum, which latter lay, as
already remarked, southwest of Augustonometum. 5. Aulerci
Diablintes, to the northeast of the Redones, around the modern
Alenfon, in what answers now to the northern portion of the departments of Mayenne and Sarthe, and the southern portion of
that of Orne. 6. Essui, supposed by some to be the same
with the Saii, to the northeast of the preceding, in the northern portion of the department of Orne, around Seez. 7. Aulerci Cenomani, to the southeast of the preceding, in the department of Sarthe, around MIans.
2. Tribes between the Ligeris, Rhodanus, Arar, and Sequana.
(a) Larger Communities.
I. Segusiani (meyovatavoi), to the northwest of the Allobroges, in what was formerly Lyonnais, but answers now to the
department of the Rhone, and the eastern portion of the department of Loir.
II. JEdui (AiMovot), to the north of the preceding, in what answers now to the greater portion of the department of Saone
et Loir, the department of Nievre, and the southern portion of
that of Cote d'Or. The AEdui were a powerful nation, and
their sway originally extended over many of the adjacent tribes.
When Caesar came into Gaul, however, he found that the ZEdui, after having long contended with the Arverni and Sequani
for the supremacy, had been overcome by them, the Arverni
and Sequani having called in Ariovistus, a powerful king of the
Germans, to their aid. The arrival of the Roman commander
soon changed the aspect of affairs, and the JEdui were restored
by the Roman arms to the chief power in Gaul. They became,
of course, valuable allies for Caesar in his Gallic conquests.




GALLIA.                     127'
Eventually, however, they embraced the party of Vercingetorix against Rome; but, when the insurrection was quelled,
they were still favorably treated from motives of policy, and on
account of their former services.
III. Lingones (AiyyoveS), to the north of the 2Edui, in what
answers now to the northern portion of the department of Cdte
d' Or, the southern portion of the departments of Aube and Haute
Marne, and the northern portion of that of Haute Saone.
IV. Senones ('evwves and oevovec), to the northeast of the
Lingones, in what answers now to the southern portion of the
departments of Seine et Oise and Seine et Marne, and the
western portion of the department of Aube. The old stem of
the Senones, of which these appear to have been a branch, under the conduct of Brennus, invaded Italy at an early period,
and pillaged Rome. They afterward settled in Umbria, on the
coast of the Adriatic.
(b) Smaller Communities.
These lay principally on the right, and in part, also, on the
left bank of the Sequana, and were most of them border tribes
as regarded the province of Gallia Belgica. We find in this
enumeration, 1. Caletes or Caleti (KaAirTa), to the north of
the Sequana, at its mouth, in what is now the department of
Seine inferieure, and the northern portion of the department
of Eure. 2. Bellocasses or Vellocasses, to the southeast of the
preceding, and on the right bank of the Sequana, in what is
now the northeastern portion of the departments of Eure and
Seine. 3. Parisii, on both the right and left banks of the Sequana, in the northeastern portion of the department of Seine
et Oise, and the southwestern portion of that of Seine et Marne.
4. Meldi, to the east of the preceding, in the eastern portion of
the department of Seine et Marne. 5. Tricasses or Tricasii
(Tptcdatot), to the southeast of the preceding, in the department
of Aube. 6. A branch of the Boii, on the southwestern flank
of the AEdui, may be here mentioned, lying in a southwest direction from the Sequana, and in the vicinity of the Ligeris.
Their country answered to the modern Beaujolais. 7. Ambarri, in the angle between the Arar and Rhodanus, in the department of Ain.




128             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(B.) CITIES OF LUGDUNENSIS.
THESE may be divided into two classes, namely, 1. Cities between the northern bank of the Ligeris, the Atlantic Ocean,
and the Sequana, and, 2. Cities between the Ligeris, Rhodanus, Arar, Sequana, and Matrona.
1. Cities between the northern bank of the Ligeris, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Sequana.
In the territory of the Veneti we find, 1. Dariorigon (AaptOptyov), called, also, Darioritum and Civitas Venetorum. It
was the capital of the tribe, and is commonly identified by geographers with the modern Vannes; but, as Caesar has particularly described the situation of the towns of the Veneti, on
tongues of land insulated at high water, it has been suggested
by the historians of Bretagne (Lobineau and Morice) that the
site of Dariorigon could not be identical with that of Vannes;
and D'Anville, who adopts the suggestion, is inclined to place
Dariorigon on the shore of the Bay of Morbihan, about three
miles from Vannes, called still Durouec. 2. Blavia, further
west, now Port Louis, on the River Blavet.
In the territory of the Corisopiti we find Corisopiti, their
capital, now Quimper-Corentin; in the territory of the Osismii, their capital Vorganium, now Corlay; in that of the Cu.
riosolitac, their capital of the same name, now Corsenil; in
that of the Redones, 1. Civitas Redonum, their capital, now
Rennes. 2. Aletunm, to the northwest of the preceding, near St.
Illalo. The site of Aletum is marked by a headland in the vicinity of St. Malo, which the Bretons still call Guich Alet.
The inhabitants of Aletum were, it seems, continually exposed
in the eighth or ninth century to the attacks of pirates, and
therefore retired to a neighboring rocky peninsula, on which
they founded the town of St. Malo, from the name of the then
Bishop of Aletum.
In the territory of the Abrincatui we find Ingena, afterward
called Abrincatui, their capital city, and now Avranches, the
intermediate form of the name having been Abrincce. As being in Normandy, Avranches was under the dominion of the
first English monarchs of the Norman and Plantagenet races,
and was considered as one of the bulwarks of Normandy against




GALLIA.                      129
the Bretons. It was also the seat of a diocese, and among those
who held this see in modern times was the celebrated divine
and scholar, Peter Daniel Huet.
In the territory of the Unelli or Veneti we have Coriallum,
now Cherbourg. According to Troissard, this place was founded by Caesar when he invaded Britain, but by others it is denied that Cocsar ever visited this portion of Gaul. The modern name, however, is a corruption, according to some, of Cesaroburgus or Caesaris Burgus. In the territory of the Baiocasses we have Ar'egenus, afterward Baiocasses, now Bayeux.
In the territory of the Lexobii we have Noviomagus, afterward Lexobii, now Lisieux. In the territory of the Aulerc2
Eburovices we have Mediolanun Aulercorum, afterward' Ebu.
rovices, now Evreux.
In the territory of the Naimnetes we have, 1. Brivates Portus (BptovdrTqg Atfrjv). D'Anville seeks to identify this with the
modern Brest. But if D'Anville's hypothesis be correct, Ptolemy must have very much misplaced this harbor, for the Greek
geographer states that it was between the mouth of the Liger
and the Herius (the modern Auray). D'Anville also thinks
that this place is mentioned in the Theodosian Table under the
name of Gesocribate, or, as he would correct it, Gesobricate or
Gesobrivate, a name which, in its Celtic signification of " great
harbor or roadstead," is sufficiently appropriate to Brest. However this may be, there is no reason to believe that it was a
place of any great importance in Roman times, and subsequently it appears to have sunk into complete obscurity. 2. Corbilo
(Kop6/rwv), a commercial place, with an extensive traffic, on
the Liger, at its mouth. It is mentioned by both Strabo and
Polybius, and answers probably to the modern Coveron. 3. Con.
divicnum, afterward Namnetum Portus or Namnetes, now
Nantes, on the north bank of the Liger, near its mouth, and
the capital of the tribe. In the ninth and tenth centuries it
was six times pillaged and burned by the Northmen, and continued desolate for thirty years.
In the territory of the Andes or Andecavi we have Juliomagus, afterward Andecavi, now Angers, the capital of the tribe.
In the territory of the Carnutes we have Autricum, afterward
(Carnmites, and now Chartres, the capital of the tribe. It sufferetd subsequently in the civil dissensions of the Merovingian
I




130             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
kings, and from the ravages of the Northmen, by whom it was
pillaged and burned in 858. In the Middle Ages it was the
capital of a county, which was in the tenth century united with
that of Blois and Tours. In the territory of the Turones we
have Ccesarodunum, afterward called Turones, on the River
Ligeris, and now Tours. It was subsequently included in the
kingdom of the Visigoths, from whom it was taken (A.D. 507)
by Clovis, king of the Franks. In the feudal period it came,
about the middle of the tenth century, into the hands of the
Counts of Blois.
In the territory of the Aureliani we have Genabum, afterward Aureliani, now Orleans. Some scholars are in favor of
identifying Genabum with the modern Gien, but the opinion
of D'Anville and the best geographers is decidedly opposed to
this. As the Aureliani were, in fact, a branch of the Carnutes,
Genabum is often called by writers a town of the latter people.
It was a place of considerable trade, situate on the Ligeris, and
was the scene of the outbreak of the great revolt of the Gauls
against Cesar, in the seventh year of his command. In consequence of the massacre made here on this occasion of the Romans who were residing at the place for commercial purposes,
Caesar, early in.the ensuing spring, attacked the town, which
he plundered and burned. It seems to have recovered from this
disaster, and in the time of Strabo was again the emporium or
trading town of the Carnutes. In A.D. 451 it successfully resisted Attila, and subsequently it passed into the hands of the
Franks, and became the capital of one of the kingdoms into
which their territories were so often divided. Some writers
maintain that Genabum received the name of Aureliani from
the Emperor Aurelian, but there is no proof whatever of this,
and if it had been the case, Genabum must have appeared under the name of Aureliani in the Antonine Itinerary.
2. Cities between the Ligeris, Rhodanus, Arar, Sequana, and
Matrona.
In the territory of the Segusiani we have, 1. Forum Segusianorum, on the Ligeris, now Feurs. 2. Lugdunum, now
Lyons, at the confluence of the Rhodanus and the Arar, or Sa6ne. According to the common opinion, Lugdunum was founded by I. Munatius Plancus, commander of the legions in Gaul




GALLIA.                     131
at the time of Caesar's death, who settled here the people of
Vienna, now Vienne, when they had been driven from their
own home by a revolt of the Allobroges, about 42 B.C. It
seems improbable, however, that a situation so advantageous
should have been entirely neglected by the Gauls; and the Celtic name given to the place prevents our ascribing its origin
wholly to Plancus. Caesar does not mention Lugdunum, which
has furnished one of the reasons for denying to the town any
higher antiquity than the time of Plancus; but the reason
seems altogether insufficient. According to Menestrier, in his
history of this city, the Roman colony of Plancus was not established at Lugdunum until about thirty years after the settlement of the Viennenses here. Augustus was in Gaul about
the time when, according to the more correct opinion just stated, Plancus established his colony, and he appears to have made
Lugdunum his place of residence for some time, an indication
of the rising importance of the place. Strabo, writing a few
years afterward, describes it as the most populous city of Gaul
except Narbo Martius. It was, in fact, the great mart of the
Romans, who had here, even at that early time, a mint for coining gold and silver money, and it gave name, as we have seen, to
one of the four great divisions of Gaul. An altar was erected
here by sixty of the nations of.Gaul, by common consent, in
honor of Augustus.  Both Tiberius and Caligula appear to
have favored the town. The latter visited it, and instituted
games professedly in honor of Augustus, about A.D. 40. The
Emperor Claudius, himself a native of Lugdunum, raised it
from the rank of a municipium to that of a colony in the strictest sense of the term, and regulated its local government. But
its greatness received soon after a terrible blow: it was utterly
destroyed in a single night by fire, originating, it has been conjectured, from lightning, about A.D. 59, according to some, but,
according to other calculations, about A.D. 64 or 65. The rebuilding of the city was promoted by a grant from the Emper)r Nero, to whom the citizens manifested their affection and
idelity on his downfall. In the contest between Albinus and
3everus, Lugdunum became the scene of conflict. In an' engement near this place, Albinus was totally defeated and slain
k.D. 197), and Lugdunum, which had afforded a retreat for
ie vanquished, was pillaged by the victor, who put most of




132             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the inhabitants to the sword, and burned the town. At a subsequent period, while Julian held the government of Gaul under Constantius, the environs of Lugdunum were ravaged, and
the place nearly captured by the Allemanni. In the beginning
of the fifth century it fell into the hands of the Burgundians.
Lugdunum, during the Roman period, occupies a considerable
place in ecclesiastical history also. The Gospel had been early
introduced into this part of Gaul, and here a severe persecution raged in the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (A.D. 172
or 177). The churches of Vienna (Vienne) and Lugdunum
sent a relation of their sufferings to those of Asia and Phrygia.
This account, ascribed by some to Ireneus, is written with
simplicity and beauty, and is one of the most affecting passages in the ancient history of Christianity. Pothinus, bishop of
Lugdunum, and perhaps the person who introduced the Gospel
into these regions, was one of the martyrs in this persecution.
His successor was Irenaus, one of the most eminent of the early fathers.
In the territory of the IEdui we find, 1. Cabillonum or Ca
ballinurm (Ka6alvov), on the.Arar, now Chalons-sur-Sa'ne
In the great revolt under Vercingetorix, many Romans, who
were here, were obliged to quit the place, and many were slain
in the assaults which they had to sustain, after their departure,
from the insurgent populace. Caesar writes the name Cabillo.
num, while Strabo has Ka6vXilvov. The form Ka6aAlIvov is
given by Ptolemy. Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote about
the period of the downfall of the empire, mentions this place as
one of the ornaments of the province of Lugdunensis, and gives
to its name the form Cabillones. From the singular form of
the ancient name, it was usual for a long time to write the
modern appellation without an s, Chalon, by which, when D'Anville wrote, it was distinguished from Chalons-sur-Marne, the
ancient Durocatalauni. It is now, however, usually written
with the final sibilant. This place contains the ruins of a Roman amphitheatre. 2. Bibracte, to the northwest of the preceding. There is a great difference of opinion among geographers whether Bibracte was identical with Augustodunum, now
Autun, on the Arrosius, now Arrou, one of the tributaries of
the Ligeris, and many of them place its site on Mount Beuvrai.
the ancient Mons Bifractus, some miles to the west of Autun.




GALLIA.                    133
But as this mountain is steep and precipitous on every side,
and its summit affords an area too small for a populous city
like Bibracte, it is most probable that the citadel was on this
mountain, and the town at its foot, and that, as this quarter
was often desolated in war, the inhabitants eventually migrated to the spot where Autun now stands, and built a new city.
This new city was made a Roman colony by Augustus, whose
name it took, combining with it the termination dunum, from
the Celtic dun, " a hill:"  Caesar calls Bibracte by far the greatest and wealthiest town belonging to the ZEdui, and says that
it possessed the greatest influence among them. Augustodunum, in the third century, suffered much from the ravages of
war, and it was taken by Tetricus, one of the so-called (" Thirty Tyrants." From the effects of this severe blow it was raised
by the patronage of Constantius Chlorus and his son Constantine the Great, from whom it received much kindness. In
gratitude to these princes, whose family name was Flavius,
the town took the name of Flavia. Upon the downfall of the
Roman power the town was reduced to ashes by Attila, king
of the Huns, and afterward came successively into the hands
of the Burgundians and Franks. In the time of Charles Martel (about A.D. 730), when the Saracens invaded France, they
took and burned Autun, and it was again pillaged by the Northmen in 894. We have followed Ukert in making Bibracte distinct from Augustodunum. D'Anville, however, is of the opposite opinion. 3. Alesia, to the north of the preceding, in the
territory of the  landubii, a tribe dependent on the iEdui. It
was so ancient a city that Diodorus Siculus ascribes the building of it to Hercules. The Celtie regarded the place as the
" hearth and metropolis of Gallia Celtica" (eariav Kial rlrpO6ro-?,tv KerAItlc), a sufficient proof in itself of the antiquity of the
settlement. Alesia was situate on a high hill, now Mount
Auxois, washed on two sides by the small rivers Lutosa and
Ozera, now the Lose and Ozerain. It remained free until
Caesar's time, who took it after a memorable siege, during which
he was himself besieged in his own lines by an army of about
300,000 Gauls, but whom he defeated with very heavy loss to
them. According to Florus, Caesar burned the town. If so,
however, it must have been soon rebuilt, for it became a place
of considerable consequence under the Roman emperors.. It




134            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
was laid in ruins in the ninth century by the Northmen. At
the present day there is a small town or village at the base of
Mount Auxois, called Le bourg de Sainte-Reine, the upper
part of which still retains the name of Alise. 4. Noviodunum,
to the west of Bibracte, near the confines of the Bituriges
Cubi. It was situate on the River Niveris, now the Nievre,
at its junction with the Ligeris. The name Noviodunum became subsequently changed to Nivernum, from that of the river, and is now Nevers. This was a place of little importance
until the reign of Clovis, in whose time it belonged to the Burgundians.
In the territory of the Lingones we find, 1. Andomatunum,
their capital, afterward Lingones, and now Langles. It was
a place of great importance under the Romans, and many antiquities have been found here. There yet remain the ruins of
two triumphal arches, one erected to Probus, the other to Constantius Ohlorus. This city suffered severely in the invasion
of Gaul by the barbarous tribes which overthrew the Roman
empire. 2. Dibio, in the southeastern angle of the country,
and near the confines of the IEdui. It is now Dijon. An ancient legend, attested by Gregory of Tours, relates that the Emperor Aurelian made Dibio a considerable fortress: other legends seem to confound Aurelian with Marcus Aurelius, who
lived a century before. This place passed in the fifth century
into the hands of the Burgundians, and subsequently of the
Franks.
In the territory of the Senones we find, 1. Agendzcum, which
Ptolemy writes'Ayrjc6Kov, Agcedicum, while in the Antonine
Itinerary it is Agedincum. It was afterward called Senones,
being the capital city, and is now Sens. Some antiquaries dispute the identity of Agelincum with Senones, and contend that
the former corresponds to the modern Provins, but this opinion does not appear to be well sustained. The town was situate on the right bank of the Icauna, the modern Yonne.
2. Antesiodurum or Antissiodurum, to the southeast of the preceding, on the left bank of the Icauna, and now Auxerre. It
was in the country of the Senones, but by a division of that
territory acquired a district of its own. The line of demarcation between the former dioceses of Sens and Auxeirre (now incorporated together) is supposed to have coincided with the




GALLIA.                     135
frontier of this district. The bishopric of Auxerre is said to be
as ancient as the third century, its first bishop having been St.
Peregrin, who was put to death in the reign of Aurelian, A.D.
273. 3. Vellaunodunum, to the southwest of Agedincum, and
near the confines of the Aureliani, now Beaune, according to
D'Anville; others, less correctly, are in favor of Chateau Landon,
or Chateau Renard. In the time of the Carlovingian kings of
France the district was known by the name of Pagus Belnisus.
4. MIelodunum, to the northwest of Agedincum, on the River
Sequana, and now Melun. Caesar describes it as situated on
an island, in the same manner as Lutetia or Paris. It was
taken by Labienus, Csesar's lieutenant, in his campaign against
the Parisii. It was also a place of note in the earlier times of
the French monarchy, and was repeatedly taken by both the
Northmen and the English. The modern town is built for the
most part on a slope on the right bank of the Seine. The ruins
of an old castle still remain on the island in which the old Celtic town stood. In the opinion of the best modern authorities,
Melodunum was the same place with the Metiosedum mentioned in the text of Caesar, and in all probability this latter
name is merely a false reading for the former.
In the territory of the Tricassii, or Tricasses, we find,
1. Augustobona, afterward Tricasses, or Tricassce, now Troyes,
their chief city, situate on the Sequana. Ptolemy writes the
name Avyovar66ava. The form Tricassae was, at a still later
period, changed to Trecce, from the oblique cases of which the
modern name has been derived. This city was plundered by
the Northmen, A.D. 889. In the feudal period it was the
capital of the important country of Troyes, or Champagne.
2. Corobilium, to the northeast of the preceding, on the Sequana, now Corbeille. Some write the name Corbelium, and
make Corobilium a town of tfie Catalauni, the site of which
is found, as they maintain, near the modern village of St
Ouen. But this is an error.
In the territory of the Meldi we find, 1. latinum ('Idrtvov),
their capital, afterward called Meldi, and now Meaux.  It
was situated on the Alba, now Aube, one of the tributaries of
the Mlatrona. The Peutinger Table calls it Fixtuinum. In
the early history of the Franks it was a place of considerable
consequence. 2. Caldczgum, to. the southeast of the preceding,
now Chailly.




136             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
In the territory of the Parisii we have Lutetia Parisiorum,
their chief city, afterward Parisii, and now Paris. This
place is mentioned by Caesar, in whose time it was already
the capital of the tribe. In that part of the Seine which now
traverses Paris were anciently five small islands, on one of
which, now the island of La Cite, stood Lutetia. This island
was then of smaller dimensions than at present, two smaller
islands at its western extremity having been incorporated with
it. Lutetia, antecedent to the Roman conquest, was an unwalled place. The etymology of the name of the Parisii has
been much disputed. Dulaure conjectures that it meant " inhabitants of the frontier."  A British tribe, in the neighborhood of Hull, in Yorkshire, had the same designation. In B.C.
54, Caesar convoked at Lutetia an assembly of the nations of
Gaul. In the general rebellion of the Gallic tribes the following year, Lutetia was burned by the Gauls to prevent its falling into the hands of the Romans; but it subsequently came
with the rest of Gaul into their power. For the next four centuries the place is hardly noticed, except by geographers, by
whom the name is variously written; nor does it appear to
have been of any importance until the later period of the Roman dominion. It took the name of tlIe tribe to which it belonged about A.D. 358 or 360. It was the seat of a bishopric
as early as the middle of the third century. Lutetia was the
favorite residence of Julian while he governed the provinces of
Gaul with the rank of Caesar. In or about the year 494 it
was taken by the Franks under Clovis. Under the Romans
the buildings connected with the town extended beyond the
island to both banks of the river.
In the territory of the Velocasses, or Bellocassi, we have
Rotomaguss, now Rouen. The name is variously written, Rotomagus, Rothonaagus, Ratomnagus, &c., and in Ammianus
Marcellinus we have the plural form Rotomagi. This name
remained when most other capitals had their own proper designation superseded by that of the people to whom they respectively belonged, and was subsequently shortened into Rotomum.
or Rodomum, whence the modern appellation Rouen. In the
early history of France, Rouen appears as the scene of some of
the cruelties of Fredegonde. It suffered much from the incursions of the Northmen, whose capital it eventually became,




GALLIA.                     137
when, by virtue of the treaty between Rollo qnd Charles the
Simple (A.D. 91.1 or 912), they settled in this part of France.
3. BELGICA.
(A.) NAME.
I. THE name Belgica was given to this province from that of
the Belge, the rulihg race in this quarter, who, in Cssar's
time, formed one of the three great divisions of Gaul.
II. The Belge, as has already been remarked, were of mixed
Celtic and Germanic blood, several German tribes having from
time to time crossed over, and either driven portions of the
Belgae back into the interior, or else having become amalgamated with them.
III. The province of Belgica, as settled by Augustus, was,
as before remarked, much more extensive than the ancient territory of the Belgm, and contained within its limits three different stems or races, namely, 1. Belgce, of mixed Celtic and
German blood; 2. Batdvi, of pure German origin; 3. Sequani anc! Helvetii, of pure Celtic extraction.
IV. We will now proceed to speak of these three races in
order, describing in succession the communities into which
they were respectively subdivided, and giving some account of
the cities of each.
1. OF THE BELGXE.
1. Larger Communities.
I. Bellovtci.-In the time of Julius Coesar the Bellovaci
were distinguished among the Belgic Gauls for number, valor,
and influence, and took an active part in the resistance to the
Roman arms, when these were first carried into this part of
the country. They agreed to contribute 60,000 men to the
confederate army of natives, but the skill and perseverance of
the Romans triumphed over all opposition, and the Bellovaci,
with their neighbors, had to submit to a foreign yoke. Theii
territory answered to what is now, in a great measure, the departments of Oise and Somme.
II. Menapii, a numerous tribe, occupying originally all the
country between the Mosa, or Meuse, and the Rhine, and in
Ceesar's time having settlements even on the eastern side of
the last-mentioned river. They were subsequently, however,




1 38            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
compelled to retire from the banks of the Rhine, wh.ery t:l Uiii
and Sicambri, nations from the interior of Germanyv were set..
tied by the Romans on the western side of the.Rhiie., Frorm
a passage of Tacitus we learn that, in later times, the settlements of this tribe were along the lower Meuse.
III. Tervii, a very powerful tribe, claiming to be of German
origin, who dwelt in what used to be the French departments
of Lys, Nord, Sambre et Meuse, Ardennes, or in Hennegan,
&c., on both banks of the Sambre, the ancient Sabis. Caesar
names among their dependents or clients the smaller tribes of
the Centrones, Grudii, Levaci, Pleumoxii, and Geiduni.. Their
original capital was Bagacunt, now Bavay, but afterward Camardcum, now Cambray, and Turndcum, now Tournay, became their chief cities toward the end of the fourth century.
After subjecting the Suessiones, the Bellovaci, and the Ambiani, Caesar marched against the Nervii. A desperate battle
was fought on the banks of the Sabis, in which the.Nervii actually surprised the Roman soldiers while in the act of tracing
and intrenching their camp, and came very near defeating the
latter. The scale was only turned at length by the valor of
the tenth legion. The Nervii fought desperately to the last,
and their nation and name, says Caesar, were nearly extinguished on that day. It was reported that, out of 60,000 fighting men, only five hundred remained. Caesar restored their
territory and towns to the remnant of the nation, and they appear subsequently to have become a considerable people. We
find them frequently serving, at a later day, among the Roman forces.
IV. Treveri or Treviri, a powerful tribe, claiming to be of
German origin like the Nervii, and dwelling on both sides of
the Mosella, from the Mosa to the Rhine. Their chief town
was Augusta Treverorum, now Treves. Their territory answered to what used to be the French departments of the
Meuse, Moselle, the department of the Sarthe toward the north,
and the southern part of that of Luxembourg.
2. Smaller Communities.
1. Ambidni, on the east coast, along both banks of the Samara, now the Somme, in what is now the department of Somme.
Their territory lay between that of the Bellovaci, Veroman



GALLIA.                     139
dui, and Atrebates. 2. Morini, also on the coast, between the
Ambiani and Nervii, and to the% northwest of the Atrebates.
Their name is derived from the Celtic mor, " the sea," and has
reference to their situation. Their territory answers now to a
portion of the department of Pas de Calais. 3. Atrabates, to
the southeast of the preceding, in what answers now*to the
eastern portions of the two departments of Pas de Calais and
Somme. This tribe were famed for their manufactures of
woollen goods even in Roman times, and the cloak or sagumr
that was made here was held in high esteem at Rome. 4. Toxiandri, to the south of the earlier settlement of the Menapii,
in what answers to the modern Seeland and northern Flanders.
5. Eburones, to the south of the Toxiandri, in what is now the
Netherland province of Limburg, around Hasselt. 6. Aduataci or Atuatici, the same, probably, with the Tungri of Tacitus
and Ammianus Marcellinus, or else the Tungri, a German
tribe, and the first that crossed the Rhine, became amalgamated with them. Their territory answered in some degree to
the present Netherland provinces of Littich and Namur. 7. Veromandui, to the southeast of the Atrebates, in the northern
portion of the department of Aisne, and the western portion of
that of Ardennes. Ptolemy calls them'PoFLdvdveg. 8. Suessiones, to the south of the preceding, and southwest of the Remi,
in the middle portion of the departments of Oise and Aisne,
and in the northern portion of the department of Marne. 9. Catalauni, to the south of the Remi, in the southern portion of the
department of Marne, and the western portion of that of the
Meuse. 10. Mediomatrici, to the south of the Treveri, in the
department of the Moselle. 11. Leuci, to the south of the preceding, in the northeastern portion of the department of Haute
MJarne, the northwestern of that of Vosges, and the southern
portions of those of Meuse and Meurthe.
CITIES OF THE BELG.E.
Cities belonging to the Ambiani, Morini, and Nervii
In the territory of the Ambiani we find, 1. Samarobriva, on
the Samara, now the Somme, the chief city of the tribe, called
afterward Ambiani, and now Amiens. 2. Ambiliati, now Abbeville.




140             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
In the territory of the Morini we find, 1. Taruenna or Teruanna, now Terouenne. 2. Gessoriacum, afterward Bononia,
now Boulogne. Mela mentions this place under its name of
Gessoriacum, and the manner in which he speaks of it implies
that it was of Gallic origin, and it was in his time the place of
greatest note on that coast. After Mela mention is also made
of it by Pliny and Ptolemy, the latter of whom calls it riaoppLtaK.v ertiveov. Some writers, and among them Montfaucon
and Cluverius, have endeavored to show that Boulogne was the
Portus Itius from which Caesar embarked for Britain,'but their
opinion is rejected by D'Anville, who agrees with Du Cange
and Cambden in fixing the Portus Itius at Witsand or Wissan,
a small town near Cap de Griz Nez. Gessoriacum became,
under the Romans, the chief port of embarkation for Britain.
Here, D'Anville thinks, was the tower erected by Caligula
when he marched to the coast of Gaul in order to invade Britain; and the Emperor Claudius, according to Suetonius, embarked here for that island. The port in Britain with which
a communication was chiefly maintained was Rutupice, now
RicAlborough, near Sandwich. About the time of the Emperor
Constantine, the name Bononia was substituted for that of
Gessoriacum, and the latter is not used by Ammianus Marcellinus, Eutropius, and other writers of a later period. Bononia
appears to have been one of the Roman naval stations. When
Carausius was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain,
he possessed himself of Bononia, which was, in consequence,
besieged and taken by Caesar Constantius Chlorus, father of
Constantine the Great, and the capture of the place proved the
occasion of a serious detriment to it. In the fifth century Bononia is said to have been unsuccessfully attacked by Attila,
king of the Huns, and in the ninth century it was laid waste
by the Northmen, who had landed in the neighborhood. From
the discovery of a ring to which the cables of vessels were fastened, it is thought that the sea flowed up as far as the present
upper town of Boulogne, in which case Gessoriacum must have
been at the bottom of a small bay.
3. Itius Portus, or Iccius Portus, just above Bononia, and
now Witsand, or Wissan, a small town near Cap de Griz Nez.
This port was famous as having been the one where Casar
embarked on his invasion of Britain, and has already been re



GALLIA.                     141
ferred to in the previous article. 4. Castellunm 2Iforinorum, to
the east of Bononia, now lMontcassel. 5. Ulterior Portus.
This was a harbor eight miles east of Itius Portus, according
to Caesar, and is mentioned by him in the account of his invasion of Britain. It is supposed to have been either where
Calais now stands, or near to it. Ukert places it at Gravelines.
In the territory of the Nervii we have, 1. Grudii, now
Groede, in Western Flanders. 2. Turnacum, in the interior,
now Tournay, on the Scaldis, or Scheldt. This place was
one of the chief cities of the tribe. It is mentioned by St. Jerome in the beginning of the fifth century as being among the
places which had been seized by the barbarians who overran
Gaul. It was among the early acquisitions of the Franks,
and was the capital of the as yet infant empire of Clovis.
3. Camaracum, now Cambray, also on the Scaldis, and to the
south of the preceding. This place rose to notice in the latter
period of the Roman empire, and is mentioned in both the Antonine Itinerary and the Theodosian Table. In the Notitia
Provinciarum it appears as one of the chief cities of the tribe,
Turnacum being the other. In the infancy of the Frankish
monarchy, Cambray is said to have been the capital of Clodion, the son of Pharamond, A.D. 427-448, and to have given
title to his kingdom. Charlemagne fortified it, and Charles
the Bald ceded it to the bishops, by whom the sovereignty of
it was lowg retained. 4. Bagacum, to the northeastof the
preceding, now Bavay. This was the original capital of the
Nervii, but was superseded toward the end of the fourth century by Turnacum and Camaracum. The importance of the
place, however, is testified by the fact that the Romans brought
water to it across the valley of the Sabis, now Sambre, by
means of an aqueduct, from springs distant ten or eleven miles,
Bavay is at the junction of several Boman roads, which traversed the surrounding country. According to some, Bagacum
was destroyed by the barbarians toward the end of the fourth
century, and it was on this account that Turnacum and Camaracum rose into importance. The name was variously written, Bagracum in the Antonine Itinerary, Baganum by Ptolemy, and Basiacum, Bavacum, and Bacacum in later authorities. In the Middle Ages the place was a mere castle.




142             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Cities in the Interior, between the Tribes just mentioned and
the River Mosa.
In the territory of the Bellovaci we find, 1. Ccesaromagus,
the capital of the tribe (Kataap6oayo)), afterward Bellovaci, and
now Beauvais.   Several writers of great learning, Sanson,
Scaliger, and Valesius, have considered that Bratuspantium,
the town into which the BeIlovaci retreated with their effects
on Casar's approach, was identical with Coesaromagus, and
D'Anville himself was at first of the same opinion, though he
afterward made the site of Bratuspantium to be in the neighborhood of Breteuil, in Picardie. 2. Bratuspantium, just referred to in the preceding sentence.
In the territory of the Suessiones we find, 1. Augusta Suessionum, the capital of the tribe, afterward Suessiones, now
Soissons. D'Anville, Dulaure, and others are disposed to identify Augusta Suessionum with the Noviodunum of Caesar, but
this opinion does not seem consistent with Caesar's narrative.
In the "Notitia Imperil" it is recorded that there was at Augusta a government manufactory of shields, balistae, and armor for the cavalry, called Clibanarii or Cataphracti (fabrica
scutaria, balistaria, et clibanaria). In the later period of the
Roman dominion, this city was one of the most important
places in northern Gaul, and one of the last which remained
under the government of the emperors. It was also the seat
of government of 2Egidius and his son Syagrius, and near it
the latter was defeated by Clovis. Under the early Frankish
princes it continued to be of importance, and was the seat of
a bishopric. Here Clovis espoused Clotilde; and, upon the
division of his dominions among his descendants, it gave name
to one of the kingdoms formed out of them.  2. Fines, or
Fimce, on the boundary line between the Suessiones and Remi,
now Fisme, in Champagne.
In the territory of the Veromandui we find, 1. Augusta Veromanduorum, the capital of the tribe, now St. Quentin. The
oldest quarter of the town has retained, down to modern times,
the name of Aouste. 2. Verbinum, to the east of the preceding, now Vervins.
In the territory of the Atrebates we find, 1. Nemetacum, the
capital of the tribe, afterward Atrebates, and now Arras. Not




GALLIA.                     143
only the modern name of the place, but that, also, of the country, Artois, is a corruption' of the ancient name of the race.
It appears from the writings of St. Jerome, who lived during
the close of the fourth century and the beginning of the fifth,
that in his time it was a manufacturing town, and had been
pillaged by the barbarians. 2. Helena, mentioned by Sidonius Apollinaris, and now probably Lens.
In the territory of the Aduatici we find Aduatica, afterward
Tungri, now Tongres. In the earlier settlements of the Menapii, near the Scaldis, before they were driven south by German -tribes, we find Castellum Menapiorum, now Kessel, on
the Meuse.
Cities in the Interior, belonging to the Condrusi, Remi, Treveri, Medromatrici, Leuci, Sc.
In the territory of the Condrusi we find, 1. Fons Tungro.
rum, now Spaa, the medicinal waters of this place being known
to the Romans. 2. Marcomdgus, now Markmagen.
In the territory of the Remi we find, 1. Durocortorum, afterward Remi, the chief city of the tribe, now Rheims. This
place is mentioned by Caesar, in whose time it was already an
important city. Strabo writes the name Aovptco6propa. It was
at the convergence of several military roads, according to the
Antonine Itinerary and Peutinger Table. Under the Roman
sway, Durocortorum was the most important place in Belgica
Secunda, and was distinguished by its literary character. Cornelius Fronto, a rhetorician of the time of Hadrian, has compared it to Athens, an indication, making allowance for rhetor.
ical exaggeration, of its high reputation in this respect. In
A.D. 494, this city, then in the hands of the Franks, by whom
it had been occupied after the death of Syagrius, was the scene
of the baptism of Clovis and the chief lords of his court, after
his victory at Tolbiac. In the civil troubles of the ninth and
tenth centuries it was repeatedly besieged, and twice, at least,
taken and plundered. In 1179 it was signalized by the consecration of Philippe Auguste, and, with a few exceptions, all the
succeeding monarchs of France have also been consecrated at
this place. 2. Axuenna, now Vienne la Ville, on the Aisne,
the ancient Axona.
In the territory of the Treveri we find, 1. Antunacum or An



144             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
dernacum, now Andernach, a Roman station. It was famed
at a later day for the victory gained here by Louis the German
over Charles the Bald. 2. Confluentes, now Coblenz, at the
confluence of the Mosella and Rhenus,.whence it derived its
names of Confluentes, Confluentia, or Confluens. This last was
originallythe name of a castle erected by Drusus on the right
bank of the Mosella. 3. Ambitarinus Vicus, on the Rhine, above
Confluentes, where the Emperor Caligula was born. D'Anville and others write the name Ambiatinus -icus, but the other form is the more correct one. Ukert makes this place to
have been in the vicinity of the modern Reuse; Cluver declares for Capelle. 4. Noviomagus, on the Mosella, now Neumagen. 5. Augusta Trevirorun, called afterward Treviri, and
now Treves, or, as it Is called in German, Trier, the capital
of the tribe, on the right bank of the Mosella. When Julius
Caesar was in Gaul, the Treviri were a powerful people, and
their capital even then a place of importance. No credit, however, is to be given to the hyperbolical inscription put up in
modern times, and which states that this city was built 1300
years before Rome! In later times Treves was the residence
of the emperors Constantius, Constantine the Great, Julian,
Valentinian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius, and was so eminent for its commerce, manufactures, wealth, and extent, that
Ausonius calls it the second metropolis of the empire. It was
nearly annihilated by the Huns, the Goths, and the Vandals,
yet subsequently almost recovered its ancient splendor under the
Archbishops of Treves, some of whom maintained large armies,
which they occasionally led to the field in person, and greatly
enlarged their dominions, so that they obtained considerable political influence in Germany.
In the' territory of the Catalauni we find Durocatelauni,
called afterward Catalauni, on the right bank of the Matrona,
and now Chalons sur Marne. It was the capital of the tribe.
The prefix Duro, in the name of the place, is of Celtic origin,
and means "water," indicating, in the present instance, the
position of the city on the banks of a river. Near this place
(A.D. 271) Aurelius defeated the army of Tetricus. In a subsequent age it was marked by another memorable conflict. In
the year 451, Attila, at the head of the Huns, who had invaded
Gaull, was defeated by the combined forces of the Romans and




GAL L A.                   145
Visigoths under Aetius and Theodoric. D'Anville conjectures
that'the ancient name of the town was originally in the singular form Durocatalaunum.
In the territory of the Virodunenses we find Virodunum, now
Verdun. Gregory of Tours writes the name Viredunum, and
other writers of the Middle Ages have Viridunum and Virdunum. In the Middle Ages it was included in the Germanic empire, of which its bishops were princes.
In the territory of the Mediomatrici we find Divodurum, afterward Mediomatrici, for which last was substituted, early in
the fifth century, the shorter designation of Mettis or Metis,
whence the modern name Metz. It was the capital of the tribe.
In the civil dissensions which followed the death of Nero, A.D.
70, Divodurum was nearly destroyed by a sudden outbreak of
the troops of Vitellius. It was completely ruined in the invasion of the Huns under Attila, A.D. 452; but it afterward became the capital of Anstrasia, which was sometimes termed
the kingdom.of Metz. In the division of the Carlovingian empire, Metz was comprehended in the kingdom of Lotharingia.
or Lorraine.
In the territory of the Leuci we find, 1. Nasium, near what
is now the village of Grand-Nancy. At a place in this vicinity called Nas or Nais, inscriptions have been dug up with the
name Nasienses. Nasium does not, as some suppose, answer
to the present town of Nancy or Nanci, this last not being
known to have existed before the twelfth century. 2. Tullum
Leucorum, to the east of the preceding, now Toul. It was the
chief city of the tribe. In some deeds of the time of the Carlovingian princes it is called Leuci.
2. OF THE BATAVI.
I. UNDER this head we will make mention also of the other
German tribes settled on the left bank of the Rhine.
II. All these tribes, the Batavi included, may be divided into
two classes, namely, 1. Tribes at or near the mouths of the
Rhine, in what were called Insulce Batavorum, &c., and,
2. Tribes on the bank of the Rhine further up, in what was
called Germania Prima.
K




146             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
First Class.
I. Caninefates, a tribe of the same origin with the Batavi,
occupying not only the western part of the Insula Batavorum,
between the Helium Ostium and Flevum Ostium, or the lower
and upper mouths of the Rhine, but also extending beyond the
Flevum Ostium into what is now northern Holland and west
Friesland. They were not so numerous, however; as the Batavi, and hence their name gradually became lost in that of
the larger community. Their chief city was Lugdunum Batavorum, now Leyden. An account of the Lacus Flevo, in
the territory of the Frisii, will be given in the geography of
Germania, when describing the Rhine.
II. Batavi, a Germanic tribe of the race of the Catti, who
seem to have left their native district some time before the age
of Caesar, and to have settled on the banks of the Vahalis, now
the Waal, a branch of the Lower Rhine. They occupied the
district, called by some the island, between the. Vahalis and
Mosa, above their junction, and also the island formed by the
northern arm of the Rhine, or Rhine of Leyden, the Vahalis
before its junction with the Mosa, the Vahalis and Mosa after
their junction, and the ocean. This district and island, or, to
speak less precisely, these two islands, were called Insulce Batavorum. In strictness, however, there was but one island,
that, namely, last described, and the more correct designation,
therefore, was Insula Batavorum, in the singular. This island
now constitutes part of the province of South Holland. Cesar
appears to consider their country as belonging to Germany
and not to Gaul, the limits of Belgic Gaul being placed at the
southern branch of the Rhine, or Waal, after its junction with
the Mosa, or Meuse. We have followed, however, the ordinary arrangement, which assigns them to Gallia. The Batavi
seem to have occupied also a small portion of country on the
banks of the Rhine, and not within the island. Cmasar did
not carry the war into the country of the Batavi. Under Augustus they became allies of the Romans. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, resided for a time among them, and dug a canal,
Fossa Drusiana, which connected the Rhine with the modern
Yssel. The name of the Batavi can be traced even now in
that of the Beturve, which is a district of the ancient Batavorum Insula, between the Rhine, the Waal. and the Lek.




GALLIA.                     147
After the death of Galba, the army of the Rhine having proclaimed Vitellius, and followed him on his way to Italy, the
Batavi took the opportunity of rising against the Romans,
whose alliance had become very burdensome to them. Claudius Civilis, a man belonging to one of their principal families,
though bearing a Roman name, acted as their leader. At one
time the insurrection seems to have spread among the neighboring tribes of Germans as well as of Belgian Gauls, but the
speedy return of the legions suppressed the movement. Civilis
resisted for a time, but the Batavi were at last subdued. Still
it would appear that they obtained conditions, for we find them
afterward restored to their former state of free allies of Rome.
It appears, however, that subsequently, in the reigns of Trajan and Hadriai, the Romans completely established their dominion over them, for we find in the Antonine Itinerary and
the Peutinger Table two Roman roads across the country.
Tle Batavi were employed by Agricola in his wars in Britain.
In the latter part of the third century, during the civil war
which desolated the empire, the Salian Franks invaded the
country of the Batavi, and established themselves in it. They
armed pirate vessels, which were encountered and defeated at
sea by Carausius. Constantius and Constantine waged war
against the Franks of the Batavian island, but could not drive
them out of it. The Franks lost it, however, in the reign of Julian, by an irruption of Frisii, who came from the northern country, near the Zuider Zee, and drove the Salian Franks beyond
the Meuse. After this the Insula Batavorunt formed part of
the country called Frzisia, which, in the time of the Merovingi,
ans, extended southward as far as the Scheldt.
III. Gugerni or Guberni, between the Meuse, Waal, and
Rhine. They were a part of the German Sigambri, who had
been removed by Tiberius, B.C. 8, into the territory of the
Menapii.
IV. Ubii, a German tribe transported by Agrippa (B.C. 3S)
to the left bank of the Rhine, and settled between this river
and the Meuse. Their territory extended from what is now
the Rheno-Prussian village of Gelb or Gellub, as far as Rheinmagen..Their capital was Oppidum Ubiorum,afterward Co.
lonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis.




148             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Second Class.
I. Vangiones, a German tribe dwelling on the Rhine, to the
east 6f the Treviri, and north of the Nemetes, or between the
modern Bingen and Selz. Their capital was Borbetomagus,
now Wurms.
II. Trib6ci or Tribocci, a German tribe on the left bank of the
Rhine, and between that river and the Mediomatrici and Lerici
Their chief town was Argentoratum, now Strasbourg. They
dwelt in what is now Alsace.
III. Raurdci, between the Triboci, Sequani, and Helvetii,
and extending from the mouth of the Arola, now Aar, to that
of the Birsa, near Basilea, now Basel or Basle. Their capital
was Augusta Rauracorum, now Aunst.
Cities of the Tribes just mentioned.
In the territory of the Caninefates and Batavi we find,
1. Forum Hadriani, now Haarlem. 2. Lugdunum Batavorum, now Leyden, near the mouth of the northern arm of the
Rhine. 3. Prcetdrium Agrippince, now Roemberg, on the Rhine.
4. Tablce, now Delft. 5. Vada, now Gouda. 6. Trajectum,
now  Utrecht.  7. Batavodurum, now Wyk de Duurstede.
8. Arenacum or Arenatium, near the modern Arnheim. 9. liN
viomagus, on the Vahalis, now Nimwegen. It was the capital of the Batavi. 10. Batavorum  Oppidum, on the Mosa,
southwest of the preceding, now, according to D'Anville, Battenburg.
In the territory of the Gugerni we find, 1. Mediolanum, now
Mayland. 2. Colonia Trajana, called, also, Castra Ulpia,
now Kelln, in the Circle of Cleve. 3. Tricesimce, which some
confound with Castra Ulpia, now Drich, near Santen, the classical name for which latter place is Castra Vetera. 4. Asciburgium, fabled to have been founded by Ulysses. Mannert,
following Ptolemy, makes this place to have been situate on
the right bank of the Rhine, where the canal of Drusus joined
the Isala, now Yssel, and where the modern Dosburg lies. It
seems more correct, however, to make it correspond to Asburg,
or the neighboring hamlet of Essenberg, on the left bahk. The
name Asciburgium is derived by some from the old German term
ask, " a vessel," "a ship," and berg or burg, whence it is sup



GALLIA.                    149
posed to be equivalent to Schiffburg. Others, however, connect the name with the legend of Odin and the Asi.
In the territory of the Ubii we find, 1. Gelduba, probably
one of the border fortresses erected by Drusus. A bridge was
here thrown by him over the Rhine. It is now Gelb, in the
province of Diisseldorf. 2. Novesium, now Neuss. 3. Durnomagus, now Di'rmagen. 4. Juliacum, to the southwest, now
Jiilich, or, as the French write the name, Juliers. 5. Oppidum Ubiorum, the capital of the tribe, afterward named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis, when a Roman colony had
been established here, first by Agrippa, and subsequently by
Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, and wife of the Emperor Claudius. The colony of Agrippina, who was the granddaughter of Agrippa, appears to have been sent out to strengthen the first, and its title was Colonia Claudia Agrippinensis,
Agrippa's colony having been called Colonia Agrippina. The
modern name of the place is Cologne, or, as the Germans write
it, Koln. Agrippina adorned it with an amphitheatre, temples,
aqueducts, &c., the ruins of which may still be traced. It continued to be the capital of Lower Rhenish Gaul until A.D. 330,
and, after a frequent change of masters, was annexed to the
German empire in A.D. 870. We must be careful not to confound the Ara Ubiorum with the Oppiducm Ubiorum. The
former was an altar, probably erected to Augustus, like that
at Lugdunum or Lyons. Not far from Bonn is a hill called
Godesberg, and it is highly probable that this is the site of the
Ara Ubiorum. That it was somewhere near Bonn is pretty
certain. The name Godesberg seems to indicate that the place
was the seat of a religious worship of some kind. 6. Bonna,
now Bonn, on the Rhine, above Colonia Agrippina. In records
of a remote date it is called Bunna, a word which Arndt derives from the Celtic " Buhn," meaning a spot containing productive fields, pastures, and water-courses. Bonna became the
head-quarters of the sTxth Roman legion, and, according to the
Antonine Itinerary, was afterward kept up as one of the Roman strongholds on the Rhine. It rose ultimately to be a place
of some note. According to Tacitus, the Roman troops under
Herennius Gallus were defeated near this city by the Batavi
under Claudius Civilis. Bonna and Novesium are repeatedly
mentioned in the subsequent account of the contest with the




150             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Batavi as places where the Roman generals mustered theni
forces. In the year 355, Bonn was destroyed by an irruption
of German tribes, and in 359 was rebuilt by the Emperor
Julian. Under the Frankish sovereigns it is said to have borne
the name of Verona. In 881 it was almost ruined by the
Northmen.
In the territory of the Vangiones we find, 1. Bingium, now
Bingen, at the influx of the Nava, now Nahe, into the Rhine.
The bridge of stone leading at the present day across the Nahe
into Bingen is generally supposed to have been constructed by
Drusus, and the ruins of the old fort of Klopp, upon an eminence near the town, stand upon the site of the castle known
to have been built by the same commander. 2. Magontiacum
or MToguntiacum, now Mayence, or, as it is called tn German,
Mainz or Mentz, on the Rhine, and the capital of the tribe.
In B.C. 13, Drusus founded the fortress, on the site of which
Kastel now stands. The town sprang up around this, but did
not extend, under the Romans, to the Rhine. It was destroyed
by the Vandals in 406, and lay in ruins for some centuries,
until it was rebuilt by the King of the Franks. The writers
of the Middle Ages generally prefer the form Mlogontiacum
when speaking of this place, not Magontiacum. 3. Borbetomagus,. called, also, Augusta Vangionum, and now Worms,
south of the preceding, and likewise on the Rhine. The modern name appears to have arisen from the intermediate form
Warmatia or Wormatia, which occurs in the't Notitia."  It
was destroyed by the Vandals and Huns, but was rebuilt by
the Franks. It was afterward the residence (at least for a considerable time) of Charlemagne, who held in its vicinity those
primitive legislative assemblies which, meeting in May, were
called Mai Lager or Champs de Mai, in one of which assemblies the war with the Saxons was resolved on. Some of the
Frankish and Carlovingian kings also resided here.
In the territory of the Nemetes we find, 1. Noviomacgus,
called afterward Augusta Nemetum, and now Spire or Speyer.
The modern name comes from the form Sphira, which occurs
in the Ravenna geographer. 2. Julius Vicus, now Germersheim.
In the territory of the Triboci we find, 1. Argentoratum,
now Strasbourg, or, as it is called in German, Strassburg.




GALLIA.                    151
This place is first mentioned by Ptolemy, who erroneously
calls it a town of the Vangiones. It was in the Roman province of Germania Prima or Superior; and it was near this place
that Julian, while he held the command in Gaul, as Caesar,
defeated the Allemanni, under their king Chnodomar, A.D.
357. At a subsequent period it appears to have fallen into
their hands, and it was taken from them by Clovis and the
Franks. It was afterward included in Lotharingia, and in the
tenth century was incorporated with the German empire. It
was during these changes, perhaps in the sixth century, that it
exchanged its ancient name of Argentoratum for that of Stratecburgus or Strateburgum, modified subsequently into Stratzburg, and finally into Strassbourg. 2. Helellum, called in the
Antonine Itinerary Helvetum, now Schlettstadt. In its vicinity were dug up statues of Mercury and Diana, together with
gold and silver coins.
In the territory of the Rauraci we find, 1. Argentovaria
or Argentaria, now Arzheim. In this vicinity the Emperor
Gratian obtained a victory over the Alemanni. 2. Basilea,
now Basel, Bcisle, or Bale. It was originally a castle or fortress built by the Emperor Valentinian I., and after the ruin
of Augusta Rauracorum it rose gradually into importance. In
917 it was destroyed by the Maggars, but was soon rebuilt,
and became again a flourishing place.'3. Augusta Rauracorum, the chief city of the tribe. Its original name appears to
have been Rauracum. A Roman colony was led hither by Munatius Plancus during the reign of Augustus. The city was
destroyed by Attila. The village of Augst occupies a part of
the ancient site.
3. OF THE SEQUANI AND HELVETIL
In the Province of Maxima Sequanorum.
I. Sequani.-These, as before remarked, were a tribe of Celtic origin. Their territory was bounded on the north by the
range of Mount Vogesus, on the west by the Arar, now Saone,
on the south by the Rhodanus, and on the east by the range
of Jura. It answered, therefore, to what is now the northern
portion of the department of Ain, the eastern portion of the department of SaGne, the departments of Jura and Doubs, and
the southern portion of that of Haute-Saone. The Sequani




152             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
were one of the most powerful tribes of the Celtic stock, and
had long, together with the Arverni, been rivals of the AEdui,
as regarded the superiority in Gaul, before the arrival of Caesar
in that country. Having been unsuccessful in this contest,
they had called in the aid of Ariovistus, a powerful German
monarch, who, however, after defeating the LEdui and their
allies, had become a general oppressor to both parties, and had
seized upon the territories of some of the dependents of the S3quani themselves along the banks of the Rhine. After the defeat of Ariovistus by Caesar, some of the followers of the former,
and especially the Triboci, still retained possession of this newlyacquired territory, which thenceforth was completely lost to the
Sequani. By the subsequent division which Augustus made
of Gaul, the Sequani became included in'the new province of
Belgica, of which they ever afterward continued to form part.
II. Helvetii.-The territory of this powerful tribe, who were
of Celtic origin, was bounded on the west by Mount Jura,
which separated them from the Sequani, on the south by the
Pennine Alps, on the east by the Retian Alps, and on the north
by the Rhine. They occupied, therefore, a great part of what
is modern Switzerland. Caesar says that they were divided
into four pagi, or cantons, of which he names two, the pagus
Tigurinus and pagus Urbigenus or Verbigenus. The modern cities of Zurich arid Orbes are supposed to have derived
their names from these two pagi.  The other cantons, not
named by Caesar, were the pagus Tugenus andpagus Ambronicus. The Helvetii appear for the first time in history about
110 B.C. The Tigurini having joined the Cimbri in their invasion of Gaul, the Roman consul L. Cassius was sent with
an army against them. He met the forces of the Tigurini
some say near the Arar or Saone, according to others near the
eastern bank of the Lacus Lemanus, or Lake of Geneva; but
he was defeated and slain, together with his lieutenant Piso,
and most of his soldiers. The rest made a capitulation, by
which they were allowed to return home after passing under
the yoke. About half a century later, the great body of the
Helvetians resolved to migrate with their families into the more
fertile parts of Gaul. They burned their towns and villages,
and passed through the country of the Sequani until they
reached the Arar. Here Caesar fell upon the Tigurini, after




GALL1A.                    1 53
the others had crossed the stream, and completely defeated
them. The rest of the Helvetii were defeated with great
slaughter near Bibracte, in the country of the ZEdui. The
survivors, about one third of the original number, were allowed
to return to their country, and were henceforth in the condition of allies and tributaries of Rome. The Helvetii who returned home were mustered by Casar, and found to be 110,000
individuals, men, women, and children. Their number when
they left home was 368,000 individuals, of whom 92,000 were
fighting men. After the total conquest of Gaul, the Romans
sent colonies into the country of the Helvetii; but it appears
from Tacitus (Hist., i., 67) that the Helvetii retained the right
of keeping garrisons in some of their own strongholds, and it
was the rapacity of the twenty-first legion, which appropriated
to its own use certain moneys destined to pay the Helvetian
garrisons, that was the first cause of the fatal insurrection of
A.D. 69. After the legions of Germany had proclaimed Vitellius, and when Caecina, one of his lieutenants, was marching
with a strong force toward Italy, the Helvetii, who were not
yet acquainted with. the events at Rome and the murder of
Galba, intercepted letters which were written in the name of
the legions of Germany to the legions of Pannonia, and which
invited the latter to join Vitellius, and they arrested the centurion and his escort as guilty of treason against Galba. Upon
this, Caecina, who had just entered the territory of the Helvetii
on his way to Italy, devastated the country, destroyed the Thermam Helvetica (the modern Baden, in Aargau), and advanced
against the main body of the Helvetians, who were in arms,
and had chosen a certain Claudius Severus for their leader.
The Helvetians, however, made no stand against the Roman
veterans, and were massacred without mercy. Those who escaped death were sold as slaves. The town of Aventicum, one
of the first in Helvetia, sent messengers to Cmecina, with an
offer to surrender; but Coecina sentenced the principal inhabitants to death, and referred the fate of the rest to Vitellius,
who with difficulty was induced at length to spare their lives.
Vespasian, who succeeded Vitellius, had lived, when a boy, at
Aventicum with his father Sabinus, who went thither as a publicanus, and had died there. After Vespasian became emperor
he remembered Aventicum, and embellished and enlarged the




154             ANCIENT GEOGRAPPIY.
place. Nothing particular occurred after this in Helvetia until the beginning of the fifth century of our era. During this
long period the Roman language and Roman habits and manners became prevalent throughout the country, though it is supDosed that the more central valleys and the Alpine recesses retained a sort of rude independence,.since Roman stations have
been traced forming a line at the foot of the high Alps, which
seem to have extended from the Lake of Wallenstadt to that
of the Waldstdtter, where Luzern now is, and thence to the
highlands of Bern, as if to guard the open country against the
irruptions of the mountaineers. At the breaking up of the
western empire, the Burgundians were the first to form a permanent situation' in western Switzerland, between the Jura
range, the Leman Lake, and the River Aar, and Geneva became the occasional residence of their kings. Meantime the
Allemanni, a wilder and more barbarous race than the Bur-.gundians, occupied the banks of the Rhine as far as eastern
Helvetia, until, being defeated by Clovis, king of the Franks,
at Tolbiacum, near Cologne, A.D. 496, the Franks became
masters of the country which the Allemanni had occupied, including a great part of Helvetia. The old natives of Helvetia
became now by turns subjects or serfs of these various masters;
being no longer a nation, their very name became obliterated,
and they were included in the general appellation of Romans,
by which the northern conquerors designated the inhabitants of
the countries once subject to Rome.
In the territory of the Helvetii is the Lacus Lemanus, now
Lake of Geneva, one of the largest in Europe, and extending
in the form of a crescent from east to west. The ordinary orthography of the name is Lemanus, as we have given it, though
Oudendorp, Ukert, and others consider Lemannus more correct. Strabo, according to the latest and best text (that of
Kranfer), calls it } Aq1Tevva ALuv], but Ptolemy Altpvtl. In the
Antonine Itinerary it is termed Lausonius Lacus, and in the
Peutinger Table Losannensis Lacus.  Most of the ancient
writers who make mention of this lake, repeat the erroneous
account that the River Rhodanus traverses this sheet of water
without mingling its waters with it.




GALLIA.                     155
Cities of the Sequani.
Proceeding from north to south we find, 1. Luxovium, now
Luxeu. There were warm springs in this quarter, and thermae
erected over them, the ruins of which still exist. 2. Portus
Abucini, on the Arar, southwest of the preceding, now Port
szgr Saone. 3. Segobudium or Segoboduunz, also on the Arar,
now Seveux, on the Saone. 4. Loposagium, on the Dubis, now
Luxiol, near Beaume. 5. Epamanduodurum, to the northeast
of the preceding, now Miandeure. 6. Vesontio, on the Dubis,
now Besanfon. The origin of this town is unknown. Local
traditions and legends dated it as far back as four hundred and
thirty-four years before the foundation of Rome, which, according to the received chronology, would be about 1186 B.C.
All that we know with certainty is, that in Caesar's campaign
against Ariovistus, it was the greatest city of the Sequani,
and a place so strong by situation as to offer to either party
the greatest facilities for protracting the war. Cesar, by a
rapid march, seized the town and placed a garrison in it.
The,Roman general has described the place as nearly surrounded by the River Dubis, which here formed a bend, as
though its course had been traced by a pair of compasses,
and the interval left by the river was occupied by an eminence, which, being fortified with a wall, served as a kind of
citadel. This was a flourishing place under the Romans, but
when the inroads of the barbarians commenced, the city of Vecontio had its share in the general calamities, and was destroyed by the Allemanni in the time of Julian. It was rebuilt,
but again destroyed by Attila and the Huns. Several remains
at the present day attest its former greatness. 7. Ariolica,
called afterward Pontarlum, to the southeast of Vesontio. It
is now Pontarlier. 8. Miagetobria, now Moigte de Broie, according to the best opinion, and in the vicinity of Pontarlier.
The MSS. of Caesar, who makes mention of the place, have almost all Admagetobria. 9. Pons Dubis, now Pont, near the
frontier of the IEdui.
Cities of the Helvetii.
Proceeding from the northeast toward the south, we find,
1. Vindonissa, now Windisch, on the Arola, now Aar, in the




1 56            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
canton of Bern. 2. Forum Tiberii, to the north of the preceding, on the Rhine, now Kaiserstuhl. 3. Turicum, now Zurich,
on the Limagus, now the Limmat. 4. Salodurum, to the southwest of the preceding, on the River Arola, now Solothurn or
Solerne. 5. Aventicum, now Avenches, called, also, Colonia
Flavia and Pia Flavia. It was the chief city of the Helvetii,
and has already been alluded to in the account just given of
that people. It took the name of Colonia Flavia and Pia Flavia in the reign of Vespasian, when embellished and enlarged
by that emperor, as already remarked. 6. IJausanna, now Lausanne, near the southern shore of the Lacus Lemanus. 7. Noiodunum, called, also, Colonia Equestris, now Nyon, in the Pays
de Vaud.
ISLANDS BELONGING TO AQUITANICA AND LUGDUNENSIS.
I. Uliarus, now Oleron, lying on the coast of the Santones,
off the mouth of the Carant6nus, now Charente, and a little
distance above the mouth of the Garumna. It belonged to
Aquitanica. The name Uliarus occurs in Pliny. Subsequently we have in Sidonius Apollinaris the derived adjective Qlarionensis, which serves to mark the transition to the modern
name of Oleron. This island extends about twenty miles in
length, and is about seven miles in breadth. The inhabitants
appear to have had a very considerable trade as early as the
twelfth century, and to have collected adjudged cases upon the
laws of the sea for regulating their own commercial affairs.
Hence arose the famous maritime laws of Oleron, which be%
came known and partially adopted throughout all Europe. It
is an historical error to suppose, as some do, that the laws of
Oleron were compiled and published by Richard I. of England,
in this island, on his return from the Holy Land.
II. Radis, now Re, a short distance above Uliarus. The Ravenna geographer calls it Ratis, but the writers of the Middle
Ages give the name as Radis. It is about sixteen miles long,
and about three or four broad.
III. Ogia, now D' Yeu or Dieu, northwest of the preceding,
and lying farther out than it from the mainland, the nearest
point of which is distant more than ten miles. It is about six
miles in length, and about two and a half or three miles in
breadth. The whole island is little else than a vast granitic




GALLIA.                     157
rock, covered with a vegetable soil three feet ih thickness in the
lower part, but in the higher ground so thin as to leave the rock
almost bare.
IV. Strabo speaks of a small island, not far from the coast,
and lying off the mouth of the Ligeris, on which, according to
him, dwelt a species of Amazonian race, addicted to the worship
of Dionysus or Bacchus, and who once every year, during the
celebration of the orgies of the god, unroofed his temple and put
on a new covering before evening. Each woman brought materials for this purpose; and if any one of them allowed these
materials to fall to the ground, she was torn in pieces by the
rest. Some one always suffered in this way every year. Strabo calls these females "the women of the Samnites," at TCv
acvLTriv yvvalieg, but Tyrrwhit reads Nauvtrov, which is, no
doubt, the true lection, the island lying off the coast of the
Namnetes.
V; Vindilis, now Belle Isle, a little to the northwest of the
mouth of the Ligeris. It was known to the Romans under this
name of Vindilis, and it appears in a deed of the Middle Ages
under the name of Guedel, a form which has some affinity with
Vindilis. It was also, according to some writers, known to the
ancients under the Greels name of Calonesus, of which its modern name of Belle Isle is a translation. The island is about
eleven miles in length, and about six in breadth.
VI. Uxantis, now Ouessant, or, as the English writers frequently'call it, Ushant, above the Gobaeum Promontorium, and
lying off the territory of the Osismii. It is about four miles
long and three broad. Another ancient name was Axantos.
VII. Ccesarea, now Jersey, off the coast of the Unelli. Its
greatest length is about twelve miles, its greatest breadth about
seven. The only mention made of this island in the ancient
writers is that which occurs in the Antonine Itinerary. Its
original name is said to have been Angia. It appears to have
been called Caesarea in honor of some one of the Roman em
perors.
VIII. Sarnia, to the northwest of the preceding, now Guernsey. Mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. The form of the
island approximates to that of a right-angled triangle. The
sides face the south, east, and northwest, and are respectively
about six and a half, six, and nine miles long.




1 58               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
IX. Ridzna,e to the northeast of the preceding, now         Aurigny, or, as the English writers more commonly term it, Alderney. It is about three and three quarter miles long, and about
one and three eighths broad, and about eight miles in circuit.
The Northmen settled here at an early period.
REMARKS
ON THE
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES OF CELTIC NAMES OF PLACES, TRIBES, &c
I. THE remarks which we are here about to make, though obtained from the
best sources, must be regarded as at best merely conjectural or approximative.
And this must be the character of all speculations upon the language of the ancient Celtic race, notwithstanding the boasted discoveries of modern times.
II. We do not know of any original Celtic alphabet, nor of any works in that
language. Indeed, we have no positive knowledge left of the language of Celtic Gaul, unless we suppose it to have been similar to the Gaelic of Scotland.
The Breton language, like the Welsh, is a dialect of the Cymric tongue, belonging to that great division of the Celtae.
III. It has been long disputed whether the Basque language is a dialect of the
old Celtic.  W. Von Humboldt (Prufung der Untersuchungen iber die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der Vaskischer Sprache, Berlin, 1821) seems to be
of opinion that the Basque language is of Iberian, and not of Celtic origin; and
this undoubtedly is the true view of the case, the Iberian itself being connected
with the Finnish dialects of northern Europe.
IV. The remains of the old Celtic language nust therefore be sought in the
Gaelic, and in the Erse or Irish, which is said to resemble the Gaelic, and also
in the Welsh, and its cognate dialect the Breton. These seem to be the only
probable offspring, though greatly changed of course, of the language of the ancient Celts. We will now proceed to our more immediate subject, and will
consider first the prefixes and next the suffixes or endings of the Celtic local
names frequently occurring in ancient writers. The arrangement will be, for
convenience' sake, an alphabetical one.
Celtic local Prefixes.
1. AGEN. In the life of St. Caprasius it is said that the town of Agennum,
now Agen, in Guienne, had its name " ab hiatu speluncce." Agen in Welsh, at
the present day, is a word for " a cleft or cave." There is no similar word in
Erse with this meaning; but in Bas-Breton we have agen, aidnen, eienen, " a
spring, coming forth from the earth," and in Cornish we have agery, "to open."
(Adelung, ii., p. 42. Diefenbach, i., p. 21.)
2. ALP or ALB. A root rather than prefix, but still deserving of a place here.
It appears to mean " high," "lofty," and is found in the name of the Alpes or
Alps. Hence we have in Isidorus, iv., 8, the following: " Gallorum lingua
Alpes alti montes vocantur."  Compare with this the Gaelic alb, "an eminence
or mountain," whence Albion, a name given to England from its lofty coasts,
and Albain, an appellation for the Highlands of Scotland. So we find Alba in
Latium, and several places of the same name in Spain and Gaul, antd it is observable that all of them were situate on elevated spots. We find the Albani,




GALLIA.                            159
also, in upper Asia, occupying a mountainous region called Albania,. on the
western shore of the Caspian. The same root is likewise found in the name of
many other places in other quarters. (Compare Adelung, Mithr., vol. ii., p. 42.
Diefenbach, Ccltica, i., p. 18, seq. Pott, Etymol. Forsch., ii., p. 525.) 
3. AR. A prefix or preposition, meaning "upon" or "near," and appearing
in the Latinized term Armorica, where it is united with the Celtic mor, "the
sea," by which the northwestern coast of Gaul is indicated, where the Armoricce Civitates were situated. We find it, also, in the name of Arelate, the modern Aries, which is said to come from ar, "upon," and llaeth, "a morass." In
the Bas-Breton we have still arvor, " a maritime tract," changed from the old
form armor by the genuine Celtic substitution of v for m, just as we find the
people of Armorica called'Ap66pvXot in Procopius. (Diefenbach, i., p. 80.)
4. BRIGA, BRIVA, BRIA, as in Brigantes, Brivates, Briaria, &c., consult remarks
on these same combinations under the head of Suffixes.
5. CAD, CAT, CAS, in Cadurci, Catalauni, Cassivelauni, &c. Cad in Welsh
means "a troop" or "band." According to Vegetius (ii., 2) and Isidorus (ix.,
3, 46) the term caterva in Latin was of Celtic origin, and meant the same as
legio, and hence Diefenbach supposes it to have come from cad and torfa (Welsh,
catrawd), " a troop of soldiers."  Compare the Gaelic ceatham, " a band of men."
In Bas-Breton cadarn, and in Cornish cad, both signify " a fight."
6. CARN. This prefix appears to mean " rocky," "stony," and hence the
Carni and Carnutes, as well as many names of places involving the same root,
would seem to have reference to stony or rocky localities. Compare the Gaelic
carn, " to heap up," and carn, cairn, "a heap of stones," "rock."
7. CRAG. A root rather than prefix, unless we suppose it to form part of the
name Graioceli. It means " rocky," " stony," and may be compared with the
Bas-Breton krag, the Welsh craig, the Gaelic carraig, creag, all signifying "a
rock," " a large stone," and our English word " crag."  This same root appears
to exist in the name of Mount Cragus in Cilicia and Lycia, and more than probably in that of the Alpes Graice, "the craggy or rocky Alps," an etymology far
preferable to that which connects the name of the Graian Alps with the fabled
wanderings of the Grecian hero Hercules. Diefenbach appears.to think that
there is some confirmation of this Celtic etymology to be deduced from Petronius Arbiter, c. 122. This same root crag seems to lie also at the basis of the
modern name Crau, which is given to the celebrated lapideus campus, or " stony
field," near Aries.
8? DURO. The syllables duro at the beginning (and also durum at the end) of
Celtic local terms, occur in the names of places, &c., situated near rivers or the
sea. We find in Welsh dwr, i. e., diir, and duvr or duivyr, signifying " water."
We have also dour in Cornish, and dur in Bas-Breton, with the same meaning.
The Irish and Gaelic word corresponding is uisge; but Lhuyd and Armstrong
give dobhar and dovar, "water," as obsolete Erse terms, with which we may
compare the Sanscrit dabhra, "ocean." We find, also, the same root dur appearing in the names of several rivers, as, for example, the Durius in Spain, the
Aturis and Duranius in Gaul, the Duria in northern Italy, &c., all marking Celtic localities. (Prichard, Researches, vol. iii., p. 125. Diefenbach, i., p. 155, seq.
Adelung, ii., p. 57.)
9. EBOR or EBUR. This prefix is probably derived from a lost Celtic word
analogous to ufer, "banks," in German. Supposing this to be so, the name
Ebor-ach, whence Ebortcum," York," in England, might mean a place on the
banks of a river or water. Another, but less probable derivation, would be that
connecting it with the Welsh aber, " a confluence of waters." It has been sup




160                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
posed that such names of places as Aberdeen, Aberbothrick, Abercurnig, &c., in
Scotland, contain this Celtic prefix. (Prichard, iii., p. 128.)
10. LUG. The meaning of this prefix has been disputed. According to one
of the ancient writers (Clitophon, ap. Plut. de Flum.-Op. ed. Reiske, vol. x., p.
733) the name Lugdunum (Aovydovvov), in which it occurs, signifies "crow's
hill," the prefix lug meaning "a crow:" tovoyov yap ry auSv 6dtaKTeKr. rcoic KpaKa
KaXovaltv, doivov 6e -ro'ov ieXovra. The latter part of the name is explained
well enough, but the signification given to the prefix can not be correct. The
appellation Lugdunum appears rather to indicate a city situate on or near a hill
or elevation on a river, or near some confluence of waters. We may then compare lug with the Welsh Ihwch, and the Erse loch, " a lake," " an inlet of water," &c. This explanation will suit very well the position of Lugdunum, the
modern Lyons, situate under a hill at the confluence of the Arar and Rhodanus.
So, again, Lugdunum Batavorum, the modern Leyden, is in the immediate vicinity of water, being situate on the Old Rhine, the burg or central part, which
marks the site of the ancient city, being the only elevated spot of ground for
many miles around; and, finally, Lugdunum Convenarum, now St. Bertrand, stands
on high ground on both sides of the Garonne.
11. NANT. This prefix means "a valley," "a rivulet." In Welsh we have
nant, " a ravine," " a brook;" in Cornish, nance, " a valley." The term nant is
in common use in Wales, and it is understood in the same sense in Savoy, where
we find Nant de Gria, Nant de Taconay; and so, also, Nant Arpenaz, " a torrent
flowing over a summit," which is exactly described in Welsh by Nant-ar-penau.
Hence many local names in Gaul, as Nantuacum, now Nantue, in Burgundy, situated in a narrow valley, on a lake between two mountains; so, also, the Nantuates, who, as we are informed by Strabo, occupied the valley of the Rhine,'
immediately below its source; and, again, Namnetes or Nannetes, now Nantes or
Nantz, in a country intersected by rivulets. (Adelung, ii., p. 64. Prichard, iii.,
p. 128. Diefenbach, i., p. 82.)
12. NEMET. This prefix, according to Fortunatus, meant " a temple," probably a grove-temple, and hence was connected, perhaps, in some way with the
Greek viuoc, " a glade," " a piece of wooded ground," and the Latin nemus, " a
grove." Hence Drynemetum (where it appears as a prefix to the second part of
the compound), the name of a place in Galatia, where the Council of Three Hundred, from all the three nations of Gauls in Galatia, were accustomed to assemble. Hence, also, Vernemetis, the name of a celebrated temple in the vicinity of Burdigala, now Bourdeaux, which, according to Fortunatus, meant "fanum
ingens." So, too, Augustonometum, now Clermont, in Auvergne, where was the
temple of Vasa. (Adelung, ii., p. 77. Prichard, iii., p. 127. Radloff, Neue Untersuchungen, p. 399.)
2. Celtic local Suffixes.
1. -ACUM. This suffix contains the Celtic root ac, " water," and hence the
names of so many places in Gaul with this termination, all situate on rivers,
&c., as Arenacum, on the Rhine; Laureacum, on the Danube; Magontiacum,
on the Rhine; Turnacum and Bagacum, on the Scaldis; Blariacum, on the Mosa,
&c. (Adelung, ii., p. 41.) So, at a later day, the convent of Mauzacum, in Auvergne, is said to have been so named from its having been founded " inter aquas"
(Diefenbach, i., p. 66.)
2. -ATES, -IATES. In Welsh, iaid, aid, is a frequent termination of adjectives,
as Ceisariaid, the Cesarians or Romans, easily convertible into ates, iates; likewise aeth. a termination of nouns, as Cattraeth. (Prichard. iii., p. 129.)




GALLTA.                           161
3. -BRIGA, -BRIVA, -BRIIA. The meaning of these terminations is far from being clearly ascertained. The first occurs very frequently in the Ibero-Celtic
parts of Spain, as Nertobriga, Mirobriga, Langobriga, Segobriga, &c., and is generally appropriated to towns on rivers. This had led many to imagine that the
ending in question is the same as the German Brucke and English bridge.
This, however, though a very plausible analogy, will not stand the test of a
close examination, and can not in any way be made applicable to such names
as that of the Brigantes. It seems better, therefore, upon the whole, to give
the termination briga the signification of "city," with the associate idea of elevation, i. e., a city on some elevated spot, and we may then compare it with the
Welsh bre, "a hill or mount," "a peak;" the Erse bri, "a hill," "(a rising
ground," whence brioghach, "hilly;" the Gaelic braigh, "the upper part" of any
thing or place, &c. The termination bria will also have the meaning of " a.i7," and with this we may compare the ending f3pia, in the names of certain
i;ti~s of Thrace, which, according to Strabo, also meant " a city," and was
equivalent to r6attC. Thus Mesembria, a colony of Megarians, was originally
called Menebria, that is, " the city of Mene," its founder. So the city of Selys
was Selybria, and 2Enus was called Poltyobria, or the city' of Poltys. (Strab.,
vii., p. 319, Cas.) The termination -briva appears to be closely connected with
these, and is probably only another form of the same ending, though many give
this also the meaning of "bridge," while others make it signify "ford."
4. -DUNUM, -DINUM. According to Bede, dun signified a hill in the language
of the ancient Britons, namely, that of Wales and the Strathclyde Britons.
According to Clitiphon, as quoted by. Plutarch (compare remarks under the preiix Lug), it was the same in meaning in the language of Gaul, doivov lcaaovat
O-bv EiXovTa. Adelung compares with this the Greek 9iv, "a heap." In the
names of places in Britain, dun and din appear to have been used indifferently
one for the other. Thus, for example, Londinum and Londunum are both found.
The Welsh dinas, meaning " city," has probably the same origin. In the Netherlands,,the sand-hills on the coast are, according to Adelung, still called Danen,
and so in England the name of downs or dunes is given to little hillocks of sand
formed along the sea-coast. (Adelung, ii., p. 57. Prichard, iii., p. 126.)
5. -DURUM. Compare remarks on the prefix Duro.
6. -LAUNI, -LANI. In Welsh llan means "an inclosure." Hence Segelauni,
Catieuchlani, &c.
7. -MAGUS. According to some, this ending has reference to an association,
union, or fellowship, and hence to a collection or union of families. (Radloff,
p. 397.) Others, however, find traces of it in the Irish and Gaelic magh, "a
field or plain."  It would then have reference to the surrounding locality
(Priehard, iii., p. 126. Diefenbach, i., p. 77.)
8. -RITUM. This ending, which we find in Augustoritum, Camboritum, &c.,
appears to mean " a ford." Compare the Welsh Rhyd and Cornish Ryd, both
meaning " a ford;" hence Rhyd-ychan, the Welsh for Oxford. Erse has no corresponding word approaching this root.
9. -TRIGES. This ending occurs in the name of the Durotriges, &c. In
Weih, trig means " to stay," " to abide;" whence trigan, " to remain;" trigaiiad,' inhabitants;" and hence Duro-triges, " dwellers near water,"
I1




IN SUL1E BRITANNICJE.
THESE may be considered under three heads: 1. Britannta,
2. Hibernia; 3. Insulce Britannicce Minores.
1. BRITANNIA.
1. NAMES.
I. BRITAIN was known to the Romans by the names of Briz
tannia (in Greek Bperavia, BpeTTavia, BPErraviKr1 vaoog) and Al.bion ('AXovioW).
II. The etymology of the word Britannia or Britain has been
much disputed. One of the most plausible is that which derives
it from a Celtic word brith or brit, signifying " painted," and tan,
an element which we find forming part of so many other names
of countries, both ancient and modern, such as Mauri-tan-ia,
Aqui-tan-ia, Lusi-tan-'a, Kurdi-stan, Hindo-stan, &c., and
which appears to signify "region" or "country."
III. The term brith is supposed to refer to the custom followed by the inhabitants of staining their bodies of a blue color
extracted from woad. Carte says that the name in the most'
ancient British poets is Inis (" island") prydhain. The meaning, however, of prydhain, if it be any thing more than a corrupt form derived from the root brit, does not seem to be known.
IV. The name Albion comes from the Celtic root Alp or Alb,
and has reference to the lofty coasts of the island, as it lies facing Gallia. Others, giving Alp or Alb the meaning of " white,"
refer the name to the white %r chalky cliffs of Britain
2. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS.
I. THE earliest inhabitants of Britain, so far as we know,
were probably of that great family, the main branches of which,
distinguished by the designation of Celts, spread themselves
so widely over middle and western Europe. The Welsh and
Danish traditions indicate a migration from Jutland, but it is
decidedly erroneous to seek to connect, as some do, the name




INSULt2 BRITANNICE.                163
Cymry, the national appellation of the Welsh, with the Cimmerians (the KqiLeptot of Herodotus) and the Cimbri of the
Roman historians, on the supposition of their having once occupied Jutland, or the ancient Cimbric Chersonese. Neitner
the Cimmerii nor Cimbri ever dwelt in this quarter.
II. The Celtse crossed over from the neighboring country of
Gaul; and Welsh traditions speak of two colonies, one from the
quarter since known as Gascony, and another from Armorica.
At a later period, the Belgae, actuated by martial restlessness
or the love of plunder, assailed the southern and eastern coasts
of the island, and settled there, driving the Celts into the inland
country.
III. On the conquest of the island by the R.omans, we must
conceive that it received a very considerable mixture of Roman
and foreign blood. Comparatively few women would be brought
by the Roman soldiers, and such of the latter as settled permanently would unite themselves to native females. It was the
policy, moreover, of the Romans, to employ the native troops
of one province in the conquest or military administration of
other provinces, a contrivance obviously devised with the view
of preventing revolt. Accordingly, we ind' among the Roman
monuments of Britain abundant evidence of the presence in
that island of soldiers from Gaul and various other parts of the
Continent, from which circumstance there necessarily resulted
a great intermixture of foreign and native blood.
IV. On the subsequent withdrawal of the Roman f'rces, the
Saxons and Angli came over and founded the Heptarchy, and
their power, in its turn, was overthrown by the Normans; so
that here, again, we have trwo new elements added to the ancient stock.
3. HISTORICAL EPOCHs.
1. BRITAIN becomes known in early times to the Phoenicians,
and then to the Carthaginians and the people of Massilia, who
all trade for tin to certain islands, called by Herodotus KaoaiTep&Sre (Cassiterides), or "The Tin Islands," and which are
commonly supposed to have been the Scilly Isles, including a
part of Cornwall
II. This trade in tin is subsequently carried on by the Venetes, a Gallic tribe, and from them Cmsar is first made acquaint



164             ANCIENT G EO G R PIIY.
ed with Britain, and conceives the idea of its conquest. Stimulated by the desire of military renown, and of the glory of
first carrying the Roman arms into Britain, and provoked, also,
as he tells us, by the aid which had been furnished to his enemies
in Gaul, Caesar determines upon the invasion of the island.
III. Invasion of Britain by Cccsar.-He penetrates some distance into the island; but his success is certainly not such as
to induce him to attempt the permanent reduction of the island; and, from some passages in ancient authors, it has been
conjectured that his success was even not so great as he himself has represented it.
IV. After the departure of Caesar, the Romans do not return
to the island until the reign of Claudius, leaving the Britons
alone for about a century, or going no further than to threaten
an attack. In the interval, those of the Britons who dwelt in
the parts nearest to Gaul appear to have made some progress
in civilization. They coin money, and many British coins have
been discovered, of which about forty belong to a prince named
Cunobelin (so on his coins), called by Suetonius Cynobellinus,
who appears to have reigned over the Trinobantes. and to have
had his residence at Camalodunum.
V. Aulus Plautius, a senator of pretorian rank, is sent 1v
Claudius into Britain, in command of the forces designed for
the subjugation of the island. The Britons, under the sons of
the now deceased Cunobelin, namely, Cataratacus and Togodumnus, make a brave resistance, but are finally overpowered,
Claudius himself having come with re-enforcements to the Roman army, and having taken Camalodunum, the capital of
Cunobelin, and numbers of the natives submit either at discretion or upon terms. The Roman Senate decree triumphal
honors to the emperor, and the memory of his success has been
perpetuated in his coinage.
VI. Vespasian (the future emperor), lieutenant to Plautius,
conquers Vectis Insulc, or the Isle of Wight, and has considerable success against the tribes of the southern coast. Upon the
departure of Plautius, however, those Britons who are struggling for independence overrun the lands of such as have allied
themselves with, or submitted to the Romans, and P. Ostorius
Scapula, who sucoeeds Plautius (A.D. 50) as proprmetor, finds
affairs on his arrival in the greatest confusion.




1NSULA   BRITANNIC}.               165
Vll. Ostorius, after valiant efforts on the part of the natives,
defeats and takes prisoner Cataratacus (or, as Tacitus calls
him, Caractacus), about A.D. 51, and receives the insignia
of a triumph. Cataratacus is thrown into chains by Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes, with whom he has taken refuge, and is delivered up to the Romans. He is taken to Rome
with some of the members of his family, but his unbroken spirit
and noble demeanor command the admiration of Claudius, and
he is pardoned by that prince.
VIII. The Romans are harassed after this with repeated
skirmishes, and by the obstinate resistance of the Silures, and
Ostorius dies, worn out with care, about A.D. 53. Didius succeeds Ostorius, and finds the Roman affairs in a very depressed
condition, He engages in hostilities with the Brigantes, but
does not appear to have gained any signal advantage. His command extends into the reign of Nero, the successor of Clandius, probably until A.D. 57.
IX. Veranius succeeds Didius, but lives only a year after
taking the command, and does little in that interval. His successor' is Suetonius Paulinus, who obtains more distinction
Suetonius attacks and captures the Isle of Mona, now Ang'lesey, the great seat of the Druids, cuts down their sacred groves,
and destroys the altars on which they had been accustomed to
offer up human sacrifices. He is then recalled from the western shores of Britain by the news of a great rising of the natives under Boadicea, in that part of the island which has al
ready been subdued by the Romans. The revolt of Boadicea,
nearly extinguishes the Roman dominion in Britain, but at last
the natives are completely defeated in a battle, the scene of
which is supposed to have been just to the north of London
The Roman general ravages with fire and sword the territories
of all those native tribes which have wavered in their attachment to the Romans, as well as those who had joined in the
revolt.
X. The chief civil, or, rather, fiscal officer of the Romans,
quarrels with Suetonius, and, though the latter retains the command for a time longer, he is at last recalled without finishing
the war (A.D. 62), and Petronius Turpilianus is appointed his
successor  Under the milder treatment of the new general the
revolt seems to hav'e subsided.




166             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
XI. Several generals are successively sent to the island; but
the Romans make little progress until the time of Vespasian
(A.D. 70-78), in whose reign Petilius Cerealis subdues the
Brigantes, who had renewed hostilities; and Julius Frontinus
subdues the Silures. But the glory of completing the conquest
of South Britain is reserved for Cneus Julius Agricola, whose
actions are recorded subsequently by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus.
XII. From the time of Agricola, the later years of whose
government are during the reign of Domitian, we read little
about Britain in the Roman historians until the reign of Hadrian (A.D. 85-120), who visits the island, which has been
much disturbed. The conquests which Agricola had made in
Caledonia seem to have been speedily lost, and the emperor
fences in the Roman territory by.a rampart of turf, eighty Roman, or about seventy-four English miles long. This rampart
will be described at the end of the geography of Britannia.
XII'. In the subsequent reign of Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138161) Roman enterprise revives a little. Lollius Urbicus, his
lieutenant in Britain, drives back the barbarians, and recovers
the country as far as Agricola's line of stations between the
Forth and Clyde. An account of the intrenchment erected by
him in'this quarter, and which is called the Wall of Antoninus,
will be found at the end of the geography of Britannia.
XIV. In the following reignr of M. Aurelius Antoninus (A.D.
161-180) we have some notice of wars in Britain, which Calpurnius Agricola is sent to quell. During this same reign, or
else in that of Commodus, son of Aurelius, the Caledonians
break through the Wall of Antoninus. Ulpius Marcellus, an
able leader, is sent against them, and defeats them with heavy
loss. A great mutiny among the legions in Britain occurs during the reign of Commodus, which is with difficulty quelled by
Pertinax (afterward emperor), one of the successors of Marcellus in the government of the island.
XV. The contest between Clodius Albinus and Severus for
the empire drains Britain in a great measure of its troops, who
are called by the former to strengthen his army, and the northern tribes, taking this opportunity of renewing hostilities, break
into the Roman province, and spread desolation far and near.
Induced by the unfavorable tenor of the intelligence from the




INSULTE BRITANNICXE.               167
island, Severus, who had succeeded in the contest with Albinus, resolves to undertake the war in person, and accordingly
crosses over, A.D. 206 or 207. The natives do not come to a
pitched battle, so that the campaign is not marked by any
brilliant exploits. Severus, however, orders the erection of the
famous wall that bears his name, stretching across the island
from the Solway to near the mouth of the Tyne, an account
of which will be given hereafter.
XVI. Many years elapse, and many emperors reign after
this, without the occurrence of any event of importance in Britain. In the reign of Dioclesian and Maximian, Carausius, a
Menapian, who commands the Roman fleet in the North Sea
against the Frankish and Saxon pirates, seizes Britain, and assumes the purple (about A.D. 288), and such is his activity
and power that the emperors consent to recognize him as their
partner in the empire. He is killed, however, some years afterward by Allectus, one of his friends (A.D. 297), and, three
years after this, Britain is recovered for the emperors by Asclepiodotus, captain of the guards.
XVII. On the resignation of Dioclesian and Maximian (A.D.
304), Britain is included in the dominions of Constantius Chlorus, one of their successors. This prince dies in Britain, at
Eboracum, now York (A.D. 307), after having undertaken,
with some success, an expedition against the Caledonians.
His son, Constantine the Great, also carries on some hostilities
with the same people. The northern tribes now begin to be
known by the name of Picts and Scots.
XVIII. The Roman power is now fast decaying, and the
provinces are no longer secure against the irruptions of the savage tribes that press upon the long line of the frontier. Britain, situated at one extremity of the empire, suffers dreadfully.
The Picts, Scots, and Attacotti burst in from the north, and
the Saxons infest the coast. In the reign of Valentinian, probably in the year 367, Theodosius (father of the emperor of that
name) being sent over as governor, finds the northern people
plundering Augusta, or London, so that the whole province appears to have been overrun by them. He drives them out, recovers the provincial towns and forts, re-establishes the Roman
power, and gives the name of Valentia either to the district between the walls of Antoninus and Severus, or, as Horsley thinks,
to a part of the province south of the wall of Severus.




168             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
XIX. Gratian anid Valentinian II. associate Theodosius (son
of the preceding) with them in the empire. This gives umbrage to Maximus, a Spaniard who had served with great distinction in Britain, and ha raises in this island the standard of
revolt. Levying a considerable force, he crosses over to the
Continent, defeats Gratian, whom he orders to be put to death,
and maintains himself for some time in the possession of his'surped authority. He is at last, however, overcome by Theodosius, and the province returns to its subjection to the empire. The Britons who had followed Maximus to the Continent, receive from him possessions in Armorica, where they lay
the foundation of a state which still, at the present day, under
the appellation of Bretagne, retains their language and their
name.
XX. Stilicho, whose name is one of the most eminent in the
degenerate age in which he lived, serves in Britain with success, probably about A.D. 403. After his departure, the unhappy province is again attacked by the barbarians, and is agitated also by the licentiousness of the Roman'soldiery, who successively set up three claimants to the imperial throne, Marcus,
Gratian, and Constantine. The first and second are soon dethroned and destroyed by the very power which had raised
them. Constantine is for a time more fortunate. Raising a
force among the youth of the island, he passes over into Gaul,
(A.D. 409), acquires possession of that province, and fixes the
seat of his government at Arelate, now Aries, where he is soon
after besieged, taken, and killed. His expedition serves to exhaust Britain of its natural defenders: the distresses of the
empire render the withdrawal of the Roman troops necessary,
and near the middle of the fifth century, or, according to some,
about A.D. 420, nearly five hundred years after the first invasion by Julius Caesar, the island is finally abandoned by them
4. DIVISION OF BRITANNIA BY THE ROMANS.
I. THE first Roman governors were the proprietors, officers
chiefly or entirely military; nor are there, so far as we know,
any records or traces of a subdivision of Britain till a comparatively late period of the Roman dominion. Our authority for
the administration of Britain is the Notitia Iitperii, a record
of late date, probably as late as the time of the Romans quit



INSULA. BRITANNICXE.              169
ting the iSland. From the "Notitia" we learn that the government of the island was intrusted to an officer called Vicarius, under whom there were five governors, one for each of the
five provinces.
II. The names of the five provinces into which Britannia
was divided were as follows: 1. Britannia Prima; 2. Britannia Secunda; 3. Flavia Ccesariensis; 4. Maxima Ccesariensis; 5. Valentia or Valentiana. Previous to this, the only division had been into Britannia Romana, or that part of the island under the Roman sway, and Britannia Barbara.
III. The situation of these five provinces is given by Richard
of Cirencester, a monk of the fourteenth century, whose work
was discovered and published at Copenhagen about the middle
of the last century, and whose authority, though disputed by
some, is apparently not untrustworthy.
IV. Britannia Prima, according to the authority just mentioned, comprehended the country south of the Thames and
Bristol Channel.
V. Britannia Secunda comprehended the country separated
from the rest of Britain by the Sabrina, now the Severn, and
the Deva, now the Dee; in other words, Wales, Herefordshire,
Monmouthshire, and parts of Salop, and of the counties of
Gloucester and Worcester.
VI. Flavia Ccsariensis comprehended the territory north
of the Thames, east of the Severn, and probably south of the
Mersey, of the Don which joins the Yorkshire Ouse, and the
Humber.
VII. Maxima Ccsariensis comprehended the country from
the Mersey and the Humber to the wall of Severus.
VIII. Valentia or Valentiana comprehended the country between the wall of Severus and the rampart of Antoninus, including the southern part of Scotland, the county of Northumberland, and part of Cumberland.
IX. The remaining part of the island was never long in the
power of the Romans. Agricola overran part of it, and established some stations; and probably other commanders after him
brought it into temporary subjection. The part which Agricola thus subdued is termed by Richard Vespasiana, and included the country between the rampart of Antoninus and a
line drawn from the Moray Frith (Ptolemy's estuary of the
Varar) to the mouth of the Clyde.




170             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
X. Horsley gives an arrangement of the provinces entirely
different from the above, except so far as regards Britannia
Secunda. He makes Britannia Prima to extend from the
coast of Sussex to the banks of the Nene, and assigns the western counties to Flavia Ccesariensis. He places Valentia with.
in the wall of Severus, and Maxima Cewsariensis beyond it.
6. SITUATION AND EXTENT.
I. THE knowledge which the earlier Greeks and Romans had
of the shape and situation of Britain was at first extremely limited and erroneous. According to Dio Cassius, it was at first
a matter of-complete uncertainty whether Britannia was an
island or merely a frontier of the Continent. The invasion of
Julius Caesar first threw some light upon this subject. That
commander describes Britannia as triangular in shape, one side
of the triangle being opposite to Gaul, and in this he is followed
by Strabo.
II. The Romans first became fully acquainted with the circuit of Britain in the time of Agricola, during whose government in that quarter a Roman fleet first sailed round the island, as if to mark the extended boundary of the Roman empire.
III. Erroneous ideas, however, still remained on various points
connected with the position of this island. The old geographers had given the northern coast of Spain a northwesterly
direction, and, unacquainted with the extent to which Bretagne
reached westward, made the coasts of Gaul and Germany run
in an almost uniform northeasterly direction. Tacitus, the contemporary of Agricola, places Britain in the angle thus formed,
and makes its western side lie facing the coast of Spain.
IV. According to Ptolemy, Britannia had the Oceanus Duecaledonius ('QKeavabg Aov7icabr]d6vito) on the north; the Oceanus
Hibernicus ('KeavbO'Iov6spvltc6), or Irish Sea, and the Oceanus Verginicus ('TKeavbV Ovepyivlto), or St. George's Channel,
on the west; the Oceanus Britannicus ('2eaavb BpErravulc6),
or British Channel, on the south; and the Oceanus German.
icus ('SUeavbg IleppavKO(6), or German Ocean, on the east.
7. MOUNTAINS.
THE only chain of mountains in Britain expressly named by
the ancient geographers are the Grampian-, MonsGrampius.




1NSULxE BRITANNICE.                171
In the ancient Scottish tongue this ridge was called Grantzbain. It runs from Dumbarton to Aberdeenshire. The Grampian hills are rendered memorable by the victory which Agricola
obtained on them over Galgacus, in the last year of his government, and which entirely broke the spirit of the Britons.
In Strathern, about half a mile south of the Kirk of Comerie,
is a valley nearly a mile broad, and some miles long, through
which the Erne and Ruchel flow. Here are the remains of
two Roman camps, with a double wall and trench, one large
enough to contain the eight thousand men which Agricola led
to battle on the occasion mentioned above, the other smaller,
and suited for his' three thousand cavalry. Two miles southeast is a third camp, in which two legions might be conveniently
quartered. The place itself still bears the name of Galgachan
Rossnmoorf taken from that of the Caledonian leader.
8. PROMONTORIES.
1. On the Southern Side.
1. Bolerium Promontorium (BoAeplov'Arpo&r7ptov), called,
also, Antivestceum Promontorium ('Avrtovearaiov'AKporprptov),
now LandPs End, in Cornwall. 2. Ocrinum Promontorium
("Oicptvov'AKcpWorpIov), called, also, Damnonium Promontorium
(iAaiv6vtov'Aitpwor7ptov), now Lizard Point, in Cornwall.
3. Cria Mletopon (Kpiov Mrcorov), now Ram Head, in Devonshire. 4. IIellenis Promontorium, now Berry Head, in Devonshire, to the northeast of the preceding. 5. Vindelia Bromontorium, to the east of the preceding, now Portland Bill, in
Dorsetshire. 6. Durotrigum Promontorium, now St. Alban's
Head, in Dorsetshire, in the territory of the Durotriges.
2. On the Western Coast.
1. Ilerculis Promontorium ('HpaKLiovq'AKporriptov), to. the
northeast of the Bolerium Promontorium, now Hartland Point,
in Devonshire, at the mouth of. Bristol Channel. 2. Octapetarum Promontorium ('OicraProirapov'AKpoTrjptov), now St. David's Head, at the southwestern extremity of Wales. 3. Cancanorum Promontorium (Kayacavv'AKporTptov), now Braich
y Pwill, or Braichy Pwill Head, in Caernarvonshire, Wales.
4. Novantum   Promontorium  (NovavrTv'AKpoTrptlov), now
Mull of'-Galloway.   5. Epidium  Promontoriun   ('EmTrdov'Aip&)w.ptov), now Mull of Cantyre.




172             A.NCIENT GEOGRAPHY
3. On the Northern Side.
). Ebudum Promontorium, now Cape Wrath, in Sutherlandshire, Scotland. 2. Tarvidium Promontorium, called, also,
Orcas Prontontorium ("Opiag'AKcpcroiptov), now Dunnet Head,
in Caithness-shire, Scotland.  3. Virvedrum Promontorium
(Oviepove6poviL'AAKpTorjpov), called, also, Caledonice Extrema,
now Duncansby Head, in the same shire
4. On the Eastern Side.
1. Iferubium Promontorium (Ovepov6tovtp'ApPOTrjptov), now
Noss Head, in Caithness-shire, Scotland.  2. Penoxullu)m
Promontorium, now Ord Head, in the same shire. 3. Taizelumz Promontorium (Tatlerov'Apurriptov), called, also, Taixalorum Promontorium, now Kinnaird's Head, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. This point of land forms the northeastern extremity of the Grampian chain. 4. Ocellum Promontorium
('OKEcXov'AtKPwurptov), now Spurn Head, at the mouth of the
Humelr, in England. 5. Cantium Promontorium (Kdvrtov'AKPUT7rrpto), called, also, Acantium Promontorium, now the
North Foreland, in Kent.
9. RIVERS, BAYS, AND INLETS.
1. On the Eastern Side.
1. Tamesis, called by Tacitus the Tamesa. now the Thames,
rising in the country of the Dobuni, a few miles to the southwest of Durocornovium, now Cirencester, and flowing eastward into the Oceanus Germanicus, or German Ocean. Its
whole course is about two hundred and twenty miles. It is a
common opinion that this river, in the upper part of its course,
is properly called Isis,'and that it is only below the junction. of the Thame that it is called Thames, which name is said to
be formed by combining the two names Thame and Isis. But
Cambden observed long ago- that this is a mistake; that the
river was called Thames in its upper as well as in its lower
part; that the name Isis never occurs in ancient records, and
was never used by the common people, but only by scholars.
Caesar writes' the name Tamesis (evidently Tames-or Thames,
with the addition of a Latin termination). Tacitus, as we
have already said, writes it Tamesa, and Dio Cassius Tayecaa,




INSULtE IBRITANNICAE.              173
which is the same name with the appendage of a different termination. Ptolemy has it'Icdp7oa, or, in some MSS.,'Ilueaai,
and in some editions'Idpiaaa, all which, mosjt probably, are
forms of the same name,'I having been, by the carelessness of
some early transcriber, substituted for T.
II. Idumania (Eilovtmavia nrorajo) or Sidumanis (tdovipaviS),
according to most authorities Blackwater River and Ba/y, but
according to Mannert'the mouth of the River Stour. The
former is the more correct opinion. Both the Blackwater and
the Stour are in Essex, the latter forming, in patt, its northern boundary.
III. Sturius, now the Stour, to the north of the preceding,
and having Harwich at its mouth.
IV. Garyenus (rappvevoc), in the territory of the Iceni, now
the Yare, in the county of Norfolk.
V. Metaris zEstuarium (Merapiq elgvaig), now the Wash.
Cambden makes Ptolemy's Merapi~ to be a corruption of the old'British term Matiraith, which, according to him, was a general name for an estuary. The mstuary of the Wash at the
present day is occupied for the most part by sand-banks, dry
at low water. Between these banks the streams that flow into
the oestuary have their channels. Among these streams may
be named the Ouse, the ancient Trivona, and the Nene, the
ancient, Aufona, which others, however, make to correspond to
the modernm Avon.
VI. Abus ("A6oc), now the Humber. The Humber is, properly speaking, an estuary, since the name is only applied to
the united streams of the Trent and smaller or northern Ouse,
and since the tide flows up both these rivers above their junction. Some make a distinction, therefore, between the Abus
estuariam and the Abus fluvius, regarding the former as the
~Humber, and the latter as the modern Ouse. The tributaries
of the Ouse are the Urus, now Yore, and the Derventio, now
Derwent.
VII. Dunum -Estuarium (Loivov iK6oriog), now the mouth of
the River Tee.
VIII. Vedra (Ove6pa), now, according to most authorities,
thd Weare, in the county of Durham.   Mannert, however,
seeks to identify it with the Tyne, but this last is the aneient
Tina, north of the Vedra, and marking the eastern termination
of the wall bf Hadrian.




174            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
IX. Alauna or Alaunus ('AXalvoS), now the Aln, in Northu-.
berland. Some, less correctly, make it answer to the modern
Coquet, which.enters the ocean a little to the south of the Aln.
Horsley, still more erroneously, makes the Alaunus the same
with the modern Tweed.
X  Tueda, now the Tweed. This Latin form of the narne
is given by Cambden, who errs, however, in making the Taum.Estuarium correspond to the mouth of this river, when it is
rather the Frith of Tay, further to the north.
XI. Bodedia JEstuarium (Bodepia EtXvoat), now the Frith of
Forth. Here was the western termination of the wall of Antoninus. Tacitus calls it Bodotria AEstuarium. Some erroneously make Bodotria the same as Solway Frith, but this
was the Ituna JEstuarium.
XII. Tava.Estuarium, now the Frith of Tay, into which
fell the River Tavus, now the Tay.
XIII..Esica, as given by Richard of Cirencester, now the
Southern Esk. In like manner, the same authority gives the
Tina, a short distance above the former, now the Northern Esk.
XIV. Deva (Azyova, AtoiVa), now the Dee, on which stands
New Aberdeen. It rises in the Grampian chain. There was
another river called the Deva, the modern name of which is
also the Dee, on the western coast of England, and which falls
into the Irish Sea, having Chester on it, near its mouth.
XV. Celnius (KEXvtoq), now the Doveran, to the west of
Taizelum Promontorium, and rising in the Grampian chain.
XVI. Tucesis JEstuarium (Tovalatq E'xvatg), -now Murray
Frith. Richard of Cirencester calls this Vara iEstuarium, but
the Vara JEstuarium of Ptolemy (Ovapa eldvalt) is rather the
Frith of Cromartie, a little beyond.
XVII. Ab6na AEstuarium, now Dornoch Frith.    On the
point of land where the lower shore of the frith terminates,
now Tarbet Ness, were erected the "Arce Finium Imperii
Romani."
XVIII. Loxa (Ao6a), just above the aestuary last mentioned,
now, according to Mannert, the Struth, but, according' to others, the Loth or Lossze.
XIX. Ila ("I;a),'now the Wick, running into a bay of the
same name.




INSULE BRITANNIC.E.                175
2. On the Norlhern Side.
I. Nabceus (Na6alo?), now, according to Mannert, the Dur.
ness, but more probably the Navern
II. Volsas Sinus (Ovo'oaa K6oZrog), now Calva Bay.
3. On the Western Side.
I. Longus JEstuariumn (Ayyog EdZXvaut), now Loch Linnhe,
at the mouth of which lay Maleas Insula, now the Isle of Mull
II. Lelaanonius Sinus (Ae0aavv6vtog Kc6t7rog), now Loch Fine,
with the Glota Insula, now Isle of Arran, lying off its mouth.
I1I. Glota ~Estuarium (KT(ra ElXvaut), now the Frith of
Clyde. Here was the western extremity of the wall of Antoninus.
IV. Rhlerigonius Sinus ('Pepty6vtoc K6,rono), now Loch Ryan,
the outer shore of which formed part of the Novantum Chersonesus,'terminating in the Novantum Promontorium, or Mull
of Galloway.
V. Abravannus Sinus ('AWpaovavvof icoA7ro), now Luce Bay,
east of the Novantum Chersonesus.
VI. lena Estuarium ('Irva EXvatS), to the east of the pre
ceding, now Wigton Bay.
VII. Ituna AEstuarium ('ITrova EgXvat ), now Solway Frith,
between Scotland and England, and where was the western
termination of the wall of Hadrian, its eastern one being on the
Tyne.
VIII. Moricambe.Estuarium (Mopwutgdsr1 e7Xvatg), now Moricambe Bay, just below which was Setantiorunm Portus, now
Lancaster Bay.
IX. Belisama JEstuarium (Ber.aaa e  aiXvatg), now the mouth
of the River Mersey, according to most authorities; but more
properly that of the River Ribble, and so given by Cambden.
X. Seteia AJstuarium (.eT7lta Elgxvabt), the mouth of the
Deva, the modern Dee.
XI. Toisobius or Toesobis (Toiao6&), now the Conway, a river of Wales, flowing into the Irish Sea. At its mouth wis
Conovium, now Aberconway.
XII. Stucia (Tr-oVKa), now, according to Mannert, the Du.fi
or D)ouay, but, according to Reichard, the pyst. The tbrmer
is the more correct opinion.




176             ANCIE 1NGT GEOGRAPHY.
XIII: T.uerobis (Tovepo6tg), now the Teify or Teive, on the
southern borders of Cardiganslire in Wales. Reichard makes
it the Milford.
XIV. Sabrina IEstuarium, called, also, Sabriana,jstuarium (2a6piava etivato), now thb mouth of the Severn, the ancient Sabrina or Sabriana. Tacitus makes mention of this
river, and names as one of its tributaries the Antona, now the
Avon. The true reading in Tacitus for the latter stream is,
Mannert thinks, Avona.
XV. Vexalla ZEstuarium (OvEiaAa el'Xva^), now Bridgewater Bay, just below the mouth of the Severn.
4. On the Southern Side.
I. Cenionis Ostia (Keviwv 7roratIL6o), now, according to Mannert, Falmouth Harbor or Bay, into which the small river
Vale flows.
II. Tamarus (Tdfapog), now the Tamar, on which stands
Plymouth, and the Tamari Ostia is now Plymouth Sound.
III. Isaca ('Icadca), now the Axe, or, as it is more commonly
called, the Exe, with Exmouth at the entrance, and Exeter,
the ancient Isca Dumnoniorum, a little distance up.
IV. Alcenus ('A2alvog), or, according to a more correct reading, Alaunus ('Aaavvog), supposed to be the small river on which
Bridport is at present situated. Ptolemy places his Isca on
this, in the interior, which the copyists often confound with
Tsca Silurum, now Caer Leon, in Monmouthshire.
V. Portus Magnus (Meya AXrtqv), now Portsmouth Harbor.
The position of this haven is well ascertained, both by its size
and security, when compared with the neighboring harbors.
The situation of Venta Belgarum, now Winchester, to the northwest, as mentioned by Ptolemy, likewise serves to fix the locality. The only difficulty is, that the Isle of Wight, the ancient Vectis Insula, lies to the southwest of Portsmouth, whereas Ptolemy places it to the southeast of the Meyaq Atiyiv. The
old geographer, powever, occasionally makes slips of this kind.
VI. Novus Portus (Katvb Alitnvy), now the harbor of Rye,
into which the River RQther, the ancient Limanus, empties.
Mannert, less correctly, seeks to identify it with the harbor of
Hythe.
VII. Next follow, in succession, Portus Lemanianus, now




INSULrE BRITANNICE.               177
the harbor of Lymne, the ancient Lemane; Portus Dubris,
now the harbor of Dover; and Portus Ritupis, called, also,
Ritupce or Rutupice, now Richborough.
10. CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY, &C.
THE ancient writers describe Britannia as for the most part
level and well wooded. Several portions of it, however, are
represented as mountainous and hilly, particularly to the north.
The soil is spoken of as very productive, and the surface of the
country as abounding in rivers large and small. Among the
mineral products are mentioned gold, silver, iron, tin, &c.
11. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS.
I. VARIOUS particulars are given, relative to the ancient Britons, by Caesar, Tacitus, Mela, Dio Cassius, Herodian, and other
writers.
II. According to Caesar, the natives of Cantium, the modern
Kent, were by far the most civilized, and did not differ much in
their customs from the Gauls. The inland people, on the other
hand,'for the most part did not sow corn, but lived on milk and
flesh, and had their clothing of skins.
III. All the Britons, according to the same authority, stained
themselves with woad, which produced a blue tinge, and gave
them a more fearful appearance in battle. They also wore the
hair long, and shaved every part of the body except the head
and the upper lip.
IV. They fought without coat of mail and helmet, armed
merely with the long and broad Celtic sword, a javelin, and a
small shield.
V. They built their dwellings after the manner of mere huts.
For example, the city of Cassivellaunus, though called a town
and a capital, appears, from Caesar, to have been nothing but
a thick wood or labyrinth, with clusters of houses, or rather
huts, scattered about it, the whole being surrounded by a ditch'
and a rampart, the latter made.of mud or felled trees, or probably of both materials intermingled. In many respects, the
towns of the Cingalese, in the interior of Ceylon, and the mode
of fighting against the English practiced by that people at the.
beginning of the present century, resemble the British towns
and the British warfare of nineteen centuries ago.
M




178             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
VI. The mode of fighting practiced by the ancient Britons
differed in one respect very materially from that of the Gauls,
namely, in the employment of war-chariots, which several times
produced very serious effects on the Romans. These cars, called
Esseda or Essedce by the Romans, were made to contain each
a charioteer for driving, and one, two, or more warriors fpr
fighting. They were at once strong and light; the extremity
of their axles and other salient points were armed with scythes
and hooks for cutting and tearing whatever fell in their way,
as they were driven rapidly along; and the Britons, in the management of them, displayed, according to Caesar, the greatest
valor and dexterity.
VII. As to the religion of the Britons, Druidism flourished
among them in all its vigor. Indeed, this singular superstition
was considered by the Gauls, erroneously to be sure, to have
originated in Britain. A late writer, Sir J. Mackintosh, observes, that it is not without Oriental features. So much subserviency, as he remarks, of one part of a nation to another, in
an age so destitute of the means of influence and of the habits
of obedience, is not without resemblance to that system of ancient Asia which confined men to hereditary occupations, and
consequently vested in the sacerdotal caste a power founded in
the exclusive possession of knowledge.
VIII. The Druids, according to Caesar, were the ministers
of sacred things; they had the charge of sacrifices, both public
and private; and they gave directions for the ordinances of religious worship. A great number of young men resorted to
them for the purpose of instruction in their system; and they
were held by the nation at large in the highest reverence. They
determined most disputes, whether of the affairs of the state or
of individuals; and if any crime had been committed, if a man
had been slain, if there were a contest concerning an inheritance, or the boundaries of lands, it was the Druids who settled
the matter. One Arch Druid presided over all the rest. One
of the most revolting features in the superstition of the ancient
Gauls was the offering of human sacrifices, and they employed
the Druids to officiate at these.




.INSUL2E BRITANNICAE.             179
12. TRIBES OF BRITANNIA.
I. CESAR, in his two descents upon Britain, saw no more
than a corner of the country. The furthest point to which he
penetrated was the capital of Cassivellaunus, which is generally
supposed to have stood on the site of the now ruined town of
Verulam, in the vicinity of St. Alban's, in Hertfordshire. Cmsar
himself describes the dominions of this prince as lying along
the north bank of the Thames, at the distance of about eighty
miles from the sea, by which he probably means the east coast
of Kent, from which he began his march. Unfortunately, we
are nowhere told of what people Cassivellaunus was king. The
only British nations mentioned by Caesar are the people of
Cantiuzm, the Trinobantes, the Cenimagni, the Segontiaci,
the Ancalites, the Bibroci, and the Cassi. Nearly all these
must have dwelt in that part of the country which he hastily
overran.
II. The Trinobantes of Caesar occupied Essex, and probably
the greater part of Middlesex; the Cenimagni are thought to
have dwelt in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire; the Segontiaci in Hampshire; the Ancalites and Bibroci in Berkshire; and the Cassi in Hertfordshire, one of the hundreds of
which, that in which St. Alban's stands, still retains the name
of Cassio.
III. According to Ptolemy, who, after all, is the only authority upon whom much dependence can be placed, the space over
which the tribes mentioned by Caesar have been commonly diffused appears to have been fully occupied by other tribes. The
following is the order in which he enumerates the several nations inhabiting what we now call South Britain, with the manner in which he appears to distribute the country among them.
Tribes in South Britain, according to Ptolemy.
I. Brigantes.-Their territory is described as extending across
the island from sea to sea, and it appears to have comprehended
the greater part of the modern counties of Durham, York, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. The Brigantes were
considered the most powerful of the British nations.
II. Parisi.-These are stated to have been adjacent to the
Brigantes, and in a southeastern direction from them. They




180             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
are thouglt to have occupied the southeastern angle of Yorkshire, now called Holderness, lying along the coast of Bridlington or Burlington Bay.
III. Ordovices.-They dwelt to the southwest of the Brigantes
and Parisi, in the most westerly part of the island, and appear
to have been the inhabitants of North Wales.
IV. Cornavii.-These were in an eastern direction from the
preceding, and seem to have occupied Cheshire, Shropshire,
Stafford, Worcester, and Warwick.
V. Coritani.-These were in an eastern direction from the
preceding. They probably occupied the whole of the space intervening between the Cornavii and the eastern coast, comprehending the modern counties of Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln,
Leicester, Rutland, and part of Northampton.
VI. Catyeuchlani (or Catuellani, as they are called by Dio
Cassius).-These lay to the south of the preceding, and are
conjectured to have occupied the remainder of Northampton,
and all Buckingham, Bedford, Hertford, and Huntingdon, and
probably the southwestern portion of Oxfordshire, lying along
the Thames.
VII. Sinzeni, called by Tacitus Iceni.-These lay to the east
of the preceding, and are supposed to have occupied Norfolk.
Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire.
VIII. Trinoantes, called Trinobantes by Caesar and Tacitus.
-These lay to the south of the preceding. Ptolemy places them
more to the eastward than the Simeni, and this may suggest
a doubt as to these last being really the same with the Iceni,
who appear, from the Itinerary, to have certainly inhabited
Norfolk. Probably, however, Ptolemy erroneously supposed
the coast of Essex to stretch further to the east than that of
Norfolk and Suffolk. There can be no doubt as to Essex being the district, or a part of the district, assigned by Ptolemy
to the Trinobantes, since he settles them beside the aestuary
Jamissa, or the mouth of the Thames; and they also occupied
a portion of Middlesex.
IX. Demete.-These were situated to the southwest of the
Ordovices, and in the extreme western part of the island. They
seem to have occupied the three south Welsh counties of Caermarthen, Cardigan, and Pembroke.
X. Silures.-These were to the east of the, preceding, and




INSULtE BRITANNICAE.               181
occupied, as is supposed, the Welsh counties of Radnor, Breclenock, and'Glamorgan, and also Hereford and Monmouthshire.
XI. Dobuni (probably the same who are called by Dio Cassius the Boduni).-These lay to the east of the Silures, and
probably inhabited Gloucestershire, with the greater part of
Oxfordshire.
XII. Atrebatii.-r-These lay to the southeast of the preceding,
and are thought (although the point is disputed) to have been
the occupants of Berkshire. As they were, if we may trust to
their name, a Belgic community, it is more probable that they
were seated to the south than to the north of the Thames; and
the order in which they are enumerated by Ptolemy, namely,
among the nations to the south of the Catieuchlani and the
Trinobantes, appears also to favor the former position.
XIII. Cantii.-These were to the east of the preceding, and
extended to the eastern coast of the island. They inhabited
Kent and a part of Surrey, and their territories and those of
the Atrebatii met, in all probability, somewhere in the northern part of Surrey.
XIV. Regni.-These lay to the south of the Atrebatii and
Cantii. They therefore occupied Surrey, Sussex, and probably the greater part of Hampshire.
XV. Belgce.-These were situate to the south of the Dobuni,
and are supposed to have possessed the eastern part of. Somerset, Wilts, and the western part of Hampshire.
XVI. Durotriges.-These lay to the southwest of the preceding. Their seat was the present Dorsetshire, which still, in
a measure, preserves their name, which signifies, in Celtic, "the
dwellers by the water." (Compare page 159.)
XVII. Dumnonii (or Damnonii, as they are called in the
Itinerary).-These occupied the southwestern extremity of the
island, and were the inhabitants of Devon, Cornwall, and the
western part of Somerset. Their name Dumn, or, as it would
be in Celtic, Duvn, probably still subsists in the modern Devon.
XVIII. Although we have thus indicated the localities of the
several tribes by the names of the present English counties, it
is, of course, not to be understood that the ancient boundaries
were the same as those of these comparatively modern divisions.
But to ascertain the precise line by which each territory was




182             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY
separated from those adjacent to it is now, in most instances,
utterly impossible. All that can be attempted is to determine
generally the part of the country in which each lay. In a good
many cases, the evidence of inscriptions and other remains has
confirmed Ptolemy's account.
XIX. The tribes mentioned by Richard of Cirencester; within
the space we have just been surveying, are, the Segontzaci, Ancalites, Bibroci,'and Cassi (as already noticed), the Hedui in
Somersetshire, the Cimbri in Devonshire, the Volantii and Sistuntii in Lancashire, and the Rhemi in Surrey and Sussex, but
these last are probably intended to be considered the same people
with the Regni of Ptolemy.' Richard's list also includes the
Cangiani, supposed to be the same with the Gangi mentioned
by Tacitus, and with the Cangani of Dio Cassius. These, however, do not appear to have been a distinct nation, but those of
the youths of each tribe, or, at least, of many of the tribes, who
were employed as the keepers of the flocks and herds.
XX. Ptolemy's description of North Britain is, in various
respects, not so satisfactory as that which he has given of the
southern portion of the island. In particular, his account is
rendered obscure and confused by a strange mistake into which
he has fallen as to the direction of the land, which he extends,
not toward the north, but toward the east. In other words, he
gives as differences of longitude what he ought to have given
as differences of latitude. His enumeration of the northern
tribes may also be safely presumed to be more imperfect than
that which he gives of those in the south.
Tribes in North Britain, according to Ptolemy.
I. Novantce.-These are the first people Ptolemy mentions.
He describes them as dwelling on the north coast of the island
(by which we must understand the west), immediately under
the peninsula of the same name..The peninsula or promontory
of the Novantae is admitted on all hands to be what is now'
called the Mull of Galloway; and the Novantae are considered
to have occupied the county of Wigton, the western half of
Kircudbright, and the southern extremity of Ayrshire, their
boundaries probably being the Irish Sea, the Solway Frfth,
the River Dee, and the hills dividing the districts of Gallowab
and Carrick.




INSULAE BRITANNICAE.              183
II. Selgove. —These are described as under or south (meaning east) from the Novantae, and appear to have occupied the
eastern half of Kircudbright and the greater part of Dumfriesshire. They are supposed to have given its present name to
the Solway, along which their territory extended.
III. Damnii.-These lay to the north of the preceding, and
would seem to have extended over the shires of Ayr, Lanark,
Renfrew, and Stirling, a corner of that of Dumberton, and a
small part of that of Perth.
IV. Gadeni.-Of these, all that Ptolemy says is, that they
were situated more to the north.. This can not mean, however,
more to the north than the Damnii last mentioned, who, as
we have seen, were placed along the sea-coast of what Ptolemy understands to be the north side of the island. The meaning must be, more to the north than the Otadeni, who are
next mentioned, and are, by a corresponding epithet, described
as more to the south. With the notion which Ptolemy had of
the shape of the island, this would place the Gadeni along a
tract in the interior, which might extend from the Tyne to the
Forth, embracing the north of Cumberland, the west of Northumberland, the west of Roxburgh, together with the counties of Selkirk, Peebles, West Lothian, and the greater part
of Midlothian.  The town of Jedburgh, and the River Jed,
seem still to preserve traces of their name.
V. Otadeni.-These, in Ptolemy's notion, lay to the south
of the preceding tracts, but, in reality, to the southeast of'it, and
would occupy the space intervening between it and the seacoast, comprehending the remainder of Northumberland and
Roxburgh, and the whole of Berwick and East Lothian.
VI. Epidii.-These lay east (that is, north) from the Damnii, but more northerly (that is, westerly), stretching eastward
(that is, northward) from the promontory Epidium. The promontory in question is undoubtedly the Mull of Cantyre; and
the Epidii, therefore, were the inhabitants of the district of
Cantyre, and of nearly all the rest of Argyleshire, from the
Frith of Clyde on the east, to Loch Linnhe on the west.
VII. Cerones.-These were next to the Epidii, and are supposed to have inhabited the part of Argyleshire to the west of
Loch Linnhe, and the continuation of the same tract forming
the western half of Inverness. The Creones are described as




184             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
lying to the east (that is, to the north) of the Cerones, and occu.
pied probably almost the whole of the present shire of Ross.
But it may be doubted if the Cerones and Creones were not
the same people, in which case their territory must have included the whole space we have assigned to the two.
VIII. Carnonacce.-These appear to have occupied the western coast of Sutherland, including probably a small portion of
the northern part of Ross.
IX. Careni.-These lay beyond the former, and may be supposed to have inhabited the north coast of Sutherland, and perhaps a small portion of Caithness.
X. Cornavii.-a-These lay beyond the preceding, and are said
to have been the last people in that direction. They therefore
occupied the north and east of Caithness.
XI. Caledonii.-These are the next people mentioned by
Ptolemy; but the enumeration here starts from a new point,
namely, from the Lelaanonian Bay, on the western coast, now
Loch Fyne. The Caledonii are described as extending from
that bay across the country to the astuary of Varar; and they
therefore occupied the eastern portion of Inverness, with probably the adjoining parts of the shires of Argyle, Perth, and
Ross. In the northwestern part of this tract was the great
Caledonian forest.
XII. Cantce.-These were more to the east (that is, the north),
and are supposed to have possessed the eastern angle of Rossshire, included between the Murray and Dornoch Friths.
XIII. Logi.-These were between the Cantre and Cornavii,
and must therefore have occupied the southeast part of Sutherland, and probably a portion of the southern part of Caithness.
XIV. Vacomagi.-These are described as lying to the south
(that is, the south1east) of the Caledonii, and appear to have occupied the counties of Nairn, Elgin, and Banff, with the west
of Aberdeenshire, and perhaps a small portion of the eastern
part of Inverness.
XV. Venicontes.-These appear to have occupied the whole
of the peninsula, now forming the counties of Fife, Kinross.
and Clackmannan, with a portion of the east and southeast
parts of Perth, and probably, also, the counties of Forfar and
Kincardine. Richard of Cirencester, however, places the tribe
of the Horestii (called by Tacitus Horesti) in the peninsula of




INSUL2E BRITANNICA.               185
Fife. All that appears with regard to the situation of the Horestiii, from the narrative of Tacitus, is, that they lay somewhere between the Grampian Hills and the previously-conquered nations to the south of the Forth. They seem to be included by Ptolemy under the name of the Venicontes.
XVI. Texali.-These are described as lying to the south of
the Vacomagi, and to the east (that is, the northeast) of the
Venicontes. Their territory corresponded to the present Aberdeenshire, with, perhaps, a part of Kincardine.
XVII. Attacotti.-These are mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus; but it is very doubtful whether they were a British
or an Irish nation. A territory is found for them, on the- authority of Richard of Cirencester, in the space between Loch
Fine and Loch Lomond, comprehending a portion of Argyle
and the greater part of Dumbartonshire.
XVIII. M/eatce.-This name is mentioned by some later
writers, but does not occur in Ptolemy. Different interpretations have been given of its meaning. It appears to have been
a collective name given to the tribes included between the wall
of Antoninus and that of Severus. These tribes were the Novantce, the Selgovce, the Gadeni, the Otadeni, and, in part, the
Damnii. In a loose way of speaking, the names Mceatce and
Caledonii seem to have come at length to be used as a general
expression for all the tribes beyond the more limited Roman
province, the Mceatce being understood to mean the inhabitants
of the comparatively level and open country, and the Caledonii
those who dwelt among the wobds and mountains of the north
and west. From about the beginning of the fourth century we
begin to find the Caledonians and Maeate giving place to the
new names of the Scots and Picts.
13. MAIN DIVISION OF BRITANNIA.
BRITAIN was divided by the Romans into two main parts, one
called Brztannia Romana, or Provincia Inferior, the other
Britannia Barbara, or Provincia Superior.
(A.) BRITANNIA ROMANA.
I. THE name of Britannia Romana was applied to that part
of the island which answered to what is now called England
and Wales, and it received this name from the circumstance




186             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of its being completely subjugated by the Romans, and filled
with Roman settlements. The rest of the' island was called
Britannia Barbara.
II. The boundary between Britannia Romana and Barbara
was different at different times. In the reign of the Emperor
Claudius, when the province was only beginning to be formed,
it may be said to have comprehended only that part of the island which lay to the south of the Abus, or Humber, and east
of the Sabrina, or Severn; and even pdrtions of this extent were
but incompletely subdued. Modern Wales, therefore, was as
yet excluded.
III. In the reign of Hadrian, however, the wall erected by
that emperor, from the River Tina, or Tyne, on the east, to
Itunce.Estuarium, or Solway Frith) on the west, formed the
northern limit; and in the reign of Antoninus Pius this limit
was extended still further north, the boundary between Britannia Romana and Barbara being then marked by the wall of
this latter emperor, and which extended from Boderia JEstuarium, or the Frith of Forth, on the east, to the Glotta JEstu-.arium, or Frith of Clyde, on the west.
IV. The division here spoken of lasted until the fourth century of our era, when the subdivision into five provinces, al.
ready mentioned (page 169), appears to have taken place.
V. We now proceed to enumerate the cities and towns of
Britain, following the old division of Britannia Romana and
Barbara as the more convenient of the two.
Cities, 4rc., of Britannia Romana.
Cantii.
In the territory of the Cantii we find, 1. Durovernum, now
Canterbury, on the River Sturius, now Stour. At the tiine
of the Roman occupation this was a place of considerable importance, as is evident from the Roman military roads to Dover
and Lymne, their two principal havens, the ancient Dubris and
Lemance. The old British name seems to have been Durwhern, which the Romans Latinized by Durovernum, and it
signified " a swift river," a name probably given to the place.
from the circumstance of the Stour.running through the city
with some rapidity. By the Saxons it was called Caer-Cant,
or "the city of Kent," whence we have Cantuaria, the more




INSULE   BRPTANNICA.               187
modern Latin, form, and' finally Canterbury. 2. Porius Lemnanus, called, also, Portus Lemanianus, now Lymne, to the
southwest of Dover. It is generally supposed that Caesar landed here on his first expedition into Britain, after having set sail
from the Portus Itius in Gaul. The place, however, where
Caesar first touched, and where steep cliffs skirted the shore,
was probably near the South Foreland, and he landed somewhere on the flat shore which extends from Walmer Castle toward Sandwich. Some contend for Romney Marsh, or the
neighborhood of Hythe. The question is whether Casar's " ab
eo loco progressus" is to be understood of an advance toward
the north or toward the southwest.  Horsley shows that it
must have been toward the north.
3. Portus Dubris, now Dover. By the Britons Dover was
called Dufyr, from dufyrrha, " a steep place."  The castle,
whicb is on the northern side of the town, is supposed to
have been originally constructed by the Romans. 4. Ritupce
or Rutvpice ('Povrov'rtat), now Richborough, to the northeast
of the preceding. In the Antonine Itinerary it is called " Ad
Portum Ritupis," and in the Peutinger Table Ratupis. It
would seem that Ritupce is the nominative of Ritupis, as Dubre of.Dubris, and Lenzante of Lemanis. Richborough is one
of the noblest Roman remains in the island. It was the usual
place of communication with the Continent, and guarded one
mouth of the channel, which then insulated Thanet. It stands
on a small elevation, along the base of which flows the Stour,
the ancient Sturius. The Roman walls still, in a great measure, remain. Ritupas was famed for its oysters. 4. Durolevum, now, according to some, Newington, where are the remains of intrenchments, and where an abundance of Roman
pottery has been dug up; but it is more correct to fix the site
of this place on Judde Hill, in the parish of Ospringe, and this
agrees better with the distances of the Itinerary. Here are the
remains of a square camp, with the corners rounded off.
5: Durobrivce, now Rochester, to the northwest of the preceding.  In the Antonine Itinerary it is called Durobrivis.
The name of this place is said to have been corrupted, in the
later period of the empire, into Roibis (Roibe), or, as we find
it in the Peutinger Table, Raribis (Raribm). From Roibis or
Roibce appears to have been formed the Saxon Hrof- Ceaster,




188             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
and from this the modern Rochester. Bede, however, derives
Hrof-Ceaster from one Hrof, a Saxon chieftain. 6. Noviomagus, to the west of the preceding. Its site corresponds with
Holwood Hill, near Farnborough, where are the remains of
an immense elliptical encampment. Noviomagus is said, by
Richard of Cirencester, to have been the capital of the Bibroci.
Of the Roman roads in the territory of the Cantii, the Watling Street, which nearly coincided with the present road from
London to Canterbury, may be traced in several places. The
branch of Watling Street which led from Durovernum to Lemanse is still conspicuous for some miles. It preserves a straight
course between the two places, and is known by the name of
Stone Street.
Regni.
In the territory of the Regni we find, 1. Regnuin, how Chichester, near the coast, and the chief city of the tribe. According to some, it corresponded to the modern Ringwood; but this
is an error. Excavations made at Chichester in 1723, leave
no doubt that this place answers to Regnum. 2. Anderida, a
fortified sea-port, the situation of which has given rise to much
controversy. It was placed by Cambden at Newenden in Kent,
but that position has long since been abandoned by antiquaries. Anderida was one of the fortresses to keel a look-out toward the sea, and the Notitia informs us that it was garrisoned by a company of the Abulci. Newenden, on the other hand,
never was a sea-port, or useful for such a purpose.  More
modern authorities have been divided between Pevensey, East.
bourne, and Seaford, and of these the claims of the last mentioned are probably the best.
Of the eight principal Roman roads, only one entered the territory of the Regni, namely, the Ermin Street, as it was afterward called, one branch of which from Londinium ran to Regnum or Chichester, while the other went through the more eastern parts.
Belgce.
Among the Belgm we find, 1. Venta Belgarum, the capital
of the tribe, now Winchester. The Britons are said to have
called it Caer Gwent, or "the White City;" the Romans




INSULT BRITANNICA.                 189
changed the latter part of the name to Venta, giving it more
of a Latin form, and the Saxons, who were the aext possessors,
called it Wintanceaster, which has now become Winkester.
This termination of -chester, applied to many cities in England, is a corruption of the Latin term castra, as applied to a.
military station or encampment. Under the Anglo-Saxons it
took the form  of Ceaster, and has now become -cester or
-chester, indifferently. Winchester in Latin deeds, and by the
modern Latin writers, is called Wintonia. This place appears
to have flourished under the Romans, and the massy walls,
composed of flints and mortar, which inclose the city, are considered to have been originally built by them. In 519 it was
conquered by Cerdic the Saxon, who afterward made it the
seat of his government, and it continued to be the capital of
the West Saxon kings till Egbert, the first king of the whole
Heptarchy, was crowned there; and then it may be said to
have become the metropolis of England. It only fell from its
high rank after the reign of King Stephen.
2. Clausentum, to the southwest of the preceding, and about
a mile to the northeast of the present Southampton, on the eastern bank of the River Itchin. The precise spot is now occupied by Bittern Farm, where are still to be seen the traces of
a fosse and vallum, which defended the place on the land side.
The town of Southampton itself is of Anglo-Saxon origin, and
is said to have been the scene of the memorable rebuke which
Canute administered to his courtiers. 3. Vadum Arundinis,
now Redbridge. 4. Brige, to the northwest of Clausentum,
and the.site of which is near what is now Broughton Farm
5. Sorbiodunum, to the northwest of the preceding, and now
Old Sarum. Its name, derived from the Celtic words Sorbio,
" dry," and Dun, " a hill," leads to the conclusion that it was
originally a British post. It was probably one of the towns
taken by Vespasian when engaged in the subjugation of this
part of the island under the Emperor Claudius. The number
of Roman roads that meet at Old Sarum, and the mention of
Sorbiodunum in the Antonine Itinerary, shows that the place
was occupied by the Romans, but the remains present little resemblance to the usual form of their posts. New Sarum, which
arose early in the thirteenth century, is now Salisbury.
6. Edlandunium, now Wilton. 7. Ischalis, to the south



I190            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
west of Sorbiodunum, now Ilchester or Ivelchester, from the
River Ivel or Yeo, on which it stands. Ptolemy makes this
one of the chief towns of the Belge. It was surrounded by the
Romans with a wall and deep ditch, and the Roman road, subsequently called the Foss Way, passed through it from north
to south. Various remains of antiquity have from time to time
been discovered here. Under the Saxons, who called the place
Givel-ccaster, it was also a City of note. 8. Aquce Solis, to the
northeast of the preceding, now Bath. Ptolemy calls it "Tsara'-epad, whence some form another Latin name, Aqutc Calide.
Richard of Cirencester calls the place Thermce, and the river
on which it stands Abona, a name evidently identical with the
Avon, on which Bath is situated. This city was a Roman station, and has always been famed -for its natural hot springs,
whence the Roman name is derived, as well as the Greek appellation given by Ptolemy. It appears from inscriptions dug
up here, that Sulis was the tutelary goddess of Bath, and hence
some think that the name Aquce Solis, as found in the Antonine Itinerary, is a blunder for Aquce Sulis. In the Notitia
this place is not mentioned. It was intersected by the ancient Roman road leading from Londinium into Wales, and by
the road called afterward the " Foss Way." No city in England can produce such a collection of local Roman remains as
Bath.
9. Abone, called by Richard of Cirencester Ad Abonam, and,
according to the best modern authorities, now Britton in Gloucestershire.  10. Ad Sabrinam, now Portishead or Portbury,
west of Bristol. 11. Avalonia, to the southeast, now Glastonbury. 12. Ad Aquas, called, also, Belga Uvella, and, at a later period, Theodorodunum, now Wells.
Durotriges.
Among the Durotriges we find, 1. Durnovaria, now Dorchester, called by Ptolemy Aovvtov (Dunium), and, in the Peutinger Table, Ridunum. It was the capital of the tribe. The
Saxons are said to have called the place Dornceaster, whence
the modern name arose. It was situated on the Via Icenia,
called, subsequently, " Ickenild Street," and must have been a
place of some importance in the time of the Saxons, as two
mints were established here by King Athelstane. 2. Vindo



INSULE BRITANNIC.E.                191
cladia, called by Richard of Cirencester Vindelia, placed by
some at Wimbourne, but more correctly by others at Gussage,
between Blandford Forum and Cranbourne.     3. Ibernium,
mentioned by the Ravenna geographer, and corresponding to
the modern Bere Regis.
Damnonii.
Atnong the Damnonii we find, 1. Isca Damnonioruzm, now
Exeter. The best modern antiquaries are agreed as to the site
of this place. The earlier antiquaries (Horsley, &c.) were misled by what is now admitted to be a corrupt reading in the Antonine Itinerary. Exeter is supposed to have been a settlement
of the Britons before the Roman invasion. It was then, as is
thought, called Caer Isc, and also Caer Rydh, the former derived from its situation on the Isc, called by the Romans Isaca,
and now the Ex, and the latter from the red soil on which the
castle is built. The Romans called it Isca Damnoniorum, to
distinguish it from Isca Silurum, now Caerleon, in Wales.
In the reign of Alfred it was called Exan-ceaster, " Castle on
the Ex," whence its present name. 2. Moridunum or Muridunum, which is placed by the best modern authorities at Seaton, on the coast, but by others, less correctly, at Hernbury:
near i-oniton. 3. Ad Durium, to the southwest of the preceding, and answering, in all probability, to the modern Totness. It marked the Roman station on the Durius or Dorvatius, the modern Dart. 4. Tamara, to the west of the preceding, and probably at Tamerton Folliot, on the oestuary of
the Tamara, now the Tamer, some miles above Devonport.
5. Termolus, to the northwest of Isca, and coinciding, as is
thought, with Molland, where there is a large ancient cairn,
and to which a number of roads on all sides point. 6. Mostevia, supposed to have been near IHartland Point, the ancient
Herculis Promontorium.
Atrebdtii or Atrebdtes.
In the territory of the Atrebatii we have, 1. Calleva Atreba.
tum, now Silchester, on the northern borders of Hampshire.
Cambden seeks to identify it with Vindomis, but this latter lay
more to the southwest, and its site is to be found at Finckley
Farm. Calleva was a station of importance, and its remains




i92             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
are among the most entire in the kingdom. At a short dis.
tance northeast of the walls are the ruins of an amphitheatre.
2. Spince, to the northwest of the preceding, now Speen, the
only Roman stati6n in Berkshire the site of which has been satisfactorily settled, and yet, what is remarkable, no Roman remains appear to have been discovered here; none, at least, sufficient to show the existence of such a station. 3. Bibracte, tc
the east of the preceding, and fixed by Whitaker at Bray,
though the distance between Londinium and Bibracte differs
so much from that between London and Bray as to occasion
great difficulty. 4. Pontes. According to Horsley, Old Windsor; but others prefer Staines in Middlesex. 5. Cunetio, to
the west of Spinae, now probably Marlborough, on the River'Kennet. 6. Verlucio, to the southwest of the preceding, now,
according to some, Leckham, on the Avon, while others fix its
site at Sandy Lane.
Trinobantes.
In the territory of the Trinobantes we have, 1. Londinium,
now London, on the Tamesis or Thames. Londinium was
most probably.a British town, that is, a large inclosure, protected by a rampart and fosse, previous to the invasion of the
island by Caesar, in whose time a considerable traffic was carried on between the Britons and the Gauls. But, though Caesar
crossed the Thames, he makes no mention of the place. The
first notice of Londinium occurs in Tacitus (Ann., xiv., 33),
where it is spoken of as not then honored with the name of a
colonia, but still as a place much frequented by merchants, and
as a great depot of merchandise. In the revolt of Boadicea
(A.D. 62), Suetonius, the Roman commander, abandoned Londinium to the enemy, who massacred all the inhabitants that
did not leave it with Suetonius; a'circumstance which leads
us to infer that it was then chiefly occupied as a Roman station. If any conclusion can be drawn from the brief notice of
Tacitus, Londinium was then incapable of making any defence,
and had probably no wall that could resist the enemy, though
that historian mentions the want of soldiers as the cause of its
being abandoned by Suetonius. It does not appear from Tacitus whether the place was then destroyed by the Britons. At
a later date, Londinium appears to have been made a colonia




INSULA, BRITANNICE.                -193
under the name of Augusta, or, more fully, Augusta Trinobanturm. The ancient wall of London, ascribed to Theodosius,
governor of Britain, began at a fort near the present site of the
Tower, and continued along the Minories to Cripplegate, Newgate, and Ludgate. The walls are said to have inclosed an
area'of somewhat more than three miles in circumference, and
to have been guarded by fifteen towers. The Praetorium and
its adjuncts are supposed to have occupied the site of the present Poultry and Cornhill, as tesselated pavements have been
discovered there. With regard to Anglo-Saxon London our
information is as scanty as it is with respect to the Roman city;
but we may easily conceive that it must have fallen off greatly
in appearance during the barbarous period that succeeded the
final departure of the Romans from the island, when it was alternately attacked and ravaged by the Picts and Scots, the Saxons and Angles. In the sixth century it became the capital of
the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Essex.
2. Sulloniacce, a Roman station to the northwest of Londinium, and the site of which is generally fixed at Brockly Hill,
between Edgware and Elstree. 3. Durolitunm, another station,
to the northeast of Londinium. Cambden fixes its site at Leyton, near Romford. This does not, however, accord with the
distances of the Itinerary. 4. Ccesaroma gus, to the northeast
of the preceding. It was situate in the vicinity of the present
village of Widford, which lies about a mile to the southwest
of Chelmsford. 5. Canonium, to the northeast of the preceding, and near the modern Kelvedon. 6. Camulodunum, the
capital of the Trinobantes, and the most important Roman station in their territory. The first Roman colony was established
here in the reign of Claudius, consisting of veterans. There
has been much difference of opinion with regard to the position
of Camulodunum, and three different sites have been proposed,
namely, Walden, Maldon, and Colchester. For Walden little
seems to be urged except the pleasantness of the situation, an
attribute which Tacitus ascribes to Camulodunum. For Maldon there appears to be little evidence except the resemblance
of the name, and the opinion of Cambden; while abundance of
Roman antiquities, the pleasantness of its situation, the agreement of its distance fi;om London with that given in the Antonine Itinerary, and the termination of its name, -chester, a
N




194             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
usual indication of a Roman station, agree in supporting the
claim of Colchester.
Iceni or Simeni.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Venta Icenorum,
the name of the tribe being added to distinguish it from several
other British towns, to which the name of Venta was common.
It was the capital of the tribe, and corresponds to the modern
Caister St. Edmund's, about three miles south of Norwich.
There are still some remains of the ancient city on the right
bank of the Taes, which joins the Yare. The Romans made
Venta their principal post on this side of the island. 2. Branodunum, now Brancaster, to the northwest of the preceding, on
the shore of the Metaris JEstuarium, or The Wash. It was
one of the stations of the cavalry under the Comes Litoris Saxonici (" Count of the Saxon Coast"). There are some remains
of this place. The station was just at the foot of the declivity
that overlooks the marshes: the area was about eight acres.
Numerous relics of antiquity have been du:g'up here. 3. Gariannonum.-This was another of the posts of cavalry under the
same officer. Its position, however, has been much disputed.
Spelman proposed to fix it at Caistor, at the northern end of
the " denes" or flats along the shore by Yarmouth, from which
town Caistor is distant about two miles. But, although the
name would lead us to fix a Roman post here, yet it is unlikely
to have been a post for cavalry, or the chief station for the district. Burgh Castle, in Suffolk, has been fixed upon by most
antiquaries; but, though the remains show it to have been a
fortification of importance, it could hardly have been suited,
situated as it then was on an island, for a post of cavalry. Another locality has consequently been proposed, namely, Whetacre or Whitaker Burgh, on the Norfolk side of the Waveney,
on the extreme point of the peninsula formed by the two great
branches of the estuary, now the valleys of the Waveney and.
the Yare.
4. Iciani, now probably Ickburgh, four miles east of 1lethwold. 5. Ad Taum, to the south of Venta, now Taesburgh.
6. Sitomagus, to the southeast of the preceding, and on the
coast, now Dunwich. Others, less correctly, seek to identify
it with Thetford. 7. Cambretonium, to the southwest of the




INSULA   BRITANNIC2E.              195
preceding, now Grundesburgh. 8. Camboricum, to the northwest of Camulodunum, now Cambridge. The distances given
in the Antonine Itinerary and by Richard of Cirencester do not
indeed exactly suit here, but these have.probably been corrupted. Camboricum was situate on the great Roman road called
Via Devana, which connected Camulodunum with Deva, now
Chester, on the western side of the island, at the mouth of the
Deva, now the Dee. 9. Durolipons, to the northwest of the
preceding, now Godmanchester, on the same great Roman road.
Catyeuchldni.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Verulamium, close
to the present St. Alban's, being separated from it by the small
River Ver, a feeder of the Coin. Verulamium was probably
at first a British town, and then a municipium under the Romans. The Roman road, called by the Saxons the Watling'
Street, was also styled by them Werlaem Street, because it
first went direct from Londinium to Verulamium, passing close
under its walls. This place was the scene of dreadful slaughter in the great revolt uider Boadicea, who destroyed here and
at Londinium, as well as other places, about 70,000 Roman 
citizens and their allies. The to)wn was, however, restored,
and continued to be a principal Roman station while that people possessed the island. Here an eminent citizen, Alban, js
said to have suffered martyrdom in the persecution under Diocletian; and from him the modern town derives its name, a
monastery for one hundred Benedictines having been erected
here in his honor by Offa, king of Mercia, A.D. 793. Verulamium is commonly, though erroneously, supposed to have
been the capital or stronghold of Cassivellaunus, which was
stormed by Caesar.
2. Forum Diance, to the northwest of the preceding, now
Dunstable.  Some make Dunstable correspond to the ancient
Durocobrivce, but the site of this last-mentioned place is rather
to be sought at Maiden Bower, a short distance further on.
Both these places were on the Watling Street. 3. Magiovinium, to the northwest of the preceding, and on the same Roman road. It is now Fenny Stratford. 4. Lactodurum, to
the northwest, following the same road. Cambden seeks to fix
the site of this place at Stony Stratford, but more modern an.




196             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
tiquarics make it coincide with Towcester in Northamnptonshire 
and this is the preferable opinion.
Dobzini.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Durocornovium,
called, also, Corinium Dobunorum, the capital of the tribe.
The latter name was changed by the Saxons into Corin ceaster, whence the modern appellation Cirencester. It was situate on the River Corinus, now the Churn, one of the feeders
of the Thames. Durocornovium was a place of considerable
importance during the Roman occupation of Britain, and three
Roman roads meet here, namely, the Foss Way, the Ermin
Street, and the Ickenild Way. Its walls, of which partial traces still exist, were, during Roman times, two miles in circumference. 2. Glevum, now Gloucester, on the Sabrina or Severn,
and in a northwestern direction from the last-mentioned place.
The origin of this city is generally attributed to the Britons,
by whom it was called Caer Gloew, which, according to Cambden, means " the Fair or Beautiful City," but, according to
other authorities, from Gloew, the name of the chief or original
founder. Shortly after the invasion of the country under the
Emperor Claudius, A.D. 44; this place became subjected to the
Romans, who established a colony here as a check'upon tile
Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, and called it Colonia
Gievum, and also Claudia Castra. It fell subsequently into the
hands of the Saxons, about A.D. 577, and by them was called
Gleau ceaster, whence its present name is derived. 3. Branogenium or Branovium, to the north of the preceding, and now
Worcester. It was situate on the Sabrina or Severn. Of its
history while under the Roman sway, little is accurately known.
During the Heptarchy it was the principal Mercian see, and
the inhabitants of the district were under ecclesiastical government. The etymology of the name " Worcester" Is with some
plausibility deduced from "Wyre - Cestre" (corrupted from
Ceaster), i. e., the Camp or Castle of Wyre, under which name
a considerable forest still exists in the neighborhood of Bewdlcy.
Silires.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Venta Silurum, now
Caerwezt, a Roman station of considerable importance, bat




INSUL9E BRITANNICAE.               197
now an inconsiderable village. The place appears to have been
of British origin, and to have been called Caer Gwent, or " the
White City," out of the latter part of which the Romans formed
their name Venta, as in the case of Venta Belgarum, or Winchester. 2. Blestium, to the north of the preceding, now Monmouth. After Roman times, the Saxons occupied and fortified
this place, to maintain their conquests between the Severn and
the.Wye, and to prevent the incursions of the Welsh. 3. Ariconium. to the north, now Weston, according to the best authorities, although its position has been much disputed. 4. lagrnce,
to the northwest of the preceding, now Kentchester. The position of this place also has been much disputed. 5. Gobannium,
to the west of Blestium, and now Abergavenny. The ancient
name is derived from that of the River Gobannius, now the
Gavenny. 6. Burrium, to the southeast of the preceding, now
Usk, on the river of the same name, anciently called the Isca.
7. Isca Silurum, to the southwest of the preceding, now Caerleon. It was the station, under the Romans, of the second legion, and hence the name of Legio Secunda Augusta also given to the place, whence arose the modern name Caer Leon, or
"the City of the Legion."  It was situated on the Isca, now
the Usk. Caerleon is mentioned in the legends of King Arthur as a place of great splendor and importance. A description of it, at a later period, the twelfth century, by Giraldus
Cambrensis, gives a lively picture of its former consequence.
8. Bomiumi or Bovium. The site of this station is fixed by
some at Boverton, a village a few miles south of Cowbridge,
and not far from the sea. Others, however, more correctly,
place it at Ervenny, near Bridgend, being induced by Roman
remains discovered here. Neither place, however, accords ex;
actly in respect of distance from Nidum, the next station, with
the existing copies of Richard of Cirencester. Nidum may be
safely identified with Neath, situate on the River Nedd or,
Neath, the ancient Nidus.
Demete.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Maridunumi, now
Caermarthen. In the time of Julius Frontinus, A.D. 70, a Roman station is said to have been founded here, the site of which
is supposed to be that subsequently occupied by the castle and




198             ANCIENT GErOGRAPHY.
its outworks. The form of the camp is still marked by vestiges
of stone and. earth works. The remains of another camp, supposed to have been the castra cestiva, or summer camp of the
soldiers on the station, are still visible in a field on the northern side of the town. This place was afterward the residence
of the princes of South Wales. 2. Ad Vigesimum, to the west
of the preceding, now Castle Flemish. 3. Menevia, to the
west of the preceding, called, also, Menapia, now St. David's.
Ordovaces.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Jlediolanium, as Ptolemy calls it (Me6to2dvtov), or ilediamanum, as it is named by the
Ravenna geographer. The exact site of this place has not been
ascertained, although it is thought by the best antiquaries to
have been in Montgomeryshire. It is generally supposed to have
been on the banks of the Tanad, and to coincide with the modern Clawdd Gock.   2. Secgontium, near Caernarvon.  The
remains of the station itself, which consist of some fragments
of the wall, are known by the name of Caer-seiont, and are
about a mile from Caernarvon, on the banks of the Seiont.
The island of Mlona, now Angqlesey, lay opposite. A Roman
road from Maridunum to Segontium may still be traced. It is.
now called Sarn Helen, or Sam y tIeng, and is supposed to
mean " the Road of the Legion."  3. Conovium, to the northeast, on the River Toisobius or Conway. jSome antiquaries
have proposed to fix the site of this place at the city of Conway,
but the general opinion identifies Conovium with Caer-Rhun,
five miles higher up the river. 4. Varce, to the east of the preceding, at or near Bodfari, in the latter part of which name the
Roman designation may be traced. 5. Bovium, to the southeast of the preceding, at or near Bang or, on the River Deva,
now the Dee.
Corndvii.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Deva, now Chlester,
on the River Deva, now the Dee. It was the station of the
twentieth legion, and its modern name (a corruption of castra)
has reference, as usual, to the fact of its having been a Roman
military post. This place was evidently the most considerable
one in a large tract of country in Roman times. and so contin



INSULI BRITANNIC..                 199
ued when the Romans had withdrawn their forces, and its possession became an object of importance to both the Saxons and
the Britons. In the Saxon chronicle we are told that Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria, took it from the Britons in A.D.
607. After that date it was again in the hands of the Britons;
and finally, in A.D. 830, it fell under the power of Egbert.
2. Condate, to the east of the preceding. Its site is marked by
a field called Harbor-field, in the parish of Kinderton. 3. Mediolanum, to the southeast of the preceding, now Chesterton.
4. Rutunium, now Rowzton, ranked by some among the cities
of the Ordovices. It lay in a southwest direction from the preceding. 5. Uriconium or Viroconium, one of the principal Roman stations among the Cornavii, situate on the Sabrina or
Severn, and about sixty miles to the southeast of the present
city of Shrewsbury. It is. now Wroxeter. 6. Salopia, so called
in the " Notitia," and now Shrewsbury. It has been supposed
that when the Britons found Uriconium fully in possession of
the Romans, they established this place in its vicinity as a
stronghold. Its Welsh name was Pengwern. On the conquest
of the town by the Anglo-Saxons, it received the appellation
of Scrobbes-byrig, importing that it was a town in a scrubby
or brushy spot, and of this the modern " Shrewsbury" is a corruption.
7. Pennocrucium, to the northeast of Uriconium. The site
of this place seems to be best fixed on the River Penk, near Stretton. This position accords tolerably well with the distances,
in the Itinerary, from Uriconium and Etocetum, and does not
require the corrections which are necessary if Pennocrucium is
fixed, as some have proposed, at Penkridge. 8. Etocetum, to
the southeast of the preceding. The site appears to have been
at Irall, near Lichfield. 9. Manduessedum, to the southeast
of the preceding, now Mancester.
Coritani.
In the territory of this tribe we have, 1. Tripontiunz. The
site of this place is fixed, by the best authorities, at Dovebridge
or Dowbridge, on the Watling Street. 2. Venonce, to the northwest, at or near High Cross, where the Watling Street and
the Fosse Road intersect. 3. Race, as written in the Itinerary, or TPdae, as given by Ptolemy, now Leicester. This Aitce




200             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
is said to have been called by the Britons Caer Leirion, meaning " the city on the (river) Leire," which is now the Soar.
The Saxons altered this name to Lege-ceaster or Legeo-ceaster,
whence the present name. Geoffrey of Monmouth says it was
called Caer-Leirion from the fabulous Leir, its founder, the son
of Bladud, and the Lear of Shakspeare. 4. Verormetum, to the
northeast of the preceding, near Willoughby, on the road from
Leicester to Newark. 5. Derventio, to the northwest, on the
Darventus, now Derwent. Its site is marked by the present
hamlet of Little Chester. 6. Ad Pontem, to the northeast of
the preceding, and on the River Trent. Its site has been fixed
near Southwell. 7. Margidunum, a little to the southwest of
the preceding, probably near East Bridgeford, on the south
bank of the Trent, between Nottingham and Newark. 8. Linducn, to the northeast of the preceding, now Lincoln. It was
a British town before it became a Roman station, and it stood
at the intersection of the two great roads in this quarter, namely, the eastern branch of the Ermin Street and the Foss Way.
The station was on the hill now occupied by the Cathedral and
the Castle: its form was that of a parallelogram, the sides
nearly facing the four cardinal points, and on each side was a
gate. The walls have been almost entirely levelled with the
ground, and the gates, with one exception, have been long since
demolished. The remaining gate, now called " Newport Gate,"
is one of the most remarkable Roman remains in the kingdom.
Brigantes.
Beginning from the wall of Hadrian, and proceeding in a
southern direction, we have, on the eastern side of the territory
of the Brigantes, the following places: 1. Corstopitum, near
Corbridge, on the River Fine. 2. Vindomara, to the southeast, at Ebchester. 3. Epiacum, to the southeast of the preceding, now Lanchester. 4. Vinovia, to the southeast of the
preceding, now Bincester. 5. Caturactonium, to the southwest
of the preceding, now Catterick. 6. Isurium, to the southeast
of the preceding, now Aldborough. 7. Eboracum, to the southeast of Isurium, now York. The British appellation of this
place was most probably Eburac or Eborac, a name of Celtic
origin, and supposed to signify " a town or fortified place on the
banks of a river, or near the confluence of waters."  It stood




INSULAE BRITANNICE.               201
on the banks of the Ouse. This place was converted into a
military station by Agricola, or one of his generals, during the
second campaign of that commander in Britain, about A.D. 79,
when he marched through and subdued the whole country of
the Brigantes; its original Celtic appellation being retained in
the Latinized form of Eburacum or Eboracunm. It appears to
have very soon become the principal Roman station of the north,
and even of the whole province of Britain. Here, too, was the
post of the sixth legion, whence the name'Legio Sexta Victrix,
sometimes given to the station. This legion came into Britain
in the time of Hadrian, and Eboracum remained its head-quarters until the Romans departed from the island. The ninth
legion, which came over with the Emperor Claudius, had previously been stationed here, and of course continued here after
its incorporation with the sixth. From the time of Septilnius
Severus, if not earlier, it was the residence of the emperors
when they visited the province, and, in their absence, of the
imperial legates. Here the emperors Severus and Constantius
Chlorus died; and here, according to common belief, Constantine the Great was born; but this belief rests on very insufficient evidence. For its pre-eminence among the Roman stations in Britain, Eboracum was indebted, it is probable, to its
situation on the banks of a navigable river, in the midst of a
remarkably extensive and very fertile plain, in the heart of the
large district which lay between that part 6f the province of
which the Romans had almost undisturbed possession, and that
which they never could subdue, with the fierce hordes of which
they were compelled to wage unceasing and doubtful warfare.
Similar circumstances contributed' to maintain the distinction
which York enjoyed during many successive centuries.
8. Derventio, to the northeast of Eboracum, and the site of
which is supposed to be near Stamford Bridge. 9. Belgovitia,
to the southeast of the preceding, near Millington..10. Practorizum, to the northeast, on the coast, now Flamborough. These
three last-mentioned places were in the territory of the Parisii.
In the interior of the country of the Brigantes, we have the
following places: 1. Luguvallum, just south of the wall of Hadrian, now Carlisle. It is supposed to have been of British
origin. The modern name is said to be derived from the word
Luel, a corruption of Luguvallum, to which the British word




202             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Caer, "city," is prefixed. The place appears to have been
first fortified about the time of Agricola. The Danes destroyed
it about the end of the ninth century, and it remained desolate
till after the Norman conquest. Its restoration and the erection of the castle are attributed to William Rufus. 2. Voreda,
to the southeast of the precedihg, near Plumptlon Wall. 3. Brocdvum, to the southeast of the preceding, fixed by Horsley and
others at Brougham. 4. Brovonacce, to the southeast, made
by some to correspond to Brough, but more correctly placed by
Horsley at Kirby Thore. 5. Tertere, to the southeast, cow
Brough. 6. Lutudarum, mentioned by the Ravenna geographer, is supposed to correspond to the modern Leeds. It is
highly probable, indeed, that Leeds was a Roman station, for
Roman remains have been found in various parts of the town.
7. Mancunium, now Manchester. Aldport, the original of Manchester, is supposed to have taken its rise in the reign of Titus.
It seems that originally there was a British town in this quarter, called Mancenion, or " the place of tents."  On the site of
this town the Romans erected a military station, the name of
which they made, by a slight change, Ma2ncunium; and in the
vicinity of this station Agricola induced t-ie Britons to erect a
new town, answering to what was sub.equently Aldport, and
eventually Manchester. This last-mentioned name arose from
Man, the initial syllable of Mancunium. with the Usual termination of ceste: or chester.
On the westernr side of the territory of the Brigantes we have
the following places: 1. Glanaventa, now Ellenborough, at the
western termination of Hadrian's wall. 2. Galava, to the southeast of the preceding, now Keswick. 3. Alone, to the southeast,
now Ambleside. 4. Galacum, to the southeast, near Kenda'.
5. Bremetonacce, to the southeast, near Tunstall. 6. Ad Alpcs
Penninas, now Broughton. 7. Cocciurn, called, also, Rigedunum, ndw Ribehester. It was the head-quarters of the twentieth legion.
14. ROMAN WAYS.
I. THE old chroniclers give this name to four principal ancient highways, which they suppose to have been either originally formed by the Romans in Britain during their occupation of the country, or, at least. to have been completed and




INSULx. BRITANNICE.               203
perfected by that people upon lines of road for the greater part
already traced and used by the former inhabitants.
II. The names, however, by which the four highways are
distinguished' appear to be Saxon in form, although they may
be Roman or British in etymology, namely, Watling Street,
Ikenild Street, Ermin Street, and Foss Way.
III. Watling or Gathelin Street, which is said to have been
so called from a functionary of the name of Vitellianus (in British, Guetalin), to whom the care of it was committed (a most
unsatisfactory and improbable etymology), is held to have extended from Dover to Chester; or, according to another hypothesis, to Chester-le-Street in Durham, passing through Canterbury, London, and Verulam (St. Alban's), from which lastmentioned town it had also the name of Werlaem Street. Its
remains, or supposed remains, are still known in various places
by the names of High Dyke, High Ridge, Ridge Way, and
Forty-Jbot Way.
IV. There has been much controversy, however, as to whether Watling Street did actually pass through London. Stukely, in particular, contends that it crossed what is now called
the Oxford Road at Tyburn, and proceeded to the west of Westminster, through Hyde Park and St. James's Park to the
Thames, which it crossed at Old Palace Yard. The common
opinion, however, is, that it passed along the line of what is still'
called Watling Street, in the city, meeting the other three great
roads at the central milliarium.in Cannon Street, pointed out
by the site of London Stone, and crossing the river at Dowgate
to what is still called Stony Street on the Surrey Side. The
northward course of Watling Street, after leaving London or
its neighborhood, is supposed to have been over Hampstead
Heath to Edgeware, and hence through Verulam (or St. A1ban's), and Dunstable in Bedfordshire, to Stony Stratford in
Northamptonshire, whence it skirted Leicestershire on the west
to Bosworth. From this point its course is disputed, some
making it proceed in'a northwestern direction to Chester, others carrying it due north to York, and thence to Chester-leStreet; whence some imagine it to have been latterly extended
to Lanark and Falkirk in Scotland, or even as far as to Caithness, at the extremity of the island.
V. Ikenild or Ichenild Street is said to have been so called




204             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
from its commencing on the eastern side of the island, in the
country of the Iceni, of whom mention has already been made.
On the supposition, however, of the London Stone having been
the central milliarium, where all the great roads of the country
met, a branch of the Ikenild must have extended to this point.
It is supposed to have passed through Aldgate, and to have been
otherwise known by the name of the Vicinal Way.
VI. The course of the Ikenild to the westward is extremely
obscure. Nearly all that has been conjectured even on the subject is, that it crossed Watling Street at Dunstable, and thence
extended in the direction of Staffordshire to the western coast.
It seems most probable that, while Watling Street ran directly
north to Chester-le-Street, the Ikenild crossed it obliquely to
Chester; but the scanty remains of the one road have been
confounded with those of the other.
VII. Ermin or Hermin Street derived its name most probably
from the Saxon Herrmann, " a warrior," signifying that it was
a military road. It is conjectured by some to have extended
from St. David's, at the southwestern extremity of Wales, to
Southampton, on the southern coast; by others to have stretched
more directly across the country to London, which it may have
entered by what is now called Holborn.
VIII. The Foss Way is supposed to have derived its name
from the circumstance of its having had'a ditch (fossa) on each
side; and it appears from a Roman milliare, or mile-stone,
found by its side near Leicester, to have been formed, or at
least improved, by the Romans in the reign of Hadrian, and
probably at or about the time of that emperor's visit to Britain.
It has retained its name among all classes of people better than
any other of the Roman roads. This road is supposed to have
taken its course from southwest to northeast, beginning near
Totness in Devonshire, and passing through Bristol, Cirencester (near which place it seems to have crossed Ermin Street),
Chipping, Norton, Coventry, Leicester, and Newark, to Lincoln. If it was carried thence to London, it probably proceeded through Bishop's-gate Street.
15. ROMAN WALLS.
I. THE object of these erections was to prevent the incursions
of the barbarous Scottish tribes into the Roman province of




INSULmE BRITANNIC2E.              205
Britain. Of these, which were five in all, Agricola erepted
two, and Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Severus one each.
With the exception, however, of the wall of Severus, the other
works ought rather to be called mounds than walls, since they
consisted principally of a bank and ditch, with a range of forts
or stations at unequal distances.
II. The first of these works was constructed by Agricola, the
celebrated Roman commander, in A.D. 79, between the Itunce
lEstuarium, now Solway Frith, and the mouth of the River
Tina, now the Tine. The second was constructed by the same
in A.D. 81, considerably to the north of the first, between the
Glotce JEstuarium, now Frith,of Clyde, and the Bodotrice or
Boderice JEstuarium, now the Frith of Fofth. These two
works, however, appear to have been insufficient to restrain
the progress of the barbarians after the departure of Agricola
from the island, A.D. 85, and accordingly, in A.D. 120, the
Emperor Hadrian planned and executed a much stronger and
more important work.
III. Hadrian selected the same part of the island along which
the first wall or mound of Agricola had been drawn, namely,
the tract of country between Solway Frith and the mouth of
the Tine. He dug an additional and much larger ditch, and
raised a higher rampart of earth, making his new works run in
nearly parallel lines with the old ones of Agricola. It began
from Tu;iocelum, now Boulness, on the Itunce zEstuarium, now
Solway Frith, near Luguvallium, now Carlisle, on the western coast, and was continued almost in a direct line to Segedunurn, now Cousin's House, beyond Pons Elii, a distance of
rather more than sixty-eight English, or seventy-four Roman
miles.
IV. Hadrian's work consisted of a principal agger, or vallum,
that is, a rampart of earth, about ten or twelve feet high; a
ditch, on the north of this vallum, nine feet deep and eleven
feet wide; an agger twenty feet on the north side of this ditch;
and an agger, without a ditch, five feet on the south of the principal agger, and nearly of as large dimensions. This work was
garrisoned by soldiers, stationed at proper intervals in forts.
V. Twenty years after this, A.D. 140, Lollius Urbicus, under the Emperor Antoninus Pius, having reconquered the Mleatee, restored the second wall of Agricola, which is commonly




206             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
called the'"WVall of Antoninus," or Vallum Antonini.'llis
work consisted of a ditch about twelve feet wide, the principal
agger, or vallum, on the south brink of the ditch, the foundations of which are twelve feet thick, but the height is unknown,
and a military way on the south of the vallum. There were
folts or stations along the line, amounting in all to nineteen, the
mean distance between station and station being rather more
than two English miles. In the position of the forts,'the Romans, both here and in their other works of a similar kind, always chose a high and commanding situation, whence the country could be discovered to a considerable distance, contriving,
as far as circumstances would 4dmit, that a river, morass, or
some difficult gound, should form an obstruction to any approach from the front. Forts were also placed upon the passages of those rivers which crossed the general chain of communication. A very considerable proportion of this intrenchment
may still be traced. The modern name is Grimes Dyke, the
word Grime, in the Celtic language, signifying "great," or
"powerful."
VI. But the greatest workl of all was that of the Emperor
Septimius Severus. It was begnn A.D. 209, and finished the
next year, and was only a few yards to the north of Hadrian's
wall. This great work consisted of a ditch, the dimensions
of which are not known, except that it was in all respects larger and wider than that of Hadrian, and on its south brink
stood the wall, not a mere mound of earth like the rest, but
built of solid stone, and cemented with the strongest mortar
The height of this wall was twelve feet, besides the parapet,
and its breadth eight feet, and it was defended at intervals by
fortresses of three different kinds. Those called stationes were
very strong garrisons, the least of them being capable of containing six hundred men, and having a town without their
walls. The number of these was not less than eighteen, at an
average distance of four miles from each other, but placed with
some irregularity, according to the nature of the surrounding
country and the exigency of defence. Besides these, there were
very strong forts, called castella, in the intervals of the stations,
eighty-one in number, and at the distance of about seven furlongs from each other.  These were exactly sixty-four feet
square. Lastly, between every two castella were four turres,




INSULnL      BRITANNIC E.                   207
or turrets, twelve feet square, three hundred and twenty-four
in number, and three hundred yards distant from each other.
These were used as watch-towers, and, being within reach of
each other, communications could be made with the utmost facility. For convenience of relieving guards, there was a military way, made of square stones, the whole length of the wall
on its south side, and communicating with each turret and
castle; and at sorrfe distance south of this was another large
military way, paved, also, with square stones, communicating
from station to station. The whole body of forces employed to
garrison this stupendous work was not less than ten thousand
men, sixteen hundred of whom were cavalry,-and six hundred.mariners, at the points where the ramparts communicated with
the shore.
16. STATIONS ALONG THE WALLS OF HADRIAN AND
SEVERUS.
THESE stations lie in Northumberland and Cumberland, and will now be briefly
enumerated: 1. The first station, Segedunum, is generally fixed at Cousin's
House, Wall's End, between Newcastle and Tynemouth. There are no remains. 2. The second station, Pons XElii, was, in the opinion of most antiquaries, at Newcastle; but Cambden was induced by the name to fix it at Ponteland,
which is north of the wall, on the River Pont, seven and a half miles northwest
of Newcastle. 3. The third station, Condurcum, is fixed at Benwell Hill, an eminence two miles or two and a half miles from Newcastle. There are very distinct traces of this station above the village of Benuell. 4. The fourth station,
Vindobala, is fixed at Rutchester or Rouchester. The ramparts of this station,
which was large, are very visible.- 5. The fifth station, Hunnum, was at HaltonChesters. 6. The sixth station, Cilurnum, was at Walwick-Chesters, close on
the right or west bank of the north Tyne. The ground within the vallum is
crowded with the ruins of stone buildings, which formed apparently two streets
from east to west, and a third cross street from north to south. 7. The seventh
station, Procolitia, was on an open, elevated spot at Carraw-burgh. 8. The
eighth station, Borcovicus, is fixed at House Steads. This is the most perfect,
and the grandest station of the whole line. It is on an elevation, with a steep
or precipitous descent toward the north, and a gentler declivity toward the south.
It comprehended fifteen acres, and had a large suburb on the south side. As
many as twenty streets may be'counted. 9. The ninth station, Vindolana, is
generally placed at Little Chesters. The ramparts of this station are visible,
but the ditch is nearly filled up. 10. The tenth station, _Esica, is at Great Chesters. The trenches and ramparts are well preserved. 11. The eleventh station,
Magna, is fixed at Carvoran, close to the borders of Cumberland. 12. The
twelfth station, Amboglanna, is fixed at Burdoswald. Traces Of many Roman
buildings' are found here. The whole station is surrounded by a foss, and all
the entrances are plainly seen. 13. The thirteenth station, Petriana, is now
Cambeck Fort. 14. The fourteenth station, Aballaba, is fixed at Watch Cross.
15. The fifteenth station, Congavala, is fixed at Stanwicks. There are here only




208                 A N C I  l'  G E  GE  AP HY.
some traces of the ditch. 16. The sixteenth station, Axellodunum, is fixed at
Burgh. 17. The seventeenth station, Gabrosentum, is fixed at Drunburgh, four
miles from the termination of the wall. The site of the station is here perfectly
plain. 18. The eighteenth station, Tunnocelum, is fixed at Boulness. Nothing
is left of this station but the spot which marks it, upon a rock on the verge of
Solway Frith, thirteen miles west of Carlisle.
(B.) BRITANNIA BARBARA.
I. THE appellation Britannia Barbara was at first given by the Romans to all
that part of the island which lay to the north of Hadrian's wall. When, how
ever, Britannia Romana became more extended toward the north, and the new
province of Valentia was formed, comprehending all the country between the
wall of Hadrian or Severus and that of Antoninus, and embracing the territories
of the Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgovee, Novantae, and Damnii, an alteration took place
in the mode of naming, and the appellation of Britannia Barbara was now given
to that part of the island merely which lay to the north of the wall of Antoninus.
II. The Romans made three several attempts to establish themselves in Britannia Barbara, but without success. Hence the little information which we
have respecting this part of the island. With the coast they were better atquainted, a Roman fleet having circumnavigated Britain in the time of Agricola.
III. In considering this part of the island, we will take the name of Britannia
Barbara in its earlier sense, as embracing all the country north of the wall of
Hadrian. Our enumeration will necessarily be a brief one.
Cities, eSc., of Britannia Barbara.
In the territory of the Novanta we have, 1. Leucopibia or Case Candidae, now
Wigton. 2. Rerigonium, now Strathnaver. 3. Novantum Portus, now Port Patrick.
In the territory of the Selgovce we have, 1. Carbantorigum, now Kircudbright.
2. Corda, now Old Cumnock. 3. Uxellum, near Drumlanrig. 4. Trimontium,
near Lougholm.
In the territory of the Damnii we have, 1. Colanica, now Lanark. 2. Vandogara, now Paisley. 3. Coria Damniorum, now Castle Cary. 4. Victoria, now
Kinross. 5. Lindun Damniorum, one of the stations of the rampart of Antoninus, now Kirkantulloch.
In the territory of the Otadeni we have, 1. Bremenium, now Rhichester. 2. Ad
Fines, now Chew Green. 3. Curia, now Borthwick Castle.
II. HIBERNIA.
1. NAMES, &C.
I. THE Greeks give us the earliest name of this island, namely, Hierne ('IUpvq).
The Romans, on the other hand, called it either Hibernia or Juverna. Ptolemy
names it'Iovepvia.
II. The Romans never coveted the possession of this island, and hence, like
the Greeks, they derived all their information respecting it from traders, who
had sought its coasts for the sake of traffic. Ptolemy gives, nevertheless, some
pretty correct nations in relation to this island; he only errs in placing it six
degrees too far toward the north.
OBs. 1. In the various names of Ireland, as known to the classic waiters, Iris, Iernis, Juvernis,
libcrslia, &c., the radical Ir, or Eri, by which it is still known to its own natives, is plainly traceable. It is customary among the Irish to indicate a country by the affix Hy or Hua, sometimes




HIBERNIA.                             209
written 0, as in the case of proper names, signifying literally " the (dwelling of the) sons or famnily of," such as Hy-Mania, Hy-Tuirtre, Hy-Brazil, &c. In adding this affix to names beginning
with a vowel, it is optional to insert a consonant in order to prevent the concurrence of open
sounds, Hy-v-Each, meaning the country of the descendants of Each or XEacus. Again, this affix
requires the genitive, which in Eri is Erin, and thus in all variations of the name, from the Iris
of Diodorus Siculus, and the Ir-land and Ireland of modern times, to the Iernis (Hy-Ernis) of the
Orphic Poems, and the Hibernia (Hy-b-Ernia) of the Latin writers, would seem to be accounted for.
2. The name Scotia does not appear to have been applied to Ireland till about the end of the
third century, from which time till the beginning of the eleventh it continued to indicate that
country exclusively.
2. EARLY INHABITANTS, &C.
I. THu Scoti, who were in possession of Ireland at the time of the introduc
tion ot Christianity, appear to have been, to a great extent, the successors of a
people whose name and monuments indicate a close affinity with the Belge of
southern Britain. A people also called Cruithne by the Irish annalists, who are
identifiable with the Picts of northern Britain, continued to inhabit a portion of
the island, distinct from the Scoti, until after the Christian mission; and it is
observable that the names of mountains and remarkable places in that district
still strikingly resemble the topographical nomenclature of those parts of north
Britain which have not been affected by the Scotic conquest.
II. The monuments and relics which attest the presence of a people considerably advanced in civilization at some period in Ireland, such as Cyclopian
buildings, sepulchral mounds, containing stone chambers, mines, bronze instruments and weapons of classic form and elegant workmanship, would appear to
be referrible to some of the predecessors of the Scoti, and indicate a close affinity between the earliest inhabitants of Ireland and that ancient people, by some
incorrectly referred to a Phoenician origin, whose vestiges of a similar kind
abound throughout the south and southwest of Europe.
III. The Scoti were not builders in stone, at least in their civil edifices, nor
did they use bronze implements. Their own tradition is, that they came originally from Scythia, by which is meant the northeastern part of central Europe,
which appears to be confirmed by the fact that the ancient toppgraphy of the
country, in districts where the Scotic invasion has not wholly obliterated it,
points at the Welsh language as the nearest representative of that spoken by
the predecessors of the Scoti, and that the chief distinctions which at present
exist between the Irish and Welsh languages are referrible to a Gothic or northern European source.
IV. The general conversion of the Irish Scots to Christianity took place in
the earlier and middle portion of the fifth century. The principal instrument in
effecting the change was St. Patrick (Patricius), who landed in Ireland on this
mission in the year 432. Before this time Christianity had made some progress, but the mass of the people were heathens.
V. A considerable advance in civilization followed the introduction of the new
religion. Greek and Roman literature got some footing among the clergy, and
an improved system of architecture became requisite for religious edifices. The
Irish round towers are now generally ascribed to an ecclesiastical origin, anid
are supposed to have been erected during the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, which form, perhaps, the most prosperous epoch in the history of the country. From the end of the eighth century till the coming of the English in A.D.
1170, the disputes of the petty princes of the island, and the frequent depredations of the Danes, and other northern pirates, render the annals of Ireland a
melancholy series of feuds and disasters.
0




210                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
3. PROMONTORIE S.
THE principal promontories of Hibernia are as follows: 1. Boreum Promontorium (B6petov'AIcKPTrPtov), now Malin Head, in the county of Donnegal. 2. Venicnium Promontorium (OievViKvtov'AKPOTrjPto), to the southwest of the preceding, now Bloody Foreland, in the same county. 3. Rhobogdium Promontorium,
to the southeast of Boreum Promontorium, now Fair Head, in the county of
Antrim. 4. Isamnium Promontorium, on the eastern coast, now'Killard Point.
It lies facing the Isle of Man, the ancient Mona or Monarina. 5. Sacrum Promontorium ('Iepov'AKaowrplov), at the extremity of the eastern coast, now Grenore
Point. 6. Notium Promontorium (N6rLov'AKPurTptov), at the southwest extremity of the island, now Mllizen Head or Cape Clear.
4. RIVERS AND.LESTUARIES.
1. Vidiza (OvLdot&a), now the Foyle, forming at its mouth the estuary of Lough
Foyle. 2. Argita, now the Bann. 3. Logia, now the Lagan, running into Belf'ast Bay. 4. Vinderius, now the Newry, emptying into Carlingford Bay. 5. Bubinda (Bov6ivda), now the Boyne. 6. Libinius, now the Liffy. 7. Oboca ('066Ka),
now the Avoca. 8. Moddnus (Modovoc), now the Slaney. Mannert erroneously
makes this the Liffy. 9. Birgus (Bipyor), called, also, Brigus, though perhaps
the true form of the name is Bargus. It is now the Barrow. 10. Dabrina
(Aat6pSva), now the Lee, running into Cork Harbor. 11. Ivernus, now Kinmore
River. 12. Dur (Aofp), running into what is now Dingle Bay. 13. Senus (ZYvor),
now the Shannon. 14. Ausoba (Avo66a 7rorayft6), the estuary now called Galway Bay. 15. Ravius ('Paoitof), apparently the extended line of Lough Erne
(mistaken for a river), which empties into Donnegal Bay.
5. PRINCIPAL TRIBES.
ON the eastern and southern sides of the island we have, 1. Darini (Aaptvoi)
or Darni, dwelling around the River Logia, now the Lagan, in the southern part
of Antrim, and the northern parts of Down and Armagh. 2. Voluntii (OvototovrLot) or Usluntii (Obaaoivrtot), to the south of the preceding, and dwelling around
what is now Dundalk Bay, in the county of Louth. 3. Eblani ('E6advot) or Blanii,
to the south of the preceding, in the counties of Meath and Dublin, and the northern part of Kildare. 4. Cauci (Kaiicot), to the south, in the southern part of
Kildare, and in part of Wicklow. 5. Menapii, to the south, in part of Wicklow
and Wexford. 6. Coriondi, to the south and southwest of the preceding, in the
southern part of Wexford and of Kilkenny. 7. Brigantes, to the southwest of
the preceding, in Watei)ford and part of Tipperary. 8. Usdice (Oviadiat) or Vodicr,
according to the common text of Ptolemy, to the southwest, and occupying part
of the county of Cork. 9. Juverni ('Iovipvot), less correctly called by some
Uterni, in the southwestern corner of the island, and occupying a part of the
counties of Cork and Kerry.
On the western side we have, 1. Velibori (OVe2.i6opot), or, as they are called by
some, Utellabri (OVr;2?.a6pot), in part of the county of Kerry.  2. Gangani
(rayyavoi), north of the Shannon, in the county of Clare. 3. Autiri (AVretpoi),
to the north of the preceding, in the county of Galway. 4. Magndtae (Mayvdrat),
to the north, in the county of Mayo. 5. Erdini ('Eptivot), to the northeast of
the preceding, in the counties of Sligo and Antrim.
On the northern side we have, 1. Venicnii (OVevevlot), in the county of Donnegal. 2. Rhobogdii ('Po66yrlot), to the east of the preceding, and occupying




INSUL:E BRITANNICIE           MINORES.            211
the county of Londonderry, the northern part of that of Antrim, and a small portion of that of Tyrone.
6. CITIES.
ON the eastern coast we have, 1. Ebldna ('E6?ava), now Dublin. Mannert
incorrectly places the site of this ancient city in the neighborhood of Dundalk.
Dublin, in fact, appears to have been known by something approaching nearly
to its present name in the second century, since it is found written Eblana in
the geography of Ptolemy.  The name is given in historical documents as
Dublin, Dyflin, Dyvelin, &c., Being all varieties of the Irish Dubh-linn, or " Black
Pool," which appears to be the true etymology. It is also called, and is still
generally known among the Irish by the name of Athcliath, which may be rendered Hurdle-ford, from the causeway laid on hurdles which formerly led to the
channel of the river across the ooze at either side. 2. Menapia, now Wexferd.
Some less correctly consider the modern Ferns to correspond to Menapia. The
ancient inhabitants of this quarter, namely, the Menapii, are supposed to have
derived their origin from the people of the same name in Belgic Gaul, most
probably through the Belge of Britain, and to be the people called by the Irish
annalists Fir-Bolgs, which means " Viri Belgici," or Belgians.
On the western coast we have, 1. Juvernis or lernis, corresponding, as is
thought, to the modern Dunkenon. It was the capital of the Juverni. 2. Regia,
to the northeast of the preceding, now Limerzck. There were two places of
this name in Ireland, one on what is now the River Culmore, in Armagh, and the
other that which we are at present considering. Hence Ptolemy, in naming
the latter, calls it'Er1pa'PTyia, " the other Regia," or, as it is marked on the
maps in Latin, Regia Altera. Mannert regards Regia in both cases as a Latin
term (Gracized by Ptolemy) to denote the residence of a prince or leader.
3. Magndta, to the north of the preceding, and the chief city of the Magnatee.
It is supposed to correspond to the modern Castlebar, in the county of Mayo.
III. INSULJE BRITANNICIE MINORES.
(A.) Islands in the Oceanus Britannicus (or English Channel) and the Fretumn Galliczum     (or Straits of Dover).
I. Vectis Insulce (Or/cKTM), now the Isle of Wight, on the southern coast of
England, and separated from the mainland of Hampshire by a channel called the
Solent Sea, and which Bede Latinizes by Pellgus Solven's. The modern name
of the island is most probably a mere contraction of the ancient one, this last
being pronounced Wectis or Ouectis, from which Wect was formed by contraction, and this became gradually changed into Wight. In the Domesday Book
it is spelled Wect, Wict, and Wiht. Suetonius and Eumenius call the island
Vecta, while Diodorus Siculus styles it Ictis. This island was known to the Romans long before the conquest of Britain, and their acquaintance with it was
obtained through the Massilians, who visited it in prosecuting the tin trade. It
was reduced under the Roman sway by Vespasian, during the reign of Claudius,
A.D. 43. In 493 it was conquered by Cerdic the Saxon, who destroyed the
original inhabitants, and replaced them by his own countrymen.
II. Tanetos or Tanatis, now Thanet, a part of the coast of Kent, insulated by
the two arms of the River Sturius, now the Stour.




212                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(B.) Islands in the Oceanus Hibernicus (or Irish Sea).
I. Mona, now the Isle of Man. This island has various ancient names. It is
the Mona of Caesar, the Monapia of Pliny, the Monarina (or, according to another
reading, Monaceda) of Ptolemy, the Menavia of Orosius and Bede, and the Eubonia of Nennius. The name is probably derived fiom the British word?on,
which means "isolated."
II. Mona (M6va), now the Isle of Anglesey, to the south of the former, and lying off the territory of the Cangi, or modern Caernarvonshire, from which it is
separated by the Menai strait. It is the Mona of Tacitus, as the Isle of Man is
the Mona of Caesar. The modern name Anglesey (Angles' ey, i. e., Englishman's Island), was given to it by the Saxons. This island had, in early times,
the names of Ynys-Dowell, "the shady or dark island," Ynys-Fon, "the farthermost island," and Ynys-y-Cederin, "the island of heroes." It was a great seat
of Druidical superstition. Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman commander, landed
here A.D. 61, in spite of the resistance of the natives, and the terrors which
the Druids sought to strike into the hearts of the invaders. He cut down the
sacred groves, and gave a blow to the Druidical superstition from which it
never recovered. The island was abandoned by the Romans for a time, in consequence of the great revolt under Boadicea, and again conquered by Agricola,
A.D. 76.
(C.) Islands in the Oceanus Occidentalis (or Atlantic Ocean).
Ebiude ('E6ofdat), now the Hebrides, or Western Islands of Scotland. Pliny
calls them Hebudes, and makes them thirty in number. They amount, however, in fact, to the number of nearly two hundred, but more than one half of them
are so small or so sterile as not to be inhabited.
(D.) Islands in the Oceanus Deucaledonius (or North Sea).
I. E'modd, as Mela calls them, or Acmodae, as they are termed by Pliny, now
probably the Shetland Isles. Antiquaries have long disputed whether the ancient Romans saw the Shetland Isles when they circumnavigated Britain, and
much learning has been advanced to connect the Thule of Tacitus, mentioned
in the life of Agricola, with Shetland. The prevailing opinion now is, that
Thule is a corruption of, or intended for Foula, one of the Shetland Isles, and
the only one of them which, from the altitude of its hills and its detached position, can be seen from the seas immediately to the north of Orkney. Many,
however, seek to identify the Thule of Tacitus with Mainland, the largest of
the Shetland group. Thule was called ultima, "farthest," by the Roman writers, on account of its remote situation, and its being regarded as the limit of
geographical knowledge in this quarter.
The Thule spoken of by Pytheas, the Greek navigator, must not be confounded with the Thule of Tacitus. The relation of Pytheas is singularly exaggerated in some of its particulars, as, for example, when he states that its climate
was neither earth, air, nor sea, but a chaotic confusion of these three elements.
From other parts of his narrative, however, many have been led to suppose that
his Thule was modern Iceland or Norway. Mannert declares himself in favor
of the former of these opinions, but D'Anville opposes it. Ptolemy places the
middle of this Thule in 63~ of north latitude, and says that, at the time of the
equinoxes, the days were twenty-four hours, which could not have been true,
however, at the equinoxes, but must have referred to the solstices, and therefore
this island is supposed to have been in 66~ 30' north latitude, that is, under the




INSULIE BRITANNICE MIINORES.                                213
polar circle.  The Thule of which Procopius speaks, D'Anville makes to correspond to the modern canton of Tylemark in Norway. The details of Procopius, however, seem to agree rather with the accounts that have been given of
the state of ancient Lapland.
II. Orcades ('OpKudeC), now the Orkney Islands, to the north of the northeastern extremity of Scotland. They are supposed to have been first discovered by
the fleet of Germanicus, when driven in this direction by a storm. Agricola
afterward made the Romans better acquainted with their existence as islands,
separate from the main land of Britain, when he circumnavigated the northern
coast of that country. Mela, following the oldest accounts, makes the number
of these islands to be thirty, and this statement is received by subsequent writers, with the exception of Pliny, who gives forty as the amount. Orosius, in a
later age, would seem to have had more recent information on this point, since
he makes twenty of the group to have been inhabited, the number inhabited at
the present day being twenty-seven. To the Orkney group belong Ptolemy's
two islands of Ocetis ('OK/C7t) or Scutis (S/cKrIC), now probably South Ronaldsha,
and Dummna (Ao/yva), now probably Hay.
(E.)   Islands in the Oceanus Verginicus (or St. George's
Channel).
Cassiterides (Koaaalrpi6eC), or "Tin Islands," now the Scilly Isles, but undei
the ancient name must also, for the reasons given below, be included the western extremity of Cornwall. The Cassiterides were famous for their connection
with the tin trade of antiquity, which the Phoenicians monopolized for so long
a period, obtaining from this quarter their principal supplies of this metal.  The
name of these islands is derived from the Greek cacairepof, " tin."
OBS. 1. The Sascrit name for tin is kastira, from kdsh, " to shine," "to be bright;" and since
much tin is found in the islands on the coast of India, it is supposed that the Phoenicians first go.
the name with the metal from this quarter, and subsequently applied it to the Scilly Isles and
Cornwall when they began to procure tin from this part of the world also. From the Phoenician or Sanscrit term the Greeks formed their KaaoirEpos and KanCrTEpi6SS.
2. Diodorus Siculus distinguishes between the Cassiterides and Britain, and speaks of tin as
brought from both. Strabo also distingui;hes between the Cassiterides and Britain. But it
seems probable that the western extremity of Cornwall must be included in the term Cassiterides, and that the chief supply of tin was derived from it, for there are no traces of workings in
the islands sufficient to countenance the opinion that much tin was ever obtained from them.
The inaccuracy of the ancient writers may perhaps be accounted for by the two different channels by which the Cornish tin trade was carried on. One part of the metal was sent by sea to
Spain: this was probably the most ancient course of the trade opened by the Phoenicians and
their colonists in Spain and Africa. The merchants who carried it on knew of no other part of
Britain than the western, to which they gave, with the Scilly Isles, the general designation of
Cassiterides; hence Strabo and Diodorus both describe these islands by their position relative to
Spain, instead of their situation with regard to the much nearer island of Britain, of the proximity to, and, indeed, identity of which with the Cassiterides they appear to have had no idea. Another part of the metal was conveyedoverlandby the Britons themselves, and thence, as Diodorus relates, to the opposite shore of Gaul, and on horses, overland, through Gaul to Massilia and
Narbo: this tin, though from the same district as the other, was reputed to come from a different quarter, namely, from Britain. If the island Ictis ("IKrTS) of Diodorus, which was the emporium of the Gallic tin trade, and beyond which the merchants from Gaul do not seem to have
gone, was the same as the OiIKTIS of Ptolemy, or the modern Isle of Wight (and of this there
appears to be little, if any doubt), the remoteness of this from the tin country, to which the merchants of Spain went, will account for the two classes of traders not having fallen in with each
other, and for their not having ascertained that their supposed different sources of supply were
really one and the same.
3. It has been supposed, and with much probability, that the Cassiterides are the same with
the Oestrymnides of Avienus. Dionysius Periegetes also speaks of them under the name of the
HesDerides. where is the origin of tin,"'Ea7rEPiaSi, rdOa Kacatrepowo ysviO\r] (v, 563). The cono




21 4                 ANCIENT       GEOGRAPHY.
quest of South Britain by the Romans must have led to the discovery of the proximity of the
Cassiterides to Britain, if not of their identity with it. But neither Ptolemy nor Pliny the elder
appears to have examined into the matter, for both describe the Cassiterides as being opposite
to Spain, and do not notice them in their account of Britain. We gather from Pliny that the
maritime or Hispano-Phcenician tin trade had ceased, for he speaks of the account of that metal
being sought in certain islands of the Atlantic, and brought in wicker boats covered with leather,
as a mere fable (II. N., xxxiv., 47). Indeed, he gives no intimation of any tin being found in
Britain, though he speaks of the lead that was obtained there. It is not unlikely that the confusion caused by the Roman conquests in Gaul, Spain, and Britain had, for the time at least, put
an end to both the working and sale of the metal.
4. From the time of the Romans, who used them occasionally as a place of banishment, there
is no notice of these islands in history until their conquest by Athelstan, king of England, who
expelled the Danes about A.D. 938.
Having now completed our sketch of the Ancient Geography of Spain, Gaul,
and Britain, we will take the Danube for a base-line, and will divide the countries
of Europe that remain to be considered into two great classes, namely, those
lying to the north of the Danube, and those to the south of the same stream.
I. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE DANUBE.
THESE consist of the six following countries, proceeding from west to east,
namely,
1. GERMANIA MAGNA.                   4. DACIA.
2. SCANDINAVIA.                      5. SARMATIA EUROPrEA.
3. L.ND OF THE IAZYGES METANASTE.   6. CHERSONESUS TAURICA.
I. GERMANIA MAGNA.
1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE name Germania was used in a twofold sense by the Roman writers,
the first as indicating Germania Cisrhenana, or that part of Gaul lying immediately south of the Lower Rhine, which was occupied by German tribes that had
crossed over, and the second as referring to Germania Transrhenana, or Germany Proper, called, also, Germania Magna, and of which we are now to treat.
II. Germania Magna (rep/anvia' piey6dnr) was bounded as follows: on the north
by the Mare Suevicum or Baltic Sea, on the west by the Oceanus Germanicus or
German Ocean and the River Rhine, on the south by the Rhine and the Danube,
especially the latter, and on the east partly by the Montes Sarmatici or Carpathian Mountains, and partly by the River Vistula.
III. To the north, therefore, Germania included the modern Denmark and the
neighboring islands. Its boundaries on the east, however, must be regarded as
merely nominal. How far, in fact, Germany extended toward the east is difficult to determine, since, according to Strabo, Germanic tribes dwelt nearly as
far as the mouths of the Borysthenes or Dnieper.
2. NAME.
I. ACCORDING to the account given by Tacitus, the name Germani is the Latinized form of the appellation assumed by the Tungri, the first German tribe that
crossed the Rhine; and they gave themselves this name, as is said, in order to
strike terror into their Gallic opponents.
II. Various etymologies have been given of the term in question, but the one
most commonly received derives the name from the old German word Werr,
"war," and Mann, "a man," so that Germani will be the same as Werrmdnner,
that is, "war-men" or "warriors," the Roman alphabet, in consequence of its
not having any w, converting this letter of the German alphabet into a g.




GERM IA-I. i      A GNA.                  215
Oirs. The etymology just given is exceedingly doubtful. Von Hammer, the eminent German
Oriental scholar, makes his countrymen to have been originally a Bactriano-Median nation, and
the name Germani, or Sermani, in its primitive import, to have meant those who followed
the worship of Buddha; and hence the Germans, according to him, are that ancient and primitive race who came down from the mountains of Upper Asia, and, spreading themselves over the
low country more to the south, gave origin to the Persian and other early nations. Hence the
name Dschermania, applied in early times to all that tract of country which lay to the north of
the Oxus. The land of Erman, therefore, which was situate beyond this river, and which corresponds to the mpdern Chorasin, is made by Von Hammer the native home of the Germanic
race, and the Germans themselves are, as he informs us, called Dschermani, their primitive name,
by the Oriental writers, down to the fourteenth century (Wien. Jahrb., vol. ii., p. 319).
3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS.
I. MODERN inquiries, as just remarked, have traced the descent of the Germanic race from the inhabitants of Asia, since it is now indisputably established
that the Teutonic dialects belong to one great family with the Latin, the Greek,
the Sanscrit, and the other languages of the Indo-European chain.
II. The Greeks and Romans had very little knowledge of Germany before the
time of Julius Caesar, who met with several German tribes in Gaul, and crossed
the Rhine more than once, rather with the view of preventing their incursions
into Gaul than of making any permanent conquests. His acquaintance was,
however, limited to those tribes which dwelt on the banks of the Rhine,
III. Under the early Roman emperors many of these tribes were subdued, and
the country west of the Visurgis, now the Weser, was frequently traversed by
the Roman armies. But at no period had the Romans any accurate knowledge
of the country east of this river; and it is therefore difficult to fix with certainty
the position of the Germanic tribes, particularly as the Germans were a nomad
people.
IV. Tacitus divides the Germans into three great tribes: 1. Ingcevones, bordering on the ocean. 2. Hermin6nes, inhabiting the central parts. 3. Istnevones,
including all the others. Pliny makes five'divisions: 1. VindZli, including Burgundiones, Varini, Carini, Guttdnes. 2. Ingcevones, including Cimbri, Teut6ni,
and Cauci. 3. Istievones, near the Rhine, including the midland Cimbri. 4. Hermiones, inhabiting the central parts, including the Suevi, Hermundiiri, Catti, and
Cherusci. 5. Peucini and Bastarnre, bordering'on the Dacians.
V. The following list gives the positions of the principal tribes, as far as these
can be ascertained.
1. TRIBEs ON TEIE SEA-CcoAsT.-Between the Rhenus or Rhine, and the Amisia or Ems, we find the Frisii. Between the Amisia and the Albis or Elbe, we
have the Cauci, divided into Cauci Majores and Cauci Minores. East of the
Albis we have the Saxones and Angli. The peninsula of Jutland, in this quarter, was anciently called the Cimbrica Chersonesus, from an erroneous impression that the Cimbri once dwelt there. The real country, however, of this race
lay probably on the northeast side of Germany, and they appear to have been,
i;ot a German, but a Celtic race.
2. TRIBES ON THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RHINE.-Between the Frisii and the
Luppia, now the Lippe, and bounded on the east by the Visurgis, now the Weser,
we have the Bructlri, Chamdvi, Marsi, Dulgibini, and Usipii or Usipites. Between the Luppia and the Menus, now the Mlain, we have the Sigambri or
Sicambri, Tencteri, and Mattiaci. South of the Mcenus were the Alemanni.
3. TRIBES ON THE LEFT, OR NORTHERN BANK OF THE DANUBE.-Betweeh the
Danube and the. Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge we have the Hermundiiri, Narisci,
Quadi, and J1 arcomanni, which last tribe dwelt ih the districts previously inhabited by the Boil, but who had been driven out by them.




216                     ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY
4. TRIBES IN IHE CENTRAL PARTS.-The most powerful of these were the
Suevi, who occupied the greatest part of Germany, and were subdivided into
several tribes. They extended from the Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge as far
north as the Baltic, and included the Semnones, Langobardi, Aviones, Varini,
Eudoses, Suardones, and Nuithones. To the southeast of the Cauci were the
Angrivarii, and to the south of these the Cherusci and Chasudri, and to the south
of the Chasuari were the Catti.     The Marsigni, Osi, Gothini, and Burii lay to
the east of the Catti, and are supposed to have inhabited part of Prussian Silesia.
The Burgundiones and Lygii dwelt on the banks of the Vistula, bounded on the
south by the Carpathian Mountains, and on the west by the Riesengebirge.
OBS. Our information concerning the geography of ancient Germany is very scanty and uncertain. The Greek and Roman writers, from whom our knowledge of it is derived, knew very
little about it themselves. A knowledge of the German Ocean and the northern parts of Europie
had been acquired first by the Phcenicians and Carthaginians, who procured tin from the Cas.iterides or from Britain, and amber from the shores of the Baltic; and in B.C. 400 by Himilco,
the Carthaginian, whose voyage has been described by the poet Avienus (Plin., H. N., ii., 67);
in B.C. 330, by IHecataeus and Philemon (Plin., It. N., iv., 13, or 27); and, about the same tim.n,
by Ephorus and Clitarchus (Strab., vii., 2, 1, p. 293); by Timaeus, Xenophon of Lampsacus, Sotachus, Nicias, Xenocrates, Mithradates, and especially Pytheas of Massilia, who, in the year B.C.
320, sailed to Thule, and thence into the Baltic. (Strab., i., 4; ii., 3, 4; iii., 2; iv., 4, 5. Plin., iv.,
16, or 27, 30; xxxvii., 2, or 11.) The kndwledge which the Romans possessed of Germany and
the western parts of Europe was derived principally from the expeditions of Caesar, Drusus
Germanicus.Germanicus, and Ahenobarbus. Drusus Germanicus, the brother of Tiberius, made
four expeditions into Germany, and dug the canal between the Rhine and the Isala (Yssel).
He was the first who navigated the German Ocean, but did not advance further than the mouth
of the Amisia (Ems), in the territory of the Cauci. Germanicus, the son of Drusus (A.D. 14-16),
made four expeditions into Germany, and advanced still further; he was shipwrecked on the
territory of the Frisii (Ann., i., 49-52, 55-59, 60-71; ii., 5-2', 41-46). L. Domitius Ahenobarbus
crossed the Elbe, and penetrated further into Germany than any of his predecessors. (Ann.,
i., 63; iv., 44. Suet., Ner., iv.) Tiberius advanced to the Arctic Sea (Ann., ii., 26, 47; xii., 39.
Dio, Iv., 6, 8, 28; lvi., 25. Suet., Tib., 9, 17, 18, 20. Vell., ii., 97, 104-110, 120). This expedition
of Tiberius, however, Strabo (vii., 1, p. 291), ana Tacitus himself (c. 34), attribute to Drusus Germanicus. On the south side of Germany the Romans made no conquests beyond the Danube;
but they obtained some geographical knowledge through the journeys of the traders who procured amber from the shores of the Baltic, and from their wars with the Daci, Marcomanni, and
other tribes on this frontier. Strabo wrote in the age of Tiberius, when the Romans possessed
a more accurate knowledge of Germany than at any other time, through the expeditions of
which we have just spoken. After this period the Romans were almost entirely shut out of Germany. Strabo, however, is exceedingly careless. He did not read even Caesar's Gallic war
with sufficient attention to understand it, and confuses almostevery thing Which he extracts from
the accounts brought home by Pytheas. Our difficulties are, moreover, increased by the inaccuracy of the text. Pomponius Mela is worth nothing. Pliny, likewise, was very careless, as
we see, even in what he says of Italy; we can not, therefore, look for much accuracy in his account of Germany. His work is principally valuable for the proper names. The imperfect character of the geographical knowledge which Tacitus possessed of Germany is manifest from his
work upon the subject. Ptolemy has ventured to give a map of Germany, and to lay down the
latitudes-and longitudes of a number of towns and mouths of rivers. The greater part of these
he never visited himself; and who, in that age, could have furnished him with the requisite information? Indeed, his map bears but a faint resemblance to the actual shape and features of
Germany, and, in the majority of instances, it can with difficulty be determined whether the
towns he mentioned existed at all. There is this additional disadvantage in his book, that he
defines positions by numbers, which, of all things, are the most liable'to alteration through the
mistakes of the transcribers. One of the most valuable geographical monuments of antiquity,
Antoninus's Itinerary, compiled under the direction of J. Caesar and Antony or Augustus, is available only for a few roads on the frontier. The Peutingerian Table is frequently of use in mak.
ing maps, since, though the countries are excessively distorted, the distances between the towns
laid down on it are given; but it is of scarcely any service in the case of Germany. Inscriptions
and coins, again, which afford some of the best means of defining the situations of places, arc of
rare occurrence in Germany. But, in addition to all these difficulties and disadvintages, the wandering and unsettled character of the Germans themselves renders it totally impossible to lay
down a map which should represent the relative positions of the tribes at any one period, or for




GERMANIA MAGNA.                           217
any length of time, though we can generally determine the position which individual tribes oc.
cupied at some time or other. This is seen from the wide discrepancies between Tacitus and
his contemporaries, and Ptolemy, and from such glimpses as history affords us of the migrations
of several of the tribes.
4. HISTORICAL        EPOCHS.
I. THE Teutonic or German.race come in from the east, and drive the Celtae,
who had preceded them, farther toward the west.
II. The Romans first become acquainted with them in B.C. 113, when, in
conjunction with the Cimbri, and under the general name of Teutones, they appear on the confines of the Roman dominion, and defeat the consul Papirius
Carbo. After this they make successive attacks on the frontiers, but are repelled by Marius, who defeats them in conjunction with the Ambrones, a Gallic tribe, at Aquce Sextic, now Aix, in Southern Gaul, B.C. 102.
III. Julius Caesar, having, at a subsequent period, subjugated Gallia, and penetrated to the Rhine, becomes acquainted with a nation then designated by the
name of Germans. Ariovistus, a leader belonging to this nation, attempts to
establish himself in Gaul, but is defeated by Caesar, and compelled to flee beyond the Rhine.
IV. Caesar twice crosses the Rhine in order to secure Gaul from the inroads
of the Germans. He takes some of the latter into his army, and employs them
against the Gauls, and afterward against Pompey. He himself is only acquainted with the tribes of the Ubii, Sigambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri. He is told that
the remaining part of Germany is inhabited by the Suevi, who possess a hundred districts, every one of which yearly sends out one thousand men on predatory expeditions.
V. The civil wars which divide the Romans withdraw their attention for
some time from Germany, and the Sigambri ravage Gaul with impunity. After
they have defeated Lollius, the lieutenant of Augustus (B.C. 15), that emperor
himself hastens to the defence of Gaul, and, in order to oppose the inroads of
the Germans, he erects several fortresses on the Rhine, and gives his step-son
Drusus the command of the forces stationed on the banks of that river.
VI. Drusus makes several successful expeditions against the Germanic nations, and penetrates as far as the Elbe. On his death (B.C. 9), his brother
Tiberius commands for two years the legions stationed on the Rhine, employing, however, policy rather than force against the Germans. He engages many
of them to enter the Roman service, and being again intrusted (A.D. 4) with
the same command, he penetrates as far as the banks of the Elbe.
VII. Germany now bids fair to become a Roman province, but the imprudence of Quintilius Varus, the successor of Tiberius, destroys all the advantages already gained. The violent measures which he adopts- to change the
manners and institutions of the Germans, cause a general conspiracy against
the foreign invaders. Arminius, who has been educated at Rome, and has
served in the Roman armies, is at the head of this conspiracy. The legions of
Va:-us are attacked by the Germans in the forest of Teutoberg (A.D. 9), and en
tir.ly destroyed.
VIII. This defeat of the Romans is followed by the loss of all their conquests
beyond the Rhine, and the Germanic nation of the Cherusci, among whom Arminius was born, become the most powerful people in Germany. Four years
after this time, Germanicus restores for a period the fortunes of the Roman
arms, but without regaining the former acquisitions.
IX. From this period the Romans seem to have abandoned the idea of extending their conquests in this direction, and to have contented themselves




218                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
with repelling the inroads which the Germans occasionally make on their Irontiers. The Germans are also prevented from making any serious attempts
against the Romans by the internal wars which distract them for many years.
They again attack the Roman empire under Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, the
last of whom entirely defeats them.
X. From this time the attacks of the Germans on the Roman empire become
more frequent and more formidable, and their history now becomes blended
with that of the decline of the Roman empire, on the ruins of which they established several new states. These will be alluded to in the accounts given
of individual tribes.
5. MOUNTAINS.
THE principal mountain chains in Germany mentioned by the ancient writers
are seven in number, namely,
1. Abnoba Mons,         3. Taunus Mons,        5. Melibocus Mons,
2. Alba Mons, or Alpes,  4. Rhetico Mons,      6. Asciburgius Mons,
7. Sudeti Montes.
I. Abnoba Mons, a name given to that part of the Black Forest where the
Danube commences its course, and which lies opposite the city of Augst, the
ancient Augusta Rauracorum. Ptolemy incorrectly makes it extend from the
Moenus, now the Main, to the sources of the Amisia, now the Ems. Tacitus
and Pliny give its true position. Strabo and Mela make no mention of it.
II. Alba Mons, called also Alpes, a mountain range, now the Rauhe Alp, and
extending from the sources of the Danube, along its northern bank, as far as
the mouth of the Licus, now Lech. It separates the waters that flow into the
Neckar, the ancient Nicer, from those that run into the Danube.
III. Taunus Mons, a mountain range to the northwest of Frdnkfort, and extending between Wiesbaden and Homburg. It is now called the Hohe, or the
Heyrich. The Taunus range sinks with a steep descent toward the Main and
Rhine, but gradually toward the Lahn on the north.
IV. Rhetzco MIons, a mountain range now called the Rothhaargebirge, stretching off from the Siebengebirge, near Bonn, but on the opposite side of the Rhine,
and extending to the sources of the Eder, the Lahn, and the Ruhr. Mela says
(iii., 3), " Montium altissimi Taunus et Rhetico."
V. Melibocus Mons (rO MrlAi6ocov opoc, as Ptolemy calls it), the range of the
Hartz Mountains, in the most extensive sense of the appellation; not, as some
think, the Brocken merely.
VI. Asciburgius Mons, the modern Riesengebirge, between the Elbe and the
Oder. Ptolemy places this range too far to the north.
VII. Sudeti Montes, now the Fichtelberg,.the Erzgebirge, together with the
Thiringer Wald and the Lausitzer Gebirge. Ptolemy calls them Tr' ovdr7ra oprl.
6. FORESTS.
I. WHEN the Romans became acquainted with the interior of Germany, they
found a large portion of it covered with primitive forests. These were either
comprehended under one general name, as Hercynia Silva, Hercynius Saltus,
Hercynium Jugum, or received special appellations, as Bacenis Silva, Gabrita
Silva, &c.
II. Hercynia Silva.-This was the general name of the large mountain chain
which separates the interior of Germany from the tracts adjacent to the Danube, commencing with the Schwartzwald, or Black Forest, running northward
till it crosses the Main, then eastward, comprising what are now called the




E R    ANIA I    A GNA.                  219
Spcssart Wald and Franken Wald, through Bohemia and the north of Hungary
Thie ancient writers, however, do not all agree in their description of it. Ptol.
emy assigns much narrower limits to the name than Caesar does, and applies
it to the ridge between the Gabretan Forest and the Sarmatian Mountains which
unite the Carpathian and Sudetan Mountains. Caesar's account was derived
from report. At a later period, the Romans, in their wars with Maroboduus,
whose possessions lay along the Bihmer Wald Mountains, became personally
acquainted with it. Different names, as already remarked, were afterward
given to different parts. Thus,
II. Bacenis Silva was that part of the Hercynian Forest which lay between
the Cherusci and Catti, extending from the northern bank of the Main, or the
western part of the Thiiringerwald, as far as the Fulda Wald.
III. Marcidna Silva was the Schwartzwald or Black Forest. This name became known to the Romans in their war with the Alemanni. The Helvetii
had dwelt here in early times, but were expelled by the wandering Suevi.
IV. Gabreta Silva was a part of the eastern Thuringerwald, lying to the south
of the Sudeti Montes.
V. Saltus Teutobergiensis, in the bishopric of Paderborn, between the Lippe
and the Ems. Memorable as the scene of the.overthrow of Varus.
VI. Casia Silva, now Hdserwald, between the Lippe and the Yssel
VII. Lucus Semnonum, now the Sonnewald and Finsterwald, between the Elster and the Spree. This was a sacred forest, in which human sacrifices were
accustomed to be offered, and where general assemblies used to be held of delegates froin all the Suevic tribes.
VIII. Lunac Silva, on each side of the River Marus, now March. It answers
now to Manhartsberg, a name which is the same as Mond- Wallberg, the word
mnan signifying "moon" (mond) in early German.
7. CHIEF RIVERS.
1. Danubius (Aavov6to), the Danube, called by the Germans the Donau.
Strabo and Pliny make it rise in the chain of Mount Abnoba, a part of the Black
Forest. According to modern accounts, it originates on the eastern declivity
of the Black Forest, about twenty-four miles from the banks of the Rhine. It
falls into the Black Sea, the ancient Pontus Euxinus, after a course of about one
thousand seven hundred and seventy miles, and it receives sixty navigable
rivers, the largest of which is the (Enus, now the Inn, and one hundred and
twenty smaller streams. The Danube was known to the early Greek writers
under the name of'"Iopoc (Istros), which the Romans changed to Ister, and
which appears to have been the genuine name of this river after it had received
the Savus, now the Save.  The Romans, on the other hand, learned the name
Danubius from the natives on the upper part of the stream, with whom they
were brought into contact by commerce and by conquest. Herodotus, in his
fourth book (chap. 48, &c.), has transmitted to us all that was known in his
time of the Danube and its tributaries in the middle and lower part of its course.
II. Rhenus ('Pivoc), the Rhine, rising, according to Strabo and Ptolemy, in
Mons Adula, a name given to a collection of summits answering at the present
day to a part of the Lepontine Alps. The sources of the Rhine, are in this part
of the Alps, a little to the east of Mount St. Gothard, in the country of the Grisons. Its whole course is about nine hundred miles, of which six hundred and
thirty are navigable from Bdle, the ancient Basilia, to the sea. The Romans
first became acquainted with the Rhine by the conquests of Caesar in Gaul,
who crossed it twice against the Germans. He knew, however, nothing of the




220                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
northern or southern part of the river except from report, and appears never to
have gone himself farther north than the Scaldis, the modern Scheldt, though
his cavalry, on one occasion, reached the country where the Rhine and the
Mosa meet. The campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius in Raetia and the northwestern parts of Germany gave the Romans a more accurate knowledge of the
course of this river. Ancient writers differ respecting the number of mouths
by which the Rhine fell into the ocean. Cesar says that there are several, but
most other writers speak only of two or three. According to Tacitus, who
makes the number to be two, the western was called Vahalis till its union with
the Mosa, when it took the name of the latter river, while the eastern, which
formed the boundary between Gaul and Germany, preserved the name of Rhenus. Pliny, Ptolemy, and other writers say that the Rhine fell into the sea by
three mouths, of which the eastern, according to Pliny, was called Flevurn, and
the western, formed by the union with the Mosa, Helium; while the middle
one, which was only a stream of moderate size, retained the name of Rhenus.
The channel called Flevum is supposed to have been formed by the canal which
Drusus dug to connect the Rhine with the Isala, and by means of which he and
Germanicus sailed to the ocean. The Isala, increased by the waters of the
Rhine, flowed northward into a great lake called Flevo, on issuing from which
it becamea river again, and fell into the ocean after forming an island of the
same name. In course of time the sea made great inroads upon the land round
the mouth of the River Isala, till at length it submerged that part of the country, and became united with the Lake Flevo, thus forming the modern Zuider
Ze, or " Southern Sea."
At the present day the Rhine divides into two arms near the village of Pannerden, which is within the territories of Holland; of these arms the southern
is called the Waal, the ancient Vahalis, while the northern preserves the name
jf Rhine. Nearly two thirds of the volume of water run into the Waal. The
Waal runs westward, and the Rhine northwest. The Rhine divides again twelve
miles lower down, above Arnheim, into the Yssel, the ancient Isala, which runs
to the north, and the Rhine, which runs off to the west. The Yssel falls into
the Zuider Zee. The Rhine, on the other hand, running westward, divides for
the third time about thirty miles lower down, at Wyck, by Duurstede. The
southern arm is called the Leek, and the northern goes by the name of Kromme
Rhyn, "Crooked Rhine."  The Leck is the larger river. The Crooked Rhine
runs northwest to Utrecht, the ancient Trajectus Rheni, where it divides for the
fourth and last time. The arm which runs northward is called the Vccht, the
ancient Vidrus, and falls into the Zuider Zee; the other, whose name is changed
into that of Oulde Rhyn, " Old Rhine," continues westward through the marshes
of Holland, where the waters are used for feeding numerous canals. It passes
through Leyden, the ancient Lugdunum Batavorum, and formerly did not reach
the sea, being prevented by some sandy dunes which line the shores of this part
of Holland; but in 1807 a canal was made through them, and the river now discharges a small quantity of water into the sea at Katwyck, northwest of Leyden.
The Leck, or middle branch of the Rhine, was originally also a canal, made by
the Roman general Corbulo; and it existed as such to A.D. 829, when the bed
was greatly enlarged by an inundation, and thus it became the principal river,
while the true Rhine was reduced to insignificance. It runs from Wyck, by
Duurstede, westward for about fifty miles, when it is joined from the south by
a branch of the Maas or Mieuse, the ancient Mosa, called the Merwe or Mcrwede.
On approaching the sea, another arm of the Maas, called the Oulde Mats, " Old
Maas," joins it, and from this..g jpinto its moutih thy....ide estuary of the river
is called the XMaas




GERMANIA MAGNA.                           221
III. Unsinis, now the Unse, passing by the modern Griningen, and falling
into the German Ocean. At its mouth was Ptolemy's Mavappavic trijv, which
still retains the name of Mama.
IV. Amisia, now the Ems, rose in the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, and emptied
into the German Ocean. Strabo calls it the'Apaaia, and Ptolemy the'Auu6alo.
Mela gives it the name of Amisius. On this river Drusus defeated the Bructeri
in a naval encounter.
V. Visurgis, now the Weser. This river is formed by -the junction of the
Werra and the Fulda, and their united streams take the name of Weser, which
is supposed to be only a corruption of the original name of the Werra (Wisaraha,
Wesara, Wirraha). The Weser is known in Roman history by the expeditions
of Drusus and Germanicus against the Cherusci and their confederates. Ptolemy calls it OVmaovpytl, and Strabo Biaovpyg.
VI. Albis, now the Elbe, rising in the Riesengebirge chain, or Giant Mountains
of Bohemia. This was the easternmost stream of Germany with which the
Romans were acquainted, and they knew it, moreover, only in the northern part
of its course. The first Roman commander who reached it in a military expedition was Drusus, B.C. 9. The only Roman, however, who crossed it with an
army was L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, B.C. 3. The last Roman general in this
quarter was Tiberius, A.D. 5. The name of this river is said to be derived from
the old northern term elf or elfa, which in the early German became Albi or
Elba, and means " a river."
VII. Viadrus, now the Oder.  Ptolemy writes the name Ovia6og (Viadus),
but the more correct form, it is thought, would have been Ovl'apoc, Viadrus,
as we have here given it. According to the same ancient writer, the river was
called Ovita6o only at its mouth, and received, in the interior of the country, the
appellation of'Iadova. Reichard makes the Viadus coincide with the modern
Wipper, and the Iadua with the Thue. An argument in favor of identifying the
Viadrus with the Oder, and also tending to confirm the orthography which we
have adopted, may be obtained from the Old Wendo-Slavonic name of the Oder,
IViadro.
VIII. Vistula, now called by the Germans the Wcichsel, by the Poles the Wisla,
by English writers the Vistula. It rises at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains.
Ptolemy calls it OVlarovAaC. Ammianus Marcellinus styles it the Bisla, which,
giving the initial letter a vowel sound, will agree with the Polish name. On
the right bank of the Vistula the amber region began, along the shore of the
Mare Suevicum or Baltic Sea.
8. TRIBUTARY        STREA.MS.
(A.) Tributaries to the Danube, on its left bank, in Germania
Magna.
1. The Alemannus or Alemo, now the Altmiuhl. The course of this river shows
frequent traces of Roman military lines, which sometimes intersect its bed.
In the Middle Ages it was called the Almona. Charlemagne endeavored to effect a continuous navigation between the Rhine and )Danube by uniting the
waters of the Alemannus with those of the Radantia, now the Rednitz. 2. The
Nablis, called, also, the Bac; now, according to Reichard, the Naabe. 3. The
Reganum, now the Regen. 4. The Cusus, now the Waag. 5. The Marus, called,
also, the Morus, now the March. This stream became well known to the Romans in their war with Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni. 6. The Granua,
now the Gran, in the land of the Quadi.




222                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(B.) Tributaries to the Rhine, on its right bank, in Germanta
Magna.
1. The Nicer or Niger, now the Neckar. 2. The lMenus or Menus, now the
lMain  3. The Logana or Lohana, now the Lahn. 4. The Sigum, called, also,
Sega or Segaha, now the Sieg. This river, like the one immediately preceding,
is only mentioned in the Middle Ages. 5. The Luppia, now the Lippe; called
by Ptolemy the Aov'riag. 6. The Elison ('Eiacuv), now the Alme. On this river
stood the Roman castellum called Aliso, where the modern Elsen is now situated, and which was the key to the passes of the Saltus Teutoburgiensis. 7. Sala
Bructerorzum, called, also, the Isala, now the Yssel, of which mention has already
been made in the account given of the Rhine.
9. LAKES.
I. Estia Laces, mentioned by Mela, and, according to the best authorities, answering now to the Dammersee in the kingdom of Hanover.
II. Flevo Lacus, in the country of the Frisii, from the union of which with the
waters of the ocean, by an irruption of the latter, arose the present Zuider Zee.
This has already been alluded to in the account of the Rhine.
III. Lacus Brigantinus, now the Lake of Constance; called, also, the Bodensee,
from the ancient castle of Bodma.nn, and likewise the Lake of Costnitz. Its
ancient name Brigantinus is given to it from the Brigantii, who dwelt on its
shores. Mela calls it Lacus Venetus, or rather gives this name to that part of
the lake from Constanz to Radolfzell, now called the Unterzellersee, or Lower
Lake. Tiberius built a fleet on this lake in order to attack the Vindelici. Pliny
expressly assigns it to Rtetia; others reckon it part of Vindelicia. As the
Rhine passes through it, we have preferred niaking mention of it under the head
of Germany.
10. SOIL AND CLIMIATE.
I. THE Roman writers draw very unfavorable pictures generally of the soil
and climate of ancient Germany. Mela, for example, describes the surface of the
country as cut up by a multitude of rivers, made rugged by numerous mountain
chains, and in a great measure impracticable for travellers by reason of the forests and marshes that covered it. Tacitus also speaks of it as rough with forests or deformed by fens. He admits, indeed, that it was productive for grain,
and kindly to fruit-trees, and that it also abounded in cattle; but he makes these
last to have been, for the most part, diminutive in size.
II. Tacitus, however, does not appear to have known much of the interior of
Germany, although it is true that numerous forests were scattered over the
country. The marshes, moreover, of which he speaks, refer principally to the
country of East Friesland, the coast of the German Ocean, at the mouth of the
Ems and Weser, and to some parts of Westphalia and Lower Saxony. It would
seem, from other accounts, that Germany was by no means an unproductive
country. Casar, for example, speaks of the fertility of the country around the
Hercynian Forest; Commodus laid the Marcomanni under a tribute of corn;
the cultivation of oats is mentioned by Pliny, and even Tacitus himself speaks
elsewhere of barley, out of which a fermented liquor was made.
III. As regards the animals of the country, especially the cattle, Tacitus wishes
to convey the idea that they are stunted by the severity of the climate. This,
however, is an error. Some of the quadrupeds of ancient Germany-the urus




GERMANIA MAGNA.                          223
(auerochs), for example-were remarkable for their size. The smallness of the
cattle must have been. owing rather to want of care in feeding them, in protecting them from the ordinary inclemencies of winter, and in improving the breed
by mixtures.
11. CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS.
I. OUR principal information on this subject is derived from Tacitus, who wrote
a separate treatise on the manners and customs of the German tribes. Occasional notices and scattered hints are also found in the works of other ancient
authors, particularly in the Gallic Commentaries of Caesar.
II. The Germans are described as tall and robust of frame, with light blue
eyes and deep yellow hair; as inured to cold and hunger, but not to heat and
thirst; as warlike, yet friendly and hospitable, even to utter strangers; as
scorning every restraint, considering independence as the most valuable of possessions, and therefore ready to give up life rather than freedom.
III. Unacquainted with the arts of civilized life, the German, when not engaged
in warfare, lived amid his forests and pastures, supported by the chase, and the
produce of his flocks and herds, or by the culture of the ground, though this last
occupied comparatively little of his attention. The warrior, however, during
these same seasons of peace, led a life of total inaction, given up to sleep, to
the pleasures of the table, and to gaming. A beverage prepared with little'art
from barley or wheat indemnified them for the absence of the juice of the grape,
while they carried their love of gaming to such an extent as even to stake or
the final throw, when every thing else was lost, their personal freedom itself.
IV. The form of government in most of the German states was the democratic. The public assemblies, consisting of all able to bear arms and belonging to the same tribe, were summoned either at fixed periods or on sudden
emergencies. The free vote of the members of these councils decided on public offences, the election of magistrates, on war or peace; for, though the leaders were allowed to discuss all subjects previously, yet the right of deciding
was vested solely in the people at large. In some of the communities, particularly those dwelling more to the north, a monarchical form of government prevailed; but even here checks were imposed upon the power of the monarch, and
democratic features were visible.
V. In times of danger or war a leader was chosen, and the most valiant was
selected for this purpose; but even then they led their countrymen more by their
example than by any authority. As soon as the danger or war was over, his
authority ceased. In times of peace, no other superiors were known than the
chieftains, who were chosen in the assemblies to distribute justice, or to compose differences in their respective districts. Each of these chieftains was attended by one hundred companions, who acted both as a council of advice and
a means of enforcing authority.
VI. To leaders of approwed valor the noblest youths voluntarily devoted themselves, and as the former vied with each other in assembling around them the
bravest companions, so the latter contended by their zeal and prowess for the
favor of their leaders. It was the duty of the leader to be foremost in the hour
of danger, and the duty of each companion not to be inferior in prowess and
daring to his chief. To survive the fall of their leader was an indelible disgrace to the companions, for it was their most sacred duty to defend his person,
and to heighten his glory by their own achievements. The leader fought foi
victory, his companions for their leader.
VII. The primitive nations of Germany attached something of a sacred and




224                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
prescient character to the female sex. Hence the importance which they attached to their counsels and responses, and hence, too, the reverence with which
they regarded certain females of their nation, who were supposed to be gifted
with prophetic powers. Polygamy was only permitted to the chieftains as a
means of extending their family connections and influence. Adultery was considered an inexpiable crime, and was, therefore, of very rare occurrence. The
punishment of the offence, when committed, was given over into the hands of
the husband.
VIII. The religious notions of the race were necessarily rude and imperfect,
but still bore manifest traces of an Oriental origin. Their chief deity was Odin,
the Budha of the East, but whom the Romans assimilated to their own Mercury,
and on stated occasions they sought to propitiate him even by human sacrifices.
The god of battles, Thor, the Roman Mars, was also, as might be expected, an
object of peculiar adoration. Some of the Suevic tribes also paid adoration to
the moon, or, as Tacitus miscalls it, the goddess Isis. Their temples were
groves and forests, rendered sacred by the veneration of many generations, and
in the dark recesses of these were preserved their sacred standards. Among
the nations bordering on the Baltic Sea, the goddess Hertha (Earth) was particularly worshipped. Her temple was a sacred grove in the Isle of Rugen, and
her rites strongly remind us of those of Cybele among the Romans, Phrygians,
and other nations of the ancient world, as well as those of Baghawadi among
the Brahmins of India.
12. GERMAN       TRIBES MORE IN DETAIL.
1. TRIBES ON THE SEA-COAST.
(A.) Tribe between the Rhine and Ems.
FRISII.-The Frisii were divided into the Frisii Majores and Frisii Minores.
The Frisii Minores inhabited the tract north of the Insula Batavorum, comprising
Oberyssel, Gelders, Utrecht, and the greater part of the province of Holland.
The Frisii Majores dwelt between the Yssel, the Ems, and the country of the
Bructeri, in West Friesland and Groningen.  The Frisidbones, mentioned by
Pliny, probably formed part of the same race, and seem to have dwelt in the
islands of the Zuider Zee. From their first acquaintance with the Romans, the
Frisii long continued their most zealous friends in this part: they rendered Drusus the most active service, and not only supported Germanicus themselves by
their advice and immediate aid, but brought over the Cauci also. The cause
of this friendship is probably to be found in the hostility which existed between
them and the Cherusci, against whom all these enterprises of the Romans were
directed. It was interrupted, however, in consequence of the Romans building
forts in their territory, and attempting to levy tribute. They rose upon the Romans, massacred the soldiers who were among them, and destroyed most of
their strongholds. Corbulo, the Roman general, proceeded against them, but
the jealousy of Claudius Caesar stopped his conquests, and he was obliged to
withdraw to the left bank of the Rhine. From this time forward the Romans no
more entered their country. In the fourth and fifth centuries we hear of them
as members of the Saxon league; and by this time they had greatly extended
their possessions. On the east they reached to the Weser, and along the coast
they held some posts as far as the Elbe; on the west their name appears more
than once in the Batavian Islands, on the Meuse and Scheldt, and on the whole
coast of Flanders. They accompanied the Saxons in their invasion and conquest of Britain. Their descendants, who still retain their name of Frisians, are
settled among the small.islands on the western coast of the Duchy of Schleswig.




GERMANIA IM 0AGNA.                       225
The following geographical positions may be mentioned among the Frisil:
1. Burchlna, called by Strabo BovpXavip, an island answering to the modern
Borkum. Pliny calls it Fabaria, from a species of wild bean growing there.
2. Austeravia, now the island of Ameland. It was also called Glessaria, from
the amber found here by the Roman soldiers. 3. Corbulonis Monumentum. The
fortress erected by Corbulo to keep the Frisii under proper restraint. It gave
rise subsequently to the modern city of Groningen. 4. Cruptorzcis Villa, now
Hem Ryk, in Oysterlande. It was here that four hundred Roman soldiers slew
themselves to prevent their falling into the hands of the Frisii.
(B.) Tribe between the Ems and the Elbe.
CAUCI.-This tribe dwelt along the ocean, from the Amisia, now Ems, to the
Albis, now Elbe, and reached southward somewhat below what is now Ostfriesland, Oldenberg, and Bremen, although along the Weser these boundaries often
changed. Pliny and Ptolemy divide them into the Greater and the Less, and
though Tacitus does not make this distinction in his "( Germany," he alludes to
it in his Annals. According to Ptolemy, the Cauci Majores dwelt between the
Visurgis and Albis, and the Cauci Minores between the Amisia and Visurgis.
Tacitus says that their country was extensive and thickly settled, and that
they were a people distinguished among the Germans for their love of justice and
peace; powerful and yet unambitious, they did not provoke war, and yet were
always ready to resist aggression. They were at one time friends to Rome,
and furnished auxiliaries to Germanicus in the war against the Cherusci. But
here again the Romans roused the enmity of their allies by pursuing the same
policy as in the case of the Frisii. Under Gannascus they crossed the l.hine,
and made incursions into the Roman province of Germania Inferior, but were
repulsed by Corbulo, and Gannascus was slain. They afterward joined in the
revolt of the Batavian chief Civilis. Ptolemy mentions, as their towns, 1. Phabirdnum, now Brema or Varel. 2. Lcuphdna, now Liuneberg, according to some.
3. Tuliphurdum, now Verden or Dihlbergen. 4. Siatutanda, now Utende. 5.'Teaderium, now Dcteern. Their name is still preserved in that of their harbor,
Cuxhaven.
(C.) Tribes immediately East of the Elbe.
I. ANGLI.-We find the earliest record of this tribe in Tacitus. But this author only mentions their name, states a few particulars relative to their religion, and intimates that they were a branch of the Suevi. He appears to have
known very little about them. They are not mentioned in the expeditions of
Drusus and Tiberius, and therefore probably at that time were on the east of
the Elbe. Ptolemy places them on the west, in what is now Magdeburg. D'Anville has in his map assigned them the same district which they occupied in the
fifth century, before their emigration to England, and parts of which the modern
Angles still occupy. He allots to them the greatest portion of modern Schleswig
and some part of Holstein, making the German Ocean their western boundary,
the Saxons their nearest neighbors on the south, the Varini on the southeast,
and the Jutes on the north. About the middle of the fifth century (449), a large
t)ody of Saxons and Angles, led by Hengist and Horsa, sailed over to England,
and established permanent settlements in the island. The Angles, however,
seem to have prevailed in numbers or influence, for it was they that gave the
name to their new country, Angel-land, Anglia, though it was sometimes called
Saxonia Transmiarina. The name Anglo-Saxons, which comprises both Angles
and Saxons, was invented by later historians for the sake of convenience.
P




226                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
II. SAXisNES.-The earliest writers who mention the Saxons describe them
as neighbors of the Danes, south of the Cimbric Chersonese. Ptolemy also
speaks of the islands of the Saxons, which were probably the modern islands of
Eiderstedt, Nordstrand, Wicking Harde, and Boking Harde. Orosius says that
they inhabited a marshy country, which was almost inaccessible to strangers.
Toward the southwest they seem not at first to have extended beyond the Elbe.
The similarity of their language to that of the Persians and ancient Indians affords reason for believing that the Saxons were of Eastern origin, and hence
some have derived their name from that of the Sacae on the Indus. Others,
however, trace it to the word " sassen," that is, " settled," in contradistinction
from those German tribes who led a sort of nomadic life. When, during the
migration of the barbarians, the neighboring tribes changed their countries and
migrated toward the south, the Saxons likewise began to extend in the same
direction, and at last we find them occupying the country between the Elbe, the
Rhine, the Lippe, and the German Ocean. This extensive tract of land is called
by Anglo-Saxon writers " Old Saxony," to distinguish it from "New Saxony" or
England. In the third century the Saxons often landed on the coasts of England and France, and ravaged the maritime districts, until, about the middle of
the fifth century, a portion of them joined the Angli, and made a permanent settlement in England. Those Saxons who remained in Germany moved gradually toward the interior of Germany, and gradually abandoned their piratical
and plundering mode of life, to become an agricultural people.
III. CIMBRIs.-A nation commonly, but erroneously, placed on the Cimbric
Chersonese, or modern Jutland. The accounts of the ancients respecting their
seats abound in uncertainties and contradictions. The writers who place them
on the Cimbric Chersonese are Pliny, Tacitus, and Ptolemy. But, upon examination, it does not appear that they ever inhabited these parts. The Greeks
first became acquainted with them under the name of Cimmerii, on the northern
coast of the Euxine. They were driven from this quarter, and disappeared from
the knowledge of the Greeks, who fabled that they dwelt on the shores of the
Northern Ocean, in a land shrouded by perpetual night. Pytheas, who circumnavigated the greater part of the northwest of Europe, saw a large peninsula,
where the long nights and the intense cold in winter seemed to agree with the
poetical descriptions of the land of the Cimmerii, and so assigned this country
as their abode. In this he was followed by most of the geographers. No mention is made of the Cimbri in the expeditions of Drusus and Germanicus; and,
though the fleet of the latter discovered the Cimbric Chersonese of Pytheas,
they found no Cimbrians dwelling in it, nor did it bear a name derived from that
people. Ptolemy places them at the extremity of it, merely to fill up a gap, as
he has no other tribe to fix in this locality. Their real country lay probably on
the northeast side of Germany. It was on this side that they invaded Germany,
and were opposed by the Boii, at that time the inhabitants of Bohemia. Together with the Teutones they entered Gaul, where they were joined by the
Ambrones. With their combined forces they then invaded Spain, but were repulsed by the Celtiberi. The Teutones and Ambrones then proceeded through
Gallia Narbonensis, with the view of making an irruption into Italy, but were
defeated by Marius at Aquae Sextie, now Aix. The Cimbri, on the other hand,
having marched into Helvetia, were there joined by the Tigurini, and having
made an irruption into Italy, drove back Catulus, but were at last routed by the
combined forces of Marius and that commander, B.C. 101. From this time little or no mention is made of the Cimbri in history, but tradition says that the
remnant of them settled in the central valleys of Helvetia, and the inhabitants




GERMANIA MAGNA.                           227
of thec Waldstditten and of the Bernese Oberland are supposed to be their desrcendants. The Cimbri appear to have been a Celtic, not a German race. Their
name may still be traced in Cymry, the national appellation of the Welsh.
IV. TEUT6NES or TEUT6NI, a name given to a tribe said to dwell on the east
of the Albis; but more probably we have here merely a general appellation for
the whole German race. The word Teuton or Teutones contains evidently the
same root with the modern national term Deutsche or Teutsche.
2. TRIBES ON THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RHINE.
(A.) Tribes between the Frisii and th/e River Luppia, and
bounded on the East by the Visurgis.
I. BRUCTERI.-This tribe, in all their wars with the Romans, never changed
their seats. Toward the west they reached to the Vecht; toward the south to
the Luppia or Lippe; toward the east almost to the Weser; and toward the north
they bordered upon the Frisii and Cauci. They were divided into the Bructeri
Majores, who dwelt on the east of the Ems, and the Bructeri Minores, who dwelt
on the west of that stream. Talctus says that they were extirpated by the
Chamavi and Angrivarii; but this is an error, since we find them engaged in
hostilities with the Roman general Spurinna in the reign of Trajan; and at a still
later period they appear as a powerful people among the members of the Frank
league. Their principal towns were, 1. Mediolanium, now Meteln. 2. Stereon
tium, now Steinfurt.
II. TUBANTES.-Confederates of the Cherusci, and settled at first between the
Rhine and the Yssel. They retired subsequently from these territories to the
southern side of the Lippe, and, finally, after the overthrow of the Marsi by the
Roman arms, established themselves in the territory of this last-mentioned tribe.
III. CHAMIVI.-This tribe originally occupied the tract which extended northward to the Vecht, eastward to the Ems, southward to the Lippe, and westward
to the eastern mouth of the Rhine. At a later period they lived between the
Weser and the Hartz Mountains. In the third century they are again found on
the Rhine as members of the Frank league, and in the next century they spread
themselves along the Waal. Tacitus has most probably committed a mistake
in placing them in the country of the Bructeri.
IV. MARSI.-This tribe, according to the most correct opinion, had their settlements in the neighborhood of the Logana, now the Lahn.
V. DuLGIBNI.-Ptolemy places this tribe on the eastern bank of the Weser,
but Tacitus assigns them a position in the rear of the Chamavi and Angrivarii,
in what was once the territory of the Bructeri. They belonged to the race of
the Cherusci, and were probably driven eastward by the same irruption of the
Cauci as that which expelled the Angrivarii.
VI. USIPII or USIPrTES.-This tribe is generally named in connection with the
Tencteri. They frequently changed their settlements. When driven from their
original seats by the Catti, they wandered for three years in Germany, and having at length come to the Rhine, they crossed the river and seized upon the
lands of the Menapii, Eburones, and Condrusi, between the Rhine and Moselle.
They were defeated by Caesar, and many perished in attempting to recross the
Rhine. The remnant of the nation, after this, took refuge with the Sigambri.
In the time of Claudius and Nero, they are found dwelling between the Sieg and
the Lahn, and they were still living here in the time of Tacitus. In Ptolemy's
time they occupied the northern part of the Black Forest. They became eventu,
ally mixed up with the Alemanni.




228                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(B.) Tribes between the Luppia and MXnus.
1. SIGAMBRI or SICAMBRI, the most powerful tribe of the Istaevones. Their
original seats were on the River Sieg or Sig, and extended from this river to
the Lippe. The Romans finally conquered them under the leading of Drusus.
Tiberius subsequently transferred a large part of them to the left or southern
bank of the Rhine, where they appear under the name of Gugerni. At a subsequent period they became incorporated into the league of the Franks.
II. TENCTERI.-These have already been alluded to in the account given of
the Usipii. They lived south of the Lippe, in the region opposite Cologne and
Bonn. At the time of the expeditions of Drusus and Tiberius they had removed
eastward; but they returned after the overthrow of Varus, and in the age of
Tacitus their possessions extended northward to the Lippe, where they bordered
upon the Bructeri, and southward to the Sieg.
III. MATTIACI.-Probably a branch of the Catti, dwelling on the right bank
of the Rhine, in Wetterazu and Hesse Darmstadt, the tract possessed by the Ubii
before they crossed the Rhine. In the war of the Batavi, they, together with
the Usipii and Catti, besieged Magontiacunm now Mayence. After their territories were occupied by the Alemanni, their name was almost extinguished.
Their capital was Mattium, the site of which is most probably to be fixed at
Maden. Another of their towns was Aquae Mattiace, now Wisbaden.
(C.) Tribe south of the Mcenus.
ALEMANNI.-A powerful German people, the limits of whose settlements at
first were the Rhine, the Danube, and the Main. In subsequent ages their territory extended toward the Alps and the Jura Mountains. The first notice of
them in history occurs in A.D. 214, when a large number of them were treacherously massacred by Caracalla. From that period they were engaged in almost constant hostility with the Romans, and made fiequent incursions into
Gaul, down to the reign of Constantine the Great, when they were defeated in
a bloody battle at Langres. After this they remained until A.D. 337, when
they again invaded Gaul, during the reign of the sons of Constantine. Julian,
however, in 356-361, not only drove them out of this country, but even made
several expeditions into their German domains. We find them, however, even
after this, frequently coming into collision with the Roman arms. Their
strength was finally broken in the bloody battle gained by the Frankish king
Chlodwig, at Tolbiacum, now Zilpich, in A.D. 496.
3. TRIBES ON THE LEFT BANK OF THE DANUBE.
Tribes between the Danube and the Erzgebirge and Riesengebirg e.
I. HERMUNDURI.-This tribe occupied what is now Saxony and Anhalt, between the Saale and the Elbe. In the fifth century they appear in this same
quarter under the name of Thuringi. In the name Hermunduri, Hermun is
probably not an essential part, but merely rharks that they belonged to the Herminones. Duri seems to have been their real name, and this root appears,
with a German ending, in Thur-ingi. Among their towns, as enumerated by
Ptolemy, we may mention, 1. Segodunum, now Wurceburg; 2. Bergium, now
Bamberg; 3. Menosgdda, now Baruth.
II. NARISCI.-This tribe dwelt at the foot of the Fichtelgebirge. Ptolemy
calls them Varisti (Ovaptaroi), and Dio Cassius, Narisce (NaptaKai).




GERMANIA MAGNA.                         229
III. QUXDI. —This powerful tribe always appear in the closest connection
with the Marcomanni. The Romans first became acquainted with them after
the conquest of Pannonia. Their most ancient settlements on the Danube
reached eastward to the Tibiscus, now the Theis, where they bordered on the
Getae. They afterward withdrew westward. The Quadi carried on wars with
M. Aurelius, Commodus, Caracalla, Gallienus, Aurelian, Constantine, Julian,
and Valentinian I., &c., until the fifth century, when they appear to have coalesced with other nations.
IV. MARCOMANNI.-We first hear of this tribe in the armry of Ariovistus. At
a subsequent period we find them dwelling between the Danube and the Dravc,
in Austria and Hungary, till the Romans conquered Pannonia and the Noric
Alps, when they withdrew to the opposite side of the river, into the country
occupied by the Boii, whom they expelled. This they did under the guidance
of Maroboduus, who had been educated at Rome, and who raised his people to
a high pitch of prosperity. In the reign of Domitian, hostilities broke out between the Marcomanni and the Romans, and continued almost uninterruptedly
till the fall of the Roman empire. After the death of Attila, in whose army
they served, the Marcomanni are no longer heard of.
V. BOI.-This tribe may be here mentioned, because originally settled within the limits which we are considering. The settlements of this once powerful tribe are found in Gaul, and along both sides of the Danube from its source
eastward, probably as far as the mouth of the Enns; toward the south they
stretched to the mountains which separate Tyrol from Bavaria. The eastern
part of Suabia, with the whole of Bavaria and Bohemia, which took their names
from them (Bavaria having been originally Boiaria), belonged to them. They
also occupied part of Moravia. From Bohemia they were expelled by the Marcomanni, and settled in Noricum and Bavaria, where Boiodurum, now Innstadt,
took its name from them. At some period or other, but when is uncertain,
they crossed the Alps, and established themselves in Italy, between the Tarus,
the Silarus, and the Apennines. They were subdued by the Romans under
Scipio Nasica, and afterward removed to the banks of the Drave. After this
they were greatly weakened in wars with the Gets, and an extensive tract in
this part was called Deserta Boiorum. Some of the Boii accompanied Brennus
in his invasion of Greece and Asia Minor, and settled in Galatia. Others joined the Helvetii when they migrated into Gaul, and were allowed by Caesar to
settle among the _Edui. Bohemia takes its name from Boiemum or Boihemum,
which means, probably, "the home (heim, heimath) of the Boii."
4. TRIBES IN THE CENTRAL PARTS.
I. SUEVI.-A powerful German tribe, who, according to Tacitus, possessed
all the land from the banks of the Danube northward to the Baltic Sea, between
the Elbe and the Vistula. Caesar gives their name to the Catti. After the time
of Tacitus the name appears to have been lost. The tribes included under the
general name of Suevi were the Semnones, Langobardi, Aviones, Varini, Eudoses, Suard6nes, and Nuithones. Of these, the only ones deserving of a particular mention are the Semnones and Langobardi.
II. SEMNONES.-This tribe lived between the Elbe and the Oder, inhabiting
the tract which comprises what is now Mecklenburg and Brandenburg, with part
of Saxony, Bohemia, Lusatia, Silesia, and Poland. The Romans first came into
contact with them in the expeditions of Tiberius, and in the wars against Arminius (to whom, together with the Langobardi, they went over from Maroboduus), and then again in the time of Domitian, when a king of theirs, whom




230                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPH Y.
they had driven out, came to Rome. Mannert contends that Semnones was not
the name of any particular tribe, but a common one, like that of Suevi, and
that it was applied to the northern branches of the latter people.
III. LANGOBARDI.-This tribe frequently changed their settlements. At first
they dwelt in the neighborhood of the Lower Elbe, in the tract called Bardengau, between Magdeburg, Lineberg, and Hamburg, where the town of Bardwick
stands. Here they were subdued by Tiberius, who moved them beyond the
Elbe. They then advanced more into the interior of the country, to the neighborhood of the Semnones, and, together with these, revolted from Maroboduus,
under whose dominion they then were, to Arminius. Afterward, on the decline of the power of the Cherusci, they extended themselves to the Rhine;
and here they are placed by Ptolemy, between the Bructeri and Tencteri.
They did not, however, remain here long; the Saxon league drove them back
to the Elbe. In the fifth century they established themselves in Pannonia.
Then, at the invitation of Narses, and led by Alboinus across the Alps (A.D
568), they settled in Lombardy, which took its name from them.
IV. ANGnRIVRII.-This tribe dwelt on the east of the Weser, between the
Cauci and Cherusci, and extended over a part of Luneberg and Calenberg to the
Steinhuder See, which formed the boundary between them and the Cherusci,
and on both sides of the River Aller. Traces of their name are still found near
the Elbe in Angern, Engern, Engershausen, &c.
V. CaEPrUSCI.-The possessions of this tribe lay in the Hartz Mountains, and
on both sides of them, but chiefly on the south, where the northwest part of
the Thlringer Wald separated them from the Catti. They were at first in alliance with Rome, and Arminius commanded a squadron of German cavalry in
the Roman army, and so far distinguished himself that he was made a Roman
knight. Afterward, however, roused by this leader, the Cherusci joined the
C-atti and others in the well-known attack upon Varus. They were subsequently defeated by Germanicus. The Cheruscan league included the Dulgibini,
Ansibdrii, Chasudri, Chamdvi, Tubantes, Marsi, &c. These and other small
tribes arc frequently called Cherusci. With Arminius fell the power of the
Cherusci; their league was speedily dissolved, and a considerable portion of
their territory was wrested from them by the Langobardi, and they were driven
from the west of the Tharinger Wald by the Catti.
VI. CHASUARI.-This tribe belonged to the nation of the Cherusci. Ptolemy
places their settlements on the western side of the Weser, in what is now Osnaburg and Paderborn. They subsequently appear among the Franks, on the
western part of the Lower Rhine, in the dukedom of Gucldres.
VII. CATTI.-This tribe were separated from the Cherusci by the Forest of
Bacenis, or the western part of the Thiringer Wald. Their territory comprehended that of the modern Hessians, Fulda, the earldoms of Hanau and Isetberg, so much of Franconia as lies north of'the Main to the mouth of the Saale,
part of Nassau, and the eastern portion of the duchy of Westphalia. Their
name, allowing for the difference of sound in Latin and German, is the same as
that of the Hessians. The Catti were defeated by Drusus, but some time afterward they took part with the Cherusci in the slaughter of Varus and his leP' )ns
In the reign of Tiberius, Germanicus overran their country; but they ciontinucd in arms against the Romans for many years after, and aided the revolt of
the Batavi in the reign of Vitellius. They were also engaged in war with the
Hermunduri, by whom they were nearly extirpated.
VIII. GoTHiNI. —This tribe are supposed by some to have lived in Cracow, or
on the banks of the Marus, now the March. Others place them on the south




GERMANIA MAGNA.                          231
of the Danube, where there are several iron mines, in Styria. Tacitus speaks
of the iron mines in their country.
IX. GOTONES.-The name Gotones is synonymous with that of rI0ove as given by Ptolemy, or Goths. They were often erroneously confounded with the
Getae and Scythians. Pytheas is the first who mentions them, when they lived
on the right bank of the Vistula, and on the coast of the Baltic, on the borders
of Silesia and Poland, and afterward a part of them in Scandinavia, where their
name appears in Gothland, Gothenburg, Codanus Sinus, and Gedanum. They
first appear under the name of Goths in the time of Caracalla. Somewhere
about the middle of the second century they seem to have wandered from the
Vistula to the neighborhood of the Dnieper and Dniester, and incessantly harassed the province of Dacia. In the time of Gallienus they devastated Thrace
and Macedonia, and a portion of them penetrated into Asia Minor, &nd burned
the temple of Diana at Ephesus. About this period they spread eastward along
the northern coast of the Euxine. In the year 269 they were defeated by Claudius in Mcesia. Shortly afterward Aurelian abandoned Dacia to them, and they
were now divided into Ostro-Goths, or Eastern Goths, inhabiting the shores of
the Euxine, and Visi-Goths, or Western Goths, who occupied Dacia. The Borysthenes formed the boundary of the two divisions. About the year 375, the
Huns, under Attila, drove the Ostrogoths upon their western neighbors, who retired before them, and were allowed by the Emperor Valens to settle in Mcesia.
Here disputes arose between them and the Romans, and Valens was killed in
attempting to oppose them. In the reign of Honorius, Alaric, at the head of
the Visigoths, invaded Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho. He soon returned,
however, and made himself master of Rome. His successor, Ataulph, made
peace with the Romans, and withdrew to the south of Gaul, from which country
the Visigoths afterward withdrew to Spain, where they maintained their ground
until they were conquered by the Moors. After the death of Attila the Ostro
goths emancipated themselves from the dominion of the Huns, and, under Theodoric, defeated Odoacer and subdued Italy, A.D. 489. But their dominion here
was overthrown by Narses, the general of Justinian, in 554, and the remnant
of their race became amalgamated with the other inhabitants of Italy.
X. BURGUNDI6NES.-Pliny numbers this race among the branches of the great
stock of the Vindili or Vandals; Ptolemy places these Vindili upon the lower
Vistula. They first came into contact with the Romans during the reign of
Probus. They invaded Gaul at different periods with various success; but in
the reign of Honorius that emperor ceded to them part of Gaul, near the banks
of the Rhine, and from this cession arose the kingdom of Burgundy.
XI. VANDALII or VINDLI.-A German tribe, who lived at first on the shores
of the Baltic, between the Albis and Vistula, in what is now Pomerania and part
of Poland; but, being forced to evacuate their possessions in their wars with
Aurelian and Probus, they first settled in Dacia and Sarmatia, then in Pannonia
and Gallia, and in the year 406, together with the Alani, they migrated to Spain.
Being afterward overpowered by the Goths, they took refuge in'Africa, and
were there subdued by Justinian in the year 534.
DECUMATES AGRI.
BEFORE leaving the subject of Germany, we may allude briefly to the Dccumates Agri. This name was applied by the Romans to certain lands conquered
by them, and in which, for the sake of security, that no hostile tribe miclt dwell
close to their borders, they allowed Gauls or Roman soldiers to settic, who were
charged with the payment of a tithe (decima) to the Romans. The situation of




232                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
these lands is variously laid down. Some authors place them on the banks of
the Neckar, others between the Lahn and Main, and on the banks of the Danube, opposite the province of Retia, or within the Roman vallum, reaching from
Magontiacum to the Danube, near the source of which lay the territories of the
Marcomanni, which the Romans took possession of after Maroboduus removed
to Bohemia. Drusus Germanicus, having built a fort on Mount Taunus, seems
to have laid the first foundation of the lines, inclosing the Decumates Agri, which
was gradually advanced, especially by Trajan and Hadrian, and fortified.
Though the occupation of these lands depended on the will of the emperor,
towns gradually sprang up in them. There are still remains of a Roman wall
running from Ingolstadt, on the Danube, to the River Main. Toward the end
of the third century, these lands were wrested from the Romans by the Alemanni, whom Julian and Valentinian in vain endeavored to expel.
II. SCANDINAVIA.
1. THE ancient Scandinavia answered to the modern Sweden and Norway.
The ancients, however, had a very imperfect knowledge of what they called
Scandinavia, believing it to be either one large island of unascertained dimensions, or a collection of several islands.
II. According to Pliny, the only part of Scandinavia known in his time was
occupied by the Hillevibnes, a numerous nation, who inhabited five hundred
pagi or districts. Tacitus, in a later age, when enumerating the tribes of Germany, speaks of the SuiOies and Sitones as living in the remote north. By the
Suiones are probably meant the inhabitants of Sweden, and by the Sitones those
of Norway.
11. According to the ancient error, which divided Scandinavia into many islands, there are found in Pliny the names of Bergi and Nerigos, as indicating
two of these islands. It is thought by the best geographers that the former
of these appellations points to Bergen, one of the principal towns in Norway, and
that the latter, which was given to what the ancients deemed the largest island,
refers to the country of Norway itself, called in Swedish Norrige, and in Danish
Norge. The Sevo Mons of Pliny has already been alluded to (page 11).
IV. The Thule described by Procopius is supposed to have been different from
the island of that name already referred to by us (page 212), and the modern
canton of Tele-mark or Tyle-mark retains, as is thought, evident traces of the
ancient appellation.
V. In connection with Scandinavia may be mentioned the country of Finningia, or the modern Finnland. Pliny makes it an island. The first mention of
its inhabitants under the denomination of Finns (Fenni) occurs in Tacitus, who
describes them as a savage race, without arms, horses, or iron; their arrows
were pointed with bone, and their principal occupation was hunting. The Finns
at the present day call themselves, not Finns, but Suomilins, which means
dwellers among swamps."
VI. The Scrito-Finni mentioned by Procopius were so called, according to
Paulus Diaconus, from the lightness and swiftness of their course.oaver the
snows and ice, which they pursued on a species of snow-shoes or skates.




DACIA.                           233
III. IAZYGES METANASTJE.
I. THE Iazyges were a people of Sarmatian origin, and their native seats
weie on the northern shores of the Euxine and Palus Mlieotis. Being driven
from these, about A.D. 51, by the Rhoxolani, as it is thought, they settled in
the country between the Danube and the Tibiscus, now the Theiss, after driving
out the Daci, and carried on for a short time hostilities with the Romans. They
are frequently mentioned by subsequent writers as dangerous neighbors to the
provinces of Pannonia and Mcesia.
II. Ptolemy calls them Metanastce (Merav6dora), to indicate their having left
their original seats, and being " wanderers" from home.
IV. DACIA.
1. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Dacia was the ancient name of a country bounded on the north by Eutropean Sarmatia, on the south by the Danube, on the east by the Euxine, and on
the west by the Tibiscus, now the Theiss.
II. It comprehended, therefore, the modern Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia.
2. NASIE AND HISTORY.
I. Dacia derived its name from the Daci, whose earlier appellation, according
to Strabo, was Dai (Aaot). The country, however, was occupied, in fact, by
two communities, the Daci and GetCE; but as they both spoke the same language,
they must be regarded, of course, as portions of the same race. The Daci occupied the part toward Germany and the sources of the Danube, the Gette the
part toward the east and the Euxine. The Getee were better known to the
Greeks in consequence of their frequent migrations tothe banks of the Danube.
The Latin name Daci, however, included the Getae.
II. The first expedition of the Emperor Trajan was against the Daci, headed
by their king Decebalus, and the war, which lasted nearly five years, ended in
their submission to the Roman power. In A.D. 250, Dacia was overrun and
conquered by the Goths, to whom it was subsequently resigned by the Emperor
Aurelian.
III. While prosecuting the conquest of Dacia, Trajan constructed, with the
aid of the architect Apollodorus, his celebrated bridge over the Danube, the
largest work of this kind mentioned by the ancients. According to Dio Cassius,
it consisted of twenty piers, one hundred and fifty feet high, sixty wide, and
one hundred and seventy apart; the piers were united by wooden arches. The
whole length of it has been calculated at four thousand seven hundred and seventy Roman feet. If the statement of Dio Cassius be true, this bridge seems
not only to have served for the passage of the river, but the immense height
of the pillars, of which scarcely more than seventy feet can have been under
water, leads to the supposition that it was at the same time a strong fortification destined to command the navigation. At a height of eighty feet above the
water, soldiers were protected against the missiles of the Dacian ships, while
the fleet of the enemy, in passing that bridge, ran the risk of destruction. This
bridge was either at Szernecz in Hungary, or five leagues above the junction
of the Olt with the Danube, in Wallachia, not far from Nicopolis, where ruins
of the Roman colonies Romula and Castra Nova, and a Roman road, which is
pretty well preserved, still exist.




234                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
3. ROMAN      SUBDIVISION      OF DACIA.
I. AFTER the reduction of Dacia into a Roman province, it was subdivided'nto, 1. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis. 2. Dacia Mediterranea. 3. Dacia Alpensis.
II. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis was so called because it lay along the banks of
the Danube; Dacia llMeditcrranea because situate in the midland parts; and Dacia
Alpensis because lying in the immediate vicinity of the Carpathian Mountains,
or, as they were sometimes less correctly called, the Bastarnic Alps.
III. For an account of what was afterward called Dacia Aureliani, consult the
geographical sketch of Mcesia, page 245.
4. MOUNTAINS.
I. Carpates Mons (Kap7rur7yf pof), now the Carpathian Mountains, separating
Dacia on the north from Sarmatia Europcea. This range was sometimes called
Alpes Bastarnicae, though, more correctly perhaps, the latter were merely a
branch of the former. Caesar makes the Carpathian Mountains a continuation
of the Hercynia Silva. Strabo and Pliny both speak of it, but without giving
any appellation to the chain. The name Carpates (Kap'rarf) first occurs in
Ptolemy.
II. Serrorum Montes, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus, and being that
part of the Carpathian chain which separates Transylvania from Wallachia.
5. RIVERS.
THE main stream is the Danube, Danubius or Ister, which has already been
described under the head of Germany.  All the other rivers are tributaries
of the Danube, and the most important of them are the following: 1. Tibiscus, now the Theiss. Pliny calls it Parthissus, and Jornandes Tisianus or
Thysia.  Into the Tibiscus falls the Marisus or Marisia, now the Marosch.
2. Apus, now the Nera. 3. Rhabon, now the Syl. It is supposed to have been
the same with the Sargelia of Dio Cassius, and the Gilfil of Jornandes. 4. Aluta,
now the Olt. 5. Ordessus, now the Sereth. 6. Naparis, now the Ardschisch,
according to Mannert, but, according to D'Anville, the Proava.  7. Agarus,
now the Berda. 8. Hicrasus, called by Herodotus Poras, now the Pruth.
6. CITIES.
WE will merely enumerate a few of the more important places, commencing
on the west. 1. Arcidava, near the modern Slatina. The Roman ruins in this
quarter are yet plainly visible. 2. Centum Putea, to the north. The ancient
name points to the Roman origin of the place, and the numerous excavations
made in its neighborhood for springs. The site is near the modern Oraviza.
3. Tibiscun or Tiviscum, on the western side of the River Temesz, at its junction with the Bistra. It was a municipium, and a place of importance. Tlhe
ruins lie near the modern Cavaran. 4. Sarmizegethusa, to the southeast, tite
residence of King Decebalus. Subsequently a Roman colony was sent to this
place by Trajan, and the name of the city was changed to Ulpia Trajani, or Colonia Ulpia Trajana Augusta. It then became the capital of the whole province,
and was adorned with an amphitheatre, aqueducts, &c., and protected by a
strong wall. Its ruins are found near Varhely. 5. Apulum, to the northeast,
on the Marisus or Marosch. It was a Rorpan municipium, and a place of great
importance. The ruins are found near Carlsburg. It was also called Alba Julia
Colonia. 6. Returning to the Danube we lind Zerna, an important Roman colony a short distance east of the Pons Trajani. In the Pandects the place is




SARMATIA      EUROPAEA.                   235
called Colonta Zernensium. The name of the town is evidently connected with
that of the neighboring river Czerna or Tzerna. 7. Drubetis or Druphegis, to
the southeast, on the Rhabon or Syl, in the vicinity of what is now Crajova.
V. SARMATIA EUROPJEA.
1. NAME AND EXTENT.
I. ACCORDING to Ptolemy, the name Sarmatia was applied to all that tract of
country which lay between the Vistlla on the west, and the Rha, now the Wolga, on the east. This was divided intb two parts by the River Tanais, now the
Don, and the western portion was called Sarmatia Europcea; the eastern, Sarmatia Asiatica.
II. European Sarmatia was bounded on the north by the Oceanus Sarmiticus,
another name for the southern part of the Mare Suevicum or Baltic, and the Terra
Incognita; on the west by the Vistula and the Montes Sarmatici; on the south by
Dacia, the Euxine, the Tauric Chersonese, and the Palus Meotis; and on the east,
as before stated, by the Tanais. It corresponded, therefore, to part of Russia,
Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, &c.
2. HISTORY, TRIBES, &c.
I. NEITHER Herodotus nor Strabo makes mention of the European Sarmatians.
The Sauromatee of Herodotus dwelt to the east of the Tanais, and inhabited a
tract of country extending northward from the Palus Meotis equal to fifteen
days' journey in length. Herodotus also says that the Sauromatee sprang from
the intercourse of a body of Scythians with some Amazons who came from the
River Thermodon in Asia Minor, and that their language was a corrupted form
of the Scythian. Strabo likewise places the Sauromate between the Tanais
and the Caspian, and speaks of the people west of the Tanais as Scythians.
II. European Sarmatia therefore comprehended the Scythia of Herodotus,
which may be said, in general terms, to have comprised the southeastern part
of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and the River Tanais.
III. The principal nations in European Sarmatia were, 1. The Venedca or
Venedi, on the Baltic. 2. The Peuc7ni or Bastarne, in the neighborhood of the
Carpathian Mountains. 3. The Iazyges, Rhoxoldni, and Hamaxobii, in the southern part of modern Russia. 4. The Alauni or Alani Scythae, in the central part
of Russia, in the neighborhood of Moscow. The knowledge which the ancients
possessed of these people was very limited. They are universally represented
as a nomade race with filthy habits. The Venedi appear to have been of German origin. They were occupied particularly with the carrying trade of amber,
that substance being found in great abundance along their shores. At a later
day they were called Winidi or Wendi, and many have supposed that the Veneti
in Italy were a branch of this people.
The Scythians will be more particularly mentioned under the head of Asia.
It will be sufficient here to state that they were in all probability a Mongolian
race. The European Scythians, according to the account of Herodotus, were
originally from Asia, and were driven from their settlements to the north of the
Araxes by the Massagetwe. After crossing the Araxes they descended into Europe, and drove out the Cimmerians from the country which was afterward
called Scythia. The date of their migration into Europe may be determined
with tolerable accuracy, if the irruption of the Cimmerians into Lydia in the
reign of Ardys (about B.C. 640) was the immediate consequence of their defeat
by the Scythians.




236                 ANCIENT       GEOGRAP'      Y.
3. RIVERS.
(A.) Rivers flowing into the Oceanus Savrmaticus.
1. Vistila. Already mentioned in the geography of Germany. 2. Guttdlus,
now the Precel. 3. Chronus, now the Niemen. 4. Turuntus, now the Windau,
according to Mannert and Gosselin. 5. ]Rhubon, now probably the Dana.
(B.) Rivers flowing into the Pontus Euxinus.
1. Danastrus (or Danaster), called by Ptolemy the Tyras (TVpaS), now the Dniester. 2. Hypanis ("i7ravtg), now the Bog. 3. Borysthenes (BopvoOEiv7), called,
also, the Danapris, now the Dnieper. 4. Hypdcdris, now the Canikschak, falling
into the Sinus Carcinites, near the city of CarcZne. Ptolemy calls this river the
Carcinitcs.
(C.) Rivers flowing into the Palus Mceotis.
1. Lycus (AIKco), now probably the Kalmius. 2. Tanais (TdvaiS), now the
Don, rising in the Valdai hills, in the government of Tula, and having a course
of about eight hundred miles. Herodotus appears to have confounded it in the
upper part of its course with the Rha or Wolga. As regards the root of the
name Tanais, &c., consult Obs. 2, page 10.
4. SEAS, GULFS, STRAITS, &C.
1. Sarmiticus Oceanus (Y2apuart/iof'Qiceav6o), a name given by Ptolemy to the
southern part of the Mare Suevicum or Baltic Sea, lying along the coast of East
Prussia, West Prussia, and part of Pomerania. At its eastern extremity was
the Venedicus Sinus, now the Gulf of Riga. Immediately adjacent to the Sarmaticus Oceanus was the Clylipenus Sinus, now the Gulf of Finnland. What
Ptolemy calls the island of Baltia in the Sarmatic Ocean, other names for which
island were Basilia and Abalus, appears to have been, not an island, but the
southern extremity of Sweden.
2. Pontus Euxinus (HI6vroc Evfetvoc), now the Euxine or Black Sea. This sea
had various names, such as Mare Cimmerium, Mare Ponticum, &c. Its ordinary name Euxinus has already been explained (page 10). The Euxine was navigated at an early period by the Greeks. The discovery of the channel which
leads to it from the Archipelago is probably indicated by the fable of Phrixus
and Helle, and the first voyage into it by the expedition of Jason. At a later
period the Greeks, and more especially the Ionian Greeks of Miletus, formed
numerous establishments along its shores, from which they exported slaves,
cattle, and corn in great quantities. The ports of the Crimea and the region
near the Borysthenes exported large quantities of grain to Athens and the Peloponnesus, which trade we find mentioned in Herodotus (vii., 147) as existing
at the time of the invasion of Xerxes, B.C. 480. Under the Romans the shores
of the Euxine became pretty well known, and a " Periplus," or kind of survey
of this sea, is among the works attributed to Arrian. In the times of the Byzantine emperors, Constantinople drew from it a considerable part of its provisions, and in the twelfth century the Genoese formed some establishments on
its northeastern coast, and carried on a very active commerce overland with
India; but, when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, the commerce and
navigation of the Black Sea were nearly annihilated, their policy being averse
to permitting foreign vessels to pass the Straits of Constantinople. Thus the
Black Sea remained closed to the seafaring nations for two centuries, until the
Russian power and commerce arose. For an account of the Bosporus Thraciuis
and the Bosporus Cimmerius, consult page 9, seq.




CHERSONESUS         TAURICA.                  237
3. Palus MtSotis, now the Sea of Azof or Assow. The term Palus, "lake or
marsh," appears more applicable to this sheet of water than that of "sea," for.
it is a lake, and a shallow lake too. In the centre, where the depth is greatest,
it is in a few places seven fathoms and a half, but on an average only between
six and seven; and this depth continues to the Strait of Caffa or Feodosia, the
ancient Bosporus Cimmerius, by which it is united to the Euxine. Toward all
the other shores its depth decreases to five fathoms, and even four and a half.
Tne shallowness of this sea was well known to the Greeks, and it was the prevailing opinion in the time of Aristotle that it was rapidly filling up by the earthy
matter brought down by the rivers which empty into it. The same opinion has
been maintained by some modern travellers; but we do not possess data by
which this question can be decided, since we have as yet no means of comparing the state of this lake at different and remote epochs.
5. CITIES.
I. Cities between the Tanais and Borysthenes.-Among these we may enumerate the following: 1. Tanais, to the west of the modern Azof or Assow, an important trading place, at the mouth of the River Tanabis.. Hygris, on the
northern shore of the Palus Mmotis. 3. Cremni, to the southwest, at the neck
of the Promontoriun Agirum. 4. Carcine, at the mouth of the River Hypacaris,
and at the head of the Sinus Carcinztes, now the Gulf of Perekop. Herodotus
calls the place Carcinitis (KapKtvperi).
II. Cities between the Borysthenes and Danapris.-Among these we may name,
1. Serimum, near the modern Ekaterinoslav. 2. Metropolis, the same place, in
all probability, with Olbia. Mannert thinks that it is a corruption of Miletopolis,
one of the names of Olbia. 3. Olbia or Olbiopolis, on the left bank of the Hypanis,
not far from the junction of this river with the Borysthenes. Hence it was
also called Borysthenis, from its proximity to the latter stream. According to
Herodotus, it was the central point of the Greek maritime settlements in Scythia.
Olbia, according to Strabo, was founded by a colony from Miletus in Ionia, and
hence was called also Miletopolis. It was a place of great trade, and strongly
fortified against the neighboring barbarians, and it was adorned also with numerous public buildings, temples, &c. Hence the proud appellation of rb iOrTV,
" the City," which it assumed in imitation of Athens. The site is indicated at
the present day by Kudak, in the government of Kiew.
VI. CHERSONESUS TAURICA.
1. NAME AND SITUATION.
I. Chersonesus Taurica, " Tauric Chersonese," was the ancient name of that
peninsula which juts out southward from European Sarmatia, between the Pontus Euxinus or Black Sea, and the Palus Maeotis, t; Sea of Azof or Assow. It is
now called the Crimea.
II. The isthmus which connects it with the mainland was called Taphros or
Taphrce. On the west of this isthmus was the Sinus Carcinites, now the GulJ
of Perekop, and on the east the shallow waters then, as now, called " The Putrid Sea or Lake" (l SaTrpa Aievnl, Palus Putris). The southeastern point of
the peninsula was the.Promontorium Parthenium, which is either the modern
Cape Chersonese, or another promontory farther south in the neighborhood of
the town of Sviatoi Gheorghi. The southern promontory was called Criu-Metop)a1 (K\itop METiruno), now A.jadagh or Kandjes Bortn, and either the southeasttrn cr tlhe eastern point of the peninsula was called Corax Promontorium, now




238                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Cape Kirkinos-Burnu. On the east the peninsula was divided from the coast of
Asia by the Cimmerian Bospisrus.
2. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS.
I. THE earliest inhabitants of this peninsula appear to have been the Cirnme
rians, some of whom remained in it after the great body of the nation had been
driven from their seats around the Palus Maotis by the Scythians. Clear traces of this people remain in the names of Cimmerion, one of the cities of the
peninsula, the Cimmerian Bosporus, the Cimmerian Chersonese (as the peninsula was sometimes called), and in its modern appellations of Crimea and Crim
Tartary.
II. In the earliest notices of the Chersonesus by Greek writers, we find the
mountainous region of the south and southeast inhabited by a piratical people,
called the Tauri, from whom the peninsula was called Taurica, and whose name
remains in that of the modern Russian province of Taurida, in which the Crimea
is included. Who these Tauri were is a question of some difficulty. Strabo
calls them a Scythian people, but Herodotus clearly distinguishes the Tauri
from the Scythians, as being a different nation.
III. It seems probable, from various circumstances, that the Tauri were a
remnant of the old Cimmerian inhabitants, who had maintained themselves in
the mountains against the Scythian invaders. The name Tauri is supposed to
be derived from an old root, "' Tau," meaning a mountain. The Tauri were reputed by the Greeks to be inhospitable and cruel to strangers. They were said
to offer human sacrifices, especially of shipwrecked mariners, to a virgin goddess, whom, according to Herodotus, the Tauri themselves identified with [phigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon, and whose temple stood on the promontory
of Parthenium.
IV. The Greeks became early acquainted with this peninsula, probably soon
after the Ionian Greeks, and especially the inhabitants of Miletus, had begun
to form settlements on the northern shores of Asia Minor, about six centuries
before the Christian era. Panticapaum is dalled by Strabo a colony of the Milesians. Besides this place, they built Theodosia, now Feodosia or Kaffa, and
some other places on the peninsula forming the west side of the Strait of Caffa.
They preferred this part of the Chersonese from its containing a large tract fit
for agriculture, and producing very rich crops, Strabo says thirty times the seed.
It was at one time considered the granary of Greece, especially of Athens,
whose territory, being of small extent and of indifferent fertility, was unable to
maintain its great population by its own produce. At one time Athens annually
imported from the Crimea between 300,000 and 400,000 medimni of grain.
Strabo says that in one year the Athenians received 2,100,000 medimni from
Theodosia; but the text is evidently corrupt.
V. The Greek colonies in the Chersonese were gradually formed into two
states, that of Chersonesus, comprehending the smaller peninsula, on the southwest, and the kingdom of Bosporus, a narrow slip of low and fertile land, on the
southeast. These two states were united under Mithradates, who is said to
have died at Panticapaum. The kingdom of the Bosporus, with all the neighboring districts, then fell into the hands of the Romans, who gave it to Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates. Pharnaces, however, having invaded Pontus, and
exercised great cruelties toward the Roman citizens, was attacked by Julius
Caesar and defeated. He fled to his kingdom of Bosporus, where he was immediately murdered, and his throne was given by the dictator to Mithradates
of Pergamus, about B.C. 47. This kingdom of Bosporus continued under the




RSETIA.                           239
Roman emperors, but is only known to us from the occasional interference of
the Caesars in the nomination of a king, or in attempts to restore tranquillity. A
race of half Greek, half barbaric kings continued to possess the Crimea and the
neighboring coast of the Euxine at least to the time of the Antonines, and the
kingdom of Bosporus almost survived the Roman empire, and only expired under the ravages of the Huns.
3. CITIES.
1. Taphros or Taphra, on the isthmus connecting the Chersonese with the continent. It is now Perekop. The name of the isthmus was also Taphros, and was
probably derived from a ditch (rd7poc) which ran across it, and which was dug
and fortified as a defence against the neighboring barbarians of themain land.
This ditch, however, must not be confounded with that mentioned by Herodotus
(iv., 320), which appears to have been in the peninsula itself, and at the eastern
part of it. 2. Eupatria, on the western coast. founded by Mithradates Eupator
during a war with the Scythians. It is now Eupatoria or Kaslov. 3. Portus Ct6nus (Krevov), on whlat is now the Gulf of Achtiar, succeeds on the northern side
of a small peninsula terminated by Cape Chersonese, while on the southern side
of this same peninsula is Portus Symbolorum (Ivu66?.uv Atuiv), on what is now
the Gulf of Balaklava. On this peninsula stood the city of Chersonesus, called
by Mela Cherrone, the full name of which was Chersoneslus Heracleotica. It was
founded by a colony from Heraclea in Bithynia, and was a large and flourishing
commercial city. Its ruins are to be found near Gurtschi. The peninsula on
which it stood was sometimes called the Small Chersonesus, and the Chersonesus
Taurica the Great Chersonesus, to distinguish it from the former. 4. Theodosia,
on the eastern coast, now Caffa (Kefa) or Feodosia, a colony of the Milesians,
and a large and flourishing commercial city. In the Tauric dialect it was called
Ardauda, " the city of the Seven Gods." It was destroyed in the middle of the
second century, and Old Caffa was subsequently erected on its site. This was
succeeded by New Caffa, the present city, in its immediate vicinity, and which
became a place of great trade under the Genoese. 5. Panticapscum, called, also,.Bospdrus, at the eastern end of the peninsula, on the shore of the Bosporus.
This was also an early settlement of the Milesians, and carried on an extensive
trade. It had a double harbor. This city was the residence of both the earlier
and later kings of the Bosporus. The modern Kertsch occupies its site, which
the Russians also call Wospor, a corruption of Bosporus. 6. Cimmerium, in the
interior, now Erski Krim, or " Old Krim." There were several other places in
the interior besides Cimmerium, but none of any importance.
II. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE DANUBE.
THESE consist of the twelve following countries, beginning from the west,
namely,
1. R2ETIA.             5. MCESIA.           9. THRACIA.
2. VINDELICIA.         6. ITALIA.          10. MACEDONIA.
3. NORIC'M.            7. ILLYRICUM.       11. GRJECIA.
4. PANNONIA.           8. EPIRUS.          12. GR2EC.E INSULT.
I. RE TIA.
1. NAME AND EXTENA.
I. RAETIA appears to have comprehended originally the whole country between
the north of Italy and the Danube, and consequently to have included Vite.lif ia




240                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Din Cassius, in his account of the conquest of the Raeti and Vindelici by Drusus
and Tiberius, only mentions the Raeti. Strabo often speaks of them as if they
were only one people; and Tacitus, in several passages, appears to include Vindelicia in the province of Retia.
II. In the time of Augustus, however, these two countries formed separate
provinces, of which Raetia was bounded on the west by the Helvetii, on the east
by Noricum, on the south by Gallia Cisalpina, and on the north by Vindelicia,
from which it was separated by the Lacus Brigantinus or Lake of Constance, and
the River (Enus or Inn. It included, therefore, the greater part of the Tyrol,
and the eastern cantons of Switzerland.
2. INHABITANTS.
1. THE Raeti are supposed by Niebuhr to have been an Etruscan people, and
their country to have been one of the original homes of that race. They are
first mentioned by Polybius as one of the communities through whose country
there was a passage' across the Alps. They were a brave and enterprising
race, and for a long time committed constant robberies in Gaul and the north
of Italy.
II. Augustus at length sent Drusus against them (B.C. 15), who subdued the
southern part of the country, and delivered Italy from their depredations. But,
as they still continued to trouble the province of Gaul, Tiberius also was sent
against them, who attacked them near the Lacus Brigantinus, and reduced the
whole of the country. The greater part of their youth were carried away, and
only sufficient left to cultivate the land. The victories of Drusus and Tiberius
are celebrated by Horace.
III. The Raeti were divided, according to Pliny, into many states or tribes.
Of these the most important were, 1. The Levontii, in the southwestern part of
the province. 2. The Tridentini, in the southeastern. 3. The Gcnauni, whom
Horace mentions, east of the Lepontii. 4. The Vennones, near the sources of
the Athesis, now Adigc. 5. The Brixentes, north of the Tridentini. 6. The
Brenni or Breuni, north of the Reetian Alps, also mentioned by Horace.
3. FiACE OF THE       COUNTRY, &C.
I. THE great chain of the Alps passes almost through the centre of this province, and bears various names in different pars of it. On the western borders
are the Alpes Pennine, in the northwest are the Alpes Lepontia, and on the north
are the Alpes Summe, succeeded by the Alpes Resticas. These mountains were
all inhabited by various tribes of the Reti.
II. Several large rivers rise in these mountains, of which the most important
were, 1. The Rhenus or Rhine, rising in the Lepontine Alps. 2. The Rhodanus
or Rhone, rising in the same vicinity. 3. The Ticinus or Tesino, a tributary of
the Po, rising in the same division of the Alps. 4. The Addua or Adda, another
Italian river, rising in the Reetian Alps. 5. The Athesis or Adige, rising in the
same Alps, and flowing into the Adriatic; and, 6. The (Enus or Inn, a tributary
of the Danube.
III. The valleys between these mountains were very fertile, and were particularly celebrated for their grapes, from which excellent wine was made. The
Raetian wine was the favorite wine of Augustus.
IV. The only place of importance in Reetia was Tridentum, now Trent.




VINDELICIA.                          241
II. V I N D E L I C I A.
1. NAME AND EXTENT.
I. Vindilicia was the ancient name of a tract which contains parts of the
present countries of Suabia and Bavaria, in Southern Germany. It extended
from the Lacus Brigantinus, or Lake of Constance, in a northeast direction as far
as the junction of the (Enus, now Inn, with the Danube, and from the northern
frontier of Rsetia in the south to the Danube in the north. On the east it had
the province of Noricum.
II. In the Roman division of the provinces it was at first a part of Raetia,
but in the time of Augustus it was formed into a separate province. At first
it was called the province of Ratia Secunda, but this name was gradually
supplanted by Vindelicia, which is first mentioned by Sextus Rufus (c. 8).
The name Vindelicia is derived from that of the Vindelzci, a warlike tribe in the
southern mountainous part of the country; and it is thought that this tribe had
its name from the Vindo and Licus, now the Wertach and the Lech, which were
two of the rivers of the country, between which were their original settlements
2. EARLY AND        LATER      INHABITANTS.
I. THE original inhabitants of Vindelicia were probably of the same origin with
the Raeti. The principal tribes were the following: 1. Vindelici, already mentioned. 2. Isdrii, on the River Isarus or Isargus, now the Iser. 3. Licdtes, on
the Licus, now the Lech. 4. Brigantii, on the Lacus Brigantinus. 5. A large
number of Boii, who settled between the (Enus, now the Inn, and the Isarus,
after they had been driven from their homes in Bohemia by the Marcomanni.
II. From the third century Vindelicia was constantly invaded by German
tribes, and during the fourth and fifth centuries it was entirely occupied by the
Alemanni and Boiarii, and the ancient population, among whom were many
Roman colonists, were either exterminated or else became serfs of the conquerors, and were then Germanized.
3. RIVERS.
1. Danubius, already described. All the others that here follow are tributa
ries of that stream. Thus, 2. Vindo or Vcrdo, now the Wertach. 3. Licus, now
the Lech. 4. Isdrus or Isargus, now tle Iser. Not to be confounded with the
River Isarus, mentioned by Strabo as receiving the Atagis, and emptying into the
Hadriatic; This latter Isarus is probably the same with the Athesis, now the
Adige. 5. Guntia, now the G'nz. 6. Ilargus, now the Iller, separating, at the
present day, Suabia from Bavaria.
4. CITIES.
THE Rwnans founded many colonies in Vindelicia, a great number of which
still exist, and their present names are generally corruptions of the Roman ones.
We will enumerate some of these along with other places: 1. Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg, which Tacitus calls " splendidissima Raetie Provinciac colonia." This colony was planted by Augustus about twelve years before the
Christian era, and became the capital of the whole province. It stood near the
influx of the Vindo into the Licus, and between the two rivers. 2. Reginum o0
Castra Regina, to the northeast, on the Danube. It was previously a Celtic
tovn called Artobriga, and was converted into a frontier fortress by the Ro
mans. About the beginning of the seventh century it took the name of Rada.
Q




242                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
pona, and is now Ratisbon. 3. Campodunum or Cambodanum, to the southwest
of Augusta, now Kempten. 4. Guntia, to the northwest of Augusta, now Giinzburg, where Roman inscriptions have been found. 5. Brigantia, to the southwest of Campodunum, and on the eastern side of the Lacus Brigantinus. It is
now Bregenz. 6. Vemania, to the north of the preceding, now Wangen. 7. Batava Castra, now Passau, at the confluence of the Inn and the Danube. 8. Pons
(Eni, now Muhldorf, on the Inn. This place must not be confounded with
CEni Pons or (Enipontum, the Latinized name of Innsbruck in the Tyrol.
III. NORICUM.
1. NAME AND EXTENT.
I. Norzcum (r6 N(ptcov) took its name from the tribe of the Norici, who were
the most celebrated and powerful one in the land. It was bounded on the north
by the Danube, on the west by Vindelicia and Rcetia, on the east by Pannonia,
and on the south by Illyricum and Gallia Cisalpina. It was separated from Vindelicia by the (Enus, now the Inn, and from Gallia Cisalpina by the Alpes Carnicce or Julice, but it is difficult to determine the boundaries between Noricum
and Pannonia, as they differed at various times.
II. Noricum may be said, therefore, to correspond to the modern Styria, Carinthia, and Salzburg, and to part of Austria and Bavaria.
III. Noricum was divided into two nearly equal parts by a branch of the Alps,
which was called the Alpes Noricce. These mountains appear to have been inhabited from the earliest times by various tribes of Celtic origin, of whom the
most celebrated and powerful were the Norici. Noricum was conquered by
Augustus, but it is uncertain whether he reduced it to the form of a province.
It appears to have been a province in the time of Claudius, who founded the
colony Sabaria, which was afterward included in Pannonia. From the " Notitia Imperil" we learn that Noricum was subsequently divided into two provinces, Noricum Ripense and Noricum Mediterraneum, which were separated from
each other by the Alpes Noricae. The former, which lay along the Danube, was
always guarded by a strong military force, under the command of a dux.
IV. The iron of Noricum was in much request among the Romans, and, according to Polybius, gold was formerly found in this province in great abundance.
2. TRIBES AND CITIES.
I. IN addition to the Norici already mentioned, Noricum was inhabited in the
west by the Sevdces, Alauni, and Ambisontii; but of these tribes we know hardly
any thing except the names.
II. Among the cities of Noricum the following were the most important:
1. Noreia, the capital of the Norici, where Carbo was routed by the Cimbri,
B.C. 113. It was besieged in the time of Caesar by the Boii, and was subsequently destroyed by the Romans. The ancient site is near Newmarkin Styria.
2. Juvdvia or Juvavum, to the northwest, now Salzburg, a colony founded by
Hadrian. 3. Ovilia, called subsequently Ovilabis, to the northeast, and which
took its name from the flocks of sheep accustomed at one time to be fed here.
It was founded by Marcus Aurelius, and is now Wels, on the River Traun.
4. Lentia, to the northeast, on the Danube, now Lenz. It was built by Gratian.
5. Lauriacum, just below the preceding, now the village of Lohr, near the city
of Ens, on the Danube. It was the most important place in Noricum Ripense,
and was founded by Marcus Aurelius. There was here an important-manufactory of bucklers. 6. Boiodanum, at the junction of the (Enus and the Danube,
now Innstadt.




PANNONIA.                          243
IV. PANNONIA.
1. NAME AND EXTENT.
I. THis province was bounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the
south by Illyricum and Moesia, and on the west by Noricum. It was separated
from Mcesia by the Savus, now the Save, and from Illyricum by an imaginary
line drawn a few miles south of the Savus; but it is difficult to determine the
boundaries between it and Noricum, as they differed at various times. Under
the early Roman emperors, Pannonia could not have extended much further
west than the Arrabo, now the Raab, if Pliny is correct in placing Sabaria in
Noricum; but in later times the two provinces appear to have been separated
by Mons Celius, now the Kahlenberg.
II. Pannonia, therefore, according to this last arrangement, would correspond
to Sclavonia, parts of Hungary, Lower Austria, Styria, Croatia, and those parts
of Turkish Croatia, Bosnia, and Servia, which immediately touch upon the Save.
III. The Pannonians are called Pceones by some of the Greek writers, but this
appears to have been clearly a mistake, arising from the similarity of the names.
The Paeones were probably a Thracian people, while the Pannonians belonged
either to the Celtic or Germanic race. They were first attacked by Augustus
(B.C. 35), and were subdued during his reign by Tiberius, and reduced to the
form of a province. We learn from Tacitus that, at the death of Augustus,
there were several legions stationed in Pannonia, which was then regarded,
and continued to be so till the end of the Roman empire, as one of the most
important of the Roman provinces, on account of its bordering upon the powerful nations of the Quadi and Iazyges.
2. ROMAN DIVISIONS OF PANNONIA.
UNDER the early Roman emperors Pannonia formed only one province; it
was afterward divided, but at what time is uncertain, into two provinces, Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, the former comprising the western, and
the latter the eastern part of the original province.  They were separated
from one another by a line drawn from the point at which the Arrabo flows into
the Danube, southward to the Savus. A new division of the provinces was
subsequently made by the Emperor Galerius. The southern part of the two
former provinces, comprising the country between the Dravus and Savus, was
formed into a new province, and called Savia or Pannonia Secunda, but the
northern part was still divided into two provinces as before. The western part
retained the name of Pannonia Superior or Pannonia Prima; but the name of
the eastern province was changed to that of Valeria, in honor of the wife of
Galerius, who cleared a great portion of the land in the north of Pannonia of
its woods, and connected the lake of Peiso or Pelso, now the Platen See, with
the Danube by means of a canal. Pannonia was thus divided into three provinces, which division appears to have continued till the downfall of the Roman
empire.
3. MOUNTAINS.
1. Mons Cetius, now the Kahlenberg, a chain fifty miles in extent. 2. Mons
Aibius, now Alben or Javornick, a part of the Alpes Julia. 3. Mons Ocra, now
the Birnbalumer Wald, or that part of the Julian Alps which lies between Grz
and Laybach. 4. Mons Claudius, now the Bacherberg.




244                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
4. RIVERS.
THE principal rivers were, 1. The Arrabo or Narrabo, now the Raab, flowing
into the Danube. 2. The Drdvus, now the Drave, a tributary of the same stream.
3. The Sdvus, now the Save, another tributary.
5. CITIES.
PANNONIA possessed several cities of importance, the inhabitants of which
appear to have principally depended for their support upon the numerous legions
which were quartered in different parts of the province. Following the course
of the Danube, the first city we come to after leaving Noricum is Vindobona,
pow Vienna, called Vianiomina by Pliny, who places it in Noricum. In Ptolemy's time it was called Juliobona, and was the station of a legion. It is called
by most later writers Vindobona, as first given by us; but in the " Notitia Imperii" it is written Vindomana. 2. The next city of importance below Vindobona, on the Danube, is Carnuntum, which in the early part of the Roman empire was the most important place in the north of Pannonia. It appears from
the account of Pliny to have been a place of considerable commercial importance. The amber which was collected in the northern part of Europe was
brought to this city, and thence conveyed to the different parts of the Roman
empire. It was the head-quarters of the army of Marcus Antoninus in the war
which he carried on with the Marcomanni. In the time of Ammianus Marcellinus, that is, in the latter part of the fourth century, it was almost without any
population. Its ruins are in the neighborhood of Altenburg.
3. Below Carnuntum, on the Danube, was Brigantium or Bregcetium, the site
of which is fixed by Mannert at the village of SzOny, in Lower Hungary. Am
mianus Marcellinus calls it Bregitio. It was the station of a Roman legion,
and here the Emperor Valentinian I. died, while making preparations for a war
against the Quadi. 4. Following the course of the Danube, we come next to
Aquincum or Acincum, now Buda, or, as the Germans call it, Ofen, a name indicative of its natural sudatories or hot baths. It was the principal city in the
province of Valelia, and the station of a legion. In a later age, Attila made it
occasionally his residence. The Romans had a military station on the other
side of the river, which was called Contra-Acincum, and the site of which is
now occupied by the city of Pesth. 5. South of Acincum, on the Danube, in the
province of Savia, was Milatce or Milata, afterward called Bononia, and now
Illok or Ujlak. 6. Below it was Acumincum, now Peterwardein. 7. And below
Acumincum was Taurunum, now Semlin, the most easterly town in the province, near the confluence of the Savus with the Danube.
The most important towns in the southern part of Pannonia were, 1. Siscia,
now Sziszek. 2. Cibalce or Cibalis, now Vinkoucze. 3. Sirmium, now Schabacz. These three towns were all on the Save. Siscia was on the borders
of Illyricum, and the most important town in Pannonia in the time. of Augustus. Cibalce or Cibalis was situate a considerable distance below the preceding,
and was memorable for the defeat of Licinianus by Constantine. It was also
the birth-place of the Emperor Gratianus. Sirmium was below Cibalae, and,
under the later Roman emperors, was the principal town in Pannonia. It. was
the residence of the emperors when they visited the province, and there was
according to Ammianus Marcellinus, an imperial palace in the town. 4. Mur
sia: at this place the fleet of the Lower Danube was stationed, and near:
Magnentius was defeated by Constantius.




M   IE SI A.                       245
V. MCESIA.
1. NAME AND EXTENT.
I. Mcesia was the name of a province of the Roman empire, extending north
of the range of Mount Hzamus, the modern Balkan, as far as the Danube, and
eastward to the Euxine. Its boundaries to the west were the rivers Drinus
and Savus, now the Drina and the Save, which divided it from Pannonia and
Illyricum. It corresponded, therefore, to the present provinces of Servia and
Bulgaria.
II. Strabo says that the old inhabitants of the country were called 3lysi
(Miaot), and were a tribe of Thracians, like their eastern neighbors the Getae,
with whom they have been confounded, and that they were the ancestors of
the Mysi of Asia Minor.
III. The Romans first invaded their country under Augustus, and it was afterward made into a Roman province, and divided into _oesia Superior, to the
west, between the Drinus and the (Escus, the modern Esker, and Mloesia Inferior,
extending from the CEscus to the Euxine.
IV. The conquest of Dacia by Trajan removed the frontiers of the empire
further north, beyond Mcesia; but Aurelian having, about A.D. 250, for purposes of safety, transplanted the Roman inhabitants of Dacia to the right side of
the Danube, the name of Dacia Aureliani was given to that part of Mcesia which
was now occupied by them, in contradistinction from Dacia Trajani, as the old
province of Dacia had been called. This act of Aurelian's doubly strengthened
the frontier of the empire by rendering the Danube its boundary, and by abandoning a district too distant to be easily defended, and too thinly peopled to defend itself. Mcesia thus again became a border province.
V. At a subsequent period, the Goths, after several attempts, crossed the Danube, and occupied Mcesia, during the reign of the Emperor Valens. The McesoGoths, for whom Ulphilas translated the Scriptures, were a branch of Goths set
tied in Mcesia. Some centuries later, the Bulgarians and Sclavonians occupied
the country of Mcesia, and formed the kingdoms of Bulgaria and Servia.
2. RIVERS.
ALL the rivers of Mcesia that are deserving of notice flow into the Danube;
such as, 1. Savus, now the Save, which receives the Drinus, now the Drina.
2. Margus, now the Morawa. 3. Timachus, now the Timak. 4. (Escus, now
the Isker. 5. Escamus, now the Ozma. 6. latrus or lantrus, now the lantra.
7. Noes, now the Kara Lom.
3. CITIES.
(A.) Mcesia Superior.
1. Singidunum, now Belgrade. 2. Tricornium, at the junction of the little
river Moschius and the Danube, now Tricorni. 3. Aureus Mons, near the mountain of the same name, where Probus planted the vine, A.D. 278, now Crozca.
4. Margus, on the river of the same name, where Carinus was defeated by Diocletian, now Pobritzar. 5. Viminacium, now Widdin. 6. Ratiaria, now ArzerPalanca. 7. Naissus, in the interior, to the southwest, now Nezza or Nissa.
It was the birth-place of Constantine the Great. 8. Ulpianum, south of Naissus,
embellished by Justinian, and hence called, after this, Justiniana Secunda, now
Kostendil. 9. Sardica or Ulpia Sardica, in a plain watered by the River CEscus.
The Emperor Maximian was born in its vicinity, and it was also famous for a




246                 ANCI:ENT CGE.OGRAPHY.
council held there. It took the name of Ulpia from the inhabitants of Ulpia, in
Dacia Trajani, having been transferred thither. It is now Triaditza, near Sophia.
10. Tauresium, to the southeast, Justinian's birth-place, now Giustendil.
(B.) 3liosia Inferior.
1. Nicopolis ad Istrum, at the mouth of the Iatrus, one of the tributaries of
the Danube. It was built by Trajan in commemoration of a victory over the
Dacians, and is now Nicopoli. This place was the residence of Ulphilas. 2. Dorostorum, on the Danube, now Silistria or Sistria, the station of the eleventh
legion. 3. Axiopolis, now Rassova. Here, according to Ptolemy, the Danube
changed its name to Ister. 4. Trosmis, to the northeast of the preceding, mentioned by Ovid in his Epistles from Pontus. 5. Egissus, to the east, Ovid's.Egypsps. 6. Tibisca, a fortified post, near the Pons Darii, on the spot where
Darius Hystaspis constructed his bridge over the Ister. 7. Istropolis, below the
mouths of the Ister, a Milesian colony, subsequently called Constantia, and now
Chiustange. 8. Tomi, to the southwest, Ovid's place of exile, now Tomiswar,
on the coast of Bulgaria. 9. Odessus, to the south, also on the coast, now Varna. 10. Marcian6oplis, west of the preceding, a settlement of Trajan's, and
named after his sister Marcia. It is now called by the Turks Eski Stamboul, by
the Bulgarians Pristhlara, and by the Greeks Marcenopoli.
That part of Lower Mesia which lay between the Euxine, the mouths of the
Ister, and Mount I-Imus, and forming, therefore, a considerable tract along the
shore, was sometimes called Pontus, not to be confounded,.however, with Pontus in Asia Minor. Frequent mention is made of the former in the poetry of
Ovid, after his exile. Tomi lay in this district, and Ovid's Epistole e Ponto derived their name from this quarter.
VI. ITALIA.
1. NAME.
I. TIHE origin of the name Italia is uncertain.      Some of the
ancient writers derived the term      from   Italus, a monarch or
chieftain of the CEnotri; while others made the word have reference to the numerous and fine oxen which the country produced, and accordingly deduced the name from the Greek iraX6q, or its corresponding Latin term vitulus. Niebuhr, however, with great plausibility, maintains that Italia means nothing more than the country of the Itali, and is identical with
Vitalia, the Itali having been also originally called Vitali.
II. Other names for Italy were Hesperia, Ausonia, Saturnia,
and (Enotria.     The first of these was originally given to it by
the Greeks, and was subsequently adopted by the Latin poets,
and means "the Western Land,' having reference to the position of Italy, as being to the west of Greece. The names
Ausonia and Saturnia originated with the Latin poets, and the
former means " the land of the Ausones," an ancient people of
the country; the latter, "the land of Saturn," in allusion to




ITALIA.                   247
the legend of Saturn's having taken up his dwelling-place in
Italy when driven from the skies. The term (Enotria, or " the
land of the (Enotri," is of Greek origin, and was applied by
that nation merely to the peninsula forming the southwestern
part of Italy, where dwelt the (Enotri, an ancient race. The
Roman poets, however, extended the appellation to the whole
of Italy.
III. The name Italia was originally only a partial denomination, and was given at first to that southern extremity of the
boot which lay below the Sinus Scyllaceus or Scylleticus, now
Gulf of Squillace, and the Sinus Terinceus or Lameticus, now
Geulf of St. Euphenzia.
IV. It was afterward extended to all the country south of
the River Laiis, in the west, which empties into the Las Sinus, and the city of Metaponturn in the east, on the coast of
the Sinus Tarentinus, Tarentum itself being still, as yet, beyond the limits of Italy, and belonging to Iapygia. At a still
later period, when the Greek colonies in the south of the peninsula formed an alliance among themselves for the purpose of
mutual protection against Dionysius of Syracuse on the one
hand, and the Lucanians and Bruttians on the other, the name
Italia comprehended the whole country south of a line drawn
from Posidonia or Pestum to Tarentum.
V. After the war with Pyrrhus, B.C. 278, when the Romans
had become masters of the whole of southern Italy, the name
Italia comprised the southern and middle parts of the peninsula up to the River Tiber, including also a part of Picenum.
Again, about the time of Polybius, the name was used in a
still wider sense, embracing the whole country to the south of
the Rubicon, on the upper coast, and the Macra on the lower.
And finally, in the reign of Augustus, the name Italia was extended to the foot of the Alps.
VI. Previously to this last-mentioned and final extension of
the name, the country between the Alps and the rivers Rubicon
and Macra had been called Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul on this
(the Roman) side of the Alps, to distinguish it from Gallia
Transalpina, or Gaul beyond the Alps. So again, when Italy
extended up to the Rubicon and Macra, it was commonly regarded as being subdivided into two portions, namely, Italia
Propria and Magna Grcecia, the boundaries between the two




248          A.NCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
being the River Silarus, now Sele, on the lower coast, flowing into the Sinus Pcestanus and the Frento, now Fortore, on
the upper, near the southern confines of the territory of the
Frentani.
VIi. Hence arose the common division of the peninsula into
three great portions, namely, Gallia Cisalpina in the north,
Italia Propria in the centre, and Magna Grcecia in the south.
OBS. 1. The derivation of the name Italia from iraX6o or vitulus, is given by
Festus, " Italia dicta, quod magnos italos, i. e., boves, habet," and also by Aulus
Gellius (xi., 1) from Varro: M. Varro, in antiquitatibus rerum humanarum, tcrrarn
Italiam de Grceco vocabulo appellatam scripsit; quoniam boves veteri lingua IraXoi
vocitati sint, buceraque in ea terra gigni pascique solita sint complurima." Both
of these etymologies are deservedly condemned by Niebuhr. The Oscan name
of Italy was Vitellium, following the analogy of Latium, Samnium, &c. Servius
mentions Vitalia as one among the various names of the country. (Ad XEn.,
vii., 328.)
2. The name Hesperia was also applied sometimes to Spain, but then, for distinction' sake, this latter country was usually termed Hesperia ultima. (Consult page 14.) Virgil styles Italy Hesperia Magna. (Sn., i., 569.)
3. Saturn, according to the legend, concealed himself in Latium, and hence
the poetic derivation of the name Latium, from lateo, " to lie hid." Compare
Ovid, Fast., i., 238, seq. There is a singular coincidence between this fable and
the derivation which some give of the name Saturnus from the Hebrew sathar,
i. e., "latuit," "se abscondit."
2. BOUNDARIES AND DIVISIONS.
I. THE boundaries of Italy, in the reign of Augustus, may be
given as follows: on the north the Alps, on the south the Mare
Ionium   or Ionian Sea, on the northeast the Mare Superum         or
Hadriaticum, now the Adriatic Sea, and on the southwest the
Mare Inferum     or Tyrrhenum, now the Sea of Italy.
II. The extreme limit of Italy to the northwest was formed
in the reign of Augustus, by the Alpes Maritimce or Maritime
Alps, and the River Varus, now       Var, which empties into the
Sinus Ligusticus or Gulf of Genoa,         The limit to the northeast, in the time of that same emperor, was at first Tergeste,
now Trieste; but when the province of Histria was included
by Augustus within the limits of Italy, the northeastern limit
was removed to the little river Arsia, now the Arsa.
III. We are informed by Pliny that, after Augustus had extended the frontiers of Italy to the Maritime Alps and the River Arsia, he divided that country into eleven regions: 1. Campania, including also Latium.        2. Apulia, to which was annexed part of Samnium.       3. Lucania and Bruttium.       4. Sam



ITALIA.                    249
nium, together with the country of the Sabines, Marsi, JEqui,
&c. 5. Picenum. 6. Umbria. 7. Etruria. S. Flaminia, extending from the Apennines to the Padus or Po. 9. Liguria.
10. Venetia, containing Histria and the country of the Carni.
11. Transpadana, comprehending what remained between Venetia and the Alps. This division, however, is too seldom noticed to be of much utility. The following distribution has
been adopted by most geographical writers, and will be found
much more convenient, namely:
1. Liguria; 2. Gallia Cisalpina; 3. Venetia, including the
Carni and Histria; 4. Etruria; 5. Umbria and Picenum;
6. The Sabini, Equi, Miarsi, Peligni, Vestini, Marrfucini;
7. Roma; 8. Latium; 9. Camnpania; 10. Samnium and the
FrZentani; 11. Apulia, including Daunia and Messapia or Iapygia; 12. Lucania; 13. Bruttium.
3. EARLY AND LATER INHABITANTS.
I. THE greater part of Italy was inhabited in the earliest times
by Pelasgians, belonging to the same stock as the original in-'habitants of Greece, and, in all probability, forming part of the
great Sclavonic race.
II. The Sicili, about the lower part of the Tiber, the Tyrrheni in Etruria, the Aborigines in the neighborhood of Reate
(called, also, Casci, Prisci, and Sacrani), the Chones and (Enotrians in the west, and the Peucetians in the east of southern
Italy, appear all to have been branches of this same widelyspread race of the Pelasgians.
III. A second great tribe who inhabited the north of Italy
were the Umbri, who are called the most ancient inhabitants
of the country. Their territory seems originally to have been
very extensive, and it is not improbable that they may have belonged to the same stock as the ancient Siculi; but the Umbrians are for us only the name of a great forgotten people.
IV. The country in the northwest of Italy was inhabited by
the Ligurians, who in early times seem to have occupied a
much larger tract of country than afterward: their history,
however, is unfortunately unknown to us till the time when
we find their nation in a state of decay'and dissolution.
V. The country between the Tiber and the lower sea, and as
far north as the Rmetian Alps, was inhabited by the Etruscans,




250             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
or, as they called themselves, Rasena. They seem to have invaded Italy from the north, and to have subdued the Pelasgian
Tyrrhenians and occupied their country. The Umbrians also
lost a considerable portion of their territory by the conquest of
the Etruscans: tradition related that the Etruscans conquered
three hundred Umbrian towns; nay, they are said to have even
carried their conquests as far as Campania; and Velleius Paterculus states that the towns of Nolan and Capua were founded
by them about forty-seven years before the building of Rome.
There can be no doubt that the Etruscans were a mighty nation. Although their history is involved in the greatest obscurity, it is manifest that they possessed a high degree of civilization, and that arts and sciences flourished among them long
before the foundation of Rome, which derived many of its religious and political forms from them.
VI. The country about Amiternum, in the Apennines, was
inhabited by the Sabines, who formed the stock to which belonged the Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, and Lucani. These
tribes, which are now usually called by the generic name of
Sabellians, produced a complete revolution in central and southern Italy. The Vestini, Marrucini, and Frentani belonged, in
all probability, to the Sabellians.
VII. The Oscans or Opicans inhabited the country to the
southwest of the Sabellians, from the Tiber to the River Lais.
The Ausones or Aurunci formed a distinct branch of this race,
and the smaller tribes of the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticili, and
_.Equi likewise belonged to it. The Oscan language was spoken throughout the southwestern part of Italy, and was understood even at Rome, where Oscan plays were performed and
understood down to a comparatively late period.
VIII. The peninsula forming the southwest of Italy was inhabited by the (Enotri; and the districts to the north and east
of the CEnotri were occupied by the Daunii, Chones, Peucetii,
and Sallentini or lMessapii.
IX. The whole of southern Italy, moreover, from the River
Silarus in the west, and the Frento in the east, was subsequently called Magna Grcecia (Meydr/y'EMAdk), on account of
the numerous Greek colonies established in that part of the
peninsula, which formed the connecting link between the civilization, arts, and literature of the Italians and the Greeks of
the mother country.




ITALIA.                    251
4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS.
THE history of ancient Italy resolves itself most naturally into
that of the different nations inhabiting the peninsula, and in
particular forms part of the history of Rome. We will, therefore, not dwell upon it here.
5. MOUNTAINS.
lIain Chains.
I. Alpes, now the Alps. Their name is derived from their
height, Alp being the old Celtic appellation for a lofty mountain. The Alps extend from the Sinus Flanaticus or Gulf of
Carnero, at the top of the Gulf of Venice, and the sources of
the River Colapis, now Kulpe, to Vada Sabatia, now Savona,
on the Sinus Ligusticus or Gulf of Genoa. The whole extent, which is in a crescent form, is nearly six hundred British
miles. The Alps have been divided by both ancient and modern geographers into various portions, of which the principal
are the following: 1. Alpes MlIaritime or Maritime Alps, extending from the environs of Niccea, now Nice, to Mons Vesilus, now Monte Viso. 2. Alpes Cottie or Cottian Alps, so
called from Cottius, a monarch over several LigArian tribes in
this quarter' during the reign of Augustus, unto whom he was
tributary. They reach from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis, and
contain Mont Genevre, which Hannibal, according to some,
crossed on his march into Italy. 3. Alpes Graice or Graian
Alps, the etymology of which name has already been explained
(page 159, 7). They reach from Mont Cenis to the Little St.
Bernard, and it was over this last-mentioned mountain, according to the more correct opinion, that the route of Hannibal into
Italy actually lay. 4. Alpes Penninae or Pennine Alps, so
called from the Celtic Pen, " a summit," a name well deserved,
since they contain the highest summits'and most dreadful glaciers of the whole ridge. This chain bounds the southern side
of the Valais, and extends from Mont Blanc to the Simplon.
5. Alpes Lepontice or Lepontian Alps, so called because separating Italy from the Lepontii, in the southwestern angle of
Rmetia. These are sometimes called the Helvetian Alps, as'
covering western Switzerland, and extend from Mont Rosa, on
both sides of the Rhine, to St. Gothard. 6. Alpes Rcetcce or




252                 ANCIENT      GE    GRAPHY.
Ratian Alps, so called because separating Italy from         Raetia.
They extend from the sources of the Rlone, through the Grisons and Tyrol, to the Dreihernspitz, on the borders of Salzburg and Carinthia.       7. Alpes Noricce or Noric Alps, so called
from their running off into and traversing Noricum. They run
from the last-mentioned point through all Carinthia, Salzburg,
Austria, and Styria.      8. Alpes Carnicce sive Julie, terminating in the Mons Albius, on the confines of Illyricum. They
were called Carnicce from the Carni, who dwelt at their foot,
and Julice from Julius Caesar, who commenced a road over
them, which Augustus completed.
OBS. 1. "How different," remarks Heeren, "would have been the whole his
tory of Europe, had the Alpine barrier, instead of being near the Mediterranean,
been removed to the shores of the North Sea! This boundary, it is true, seems
of less moment in our time, when the enterprising spirit of Europe has made
a road across the Alps, as well as a path over the ocean; but it was of decisive
importance in antiquity. The north and south were then physically, morally,
and politically divided; that chain long remained the protecting bulwark of the
one against the other; and although Caesar, by bursting through these boundaries, in some measure removed the political landmarks, the distinction still continues apparent between the Roman part of Europe and that which never yielded
to the Romans."
2. The march of Hannibal across the Alps is one of the most'remarkable
events in ancient history, and has given rise to much discussion among modern
scholars. The following general results appear to have been sufficiently well
established: 1. After a careful examination of the text of Polybius, and a comparison of the different localities, his narrative will be found, on the whole, to
agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed the Graian Alps or Little
St. Bernard, though it can not be denied that there are some difficulties attending this line, especially in regard to the descent into Italy. 2. Caelius Antipater certainly represented him as taking this route (Liv., xxi., 38); and as he is
known to have followed the Greek history of Silenus, who is said to have accompanied Hannibal in many of his campaigns, his authority is of the greatest
weight. 3. Livy and Strabo, on the contrary, both suppose him to have crossed
the Cottian Alps or Mont Genevre. But the main argument that appears to have
weighed with Livy, as it has done with several modern writers on the subject,
is the assumption that Hannibal descended in the first instance into the country
of the Taurini, which is opposed to the direct testimony of Polybius, who says
expressly. that he descended among the Insubrians, and subsequently mentions
his attack on the Taurini. 4. According to Livy himself'(xxi., 29), the Gaulish
emissaries who acted as Hannibal's guides were Boians, and it was natural that
these should conduct him by the passage that led directly into the territories
of their allies and brothers in arms, the Insubrians, rather than into that of the
Taurini, who were at this very time in a state of hostility with the Insubrians.
(Polyb., iii., 60.) And this remark will serve to explain why Hannibal chose
apparently a longer route instead of the more direct one of the Mont Genevre.
Lastly, i' is remarkable that Polybius, though he censures the exaggerations
and absurdities with which earlier writers had encumbered their narrative (iii.,




ITALIA.                           253
47, seq.), does not intimate that any doubt was entertained as to the line of his
march; and Pompey, in a letter to the senate, written in 73 B.C. (ap. Sallust.,
Hist. Frag., lib. iii.), alludes to the route of Hannibal across the Alps as solnething well known. Hence it appears clear that the passage by which he
crossed them must have been one of those frequented in subsequent times by
the Romans; and this argument seems decisive against the claims of the Mont
Cenis, which have been advocated by some modern writers, that pass having
apparently never been used until the Middle Ages. Of the latest historians, it
may be noticed that Niebuhr (Lect. on Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 170) and Arnold
(Hist. of Rome, vol. iii., p. 83-92, note M), as well as Botticher (Gesch. d. Carthager, p. 261), have decided in favor of the Little St. Bernard, while Michelet
(Hist. Romaine, vol. ii., p. 10) and Thierry (Hist. des Gaulois, vol. i., p. 276), in
common with almost all French writers, adopt the Mont Gen'vre or Mont Cenis.
(Smith, Dict. Biog., art. Hannibal; compare Ukert, Hannibal's Zug iaber die Alpen,
appended to the second part of the second volume of his Geographie d. Griech.
u. Romer.)
II. Apenninus Mions, now the Apennines. This chain, branching off from the Maritime Alps in the neighborhood of Genua,
now   Genoa, runs diagonally from the Sinus Ligusticus to the
Hadriaticum Mart, in the vicinity of Ancona; thence continuing nearly parallel with the Adriatic as fal as the Garganum
Promontorium, now the Promontory of Gargcano, it again inclines to the Mare Inferum, till it finally terminates in the
promontory of Leucopetra near _Rhegium.
OBS. The Latin writers most commonly employ the singular number in speaking of this chain. The term is masculine of itself, and not merely on account of
the addition of Mons, since Polybius also invariably has o'Aretvvtvoo. The later Greeks, and among them Strabo, following the analogy of their own language, first changed the form of expression to the neuter, calling the chain rb'A revvtvov opo-, and also in the plural, ra'Airlvvtva opl, and hence the plural
form has come down to our own times. The name Apenninus contains evidently the Celtic radical penn, "a summit," (' a mountain-top."  The true form
is Apenninus, as we have given it, not Appenninus, nor Apeninus. Compare
Klotz, Handtvbrterb. der Lat. Spr., s. v.
III. The inferior chains, as well as the individual mountains,
will be given in the account of the several divisions of Italy.
6. PROMONTORIES.
THE principal promontories of Italia were twenty in number,
namely, nine along the lower coast, down to and including Leucopetra; seven along the southeastern shore, up to and including the Iapygium Promontoriumn, the iapyggum tria Promon.
toria being reckoned merely as one; and four along the upper
coast, as follows:




254             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
1. On the Lower Coast.
I. Populonium Promontoriumn, a lofty cliff on the coast of
Etruria, running out into the sea like a peninsula, and on which
was situate the city of Populonium. It is now called Capo di
Canpana. On the summit of it was a tower for watching the
approach of the tunny fish. From this promontory one could
plainly see the island of Ilva, now Elba, and even Corsica and
Sardinia.
II. Cossanum Promontorium, on the coast of Etruria, below
the preceding, and deriving its ancient name from the city of
Cossa or Cosa, in its immediate vicinity. There is here also
a peninsula, forming a double bay, in the midst of which rises
the Mons Argentarius, now llonte Argentario, which is also
the modern name of the promontory.
III. Circacum Promontorium, on the coast of Latium, below
Antium, now Mlonte Circello.. This promontory, which is, in
fact, a bold, projecting mountain, was fabled to have been the
residence of Circe, the adjacent country beifig very low, and
giving the promontory at a distance the appearance of an island. Some accidental resemblance in name most probably
gave rise, in the first instance, to the legend. Homer's account,
however, of the Isle of Circe, does not at all suit this spot. The
Homeric island was a low one, whereas this promontory is a
lofty one. The promontory of Circeii was famed for its oysters
in the time of both Horace and Juvenal.
IV. Misenum Promontorium, on the coast of Campania, now
Capo Miseno, and forming the upper extremity of the Sinus
Crater, or Bay of Naples. It was so named, according to Virgil, from Misenus, one of the followers of AEneas, who was
drowned here, and buried at the base of the promontory. The
harbor of Misenum, or Misenus Portus, became one of the first
naval stations in the empire, being the station of the fleet appointed to guard the coast of the lower sea. The neighboring
country abounded with marine villas, and there was a celebrated one on the brow of the promontory itself, overlooking the
sea, which belonged at one time to Caius Marius, and afterward came into the possession, first of Lucullus, and then of
Tiberius the emperor, who died here.
V. Minervce Promontorium, closing the Bay of Naples to the




ITALIA.                    255
southwest, was so called from a temple of Minerva which stood
on it, and which was fabled to have been erected by Ulysses.
It was also called Surrentinumn Promontorium, from the city
of Surrentum, which stood close by. The modern name of the
promontory is Punta della Campanella. Another ancient name
was Sirenasarum Proniontoriunz, or Cape of the Sirens.
VI. Posidium Promontorium, on the coast of Lucania, and
inclosing the Sinus Pcestanus, or Gulf of Salerno, to the south.
It is now Punta di Licosa.
VII. Palinurum Promontorium, also on the coast of Lucania,
and now Capo di Palinuro. Tradition ascribed the name of
this promontory to Palinurus, the pilot of iEneas, who was
buried on it. Orosius records a disastrous shipwreck on the
rock of Palinurus, sustained by a Roman fleet on its return
from Africa, when one hundred and fifty vessels were lost. Augustus also encountered great peril on this part of the coast,
when, according to Appian, many of his ships were dashed
against this headland.
VIII. Ccenys Promontorium, just below the famous rock of
Scylla, and facing the Promontory of Pelorus in Sicily, forming
by means of it the narrowest part of the Fretum Siculum. The
modern name is Punta del Pezzo, called, also, Coda del Volpe.
Holstenius less correctly contends for the Torre del Cavallo.
IX. Leucopetra Promlontorium, or, as its name indicates in
Greek, the White-Rock Promontory, just below Rhegium, on
the Fretum Siculum, and regarded by all ancient writers on
the geography of Italy as the termination of the Apennines.
A difference of opinion exists as to the modern point of land
which answers to it. The one most generally followed is in
favor of the Capo dell' Armi.
2. On the Southeastern Shore.
I. Eierculis Promontorium or Herculeum Prozmontorium, the
most southern angle of Italy to the east, and formed by a spur
of the Apennines. It is now Capo Spartivento.
II. Zephyrium Promontorium, a short distance to the northeast of the preceding, now Capo di Bruzzano. The Locrians
who settled in this quarter from Greece, derived from this promontory the appellation of Epizephyrii, as having originally established themselves on the Zephyrian promontory.




256             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
III. Cocintunm Promontorium, to the northeast of the preceding, now Capo di Stilo. According to Polybius, this promontory marked the separation of the Ionian from the Sicilian
Sea.
IV. IapCygum Tria Promontoria, three capes, in close proximity, shutting in the Sinus Scyllacius, or Gulf of Squillace,
to the northeast. Their modern names are Capo della Castella, Capo Rizzuto, and Capo della Nave. Close to these capes
were formerly two rocks or islets, each distinguished by a specific appellation, but which have now entirely disappeared. The
nearest was reported to be Ogygia, the island of Calypso,
where Ulysses was so long detained an unwilling prisoner.
The other, the more distant of the two, was called the island
of the Dioscuri.
V. Lacinium Promontorium, a short distance above, to the
northeast, and forming the lower extremity of the Sinus Tarentinus, or Gulf of Taranto. It is now called Capo delle Colontg
and Capo Nao, from the remains of the celebrated temple of
the Lacinian Juno, which are still visible on its summit. This
edifice was famed for its great antiquity, the magnificence of
its decorations, and the veneration with which it was regarded.
It was surrounded by a thick grove of aged trees, in the midst
of which were spacious meads. Here numerous flocks and herds
were pastured in perfect security, as they were accounted sacred. From the profits accruing out of the sale of this cattle,
which was destined for sacrifices, it is said that a column of
solid gold was erected and consecrated to the goddess. On the
festival of Juno, which was celebrated annually, an immense
concourse of the inhabitants of all the Italian Greek cities assembled here, and a grand display of the most rare and precious
productions of art and nature was exhibited. This sanctuary
was respected by Pyrrhus, as well as by Hannibal, the latter
of whom caused an inscription in Greek and Punic characters
to be deposited here, recording the number of his troops and
their several victories and achievements. But several years
afterward it sustained great injury from Fulvius Flaccus, a
censor, who caused a great portion of the roof, which was covered with marble, to be removed, for the purpose of adorning a
temple of Fortune constructed by him at Rome. So great an
outcry was raised against this act of impiety, that orders were




ITALIA.                    257
issued by the senate that every thing should be restored to its
former state; but this could not be effected, no architect being
found of skill sufficient to replace the marble tiles according to
their original position.
VI. Crimisa Promontorium, above the preceding, to the northwest, now Capo d'Alice. The River Crimisa, now Fiumenica, was a short distance below.
VII. Iapygium  Pronmontorium, called, also, Sallentinum
Promontorium, now Capo di Leuca, at the southern extremity of Iapygia, in the territory of the Sallentini. When the
art of navigation was yet in its infancy, this great headland
presented a conspicuous landmark to mariners bound from the
ports of Greece to Sicily, of which they always availed themselves. The fleets of Athens, after having circumnavigated the
Peloponnesus, are represented on this passage as usually making for Corcyra, whence they steered straight across to this
promontory, and then coasted along the south of Italy for the
remainder of their voyage. There seems, indeed, to have been
a sort of haven here, capable of affording shelter to vessels in
tempestuous weather. Strabo describes this celebrated point
of land as defining, together with the Ceraunian Mountains,
the line of separation between the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas,
while it formed with the opposite cape of Lacinium the en,
trance to the Tarentine Gulf.
3. On the Upper Coast.
I. Brundisii Promontorium, one of the two headlands at the
mouth of the harbor of Brundisium, now Capo Cavallo.
II. Garganum Provzontorium, an extensive neck of land, lying between what are now the Bay of Rodi and the Bay of
Manfredonia, the former being the ancient Sinus Urias. It is
in this sense that Strabo understands the appellation, namely,
as belonging to the entire neck of land, not merely to a part of
it. This neck of land was formed, in fact, by the ridge of
Mount Garganus, and its modern name is Monte Gargano,
or, as some give it, Monte St. Angelo. The ridge itself terminates in a bold headland, which was also called Garganum
Promontorium, and is now Punta di Viesti. Mount Garganus was covered with thick forests of oak, and is often alluded
to on this account by the Latin poets.
R




258             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
III. Cumerium Promontoriunz, on the coast of Picenum, now
Monte Comero, or, as it is sometimes caLed, Monte Guasco
This promontory has a semicircular shape, and on the declivity
of the hill which formed it stood the city of Ancona.
IV. Polaticum Promontoriumn, at the southern extremity of
Histria, now Punta di Promontore. Its ancient name was de.
rived from the city of Pola, in its immediate vicinity.
7. CHIE F RIVE RS.
I. Padus, now the Po, rising in lMons Vesfilus, now Mont&
Viso, and falling into the Hadriaticum Mfare or Adriatic Sea
It flows from two small lakes on Monte Viso, the one situated
immediately below the highest peak, the other still higher up,
between that peak and the lesser one called Visoletto. The
waters of this second lake find vent in a great cavern, and this
probably is the source to which Pliny alludes when he speaks
of the origin of the Po as being a remarkable sight. This river
was called by the Greeks the Eridanus. Its Celtic name was
Bodincus. The whole course of the stream, including its wind
ings, is about four hundred and fifty miles. Its waters are li
able to sudden increase from the melting of the snows and fron,
heavy falls of rain, the rivers that flow into it being almost all
mountain streams, and in the flat country, in the lower part of
its course, great dikes are erected on both sides of the river to
protect the lands from inundation. The Etrurians are said
to have first applied themselves to the embanking of the Po
It receives a great number of tributaries, its channel being the
final receptacle of almost every stream which rises on the eastern and southern declivities of the Alps, and the northern declivity of the Apennines. The mouths of the Po were anciently reckoned seven in number, the principal one, which was
the southernmost, being called Paddtsa, and now Po di Primaro. It was this mouth, also, to which the name of Ostium
Spzneticurn, or Eridanum, was applied.'It sent off a branch
from itself near Trigaboli, which was anciently called Voluna
Ostium, but is now denominated Po di Ferrara. Pliny mentions the following other branches or mouths of the Po: the
Calprasite Ostium, now Bocca di bel occhio; the Sagis Ostium, now Fossage; and the Carbonaria, now the Po d'Ariano.
The Fossa Philistina is the Po grande, and the Tartarus, now




ITALIA.                           259
Tartaro, which communicated with it, is probably the Hadria
of Stephanus Byzantinus, or the Hatrianus of Ptolemy. Tho
Fossa Philistina is spoken of as a very considerable canal, having seven arms or cuts, commonly known by the name of Septem Maria, drawn off from       it to the sea.   These works were
undertaken by the Etrurians for the purpose of draining the
marshy lands about Hadria. The Po is rendered famous in
the legends of mythology by the fate of Phaethon, who fell into
it when struck down from heaven by the thunderbolt of Jove.
We will now proceed to name the tributaries of this stream.
(A.) Tributaries of the Padus from        the North, beginning at
the West.
1. Duria. There were two rivers of this name, the Duria Major and the Duria
Minor. The Duria Minor was the more western one of the two. It rose in the
Alpes C.ottice, on what is now Mont Genevre, and joined the Padus near Augusta
Taurinorum, the modern Turin. It is now the Doria Riparia. The Duria Major rose on what is now the Col de la Seigne, where the Alpes Pennince commenced, and fell into the Padus between Bodincomdgus and Quadratac, at what
is now Crescentino. Its modern name is the Doria Baltea. 2. Sessites, to the
east of the preceding, now the Sessia or Sesia. It passed by VercellcE, now Vercelli. 3. TicZnus, now the Tessino, one of the largest of the tributaries of the
Po, rose in the Lepontine Alps, on what is now Mont St. Gothard, passed through
the Lacus Verbanus or Lago Maggiore, and entered the Po a little distance below Ticinum, the modern Pavia. The waters of the Ticinus are celebrated by
the ancient poets for their clearness and beautiful color. On the banks of this
river Hannibal gained his first victory over the Romans. 4. Lambrus, now the
Lambro, rose in the Lacus Eupilis, now Lago di Pusciana, among the mountains
that separate the lower part of the Lacus Larius into two arms, and emptied
into the Po between Ticinum and Placentia. 5. Addua or Adiias ('Adovar), now
the Adda, rose in the Raetian Alps, formed in its course the Lacus Larius or Lago
di Como, and, emerging from it again, fell into the Po between Placentia and Cremona. 6. Ollius, now the Oglio, rose in the Raetian Alps, formed in its course
the Lacus Sebinus, now Lago d'Iseo, and fell into the Po a little distance from
Nuceria. It received in its course the Mela, now Mella, and the Clusius, now
Chiese, which separated the Cenomdni from the Insubres. 7. Mincius, now lMincio, issued from the Lacus Benacus, now Lago di Garda, flowed by Mantua, and,
after a sluggish and winding course, fell into the Po to the west of Hostilia, now
Ostiglia.
(B.) Tributaries of the Padus from        the South, beginning at
the West.
1. Tanarus, now Tanaro, the largest of all the tributaries of the Po, on the
right or southern bank of the stream. It rose in the Apennines, where they
branched off from the Maritime Alps, and after receiving the Stura, which
still retains its name, and also the Urbis, now the Orba, fell into the Padus,
near Laumellum, the modern Lomello. 2. Trebia, which still retains its name,




260                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
rose in the Apennines, to the northeast of Genua, and fell into the Padus a
little to the west of Placentia. On the left bank of the Trebia, about eight
miles from Placentia, Hannibal gained his second victory over the Romans.
3. T'rus, now Taro. 4. Parma, still retaining its name, and flowing by the city
oftParma. 5. Nicia, now the Lenza, which the _Emilian Way crossed a little
before Tanetum. 6. Gabellus or Secia, now the Secchia. 7. Scultenna, now
Parairo. 8. Rhenus, now Reno, celebrated in history for the meeting of the secand triumvirate, which took place in an island formed by its stream.
II. Arnus, now the Arno, rising in the Umbrian Apennines,
and, after flowing through Etruria and passing by Florentia,
now Firenze or Florence, and Pisce, now Pisa, falling into the
Mare    Tyrrhenum.     At its mouth was the Portus Pisanus.
The Arnus anciently received the Ausar, now the Serchio, from
the north, and the juncture took place where the city of Piste
stood; now, however, both rivers flow into the sea by separate
channels.
III. Tiberis, now the Tiber, on whose banks stood the city
of Rome.    It is said to have been originally called Albula, from
the whiteness of its waters, and afterward Tiberis or Tibris
when Tiberinus, a king of Alba, had been drowned in it.         It is
probable, however, that Albula was the old Latin name, and
Tiberis or Tibris the Tuscan one. It is often called by the
Greeks Thymbris (6 Ovt6pt).).      The Tiber rose in the Apennines above Arretium, and after being joined, during a course
of one hundred and fifty miles, by upward of forty tributary
streams, fell into the lower sea at Ostia.       This stream    was
also called poetically Tyrrhenus amnis, from its watering Etruria, the country of the Tyrrheni, on one side, in its course, and
also Lydius amnis, on account of the popular tradition which
traced the arts and civilization of Etruria to Lydia in Asia
Minor. The poets, of course, are full of allusions to this celebrated stream, and another poetic form of the name is Thybris.
(A.) Tributaries of the Tiber on the Eastern Side.
1. Tinia, now the Timia, was formed by several streams which united a little above Mevdnia, the modern Bevagna, at which latter place it is joined also
by the Topino. Of the streams that flowed into and formed the Tinia, the most
celebrated was the Clitumnus, famed for the snow-white herds that pastured on
its banks, and were always selected to adorn the Roman triumphs as victims to
the Capitoline Jove. Pliny the younger has left us a beautiful description of
this sacred river and its little temple, the ruins of which are still to be seen between Foligno and Spoleto. The stream rises close to the temple, and still
bears the name of Clitunno. 2. Nar, now the Nera, rose on Mount Fiscellus, in
the Apennines, above Nursia, and in the northeastern angle of the Sabine ter



ITALIA.                            261
ritory. In the first half of its course it formed the boundary between the Sabines and the Umbrians, and then to the east of Interamna, now Terni, received
the Velinus, now Velino, and after flowing onward through Umbria, fell into the
Tiber near Ocriculum. The Nar was noted for its sulphureous stream. The
River Velinus, before it joined the Nar, formed.some small lakes, the chief
of which was called the Lacus Velinus, now Lago di Pie di Luco. The drainage of the stagnant waters produced by the occasional overflow of these lakes
and of the river was first attempted by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the
Sabines. He caused a channel to be made for the Velinus, through which the
waters of that river were carried into the Nar, over a precipice of several hundred feet. This is the celebrated fall of Terni, known in Italy by the name of
Caduta delle Marmore. The valley of the Velinus, in which stood the city of
Redte, was so delightful as to merit the appellation of Tempe; and, from their
dewy freshness, its meadows obtained the name of Rosei Campi.
3. Allia, now the Aia, a small but celebrated stream, rose in the Crustumine
hills below Nomentum, was crossed by the Via Salaria about four miles beyond
the modern Marciglione, and fell into the Tiber at the distance of eleven miles
from Rome. This river is memorable for having witnessed the disgraceful
overthrow of the Romans by the Gauls under Brennus (July 18, B.C. 390), on.
which account the dies Alliensis, or "day on the Allia," was always marked as
a most unlucky one in the Roman calendar. The defeat on the Allia was followed by the capture of the city. 4. Anio, now the Teverone, rose in the Apennines near the Sabine town of Treba, and fell into the Tiber about three miles
to the north of Rome. Its earlier name was Anien, whence comes the genitive
Anienis, which is joined in inflection with the later nominative Anio. It is not
so full a stream as the Nar, but was considered, however, by the Romans as
the most important among the tributaries of the Tiber, and hence received also
the appellation of Tiberinus, whence comes, by corruption, the modern name
Teverone. This river, in its course, passed by the town of Tibur, the modern
Tivoli, where it formed some beautiful cascades. 5. Almo, now the Almone or
Aquatacio, a small stream rising near Bovillcs, about ten miles to the southeast
of Rome, and falling into the Tiber a short distance below that city. At the
junction of this stream with the Tiber, the priests of Cybele, every year, on the
25th of March, washed the statue and sacred things of the goddess.
(B.) Tributaries of the Tiber on the Western Side.
1. Clanis, now Chiana, rising near Arretium in Etruria, and falling into the
Tiber northeast of Vulsinii. Near Clusium Vetus it formed a marsh termed
Clusina Palus. It may be seen from Tacitus (Ann., i., 79), that a project was
once agitated for causing the waters of this marsh to discharge themselves into
the Arnus. 2. Crcmera, a small river now called the Valca, rising in the neighborhood of Baccance, the modern Baccano, and falling into the Tiber a little below Prima Porta. It was in the vicinity of the place where this river joined
the Tiber that the Fabii were cut off by the Veientes.
IV. Liris, now the Ga)igliano, a river of Campania, ris;ng
in the country of the Marsi, to the west of the Lacus Fucznus,
and falling into the lower sea near Minturnme.       It is particularly noted by the ancient poets for the sluggishness of its stream.
According to Strabo, its more ancient name was Clanis (KAivys); according to Pliny, however, Glanis.




6262             ANCIENTr GEOGRAPHY.
V. Fulturnus, now the Volturnzo a river of Campania, rising
among the Apennines, in the territory of Sacmnium, and falling
into the lower sea at Vulturnzuv. A magnificent bridge was
thrown over this river by Domitian, when he caused a road to
be constructed from Sinuessa to Puteoli.
VI. Aufzdus, now the' Ofanto, the largest river of Apulia,
rising in the Apennines, in the territory of the Hirpini, and
flowing into what is now the Gulf of lanfriedonia. It was
remarkable for the rapidity of its course. On the banks of this
river the fatal battle of Cannce was fought.
VII. Metauzrus, now the Metaro, a river of Umbria, rising
in the Apennines, and falling into the Hadriaticum Marce, or
Adriatic Sea, above Sena Gallica. It was rendered memorable by the defeat of Hasdrubal, the brother of H-annibal, when
on his way with re-enforcements for the latter. The battle is
supposed to have taken place near the modern Fossomnbrone,
and on the left bank of the stream.
VIII. Rubicon, a small stream falling into the Adriatic a
little to the north of Ariinu^nm, but, though trifling in volume,
yet important as forming, in part, the northern boundary of
Italia Propria. It was on this account that it was forbidden
the Roman commanders to pass the Rubicon with an armed
force, since in violating this injunction they would enter on the
immediate territory of the republic, under the government of
the senate, and would be, in effect, declaring war upon their
country.  Cesar crossed this stream with his army at the
commencement of the civil war, and harangued his troops at
Ariminum.    When Augustus subsequently included Gallia
Cisalpina within the limits of Italy, the Rubicon sank, of
course, in importance, and in modern times it is diflicult, therefore, to ascertain the position of the true stream. D'Anville
makes it correspond with a current called Fiumnesino; popular
tradition, however, is in favor of the Pisatello.
IX. Athesis, now Adige, or, as the Germans call it, the
Etsch, a river of Venetia, rising in' the REetian Alps, or the
mountains of the Tyrol, and, after a course of nearly two hundred miles, discharging its waters into the Adriatic, north of
the mouths of the Po. Next to this last-mentioned river, it
must be looked upon as the most considerable stream of Italy.
X. Medudcus IMajor and Meduacus Zinor, both rising in




ITALTA.                    263
the Raetian Alps, in the territory of the Meduaci, from whom
they derive their name, and falling into the Adriatic to the north
of the mouth of the Athesis. The Meduacus Major is now the
Brenta, and the Minor now Bachiglione.
XI. Plavis, now the Piave, further to the northeast. Pliny,
who enumerates many of the most unimportant streams, passes
over this, one of the largest in Venetia, in silence. This was
owing, probably, to there being no place of importance on its
banks. It is first mentioned by Paulus Diaconus.
XII. Timavus, falling into the Sinus Tergestinus to the east
of Aquileia. It was small of size, but'few streams have been
more celebrated in antiquity, or more sung by the poets. Its
numerous sources, its lake and subterranean passage, which
have been the theme of the Latin muse from Virgil to Claudian and Ausonius, are now so little known that their existence
has even been questioned, and ascribed to poetical invention.
It has been, however, well ascertained that the name of Timao
is still preserved by some springs which rise near San Giovanni
di Carso and the castle of Duino, and form a river, which,
after a course of little more than a mile, falls into the Adriatic.
Antenor was fabled to have penetrated to the vicinity of this
river after the capture of Troy.
Some of the minor streams of Italy will be alluded to in the
accounts given of the several divisions of the country.
8. LAKES.
(A.) Lakes in Gallia Cisalpina,from East to West.
I. Lacus Bendcus, on the borders of Venetia, now Lago di
Garda. It receives the small river Sarraca, now Sarca, from
the north, and sends forth from its southern extremity the River
Mincius, now Mincio. Its dimensions, according to modern
computation, are about thirty Italian miles in length and nine
in breadth. The ancient measurement was much larger.
Sirmio, its principal promontory, and on the southwestern
shore of the lake, was celebrated as having been the favorite
residence of Catullus, who commemorates it in some beautiful
lines. It is now called Sirmione. Virgil speaks of this lake
as subject to sudden storms, which circumstance has also been
observed by modern travellers.
II. Lacus Sebinus, to the west of the preceding, now Lago




264             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
d'Iseo. It was formed by the Ollius, now the Oglio. Its
modern name is derived from the town of Iseo, which appears
to occupy the site of a town called Sebum, whence came the ancient name of the lake.
III. Lacus Larius, to the west of the preceding, now Lago
di Como. Servius says that Cato reckoned the length of this
lake at sixty miles, and the real distance, including the Lake
of Chiavenna, is not short of that measurement. This lake
receives, or, more correctly speaking, is formed by the Addua,
now the Adda, which again emerges from it, and pursues its
course to the Po. The modern name is derived from the town
of Como, the ancient Comum. A headland, running boldly into
the lake at its southern end, causes it to branch off into two
arms, and in the mountains connected with this headland the
River Lambrus took its rise.
IV. Lacus Verbanus, to-the west of the preceding, now Lago
Maggiore, formed by the River Ticinus. It is twenty-seven
miles long, and, on an average, eight broad. In it lie the Borromean islands, which are the admiration of every traveller.
(B.) Lakes in Etruria, from North to South.
I. Lacus Trashmenus, a few miles to the south of Cortona,
now Lago di Perugia, which name it receives from the modern city of Perugia, the ancient Perusia, lying to the southeast of it. This lake was famous for the defeat of the Romans
by Hannibal, making his third victory over them. The battle
was fought in a narrow valley along the southern shore of the
lake. Hannibal had taken up his position on the heights, and
as the Romans pressed forward on the narrow path between
the hills and the lake, Hannibal fell upon and defeated them
with great slaughter.
II. Lacus Prilis, called by Cicero Lacus Prelius, and in
the Antonine Itinerary, Aprilis Lacus, on the shore to the
southwest of the preceding, near the city of Rusellce, and just
above the River Umbro.  It is now Lago di Castiglione,
vhich must not be confounded, however, with the LIago di
Castiglione, answering to the ancient Lacus Gabinus, near:fabii, in Latium.
III. Lacus Volsiniensis, to the southeast of the preceding,
now the Lake of Bolsena, so called from the city of Bolsena,




ITALIA.                    265
on the northern shore, the ancient Vulsinii, which last gave its
ancieLt name to the lake. The hilly banks of this lake were
covered with wood, and its waters abounded with fish. Pliny,
who calls it Laceus Tarquiniensis, mentions that it had two
floating islands.
IV. L acus Vadimonis, to the southeast of the preceding, and
near the confines of Umbria. It formerly existed close to the
modern Bassano, and used to be called Lago di Bassano; but
it is nrw filled up with peat and rushes. This lake is celebrated in the history of Rome for having witnessed the total
defeat of the Etrurians by the Romans, a defeat so decisive
that they never could recover from its effects. Another battle
was again fought here by the Etrurians, in conjunction with
the Gauls, against the Romans, but with the same ill success.
V. Lacus Sabatinus, to the southwest of the preceding, and
to the northwest of Veii. It derived its name from Sabate, a
city situated not far, probably, from the site of the present
_3racciano, which now gives its name to the lake. It was said
that a town had formerly been swallowed up by the Lacus SaDatinus, and it was even asserted that in calm weather its ruins might still be seen below the surface of the water.
(C.) Lake in the Country of the Marsi.
Lacus Fucinus, now Lago di Celano, or, as it is sometimes
called, Lago Fucino. It was of considerable extent, being not
less than forty miles in circumference. A small river, called
Pitonius, now Giovenco, which entered the lake on the northeast side, was said not to mix its waters, the coldest known,
with those of that lake.'According to the same popular account, this stream afterward emerged by a subterranean duct
near Tibur, and became, under the name of Aqua Marcia, the
purest supply which Rome received from its numerous aqueducts. As this lake was subject to inundation, Cesar, it appears, had intended to find a vent for its waters; but this design was not carried into effect till the reign of Claudius. After a continued labor of eleven years, during which thirty thousand men were constantly employed, a canal of three miles in
length was carried through a mountain from the lake to the
River Liris. On its completion, the splendid but. sanguinary
show of a real naumachia was exhibited on the lake, in the




266            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
presence of Claudius and Agrippina and a numerous retinue,
while the surrounding hills were thronged with the population
of the neighboring country. The Emperor Hadrian afterward
repaired this work of Claudius.
(D.) Lakes in Latium, Campania, and Samnium.
I. Lacus Regillus, to the southeast of Rome, between Labzcum and Gabii, and now il Laghetto della Colonna. The vi.
cinity of this lake was the scene of a great battle between the
Romans and Latins, which Niebuhr assigns to the mythical
history of Rome.
II. Lacus Albanus, at the foot of the Alban Mount, and probably the crater of an extinct volcano. This lake is well known
in history from the prodigious rise of its waters, to such an extent, indeed, as to threaten the whole surrounding country, and
even Rome itself, with an overwhelming inundation. To remedy this, a subterranean canal was constructed, the rock being
cut through for that purpose for the space of a mile and a
half. The water discharged by this channel united with the
Tiber about five miles below Rome. The work still exists, it
is said, in remarkable preservation. The lake is now called
Lago di Castel Gandolfo.
III. Lacus Avernus, in Campania, near Baise and Puteoli,
now Lagro d'Averno. It was separated from the Lucrine
Lake, which lay in front of it, by a low and narrow strip of land,
and was surrounded on every side but this by steep hills and
dense forests. Gloom and darkness therefore encompassed the
lake, and accumulated effluvia filled the air with contagion.
The ancients even had a popular belief among them that birds,
on attempting to fly over this sheet of water, became stupefied
by its exhalations and fell into it. Hence the common, though
erroneous derivation of the name (in Greek "Aopvog), from a
privative, and 5pvt, "( a bird."  Here, too, it was believed, were
the subterranean abodes of the Cimmerians, and a descent to
the lower world. The forests and gloom, however, disappeared
when Agrippa opened a communication with the Lucrine Lake,
and constructed the well-known Julian harbor.
IV. Lacus Lucrinus, in Campania, and immediately adjacent
to the preceding. Its shores were famed for their oysters and
other shell-fish. In the year 1538, an earthquake formed a




ITALIA.                          267
hill, called Monte Nuovo, which displaced the water, and left
no appearance of a lake, but only a morass filled with grass and
rushes, and such is still the state of things at the present day.
The Lucrine Lake formed part of the celebrated Julian harbor
constructed by Agrippa.
Ons. The Julian harbor, or Portus Julius, may here be briefly described. It
was called by this name in honor of Augustus, and was constructed by Agrippa
under his orders. According to Dio Cassius (xlviii., 50), there were three lanes
in this quarter, lying one behind the other. The outermost one, however, or
Lacus Tyrrhenus, was properly only a bay. The middle one was the Lucrine,
and the innermost one the Lake Avernus. The Lucrine was separated from
the outermost lake, or bay, by a natural dike, eight stadia long, and of a chariot's breadth. There was also a separation between the Lucrine and the Avernian lakes. The outer dike was, according to Strabo, accustomed in storms to
be washed by the waves, thus rendering it almost impassable on foot. Agrippa
thereupon raised it higher. Dio Cassius adds that the same commander cut
through the dike at either end, where it joined the land. These two openings
were then strongly fortified. Agrippa at the same time made an entrance
through the intervening land into the Avernian Lake, thus joining it to the Lu.
crine, and cut down the thick forests that stood upon its banks. The whole interior space occupied by the two lakes was called the Julian harbor, Portus Ju
lius, the two entrances to which were in the outer dike. The object in form
ing this harbor was chiefly to procure a place along the coast fit for exercising
and training a body of seamen previous to the contest with Sextus Pompeius,
the son of Pompey the Great.
V. Amsancti Lacus, in the celebrated valley of Amsanctus,
in Samnium, and in the country of the Hirpini, to the southwest of Trivicum, and close to what is now the little town of
Tricento. The lake was remarkable for the mephitic vapors
emitted from it, the waters being sulphureous, and on its banks
was a temple sacred to the goddess Mephitis.       The lake is still
called Mefiti.   Virgil has given a fine description of it and the
scenery around.
9. GULFS AND BAYS.
(A.) On the Lower Coast, beginning from the North.
1. Sinus Ligusticus, now     Gulf of Genoa.      2. Sinus Amyclanus, commencing at the Promontory of Circeii, and extending down to Caieta, and forming now the upper or northern
part of the Gulf of Gaeta. It took its name from the city of
Amyclae, which once stood on its shores.      3. Sinus Caietanus,
extending from Caieta down the coast to near Cumce, now the
lowei part of the Gulf of Gaeta.     4. Sinus Crater, called, also,
Sinus Cumnanus or Puteolanus, now the Bay of Naples.             It




268             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
extended from the Promontory of Misenum to the Promontory
of Minerva or of Surrentum. The ancient name Crater was
given to it from its resembling the mouth of a KpaTrjp, that is,
of a large bowl or mixer. 5. Sinus Pcestanus, immediately below the preceding, and reaching from the Promontory of Minerva to the Promontory of Posidium. It is now the Gulf of
Salerno. Its ancient name was derived from the city of Pccsturn; its modern one from the city of Salerno, the ancient Salernum. 6. Sinus Lais, now the Gulf of Policastro. Its ancient name was derived from the River Laos or Laiis, now the
Lao, which flows into it. 7. Sinus Terinceus, called, also, Lameticus, Napitinus, and Hipponiates, and now the Gulf of St.
Euphemia. It derived the name of Terinceus from the city of
Terina, now Nocera; that of Lameticus from Lametia, now
St. Euphermia; that of Napitinus from Napitia, now Pizzo;
and that of Hipponiates from Hipponium or Vibo Valentia,
now Monte Leone; all these places being situate either on or
near its shores.
(B.) On the Southeastern Coast.
1. Sinus Scyllacius or Scylleticus, between the Promontorium Cocintum and the lapygum tria Promontoria.    It is
now the Gulf of Squillace. Its name was derived from the
city of Scyllaczium or Scylletium, the modern Squillace. The
isthmus which separated this gulf from the Sinus Terinceus,
on the other sea, was not more than twenty miles broad, and
this circumstance suggested to the elder Dionysius the project
of carrying a fortification across it, which would have been the
means of cutting off the more southern Greeks from communicating with their allies to the north of this narrow peninsula,
but he was prevented by the latter from executing this design.
2. Sinus Tarentinus, the wide gulf extending from the Lacinian to the Iapygian Promontory, and now the Gulf of Taranto.
Its name was derived from the celebrated city of Tarentum,
now Taranto.
(C.) On the Upper Coast, from South to North.
1. Sinus Urias, extending from the Promontory of Garganum upward as far as the modern Punta di Mileto. It is often,
but erroneously, taken for the modern Gulf of Manfredonia,




ITALIA.                           269
below  the promontory.      The language of Pomponius Mela,
however, and the position of Hyrium (whence it derived its
name) on the coast above the Garganian Promontory, are decisive on this point.    2. Sinus Tergestinus, now       the Gulf of
Trieste. Its ancient name was derived from the city of Tergeste, the modern Trieste.      3. Sinus Flanaticus or Polaticus,
lying between Histria and Liburnia.          Its name Flanaticus
was derived from Flano, a town on the Illyrian side of it, while
it was called Polaticus from      Pola, the chief city of Histria.
The modern name is the Gulf of Quanarnao.
10. ADJACENT SEAS.
I. Mare Inferuns, or Lower Sea, bounding the western coast
of Italy, and called, also, Mare Tyrrhenum and Etruscum.          It
is now the Sea of Italy.
II. Mare Superum, or Upper Sea, called, also, Mare Hadriaticum, the arm of the sea between Italy and the opposite shores
of Illyricum, Epirus, and Greece, comprehending, in its greatest extent, not only the iulf of Venice, but also what was
termed the Ionian Sea.
OBs. Herodotus, in one passage (vii., 20), calls the whole extent of sea along
the coast of Illyricum and western Greece, as far as the Corinthian Gulf, by the
name of the Ionian Sea ('I6Stoc 7r6vrog). In another passage, he styles the part
in the vicinity of Epidamnus the Ionian Gulf (vi., 127). Scylax makes the
Ionian Gulf the same with what he calls Adrias ('Adpiac), and places the termination of both at Hydruntum. He is silent, however, respecting the Ionian Sea,
as named by Herodotus. Thucydides, like Herodotus, distinguishes between
the Ionian Gulf and Ionian Sea. The former he makes a part of the latter,
which reaches to the shores of western Greece. These ideas, however, became changed at a later period. The limits of what Scylax had styled'Adpiar,
and had made synonymous with'Irvto KOcTro~, were extended to the shores of
Italy and the western coast of Greece, so that now the Ionic Gulf was regarded
only as a part of'A6pia, or the Adriatic. Eustathius informs us that the more
accurate writers always observed this distinction (ad Dionys. Perieg., v. 92).
Hence we obtain a key to Ptolemy's meaning when he makes the Adriatic extend along the entire coast of western Greece to the southern extremity of the
Peloponnesus.
11. FACE     OF   THE   COUNTRY       IN  GENERAL.
I. IN the north, where the breadth of the peninsula is greatest, it is protected
by the Alps against the influence of the north winds.
II. The two halves into which Italy is divided by the Apennines are countries
of a totally different character: the part east of the Apennines is a country of
secondary, or still more frequently of tertiary formation, and of quite the same
character as Illyricum on the opposite side of the Adriatic; the western part,




270                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
on the other hand, is mostly of a volcanic nature, and of the same kind as the
Islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica; so that the Apennines rise between
two large valleys, the deepest parts of which are filled on the one side by the
Adriatic, and on the other by the Tyrrhenian Sea.
III. The northern part of Italy, between the Alps, the Apennines, and the
Adriatic, forms an extensive plain (the plain of Lombardy), intersected by the
River Po and its numerous tributaries; while the whole of Italy south of this
large plain is a more or less mountainous country, including the richest plains
and valleys, with hilly districts of the most beautiful and picturesque character.
IV. The whole peninsula enjoys, generally speaking, a clear, bright, and transparent atmosphere, and is endowed by nature with the greatest advantages and
facilities both for agriculture and commerce. No wonder, therefore, that Italy
in ancient times was one of the most populous and best cultivated countries.
The number of its towns is said to have amounted at one time to one thousand
one hundred and ninety-seven.
V. The climate of Italy appears to have been more severe in the winter season
in ancient than in modern times. The language of the ancient writers clearly
favors this conclusion. Pliny, for example, speaks of long snows being useful
for the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of the mountains; and a long
snow in the valleys of central or southern Italy would be an unheard-of phenomenon now. The freezing of rivers also, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace,
would not well suggest itself to Italian poets of the present day.
12. ITALIA MORE IN DETAIL.
1. LIGURIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Ligiria was so called by the Romans from its inhabitants,
whom they named Ligires. The Greeks, on the other hand,
called the people Ligyes (Aiyveq), and their country Ligystice
(Atyvartit).
II. Liguria, in the time of Augustus, was separated from
Etruria by the River Macra, now Magra, and was bounded
on the north and northeast by Gallia Cisalpina, on the west
by Gallia Narbonensis, and on the south by the Sinus Ligusticus, or Gulf of Genoa.     Its limits on the west were the Maritime Alps and the River Varus, now. Var, while on the northeast it extended to the territories of the Anamani and Boii,
two Gallic tribes.
OB1. 1. The northern limits of Liguria are somewhat uncertain. Geographical
writers, however, generally make them to be the River Orgus, now Orca, which
separated the Taurini, a Ligurian race, from the Cisalpine Gauls, and the River
Padus, or Po. Niebuhr, however, and others make the Libui or Libicii, and the
Lcvi, both lying beyond the Po, to have been also Ligurian tribes.
2. The Ligures or Ligyes appear to have been in early times a very widespread race. If we may trust to the report transmitted to us by the ancient
writers from the Carthaginian navigator Hamilco, they dwelt at one time upon
the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and were driven thence into the mountains




IT AL IA.                       271
by the overpowering pressure of the Celtic race. From the mountains they
descended to the coasts of the Mediterranean.  (Av. Or. Marit., 129, seqq.)
Hence some regard this tradition as placing them on the banks of the River
Liger (Ligyr) or Loire. Again, Herodotus describes them as dwelling above
Massalia, new Marseilles, and in the time of Polybius they reached as far
south as the Arnus, now Arno. Indeed, Niebuhr thinks it probable that they
occupied at one time the whole country from the Pyrenees to the Tiber, with
the Cevennes and the Helvetian Alps for their northern boundary. It is certain,
moreover, that the Ligurians and Iberians were anciently contiguous. (Niebuhr,
Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 164, Cambr. transl.)
(B.) CHARACTER. OF THE INHABITANTS.
I. DIONYSIUS of Halicarnassus says that the extraction of the
Ligurians was unknown. It is generally supposed that they
were neither Iberians nor Celts. Strabo, indeed, expressly states
that they were not of the Celtic race.
II. Cato stigmatized the Ligurians as lying and deceitful, and
some of the Latin poets also draw unfavorable pictures of their
character. Other writers, however, speak highly of their industry, courage, and perseverance.
III. The Ligurians were celebrated as light-armed soldiers.
The conquest of their country by the Romans was not effected
until long after the second Punic war. Strabo relates that, for
the space of eighty years prior to this, the Romans only obtained a free passage along their shore of twelve stadia from
the coast. Their final reduction took place B.C. 166, and, in
order to accomplish this the more effectually, whole tribes had
to be carried out of the country. The conquest of Liguria was
of great importance to the Romans, as this country afforded the
easiest communication with Gaul and Spain over the Maritime
Alps.
OBS. The passage of Cato referred to in ~ ii., occurs as a fragment of the
Origines, and is cited by Servius, ad Virg., _En., xi., 701, 715. The authorities
on the other side are Cic. c. Rull., ii., 35; Virg., Georg., ii., 167; Diod., iv., 20;
v., 39. Niebuhr is a warm advocate for the Ligurians against the attack ot
Cato. (Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 165.)
(C.) CITIES AND PLACES OF LIGURIA.
1. Cities and Places on the Coast, from West to East.
1. Niccea, now Nice, ten miles to the east of the Varus or
Var, and therefore, strictly speaking, a. city of Liguria.   As,
however, it continued subject to the Massilians even after the
Yarus had been made the boundary in this quarter between
Gaul and Italy, we have considered it as belonging to the for



272            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
mer country (page 110). 2. On the summit of the Alpes Maritimce, and marking the limit between Italy and Gaul, stood
the Tropcca Augusti, erected by that emperor, and having inscribed on it the names of all the Alpine tribes he had subdued,
from the shores of the Mediterranean to the Adriatic. Some
slight remains of this monument are still to be seen at the
small village of La Turbia, a name evidently corrupted from
Tropcea, about two miles above Monaco. 3. Portus or Arx
Herculis Monceci, now Monaco. The place was of Greek origin, and Hercules, its reputed founder, was worshipped here.
4. Albium Intemelium, now Vintimiglia, the capital of the Intemeli', a city of some size and note. From Tacitus we learn
that it was a municipium. 5. After leaving the last-mentioned
place, we cross the River Rutuba, now the Rotta, and come to
Albium Ingaunum, now Albenga, the chief city of the Ingauni.
This was also a municipium. Above the Ingauni, and among
the mountains, were the Epanterii. Opposite Albium Ingaunum was the island of Gallinaria, so called from its abounding
in a particular breed of fowls.
6. Vada Sabdtorum, called, also, Vada Sabatia, and Sabata
alone, about twenty-five miles beyond the preceding, now Vado;
not Savona, as Cluverius thinks, which answers better to the
ancient Savo, further on. The name Vada Sabatorum marks
the shallow and muddy nature of the shore. 7. Genua, now
Genoa (in Italian Genova), mentioned for the first time in history by Livy (xxviii., 46) as having been destroyed by Mago
the Carthaginian. It was subsequently rebuilt by the Romans
and made a municipium. In the time of Strabo it was a place
of considerable trade, particularly in timber, which was brought
from the mountains, where it grew to a great size. Some of
it, being richly veined, was used for making tables, which were
thought scarcely inferior to those of cedar wood. Other commodities were cattle, skins, and honey, which the Ligurians
exchanged for oil and Italian wine, none being grown on their
coast. 8. Portus Delphini, now Porto Fino. 9. Segeste, now
Sestri. In the mountains above this part of the coast were the
Briniates and Apuani. So obstinate was the resistance which
the latter of these tribes made to the Roman arms, that it was
found necessary to remove a great part of them into Samnium.
The River Macra, which formed the limit of Liguria in this




ITALIA.                    273
direction, and which is now the Magra, is, like most of the
mountain streams on this coast, nearly dry in summer.
2. Cities and Places in the Interior, from West to East.
1. Augusta Vagiennorum, capital of the Vagienni, now
Bene, according to Durandi; but less correctly, according to
D'Anville, Vico. According to Pliny, the Vagienni extended
as far as the Mons Vesulus, or Monte Viso. 2. Ceba, to the
southeast of the preceding, now Ceva. It was famed for its
cheese. 3. Aquzc Statiellce, to the northeast of the preceding,
now Acqui. It was the capital of the Statielli. 4. Pollentia,
to the west of the preceding, on the Tandrus, now Tanaro.
Several vestiges still remain near a village called Polenza. It
*was celebrated for its wool. 5. Alba Pompeia, a few miles
lower down on the Tanarus. It is now AMba. This place probably owed its surname to Pompeius Strabo, who had colonized
several towns in the north of Italy. It was a municipium, and
the birth-place of the Emperor Pertinax. 6. Asta, to the northeast, now Asti. 7. Dertona, about twenty miles to the east
of the preceding, now Tortona.' It was a place of importance,
and a Roman colony, supposed to have been established by the
consul IEmilius Scaurus. 8. Clastidium, to the northeast, now
Chiasteggio. It was celebrated as the place where Claudius
Marcellus gained the spolia opima by vanquishing and slaying
Viridomarus, king of the Gcesatce. Clastidium was betrayed
to Hannibal after the battle of the Ticinus, with considerable
magazines which the Romans had laid up there, and it formed
the chief depot of the Carthaginian army while encamped on
the Trebia.
Proceeding now to the northwest, and crossing the Padus,
we come to the territory of the Taurini. From their position,
indeed, they would seem more properly to belong to Cisalpine
Gaul; but Polybius excludes the Taurini from his enumeration of the Gauls who settled in the plains of Italy, and Strabo
and Pliny expressly call them Ligurians. The Taurini occupied the country between the Padus and the Alps, as far as the
River Orgus, now Orca, to the east, while the position of Fines,
now Aviliana, fixes their limit to the west. They are first
mentioned in history as having opposed Hannibal soon after his
descent from the Alps, and their capital, which Appian calls
S




274                ANCIENT      GEOGRAPIY.
Taurasia, was taken and plundered by that general after an
ineffectual resistance of three days. As a Roman colony, it
subsequently received the name of Augusta Taurinorum, and
is now  Turin (in Italian Torino).
The Cottian Alps, in the vicinity of which we now are, were
ruled over by Cottius, an Alpine chieftain, to whom we have
already referred (page 251). His capital appears to have been
Segusio, now    Suza.    Here he erected a triumphal arch to
Augustus, and here his remains were interred..
2. GALLIA CISALPINA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul this side of the Alps, with reference to Rome, was the name given to the northern part of
Italy, as occupied by the Gallic tribes which had poured over
the Alps into this extensive tract of country.
II. This country was bounded on the north and west by the
Alps; on the southwest by the River Orgus, now Orca, separating it from the Taurini; on the south by Liguria, the Apennines, and the River Rubicon; and on the east by the Mare
Hadriaticum    and Venetia.
(B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF AFFAIRS.
I. THE whole of the rich country which bears at present the name of Lombardy, was possessed at an early period by the ancient and powerful nation of
the Tuscans, who appear to have conquered it from the Ligurians.
II. Numerous hordes of Gauls subsequently pour over the Alps into Italy,
and driving by degrees the Tuscans from these fertile plains, confine them at
last within the narrow limits of Etruria. Livy assigns to these migrations of
the Gauls as early a date as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about B.C. 600.
III. The Gauls, having securely established themselves in their new possessions, proceed to make farther inroads into various parts of Italy, and thus come
into contact with the forces of Rome. More than two hundred years elapse
from the time of their first invasion of Italy, when they totally defeat the Ro
man army on the banks of the Allia, and become masters of Rome itself.
IV. After this, however, the Gauls, though they continue by frequent incursions to threaten and even to ravage the territory of Rome, can make no serious impression on that power. Though leagued with the Samnites and Etruri
ans, they are almost always unsuccessful. Defeated at Sentinum in Umbria,
near the Lake Vadimonis in Etruria, and in a still more decisive action near
the port of Telamo in the same country, they soon find themselves forced to
contend, not for conquest, but for existence.
V. The same ill success, however, attends their efforts in their own territory.
The progress of the Roman arms is irresistible; the Gauls are beaten back from
the Adriatic to the Po, from the Po to the Alps, and soon behold Roman colonies established and flourishing in many of the towns which had so lately been




ITALIA.                           275
theirs. Notwithstanding, however, these successive disasters, their spirit,
though curbed, is still unsubdued, and when the enterprise of Hannibal affords
them an opportunity of retrieving their losses, they eagerly embrace it; and it
is to their zealous co-operation that Polybius ascribes, in a great degree, the primary success of that expedition.
VI. At the conclusion, however, of the second Punic war, the Romans retaliate upon them, and their country, brought under entire subjection, becomes a
Rornn province, under the name of Gallia Cisalpina. At a subsequent period
the name of Gallia Togata is also applied to it, or, rather, to that part which lay
south of the Po, the cities in this quarter having obtained the privileges of Latin
cities, and consequently the right of wearing the Roman toga.
(C.) ASPECT OF THE COU N TRY, &C.
I. THE character which is given of this portion of Italy by
the writers of antiquity is that of the most fertile and'productive country imaginable. Polybius describes it as abounding
in wine, corn, and every kind of grain. Innumerable herds of
swine, both for public and private supply, were bred in its forests; and such was the abundance of provisions of every kind,
that, according to Polybius (ii., 15), travellers, when at an inn,
did not find it necessary to agree on a price for any article which
they required, but paid so much for the whole amount of what
was furnished them, and this charge, at the highest, did not
exceed half a Roman as.
II. As a proof of the richness of this country, Strabo remarks
that it surpassed all the rest of Italy in the number of large and
opulent towns which it contained. The wool grown here was
of the finest and softest quality, and so abundant was the supply of wine, that the wooden vessels, in which it was commonly
stowed, were of the size of houses. Lastly, Cicero styles it the
flower of Italy, the support of the empire of the Roman people,
the ornament of its dignity.
(D.) PRINCIPAL GALLIC TRIBES.
IN considering the tribes and cities of Gallia Cisalpina, the division of the
country which most naturally suggests itself is that into Gallia Transpaddna,
or Gaul beyond the Po, and Gallia Cispadana, or Gaul this side of the Po. We
shall follow, therefore, this arrangement.
Tribes in Gallia Transpdddna.
I. Satassi, in the northwestern angle of the country. The main part of their
territory lay chiefly in a long valley, which reached to the summits of the Graian
and Pennine Alps. The passes over these mountains were too important an
object with the Romans not to make them anxious to secure them by the conquest of the Salassi. But these hardy mountaineers held out for a long time,
and were not finally subdued till the reign of Augustus, who caused the country




276                ANCPENT      GEOGRAPHY.
to be permanently occupied, for this purpose, by a large force under Terentlus
Varro. This arrangement ended the contest; a large number of the Salassi
perished in battle, and the rest, to the number of thirty-six thousand, were sold
into slavery.
II. LIBICII and LxVI, two tribes mentioned together by Polybius (ii., 17), and
*to each of whom it is difficult to assign a distinct territory. We must be content to know generally that they occupied the country lying between the Orgus,
now Orca, and the Ticinus, now Tessino. They did not reach quite to the Alps
on the north, as the Salassi seem to have extended some way into the plains
situated at the foot of those mountains. They are said to have been of Ligurian
origin.
III. INSUBRES, called'Iaop6pec by Polybius, and'Ivaovgpot by Strabo, and occupying the country between the Rivers Ticinus and Addua, According to
Polybius, they were the most numerous as well as the most powerful tribe of
the Cisalpine Gauls. They took a very active part in the Gallic wars against
the Romans, and zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of Italy.
IV. CENOMiAI, to the east of the Insubres, from whom they were separated
by the Addua, while the Athesis formed their boundary to the east. They are
distinguished from the rest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the circumstance of their
not having joined with the other tribes in war against Rome, and from their
having even sided with that city against Hannibal. Subsequently, however,
they became hostile to the Romans.
V. EUGANEI.-These are spoken of as one of the most ancient nations of Italy,
and as having once occupied all the country to which the Ven~ti, its subsequent
possessors, communicated the name of Venetia. Driven from these their ancient abodes, the Euganei appear to have retired across the Athesis, and to have
settled on the shores of the Lacus Sebinus and Lacus Benacus, and in the adjacent valleys. Pliny says, on the authority of Cato, that they held at one time
thirty-four towns: these were admitted to the rights of Latin cities under Augustus.
Tribes in Gallia Cispddcna.
I. ANAMINI, on the northeastern borders of Liguria, and extending to the Po.
Their southeastern boundary was the Tarus, now Taro. Livy never mentions
this tribe by any specific name, though he seems to distinguish them from their
more numerous and powerful neighbors the Boil. The nature of the country
occupied by these Gauls, intersected as it was by numerous streams descending from the Apennines, could not have allowed them to build many towns.
II. BII.-This tribe, at some period or other, but when is uncertain, crossed
the Alps, and established themselves in Italy between the Tarus, the Silarus,
and the Apennines, having the Po for their upper frontier. Their wars with
the Romans in this quarter were long and desperate; but they were finally subdued by Scipio NasIca, and removed to the banks of the Dravus or Drave. Consult page 229.
III. LING6NES.-This tribe occupied the extreme eastern portion of Gallia
Cispadana. Polybius is the only author who has pointed out the district occupied by them in Italy. Appian characterizes them as the fiercest and wildest
of the Gauls. The territory which they seized in Italy had previously been oc.
cupied by the Umbri.




ITALIA.                    277
(E.) CITIES OF GALLIA CISALPINA.
1. Cities among the Salassi.
1. Augusta Prcetoria, now Aosta in Piedmont. It was built
on the site of Terentius Varro's camp, after that commander.
had conquered the Salassi, as has been already mentioned, and
was intended to protect the great military road in this quarter,
which led over the Graian Alps. Augustus, for this purpose,
established here three thousand Praetorians as a military colony,
and gave the place its appellation, partly in allusion to his own
name, and partly to the description of soldiers settled here. It
was situate on the Duria Major, along the banks of which the
road in question ran. 2. Eporedia, to the southeast, on the
same river and road, now Ivrea, a corruption of Eporegia or
Iporeia, the name of the place in the Middle Ages. It was an
old Celtic town, and; according to Pliny, the name was derived
from a Celtic term meaning " good tamers of horses." A Roman colony was established here, in obedience to the injunctions of the Sibylline Books, as Pliny likewise tells us, and the
settlement subsequently became a municipium.
2. Cities among the Libicii and Lcevi.
1. Vercellae, the capital of the Libicii, now Vercelli, on the
River Sessltes, now the Sessia. It was a municipium, and a
strong and important place. Strabo mentions some gold mines
in its vicinity. Vercelle lay on the road already referred to
above, and another Roman road came in here from Mediolanum
and met the former. 2. Novaria, about ten miles northeast of
Vercellae, now Novara. It was situate on a river of the same
name, now the Gogna, and was a municipal town. The famous battle of the Ticinus, in which Hannibal defeated the
Romans, is supposed to have been fought to the south of this
place, not far from the little town of Vigevano. 3. Laumellum,
southeast of Vercella, now Lomello. 4. Ticinum, to the northeast of the preceding, now Pavia, on the River Ticinus, now
the Tessino. It was founded, as Pliny reports, by the Lavi
and Marici, and was at first their chief city, on which account
we have given it a place here. Being situated, however, on
the left bank of theeriver, it became subsequently, though less
correctly, ranked among the cities of the Insubres. Tacitus




278             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
first makes mention of it, and states that Augustus advanced
as far as Ticinum, in the depth of winter, to meet the corpse
of Drusus, the rather of Germanicus, and escorted it thence to
Rome. Under the Lombard kings this city assumed the name
of Papia, which in process of time has been changed to Pavia.
3. Cities among the Insibres.
1. Mediolanum, now Milan, the capital of the Insubres, and,
according to Livy, founded by that tribe on their first arrival
in Italy, and named by them from a place so called in the territory of the IEdui in Gaul. This city is mentioned for the
first time in history by Polybius in his account of the Gallic
wars. The capture of it by Cneius Scipio and Marcellus was
followed by the submission of the Insubres. In Strabo's time
it was considered a most flourishing city. But its splendor
seems to have been the greatest in the time of Ausonius, who
assigns it the rank of the sixth town in the Roman empire.
Ausonius flourished under the Emperor Gratian, toward the
end of the fourth century. Procopius, who wrote a century
and a half later, speaks of Mediolanum as one of the first cities
of the west, and inferior to Rome alone in population and extent. At a later period, the frequent inroads of the barbarians
of the north compelled the emperors to select, as a place of
arms, some city nearer the scene of action than Rome was.
The choice fell on Mediolanum. Here, too, Maximian resigned
the imperial diadem, and the famous St. Ambrose established
the see of a bishopric. Although subsequently plundered by
Attila, it soon revived, and under Odoacer became the imperial
residence. In its vicinity was fought the battle which put
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, in possession of Italy. It
met with its downfall, however, when, having sided with Belisarius, and having been besieged by the Goths and Burgundians, it was taken by the latter, and 300,000 of the inhabitants,
according to Procopius, were put to the sword. It never, after
this severe blow, regained its former eminence, although in the
Middle Ages it became a flourishing and opulent place of trade.
About ten miles to the northwest of Mediolanum were the Ra-u
dii Campi, plains rendered memorable by the bloody defeat of
the Cimbri by Marius. A small place in this vicinity, called
Rho, still preserves some trace of the ancient appellation.




ITALIA.                   279
2. Laus Pompeia, to the southeast of the preceding, founded,
as Pliny reports, by the Boii, and subsequently colonized by
Pompeius Strabo, father of Pompey the Great. It was at one
time next in importance to Mediolanum. Its position answers
to that of the modern Lodi Vecchio, which having been destroyed by the Milanese, the Emperor Barbarossa caused the
new town of Lodi to be built at the distance of three miles
from the ancient site. 3. Acerrce, to the southeast, on the Addua, and answering now to Gherra. It is mentioned by Polybius in the Gallic wvars as a strong and important place. This
city must not be mistaken for one of the same name in Campania. 4. Pons Aureoli, to the northeast of Mediolanum, and
between it and Berg6mum. It obtained its name from the defeat of the usurper Aureolus, and is now Pontiruolo. 5. Bergomum, to the northeast of the preceding, now Bergamo. It
belonged to the Insubrian Orobii, whom Pliny, on the authority
of Cato, distinguishes as a separate tribe, but whose territory
is naturally included in that of the Insubres. 6. Comum, to
the northwest of the preceding, and at the southern extremity
of the Lacus Larius. It is now Como, and gives its name also
to the lake. Comum, like Bergomum, was a city of the Insubrian Orobii, and was first colonized by Pompeius Strabo, then
by Cornelius Scipio, and finally by Julius Cmsar. This lastmentioned commander sent thither six thousand colonists,
among whom were five hundred distinguished Greek families.
The place now took the name of Novum Comum. Pliny the
younger was born here.
4. Cities among the Cenomani.
1. Brixia, the capital of the Cenomani, to the northeast of
Mediolanum, and now called Brescia. It became a Roman colony, but at what time we are not informed. It was also a municipium. Brixia lay on the little river Gartia, now Garza, while
in front of it, to the west, flowed the River Mela. According to
some, it was a city of Tuscan origin, and taken from that nation
by the Cenomani. Catullus calls Brixia the " mother of Verona," because, though much smaller than the latter, it was nevertheless the chief city of the Cenomani. 2. Cremona, to the
southwest of the preceding, on the Padus or Po, and retaining
its ancient name. It is supposed to have been of Gallic origin,




280             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
but it first acquired importance as a Roman colony, being, together with Placentia, the earliest establishment which the Romans formed in Cisalpine Gaul. This colony was settled, according to Polybius, the year before Hannibal invaded Italy.
The Romans retained the place during the whole of the second
Punic war, though it suffered so much during its continuance,
and from the subsequent attacks of the Gauls, that it was found
necessary to recruit its population by a fresh supply of colonists.
The place flourished after this until the civil wars which ensued after the death of Caesar. Cremona unfortunately espoused the cause of Brutus, and thus incurred the vengeance
of the victorious party, its territory being divided among the
veteran soldiers of Augustus. It soon, however, recovered from
this blow, and in Strabo's time was accounted one of the most
considerable cities in the north of Italy. The civil wars which
arose during the reigns of Otho and Vitellius were the source
of much severer affliction to this city than any former evil, as
the fate of the empire was more than once decided between
large contending armies in its immediate vicinity. After the
defeat of Vitellius's party by the troops of Vespasian, it was
entered by the latter, and exposed to all the horrid excesses of
a licentious and brutal soldiery. The conflagration' of the place
lasted four days. The indignation which this event excited
throughout Italy compelled Vespasian to use every effort to
raise Cremona from its ruins, and reassemble and aid the unfortunate inhabitants.
3. Bedridcum, to the east of the preceding, and between it
and Mantua. It is supposed by D'Anville to correspond to the
modern Cividale, on the right side of the Ollius, now Oglio.
This place was famous for two battles fought near it within a
month of each other. In the first Otho was defeated by the generals of Vitellius, and in the second Vitellius by Vespasian.
Tacitus and Suetonius call the name of this place Betriacum,
and Pliny, Juvenal, and later writers Bebriacum. 4. Mlantua, to
the northeast of the preceding, situate on an island in the River
Mincius, now the Mincio, and still retaining its former name.
It is supposed to date its foundation long before the arrival of
the Gauls in Italy, and to have been of Tuscan origin.. According to a fabulous legend, the place derived its name from
the prophetess MIanto, the daughter of Tiresias. Its vicinity




ITALIA.                    281
to Cremona was an unhappy circumstance for Mantua, since,
as the territory of the former city was not found sufficient to
contain the veteran soldiers of Augustus, among whom it had
been divided, the deficiency was supplied from the lands of
Mantua; a loss most feelingly deplored by Virgil, though he
was fortunate enough to escape himself from the effects of this
oppressive measure. 5. Andes, a village a short distance to the
southeast of Mantua. It is celebrated as having been the birthplace of Virgil, and is supposed to be now represented by Pietola, a small place in this quarter. 6. Jerona, to the north-.
east of Mantua, and situate on the Athesis, now the Adige.
It still retains its ancient name. It appears to have belonged
originally to the Euganei, and to have been their chief city, and
to have been wrested from them by the Cenomani. In this
way we may reconcile Pliny, who ascribes its foundation to the
Raeti and Euganei, with Livy, who as positively attributes it
to the Cenomani. Under the Roman dominion it became a
large and flourishing city, and it was also celebrated as having
been the birth-place of Catullus, and of Pliny the elder, or the
naturalist.
5. Cities among the Anamani.
1. Yeleia, on the right bank of the River Nura, and about
eighteen miles south of Pla6entia, near the present hamlets of
Mancinesso and Liveia. 2. Florentia, to the northeast of the
preceding, now Fiorenzuola. 3. Fidentia, to the southeast of
the preceding, near which Sylla's party gained a victory over
Carbo. From the martyrdom of St. Donninus, Fidentia has
obtained the name of Borgo San Donnino. 4. Placentia, at
the confluence of the Trebia and Padus, and now Piacenza.
It was colonized by the Romans at the same time with Cremona, to serve as a bulwark against the Gauls, and to oppose
the threatened approach of Hannibal. Its utility in this latter
respect was fully proved by its affording a secure retreat to the
Roman general after the battle of the Ticinus, and more especially after the disaster of the Trebia. Placentia withstood all
the efforts of the victorious Hannibal, and also, eleven years
after, all the attempts which his brother Hasdrubal made to obtain possession of it. After the termination, however, of the
second Punic war, it was taken and burned by the Gauls, head



282             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ed by Hamilcar the Carthaginian, but it was soon after restored
by the consul Valerius. Placentia had acquired the rights of
a municipium in Cicero's time. Strabo speaks of it as a celebrated town, and Tacitus extols it as a powerful and opulent
colony.
6. Cities among the Boii.
1. Parma, still retaining its name, situate on the River
Parma, to the southeast of Placentia. It was founded by the
Etrurians, taken from them by the Boii, and finally conquered
and colonized by the Romans. From Cicero, it may be inferred
that Parma was attached to the party of Antony, and suffered
from the adverse faction in the civil wars. It was probably recolonized under Augustus, as some inscriptions give it the title
of Colonia Julia Augusta Parma. From Martial we learn
that its wool was highly prized. 2. Tanetum, about eight miles
east of Parma. It is mentioned by Polybius and Livy as the
place to which L. Manlius, the Roman preetor, retired, after an
unsuccessful action with the Boii, at the beginning of the second Punic war. It is now Taneto. 3. Forum Lepidi, or, as
it was more commonly called, Regium Lepidum, southeast of
Tanetum, and now Reggio. In Cicero we find it sometimes
under the name of Regium Lepidi, or simply Regium. It
probably owes its origin to M. LEmilius Lepidus, who laid down
the famous road called Via zEmilia, on which so many of the
places we are now considering were situated. But when, or
from what cause, it took the surname of Regium, is unknown.
It is further noticed in history as having witnessed the death
of the elder Brutus, by order of Pompey, to whom he had surrendered himself. In the vicinity was a plain, in which an annual fair of cattle was held; it was known by the name of the
Macri Campi.
4. Mautina, to the southeast of the preceding, and situate on
the  inEmilian Way, above referred to. It is now Modena. Mutina was a Roman colony, and is often mentioned in history,
and more particularly during the stormy period which intervened between the death of Caesar and the accession of Augustus. It sustained a severe siege against the troops of Antony, A.U.C. 709. D. Brutus, who defended the place, being
appriosd of the approach of the consuls Iirtius and Pansa by




ITALIA.                    283
means of carrier-pigeons, made an obstinate defence. Antony,
being finally defeated by those generals and Octavianus, was
forced to raise the siege. Mutina was also famous for its wool.
5. Forum Gallorum, to the southeast of the preceding, on the;Emilian Way, and rendered remarkable by some important actions which were fought there during the siege of Mutina. It is
now Castel Franco. 6. Bononia, to the southeast of the preceding, on the same Roman road, and now Bologna. This city
was of Tuscan origin, and existed under the name of Felsina
prior to the invasion of the Boii. It appears to have been the
principal seat of the Etrurians to the north of the Apennines.
Bononia received a Roman colony, A.U.C. 653, B.C. 100. Frequent mention is made of this city in the civil wars. As it had
suffered considerably during this period, it was restored and
aggrandized by Augustus after the battle of Actium, and continued to rank high among the great cities of Italy. 7. FOrum
Cornelii, to the southeast, founded by Sylla, and now Imola.
8. Fdvei-tia, ten miles further on the same road, and now Faenza. It was situate between the rivers Sinnus and Anemo,
now,the Senno and Amone, and was noted in the history of
the civil wars for the defeat of Carbo's party by that of Sylla.
9. Cesena, the last town of Cisalpine Gaul on the AEmilian
Way, and situate close to the River Sapis, now the Savio
It retains its ancient name.
There are only a few places noticed by ancient writers to the
right or left of the IEmilian Way. Among the former we may
point out, 1. Brixellum, northeast of Parma, and now Bresello.
It was a Roman colony, and was rendered remarkable by the
death of Otho after his defeat at Bedriacum. 2. Nuceria, ten
miles to the northeast of the preceding, and now Luzzara.
Among the places on the left of the XEmilian Way, we may
mention, 1. Forum Nlvum, about ten miles to the southwest of
Parma, and near the source of the Tdrus, now the Taro. Its
modern name is Fornovo. An old inscription gives it the title
of anmunicipium. 2. Aquinum, south of /lutina, now Acquario. In the vicinity of this place was the vast forest called
Litana Silva, extending along the base of the Apennines, from
the sources of the Scultenna, now the Panaro, to those of the
Secia or Gabellus, now the Secchio. In this forest a Roman
army was destroyed by the Gauls.




284             ANCIENT- GEOGRAPHY.
7. Cities among the Ling6nes.
1. Ravenna, on the coast, a short distance below the Spinetic mouth of the Po. It was a place of very early origin, founded, according to Strabo, by some Thessalians, by whom probably are meant Pelasgi. This place was situate in the midst
of marshes, and built entirely on piles, and a communication
was established between the different parts of the town by
means of bridges and boats. The noxious air, however, arising
from the marshes was so purified by the tide, that Ravenna
was considered by the Romans a very healthy place, in proof
of which they sent gladiators thither to be trained and exercised.
Ravenna became the great naval station of the Romans on the
Adriatic, and continued to flourish as such long after the reign
of Augustus, and after the fall of the western empire it became
the seat of a separate government, called the exarchate of Ravenna. It was badly supplied, however, with water. The
modern name is the same as the ancient. The old port was
situate at the mouth of the River Bedesis, now the Ronco; but
Augustus caused a new one to be constructed at the entrance
of the little river Candianus into the sea, about three miles
from the city. The new harbor thenceforth became the station
for the fleet, and received the name of Portus Classis, an appellation traces of which still subsist in that of the Basilica of
Sant' Apollinare in Classe. 2. Spina, near the entrance of the
Spinetic mouth of the Po into the Adriatic, and from which
this mouth derived its name. It was a very ancient, and at
one time very flourishing city, and very powerful at sea. The
place appears to have been of Pelasgic origin. Its inhabitants
were finally overpowered by the neighboring barbarians, and
compelled to leave it. In Strabo's time it was a mere village.
Spina is supposed to have stood not far from the present village
of Argenta, and on the left bank of the Po di Primaro. 3. Forum Allieni, to the northwest, supposed to have occupied the
site of the present Ferrara, this modern name being thought
to be a corruption from Forum Allieni, contracted to Forum
Arrii.




ITALiA.                        285
3. VENETIA, INCLUDING THE CARNI AND HISTRIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Venetia took its name from the Veneti, its inhabitants, who
appear to have been a branch of the great Sclavonic race, and
to have been connected with the Venedi of the north of Europe,
a supposition rendered extremely probable by their having the
amber trade among them, since this trade may be taken as a
proof of a communication between them and the natives trading
in amber on the shores of the Baltic.
II. It was bounded on the north by the territory of the Euganei and by    cetia; on the west and south by Gallia Cisalpina; on the east by the Mare Hadriaticum; while on the
northeast, the River Tilavemptus, now the Tagliamento, separated it from the Carni.
III. On the invasion of Italy in the fifth century by the Huns
and their king Attila, and the general desolation that every
where ensued, great numbers of the people who lived near the
Adriatic took shelter in the islands in this quarter, where now
stands the city of Venice.  The arrival of fresh hordes of barbarians in Italy increased their population, until a commercial
state was formed, which gradually rose to power and opulence.
OBS. There was a popular belief among the'ancients, adopted by the poets,
that the Veneti were sprung from a colony of Heneti, a people of Paphlagonia
in Asia Minor, enumerated by Homer among the allies of Priam. The forces
sent by that people to the aid of the Trojan monarch are said to have followed
Antenor, at the close of the war, over into Europe, and in the course of their
wanderings to have arrived at the head of the Adriatic, where they finally settled, after having expelled the Euganei, the original inhabitants of the country.
The fable probably arose from some accidental resemblance between the name
of the Homeric Antenor and that of the chieftain who led the Veneti into this
quarter.
IV. The Carni were situated to the northeast of the Veneti,
and were an Alpine race. They occupied a considerable extent
of territory, and their existence is still to be traged in the modern appellation of Carniola. Their name itself is undoubtedly
of Celtic origin, and refers to their having been originally occupants of rugged and mountainous regions. (Compare page
159, 6.)
V. The country of Histria, now Istria, was originally a part
of Illyricum. Little is known respecting the origin of the people; but an early geographer, Scymnus of Chios, describes them




286               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
as a nation of Thracian race.   They were in all probability,
however, of Illyrian origin. This country was subjugated by
the Romans, B.C. 178. Augustus subsequently included it
within the limits of Italy, and the little river Arsia, now the
Arsa, henceforth became the boundary.
OBS. The Greeks, in their fanciful mythology, derived the name of Histna
from the Hister or Ister, now the Danube. They conveyed the Argonauts from
the Euxine into the Ister, and then, by an unheard-of communication between
this river and the Adriatic, launched their heroes into the waters of the latter.
They made, also, a band of Colchians, sent in pursuit of Jason and Medea, to
have settled in Histria after a fruitless search. This strange error no longer
prevailed in Strabo's time, when Histria had become known to the Romans, and
formed part of their empire.
(B.) CITIES OF VENETIA.
1. Hadria or Hatria, in the southeastern angle of the country, near the River Tartarus, now Tartaro, and not far from
its mouth. According to the earliest accounts it was near the
shores of a bay, but in the subsequent alterations of this part
of the coast, the bay, if it ever existed, has long been filled up.
Hadria was a place of very ancient origin, and must have been
at one time powerful and great, since it was enabled to transmit its name to the sea on which it stood. It still existed when
Strabo wrote, but as an insignificant place. At present it is a
small town, still bearing the name of Hadria or Adria, and upward of eighteen miles distant from the coast. 2. Patdvium,
to the northwest of the preceding, between the Medudcus Major and Minor, but nearer the latter.    It is now Padua, in
Italian Padova. This city, from its celebrity and importance,
may be regarded as the capital of Venetia. It was fabled to
have been founded by Antenor and his followers, the Heneti, to
whom we have already referred. Strabo speaks of Patavium
as the greatest and most flourishing city in the north of Italy,
and states that it counted in his time five hundred Roman
knights among its citizens, and could at one period send twenty thousand men into the field. Its manufactures of cloth and
woollen stuffs were renowned throughout Italy. This city was
the birth-place of the historian Livy, and also of Thrasea Patus, who was put to death by Nero. 3. Altinum, now Altino,
to the northeast of the preceding, on the River Silis, now
the Sile, near its mouth. It was celebrated for its wool, and
seems in other respects, also, to have been a place of note, since




ITALIA.                    287
Martial compares the appearance of its shores, lined with villas,
to that of Baiae. L. Antoninus Verus, the emperor, died here
of apoplexy. 4. Concordia, to the northeast, and still retaining its ancient name. Beyond this place is the River Tilavemptus, now the Tagliamento, which separated the territories
of the Veneti from those of the Carni.
Retracing our steps toward the southern borders of Venetia,
in order to examine the interior and remaining part of the country, we come to, 1. Ateste, to the north of the Athesis, and on
the River Eretenus, now the Retone. It is now Este, a name
well known in modern history as the title of one of the most
ancient and illustrious families in Europe. 2. Vicentia, to the
northwest, sometimes called Vicetia, and now Vicenza. Tacitus speaks of it as a municipium.
(C.) CITIES OF THE CARNI.
1. Aquileia, a celebrated city, between the Alsa, now Ausa,
and the Natiso, now Natisone, and about seven miles from the
sea. It was of Gallic origin, but was soon taken possession of
by the Romans, and made a Latin colony. Polybius speaks of
valuable gold mines in its neighborhood; and Eustathius derives the name from the Latin aquila," an eagle," the legionary standard of the Romans who were first stationed there
Aquileia soon became the chief bulwark of Italy on its northeastern frontier. In Strabo's time it was the great emporium
of all the trade of Italy with the nations of Illyria and Pannonia; these were furnished with wine, oil, and salt provisions
in exchange for slaves, cattle, and hides. It was sacked and
razed to the ground by Attila. The modern city of Aquileia
stands near the ruins of the ancient place. 2. Tergeste, to the
east of the preceding, and now Trieste. It gave name to the
Sinus Tergestinus, now Gulf of Trieste. It suffered severely,
on one occasion, from an invasion of the Illyrian Iapydes, whom
Augustus had some difficulty in subduing. 3. Forum Julii, to
the northeast, now Friuli. It is said to have been founded by
Jtlius Caesar, and became a place of importance. It must not
be confounded with Forum Julii, now Frejus, in Gallia Narbonensis. 4. Julium Carnicum, on the northwestern confines
of the Carni, and a place of great importance, having been
foutlded, probably by Julius Caesar, to guard the frontier against
the depredations of the Gauls and Illyrians. It is now Zuglio.




288              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(D.) CITIES OF HISTRIA.
1..Egkda, at the mouth of the River Formio, now the Risano, in a small island named /Egidis. It was subsequently
Justinopolis, and is now Capo d'Istria.  2. Parentium, to the
south, with a sea-port. It is now Parenzo.  3. Pola, to the
south, and near the Promontorizum Polaticum. It still retains
its ancient name. Pola was a city of very early origin, and
became eventually a Roman colony, when it took the name of
Pietas Julia.  From the splendid remains of antiquity which
are yet to be seen here, it is evident that it was a city of no
little note. The amphitheatre is still in a very perfect state of
preservation, and is scarcely exceeded in magnificence by the
Coliseum at Rome. Off the promontory, in a southeast direction, are certain islands called Absyrtides, as tradition reported,
from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea. The principal one was
named Abs6rus, and had a town likewise called so. These islands, four in number, are known in modern geography as Cherso, Osero, Ferosina, and Chao.
4. ETRURIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE Romans called this country Etruria or Tuscia; the
Greeks, Tvppqvia or Tvpartvia.
II. In the age of their greatness, the Tuscans, having subdued the ancient Tyrrhenians and the Umbrians, dwelt not only
in Etruria proper, but also in the country about the Po; and
they had even carried their conquests as far as Campania in
central Italy.
III. Etruria, however, considered as a Roman province, was
bounded on the north by Liguria and Gallia Cisalpina, being
separated from the former by the River Macra, now the Magra, and from the latter by the Apennines; on the east by Urnbria, the boundary line being formed by the Apennines and the
Tiber; on the west and southwest by the Mare Inferumr; and
on the southeast by the country of the Sabines and by Latium.
Oss. 1. The probable origin of the Etrurian nation has already been given
(page 249, seq.). The Etrurians or Tuscans appear to have been a race coming
in from the north, and to have conquered the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians, the previous possessors of the country. The idea of a Lydian immigration into Italy,
though a favorite one with the ancient writers, and though advocated by many
modern scholars, is n w regarded as untenable.




ITALIA.                           289l
2. In speaking of this nation, the terms Etrurian and Tuscan are indiscriminately used. In the age of Cato, the country was commonly called Etruria, and
the people themselves Tusci. In later times, Etrusci grew to be more usual in
books. The old name, however, must have continued the prevalent one in the
mouth of the people. Hence, under the later emperos;- arose the name of
Tuscia for the country, which till then had not been used in writing; and
hence, since the Middle Ages, we have Toscana, and, for the people themselves,
Toscani. The terms Etruria and Etrusci presuppose the simple form Etruri;
and this we may hold to be the name by which the Italians originally designated
the conquerors of the Tyrrhenians, although the name both of Tuscans and
Etruscans was no less foreign to the people than that of Tyrrhenians. They
called themselves, as already remarked, Rasena. The name Tyrrhenian arose
from the Greeks' confounding the conquered race with their conquerors. (Niebuhr, Rom. Hist., vol. i., p. 112, Cambr. transl.)
(B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ETRURIA.
I. HAD the Tuscans formed a regular and effective plan for securing their
conquests and strengthening their confederacies, they would have been the
masters of Italy, and perhaps of the world, instead of the Romans. But their
enterprises, after a certain period, seem to have been desultory, and their measures ill combined and ineffectual. A fatal want of internal union, which prevailed among their states, rendered them an easy prey to their Gallic invaders
in the north of Italy, and to the hardy Samnites in Campania, while Rome was
aiming at the very centre of their power and existence those persevering and
systematic attacks, which, with her, were never known to fail.
II. Etruria was standing at the summit of her greatness about the end of the
third century of Rome. In the next she lost the whole country beyond the
Apennines, with Veii and Capena. A great part of the fifth century was spent
in an irresolute struggle, which Volsinii alone maintained with any fortitude,
against the prevailing destiny of Rome.
III. After this the nation enjoyed two centuries of inglorious repose. Even
during the second Punic war, her prosperity was so far restored that Arretium
of itself was able to support Scipio's African expedition with arms and corn for
the whole army, and with pay for the crew of a fleet. In this state of ease
they felt no desire for the Roman franchise, which bound such as shared it to
the performance of hard duties. When they received it, however, they displayed no less courage than the Marsians and Samnites in maintaining its full
honor. But fortune dealt hardly with them, and, after the final success of Sylla's party, many of their cities were razed to the ground for having sided with
Marius.
IV. The form of government in Etruria, prior to its subjugation by the Romans, was the aristocratic. The ruling class formed both an aristocracy and
priesthood, and effectually prevented the mind of the nation from expanding
itself in its natural growth. The great body of the people appear to have formed
a class of clients or dependents on the ruling caste.
V. Wherever the Etrurians settled we find them to have erected twelve con%derate cities, which were, in fact, so many aristocratic republics, having a
magistrate presiding over each termed Lucumo. Thus we have twelve confederate cities in Etruria proper, twelve in the northern Etrurian territory
around the Po, and twelve, again, in Campanian Etruria. Niebuhr, Miller, and
other modern scholars have endeavored to determine wl:at these cities were,
but only with partial success. In Etruria around the Po. many of these cities
T




290               ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY.
seem to have been utterly destroyed at the irruption of the Gauls. Of those in
Etruria proper, Niebuhr gives the following ten: 1. Care or Agylla; 2. Tarquinii; 3. Fopulonium; 4. Volaterrce; 5. Arretium; 6. Perusia; 7. Clusium; 8. Rusella; 9. Veii; 10. Volsinii. The two that are wanting can not be fixed with
any certainty. Capena, Cosa, and Fesulce may appear to have a claim.
(C.) CITIES OF ETRURIA.
BEGINNING frorn the Macra, we come to, 1. Luna, on the coast,
celebrated for its beautiful and capacious harbor (now the Gulf
of Spezzia) as early as the days of Ennius. Before the new
division under Augustus, Luna had formed part of Liguria.
It was also famous for its white marbles, which now take their
name from the neighboring town of Carrara.     Pliny speaks
of the wine and cheese made in its vicinity; the latter were
sometimes so large as to weigh one thousand pounds. The
ruins of the place now bear the name of Luni.  2. Lucus Feronice, to the southeast, at first merely a place sacred to the
worship of Feronia, but afterward raised to the dignity of a
colonial town.  3. Luca, now called Lucca, to the southeast,
on the River Ausar, now the Serchio. To this place Tiberius
Gracchus retired after the unfortunate campaign on the Trebia; and Caesar frequently made his head-quarters here during his command in the two Gauls. 4. Pisce or Pisa, as it
is sometimes written, to the southwest, and still retaining its
situation and name, Pisa, as a modern city of great celebrity.
We learn from Strabo that anciently it stood at the junction:f the Ausar and. Arnus, but now they flow into the sea by
separate channels. Pisa was fabled to have been founded by
some of the followers of Nestor in their wanderings after the
fall of Troy. Its harbor was much frequented by the Romans
in their eooxnmunication with Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain.  In
Strabo's til-o it v'as still a very flourishing commercial place,
from the E-^npplies of timber which it furnished to the fleets, and
the ccsti mnarbles which the neighboring quarries afforded.
Diverging now into the interior, we come to, 1. Pistoria or
Pistoriurn to the northeast of Luca, and at the foot of the
Apennines.   It is now Pistoia. In the vicinity of this place
Catiline was defeated and slain by the forces of the republic.
2. Fcesulae, about twenty-five miles to the southeast of the preceding, now Fiesole. Catiline made this the chief hold of his
party in Etruria. It was still a flourishing city in the time of




ITALIA.                    291
Pliny; at present a small village marks its site. 3. Florentia,
a short distance to the southwest, on the Arnus, now Florence
(in Italian, Firenze). Although so celebrated in modern times
as the capital of Tuscany, it has no pretensions to a foundation
of great antiquity, as we find no mention made of it before the
time of Caesar, by whom, as Frontinus informs us, it was colonized, unless we make Fluentia identical with it, which is
mentioned by Florus as having suffered severely, along with
many other cities, in the civil wars of Sylla and Marius.
Returning to the coast, we come to, 1. Portus Herciclis Liburni or Labronis, now Leg/horn (in Italian, Livorno). 2. Vada
Voldterrdna, about eighteen miles further on. It was the harbor of Volaterre, and was situate at the mouth of the River
Ccecina, which still retains its name. The modern name of
the place is Vada. 3. Voldterrce, fifteen miles inland, and on
the right bank of the River Coecina. Its Etrurian name, as it
appears on numerous coins, was Velathri. The modern name
is Volterra. This was one of the twelve principal cities of Etruria, and its massive remains at the present day bear full testimony to its ancient splendor and importance. 4. Sena Julia,
to the east of Volaterrae, and now well known as Sienna. The
more ancient name was Sena, to which Julia was subsequently added, to distinguish it'from Sena Gallica in Umbria. This
designation Julia implies a colony founded by Julius or Augustus Caesar. 5. Vetul, nii. tu the southwest of the preceding, and
one of the most powerful and distinguished of the twelve great
cities of Etruria. D'Anville errs in placing it on the coast,
since Strabo expressly says that Populonium was the only one
of the Etrurian cities that was close to the sea. A more careful examination of the vicinity has proved that the ruins of Vetulonii exist in a forest still called Selva di Vetleta.
6. Populonium, to the west of the preceding, and on the
coast, being the only one of the Etrurian cities that was close
to the sea. In other instances the Etrurians were prevented from founding any large cities immediately on the coast,
both by the want of commodious harbors, and their fear of pirates. Populonium, however, possessed great advantages in
this respect, since it was both secure and of great extent, and
from its proximity to the island of Ilva, now Elba, so rich in
metals, of the highest importance; since 1ihe produco of the




292             ANCIENT. GEOGRA.PHY.
mines seems never to have been prepared for uso in the isand
itself, but to have been always sent over to Populonium far
that purpose. The city itself was placed on a lofty cstiil that
ran out into the sea, and formed the Promontorium Populoniam; the harbor was at the bottom of the cliff, and here, too,
was the naval arsenal of the Etrurians. The Etrurian name
of the city, as appears from numerous coins, was Pupluna.
During the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, Populonium sustained a siege about the same time with Volaterrse, in which
it suffered so much that nothing but the temples and a few
houses were preserved. Its ruins are about three miles north
of Piombino. 7. Rusellce, to the southeast of the preceding,
and one of the twelve great cities. Some remarkable ruins,
with the name of Roselle, point to its site. It is mentioned
more than once by Livy in the course of The wars with Etruria. In the second Punic war we read of its furnishing timber,
especially fir, for the Roman fleets. Near it was the Lacus
Prilis, already mentioned (page 264), and also the River Unlhro, now Ombrone, whose name Pliny regards as indicative of
the Umbrians having once been in possession of Etruria.
8. Portus Telamo, below the River Umbro, and a place of
great antiquity, since its foundation was even fabulously ascribed to the Argonauts. It was probably a Pelasgic city. The
modern name is Telamone. The country between Telamo and
-the Lake Prilis was memorable for the defeat of a body of invading Gauls by the Romans under the consuls C. Atilius and
Paulus IEmilius. This battle, which was fought seven years
before the commencement of the second Punic war, is commonly called the battle of Telamo, but the scene of action was nearer the Lake Prilis, and on the right bank of the Umbro. 9. Cosa,
called, also, Cossa and Cossce, to the southeast, on a peninsula,
in the midst of which rose the Mons Argentarius. The peninsula formed two bays; the one on the north answers to the
modern Stagno d' Orbitello, and in it the tunny fishery was
carried on. Hence the name given to the harbor on this side,
Portus ad Cetarias. The bay on the other side formed the
Portus Cossanus, called, also, Portus Herculis, and now Porto,Ercole. Cosa was a very ancient Etrurian city, and founded, according to Pliny, by the Volcientes. It was remarkable
for its fidelity to the Romans during the second Punic war, and




ITALIA.                     2 9
we hear of it frequently in the naval history of Rorm as one
of the principal stations for her fleets on the lower sea. It ie
supposed to have been destroyed by the Goths under Alaric.
Its ruins are at a little distance from the modern town of A*sedonia, which is now itself in ruins.
10. Grdviscce, southeast of the preceding, and a sea-port. It
appears to have been a town of some note, and probably served
as a harbor to the city of Tarquinii. The low and marshy situation in which it was built seems to have rendered this town
always unhealthy. It occupied probably the site of the Torrm
di Corneto, not Corneto itself, which is too far inland. 11. Tarquinii, some distance inland, in a northeast direction from Gravisca, and on the left bank of the Marta. This was one of
the most powerful cities of Etruria, and celebrated in historyfor its early connection with Rome, since from it the Tarqumi
family came to that capital. The foundation of this city is ascribed by Strabo to Tarchon, the famous Etrurian chief, who iS
so often introduced by the poets. Tarquinii was foremost among
the cities of Etruria to assist Tarquinius Superbus in re-establishing himself at Rome. Its wars with that city and final subjugation are related by Livy. At a later period it became a colony and municipium. The country around was, as it still i,
productive in flax, and hence we read of this city's having furnished sails for the Roman fleet. The Tuscan name was probably Tarcuna.  The site of the place is still indicated by some
ruins near Corneto, still called Turchina. 12. Centum Celle,
to the south, now Civita Vecchia. This place, which obtain6
ed its name from a large number of hamlets that were scat,
tered around, first assumed importance when Trajan caused a
magnificent harbor to be constructed here, P;iich Piiny the
younger has described in one of his letters. T'wic i:Tl:ense piers
formed the port, which was semicircular, whvile a.n island, constructed artificially of immense masses of rocik, brought there
by vessels and sunk in the sea, served as a break-water in frontf
and supported a pharos. The coast being very destitute of
shelter for vessels of burden, this work of Trajan's was a great
national benefit, and hence the place was better known by the
name of Trajani Portus. Centum Celle having been destroyed
by the Saracens, the inhabitants built another town some distance inland; but afterward they reoccupied the site of "the




294             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
old city," which from that circumstance obtained its present
name.
13. Pyrgi or Pyrgos, to the southeast, a place of great antiquity, and, as its name imports, of Grecian, that is, Pelasgic
origin. This city contained a temple of the goddess Lucina,
celebrated for its riches until plundered by Dionysius of Syracuse, not -long after the capture of Rome by the Gauls. The
modern town of Santa Severa occupies its place. 14. Ccere,
a short distance to the northeast of the preceding, and called by
the Greek writers Agylla ("AyvAa). It was one of the most
considerable cities of Etruria, and enjoyed a great reputation for
justice among the Greeks; for, though very powerful and able
to send out fleets and armies, it always abstained from piracy,
to which the other Etrurian cities were so much addicted.
When Rome was taken by the Gauls, the inhabitants of Caere
rendered that city an important service by receiving their
priests and vestals, and by defeating the Gauls on their return
through the Sabine country, on which occasion they are said
to have recovered the gold with which Rome had purchased its
liberation. In return for this, the Romans declared the Carites
public guests of Rome, and admitted them to a portion of the
rights enjoyed by her citizens. In Strabo's time this celebrated city was reduced to insignificance, being less frequented
than the mineral waters (Aquce Cctretecnce, now Bagni di
Sasso) in its vicinity. The remains of Caere are still to be
traced about four miles from the sea, on a spot now known by
the name of Cervetcri. 15. Lorium, to the southeast, a small
place, answering now to Castel Guido. In a villa here Antoninus Pius was brought up, and here, also, he died. 16. Portus Augusti. An account of this will be given when we come
to speak of Ostia in Latium.
In order to describe what remains of Etruria, we will now
proceed to the northeast portion of that province, situated near
the sources of the Arnus, and will then examine the interior
of the country. Pursuing this course, we come to, 1. ArrCtiumn,
now Arezzo, a town of considerable celebrity, and generally
considered as one of the principal states of Etruria. It became
a place of great importance to the Romans, as a defence against
the incursions of the Cisalpine Gauls, and we also find the consul Flaminius posted there to defend the entrance of Etruria




ITALIA.                    295
against Hannibal. Caesar did not neglect to make himself
master of this important place when he had seized upon Ariminum, but sent Antony with five cohorts to occupy it. Arretium was much celebrated for its terra cotta vases, which
Pliny ranks with those of Samos and Saguntum. Besides the
Arretium which we are here considering, and which for that reason was sometimes called Arretium Vetus, there were two other
Roman colonies of the same name in this quarter, distinguished
as Arretium Julium and Arretium Fidens. The former of
these answers to the modern Subliano, the latter to Castiglione. 2. Cortona, about fourteen miles south of Arretium.
This was one of the most ancient cities of Italy, and of Pelasgic origin, as is plainly shown by the massy remains of its ancient walls. It was fabled by some to have been founded by
Corythus, father of Dardanus, and hence is called by Virgil the
city of Corythus. It was subsequently colonized by the Romans. The modern name is the same as the ancient. 3. Perusia, somewhat to the southeast of the Lacus Trasymenus,
and on the site of the modern city of Pertugia. This place was
scarcely inferior in antiquity to Cortona, and equal to it in dignity and rank among the confederated cities of Etruria. It
was also of Pelasgic origin. Perusia became a Roman colony
about B.C. 44, and some years after sustained a memorable
siege, in which Antony held out against Octavianus Caesar, but
was at length forced by famine to surrender. On this occasion
many of the Perusians were put to death, and the city was accidentally burned; a madman having set fire to his own house,
a general conflagration ensued. Perusia, however, appears to
have risen from its ruins, and under the Emperor Justinian we
find it maintaining a successful siege against the Goths.
4. Clusium, to the west of Perusia, and nearly on a line
with it, now Chiusi. This was the capital of Porsena, the
early enemy of Rome. Its first name is said to have been Ca;
mers, and it appeals to have belonged originally to the Umbrian
Camertes, from whom it was taken by the Tuscans. The siege
of Clusium by the Gauls, and the provocation which they received from the Roman ambassadors, led to the capture of
Rome itself. It was near this place that Porsena erected for
himself the splendid mausoleum, of which Pliny has transmitted to us a description on the authority of Varro, but which




296             ANCIENT GEO GRAPHY.
bears no small appearance of fiction, since, had so stupendous
a work actually existed, some traces of it would have remained,
not merely in Pliny's day, but even in the present age. Pliny
makes a distinction between Clusium Vetus and Novum. A
village named Chiusi, at the foot of the Apennines, north of
Arretium, is supposed to represent the latter. 5. Volsinii or
Volsinium, on the northern shore of the Lacus Volszniensis,
and now Bolsena, ranked among the cities of Etruria. It subsequently became so enervated by its wealth and luxury as to
allow its slaves to overthrow the constitution, and give way to
the most unbridled licentiousness and excess, till at last the citizens were forced to seek protection from Rome. The rebels
were then speedily reduced and brought to condign punishment.
As a proof of the ancient prosperity of Volsinii, it is stated by
Pliny that it possessed, when taken by the Romans, no less than
two thousand statues. From Livy we learn that the Etruscan goddess Nortia was worshipped here, and that it was customary to mark the years by fixing nails in her temple. Volsinii at a later period was noted as the birth-place of Sejanus.
6. Volci, an ancient city, which appears to have stood between the preceding and Tarquinii. Its site is still known
by the name of Piano di Volci. The inhabitants are called
Volcientes. 7. Fanum Voltumnce, to the southeast of Volsinii,
and celebrated as the spot where the general assembly of the
Etrurian nation was held on solemn occasions. 8. Trossulunm,
a little to the southeast, of which some remains have been discovered at a place which bears the name of Trosso. Pliny tells
us that this town having been taken by cavalry alone, the Roman horse from that circumstance obtained the name of Trossuli. 9. Fescennium, east of the Lacus Ciminus, and near the
Tiber, and occupying the site of the modern Galese. It is noted
in the annals of Roman poetry for the nuptial songs called Carmina Fescennina, to which, according to Festus, it gave its
name. 10. Faleriumn, or, as it is more generally called, Falerii, to the southwest of the preceding, and the capital of the
ancient Falisci. It appears to have occupied the positionl of
the present Civita Castellana. The wars of the Falisci wvith
Rome are chiefly detailed in the fifth book of Livy, where the
celebrated story of Camilius and the schoolmaster of Falerii ocours. It was not, however, till the third year after the first Pu



ITALIA.                    297
nic war that this people were finally reduced. The waters of
the Faliscan territory were supposed, like those of the Clitumnus, to have the peculiar property of communicating a white
color to cattle. 11. Capena, to the southeast of Mons Soracte,
and often mentioned in the early annals of Rome. It stood at
a place now called Civitucula.
12. Veii, to the east of Caere, and eleven miles from Rome,
to which it was at one time a formidable rival. It sustained
many long wars against the Romans, and was at last taken by
Camillus after a siege of ten years. Its opulence ii attested
by the account which historians have given of the booty that
Camillus obtained for his army at its fall. In fertility of soil and
extent of territory, Veii had greatly the advantage over its rival. After the capture of Rome by the Gauls, an effort was
made to transfer the seat of Roman power to Veii. It failed,
and from this time we scarcely hear of the latter city. Veii
became a Roman colony under Julius Caesar, who divided its
lands among his soldiers; but in the civil wars which ensued
after his death, it was nearly destroyed, and left in a most desolate state. It rose, however, from its ruins, and was raised to
municipal rank, probably under Tiberius; and we find it existing even under the Emperors Constantine and Theodosian.
Its site answers to the spot now called l'Isola Farnese.
ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF ETRURIA.
1. Urgos, called by Rutilius Gorgon, and lying in a southwest direction from Portus Herculis Liburni or Leghorn. It is
now Gorgona. 2. Mcenaria, near the preceding, now 3Ieloria.
3. Ilva, now Elba, called by the Greeks AEthalia, distant
about ten miles from Populonium, the nearest point of the Tuscan coast. Ilva was early celebrated for its rich iron mines,
but by whom they were first discovered and worked is uncertain, as they are said to exhibit the marks of labors carried on
for an incalculable time. It is probable, however, that the
Phcenicians were the first to make known the mineral riches
of this island, and that it was from them the Pelasgic Tyrrheni
learned to estimate its value, which may have held out to them
no small inducement for settling on a coast otherwise deficient
in natural advantages. It is to this latter people that we may
trace the name of  Ethalia, since it appears that Lemnos,




298             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
which they once inhabited, bore, according to the testimony of
Polybius, the same appellation in more ancient times. The
Portus Argous, in this island, fabled to have derived its name
from the expedition of the Argonauts, is now Porto Feraio.
4. Planasia, a small island between Ilva and Corsica, called
Planasia by Varro, and Planaria by Pliny. It is now Pia.
nosa. Tacitus relates that Augustus banished to this island
his nephew Agrippa, and that the young prince was put to death
here on the accession of Tiberius. 5. Capraria, northwest of
Ilva, and now Capraia. It derived its name from the goats
(caprce) with which it abounded. Hence, also, the Greeks
called it /Egilon (AiyltAv, from ait). 6. Igilium, opposite the
harbor of Cosa, and now Giglio. Close to it lay another small
island, called Dianium or Artem~sium, now Gianuti.
5. UMBRIA AND PICENUM.
UIMBRIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Umbria takes its name from the Umbri, its inhabitants,
who were called by the Greeks'Op6ptcoi, a word which this latter people supposed to be derived from tLa6pof, " a rain-storm,"
under the singular idea that they were a people saved from a
universal deluge.
II. It is certain, however, that the Umbrians were originally
a great and powerful nation, and they are regarded by some
of the ancients as the earliest inhabitants of the country. Their
territory at first, too, was very extensive, embracing probably
not only what afterward was called Umbria, but also the southern part of Etruria, and the district occupied by the Sabines
between the Apennines and the Tiber; while, on the northeast
slope of the Apennines, toward the upper sea and the Po, they
are said to have spread as conquerors, to have expelled the Liburnians and the Siculi from the coast, and to have maintained
an obstinate contest with the Tuscans for the territory on the
lower Po.
III. But Umbria, in the sense in which we are here to consider it, that is, under the limits which were assigned to it in
the reign of Augustus, was very different from all this, and
was bounded as follows: On the north by the Rubicon, which
separated it from Gallia Cisalpina; on the east by the Adri.




ITALIA.                           299
atic and Picenum; on the west by the Apennines and Tiber,
dividing it from Etruria: and on the south by the country of
the Sabines.
(B.) SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF UMBRIA.
I. THE Umbri come into collision with the Etruscans, who defeat them, and
take three hundred of their towns.
II. Not long after this a new foe appears, equally formidable to both the conquerors and the conquered, namely, the Galli Senones, the same who afterward
took Rome. The Tuscans are vanquished and driven from the country around
the Po, while the Umbri also feel the force of the invasion, and are driven from
the shores of the Adriatic into the mountains. The Senones take possession
of the coast.
III. The decisive struggle between the Etruscans and Romans now takes
place, and we find the Camerles Umbri, a tribe on the borders of Etruria, offering to assist the Romans in their attack upon their Etruscan neighbors. It is
worthy of remark, that the emissary sent by the Romans, and who is acquainted
with the Etruscan language, is enabled thereby to converse with the Camertes
Umbri, and to enter into negotiations with them.
IV. After the overthrow of the Etrus,-ans, the Umbri make, when it is too
late, an effort to,heck the advalnce of the conquering Romans. The consul
Decius. who has atdvanced into i'!t:uria, relrtces his steps to oppose the new
enemy, and the other cits;i s'Snhiiis, who has been fighting against the Samnites, is ordered by the senate to march round against the Umbri, who are assembled at Mevanlia.
V. This joint movement damps the spirit of the Umbri, and their forces disperse to their several strolngholds. Only one tribe, called Malerina, keeps the
field, and attacks the cara;, of Fabins, but are defeated, B.C. 307. In a short
time most of the comrnmunities of IUrbri submit to Rome without much resist
ance; Sarsina, however, is one of the last to yield. The Senones are totally ex
tirpated abot twenty-five years afterward, and Umbria again reaches to the sea
(C.) CITIES OF UMBRIA.
ADVANCING from the Rubicon along the coast, we come to,
1. Ariminum, now Rimini, situate between the rivers Arima.
nus and Aprusa, now the Marecchia and Ausa, and the former
of which is said to have given name to the city. After the expulsion of the Senones, Ariminum, originally an Umbrian city,
received a Roman colony. From this period it was considered
a most important place, and the key of Italy on the eastern
coast; and hence we generally find a Roman army stationed
there during the Gallic and Punic wars. How much importance Caesar attached to the possession of this place is shown by
his seizing it immediately after crossing the Rubicon. That it
continued to flourish under Augustus is evident from the remains of several great works erected there during the reign of
that emperor.    2. Pisaurum, now Pesaro, to the southeast, at




3O00            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the mouth of the River Pisaurus, now the Foglia. It became
a Roman colony B.C. 185, and it appears to have been colonized
again either by Julius or Augustus Caesar, since inscriptions
give it the title of Colonia Julia. The climate of this place
appears from Catullus to have been in bad repute. 3. Sena
Gallica, now Sinigaglia, on the right bank of the River Misus, now the Nigola. The surname Gallica was added to distinguish this place from the Etruscan Sena. It was colonized
by the Romans after they had expelled, or, rather, exterminated
the Senones. During the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, Sena,
which sided with Marius, was taken and sacked by Pompey.
We must now return to the north of Umbria, in order to describe the interior of the province. Advancing, then, from this
point, we come to, 1. Sarsmna, on the left bank of the Sapis,
now the Savio, and which still retains its ancient name. It
was the birth-plaoe of Plautus, the comic writer. Sarsina must
have been at one time a place of note, since it gave name to a
numerous Umbrian tribe. From ancient inscriptions we learn
that it was a municipium. The Sapinian tribe seem to have
occupied the mountainous district near the source of the river
whence they derived their appellation, and to have dwelt not far
from Sarsina. Some vestige of the ancient name may still be
traced in that of a place now called Sapigno. 2. Pitinum Pisaurense, to the southeast, so called from its situation on the
River Pisaurus. It is now probably Piagnino. 3. Urbinumn
Mletaurense, to the southeast, now Urbania, and on the right
bank of the River Metaurus, whence it derived the latter part of
its name. 4. Urbinum Hortense, to the northeast, on the opposite bank of the same river, now Urbino, the capital of a duchy
of the same name. Here Valens, general of Vitellius, was put
to death. In the mountains to the south of this place is the
defile anciently called Petra Pertusa or Intercisa, now il Furlo
or Sasso Forato, from its being cut through the rock which
here closes in to the edge of the River Cantiano. This work
must doubtless be referred to the construction of the Flaminian
Way. 5. Forum Sempronii,.nearer the sea, and on the left
bank of the Metaurus. It answers to the modern Fossonbrone. Thea battle between Hasdrubal and the Roman generals must have taken place here, according to the best opinions.
A hill between Fossombrone and the pass of Furlo is still called
Monte d'Asdrubale.




ITALIA.                    301
6. Sentinum, to the southwest, and nearer the Apennines,
now Sentina. It was celebrated. for the battle fought in its
vicinity between the Romans and the Gauls leagued with the
Samnites, B.C. 295, in which the consul Decius so nobly devoted himself for his country. Sentinum is also noted for having held out against the second triumvirate. 7. Camerinum,
to the southeast, on the borders of Picenum, and now Camerino. This place must not be confounded with the Camerte of
Strabo, to which we will presently come.
We must now turn to that part of Umbria which lies to the
west of the central chain of the Apennines. Beginning with
the sources of the Tiber, we come to, 1. Tifernum Tiberinurm,
so called because near the sources of that stream. It was situate on the left bank, and answers to the modern Citta di Castello. Tifernum is chiefly known from the circumstance of its
being situated near the villa of the younger Pliny. 2. Iguviurm, to the south of Tifernum, and at the foot of the main chain
of the Apennines. It is now Eugubbio, or more commonly
Gubbio,. and was a municipium. This city has acquired great
celebrity in modern times from the discovery, in its vicinity,
A.D. 1440, of several bronze tablets covered with inscriptions,
some of which are in Umbrian, others in Latin characters. To
the northeast of this place was the temple of Jupiter Apenninus, to whieh the Umbrians resorted to sacrifice, as the Etruscans did to the temple of Voltumna, and the Latins to the Alban Moumt. Some vestiges of this temple are still to be seen
on Monte Sant' Ubaldo. 3. Nuceria, to the southeast of the
precediing now Nocera. It is noticed by Strabo for its manufactureof wooden vessels. 4. Mevania, to the southwest of
the preceding, now Bevag-na. This place was famous for its
wide-extended plains and rich pastures. Here Vitellius took
post, as if determined to make a last stand for the empire
against Vespasian, but soon after withdrew his forces. This
city is also memorable as having been the birth-place of Propertius.
5. Spoletium, to the southeast of the preceding, now Spoleto.
It ranked high among the municipal towns of Italy, but it suffered severely from proscription in the civil wars of Marius and
Sylla. 6. Carsiulz, southwest of the preceding, and noticed by
Strabo among the principal towns of Umbria. The ancient




302             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
site still retains the name of Carsoli. 7. Tider, about eight
miles to the northwest of Carsuke, and now Todi. It was one
of the most important cities of Umbria, and famous for the worship of Mars. Its situation on a lofty hill rendered it a place
of great strength. 8. Ameria, south of the preceding, and near
the Tiber. It is now Amelia. This was one of the most con.
siderable and ancient cities of Umbria, and, according to Cato,
could boast of an origin greatly anterior to that of Rome. It
was a municipium, and became a colony under Augustus.
9. Camerte, between Ameria and Tuder, and now Camarata.
It was the chief city of the Camertes, a powerful Umbrian
tribe.
10. Interamna, east of Ameria, and so called because situated between two branches of the River Nar. Hence, also, the
inhabitants were known as the Interamnates Nartes, to distinguish them from those of Interamna on the Liris, in New Latium. It is now the well-known town of Terni. This place
suffered severely in the civil wars between Marius and Sylla.
The adjacent plains, which were watered by the Nar, are represented as the most productive in Italy, and Pliny assures us
that the meadows were cut four times in the year. 11. Narnia, lower down on the Nar, more anciently called Nequinum,
and now Narni. This change of name took place after the
town had been taken by the Romans, when it received a colony with the view of serving as a point of defence against the
Umbri. It was situate on a lofty hill, at the foot of which
flowed the Nar. A bridge was raised over this river by Augustus, the arch of which was said to be the highest known.
12. Ocriculum, to the south of the preceding, and a few miles
from the left bank of the Tiber. It is now Otricoli. This
place suffered severely during the Social War, but was still, in
Strabo's time, a city of note.
PICENU M.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Picenum took its name from the Picentes, its inhabitants,
who were a colony of Sabines; and these colonists are said to
have assumed the appellation of Picentes because led in their
migration from home by a woodpecker (picus), the sacred bird
of Mamers or Mars. According, however, to the legend of the




ITALIA.                    303
poets, they were so called from the ancient Picus, the mythic
leader of their colony.
II. Picenum was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the
east by the Adriatic, on the west by Umbria and the country
of the Sabines, and on the south by the country of the Sabines and that of the Vestini. This arrangement comprehends
under the name of Picenum the territory of the Prcetutii, who
were, in fact, however, a different people from the Picentes, but
are here, for convenience' sake, ranked along with them under
the same general head.
III. Picenum was regarded as one of the most fertile parts
of Italy. The produce of its fruit-trees was particularly esteemed.
IV. The Sabines were not apparently the first or sole possessors of this country. The Siculi, Liburni, and Umbri, according to Pliny; the Pelasgi, as Silius Italicus reports; and
the Tyrrheni, according to Strabo, all at different periods formed settlements in this part of Italy.
V. The conquest of Picenum cost the Romans but little
trouble. It was effected about 269 B.C., not long after the expedition of Pyrrhus into Italy, when 360,000 men, as Pliny
assures us, submitted to the Roman authorities.
(B.) CITIES OF PICENUM.
BEGINNING at the north, from the River AEsis, now the Esino.
which separates Picenum, in this quarter, from Umbria, we
come to, 1. Anc6na, on the coast, and still retaining its ancient
name. This place, in Greek'Ayic/v, was so called from the
angular or bended form of the promontory on which it was
placed, the term dyiwv, in Greek, conveying the general idea of
any thing curved or bent. This city is said to have been of
Doric origin, and to have been founded by some Syracusans,
who were flying from the tyranny of Dionysius. It is spoken
of by Livy as a naval station of some importance in the wars
of Rome with the Illyrians, and it continued to be a port of
consequence even in Trajan's time, if we may judge froml the
works erected by that emperor, which are still extant there.
According to Strabo, its territory was very fertile in corn and
wine. Its purple dye is celebrated by Silius Italicas. 2. Niu.
mana, about ten miles further on, an old settlement of the Sic



304             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
uli, now HEumana. 3. Potentia, on a river of the same name,
now the Potenza. The remains of the city are close to the
monastery of St. Maria di Potenza. 4. Firmum, to the southeast, and about five miles from the sea. It was colonized toward the beginning of the first Punic war. The modern town
of Fermo answers to it, and is yet a place of some note in the
M2arca d'Ancona. The Castellum Firmdnorumn is now the
Porto di'Fermo. 5. Cupra, to the south, termed Maritima,
to distinguish it from another city known by the name of Cupra Montana. It was an establishment of the Etruscans, who
are said to have worshipped Juno here under the name of Cupra. The temple of the goddess was restored by Hadrian
The site of this place is commonly fixed at Marano. 6. Castrum  Truentinum, at the mouth of the Truentus, now the
Tronto, is said by Pliny to have been the only remaining establishment of the Liburni, a well-known Illyrian nation, in
Italy. According to the same writer, they once occupied a considerable extent of territory on this coast.
Returning to the north of Picenum, in order to examine the
interior of this province, we come to, 1. Cupra Montana, on the
left bank of the 2Esis, and so named from its situation among
the mountains. It was near the present Masaccio d'Iesi.
2. Cingiulum, a few miles to the south, now Cingolo. It surrendered to Caesar, though Labienus, then a great partisan of
Pompey's, had fortified it at his own expense. 3. Auximum,
to the northeast, and near Ancona, now Osimo. From its
strength this was one of the most important places in Picenum.
In the time of Procopius it was a large city, and the capital of
the province. 4. Asculum Picenum, southwest of Firmum, and
now Ascoli. It was called Picenum, to distinguish it from Asclumn in Apulia. This city is described by Strabo as a place
of great strength, being surrounded by walls and inaccessible
heights. It was the first city to declare against the Romans
when the social war broke out, and its example was followed
by the whole of Picenum. In the course of that war it maintained a long and memorable siege against Pompey, who finally,
however, compelled the place to surrender. Cicero mentions
Barrus, a native of Asculum, as a most eloquent orator.




ITAI IA.                        305
P R  T U T II.
OF this people scarcely any thing is known except that they were of a different race from the Picentes. Their territory was fertile, and celebrated for its
wine; and we know that Hannibal availed himself of these resources when he
led his army through this district, on his way to the south, after his campaign
in Etruria, as did Claudius Nero when proceeding by forced marches to join
his colleague who was opposed to Hasdrubal.
Few places of any consequence occur in this territory. We may mention,
however, 1. Interamna Pratutidna, so called to distinguish it from three other
cities of the name of Interamna, in other parts of Italy. Its modern name is
Teramo, situated between the small rivers Viziola and Turdino. 2. Beregra, to
the southwest of the preceding, on the River Vomanus, now the Vomano. Its
particular site is undetermined. 3. Hadria, between the Vomanus and Matrinus,
and at some distance from the sea. Its emporium was at the mouth of the
latter river. Hadria is now Atri, and its harbor just mentioned, Porto d'Atri.
This city is supposed to have been settled by a colony from the Hadria to the
north of the Po. It seems generally allowed that the Emperor Hadrian was descended from a family originally of this city.
6. SABINI, IEQUI, MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, AND MARRUCINI.
SABINI.
(A.) NAAME, HISTOR.Y, TERRITORY, &C.
1. THE Sabines appear to be generally considered as one of
the most ancient indigenous tribes of Italy, and one of the few
who preserved their race pure and unmixed. Their name, according to Cato, was derived from the god Sabus, an aboriginal
deity, whose son Sancus was the Sabine Hercules.
II. The Sabines were a mountaineer race originally, and appear to have been at first a very inconsiderable community, as
may be seen from the accounts of Cato, who, as quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, reported that the first Sabines settled
in an obscure place named Testrina, in the vicinity of Amiternum.    As their numbers increased, however, they rapidly extended themselves in every direction, expelling the Aborigines
from the district o~ Redte, and thence sending out numerous
colonies into Picenum, Samnium, and the several petty nations
who are named at the head of this section.
III. The early connection of the Sabines with Rome, which
was yet in its infancy, naturally forms the most interesting
epoch in their history, but is too well known to require further
notice here. Their entire subjugation was effected by Curius
Dentatus, who carried fire and desolation beyond the sources
of the Nar and Velinus, to the very shores of the Adriatic.
IV. The country of the Sabines, in the reign of Augustus,
U




306             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
was bounded as follows: on the north by Umbria, on the south
by Latium, on the west by Umbria and Etruria, and on the
east by the country of the Vestini, lMarrucini, &c.
V. The Romans had no general name comprehending the
Sabines along with the tribes supposed to have issued from
them. The latter, as well the Marsi and Peligni as the Samnites and Lucanians, they termed Sabellians.
(B.) CITIES OF THE SABINI.
BEGINNING at the junction of the Tiber and Anio, we come
to, 1. Antemnce, a city of the Aborigines, and more ancient than
Rome itself. From its position it belonged strictly to Latium,
being on the left bank of the Anio; but that it afterward formed
part of the Sabine confederacy is evident from its being one of
the first cities which resented the outrage offered to that nation
by the rape of their women. Its name, according to Varro, indicated its position, " Antemnce, quod ante amnem, qui influit
in Tiberim."  2. Fidence, to the northeast, near the Tiber, and
between four and five miles from Rome. It was at first a colony of Alba. Romulus conquered the place soon after the death
of Tatius. After many attempts to emancipate itself, it was
stormed by the dictator Mamercus ZEmilius. After this it remained for a long time a deserted place, but it subsequently
rose again to the rank of a municipium. A terrible disaster
occurred here in the reign of Tiberius, by the fall of a wooden
amphitheatre during a show of gladiators, by which accident
fifty thousand persons, as Tacitus reports, or twenty thousand,
according to Suetonius, were killed or wounded. The site of
this city is near Castel Giubileo. 3. Crustumerium, about two
miles further on, in the same direction. This was also a colony of Alba, and a place of great antiquity  The Crustumini
were vanquished by Romulus, and a settlement was formed in
their territory, the fertility of which is extolled by more than
one writer. The ruins of Crustumerium still exist in a place
called Marcigliano Vecchio. 4. Nomentum, northeast of the
preceding, on the site now called by a corruption of the ancient
name, Lamentana Vecchia. This also was a colony of Alba,
and therefore originally, perhaps, a Latin city, but from its position it is generally attributed to the Sabines. Nomentum, in
the time of Propertius, was but an insignificant place, yet its




ITALIA.                     307
territory was long celebrated for the produce of its vineyards,
and hence, in the time of Seneca and Pliny, we find that land
in this district was sold for enormous sums. The former had
an estate in the vicinity of this town, which was his favorite
retreat. The wine of Nomentum is praised bv Athenmus and
Martial.
5. Corniculum, to the east of the preceding, and giving name
to the Corniculani Colles. It was the reputed birth-place of
Servius Tullius. 6. Eretum, north of Nomentum, and the
scene of many contests between the Romans and Sabines
leagued with the Etruscans. In Strabo's time it was little
more than a village. Its site is at Rimane, about two and a
half miles beyond Monte Ritondo. 7. Regillum, near Eretum,
and the native place of Atta Clausus, or Appius Claudius, the
founder of the Claudian family at Rome. 8. Cures, to the north
of Eretum, and celebrated as the birth-place of Numa Pompilius. It was a place of great antiquity, and though Virgil and
Ovid apply the term parvi to it, yet it must have been a populous and powerful city to play the part it did in early Roman
history. The site of Cures, according to the best opinion, is to
be fixed at Correse, a little town on a river of the same name.
9. Mandela, a village to the southeast of Cures, near which
stood Horace's Sabine villa. It is now Bardela. The Mons
Lucret~lis, in its vicinity, is now Monte Libretti, and the little
River Digentia is now the Licenza.
10. Recte, to the northeast of Cures, and now Rieti. In antiquity of origin this city was equalled by few places in Italy,
since, at the most remote period to which the records of that
country extend, it is reported to have been the first seat of the
Umbri, the same, probably, with the Aborigines of Italy. Reate
was particularly celebrated for its breed of mules, and still more
so for its asses, which sometimes fetched the enormous price of
60,000 sesterces, about $2320. The valley of the Velinus, in
which this city was situated, was so delightful as to merit the
appellation of Tempe, and from their dewy freshness its mead.
ows obtained the name of Rosei Campi. 11. Cutilice, to the
east of Reate, and also an aboriginal city of great antiquity
It was celebrated for its lake, now Pozzo Ratignano, and the
floating island on its surface. This lake was further distinguished by the appellation of the umbilicus, or centre of Italy,




308                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
a fact which D'Anville found to be correct, when referred to
the breadth of Italy. Cutilia was also famed for its mineral
waters, which failed, however, in their effect on Vespasian, who
is stated to have died here.
12. Testrina, to the southeast of Cutilia, and the first seat
of/ the Sabine nation.     Its site is near Civita Tommassa.
13. Amiternum, northeast of Testrina, near the modern St.
Vittorino, and a place of great antiquity. It was the birthplace of Sallust.   14. Nursia, in the northeastern corner of the
Sabine territory, at the foot of the central chain of the Apennines, and near the sources of the Nar.     It was noted for the
coldness of its atmosphere, and is now Norcia.      Polla Vespasia, the mother of Vespasian, was born here, and we are told
that the family of that emperor had possessions at a place called
Vespasice, between Nursia and Spoletum, a memorial of which
is still preserved in the name of Monte Vespio.
AEQUI, OR;EQUICOLI.
(A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &C.
I. THIE Equi, or 2Equicoli, as they are sometimes called, are more distinguished in history for their early and incessant hostility to Rome, than for the
extent of their territory or their numbers. Livy himself expresses his surprise
that a nation apparently so small and insignificant should have had a population
adequate to the calls of a constant and harassing warfare, which it carried oin
against that city for so many years.
II. But it is plain, from the narrow limits which must be assigned to this
people, that their contests with Rome can not be viewed in the light of a regular
war, but as a succession of marauding expeditions, made by these hardy but
lawless mountaineers on the territory of that city, and which could only be effectually checked by the most entire and rigid subjection.
III. The AEqui are to be placed next to the Sabines, and between them and
the Marsi, chiefly in the upper valley of the Anio, which separated them from
the Latins. They are said at one time to have been possessed of forty towns;
but many of these must certainly have been little more than villages, and some,
also, were subsequently included within the boundaries of Latium.
(B.) CITIES OF THE XEQUI.
1. Varia, lying close to the Digentia of Horace.     In Strabo
(v., p. 238) it is probable that we ought to read Varia for Valeria. The modern name of this place is Vicovaro. 2. Carseoli,
about fifteen miles to the northeast of Varia.      It was apparently a town of some consequence, and became a Roman colony after the AEqui were finally reduced.     It appears to have
been sometimes selected by the senate as a residence for illu7s



ITALIA.                           309
trious state captives and hostages. The ruins of this place are
still called Celle di Carsoli. 3. Treba, near the sources of the
Anio, now Trevi. This town appears to have been further distinguished by the name of Augusta, but after what emperor it
was so called is uncertain. A little lower down, the Anio forms
three small lakes, called Simbrivii Lacus, or Simbruina Stagna.   The coolness and salutary virtue of these waters are commended by Celsus.       4. SublaquEum, in the vicinity of the
lakes just mentioned, and now Subiaco. The ancient name
has reference to its situation with regard to these lakes.         It
may be collected from Tacitus (Ann., xiv., 22) that this place
was at first only a villa of Nero's.
MARS I.
(A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &C.
I. T HE Marsi, though inconsiderable as a people, are entitled to honorable notice in the page of history for their hardihood and warlike spirit. Their origin,
like that of many other Italian tribes, is enveloped in obscurity and fiction. A
certain Phrygian, named Marsyas, is said to have been the founder of their race;
by others, Marsus, the son of Circe. (Plin., vii., 2.) Hence they are repressented as enchanters, whose potent spells deprived the viper of its venom, or
cured the hurt which it might have caused.
II. We do not find the Marsi engaged in war with Rome before B.C. 308,
when they are defeated and forced to sue for peace. Six years after they again
assume a hostile character, but with as little success: they are beaten in the
field, and lose several of their fortresses. From this time we find them the
firm and staunch allies of Rome, and contributing by their valor to her triumphs,
till her haughty and domineering spirit compels them and most of the other
neighboring communities to seek by force of arms for that redress of their
wrongs, and that concession of privileges and immunities, which was not to be
granted to their entreaties. In the war which ensues, and which, from this
circumstance, is called the Marsic as well as the Social War, the Marsi are the
first to take the field under their leader Silus Pompacdius, B.C. 90. Though
often defeated, the perseverance of the allies is at last crowned with success
by the grant of those immunities which they may be said to have extorted from
the Roman senate.
III. The Marsi were contiguous to the Sabines and Vestini on the north, to
the zEqui and Hernici on the west and southwest, to the Samnites on the south.
and to the Peligni on the east.
(B.) CITIES OF THE MARSI.
1. Marruviuumor Marrubium, the capital of the race, on the
eastern shore of Lacus Fucinus.      Its site is to be fixed at San
Benedetto, where inscriptions have been discovered.         The ancient name appears to contain the same root with that of the
Marsi. No Roman colony was ever established here. 2. Alba




310                ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
Fucentia, a short distance northwest of the lake.      From   its
strong.nd secluded situation, it appears to have been selected
by the Roman senate as a fit place of residence for captives
of rank and consequence, as well as for notorious offenders.
Among the former we may mention Syphax, who was afterward removed to Tibur; Perseus, king of Macedonia, and his
son Alexander; and Bituitus, king of the Arverni. At the time
of Caesar's invasion of his country, we find Alba adhering to
the cause of Pompey, and subsequently repelling the attack
of Antony, on which occasion it obtained a warm and eloquent
culogium from Cicero. Its ruins are still considerable, and
stand about a mile from the modern city of Alba.       3. Lucus,
on the western shore of the lake.    Its inhabitants are called
Lucenses by Pliny, and it appears to answer to the modern
Luco. Near this place was the celebrated Lucus Angiitia, or
grove of Angitia, the sister of Circe, and to which allusion is
made by Virgil.
PELIGNI.
(A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &C.
I. THE Peligni were not distinguished from the other tribes by which they
were surrounded either by their political importance or the extent of their country; but they derive some consideration in history from the circumstance of
their chief city having been selected by the allies in the Social War as the seat
of their new empire. Had their plans succeeded, and had Rome fallen beneath
the effects of their coalition, Corfinium would have become the capital of Italy,
and perhaps of the world.
II. The Peligni, according to Festus, were of Illyrian origin; but Ovid, who
ought to be considered good authority in what regards his own countrymen, expressly informs us that they were descended from the Sabines.
III. The small and mountainous country of the Peligni seems to have been
noted for the coldness of its climate, as well as for the abundance of its springs
and streams. Some portion of it, however, was fertile. It was separated from
the Marsi on the west by the Apennines; to the north it bordered on the Vestini; to the east and southeast on the Marrucini, Frentdni, and part of Samnium
(B.) CITIES OF THE PELIGNI.
1. Corfinium, the chief city of the race, in a northeast direction from Marruvium.     It has already been referred to as having been selected by the allies in the Social War for the seat of
their empire. Corfinium assumed, in consequence, the name
of Italica, as standing at the head of the new Italian confederacy.  It enjoyed the honor, however, of being styled the capital of Italy only for a short period, since it appears to have se



ITALIA.                          311
ceded from the coalition before the conclusion of the war.      In
later times we find it regarded as one of the most important
cities of this part of Italy, and one which Cmsar was most anxious to secure in his enterprise against the liberties of his country. It surrendered to him after a short defence. The church
of St. Pelino, about three miles from the town of Popoli, stands
on the site of this ancient city. 2. Sulmo, about seven miles
southeast of the preceding, and now Sulmone. It is worthy of
note as having been the birth-place of Ovid. We learn from
Florus that this city was exposed to all the vengeance of Sylla
for having been attached to the cause of Marius. It was not,
however, destroyed by him, since we soon after read of its falling into the hands of Csesar together with Corfinium.       3. Super Equum, to the northwest of the preceding, and, according
to Frontinus, a Roman colony. It occupied the site of the
modern Castel Vecchio Subequo.
VESTINI.
(A.) HISTORY, SITUATION, &C.
I. THE Vestini occupied an equally mountainous, though more extensive tract
of country than the other communities which have just been described. To the
east they reached as far as the sea, being separated from the Pratutii on the
north by the River Matrinus, and from the Marrucini on the southeast by the
River Aternus. On the west they bordered on the Sabines, and on the south on
the Peligni.
II. Their history offers no circumstances of peculiar interest. They are first
introduced to our notice in the Roman annals as the allies of the Samnites, a
people to whom they are said not to have been inferior in valor; but, being
separately attacked by the Romans, the Vestini, too weak to make any effectual
resistance, were soon compelled to submit.
III. This people, however, were not behindhand with their neighbors in
taking up arms on the breaking out of the Social War; they bore an active part
in the exertions and perils of that fierce and sanguinary contest, and received
their share of the rights and privileges which, on its termination, were granted
to the confederates.
(B.) CITIES OF THE VESTINI.
1. Pinna, now    Civita di Penna, the chief city of the race.
We are informed by Valerius Maximus that it sustained a siege
against the Roman army during the Social War. It subsequently became a Roman colony. Vitruvius notices some waters in
its vicinity as being nitrous.  2. Angulus, nearer the coast, now
Civita Sant' Angelo.      3. Cutina and Cingilia, two fortresses
among the Apennines. The former is now Aquana, and the




312               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
latter Aretenga.   A little to the north of Aquana, and on the
borders of Picenum, rises Monte Corno, called, also, il Gran
Sasso, and considered to be the highest summit of the Apennines.  It is probably the ancient Mons Cunarus.      4. Aufina, between the two last-mentioned places, and now Ofena.
5. Aternum, at the mouth of the Aternus, now Pescara, which
is also the modern name of the place.  6. Pitinum, near the upper part of the Aternus, and now Torre di Pitino. It was situate near a little stream called Novanus by Pliny, which was
noted for being dry in winter, but plentifully supplied in summer.
MARRUCINI.
I. THE Marrucini appear to have occupied a narrow strip of territory on the
right bank of the River Aternus, between the Vestini to the north, and the Frentani to the south, and between the Peligni and the sea toward the west and east.
Cato derived their origin from the Marsi. Like that people, they were accounted a hardy and warlike race, and with them they made common cause against.the tyranny of Rome.
II. The only city of note which we find ascribed to the Marrucini is Tetce,
now Chieti, on the right bank of the Aternus or Pescara. But all accounts agree
in describing it as a large and populous place, and worthy of being ranked among
the distinguished cities of Italy. The family of Asinius Pollio came originally
from this place.
7. ROMA.
I. Roma, now Rome, the celebrated capital of Italy and the
Roman empire, was situate on the left, or eastern bank of the
Tiber, below the junction of the Anio with that stream. From
the time of Servius Tullius it extended over seven hills, and
hence was often called Urbs Septicollis. From the time of
Aurelian, however, it spread over ten hills, the names of which
are Mons Palatinus, Capitolinus, COlius, Aventinus, Quirinalis, Viminalis, Esquilinus, Janiculus, Collis Hortulorum or
Mons Pincius, and Vaticanus.
II. Of these hills the Palatine was in the centre, while the
Collis Hortulorum and the Aventine were the farthest on the
north and south. Before the Collis Hortulorum was included
in the city, the furthest hill on the north was the Quirinal.
On the Palatine Hill was the celebrated Palatine Library, and
the splendid temple of Apollo with which it was connected.
Here, too, was the residence of Augustus, subsequently enlarged into the magnificent palace of the Cesars. The Palatine was the first inhabited part of Rome, and is sometimes put,




ITALIA.                    313
by way of eminence, for the whole city. On the Capitoline
Hill stood the Capitol, or Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Between this hill and the Palatine was the Forum, from which
three ascents led to the Capitol: 1st. By the one hundred steps
of the Tarpeian Rock, which was probably on the steepest side,
where it overhangs the Tiber; 2d. By the Clivus Capitolinus,
which began from the Arch of Tiberius and the Temple of Saturn; and 3d. By the Clivus Asyli, which, being less steep than
the other two, was on that account the road by which the triumphant generals were borne in their cars to the Capitol. The
Aventine Hill is said to have been the place where Remus took
his station when consulting the auspices with a view to founding Rome; and here, too, he is reported to have been interred.
The public granaries of the city stood in this quarter, on account of the convenience, probably, which the river here afforded of landing the wheat which came from Sicily, Egypt, and
Africa. On the Esquiline Hill were the splendid palace and
gardens of Maecenas. Julius Casar was born in that part of
the Suburra which was situate on this hill. The Campus Es.
quilinus, a plot of ground without the walls of the city, was in
the early days of Rome a burial-place for the lower orders, and
the Esquiline Hill seems to have been considered unhealthy till
this mode of burial was discontinued. The Janiculan Hill,
across the Tiber, was said to have derived its name from a city
founded on its summit by Janus. Tradition reported that Numa was buried at the foot of this hill. The Vatican Hill was
supposed to have been so called from the Latin word vates, or
vaticinium, as having once been the seat of Etruscan divination.
III. Ancient Rome had in the time of Pliny thirty-seven
gates, exclusive of seven which no longer existed. In the time
of Frontinus, nine aqueducts supplied it with water, a number
which later authors magnify to fourteen, and even twenty; but
th3 latter statement, which rest on the authority of Aurelius
Victor alone, is probably exaggerated, and it is supposed that
he counted the different channels or conduits of water, not the
aquedfcts themselves.
IV. Lipsius, a modern scholar, has computed the population
of ancient Rome and the environs at four millions. This, however, should rather be called a conjecture than a calculation
upon any solid data. A later and more careful computation




314                 ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
makes the inhabitants of the fourteen regions, or wards, into
which Rome was divided by Augustus, to have amounted to
1,104,000.    The true number, probably, was near 2,000,000
TOPOGRAPIIY OF        ROME     MORE    IN  DETAIL.
1. THE EARLY CITY.
I. IT is universally admitted that the part of Rome which was said to have
been built by Romulus occupied the Palatine Hill, on the eastern side of the
Tiber. This town on the hill was, according to the custom of the Latins, built
in a square form, whence it was called Roma Quadrata. It is more than probable, however, that this same city existed long before the so-called era of Romulus; in other words, that no such individual as Romulus ever existed, and
that the place said to have been founded by him on the Palatine Hill was a Siculian, Pelasgian, or Tyrrhenian town, whose name was Roma. This will serve
to explain the statement that Rome was a Tyrrhenian city, as well as the foreign
appearance of the name Roma itself.
II. As early as the so-called time of Romulus, Etruscan settlements existed
on the Celian Hill, and extended over Mons Cispius and Oppius, which are
parts of the Esquiline. Whether these Etruscans lived in open villages or fortified places is unknown; but we learn from Varro that they were compelled
by the Romans to abandon their seats on the hills, and to descend into the
plains between the Caelian and the Esquiline, whence the Vicus Tuscus in that
district derived its name. The principal of these Etruscan settlements was,
according to the well-known hypothesis of Niebuhr, called Luckrum, and the
Etruscan settlers themselves were called Luceres. These Luceres, in the early
history of the Roman state, were in a state of subjection to the other tribes
from which they emerged only by degrees.
III. The three hills north of the Palatine, namely, the Quirinal, Viminal, and
Capitoline, were occupied by Sabines, and the last of these hills was their citadel. Their town on the Quirinal was, according to Niebuhr, called Quiriun,.
When the Latin and Sabine towns became united, the valleys between the hills
must have been drained, and the cloacca by which this was effected belong to
the earliest architectural remains of Rome. The valley between the Palatine
and the Capitoline was set apart as the place of meeting for the two nations
(Comitium and Forum Romanum), and the boundary between the territories of
the two towns was probably marked by the Via Sacra, which came down from
the top of the Velia, ran between the Quirinal and Palatine, and then, making
a bend, proceeded between the latter hill and the Capitoline as far as the Temple of Vesta, whence it turned right across the Comitium toward the gate (of
the Palatine.
IV. The seven hills inhabited by these three different nations were united
into one town, and surrounded by a wall by King Servius Tullius. The Poncrium, that is, the precincts within which auguria could be taken, had been extended with the increase of the city, but the Aventine, though included in the
new wall, did not lie within the Pomerium, and it continued to be chiefly occupied by plebeians. Hence it is not mentioned among the districts of the city
by Varro, who calls them Palatium, Velia, Cermdlus, Caslius, Fagital, Oppius,
and Cispius.
V. The whole circumference of the walls of Servius Tullius was about six.iiles. They included considerable tracts of land which were not occupied by




ITALIA.                          315
buildings, but were either pasture grounds or covered with wood or thickets,
such as great part of the Esquiline and Viminal. Accordingly, in time of war,
the people of the surrounding districts took refuge within the walls of the city,
where they found sufficient space and food for their cattle. It was, however,
principally the inner space, near the wall itself, which was not occupied by
buildings until a very late period. Servius Tullius divided the whole city within
the walls into four regions, which coincided with the four city tribes into which
he divided the commonalty. Each of these regions was again subdivided into
six districts, which derived their names from the Sacella Argaorum, which probably stood wherever two streets crossed each other, so that these subdivisions
appear to have been compact masses of houses, such as were subsequently
called vici. Their number is stated by Varro to have been twenty-seven;
twenty-four belonging to the four regions, and the three remaining ones probably to the Capitoline.
2. PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE, &C., AT ROME.
I. MANY great works were erected at Rome during the kingly period. Tihe
great Temple of Jupiter was on the Capitoline. The prison of Tullius, called
Carcer Tullianus or Mamertinus, was at the eastern foot of the same hill. The
Circus Maximus was between the Palatine and Aventine, of which there are
probably no remains. The Cloaca Maxima carried the waters of the Velabrum
and the Forum Romanum into the Tiber, and was a stupendous work. The
wall of the elder Tarquin formed an embankment on the east side of the river:
the renmai.is are still visible to some extent. Of the wall of Servius Tullius
few traces remain; but it existed in the eighth century of Rome, as appears
from the description of Pliny (iii., 5), and from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ix.,
p. 624).
II. During the early part of the Republic, we find no mention of such great
architectural works as those which were built during the period of the kings;
but, with the increase of the population, many of the uncultivated and uninhabited districts must have gradually become covered with houses. About one
hundred and twenty years after the establishment of the Republic, when the city
was taken by the Gauls, the whole was consumed by fire, with the exception of
the Capitol, a few houses on the Palatine, and some of the works above enumerated, the magnitude of which saved them from destruction. The hasty
mode in which the city was rebuilt explains the fact that, down to the time of
Nero, the streets of Rome were narrow, irregular, and crooked, and, in point
of beauty and regularity, Rome was far inferior to most of the other great cities of Italy. After this restoration a long time probably passed before any new
ground was built upon. Down to the fifth century of the city, private houses
were generally covered with shingles, and there continued to be a number of
groves within the walls of the city. But toward the end of the period which is
comprised between the Gallic conflagration and the end of the second Punic
war, Rome began to be embellished with temples, which, however, both as to
material and architecture, were far inferior to the temples of Greece. High
roads and aqueducts also began to be built. The streets of the city itself were
not paved, though we have no reason to suppose that they were neglected. At
a somewhat later period, we find public places, streets, and walks under the
porticoes commonly paved with large square blocks of tuffo or of travertino. In
the year 176 B.C., the censors ordered the streets of the city to be paved with
blocks of basalt, which were laid on a stratum of gravel, such as is still visible
in a part of the Via Appia. At the time of the war with Hannibal, the district




316                 ANCIENT      GEOGRIAPH Y.
near the river, between the Capitoline and the Aventine, was almost entirely
covered with buildings, and it was called Extra Portam Flumentdnam.
III. The private houses had, from the earliest times, been very simple in structure; but, after the conquest of Greece, and more especially of Asia, individuals began to build their dwellings in a magnificent style, and the taste for
splendid mansions and palaces increased so rapidly, that a house like that of
Crassus, which at first was universally admired for its splendor and magnificence, in the course of a few years was lost among superior buildings. Public
edifices, however, still remained the chief objects of the pride of the Romans.
Theatres, a class of buildings which had once been scarcely tolerated, were
erected in several parts of Rome during the last century of the Republic, especially after the time of Sylla. During the civil wars between Marius and Sylla,
we find that the number of houses had increased to such a degree, that the walls
of Servius Tullius in several parts lay within the city itself, and Niebuhr thinks
it not improbable that at this time a suburb already existed in the plain west of
the Tiber, which was afterward called the Regio Transtzberzna. At the beginning of the eighth century of the city, another suburb is mentioned, in AEmilianis,
between the Circus Flaminius and the Quirinal. A third arose south of the
Caelius, a mile from the Porta Capena, and was called Ad Martis. Of all the
splendid buildings, however, which were raised during the latter part of the Republic, scarcely any traces exist, and the only remains which can with any probability be reckoned among them are the substructions of three ancient temples,
below the church of San Nicola in Carcere, the so-called Temple of Fortuna Virilis, not far from the Theatre of Marcellus, and perhaps, also, the three columns
of the so-called Temple of Castor and Pollux, near the Forum.
IV. Augustus might well say that he had changed Rome from a city of brick
into one of marble, for the roads, aqueducts, and public buildings of every description, temples, arcades, and theatres, which were constructed during his long
and peaceful reign, were almost innumerable. The whole plain between the
Quirinal and the river became a new town, which in splendor and magnificence
far surpassed the city of the hills: this new town was one mass of temples, arcades, theatres, and public places of amusement, not interrupted by any private
habitations. Aqueducts, for the purpose of supplying the city with water, had
been built as early as the year 313 B.C., and the first (Aqua Appia) was begun by Appius Claudius. It ran almost entirely under ground, and conveyed
the water, from a distance of about eight miles, in the direction of the Porta
Capena, into the city. Other aqueducts (Anio Vetus, 273 B.C.; Aqua Marcia,
145 B.C.; Tepila, 127 B.C.; Julia, 35 B.C.) were constructed; but it was not
until the imperial period that this kind of architecture reached its perfection,
and most of the remains which are still extant belong to the period of the empire. They were mostly built upon arches, which had an easy inclination, so
that the water ran gently from its source toward the city. Augustus built two
new aqueducts (Aqua Alsietina or Augusta, and Aqua Virga), and increased the
Marcia. Subsequent emperors added the Aqua Claudia; Anio Novus (both in
A.D. 50); Aqua Trajana (A.D. Ill); Antoniniana (A.D. 212); Al'exandrina
(A.D. 230); and Jovia (A.D. 300).
V. The division into four regions, made by Servius Tullius, had remained unaltered; but Augustus, for the convenience of administration, divided the whole
city, both within and without the walls of Servius, into fourteen new regions,
a division which continued to the eighth century, when it began gradually to
give way to the Ecclesiastical division into seven regions. Each of the Augustan regions, according to a survey taken in the reign of Vespasian, contained




ITALIA.                          317
nineteen, or, according to a later account, twenty-two vici, with as many sacel-a, in places where two streets crossed each other (in compitis). Each vicus
seems, oh an average, to have contained about two hundred and thirty dwellinghouses, so that every region contained more than four thousand. About one
twenty-fifth part of this number of houses were domus, that is, habitations of th'i
rich (palaz-i), with a portico in front, and an extensive inner court (atrium).
The remaining twenty-four twenty-fifths consisted of insulce, that is, habitations
for citizens of the middle and lower classes; they had no portico in front, but
mostly an open space, which served as a shop or work-shop. In the interior
they may have had a court, but of smaller extent than the atrium of a domus.
The number of these insulta was about forty-four thousand. All Roman houses
were very high. Augustus fixed seventy and Trajan sixty feet as the height,
above which none were allowed to be built, and the upper story was usually of
wood. It was a law of the Twelve Tables, which also occurs in the Roman
legislation of later times, that no two houses, whether domus or insulce, should
be built closely together, but that an open space of five feet should be left be
tween them.
VI. Tiberius, besides completing many of the buildings of his predecessor,
began the Prcetorian Camp on the northeast side of the city, in the Campus Viminalis, and surrounded it with high walls. The wealthy Romans at this time
had their palaces principally in the district from the Porta Collina to the Porta
Ccelimontana; they did not, however, form streets, but lay in gardens within
the fields between the high roads which issued from the city, and hence they
are generally called Horti, as Horti Mccenatis, Pallantidni, Epaphroditi, &c. All
that had been done, however, for the embellishment of the city previous to the
reign of Nero, was eclipsed by the magnificent buildings of this emperor; but
the greater part of these works, together with those of former days, perished in
the conflagration which took place in his reign. His plan of restoring Rome
was gigantic, and proved to be impracticable: he proposed to make Rome a
port, and to connect it with the sea by long-walls from the Capitol to Ostia.
But all that he could do, notwithstanding his profusion, was to restore those
parts of the city which had been destroyed. The face of the new city, however, assumed a totally different aspect. On the ruins of the temples and the imperial palace on the Palatine rose the so-called golden house of Nero, which occupied a space equal to a large town. The greatest care was taken to make
the new streets wide and straight, and that the buildings should not exceed a
reasonable height. In order to render possible the execution of the regular
plan, the several quarters of the city were measured, and the heaps of ruins
were removed, and conveyed in ships to Ostia, to fill up the marshes in its vicinity. All the new buildings were massive, and constructed of the fire-proof
peperino, without the old wooden story. The width of the new streets rendered
it necessary to extend the city beyond its former limits. Some time afterward,
in the reign of Vespasian, a measurement of the circumference of Rome was
taken, according to which it amounted to thirteen and one fifth Roman miles.
The subsequent emperors continued to increase and embellish the city; but under Commodus a great part was again consumed by a fire, which destroyed all
the buildings on the Palatine. Septimius Severus exerted himself to restore
the parts which had been burned, and to ornament the city, and some of his
buildings are still extant. But the grandeur and magnificence of the thermm
of Caracalla, south of the Porta Capena, surpassed all the works of his predecessors. Almost all the great buildings, or their remains, which still exist at
Rome, belong to the period between Nero and Constantine.




318                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
VII. The most extensive work of this latter period is the immense wall, with
its numerous towers, with which Aurelian surrounded the city. The work,
which was completed in the reign of Probus (A.D. 276), does not, however, enable us to form a correct estimate of the real extent of the city, as the objects
of the fortifications may fave rendered it necessary to enclose parts which were
not covered with buildings. The whole circumference of these new fortifications was about twenty-one miles. Seven bridges connected the eastern and
western sides of the river. In the time of Honorius, some parts of this wall
were decayed, and others had become useless on account of the great quantity
of rubbish which had accumulated near them, but they were restored by this
emperor.
VIII. After the time of Constantine, when the emperors and the Roman nobles had adopted the Christian religion, the decay and destruction of the ancient
edifices commenced. The building of numerous churches was the immediate
cause of this destruction. Neither the court nor private individuals possessed
sufficient wealth to raise buildings equal in form or material to those of their
ancestors, and as heathen temples could not always be converted into Christian
churches, they were generally pulled down and the materials used for other
purposes. During the fifth century of our era, great calamities were inflicted
upon Rome by the ravages of the northern barbarians, though it is a mistake to
suppose that the buildings of Rome suffered much injury from the invaders, for
they could have no interest in destroying any thing, and all historians agree in
stating that it was their principal object to carry away gold, silver, and other
costly things. The few buildings which were destroyed at the capture of the
city by Alaric were near the Porta Salaria, where the enemy entered. There
are in this part still some remains of the house of Sallust, which was destroyed
on that occasion. A harder fate befell the city in 455, when it was taken by
the Vandals, though even then, and notwithstanding the sack of fourteen days,
the buildings seem to have suffered little; the precious metals were the main
object of the cupidity of the barbarians. Theodoric and his immediate successors not only took the greatest care to preserve what remained, but even exerted themselves to restore the public buildings which had suffered, or were
beginning to decay. The population, however, rapidly decreased during the
fifth century, and became impoverished, so that, toward the end of the century,
the suburbs around Rome seem to have no longer existed, with the exception
of that which had arisen between the northern extremity of the Janiculum and
the Vatican. Rome was thus confined to the walls of Aurelian and their restoration by Honorius, and even within its precincts extensive districts were
uninhabited. The most remarkable buildings of former days, indeed, still existed, but after the reignr of Deodatus they were entirely neglected, and thus
one after another they fell into decay and ruin.
8. LATIUM.
(A.) NAME, EXTENT, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. THE name Latium       is derived by the Roman poets from
the circumstance of Saturn's having lain concealed there, after
having been driven by Jupiter from the skies (quod ibi latuisset Saturnus).    Modern investigators, however, leaving the region of fable, have traced in the name of the country an allusion to its flat or marshy character.




ITALIA.                     319
OBS. Abeken, in his Mittelitalien vor den Zeiten ram. Herrsch., p. 42, deduces
The name Latium from latus, comparing this last with rtarTv3 and platea. Grotefend, on the other hand, seeks for the origin of the term in the Celtic language, and makes the name mean " marshy land,",, fenny country," answering
to the German Sumpfland. Klotz, following out this idea, supposes the word to
be in affinity with lacus, whence may have been formed Lacinius, and from this
Latinus. (Handb. der lat. Litteraturgesch., p. 181, note.)
II. Latium anciently extended from the mouth of the Tiber
in the north, as far only as the Circeian Promontory in the south,
a distance of about fifty miles along the coast, and this part
was subsequently distinguished by the name of Latium vetus
or antiquum.  At a later period the name of Latium was extended as far south as the mouth of the River Liris, and inland as far as the country of the Marsi and Peligni, and the
part thus added was called Latium novum or adjectum, to distinguish it from ancient Latium.
III. Latium, therefore, as comprehending both the Old and
the New, was bounded on the north by Etruria, the territory
of the Sabines, and the country of the iEqui and Marsi, on the
west and south by the Lower Sea, and on the east by Samnium and Campania.
(B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF LATIUM IN ITS EARLIER STATE.
I. ACCORDING to Aristotle, who calls Latium  a district in
Opica, its inhabitants would have been the Oscans or Opicans;
but, according to the traditions of the Romans themselves,
which are collected and minutely discussed in Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, Latium was inhabited in the earliest times by
Siculi, a Pelasgian tribe, whom tradition traced to some mythical king Latinus. These Siculi were connected with the Itali
in the extreme south of Italy. The district northeast of Latium, in the neighborhood of Recte and Carseoli, was inhabited
by the Aborigines, a kindred tribe of the Siculi.
II. These Aborigines were driven from their seats, and.urged
forward to the River Anio by the Sabines. The Siculians of
Latium were obliged to give way before the Aborigines, and a
portion of them were said to have emigrated to Sicily, which
derived its name from them. The ancient name of the Aborigines was Casci, Prisci, or Sacrani; and, in connection with
those Siculians who remained behind in Latium, they gradually
formed the people of the Prisci Latini, that is, Prisci et Latini,
or simply Latini.




320             A. NcIENT GE o n    II Y.
III. The Aborigines are described by the poets and historians of later ages as a savage nation, without laws and civilized
manners, and as living on the produce of the chase; but this
description seems to be no more than a sort of philosophical notion, which persons of a civilized age are always apt to form
of the earliest periods of their history. We know that the Aborigines were an agricultural people, and lived in villages and
towns, of which Varro, in his Origines, has given a list, and
some of which continued to be inhabited in the time of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, such as Palatium, on the Quintian road.
Most of these towns, however, lay in ruins.
IV. The population of Latium was thus a mixed one, consisting, on the one hand, of Siculians and Oscans, all of whom
belonged to the Pelasgian race, and, on the other, of Sabellians
(Sabines). This fact is not only stated in the ancient traditions, but is manifest from the language spoken in Latium (the
Latin language, or the language of the Latins), for we can still
distinguish the two elements: one is of a Pelasgian character,
and constitutes the great affinity between the Latin and Greek
languages; the other element, which is utterly foreign to the
Greek, is of Sabellian origin. From these elements, so far as
they are discernible, we may form some idea of the character
of the two respective nations. Most Latin words relating to
agriculture and a more civilized state of society, are the same
in Latin and Greek; but others, which are of Sabellian origin,
are chiefly words relating to war and the chase.
V. The Aborigines are said to have worshipped Janus, as
the founder of a better mode of life: Saturn was believed to
have taught them husbandry, and accustomed them to live in
fixed habitations. Janus or Dianus was the god of the sun;
Saturn and his wife Ops were, in all probability, the god and
goddess of the earth, that is, the personifications of the vivifying and productive powers of the earth.
VI. The tradition of the arrival of a Trojan colony in Latium
must be regarded in no other light than as a mere fiction, and
a fiction probably not introduced by the Greeks, but homesprung and of Italian origin.
VII. From all that we can learn, it would appear that Latium, long before the time assigned to the building of Rome,
was a flourishing country, and stocked with numerous towns




ITALIA.                    321
und villages. Its inhabitants formed a powerful confederacy,
the affairs of which were discussed in assemblies held near the
well of Ferentina, in the neighborhood of Alba, and which extended from the Tiber in the north to Terracina in the south.
The history of the confederacy previous to the building of Rome
is completely lost, for the lists of the kings of Alba, as well as
the number of years assigned to the reign of each, must be rejected as late fabrications. The founders of Rome are called
descendants of the Alban kings, although the legends nowhere
describe Rome as a colony of Alba.
(C.) CITIES OF LATIUM.
BEGINNING from the Tiber, as being the northern limit of this
province, we come to, 1. Ostia, situate at the southern mouth
of the Tiber, and the ancient port of Rome. According to Strabo and other ancient writers, it was founded by Ancus Marcius.
It stood on a narrow peninsula between the river and the Lacus Ostice, now Stagno di Levante, which formerly communicated with the sea, but is now separated from it by a considerable tract of sand. The port appears to have been a mere anchorage, near the site of the modern Torre Bovacciana, in which
the Roman fleet used to be moored. It was open, however, and
unprotected, for we read in Cicero's Oration for the Manilian
Law that the Cilician pirates captured and plundered the fleet
moored there, to the great disgrace of the Roman name. This
anchorage ground has long been filled up with sand, and the
sea is now nearly two miles from old Ostia. Strabo describes
Ostia as having no port, and he says that the mouth of the river
had become so choked up, that only small vessels could ascend
the stream. Hence the Emperor Claudius was indaced to construct a new harbor on the northern arm of the Tiber. A new
basin was excavated, a large mole with a pharos was erected,
and a magnificent port was the result, which took the name of
Portus Augusti. Ostia, in consequence, rapidly declined, and
in the time of Procopius, about the middle of the sixth century,
was in a ruined state and nearly deserted. The site is now
marked by a heap of ruins. The modern Ostia, which is a
miserable place, is at some distance from the ancient city. The
harbor of Claudius, in time, became itself choked up, and it is
now a stagnant lagune, the sea having retired nearly two miles
X




322             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
on that side also. There are some remains of antiquity here,
and the place still retains the name of Porto. It was in consequence of the failure of Claudius's harbor that Trajan constructed the excellent one at Centum Cellce in Etruria. Between the two branches of the Tiber was the Insula Sacra.
2. Laurentum, about sixteen miles to the southeast of Ostia, and near the spot now called Paterno. Virgil makes it to
have been the capital of Latinus. Still, however, whatever
may be thought of IEneas and the Trojan colony, it is very evident from ancient authorities that a city of this name did actually exist in this quarter. The country around was thickly
covered with groves of bay (laurus); and hence arose the appellation given to the place.  The marshes in the vicinity
abounded in wild boars. The adjacent country is now rendered unhealthy by the malaria, but in ancient times it appears
to have been just the reverse, and was crowded with villas of
the Roman nobility. 3. Lavinium, to the southeast of the preceding, and fabled to have been founded by 2Eneas on his marriage with Lavinia, after whom he gave it its name. The
place, however, is actually enumerated among the cities of Latium by Strabo and other authors, as well as by the Itineraries.
Its site is supposed to answer to the modern Pratica, about
three miles from the coast.
A little beyond the site of the ancient Lavinium we come to
a small stream now called Rio Torto, which probably answers
to the celebrated Nzuumcius of Virgil, on the banks of which,
according to the legend, IEneas fell in battle. Near the source
of the Numicius was a grove consecrated to Eneas under the
title of Jupiter Indiges. Beyond the Numicius we enter the
territory of the ancient Ruitili, a small people, who, though
perhaps originally distinct from the Latins, became subsequently so much a part of that nation that it would be superfluous
to notice them under a separate head. Their capital was Ardea, a very ancient city, fabled to have been founded by Danae, mother of Perseus. Virgil makes it the capital of his
Turnus. The ruins of the place still bear the name of Ardea,
and are situate on a hill about three miles from the sea. According to Livy and Silius Italicus, Ardea sent a colony to Saguntum in Spain, and contributed mainly to the establishment
of that city. A2rdea is memorable in early Roman history as




ITALIA.                    323
the place, during the siege of which the affair of Lucretia occurred, which led to the expulsion of the Tarqpins. This city,
according to Livy, afforded an asylum to Camillus on his going into voluntary exile from Rome. To the southwest of Ardea lay Castrum Inui, the exact situation of which is uncertain. According to Nibby, however, the name of Incastro, attached to the little stream near which the ruins of Ardea are
situated, seems to preserve a memorial of the Castrum Inui.
What remains of the coast will be more conveniently examined in describing the country of the Volsci, to which we will
presently come. In the mean time, proceeding into the interior of Latium from Ardea, in a northwesterly direction, we find,
1. Laniviumn, the ruins of which still bear the name of Civita
Lavinia or Cittl della Vigna. The sinilarity of the former
of these modern appellations has sometimes caused this city.to
be mistaken for Laviniumn, but by the difibrent positions of the
two towns they are easily distinguished. Lanuvium was situate on the right of the Appian Way, on a hill commanding an
extensive prospect toward Antium and the sea. The temple
and worship of Juno Sospita were here held in great veneration.
Among the natives of this place more or less known in history
or otherwise, may be named Milo, the antagonist of Clodius,
Roscius, the celebrated actor, and the three Antonines. Milo
was dictator of Lanuvium, and was on his way thither when
the encounter took place which ended in the death of Clodius.
2. Aricia, a little to the northwest of Lanuvium, and nearer
Rome. It is now La Riccia. According to Strabo, Aricia itself was situate on the Appian Way, but its citadel was placed
on a hill above. The latter site answers to the position of the
modern town. The distance between this place and Rome was
fifteen miles. Diana had a sacred grove, temple, and lake not far
from this place. The lake is now called La go di Nemi. Strabo tells us that the worship of Diana here resembled that paid
to the goddess in the Tauric Chersonese, and that the priest of
the temple was obliged to defend himself by force of arms
against all who aspired to the office, for whosoever could slay
him succeeded to the dignity. The country around Aricia was
remarkable for fertility and beauty.
3. Alba Longa, a short distance to the north of Aricia, and
one of tile most ancient cities of Latium. The old fabulous




324             ANCIENT GEOURAPIIY.
traditions of ancient Rome speak of the city of Alba as being
founded by Ascaiius, son of zEneas, about four hundred years
before the foundation of Rome itself. They also give a succession of kings of Alba, from Ascanius down to Numitor, grandfather of Romulus. But this story evidently cannot be regarded as historical. The truth is, that Alba was a considerable
city anterior to Rome, and the centre of a confederation distinct from that of the Latins, but connected with it. The site
of this ancient city has been much contested by topographers.
The ancient account makes it to have been situated on the
declivity of the Alban Mount, midway between the summit
and the Lacus Albanus, each of these serving as a defence to
the city; and hence many have supposed it to coincide with
the modern village of Palazzolo. Sir W. Gell, however, after
a careful examination, decides in favor of a long ridge higher
up the ascent, an makes the city to have been scarcely fifty
yards broad, but to have stretched in a long line for more than
a mile. Hence the name given to the city, the first part, Alba,
referring to the high, precipitous rocks on which it was founded,
and the latter part, Longa. to its lengthened appearance. This
city, according to Livy, was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, and
the inhabitants were removed to Rome; but Niebuhr has strong
doubts about the time as well as the manner in which Alba
was destroyed; and it appears that the territory of Alba was
taken possession of in the first place by the Latins, and not
by Rome. A second town was built afterward by Roman colonists in the time of the first emperors. This second Alba is
mentioned by Suetonius in his life of Nero. The modern town
of Albano is at the foot of the mountain, and does not, of
course, answer to the ancient site. The ilVons Albanus is now
Monte Cavo. The Lacus Albanus has been already mentioned
(page 266).
4. Bovillce, an ancient town on the Appian Way, between
the ninth and tenth mile-stones, and answering now to the situation of the inn called L' Osteria delle Frattochie. At no great
distance from Bovillae was the source of the Aqua Ferentina,
distinguished in the early annals of Latium as the place where
the confederate cities assembled in public council. Near Bovillae, also, the rencounter took place between Milo and Clodius,
which ended in the death of the latter. 5. Tuscilum, on the




ITALIA.                    325
summit of the ridge of hills which forms thl continuation of
the Alban Mount, and above the modern town of Frascati.
The ruins themselves bear the name of II Tuscolo. The foundation of this place is ascribed in the legends of the poets to
Teleg6nus, the son of Ulysses and Circe. Strabo says that on
the side toward Rome, the hills of Tusculum were covered with
villas. Of these, the one most interesting for us was the villa
of Cicero, giving name to the beautiful moral Disputations,
which were probably written there, Tusculante Disputationes,
or " Tusculan Disputations."  The villa itself was called Tutculanum. 6. Algidunt, to the southeast of Tusculum, and often
mentioned in the early history of Rome as a favorite station of
theo A.qui in their predatory incursions on the Roman territory.
We rmust distinguish, however, between this town and the
Mount A/ct4dus. The latter appears to hav.e been that chain
which stretches from the rear of the Alban Mlount, and is parallel to the Tusculan hills, being separated from them by the
valley along which runs the Via Latina. The woods of the
bleak Algidus are a favorite theme with Horace.
7. Gabii, to the northeast of Tusculum, on the Via Prcenestina, and about one hundred stadia from Rome. Its site corresponds to the modern Osteria del Pantano. Gabii is said
to have been a colony of Alba, and an obscure tradition represented it as the place in which Romulus and Remus were
brought up. The artful manner in which Tarquinius Superbus obtained possession of Gabii, after he had failed in the attempt by force of arms, is well known, as recorded by Livy.
Accomding to the same historian, the Gauls received their final
defeat from Camillus near this city. This place suffered so
much during the civil wars that it became entirely ruinous and
deserted. It revived, however, under Antoninus and Comm6dus, and became a thriving town. In its more flourishing days,
Juno seems to have been held in peculiar honor at Gabii. The
cinctus Gabinus was a peculiar mode of folding or girding the
toga, in order to give more freedom to the person when in motion.
The people of Gabii are said to have adopted it on a particuiar occasion, when hurrying to battle from a sacrifice. 8. Colldtia, a little to the north of Gabii, and likewise a colony of Alba. It was celebrated in Roman history for the self-sacrifice
of the chaste Lucretia. In Strabo's time it was a mere village.




326             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
The road which led to this place from. Rome was called Via
Collatina. The site of Collatia is generally supposed to agree
with that of a place called Castel dell' Osa or Castelluccio.
Gell, however, is in favor of Lunghezza. 9. Tibur, now Tivolt, to the northeast of Gabii, and on the banks of the Anio.
According to Dionysius, it was a town of the Siculi; but others make it to have been founded by Catillus, son of Amphiaraus, who, with his two brothers, Coras and Tiburtus, migrated to Italy, and named the place after the latter. This legend
refers, of course, to a Pelasgic origin. The Greek writers call
the place r-d Ti6ovpa. Hercules was the deity held in greatest
veneration at Tibur, and his temple, on which the Cathedral of
Tivoli is built, was famous throughout Italy. Hence the epithet
of " Herculean," given it by the poets. In the vicinity of Tibur
dwelt one of the ancient sibyls, surnamed Albuneca. A beautiful little ruin still remains, called the Temple of the Sibyl,
though others assign it to Vesta. The hero Tiburnus was also
revered at Tibur, and had a grove consecrated to him on the
banks of the Anio. Two illustrious captives of Rome both terminated their existence on the banks of the Anio, the Numidian
Syphax, and Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, the former at Tibur,
the latter in Hadrian's villa near that place.
10. Prceneste, to the southeast of Tibur, and now Palestrina. Strabo describes it as having a citadel remarkable for it.s
strength of position, standing on the brow of a lofty hill which
overhung the city. The same author states that Praeneste laid
claim to a Greek origin, and had been named formerly Polystephanus (1IoXvorTiavoq). Pliny also observes that it was once
called Steplidne. From Dionysius we may infer that it was
afterward colonized by Alba. The strength of Prueneste rendered it a place of too great importance to be overlooked by the
contending parties of Sylla and Marius. It was induced to
join the cause of the latter, but suffered severely in consequence,
a bloody massacre of the inhabitants having been made by the
victorious troops of Sylla, and the place having been given up
to plunder. It survived, however, these disasters, and gained
new strength from a colony of those very troops which had inflicted so severe a blow upon it, so that it eventuallyi b;i:alrt
once more a flourishing city..Elian, the. writer of tt;le "Various History," and also of the work " On Animals," was a native




ITALIA.                        327
of this place. The Temple of Fortune in Praeneste was very
celebrated. Among the productions of the territory around this
city, none are so often spoken of as its walnuts. 11. Sacriportus, near Prseneste, and the place where the decisive action
took place between the forces of.Sylla and the younger Marius.
12. Pedum, also in the vicinity of Prweneste, and often named
in the early wars of Rome. Its site answers to that of the modern Gallicano, according to Sir W. Gell.    Others are in favor
of Zagarolo.    13. Labicum, about fifteen miles from Rome, between the Via Prcenestina and the Via Latina.       It was a colony of Alba.   Caesar had a villa in the Ager Labicanus, where
he resided not long before his death, since he is said by Suetonius to have made his will there the September previous to that
event. The height on which the modern town of Colonna
stands answers to the site of Labicum.
Having now described what may be considered as the Latin
territory, strictly so called, we pass on to that portion of New
Latium which bordered on the ZEqui and Marsi, and was anciently possessed by the Hernici before it was included within
the Latin limits.
HERNICI.
I. IT was maintained by some of the ancient writers that the Hernici derived
their name from the rocky nature of their country, herna in the Sabine dialect
signifying " a rock;" others were of opinion that they were so called from, Hernicus, a Pelasgic chief. The former etymology, however, is generally regarded
as the more probable one, and it would lead us also to infer that the Hernici, as
well as the 2Equi and Marsi, were descended from the Sabines, or generally from
the Oscan race.
II. There is nothing in the history of this petty nation which possesses any
peculiar interest, or distinguishes them from their equally hardy and warlike
neighbors. It is merely an account of the same ineffectual struggle to resist
the systematic and overwhelming preponderance of Rome, and of the same final
submission to her genius and fortune.
III. Among the Hernici we may notice the following places:
1. Anagnia, now Anagni, their principal city, which Virgil
distinguishes by the epithet of " dives," and which Strabo terms
an important city. It was colonized by Drusus. From Tacitus we learn that it was the birth-place of Valens, a general
of Vitellius, and the chief supporter of his party.  2. Ferentinum, about eight miles beyond Anagnia, on the Via Latina.
*It is now Ferentino.   This place appears to have originally be



328               ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
longed to the Volsci, but it was taken from them by the Romans and given to the Hernici.     3. Alatriulm, further in the
mountains, and more to the east, now Alatri.   It is mentioned
by Plautus, in his play of the Captives, under the Greek form'AZdrptov.
VOLSCI.
I. LEAVING the territory of the HIernici, we now enter on that of the Volsci, a
nation whose history is known to us only from its connection with that of Rome.
They were a branch of the Oscan race. Notwithstanding the small extent of
country which they occupied, reaching only from Antium to Terracina, a line of
coast of about fifty miles, and little more than half that distance from the sea
to the mountains, it swarmed with cities filled with a hardy race.
II. The Volsci were first attacked by the second Tarquin, and war was ca:
ried on afterward between the two nations, with short intervals, for upward of
two hundred years, until they were completely subdued.
III. Beginning from the northern extremity of their territory,
we find, 1. Velitrce, now  Velletri.  It was situate a little to
the left Gf the Appian Way, and in a southeast direction roum
Alba Longa. Velitrse was always reckoned one of the most
important and considerable cities of the Volsci, and was engaged in hostilities with Rome as early as the reign of Ancus
Marcius. The chief boast of the place was the honor of having
given birth to Augustus.   2. Corioli, to the southwest of Velitrse.  A hill now called Monte Glove is thought to represent
its site. It was by the capture of this town that C. Marcius obtained the surname of Coriolanus. 3. Ulibrce, in the plain, at
no great distance from Velitrse. Its marshy situation is plainly
alluded to by Cicero, who calls the inhabitants little frogs.
Horace and Juvenal give us but a wretched idea of the place.
4. Satricum, between Velitrm and Antium.      It was taken by
Coriolanus, retaken and burned by the Latins, but restored by
the Antiates.  It fell again, however, into the hands of the Romans, who destroyed it because it had joined the Samnites.
5. Antium, a celebrated city on the coast, the ruins of which
are still called Porto d'Anzo. The city, however, must have
reached as far as the modern town of Nettuno, which derives its name probably from some ancient temple dedicated to
Neptune. Antium was fabled to have been founded by Anthias, a son of Circe.  It was a maritime place of note at a
very early period, and its inhabitants were addicted to piracy.
It was to this city that Coriolanus retired after his banishment,




ITALIA.                    329
and here, too, he ended his days. The Antiates were finally
conquered by the Romans in a battle near the River Astira,
on which occasion the Romans destroyed most of their ships,
reserving the beaks to adorn the elevated seat in the Forum at
Rome, from which orators addressed the people, and which
thenceforth was designated by the name of Rostra. Antium
now received a fresh supply of colonists, and from that period
enjoyed a state of quiet, till the civil wars of Marius and Sylla,
when it was nearly destroyed by the former. Bu t it rose again
from its ruins during the empire, and attained to a high degree
of prosperity and splendor. In Strabo's time it was the favor.
ite residence of the emperor and his court, and here Auopgstus
received from the senate the title of Father of his country. An -
tium became successively the residence of Tiberius and Caligula. It was also the birth-place of Nero, who, having recolonized it, built a port there, and bestowed upon it various other
marks of his favor. Hadrian also is said to have been particularly fond of this city. Antium contained two temples of celebrity, one sacred to Fortune, and the other to 2Esculapius
The famous Apollo Belvedere, the fighting gladiator, and many
other statues discovered at Antium, attest also its former magnificence.
6. Circeii, a short distance inland from the Promontorium
Circeium, probably on the site of the village of San Felice,
where some ruins are said to be visible. The celebrated enchantress Circe was fabled to have dwelt in this vicinity. A
Roman military colony was sent to this place in the reign of
Tarquinius Superbus, which shows it to have been a town of
importance at that period. It was still extant in Cicero's time,
who says that Circe was worshipped there. Lepidus was exiled to this place by Augustus. It was famous for its oysters.
We must return to the Appian Way in order to desdribe
some places situated on this celebrated road or in its vicinity.
Pursuing this route, we come to, 1. Tres Tdbernce, a station
about seven miles from Aricia, on this Way, and where it was
joined by a cross-road from Antium. This place is mentioned
by St. Paul in the account of his journey to Rome. 2. F6rum
Appii, sixteen miles further on the Appian Way, also mentioned by St. Paul, and well known as Horace's second restingplace in his journey to Brundisium. D'Anville inclines to place




330             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
it at Borgo Lungo, near Treponti. It was usual here to em.
bark on a canal, which ran parallel to the Appian Way, and
which was called Decennovium, from its length being nineteen
miles. Vestiges of this canal may still be traced a little beyond Borgo Lungo. It was made by Augustus, who endeavored by this and other means to drain the Pontine Marshes.
Strabo says that travellers took the canal during the night, and
in the morning were landed near Tarracina. This canal was
enlarged by Nero, who had formed a project for uniting the
Lake Avernus with the Tiber. For an account of the Pontine
Marshes, the student is referred to the close of this article on
the geography of Latium.
3. About three miles before reaching Tarracina we come to
the grove and fountain of Fer6nia, the scene of Horace's ablutions, in his account of the journey to Brundisium. There was
here a temple also dedicated to the same goddess. In this temple was a seat on which slaves received their freedom. Leaving
this spot, we reach, 4. Tarrdcina, called, also, Anxur, the latter
being probably its Volscian name. We learn from Horace that
this city stood on a lofty rock, at the foot of which the modern
Terracina is situated. According to Strabo, the place was
first named Trachina, a Greek. appellation indicative of the
ruggedness of its situation. Tarracina subsequently became
of consequence as a naval station. The poets invariably call
it Anxur. The Emperor Galba was born in a village near it.
Some places yet remain to be noticed in that mountainous
tract which stretches from the neighborhood of Preneste, and,
running nearly south, meets the sea at Tarracina. This is the
chain from which the rivers that cause the stagnation of waters in the Pontine district derive their source. It is called
Mons Lepinus by Columella. In its most northern extremity
was, 1. Signia, now Segni, which became a Roman colony as
early as the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. At first it was only
a military post, but afterward became a city. It was noted for
a particular mode of flooring with bricks, which was called the
"Opus Signinum."   2. C6ra, somewhat to the south, and a
place of great antiquity, which' has preserved its name unchanged to this day. Virgil makes it a colony of Alba. It
suffered greatly during the contest with Spartacus, having been
taken and sacked by one of his wandering bands. Propertius




ITALIA.                    331
and Lucan speak of it as the seat of ruin and desolation.
3. Norba, somewhat to the south of Cora, and on the same
ridge of hills. It is now a small place called Norma. Having
espoused the party of Marius, it suffered severely in conse.
quence, and the place being at length betrayed into the hands
of Lepidus, one of Sylla's generals, the inhabitants chose rather to perish by their own hands than become the victims of a
bloody conqueror. 4. Setia, to the southeast of Norba, now
Sezza. Martial makes frequent mention of the wine of this
place. 5. Privernum, to the east of Setia. Its site is marked
by the modern Piperno. Virgil makes mention of it as a Volscian city, and the birth-place of his heroine Camilla. Strabo,
however, seems to consider the Privernates as a distinct people
from the Volsci. Frontinus classes it among the military colories.
6. Frusino, to the northeast of Privernum, on the Via Latina, and now Frosinone. This town was deprived of its territory by the Romans for having incited the Hernici to war.
7. Fregelle, to the southeast of Frusino, near the Liris, and
close to the Via Latina. It belonged first to the Sidicini, and
successively to the Volsci and Samnites. Pyrrhus took this
place when he was advancing against Rome; and it also suffered severely in its territory from the ravages of Hannibal's
troops. Its ruins are to be seen at the small town of Ceperano,
on the right bank of the Garigliano.  8. Fabrateria, to the
south of Fregelle, on the Via Latina, now Falvaterra. 9. Sora,
to the northeast of Fregellm, and still preserving its name. The
earliest writer who has mentioned this place is Plautus, in his
play of the Captives. If we now cross the Liris, and follow the
course of that river on its left bank, we shall soon arrive at its
junction with the Fibrenus, a stream well known from the little island which it forms before its junction with the Liris.
This island belonged to Cicero, and here is laid the scene of
his dialogues with Atticus and his brother Quintus on legislation. He himself was born there. It has taken the name of
San Domenico Abate. 10. Arpinum, somewhat to the south,f this island, and now Arpino. It was memorable for having
given birth to Marius and Cicero, the latter having been born,
as just remarked, in its immediate vicinity. 11. Atina, to the
southeast of Arpinur, and one of the most ancient cities of the




332             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
VolscL  Virgil applies the epithet "potens" to it.  12. Aqui-,mznm, to the east of Fabrateria, on the Via Latina, and now
Aquino. It was the birth-place of Juvenal, and of the Emperor Pescennius Niger, and in more modern times of the celebrated Thomas Aquinas. It was famous for its purple dye.
13. Casinum, the last town of Latium on the Via Latina, and
a large and populous place. Its site is now partly occupied by
the modern town of San Germano. According to Varro, its
name was derived from Cascum, an Oscan word answering to
the Latin vetus.
Resuming now the description of the Latin coast from Tar,
racina, we come to, 1. Fundi, now Fondi, situate somewhat
inland, on the Appian Way, and near a small lake called La
cus Fundanus. It obtained at the end of the Latin war the
privileges of a Roman city, except the right of voting, for having always allowed a free passage to the Roman troops in their
marches into Campania. It received the right of voting subsequently, A.U.C. 564, and its citizens were enrolled in the.Emilian tribe. It was, at a later period, colonized by the veteran soldiers of Augustus. 2. Amycle, to the southwest of
Fundi, and situate on the coast. It gave name to the adjacent gulf. It was of Greek origin, as is said, and strange tales
were told concerning the manner of its destruction. Accord
ing to some accounts, it was infested and finally rendered desolate by serpents.  Another tradition represented the fall of
Amycle as having been the result of the silence enjoined by
law on its inhabitants, in order to put a stop to the false rumors of hostile attacks which had so frequently been circulated.
The eqemy at last, however, really appeared, and, finding the
town in a defenceless state, destroyed it. This latter account
was in general acceptation with the poets. The neighboring
district was the Caecubus Ager, so celebrated for the excellence
of its wine. According to Pliny, the cultivation of the vine in
this quarter was greatly injured by a canal cut in this vicinity
by Nero.
3. Caieta, to the southeast, on the coast, and fabled to have
been named from the nurse of Alneas, who died and was interred here. According to Strabo, however, some Spartans, having
settled on this coast, named this place Kata7ra, a word which in
their dialect signified "a cave," in allusion to the receding of




ITALIA.                    333
the shore. The harbor of Caieta was one of the finest and most
commodious in Italy. The modern name of the place is Gaeta.
4. Formice, now Mola di Gaeta, to the north of the preceding,
and the fabled abode and capital of the Laestrygones, spoken
of by Homer in his Odyssey. Formire was a Laconian colony,
and its first appellation was Hormice, in allusion to the excellent anchorage which its port afforded to vessels (6ptof, "a
roadstead," " an anchorage"). This place is chiefly interesting
from its having been long a favorite residence of Cicero, who
had a villa here, which he commonly terms his Formiacnum, and:.t other times his Caietan villa. He appears to have resided
here during the most turbulent part of the civil war between
Caesar and Pompey, and here, also, his existence was terminated by the assassins sent by Antony. In the reign of Augustus we find Formie distinguished as the birth-place and residence of Mamurra, a Roman senator of enormous wealth, acquired by great rapacity, and hence Horace, in the narrative
of his journey to Brundisium, calls it contemptuously " the city
of the Mamurrm" (]Iamurrarum urbs). The Formian hills
are often extolled for the superior wine which they produced.
5. wlinturne, now Minturne, about nine miles further, on
the Appian Way, situate on the Liris, and only three or four
miles from its mouth. It is chiefly known in connection with
the history of Marius, who, in endeavoring to escape into Africa, was forced to put in at the mouth of the Liris. Having
no other resource left, he plunged into the neighboring marshes,
but was discovered, dragged out, and thrown into a dungeon
at Minturnae. He was finally released, however; and furnished
with a vessel to carry him to Africa. The grove and temple
of Marica, fabled to have been the mother of Latinus, and by
others thought to have been Circe, were close to Minturnaw.
6. Sinuessa, the last town in New Latium, situate close to the
sea, and founded, as is said, on the ruins of Sinope, an ancient
Greek city. Strabo says that Sinuessa stood on the shore of
the Sinus Setinus, and derived its name from this circumstance. The site of this place now answers to the rock of
Monte Dragone.




334                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF LATIUM.
THESE form a group to the number of three, distant about twenty miles to
the south of the Circeian Promontory. The nearest to the land is Sinonia, now
Senone. A second, more to the west, is Palmaria, now Palmaruola. The third,
which was the most populous, and is the largest of the group, is Pontia, now
Ponza. It received a Roman colony, and obtained the thanks of the Roman
senate for its zeal and fidelity in the second Punic war. It became afterward
the spot to which the victims of Tiberius and Caligula were secretly conveyed,
to be afterward dispatched, or doomed to a perpetual exile. Among these
might be numbered many Christian martyrs.
ROMAN WAYS THROUGH LATIUM.
IN describing the chief Roman roads which traversed Latium, we shall notice them in their order, as they severally branched off from Rome, their comlmon centre.
1. Via Ostiensis, leading, as its name implies, to Ostia. It commenced at the
Porta Trigemina, or, if we take a later period, at the Porta Ostiensis, now Porta
San Paolo.
2. Via Laurentina, branching off from the Via Ostiensis, about two miles from
Rome, and terminating at Laurentum. We have no account of this Roman
way in the Itineraries, but we learn its existence from Ovid.
3. Via Ardedtina, evidently intended to establish a communication with Ardea,
distant about twenty miles from Rome.
4. Via Appia, the most celebrated of all the Roman roads, both on account of
its length and the difficulties which it was necessary to overcome in its construction. It was made by the censor Appius Claudius Cacus, A.U.C. 442,
B.C. 311, and in the first instance was only laid down as far as Capua, a distance of about one thousand stadia, or one hundred and twenty-five Roman
miles. But even this portion of the work, according to the account of Diodorus
Siculus, was constructed in so expensive a manner that it exhausted the public
treasury. From Capua this road was subsequently carried on to Beneventum,
and finally to Brundisium, when this port became the great place of resort for
those who were desirous of crossing over into Greece and Asia Minor. This
latter part of the Appian Way is supposed to have been constructed by the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher, grandson of Caecus, A.U.C. 504, and to have been
completed by another consul of the same family thirty-six years after. We find
frequent mention made of repairs done to this road by the Roman emperors,
and more particularly by Trajan, both in the histories of the time, and also in
ancient inscriptions. This road seems to have been still in excellent order in
the time of Procopius, who gives a very good account of the manner in which
it was constructed. He says, "An expeditious traveller may very well perform
the journey from Rome to Capua in five days. Its breadth is such as to admit
of two carriages passing each other. Above all others, this is worthy of notice,
for the stones which were employed on it are of an extremely hard nature, and
were doubtless conveyed by Appius from some distant quarry, as the adjoining
country furnishes none of that kind. These, when they had been cut smooth
and squared, he fitted together closely, without using iron or any other substance, and they adhere so firmly to each other that they appear to have been
thus formed by nature, and not cemented by art; and, though they have beei




ITALIA.                          335
travelled over by so many beasts of burden and carriages for ages, yet they do not
seem to have been any wise moved from their place, or broken, nor to have lost
any part of their original smoothness." According to Eustace, such parts of
the Appian Way as have escaped destruction, show few traces of wear and decay after a duration of two thousand years. The same writer states the average breadth of the Appian Way at from eighteen to twenty-two feet.
5. Via Latina, commencing at the Porta Capena, and falling into the Via Appia at Beneventum. Of its formation we have no account, but it was certainly
of great antiquity, and existed probably before the Romans had conquered Latium.
6. Via Lavicdna, so called from its passing close to the ancient city of Lavicum, and communicating with the Via Latina.
7. Via Prenestina, like the Via Lavicana, issued from the Porta Esquilina, and
fell into the Via Latina.
PONTINE     MARSHES.
I. Pontine, Pometine, or Pomtince Palldes, a marshy tract of country, in the
territory of the Volsci, and deriving its name from the town of Suessa Pbmetia,
destroyed by Tarquinius Superbus, and in whose vicinity it was situate, although
no trace has been left to identify the precise spot on which this ancient city
once stood. These fens are occasioned by the quantity of water carried into
the plain by numberless streams, which rise at the foot of the adjacent mountains, and, for want of a sufficient declivity, creep sluggishly over the level space,
and sometimes stagnate in pools, or lose themselves in the sands. Two rivers
principally contributed to the formation of these marshes, the Ufens, now Iffente,
and the Nymphaus, now the Ninfa. The flat and swampy tract spread to the
foot of the Volscian mountains, and covered an extent of eight miles in breadth
and thirty in length.
II. There is every appearance that the basin of the Pontine Marshes was once
a gulf of the sea, which has been gradually filled up by alluvium from the mountains. The oldest historical records exhibit this tract as occupied by the Volsci,
who had numerous towns here, some of which were situated in the most marshy
part of the country. The region was evidently a very fertile one, for we read
in Livy (iv., 25) that, in A.U.C. 322, the Romans, in a season of scarcity, sent
to the Ager Pomtinus for a supply of corn. In A.U.C. 367-8, the tribune L.
Sicinus proposed a distribution of the lands of that district among the poorer citizens.
III. About 442 A.U.C., the censor Appius Claudius Caecus constructed the
Via Appia across the length of the Pontine region, the soil of which must have
been then sufficiently compact to bear the great weight of the causeway. The
level of the original ground on which it was constructed has been found to be
about four feet above the sea-level, at a distance of twelve miles from the coast.
But, on arriving at the foot of the rock of Feronia, Appius found that if he continued the road in a straight line, he must pass through a soft, marshy tract,
and he was induced to deviate from the direct line in order to avail himself of
the more solid ground'which lay near the foot of Mons Lepinus.
IV. At some period of the century and a half that followed the building of the
Appian Way, the country seems to have undergone great deterioration, either
from natural or civil causes, and to have become partly inundated, for we find
the consul Cornelius Cethegus, in A.U.C. 592, applying himself to the draining
of the marshes and restoring the land to cultivation, and it was then that new




336                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
towns arose on the ruins of the ancient towns of the Volsci, under the names
of Trcs Pontes or Tripontium, Ad Medias, &c.
V. The civil wars and the devastation which accompanied them again caused
the hydraulic works of the Pontine Marshes to be neglected, until Augustus
made or restored several canals, especially a navigable canal which followed
the line of the Appian Way, and to which we have heretofore referred in our
account of Forum Appii (on page 330). Nerva and Trajan restored parts of
the Appian Way which had sunk, and the latter drained the country from
Tripontium to Tarracina. During the convulsions of the following centuries
the marshes were again overflowed, until again drained in the reign of Theodoric by Caecilius Decius, a public-spirited individual, and apparently with good
effect.
VI. After this epoch we know no more of the state of the country until the
end of the thirteenth century, when Pope Boniface VIII., whose family, the
Caetani, were feudal lords of Sermoneta and of the greater part of the Monti
Lepini, constructed some works for the drainage of part of the marsh. Leo X.
employed the engineer Giovanni Scotti to repair and enlarge the canal of Badino, which is the great outlet of the marshes. Sixtus V. constructed a lateral
canal, nearly parallel to the Appian Way, which received the waters of the
western part of the marshes, and carried them to the common estuary of Badino. The most important improvements, however, were made by Pius VI., and
the work of effectual draining was very nearly completed, when the low state
of the papal treasury, and the confusion resulting from the French revolutionary
invasion, caused for a time a complete interruption. At the present day, all
that has been done is to maintain the drainage in the state in which Pius VI.
left it, by keeping the canals clear and the dikes in repair. The greater part
of the plain is covered with rich pastures, in which are fed numerous herds of
horned cattle, and other parts of it are sown with rice, wheat, and Indian corn,
and afford rich crops.  In the spring, before the great heats render the atmosphere unwholesome, it has the appearance of a most delightful region. But,
except the post-stations along the high road, and some scattered huts here and
there, there is no permanent population throughout the whole of the plain.
The great estuary of Badino is between seventy and eighty feet wide; there is
about four feet water over the bar, and nearly ten feet water inside of it, where
boats find a safe anchorage.
9. CAMPANIA.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Caampania is the ancient name of that part of the kingdom   of Naples which is now called Terra di Lavoro.           The
word Campania is probably derived from        campus, " a plain,"
in allusion to the level nature of the country.
II. Campania was bounded on the north and east by Samniuzn; on the west by Latium and the Mare Tyrrhenum; on the
south by the Mare Tyrrhenum; and on the southeast by Lucania.   Before Latium     had been extended beyond the Liris,
that river formed the natural boundary of Campania in this
quarter, but after this change in the limits of the two provin



ITALIA.                           337
ces, the Massic iills were considered as the boundary by which
they were separated.     The Apennines divided Campania from
Samnium, and the River Silarus from Lucania.
(B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CAMPANIA.
I. IT is universally agreed that the first settlers in Campania, with whom his
tory makes us acquainted, were the Oscans. The next in order who obtained
possession of the country were the Tuscans. When the latter had effected the
conquest of Campania, that province became the seat of a particular empire,
and received the federal form of government, centred in twelve principal cities,
which has already been noticed as a striking political feature in the history of
the Etrurians.
II. Wealth and luxury, however, soon produced their usual effects on the conquerors of Campania, and they, in their turn, fell an easy prey to the attacks of
the Samnites, and were compelled to admit these hardy warriors to share with
them the possession and enjoyment of these sunny plains. This observation,
however, applies more particularly to Capua and its district, which was surprised by a Samnite force.
III. It is from this period that we must date the origin of the Campanian nation, which appears to have been thus composed of Oscans, Tuscans, Samnites,
and Greeks, the latter having formed, as we shall presently see, numerous colonies on these shores. About eighty years after, the Romans gladly seized the
opportunity of adding so valuable a portion of Italy to their dominions, under
the pretence of defending the Campanians against their former enemies, the
Samnites.
IV. From this time Campania may be regarded as subject to Rome, if we except that short interval in which the brilliant successes of Hannibal withdrew its
inhabitants from their allegiance, an offence which they were made to expiate
by a punishment, the severity of which has few examples in the history, not of
Rome only, but of nations.
V. The natural advantages of Campania, its genial climate and fertile soil, so
rich in various productions, are a favorite theme with Latin writers, and elicit
from them many an eloquent and animated tribute of admiration. Pliny styles
it " Felix illa Campania, certamen humance voluptatis."
(C.) CITIES OF CAMPANIA.
RESUMING the description of the coast from Sinuessa, the
last maritime town of Latium, we come to, 1. Vulturnum, at
the mouth of the River Vulturnus, and now         Castel di Volturno. It was probably of Etrurian origin, but we do not find it
named in history until it became a Roman colony, A.U.C. 558.
According to Frontinus, a second colony was sent hither by
Caesar. 2. Liternum, further on, to the southeast, celebrated
as the spot to which Scipio Africanus retired into voluntary exile, and where he is commonly said to have ended his days.        It
is supposed to correspond to Torre di Patric.        The River Liternus or Clanius. now the Lagno, runs into the sea in its viY




338             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
cinity. This stream is apt to stagnate near its entrance into
the sea, and to form marshes, anciently known as the Ptlus
Literna, now Lago di Patria. In this vicinity, also, was the
Gallinaria Silva, which Juvenal mentions as a noted haunt
of robbers and assassins. 3. Cumce, a few miles further on,
situate on a rocky hill washed by the sea. Its Greek name
was Kvtf5, in Doric Kvi'a. This city was founded at a very
early period by a Greek colony from Chalcis in Euboea, and
hence it is commonly called by the poets the Euboic or Chalcidian city. The colonization of Cuma at so early a period
(1050 B.C., according to Eusebius) is a remarkable event, as
showing the progress already made by the Greeks in the art of
navigation, and proving also that they were then well acquainted with Italy. Strabo informs us that from its commencement
the state of the colony was most flourishing. The fertility of
the surrounding country, and the excellent harbors which the
coast afforded, soon rendered it one of the most powerful cities
of southern Italy, and enabled it to form settlements along the
coast, and to send out colonies as far as Sicily. In the second
Punic war it was attacked by Hannibal, but was successfully
defended by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. It became a Roman colony under Augustus, but, owing to the superior at.
tractions of Baie and Neapolis, it gradually declined from its
former prosperity, afid in Juvenal's time it appears to have
been nearly deserted. Cumre, however, still enjoyed great celebrity as the abode in early times of the oracular sibyl, who
dwelt in a cavern of the rocky eminence on which the city stood.
4. Misenum, a harbor, on the promontory of the same name,
and which became, under Augustus, one of the first naval stations in the empire. We have already made mention of this
in speaking of the promontory (page 254). 5. Bauli, on a hill
commanding an extensive view of the sea, and thus forming
one of the most attractive spots on the coast. Hortensius, the
orator, had a villa and some remarkable fish-ponds here. According to tradition, Bauli was originally called Boaulia, from
the circumstance of Hercules having landed here with the oxen
of Geryon on his return from Spain. 6. Baie, celebrated as
a favorite place of resort with the rich and luxurious Romans.
It owed its celebrity not only to the beauty of its shores and
the advantages of its climate, but also to the numerous warm




ITALIA.                    339
springs which burst forth at almost every step, and were
considered to possess salutary properties for various disorders.
Close to Baiae was the Lucrine Lake, of which mention has already been made. Numerous villas graced the surrounding
country, and many were likewise built on artificial moles projecting into the sea. Now, however, owing to earthquakes
and inundations of the sea, this once charming spot is completely changed, and is a mere waste compared with what it once
was. The modern name is Baia. The original appellation of
Baiae was Aquce Cumance.
7. Portus Julius.-Of this harbor, constructed by Agrippa,
we have already made mention (page 267). 8. Diccearchia, a
short distance from the Lucrine Lake, and on the coast. When
the Romans sent a colony to this place, they changed its Greek
name to Puteoli, probably from the number of its wells, or perhaps from the stench which was emitted by the sulphureous and
aluminous springs in its neighborhood. Respecting the origin
of the town, we learn from Strabo that it was at first the harbor of Cume, and hence we may fairly regard it as a colony of
that city..T became, under the Romans, a naval station of considerable importance, and armies were sent thence to Spain.
St. Paul landed here, and remained seven days at this place
before he set forward on his journey by the Appian Way. The
harbor of Puteoli was spacious, and of a peculiar construction,
being formed of vast piles of mortar and sand, which, owing to
the strongly-cementing properties of the latter material, became
very solid and compact masses, and these being sunk in the
sea, afforded secure anchorage for any number of vessels. Pliny
also has remarked this quality of the sand in the neighborhood
of Puteoli, which now goes by the name of Pozzolana. This
sand is, in fact, volcanic ashes, and when mixed with a small
portion of lime, it quickly hardens, and this induration takes
place even under water. This singular property of becoming
petrified under water renders it peculiarly valuable as a cement in the erection of moles, and other buildings, in maritime
situations. The modern name of Puteoli is Pozzuoli. Cicero
had a villa between the Lucrine Lake and Puteoli, to which he
gave the name of Academia, though he more generally terms
it his Puteolanum.
Above Puteoli was a spot called Forum Vulcani, from the




340             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
number of holes upon its surface, all emitting smoke and a sulphureous stench. It corresponds, probably, to the modern Solfaterra, about a mile above Pozzuoli. The district between
Puteoli and Cumae was sometimes called Leborini Campi.
The origin of this appellation is not known; but from it appears to have come the Terra di Lavoro of modern geography,
corresponding to the ancient Campania.
9. Neap6lis, now Naples (in Italian, Napoli), and, according to the best authorities, a colony originally of Cum.e. One
of its earlier names appears to have been Parthenope; or, at
all events, this appellation is given to it by the poets, and is fabled to have been derived from the siren Parthenope, who was
said to have been cast upon its shores. According to Strabo.
the tomb of the siren was shown there in his time. An earlier
name, however, resting upon better authority, is that of Palcep6lis, or " The Old City," which occurs in Livy, where the
historian is describing the first transactions which connected
the history of this city with that of Rome. This name of Palepolis was changed, it would appear, to Neapolis, " The New
City," in consequence of the increase of size which the place
experienced on the accession of a new colony, composed of
Chalcidians, Pithecusans, and Athenians. The' indolence and
luxury of Grecian manners attracted to Neapolis many a Roman whose age and temperament inclined them to a life of
ease.  It was also distinguished for attachment to literary
pursuits, as appears from the epithet docta applied to it by
Martial.
The ridge of hills which separates the Bay of Naples from
that of Pozzuoli was called Pausilypus, a name given it probably on account of its delightful situation and aspect, causing,
as it were, sorrow to cease (rravo, 47nrq), and which rendered it
the favorite residence of several noble and wealthy Romans.
This hill, at a period unknown to us, was perforated by art to
admit of a communication between Neapolis and Puteoli, not
only for men and beasts of burden, but also for carriages. The
modern name of the hill is Posilippo. On its slope, and just
above the entrance of the perforated passage; lies what popular
tradition makes to be the tomb of Virgil. It is in the form of
a small, square, flat-roofed building, placed on a sort of platform, near the brow of a precipice on one side, and on the other




ITALIA.                    341
sheltered by a superincumbent rock. Cluverius and Addison,
however, place Virgil's tomb on the other side of Naples, near
the foot of Mount Vesuvius.
10. Herculcdnum, or, as Cicero writes it, Herculanum, the
situation of which is no longer doubtful since the discovery of
its ruins. It lay on the coast below Neapolis, at a distance
from it of six miles, and the modern villages of Portici and
Resina are built over part of it. Herculaneum is said to have
been founded by Hercules; it was, in all probability, of Pelasgian origin, but its history is obscure, and it never attained
to any importance. Being situated close to the sea, on elevated ground, it was exposed to the southwest wind, and from
that circumstance was reckoned particularly healthy. In the
time of Titus, A.D. 79, it was overwhelmed by that memorable eruption of Vesuvius which also ruined Pompeii. It appears to have been buried under showers of ashes, subsequently
overflowed by streams of lava, and is stated to be seventy feet
below the present surface of the ground. It was rediscovered
by the sinking of a well in 1713, when several antiquities were
found. Subsequent excavations were made by the Neapolitan
government, and a magnificent collection, not only of statues,
and paintings, and vases, but of domestic implements of every
kind, has been deposited in the Royal Museum at Portici. The
excavations, however, are by no means as extensive as those at
Pompeii, for it being found impossible to remove the incumbent soil in consequence of its thickness, as fast as one part was
thoroughly searched it was filled up with rubbish from another.
A small part of the theatre is all that is now accessible. Great
expectations were excited by the discovery of a large number.of manuscripts written on rolls of papyrus. The attempts to
unroll these have hitherto had but very imperfect success, and
those of which the subjects have been ascertained are of little
interest.
Mount Vesuvius, of which mention has been made in the
preceding paragraph, appears to have been at first known under the name of Vesevus, although the appellations of Vesvius
and Vesbius are also frequently applied to it. Strabo describes
this mountain as extremely fertile at its base, but entirely barren toward the summit, which was mostly level, and full of
apertures and cracks, seemingly produced by the action of fire;




342             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
whence Strabo was led to conclude that the volcano, though
once in a state of activity, had been extinguished from want of
fuel. Diodorus Siculus represents it also as being in a quiescent
state, since he argues from its appearance, at the time he was
writing, that it must have been on fire at some remote period.
The volcano was likewise apparently extinct when, as Plutarch
and Florus relate, Spartacus, with some of his followers, sought
refuge in the cavities of the mountain from the pursuit of their
enemies, and succeeded in eluding their search. It was in the
reign of Titus, August 24th, A.D. 79, that the first eruption on
record took place, when the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii,
and Stabice were buried under showers of volcanic sand, stones,
and scorie. Such was the immense quantity of volcanic sand
(called ashes) thrown out during this eruption, that the whole
country was involved in pitchy darkness; and, according to Dio
Cassius, the ashes fell in Egypt, Syria, and various parts of
Asia Minor. This eruption proved fatal, also, to the elder Pliny,
who commanded at the time the Roman fleet at Misenum, and
having, through curiosity, visited the burning mountain, was
suffocated by the sulphureous vapor. After this Vesuvius continued a burning mountain for nearly a thousand years, having
eruptions at intervals. The fire then appeared to become nearly extinct, and continued so from the beginning of the twelfth
to that of the sixteenth century. Since the eruption of 1506,
it has remained burning to the present time, with eruptions of
lava and ashes at intervals.
11. Pompeii or Pompeia (the first being the Latin, the second the Greek form of its name), situate about thirteen miles
southeast of Neapolis, in a plain at the foot of Vesuvius, through
which ran the little river Sarnus, now Sarno. The city appears to have been once close to the sea, but is now nearly two
miles from it, in consequence of the physical changes which
have taken place in this district. It stood on an eminence
formed by a bed of lava, which seems to have been thrown up
from the ground in this spot, and in several other places round
the foot of Vesuvius, long before any of the eruptions recorded
in history. Like Herculaneum, it was fabled to have been
founded by Hercules, but, like that place, was probably of Pelasgian origin. We find it occupied in succession by the Oscans, Etruscans, Samnites, and Romans. In the Social War




ITALIA.                    343
[B.C. 90) it joined the Marsian confederacy along with the other towns of Campania, but escaped without any severe punishment. It became at this period a military colony, and other
colonies were subsequently sent by Augustus and Nero. In
the reign of the latter, a bloody affray occurred at Pompeii, during the exhibition of a fight of gladiators, between the inhabitants of that place and those of Nuceria, in which many lives
were lost. The Pompeiani were, in consequence, deprived of
these shows for ten years, and several individuals were banished. Shortly after we hear of the destruction of a considerable portion of the city by an earthquake. The following year,
while Nero was singing at Naples, another earthquake occurred.
At last, in A.D. 79, in the month of August, the first recorded
eruption of Vesuvius took place, which overwhelmed this city,
and along with it Herculaneum and Stabiae. In 1689, the first
indications of ruins protruding above the ground were noticed.
In 1755 the excavations began. They have been interrupted
and resumed at various times, and the result has been that
about a fourth part of the city has been excavated and cleared
of the rubbish. For an account of the discoveries made at
Pompeii, the student is referred to Gell's elaborate work on the
subject.
The River Sarnus, now the Sarno, falls into the sea about
a mile from Pompeii. This river, according to Strabo, formed
the harbor of that town, which was also common to the inland
cities of Nola, Acerre, and lYuceria. The Pelasgi, who inhabited this coast at an early period, are said to have derived
the name of Sarrastes from this river.
12. Stabie, about two miles beyond the Sarnus, and in the
southeastern angle of the Bay of Naples. It is now Castelamare di Stabia. This was once a place of note, but having
been destroyed by Sylla during the civil wars, it became subsyquently a mere village, and a part of the old site was occupied by villas and pleasure grounds. It was overwhelmed along
with Herculaneum and Pompeii. According to Columella, this
spot was celebrated for its fountains, and such was the excellence of the pastures in its immediate vicinity, that the milk
of this district was reputed to be more wholesome and nutritious than that of any other country. 13. Surrentum, to the
southwest, now Sorrento, celebrated in modern times as the




344             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
birth-place of Tasso, and admired for the exquisite beauty of
its scenery and the salubrity of its climate. This city is said
to have been of very ancient date, and to have derived its name
from the Sirens, who are fabled to have made this coast their
favorite haunt, and who had here a temple consecrated to them.
The wine of the Surrentine Hills was held in great estimation
by the ancients.
It will now be necessary to retrace our steps as far as'the
northern frontiers of Campania, in order to enter upon the description of the interior of that province. It has been stated
that the Massic Hills, the ancient Mons Massicus, formed its
boundary of separation from Latium. This celebrated range
is entirely detached from the chain of the Apennines, and extends from the sea in the immediate vicinity of Monte Dragone,
the ancient Sinuessa, in a northerly direction, till it unites with
the hills of Sessa, the ancient Suessa Auruncorum, being a
distance of about ten miles in length, while its breadth scarcely
equals three. The Latin poets are lavish in their encomiums
on the excellence of the wine produced by this celebrated ridge.
To the north of the Massic Hills, and on the left bank of the
Liris, we find the Aurunci, who once occupied a more extensive territory in Latium; but, on being expelled thence by the
Roman arms, they retired to the mountainous tracts about
Sessa and Rocca Monfina. Among their cities we may name,
1. Suessa Auruncorum, now Sessa, the capital of the race, after
their former capital, Aurunca, had been destroyed by the neighboring Sidicini. It became a Roman colony and a municipium. 2. Aurunca, the earlier capital, as just remarked. Some
vestiges of it may still be seen near the church of Santa Croce,
on the elevated ridge in the vicinity of Rocca Monfina.
To the east of the Aurunci were the Sidicini, once apparently
an independent people, but afterward included under the common name of Campani. They were of Oscan origin. The only
town which antiquity ascribes to them is Teanum, now Teano,
about six miles to the east of Suessa, and fifteen to the northwest of Capua. Strabo informs us that it stood on the Latin
Way, and was inferior to Capua alone among the Campanian
cities in extent and importance. It became a Roman colony
under Augustus.
Resuming our account of the cities of Campania, we come




ITAL IA.                  34.5
to, 1. Venafrum, now Venafri, the last city to the north, and
near the River Vulturnus. It was situate on the Latin Way,
and was much celebrated in antiquity for the excellence of the
oil which its territory produced. 2. To the southeast of Teanum, and also on the Latin Way, we find Cales, now Calvi,
and anciently a considerable city. The territories of Cales and
Teanum were separated by two temples dedicated to Fortune,
one on the right, the other on the left of the Latin Way. The
Calenian territory was much celebrated for its vineyards, and
was contiguous to the famous Falernian district, or Falerinus
Ager, so well known for producing the finest wine in Italy, or,
indeed, in the ancient world. Without pretending to fix the
limits of this favored portion of Campania with scrupulous accuracy, it seems evident, from the testimony of Livy and Pliny,
that we must regard it as extending from the Massic Hills to
the Vulturnus.  That part of the district which grew the
choicest wine was distinguished by the name of Faustianus,
being that of a village about six miles from Sinuessa. We find
the name of Amance also given to some vineyards in this vicinity. Macrobius, indeed, states that there was a people called
Aminei.
3. Casilinum, to the southeast of Cales, on the Appian Way,
celebrated in history for the obstinate defence which it made
against Hannibal after the battle of Canne. The modern
Capua is generally supposed to occupy its site. 4. Cdapua, to
the southeast of Casilinum, once the capital of Campania, and
inferior to Rome alone among the cities of Italy. Its original
name was Vulturnus, which was changed by the Tuscans,
when they became masters of the place, to Capua, calling it
after their leader Capys, who, according to Festus, had received
this appellation from his feet being deformed and turned inward.
Capua was the chief city of the southern Etrurians, and, even after it fell under the Roman dominion, continued to be a powerful
and flourishing place. Before Capua passed into the hands of
the Romans, a dreadful massacre of its Etrurian inhabitants by
the Samnites put the city into the hands of this latter people.
Livy appears to have confounded this event with the origin of the
place when he makes its name to have been changed from Vulturnus to Capua, after a Samnite leader Capys. Capua deeply
offended the Romans by opening its gates to Hannibal after the




346             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
battle of Cannae. The vengeance inflicted by the Romans was
of the most fearful nature, when, five years after, the city again
fell under their dominion. Most. of the senators and principal
inhabitants were put to death, the greater part of the remaining citizens were sold into slavery, and by a decree of the senate the Capuani ceased to exist as a people. Julius Caesal
sent a powerful colony to Capua, and under the emperors it
again flourished. But it suffered greatly from the barbarians
in a later age, so much so, in fact, that the Bishop Landulfus,
and the Lombard Count Lando, transferred the inhabitants to
Casilinum. This last, as already remarked, is the site of modern Capua. The ruins of ancient Capua are about two miles
to the southeast of the modern city, and close to the church of
Santa Maria di Capoa. About a mile to the east of Capua
rose Mons T~fata, a branch of the Apennines, which now takes
its name of Maddaloni from a village near Caserta. This ridge
is often noticed by Livy as a favorite position of Hannibal
when in the vicinity of Capua.
5. Atella, to the south of Capua, and the ruins of which are
still to be seen near the village of Sant' Elpidio or Sant' Arpino, about two miles from the town of Aversa. It is known
to have been an Oscan city, and it has acquired some importance in the history of Roman literature from the circumstance
of the name and origin of the Fabuik  Atellance being derived
from this place. Atella, having joined the Carthaginians, was,
in consequence, subsequently reduced by the Romans to a prefecture. It was afterward colonized by Augustus. 6. Acerrce,
to the southeast of Atella, and at the sources of the Clanius.
It is now Acerra. This place is spoken of by Virgil as exposed
to inundations from the neighboring stream, and therefore thinly
inhabited (vacutc). 7. N6la, to the east of Acerrae, and one of
the most ancient and important cities of Campania. Its origi a
is ascribed by some to the Aus6nes, by others to the Tuscans
or the Chalcidians, which means, probably, that it successively
fell into the hands of these three communities. It was afterward occupied by the Samnites, until they were driven out by
the Romans. It was a strongly fortified place, and resisted all
the efforts of Hannibal after the battle of Canne, being defended by Marcellus. It was burned to the ground in the Social
War, but arose subsequently from its ruins, and was again




ITALIA.                    347
ranked among the cities of Campania. Here Augustus breathed
his last, in the same house and chamber in which his father
Octavius had ended his days. Nola was colonized in the reign
of Vespasian. 8. Abella, to the northeast of Nola, and the ruins of which still exist at Avella Vecchia. Virgil speaks of it
as abounding in fruit, particularly apples. 9. Nuiceria, to the
southeast of Nola, now Nocera de' Pagani. It was situate on
the Sarnus, and had the appellation of Alfaterna attached to
its name, to distinguish it from some other places of the same
name. It was sacked and burned by Hannibal. In the reign
of Nero it was restored and colonized.
South of Campania, properly so called, were the Picentini,
who occupied an inconsiderable extent of territory from the
Promontorium llinerve to the mouth of the River Silarus.
We learn from Strabo that they were a portion of the inhabitants of Picenum, whom the Romans transplanted thither to
people the shores of the Sinus Pcestanus. According to the
same writer, the Picentini were, at a subsequent period, compelled to abandon the few towns which they possessed, and to
reside in villages and hamlets, in consequence of having sided
with Hannibal in the second Punic war. As a further punishment, they were excluded from military service, and allowed
only to perform the duties of couriers and messengers.
On the south side of the promontory of Surrentum, or Minerva, were three small rocks, detached from the land, called Sirenusce Insulie, and formerly celebrated as the islands of the
Sirens. They are now called Galli. Continuing along the
coast, we find, 1. Marcina, founded, as Strabo reports, by the
Tuscans, but subsequently occupied by the Samnites. Its site
answers to the modern Vietri. 2. Sdlernum, a short distance
to the northeast of the preceding, and said to have been built
by the Romans as a check on the Picentini. It was not, therefore, situated, like the modern town of Salerno, close to the sea,
but on the heights above, where considerable remains have been
observed. Salernum became a Roman colony seven years after
the conclusion of the second Punic war. 3. Picentia, southeast
of Salernum, and distant seven miles from it. This was once
the capital of the Picentini. It is now Vicenza or Bicenza, on
the little river Bicentino.




348                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF CAMPANIA.
1. Panddtaria, now Vandotina, assigned by some, less correctly, to Latlum.
Julia, the daughter of Augustus, was banished to this island, as were also the
elder Agrippina, and Octavia, the wife of Nero.
2. I/Endria, called, also, Inarime and Pithecusa. The first name was the most
common, and the best authenticated, and refers probably to the copper (Crs)
found in it. The second, Inarime, is only found in the poets, and appears to be
formed from Homer's elv'Apl/ofit (II., 2, 783). For it would seem, from an examination of various passages, that Virgil, and after him the other Latin poets,
have applied to this island more particularly Homer's description of the place
of torment allotted to the earth-born Typhoeus.'It is very uncertain, however,
what people or country Homer intended to designate by the name of Arimi.
The name Pithecusa, the third one of those mentioned above, is generally supposed to mean " Ape Island," from the great number of these animals which
the island is said to have contained at an early period. In Greek, rniO7Kof means
" an ape." Pliny, however, says that the island took its name, not from apes,
but from the number of earthen wine-jars (riOot) which were made there, and
used as casks. Sometimes the name is written in the plural, Pithecusce, and
then the adjacent island of Prochyta, now Procida, is included along with ZEnaria. We are informed by Strabo that AEnaria was first occupied by a colony
of Eretrians and Chalcidians, which flourished for a time on account of the fertility of the soil, and the wealth produced by the discovery of some gold mines.
A sedition, however, having disturbed the tranquillity of the colony, the Chalcidians were the first to abandon the island; and not long after the Eretrians
followed their example, being alarmed by repeated earthquakes, and the bursting out of fire and hot springs, attended by irruptions of the sea. The same
causes compelled another colony, sent by Hiero, king of Syracuse, to quit their
settlement and a town which they had built. Strabo ascribes to these volcanic
phenomena all the fabulous accounts of the poets respecting Typhoeus. He
further quotes the historian Timeus, who related that, a little before his time,
Mons Epopius, now sometimes called Epomeo, but more commonly Monte San
Nicolo, burst forth with such fury that the sea retired from the island to the
distance of three stadia, but that on its return it deluged the island and extinguished the volcano. The inhabitants of the opposite coast were so alarmed
that they fled into the interior of Campania.
3. Nesis, between Puteoli and Ncapolis, and within a short distance of the
shore. It is now Nisida. Cicero speaks of it as a favorite residence of his
friend Brutus.
4. Caprcea, now Capri, near the promontory of Minerva, chiefly known in history as the residence of the Emperor Tiberius in the latter part of his life. Augustus was the first emperor who resided here, having given the Neapolitans
the island of AEnaria, which belonged to him, in exchange for it. Tiberius was
led to select it as his abode from its difficulty of access, being cut off from all
approach, except on one side, by lofty and perpendicular rocks. The mildness
of the climate, and the beauty of the prospect, which extends over the whole
bay of Naples, might also, as Tacitus remarks, have influenced his choice.
Here he caused twelve villas to be erected, which he is supposed to have named
after the twelve chief deities. The ruins of the villa of Jove, which was the
most conspicuous, and probably is the same with what Pliny styles the Arx
Tiberii, are still to be seen on the summit of the cliff looking toward Sorrento.




ITALIA.                          349
This same writer computes the circuit of the island to be eleven miles. Strabo
speaks of two small towns in this island, which probably answer to those of
Capri and Anacapri at the present day.
10. SAMNIUM      AND THE FRENTANI.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Samnziu     was called by the Greeks;avvZrtf, and the Samnites were styled by the same people Iavvlrat.      Festus derives
the name of this people from the peculiar kind of javelin used
by them, and which was called, in Greek, aavvtov, but Samniuzn and Samnites are both historically and etymologically connected with the term Sabini.
II. Samnium was bounded on the north by the territory of
the Frentani; on the northeast and east by Apulia; on the
south by the Picentini and Lucania; and on the west by Latium  ancd Campania.
III. It is usual with geographers to regard the ancient Samnites as divided into three distinct tribes, the Caraceni, Pentri, and Hirpini, to which others have added the Caudini and
Frentcni.    But the former classification seems to rest on better authority, and may, therefore, be more safely adopted. The
Caudini will be ranged with the Pentri, and the Frentani will
be treated as a distinct people from the Samnites at the end of
this section.
(B.) SKETCH OF SAMNITE HISTORY.
I. THE Samnites are originally a colony of the Sabini, who migrate in remote times, probably before the building of Rome, to the banks of the Vulturnus
and Tamarus, and thence spread on one side as far as the plains of Apulia, and
on the other to those of Campania. They appear originally as an agricultural
and pastoral people, and as their numbers increase beyond the means of subsistence, they follow the custom of their Sabine ancestors, and send forth colonies into the countries to the south.
II. The Samnites, between A.U.C. 330 and 333, attack the Etruscans who
had settled in Campania. The Etruscans at length, being weary of war, admit
a Samnite colony to share with them their homes and fields; but the latter,
on the occasion of a great festival, when the old inhabitants are overcome by
sleep after banqueting, murder them, and form the new state of Capua, which
figured so much afterward in the history of the wars of Rome.
III. About B.C. 340, the first war breaks out between the Samnites and Romans, who had taken up arms to protect the Campanians against the Samnites proper of Samnium. The Romans are victorious in several encounters, and the Samnites are compelled to sue for peace. A new war, however,
breaks out in 323 B.C., which is marked by varied success, and in the course
of which the Roman army is compelled to pass under the yoke at the Caudine
Forks. But the Samnites at length, after inflicting severe losses upon the Ro



350                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
mans, and not only overrunning Campania, but even invading the borders of
Latium, are once more compelled to sue for peace.
IV. A war breaks out again in 298 B.C., in which Q. Fabius Maximus and
P. Decius Mus are the Roman commanders, and the Samnites, after a valiant resistance, are again overcome, and in 290 B.C. sue for peace, which the
Romans, likewise exhausted by their dearly-bought victories, are disposed to
grant. The result of this war, or, rather, succession of wars, is, that the Romans
extend their power over Southern Italy, Campania, and Apulia, and thus become
neighbors, and soon after enemies, of the Tarentines. The Tarentine war brings
on the expedition of Pyrrhus into Italy, and in the war with Pyrrhus the Samnites join that prince, after whose second retreat they are attacked by two Roman armies and utterly defeated, 272 B.C. Samnium now becomes a conquered
country, and the Romans send colonies to Maleventum and other places.
V. In the war of Hannibal the Hirpini join the Carthaginians, but the Pentri
do not. At last, in the Social War, the Samnites having joined the Marsi, Vestini, Peligni, and others, in the common league against Rome, are defeated and
slaughtered without mercy by Sylla, who exclaims that Rome can enjoy no
repose as long as a number of Samnites can collect together. The devastation
of Samnium by Sylla is most effectual; the towns are burned and fazed to the
ground. Beneventum alone is spared.
VI. The last time the Samnites appear in history is during the war of Sylla
against the younger Marius, when Pontius Telesinus joins the latter at the
head of 40,000 Samnites and Lucanians, steals a march upon Sylla, who is besieging Praeneste, and advances within ten stadia of Rome, which is without
any adequate defence. Telesinus tells his Samnites that he is the enemy of
both Marius and Sylla, and that his object is to destroy Rome and restore freedom to Italy. Sylla, however, comes in time to save the city. A desperate
battle ensues, and the Samnites, after having nearly gained the day, are obliged
to retire to Antemnae, where Telesinus is killed. Between seven and eight thousand Samnites surrender to Sylla, who marches them to Rome, and, having shut
thon up in the Circus Maximus, has them all butchered in cold blood while he
is haranguing the senate in the neighboring temple of Bellona. The remainder
of the Samnites are slaughtered in the same manner at the taking of Praneste.
(C.) CITIES OF SAMNIUM.
IN the territory of the Cardceni we find, 1. Azifidena, their
capital, now Alfidena. Frontinus informs us that it became
a military colony.    2. Samnium, near the source of the Vulturnus, on the site now called Cerro. The existence of a city
of this name was doubted for some time by modern writers, but
the point has been fully established by Romanelli. 3. Castel.
lurm  Cardcenorum, to the northeast of the preceding, near the
Sagrus, now     Sangro, and on the site of the fortress which
takes its name from that river, Castel di Sangro. According
to Zonaras, it served as a refuge for banditti until it was stormed
by the Romans, who on this occasion are said to have acquired
so rich a booty that they began from that time to coin silver
drachme.     4. Aquil6nia, to the southeast, now Agnone, near




ITALIA.                    351
the source of the Trinius, now Trigno. This place must not
be confounded with another Aquilonia, on the Appian Way,
near the confines of Apulia, and now Lacedogna.
In the territory of the Pentri we find, 1. Bovianum, their
capital, situate among lofty mountains, and near the site of
the modern Boiano. Livy describes it as a most opulent and
important place, and the consequence attached by the Romans
to its possession is evinced by the repeated efforts which they
made to conquer it. In the Social War it became one of the
strongest holds of the confederates, after Corfinium had been
abandoned. Nothing of its former importance, however, remained in the time of Strabo, who describes it as ruinous and
deserted. It became a military colony under Caesar. 2. AEsernia, to the northwest of Bovianum, about twelve miles distant,
and now Isernia. It was colonized about the beginning of the
first Punic war, and is mentioned by Livy as one of those colonies which distinguished themselves by their firm adherence
to the Roman power during the war with Hannibal. It was
recolonized by Augustus and Nero. 3. Treventum, to the northeast, now Trivento, on the Trinius, now Trigno. It was a
Roman colony, and also a municipium. 4. Maronea, to the
northeast, taken by Marcellus in the second Punic war, together
with some considerable magazines deposited there by Hannibal.
Its site corresponds to Campo Marano, on the right bank of
the Trigno. 5. TDfernum, to the southeast, near the present
Ponte di Limosano, on the River Tifernus; now the Biferno.
The Mons Tifernus was at the source of the same river, near
Bovianum. 6. Sepinum, to the southeast of Bovianum, a place
of some note, and taken by the Romans under Papirius Cursor.
It became a colony in the reign of Nero. The site answers to
that which is now called Attilia, about ten miles from the modern Sepino. The continual warfare to which the country of
the Samnites was so long exposed, produced its natural effects
on many of the ancient towns cited in the annals of Rome, but
of which no vestige can now be traced with certainty. We
must, therefore, be necessarily brief in the rest of our enumeration.
7. Allife, to the southwest of Bovianum, now Allife. This
place was noted for the large-sized drinking-cups made there.
8. Telesia, to the southeast of the preceding, and the ruins of




352            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
which are to be seen about a mile from the modern Telese.
This town was taken by Hannibal on his first march through
Samnium. It was the native place of C. Pontius Telesinus,
who fought against Sylla. 9. C6omnium Ceritum, northeast
of the preceding, and now Cereto.
On crossing the Vulturnus, we enter into that part of the
Samnite territory which belonged properly to the Caudine Samnites. Among the cities in this quarter may be named, 1. Saticila, now St. Agata dei Goti, a place of considerable antiquity, and named by Virgil among those which sent aid to Turnus. It was colonized by the Romans, according to Festus,
under the consuls Papirius Cursor and C. Junius. 2. Caudium.,
to the southeast of the preceding, and the site of which is to be
fixed at Paolisi or Cervinara. In the vicinity of this place
was the famous pass called Furcee (or Furcuile) Caudinte, " the
Caudine Forks," where the Roman army, commanded by the
consuls T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, was entrapped by the
Samnite leader C. Pontius, and compelled to pass under the
yoke. According to the best opinion, the valley of Arpaia represents the Furcae Caudinae, a circumstance which is strongly
confirmed by the name of Furclce, which this valley is known
to have borne in the Middle Ages, and which is still preserved
in that of the little village in this quarter, now called Forchie.
Among the mountains which form the passes of Arpaia and
Montesarchio we must distinguish Mons Taburnus, which rises
to the east of Saticula. This lofty mountain, still called Taburno or Tabor, derives celebrity from Virgil, and is also mentioned by the poet Gratius. 3. Beneventum, about ten miles
to the northeast of Caudium, and on the Appian Way. Its
earlier name was Mdleventum, which is said to have been given
it on account of its unhealthy atmosphere. The more auspicious appellation of Beneventum was substituted when the Romans sent a colony thither. Some, however, who think this
explanation more fanciful than satisfactory, make the earlier
name to have been Maluentum, without any reference to unhealthiness of situation, and as this sounded to Roman ears like
Maleventum, it was deemed an inauspicious appellation, and
Beneventum was substituted. Beneventum was situated near
the junction of the Sabatus and Calor, now Sabbato and Calore.
We have now to speak of the Hirpini, who, though compre



ITALI A.                   ^ 
}en1ded mui&r the general denonmination of Sammites, seem to
have formed a distinct people. Their name was said to be derived from the word hirpss, which in the Samnite dialect signrfied " a wolf;" and it has been supposed that they were originally a Sabine colony, who were guided in their migrations to
this quarter by following the tracks of this species of animal.
Among the cities of the Hirpini we may name, 1. Abellinum,
now Abellino, in the mountains which separated this people from
the Picentini. Its inhabitants were distinguished from those
of another Abellinum, which belonged to Lucani^i, by the appellation of Abellinates Protr6pi. 2. IEculanum or zEclanum,
on the Appian Way, about thirteen modern miles from Beneventum, in a southeast direction. It was besieged by Sylla
during the civil wars. The ruins lie near Mirabella, on the,
site called by the natives Le Grotte. 3. Taurdsium, a little to
the southeast of the preceding, and now Taurasi. It is mentioned in the inscription on the tomb of Scipio Barbatus as one
of the towns taken by that general. In its vicinity were the'Taurasini Campi, where Pyrrhus, on his return from Sicily,
was totally defeated by M. Curius Dentatus. The name of
these plains is incorrectly written Arusini Campi in Florus and
other ancient authors. The Romans, many years afterward,
settled in this district a numerous body of Ligurians whom they
had conquered and removed from their country. 4. JEquus Tuticus oi Equotztitcus, to the northeast of Beneventum, and on
the Appian Way. D'Anville places it at Castel Franco, which
is nearly correct; the exact site, however, is occupied by the
ancient church of St. Eleut&io, a martyr, who is stated in old
ecclesiastical records to have suffered at 2Equum. This place
is about five miles from Ariano, in a northerly direction. Tuticus is an Oscan word, and is said to be equivalent to the Latin
/Iagnnus. It is commonly supposed-that Horace means this
place in the account of his journey to Brundisium (Sat., i., 5,
87), where he makes mention of a town having a name that
could not be introduced into hexameter verse. This supposition, however, is an erroneous one. After leaving Beneventum,
Horace and his party passed tie first night at a villa close tc
Trivicum, now Trivico, a place situate to the southeast of
Equus Tuticus, among the mountains separating Samnium
from Apulia. On the following. night they lodged at the town
z




354                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
with the untractable name, and on the third day reached Canusium.    Now, if this town had been 2Equus Tuticus, they must
have gone back in a northwestern direction, and one quite
out of their way; and, besides, they must then have travelled
only twenty-two miles during the first and second day, and have
left forty-two miles for the third. This, however, is both at variance with the text, and inconsistent with the manner in which
the journey was performed. 5. Compsa, on the southern confines of this part of Samnium, now       Conza.    It was a city of
some note, and revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae.
It was here that this general left all his baggage, and part of
his army, when advancing into Campania.
The small nation of the Frentdni appear to have possessed a separate political
existence, independent of the Samnite confederacy, though we are assured they
derived their descent from that warlike and populous race. From Plutarch we
learn that they distinguished themselves in the war against Pyrrhus; and it appears that they faithfully adhered to the Roman cause throughout the whole of
the second Punic war. Whatever may have been their former extent of territory, we find it restricted by the geographers of the Augustan age to the tract
of country lying between the mouths of the Aternus and Tifernus, the former
separating it from the Marrucini on the north, and the latter from the country
of Apulia to the south. The few cities of the Frentani with which we are acquainted appear to have been situate on the coast. These are, 1. Ortona, still
retaining its ancient site and name. Strabo calls it the naval arsenal of the
Frentani. 2. Anxanum, south of the preceding, and more inland. The name
of this town seems to have been also written Anxa and Anxia. It occupied the
site now called Lanciano Vecchio. 3. Bica, beyond the River Sagrus, and a seaport town. Its ruins may be seen at a place named Penna. 4. Histonimun, further
along the coast, and now Vasto d'Ammone. It was once the haunt of savage
pirates, who, as Strabo reports, formed their dwellings from the wrecks of ships,
and in other respects lived more like beasts of prey than civilized beings. A
Roman colony was subsequently established here  Beyond this place is the
mouth of the Trinius, now Trigno. 5. Interamna, a small town and port, now
Termoli. The Tifernus, now the Biferno, terminates the description of the Ager
Frentanus to the south.
11. APULIA, INCLUDING.DAUNIA AND MESSAPIA OR IAPYGIA.
N]AME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. WE have now left central Italy or Italia Propria, and are entering upon the
region called Magna Gracia ( "'EXca yeyciadr), a name given to it on account of
the numerous and flourishing colonies established by the Greeks in this section
of the peninsula. There is some difficulty in determining how far this appellation extended, but, according to the btest authorities, it appears to have comprised Apulia, Messdpia or Iapygia, Lucdnia, and Bruttium; or, in other words,
the portion of Italy that remains still to be considered by us.
II. It appears from Strabo's account that the name of Apulia was originally
applied to a small tract of country immediately to the southeast of the Frentani




ITALIA.                        355
In the reign of Augustus, however, the term Apulia was used in a much more
extended sense, and included not only Daunia, but also the country of Messapia
or lapygia.
III. On the other hand, what may be remarked as a singular circumstance,
the term Messapia or lapygia appears to have been confined at first to that peninsula which closes the Gulf of Taientum to the southeast, but afterward to have
had the same extension given to it by the Greeks which the Roman historians
and geographers assigned to Apulia, a name of which the Greeks were ignorant.
IV. The boundaries of Apulia, then, in the widest sense of the term, were as
follows: on the north by the territory of the Frenlani and the Sinus Urias; on
the northeast by the Hadriatic; on the southeast by the Hadriatic and a part of
the Sinus Tarentinus; and on the southwest by Samnium and Lucania.
V. We will now proceed to consider the several portions of country comprehended under this name, and which are, 1. Apulia Proper; 2. Daunia; 3. Peucetia; and, 4. Messapia or lapygia.
1. APULIA PROPER.
Apulia Proper, or Apulia originally so called, was a district
of very limited extent. According to Strabo, it was contiguous to the Ager Frentanus on one side, and to Daunia on the
other, and its lower limit was a line drawn from the coast a
little below  Uria or Hyrium    and the Lacus Urianus, now
Lago Varano, across the country to the Apennines above Ltuceria.
Beginning, then, from the River Tifernus, we come to, 1. Cliternia, the ruins of which are to be seen at a small place called
Licchiano, on the little river Sacchione, near the sea.   2. Larinum, to the southwest, and the ruins of which occupy the site
called Larino Vecchio.    This was a place of considerable'importance, and appears to have belonged at one time to the Frentani, from the name of Larinates Frentani attached to its inhabitants by Pliny. It formed in itself a small independent
state before it became subject to the Roman power.    We have
frequent mention of Larinum in Cicero's defence of Cluentius,
who was a citizen of the place. We gather, too, from the same
oration, that it was a municipal town and in a flourishing condition.'3. Calela, to the southwest, a fortress near which Minucius was stationed during the absence of the dictator Fabius.
Its site answers to Casa Calenda.      4. Geranium, about two
miles to the northeast of the preceding, selected by Hannibal
for his winter-quarters after the campaign against Fabius. It
had been previously carried by storm, the private dwellings had
been destroyed, and the principal buildings were reserved only
as magazines for the corn which the surrounding country sup.




356             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.,plied in reat abundance. It was here that Hannibal was opposed to.the rash Minucius, who, but for the timely aid afforded
him by Fabius, would have paid dearly for his presumption in
supposing that he was able to cope with the Carthaginian leader.
Gerunium appears to have been situated on a spot still known
by the name of Girone, between Casd Calenda and Montorio:
~5. Tedte Apulumn, so called to distinguish it from Teate of
the llarrucini. It lay a short distance to the southeast of Cliternia, and its ruins bear the name of Chieti Vecchio. 6. Teanumn Apiulum, so called'to distinguish it from the Campanian
Teanum. It lay to the southeast of the preceding. Strabo
makes it to have been situate at the head of a lake formed by
the sea, which encroached o) considerably upon the land that
the breadth of Italy between this point and Puteoli did not exceed one thousand stadia. This lake was the Lacus Pantanus,
now Lag0o di Lesina. The ruins of Teanum exist on the site
of Ciiitate, about a mile from the right bank of the Fortore,
the ancient Frento, and ten miles from the sea. 7. Uria or Ureium ( (Ovipov), as Strabo writes it, but, according to Ptolemy,
iHyrium ("Tptov), a place the situation of which has not yet
been clearly determined, partly because there was another city
of the same name in Messapia, and partly because Strabo and
Pliny differ with regard to the position of the present one, Strabo
placing it to the north of the promontory of Garganum, and Pliny
to the south of it. Strabo's opinion is undoubtedly the true one,
and his Ureiumi answers to the modern Rodi. Hence, too, the
Sinus Urias, which is erroneously placed on most maps'below
the promontory of Garganum, is more correctly placed above it.
Opposite to the Sinus Urias, and at no great distance from
theC coast, are some small islands, celebrated in mythology as
the scene of the metamorphosis of Diomede's companions, who
were changed into birds, and of the disappearance of that hero
himself. Hence they were known by the name of InSuleT Diomedece. Ancient writers differ as to their number. Strabo
and Pliny recognize two, and the latter states that one was
called Diomedea, the other Teutria. Ptolemy, however, reckons five, which is said to be the correct number, if we include
in the group three barren rocks, which scarcely deserve the
name of islands. The island which Pliny calls Diomedea appears to have also borne the appellation Tremitus, as we-learn




I TLIA.                           3 57
from Tacitus, who informs us that it was the spot to which
Augustus removed-his abandoned grand-daughter Julia, and
where she terminated a life of infamy.      It is now called Treniti.   Teutria is now   Pianosa.
2. DAUNIA.
I. Daunia extended from the southern limits of Apulia Proper, as far south as
a line drawn from the mouth of the Aufidus to Silvium, now Garagnone, in the
Apennines, and passing to the east of Cannae and Cniisium, which, therefore,
both belonged to the Daunian territory.
TIL The Daunii appear to have been onie of the earliest Italian tribes with
which the Greeks became acquainted, from the circumstance of their having
formed colonies, which they established at a remote period on the western
shores ot the Adriatic. This people, according to the received tradition, oh
tained their appellation from Daunus, the father-in-law of Diomede, the latter,
on his return from Troy, having been compelled by domestic troubles to abandon his native country, and having founded another kingdom in the plains watered by the Aufidus. This tradition, whatever may be its truth in other respects, proves at least the great antiquity of the Daunians as an indigenous people of Italy. Other accounts, perhaps still more ancient, asserted that Daunlus
was an Illyrian chief, who, driven from his country by an adverse faction, fornrcd
a settlement in this part of Italy.
III. According to some writers, the Apuli, Daunii, Peucetii, and Calar!i were
actually Illyrians; but the safer opinion undoubtedly is to consider th'm as the
descendants of a remnant of Liburni and other ancient Illyrians, mningl;di ith
a subsequent and preponderating influx of Oscans and different uatice Italian
tribes.
Among the cities on the coast of Daunia we may notice iie
following: 1. Merenum, to the' northeast of Uria or Hyritim,
and near the promontory of Gargatnum.         Its inhabitants are
called by Pliny " Merindtes ex Gargdno."        The church of S.
Maria di Mlerino mnarks the ancient site.      2. A, cgsus Portus,
on the other side of the promontory, now probably Porto Greco.
3. Matinuem, at tihe foot of Mons Garganus, and the name of
which is recalled by the modern- Matinata, which probably also
marks the ancient site.   It was here, according to the best commentators on Horace, that Archytas, the celebrated philosopher
of Tarentum, was interred, when cast on shore after shipwreck.
The vicinity of this town was famed for its bees and honey.
One of the summits of Garganus, inland from this place, was
called Drium Mons.      On it were two chapels sacred to Calchas and Podalirius.    A  rivulet issuing from   the base of the
mountain was said to have the property of healing all disorders
incident to cattle.  Mons Garganus is called at the present day
MIonte Sant' Angcelo.




358             ANCIENT G EOGRAPHY.
4. Sipus (Ts7iovg, oivrom) or, as the Latins write it, Siplonturn, lower down on the coast, and southwest of Matinum. It
was a city of Greek origin, and great antiquity, and was fabled to have been founded by Diomede. According to Strabo,
the name of the place was derived from the circumstanee of
great quantities of cuttle-fish (aor]a, sepia) being thrown up by
the sea on its shore. The ruins of this once flourishing city
are said to exist about two miles to the west of Mianfredonia,
the founding of which Sity led to the final desertion of Sipontum by its inhabitants, as they were transferred by King Manfredi to this modern town, which is known to have risen under
his auspices.
Turning our attention now to the cities in the interior of
Daunia, we come to, 1. Arpi, or, as it was first called, Argyrippa, which last appellation was supposed to be a modification
of "Apyoc "17rrtov, the name which it was said to have received
originally from its reputed founder Diomede. Arpi lay in a
southwest direction from Sipontum, and, whoever was its founder, appears to have been a city of great antiquity. In Strabo's
time it was greatly reduced, but it still continued to exist under Constantine as an episcopal see. The ruins observable between Foggia and Manfredonia are supposed to point out the
exact-situation of Arpi, and are said still to retain that name.
2. Salapia, to the southeast, between a lake thence called Palus Salapina and the River Aufidus. This also was a place
of very early origin, and some suppose it to have been a Rhodian colony. The inhabitants of this place, finding its proximity to the lake or marsh injurious to health, removed eventually
nearer the coast, where they built a new town, with the assistance of M. Hostilius, a Roman praetor, who caused a communication to be opened between the lake and the sea. Considerable remains of both towns are still standing at some distance
from each other, under the name of Salpi. The Palus Salapina is now called Lago di Salpi.
3. Luceria, to the southwest, another town of great antiquity,
and said to have been founded by Diomede. It was an important city, and was noted, also, for the excellence of its wool, a
property, indeed, which, according to Strabo, was common to
all Apulia. The town still retains its ancient site under the
modern name of Lucera. 4. Herdonia, to the southeast, now




I',I..                 o59
Ordcona, on1-a brarnch if the Appian Way. It was burneil by
Hannibal, and the, inhabitants were removed from the place.
It must, however, have risen afterward from this state of ruin,
fmice we find it mentioned as a colony by Frontinus, under the
corrupt name of Ardona. Strabo calls it Cerdonia, and places
it on the continuation of the Egnatian Way, between Canusium and Beneventum. 5. Asculum Apulum, to the southwest
of Herdonia, and so called to distinguish it from Ascilum in
Picenuim. It was under the walls of this town that Pyrrhus
encountered a second time the Roman army, after having gained
a signal victory in Lucania. The battle was obstinately contested, but attended with no decisive advantage to either side.
The site of this place corresponds to the modern Ascoli. 6. Venusia, to the southeast, on the great Appian Way leading to Tarentumn. It is now Venosa. This place appears to have been
a Roman colony of some importance before the war against
Pyrrhus. After the disaster at Canna, it afforded a retreat to
the consul Varro and the handful of men who escaped with him
from that bloody field. The services rendered by the Venusini
on that occasion obtained for them afterward the special thanks
and eulogium of the Roman senate. Venusia is remarkable,
also, in literary history, from the poet Horace having been born
within its territory, on the doubtful confines of Apulia and Lucania. To the south of Venusia rises Mions Vultur, now Monte
Vulture, alluded to by Horace among the scenes of his early
boyhood. From the conical shape of the mountain, and its mineralogical character, naturalists have inferred that it is an extinct volcano.
7. Frentumn, about eight miles south of Venusia, and now
Forenza. It was on the other side of Mons Vultur, and is
mentioned by Horace. 8. Bantia', more to the east, and higher
up toward the mountains. In the vicinity of this place Marcellus fell a victim to tlie stratagem of Hannibal. Bantia is
also mentioned by Horace.  The modern name is Banza.
9. Acherontia, now Acerenza, situate, as Horace describes it,
on an almost inaccessible hill south of Forentum. Livy and Procopius both mention it as a place of great strength. 10. Cdnusium, on the right bank of the Aufidus, and about twelve
miles from its mouth. This was a flourishing and very ancient
city, and its origin seems to belong to a period which reaches




360              ANCIENT GEOGRAPRY.
far beyond the records of Roman history, and of which we possess no memorial but what a fabulous tradition has conveyed
to us. Splendid remains of antiquity still exist among its ruins, which are known by the name of Canosa. This place, also,
like Venusia, afforded shelter to the Roman fugitives after the
battle of Cannee. Hadrian colonized the town, and procured
for it a supply of good water, of which it stood in much need,
as we learn from Horace. The epithet of " bilinguis," applied
by the same poet to this place, refers to the mixed dialect of
Oscan and Greek that was spoken here.   11. Cannwe, a village
situated about five miles from Canusium, toward the sea, and
at no great distance from the Aufidus.  It is memorable for the
great victory obtained by Hannibal in its vicinity over the Roman consuls Terentius Varro and AEmilius Paulus.   The battle was fought on the second of August, B.C. 216. Of the Romans there fell 45,000, among whom were the consul 2Emilius
Paulus, eighty senators, and a number of persons who had been
invested with the highest offices of the republic. Varro escaped
with a few horsemen to Venusia, and another small detachment
threw itself into Canusium; but Hannibal, unconcerned about
the latter, marched toward Capua. It appears from Polybius
that Cannae, as a town, was destroyed the year before the battle was fought, and a village would seem to have sprung up
on its site. The citadel, however, was preserved, and the
circumstance of its occupation by Hannibal seems to have been
regarded by the Romans of sufficient importance to cause them
considerable uneasiness and annoyance. It commanded, in.
deed, all the adjacent country, and was the principal southern
depot of stores and provisions, on which they had depended for
the approaching campaign. The field of battle was the plain
between Cannae and the Aufidus.   The site of Cannae is still
known by the name of Canne.
3.'PEUCETIA.
I. NFXT to the Daunii were the Peucetii, who, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, derived their name from Peucetius, son of Lycaon, king of Arcadia,
who, with his brother CEnotrus, migrated to Italy seventeen generations before
the siege of Troy. This, however, seems to be pure fable. The Peucetii are
always spoken of in history, even by the Greeks themselves, as barbarians, who
differed in no essential respect from the Daunii, Iapyges, and other neighboring
nations.
II. The name of Poedzcli was given to the inhabitants of that part ot Peuce



ITALIA.                        361
tia which was more particularly situated on the coast between the Aufidus and
the confines of the Calabri. It is stated by Pliny that this particular tribe derived their origin from Illyria.
III. The Peucetii appear, then, to have extended along the coast of the Adriatic, from the Aufidus to the neighborhood of Brundisium, which city belonged
to Iapygia; and in the interior their territory reached as far as Silvium, in the
Apennines, constituting principally what in modern geography is called Terra
di Bari.
Omitting the mention of several places known only from the
Itineraries, we come to, 1. Barium, now Bari, the first town
of note we meet with on the coast after leaving the Aufidus.
It is mentioned by Horace in the account of his journey to
Brundisium, and the epithet "piscosi" employed by him         in
speaking of it, refers to the extensive fishery carried on here in
former days. The inhabitants of the modern Bari are said to
be still principally fishermen.  2. Egnatia, further on, situate
upon the coast, and communicating its name to the consular
way which followed the coast from Canusium to Brundisium.
Its ruins are still apparent near the forre d'Agnazzo and the
town of Monopoli.      Pliny states that a certain stone was
showh at Egnatia which was said to possess the property of
setting fire to wood that was placed upon it. It was this prodigy, seemingly, which afforded so much amusement to Horace
on his Brundisian journey.
In the interior of Peucetia we may notice the following
towns: 1. Rubi, now Ruvo, to the east of Canusium, and on
the Egnatian Way. It is alluded to by Horace in the account
of his journey. 2. Ridice Peucetice, to the northwest of the
preceding, and so called to distinguish it from Rudice in Calabria.  Romanelli places it at the modern Andria.      3. Bitunturn, to the southeast of Rubi, and on the Egnatian Way.      It
is now Bitonto.   4. Grumum, to the southeast of the preceding,
now Grum7o, a village not far from Palo.    The inhabitants are
called Grumbestini by Pliny.    5. Azetium, to the northeast of
the preceding, and now Rotigliano. It appears to answer to
the Ehelium of the Theodosian Table.     6. Silvium, to the east
of V\enusia, now    Garagnone.   It was situate on the Appian'Way, among the Apennines.
4. IESSXPIA OR IAPYGIA.
I. ALL that now remains of Apulia may be classed under the head of Mcssavia or Iapygia, comprising the whole of that remarkable peninsula which incloSes the Gulf of Tarentum to the northeast, and which has not unaptly hppn




362                ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
termed by modern geographers the heel of the boot. Under this appellation,
therefore, will be included the Calabri, the Sallentini, and the city of Tarentrlm,
with its territory.
I The name Messapia is supposed to have been applied to the whole country
from the town of Messapia in Calabria, to which it originally belonged. The
name lapygia was popularly derived from Iapyx, the son of Dadalus. This,
however, is a mere fable. Still, though we have no positive information regarding the origin of the Iapyges, their existence on these shores, prior to the
arrival of any Grecian colony, is recognized by the earliest writers of that nation, such as Herodotus (tii., 170) and Hellanicus of Lesbos (ap. Dionys. Hal.,
i., 22). Thucydides evidently considered them as barbarians (vii., 33), as well
as Scylax, in his Periplus (p. 5), and Pausanias (x., 10); and this, in fact, is
the idea which we must form of this people, whether we look upon them as
descended from an Umbrian, Oscan, or Illyrian race, or from an intermixture
of these earliest Italian tribes.
III. The name of lapygia was not known to the Romans except as an appellation borrowed from the Greeks, to whom it was familiar. We are not informed
at what period the name of lapygia began to be superseded by that of Apulia,
but we may observe that even the latest Greek writers always designate this
part of Italy by the former appellation.
1. CALABRI.
THE district occupied by the Calabri seems to have been
that maritime part of the Iapygian peninsula extending'from
Brundisium to the city of Hydruntum, and answering nearly
to what is now called Terra di Lecce.      This branch of the Iapygian racet does not seem     to have been particularly distinguished by the Greeks —at least we do not find it noticed by
any writer of that nation anterior to Polybius.
Among the cities in this quarter, we may name, 1. Brundisium, the most ancient and celebrated city on this coast, and
now Brindisi.    By the Greeks it was called BpsvTeatov, a word
which in the Messapian language signified " a stag's head,"
from tke resemblance which its different harbors and creeks bors
to the antlers of that animal.   Various accounts are given of
the origin of the place, but all unsatisfactory. Its antiquity is
evident, however, from the statement of Strabo, that Brundisiuim
was already in existence when the Lacedaemonian Phalanthus
arrived with his colony in this part of Italy.     The advantageous situation of its harbor for communicating with the opposite coast of Greece naturally rendered Brundisium a place of
great resort, from the time that the colonies of that country had
fixed themselves on the shores of Italy. Brundisium soon became a formidable rival to Tarentum, which had hitherto engrossed all the commerce of this part of Italy; nor did the fa.




ITALIA.                    363
cilities which it afforded for extending their conquests out of
that country escape the penetrating views of the Romans. Under the pretence that several towns on this coast had favored
the invasion of Pyrrhus, they declared war against them, and
soon possessed themselves of Brundisium, whither a colony was
sent, B.C. 245. From this period the prosperity of this port
continued to increase in proportion to the greatness of the
Roman empire. Large fleets were always stationed here for
the conveyance of troops into Macedonia, Greece, or Asia; and
from the convenience of its harbor, and its facility of access
from every other part of Italy, it became a place of general
thoroughfare for travellers visiting those countries. When the
rapid advance of Caesar forced Pompey to remove the seat of
war into Epirus, he was for some time blockaded by his successful adversary in Brundisium. Caesar describes accurately
the works undertaken there by his orders for preventing the
escape of the enemy; and from his account we learn that this
place ha- two harbors, one called the interior, the other the exterior, communicating by a very narrow passage. Strabo considered the harbor of Brundisium superior to that of Tarentum,
for the latter was not free from shoals. It was at Brundisium
that a convention was held for the purpose of arranging the exciting differences between Augustus and Marc Antony, and
among the commissioners appointed by the former was Maecenas, who was acqompanied by Horace. It was this journey
which the poet has so humorously delineated in the fifth Satire
of the First Book of these productions. At the present day
the commercial advantages of this once celebrated port are nearly all lost by the entrance to the inner harbor being almost shut
up, and allowing ingress to only the smallest vessels.
2. Rudice, to the southeast of the preceding, and called Ru.
dice Calabrce, to distinguish it from Rudiac in Peucetia. It
was celebrated as having been the birth-place of Ennius. Its
remains are still known by the name of Ruge. 3. Hydrus
('TDpovs), called by the Latins Hydruntum, and now Otranto,
to the southeast of Rudie. This was a port of some note as
early as the time of Scylax, who names it in his Periplus. It
was deemed the nearest point of Italy to Greece, the distance
being only fifty miles, and the passage might be effected in five
hours. This circumstance led Pyrrhus, it is said, to form the




364             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
project of uniting the two coasts by a bridge thrown across from
Hydruntum to Apollonia! In Strabo's time Hydruntum was
only a small town, though its harbor was still frequented.
In the interior of Iapygia, which, properly speaking, seems
to have been the territory of the Messapii, we may notice,
1. Carmizicanum, now Carmig-nano. 2. Sturnium, to.the southeast of the preceding, now Sternaccio. 3. Uria or Hyria, in
the more northern part of the peninsula, between Brundisiznm
and Tarentum, and now Oria. This was a place of great antiquity, and was said to have been of Cretan origins a fable
connected. in some way with the legend that the Iapygians
were a colony from Crete. 4. Messapia, between Uria and
Brundisium, and supposed by some to have communicated its
name to the Messapian nation. It coincides probably with the
modern Messagna.
The Sallentini or Salentini can not be distinguished with
accuracy from the Calabri, as we find the former appellation
used by several writers in a very extensive sense, and applied
not only to the greater part of Iapygia, but even to districts
entirely removed from it. Strabo himself confesses the difficulty of assigning any exact limits to these two people, and he
contents himself with observing that the country of the Sallentini lay properly around the Iapygian promontory. It was
asserted that they were a colony of Cretans, who, under the
conduct of Idomeneus, their king, had arrived in this quarter
during their wanderings after the capture of Troy.
Among the cities in this part of the peninsula, we may notice, 1. Sarmadium, an inland town of the Sallentini, now Muro.
2. Basta, to the southeast, the people of which are called Basterbini by Pliny. The name of this city occurs, also, in the
remarkable Messapian inscription found near its site. The ancient appellation of Basta is yet partly preserved in that of
Vaste. Close to the sea was a temple of Minerva, once very
celebrated and wealthy.  It was afterward called Castrum
Minervce, and the spot is still called Castro. 3. Leuca, almost at the extremity of the peninsula, and some traces of the
name of which still exist on the spot in that of a church dedicated to the Virgin under the title of S. Maria di Leuca.
The Iapygian promontory, also, is now called Capo di Leuca.
For an account of this promontory, consult page 257.




ITALIA.                    365
4. Callipolis, to the northwest of Leuca, -and on the upper
sthore of the Sinus Tarentinus. It is now Gallipoli. The
name alone of this place, if we hlad no other evidence of the
fact, would indicate a Greek origin. It owed its foundation to
Leucippus, a Lacedemonian, who erected a town here with the
consent of the Tarentines. 5. lianduria, to the northwest of
the preceding, and southwest of Uria. This otherwise obscure
place has acquired some interest in history from having witnessed the death of Archidarnus, king of Sparta, the son of
Agesilaus, who had come over to aid the Tarentines against the
Messapians and Lucanians. A curious well is described by
Pliny as existing near this town. According to his account,
its waters always maintained the same level, whatever quanr
tity was added to or taken from it. This phenomenon may still
be observed at the present day. The site of Mahduria is now
called Casal Nuovo.
6. Tarentum, in Greek Tdpag, and now Taranto. This city
was situate in the northeastern angle of the Sinus Tarentinus,
and may be regarded as the most distinguished colony ever
founded by the Greeks, whether we consider its celebrity in the
annals of Greece, its rank among the Italian states, or the imp
portance subsequently attached to its possession by the Romans.
It is said to have been originally a town of the Messapians, to
which were joined some Cretan colonists. About B.C. 694, according to the stery; Phalanthus, the leader of the Partheniae
from Sparta, arrived on the coast of Iapygia, took Tarentum,
and expelled the original inhabitants. After a war with the
Iapygians, in which Tarentumi sustained severe losses, it gradually became a flourishing commercial city, and the most powerful settlement in Magna G-racia. About B.C. 338, the Tarentines, being engaged in war with their neighbors the Lucanians, applied to Sparta for aid. Archidamus, the son of
Agesilaus, was sent to them, but he was killed.in battle. Some
years after, being hard pressed by the Lucanians and Bruttii,
they called in Alexander, king of Epirus, and uncle to Alexander the Great; but he was surprised and killed by the Bruttii
near Pand6sia, B.C. 323. The Tarentines had by this time
degenerated, like most of the Greeks on the Italian coast, and
had become luxurious and effeminate. In B.C. 282 they becam3 engaged in hostilities with the JRomans, and called Pyr



366             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
rhus, king of Ep rus, to their aid; but, though this monarch
was successful in the first instance, the Tarentines were too
effeminate to give him much support, and the Roman arms
finally triumphed. In the second Punic war, irritated at the
cruel treatment of their hostages, who had attempted to escape from Rome, the Tarentines opened their gates to Hannibal. The citadel, however, still held out until the Romans,
under Fabius Maximus, surprised and recaptured the city.
Immense plunder was obtained on this occasion. From this
period the prosperity and political existence of Tarentum may
date its decline, which was further accelerated by the preference shown by the, Romans to the port of Brundisium for the
fitting out of their naval armaments, as well as for commercial
purposes. The s lubrity of its climate, the singular fertility
of its territory, a:-d its advantageous situation on the sea, as
well as on the Appian Way, still rendered it, however, a city
of consequence in the Augustan age. Horace calls it " molle
Tarentum" and " imbelle Tarentum."  The Greek language
and manners were retained by the inhabitants even after
the fall of the Western Empire. Tarentum was one of the
chief strongholds retained by the Byzantine emperors in Southern Italy. About A.D. 774, Romualdus, the Langobard, duke
of Beneventum, took Tarentum  from the Byzantines. The
Saracens landed at this place about A.D. 830. The town was
afterward several times taken and retaken and sacked, and it
was during this period that the old city on the main land was
abandoned, and the inhabitants retired to the island or peninsula on which the Acropolis had stood. This is the site of
modern Taranto, occupying only a small part of that of the ancient city. Taranto has the advantage of being the only safe
harbor in that part of the southeastern coast of Italy which extends from the Straits of Messina to Capo di Leuca. The territory of ancient Tarentum was -famed for its wool, and much
wool is still grown in the neighborhood of the modern town.
The River Galccsis, now the Galeso, flowed within five miles
of Tarentum, and fell into the inner harbor. The sheep which
fed along the bank. of this stream and in the adjacent valley
of Aulon, had a wool so fine that they were covered with skins
to protect it from injury. This stream is often mentioned in
terms of praise by'the ppets. Tarentum was also celebrated
for its purple dye.




ITALIA.                    367
The fertile ridge and valley of Aulon, jus, referred to, were
situate on the left bank of the Galaesus, and to the northeast
of Tarentum. The modern name is Terra di Melone. Horace bestows a warm eulogium on this delightful spot. SaturKum (Marvpeov) is also a spot in the Tarentine territory frequently alluded to by the ancient writers. It was famed for
its fertility and its breed of horses. The name is still preserved
in that.of Saturio, a hamlet on the sea-coast, about seven miles
to the east of Taranto. To the west of TarentVm was the little river Taras, now Tara.
Opposite to the entrance of the  or of Tarentum were two
small islands, anciently known _Bl    Zdce Chcradce, but
which derive their modern narr         apostles St. Peter
and St. Pau4  They deserve            inPmg mentioned by
Thucydides, who states tha      i       and Eurymedon*
who commanded the troops JIl/e the Athenians in
their expedition against Sicily, took onb"ard here some Messapian archers, supplied by Arta, a chief of that nation, with
whom they had contracted an alliance.
12. LUCANIA.
(A.) BOUNDARIES, HISTORY, &C.
I. Lucdnia, considered as a Roman province, was bounded
on the north by the territory of the Picentini, Samnium, and
Apulia; on the east by the Sinus Tarentinus; on the south
by Bruttium and the IMare Inferumn; and on the west by the
Mare Inferum. It was separated from Apulia by the River
Braddnus, and a line drawn from that stream to the Sildrus,
which latter stream served also as a boundary on the side of
the Picentini. To the south it was separated from Bruttium
by the rivers Laiis and Crathis, the former emptying into the
Mare Inferum, the latter into the Sinus Tarentinus.
II. The Lucani were descended from the Sabine stock. As
their numbers increased, they gradually advmnced from the interior toward the coast, and were soon engaged in hostilities
with the Greeks, who, unable to make good their defence, gradually yielded, and allowed their hardy and resistless foes to obtain possession of all the settlermnts formed on the western
coast. The Romans, however, subsequently appeared upon the
scene, and the Lucani, in their turn, were compelled to sub



368             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
mit to the victors of Pyrrhus. The war which Hannibal subsequently carried on in this and the adjoining parts of the peninsula proved'a source of serious injury, from which they were
slow in recovering.
(B.) CITIES OF LUCANIA.
BEGINNING with the cities situate on the eastern coast, and
leaving the Bradanus, now the Bradano, we come to, L. Metapontum, one of the most celebrated of the Grecian colonies.
The original name of the place appears to have been Metabum,
which, it is said, was de rnd from Metabus, a hero to whom
divine honors were        abum, it seems, was in a deserted
state, owing prob         tacks of the neighboring barbarians, when a par           invited for that purpose by the'Sybarites, landed i nd took possession of the town,
which thenceforth    r    ar -6vrtov, or, as the Romans
afterward wrote iti  tapontum. The Acheeans, soon aftei
their arrival, seem to have been engaged in a war with the Tarentines, and this led to a treaty, by which the Bradanus was
recognized as forming the separation of the two territories.
Pythagoras was held in particular estimation by the people of'
this place, and he is said to have resided here for many years.
After his death, the house which he had inhabited was converted into a temple of Ceres. In the time of Pausanias, this city,
after a long and flourishing existence, was reduced to a mere
heap of ruins; but the causes which had led to this are not
stated. Considerable vestiges still exist near the station called
Torre di Mare. Crossing the Casuentus, now Basiento, flowing near Metapontum, and the Acalandus, now Salandella,
we come to,.. Heraclea, situate between the Aciris, now the
Agri, and the Siris, now the Sinno. It was founded by the
Tarentines after the desertion of the ancient city of Siris, which
had stood at the mouth of the River Siris. Heraclea is remarkable as having been the seat of the general council of the Greek
states in Italy. Its site has been fixed'at Policoro, about three
miles from the mouth of the Agri.
3. Pandosia, to the northwest of the preceding, and not many
miles from it. Plutarch, i? his life of Pyrrhus, states that the
first battle in which that monarch defeated the Romans was
fought between this.place and Heraclea. This city, however,




1TALIA.                    369
must not be confounded with the Pandosia near which Alexander of Epirus lost his life. This last was in Bruttium.'races of the Lucanian Pandosia are to be found on the right
bank of the Agri, about five miles from the ruins of Heraclea,
at a place called Anglona. 4. Siris, at the mouth of the river
of the same name, and fabled to have been founded by a Trojan colony, which was afterward expelled by some Ionians, who
migrated from Colophon during the reign of Alyattes, king of
Lydia, and, having taken the town by force, changed its name
to Policeunm. The poet Archilochus, cited by Athenaeus, speaks
with admiration of the surrounding country. The inhabitants
of the place are said to have rivalled in all respects the luxury
and affluence of the Sybarites. When the Tarentines founded
Heraclea, they removed all the Sirites to this city, and Siris
then became its harbor merely. Siris is thought to have stood
on the left bank of the Sinno, but no traces of it remain. 5. Lag:aria, to the southwest, said to have been founded by a party
of Phocians headed by Epeus, the architect of the wooden horse.
The wine of this district was in good repute, and is still much
esteemed. The village of Nucara is supposed to represent the
ancient site.
6. Sybaris, situate on the coast, between the Crathis, now
the Crati, and the Sybaris, now the Sibari or Coscile. It was
a colony founded about B.C. 720, by Achaans and Trcezenians,
and, in consequence of the fertility of the district, increased with
great rapidity in wealth and power; for, at the time of its greatest prosperity, that is, about two hundred years after its foundation, it had, according to Strabo, acquired the dominion over
four neighboring tribes, had twenty-five subject towns, the city
itself occupied a space of fifty stadia in circumference, and the
Sybarites were enabled to send an army of 300,000 men into
the field. It became, also, the mother of other colonies, and
carried on a considerable commerce, especially with Miletus in
Asia Minor. But the prosperity of Sybaris had a pernicious
influence on the people, and within the short period of two hundred and ten years that Sybaris existed, the effeminacy and
luxury of the inhabitants were carried to such a pitch that the
name Sybarite became proverbial, and synonymous with a voluptuous person. Many curious particulars in illustration of
their effeminate character are mentioned by Atheneus, which
AA




870              ANCIENT GEOGRAPI-Y.
it would be difficult to believe if they were not reported on the
authority of Aristotle, Timueus, and Phylarchus. It is probable, however, that all we read about the effeminacy of the Sybarites applies only to the ruling aristocracy. The government
appears always to have been in the hands of the aristocracy,
which, as the words of Aristotle seem to suggest, consisted of
the Trcezenians, while the Achoeans, who in numbers far exceeded the Troezenians, formed the commonalty. These two
parties were engaged in a continual struggle, which at last,
when'it broke out into a civil war, led to the total destruction
of Sybaris. In an insurrection which occurred, the people drove
out five hundred of the aristocracy, and divided their property
among themselves. The exiles fled to Crotona, and implored
the aid of its citizens. This was granted, and a battle ensued,
in which the Sybarite army consisted of 300,000 men, while
the Crotoniats could muster no more than 100,000. These
last, however, were under the command of Milo, the celebrated
athlete, and his prowess made up for this great disparity of
numbers.   The Sybarites were totally defeated; the conquerors advanced against the city, sacked and razed it to the ground,
and most of the inhabitants were put to the sword. The River
Crathis was then turned through the ruins to obliterate every
trace of its former greatness (B.C. 510). Within seventy days,
Sybaris, from one of the most flourishing cities of Italy, became
a heap of ruins. A few of the former inhabitants, who survived
the fate of their native city, still clung, however, to the spot,
and fifty-eight years later, some Thessalian adventurers having
arrived there, the town was rebuilt; but, after it had existed
for five years, it was again destroyed by the Crotoniats. Its inhabitants now solicited the aid of Athens and Sparta; but the
former alone sent them ten ships, under Lampon and Xenoorates, and, on the advice of an oracle, these Athenians, with
whom was Herodotus the historian and Lysias the orator, together with many other Greeks and the remnant of the Sybarites, founded, in B.C. 44, the colony of Thurii, a little to the
south of the site of Sybaris. In this new colony, however, the
Sybarites wished to form a kind of aristocracy, and claimed
privileges which their fellow-settlers were unwilling to allow
them. The consequence was, that in the ensuing struggle all
the remaining Sybarites were destroyed. Thurii, after this, at



ITALIA.                    371
tained to a considerable degree of prosperity, but at a later period it became so weakened by the attacks of the Lucanians
and the enmity of the Tarentines that it was compelled to seekf
the aid of Rome, which was thus involved in a war with Tarentum. About eighty-eight years afterward, Thurii, being
nearly deserted, received a Roman colony, and took the name
of Copia. The site of Sybaris is at present unknown, but it
is generally supposed to have been situated near the modern
Torre Brodognato.  Thurii should be placed at a greater distance from the sea, and between the probable position of that
town and Terra Nuova.
Having now examined the whole of the eastern coast of Lucania, we will cross over to the other sea in order to describe,
the cities and other remarkable places on its shores. The SiIdrus, which divides this province from the Picentini, rose in
that part of the Apennines which belonged to the Hirpini, and
after receiving the Tanader, now the Negro, and the Calor,
now Calore, emptied into the Sinus Pcestanus. The waters
of this river possessed the property of incrusting, by means of
a calcareous deposit, any pieces of wood or twigs thrown into
them. At its mouth was the Portus Alburnus. A little farther from the coast was a celebrated temple of Juno Argiva,
which was plundered by the Cilician pirates. Advancing from
this point, we come to, 1. Posidonia, the ruins of which are so
celebrated under its Latin name of Ptestum. This city was
situated about four miles southeast of the mouth of the Silarus,
and near the coast of the Sinus Pcestanus. Its origin is involved in obscurity. Solinus makes it a colony of Dorians, while
others maintain, though apparently without any authentic
grounds, that it was first a Phoenician settlement, and was
afterward colonized by the Dorians. Others, again, ascribe its
foundation to the Etrurians, and the massive construction of
its walls, as well as the fact of Etruscan medals having been
dug up here, would seem to favor this idea. Strabo says it
was built by a colony of Sybarites, close to the shore in the
first instance, but that it was afterward removed farther inland. There is every reason, however, to believe that Pmstum
existed as a city before it was colonized by the Sybarites. The
medals of this place show by their devices that the inhabitants
were a sea-faring people. Strabo says that the Lucanians took




372             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
this city from the Sybarites, and that the Romans afterward
took it from the Lucanians. At the end of the war against
Pyrrhus, a Roman colony was sent to Posidonia, and after this
Livy speaks of Pestum as a town allied to Rome. It proved
faithful to Rome in the second Punic war, and subsequently
obtained the rank of a municipium. Nothing is known of it
under the empire, but the surrounding country is celebrated by
Virgil, Ovid, and other Roman poets, for the abundance and
luxuriance of its roses, and the " Pcestance Valles" are extolled
for their fertility, a quality which they have retained to this
very day. The country southeast of Paestum, as far as Cape
Palinuro, is one of the finest districts in the kingdom of Naples. Bishops of Pcestum are mentioned in the annals of the
Church in the fifth century of our era. In the tenth century,
the Saracens, having invaded this part of the country, formed a
settlement at Acropoli, in the neighborhood of Pcestum. This
was the period when they devastated Beneventum, Barium, and
other towns, and it seems that Paestum was ruined about the
same time. In the following century, after the expulsion of
the Saracens, King Roger the Norman ransacked the temples
and other buildings at Pestum of their marble and other ornaments, to adorn the cathedral which he raised at Salerno. The
ruins of Paestum, however, still remain to this day noble records
of the genius and taste which inspired the architects of Greece.
2. Petilia, to the southeast, called Petilia Lucana, to distinguish it from another place of the same name in Bruttium.
Its ruins exist on the Monte della Stella. 3. Elea, called also
Velia, and Hyele, to the south of the preceding, and about three
miles from the left bank of the River Heles or Elees, now the
Alento. It was founded by the Phocseans of Asia Minor, after
they had left their native city to avoid the Persian yoke, and
had first tried a settlement at Alalia in Corsica. The Phocaeans,
according to Strabo, called the new city Hyele ('TfrX), but in
the time of the geographer this form of the name had been
changed to Elea ('E.ea). The Romans, on the other hand,
wrote the name Velia, as formed from the earlier appellation'TSrl, with the substitution of the v sound for the aspirate.
From the excellence of its constitution, the new colony was enabled to resist with success the aggressions of both the Posidoniatai and the Lucani, though very inferior to these adversaries




ITALIA.                    373
both in population and fertility of soil. Velia is particularly
3elebrated for the school of philosophy founded within its walls
by Xenophanes of Colophon, but brought to its highest rank
by Parmenides and Zeno. It was a bold attempt to construct
a system of the universe on metaphysical principles. This sect
is known by the name of the Eleatic. When the Romans
formed the design of erecting a temple to Ceres, they sought a
priestess from Velia, where that goddess was held in great veneration, to instruct them in the rites and ceremonies to be observed in her worship. This place subsequently became a Roman maritime colony, as may be inferred from Livy, but the
period when this occurred is not mentioned. Velia is often
spoken of in the letters of Cicero, who occasionally resided there
with his friends Trebatius and Thalna. The situation of the
place seems to have been considered very healthy, since Plutarch says that Paulus AEmilius was ordered thither by his
physicians, and that he derived considerable benefit from the
air. Horace was also recommended to visit Velia for a disorder
in his eyes. In Strabo's time this ancient town was greatly
reduced, its inhabitants being forced, from the poorness of the
soil, to betake themselves to fishing and other sea-faring occupations. The ruins of Velia stand about half a mile from the
sea, on the site now called Castelamare della Bruca.
4. Pyxus (HIvov~, OVVTro'), called by the Latins Buxentum.
This was the name of a promontory, river, and city, and the
appellation alludes to the adjacent country's being covered with
box-trees (7v5foq, buxus). The promontory is now called Capo
degl' Infreschi. The city, according to Diodorus Siculus, was
founded by Micythus, prince of Rhegium and Zancle, about
471 B.C. Stephanus Byzantinus, however, makes it of CEnotrian origin. The Romans colonized it A.U.C. 558, calling it
Buxentum, and afterward sent a new colony to it when the
previous one had nearly failed. The site of this place appears
to have been near the modern Policastro. The River Pyxus
is now the Busento. 5. Blanda, to the southeast, and on the
Aquilian Way. Its site corresponds to the modern Maratea.
6. Laiis, the last Lucanian city on this coast, situate on a gulf
and river of the same name. The river is now the Lao; the
Sinus Lais is now the Gulf of Policastro. This city was a
colony of Sybarites. According to Strabo. the allied Greeks




374             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
met with a signal defeat in the vicinity of this place from the
Lucanians, a disaster which probably led to the downfall of
their several towns. In Pliny's time Laiis no longer existed.
It is thought that Scalea represents this ancient city.
We will now retrace our steps toward the northern frontier
of Lucania, in order to give some account of the towns situate
in the interior of the province. Near the junction of the Sildvus and Tanager, and between the latter river and the Calor,
is a ridge of mountains known formerly by the name of Mons
Alburnus, and now commonly called Monte di Postiglione,
and sometimes Alburno. Beginning, then, from the northern
frontier, we come to, 1. Vulceium or Volcentum, now Buccino,
to the north of the Tanager. 2. Numistro, to the northeast
of the preceding, and near the frontiers of Apulia. A battle
was fought here between Marcellus and Hannibal. Its site is
near the modern Muro. 3. Potentia, some distance to the
southeast of the preceding, and near the modern Potenza.
This was a considerable city, as may be inferred from the ruins which are yet standing. Near it were the Campi Veteres,
at the modern Vietri, where Tiberius Gracchus was slain by
a band of treacherous Lucanians. 4. Marciliana, to the southwest, on the Aquilian Way. It was, in fact, a suburb to the
more ancient and important town of Cosilynum, and Cassiodorus informs us that in his time a great concourse of people
used to assemble here annually on the day of St. Cyprian.
This custom, he affirms, was of a very ancient date, being,
in fact, a remnant of pagan superstition. The site of this
place corresponds to La Scala, on the right bank of the Negro, the ancient Tanager. 5. Cosilynum, one of the prcefecturce of Lucania, situate not far from the modern Padula.
6. Abellinum Marsicum, to the northeast of the preceding, and
near the sources of the Aciris. It corresponds to Marsico Vetere. 7. Grumentum, to the southeast of the preceding, a place
of some note, and mentioned by Livy as one of the towns of
Lucania which Hannibal wished to recover from the Romans,
and near which he fought an unsuccessful battle with them.
it was subsequently colonized by Augustus. This place was
situate near the modern Saponara, where extensive ruins are
still visible. 8. Nerlzum, to the southeast, and near the southern frontier of Lucania. According to Livy, it was one of tho




ITALIA.                          375
first towns of Lucania conquered by the Romans.          It appears
to have been situate near La Rotonda.
13.,BRUTTIUM.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, HISTORY, & C.
I. THE Bruttii were called by the Greeks Bperrot, and the name is said to
have signified in the Lucanian language "Renegades" or " Deserters," the
Bruttians being the descendants of some refugee slaves and shepherds of the
Lucanians, who, having concealed themselves from pursuit in the forests and
mountains with which this part of Italy abounds, became, in process of time,
powerful from their numbers and ferocity.
II. This savage race is represented as pouring forth to attack their Lucanian
masters, and to molest the Grecian settlers on the coast of either sea; and so
formidable had they at last rendered themselves, that the Lucani were compelled to acknowledge their independence, and to cede to them all the country
south of the rivers Laus and Crathis. This advancement of the Bruttii to tlfh
rank of an independent nation is supposed by Diodorus Siculus to have taken
place about 397 years after the foundation of Rome.
III. The enterprising and turbulent spirit of this people was next directed
against the Greek colonies; and in proportion as these were rapidly declining,
from jealousies and internal dissensions, and still more from luxury and indolence, their antagonists were acquiring a degree of vigor and stability which
soon enabled them to accomplish their downfall. The Greek towns on the
western coast, from being weaker and more detached from the main body of
the Italiot confederacy, first fell into the hands of the Bruttii.
IV. The principal cities of which this league was composed now became
alarmed for their own security, and sought the aid of the Molossian Alexander
against these dangerous enemies, with whom the Lucanians also had learned
to make common cause. This gallant prince, by his talents and valor, for a
time checked the progress of these active barbarians, and even succeeded in
penetrating into the heart of their country; but after his death, which occurred
before the fatal walls of Pandosia, they again advanced, like a resistless torrent,
and soon reduced the whole of the peninsula to the south of the Laus and Crathis, with the exception of Crotona, Locri, and Rhegium.
V. At this period, Rome, the universal foe, put an end at once to their conquests and their independence. After sustaining several defeats, both the Lucani and Bruttii are said to have finally submitted to L. Papirius Cursor, two
years after Pyrrhus had withdrawn his troops from Italy.
VI. The arrival of Hannibal once more, however, roused the Bruttii to exertion. They flocked eagerly to the victorious standard of that leader, who was
by their aid enabled to maintain his ground in this corner of Italy when all hope
of final success seemed to be extinguished. But the consequences of this protracted warfare proved fatal to the country in which it was carried on, many
of the Bruttian towns being totally destroyed, and others so much impoverished
as to retain scarcely a vestige of their former prosperity. To these misfortunes
was added the weight of Roman vengeance; for that power, when freed from
her formidable enemy, too well remembered the support she had derived from
the Bruttii for many years to allow their defection to pass unheeded. A decree
was therefore passed, reducing this people to a most abject state of dependence:
they were pronounced incapable of being employed in a military capacity, and
their services were confined to the menial offices of couriers and letter-carriers




376              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
VII. Bruttium, as a Roman province, had the same extent as previously, be
ing bounded on the north by Lucania, from which it was separated by the rivers
Laius and Crathis; on the east by the Sinus Tarentinus and Mare Ionium; on
the south by the Mare Ionium; and on the west by the Mare Inferum.
(B.) CITIES OF BRUTTIUM.
COMMENCING from the mouth of the Crathis, on the eastern
coast, we come to, 1. Portus Roscia, the haven of the Thurians.
According to Procopius, the Romans constructed a fortress
higher up the country, called Roscianum, now Rossano.  Two
passes led from this to the Lucanian and Bruttian mountains.
According to Holstenius, these are the defiles of Morano anil
Roseto. The River Hylias, just below Portus Roscia, formeJ
the line of separation between the territories of Thurii and Crotona, and answers now to a rivulet named Calonato.  The Traens which follows is now the Trionto, and is rendered memorable for the bloody defeat of the Sybarites on its banks, already
alluded to. Some years afterward, a remnant of this unhappy
people were again attacked on this spot, and destroyed by the
Bruttii.  2. Crimisa, just below the Crimisa Promontorium,
or Capo dell' Alice. It was said to have been founded by Philoctetes after the Trojan war, and contained what was called
his tomb. It subsequently changed its name'to Patcrnum,
and became a bishop's see after the fall of the Western Empire.
The modern Ciro is supposed to answer to it. 3. Petilia, below the preceding, and said to have been likewise founded by
Philoctetes.  It occupied the site of the modern Strongoli.
This small town gave a striking proof of its fidelity to the Romans in the second Punic war, by the long siege which it stood
against Hannibal, amid all the horrors of famine. It did not
surrender until all the leather in the place, as well as the
bark and young shoots of the trees, and the very grass in the
streets, had been consumed for subsistence. The River Nece.
thus, now Nieto, below Petilia, was fabled to have derived its
name from the circumstance of the captive Trojan women having there set fire to the Grecian fleet (vavC, a'Oo), a circumstance alluded to by many of the ancients, but with great diversity of opinion as to the scene of the event. The use which
Virgil has made of this tradition is well known.
4. Croto (Kp6rovT), called by the Romans more commonly
Crotona, and now Cotrone, was situate on the River /Esarus,




ITALIA.                    377
and was one of the most celebrated and powerful states of Magna Grcecia. Its foundation is ascribed to Myscellus, an Achaean
leader, soon after Sybaris had been colonized by a party of the
same nation, which was about 715 B.C. According to some
traditions, however, the origin of Crotona was much more ancient, and it was said to derive its name from the hero Croton.
The residence of Pythagoras and his most distinguished followers in this city, together with the overthrow of Sybaris which
it accomplished, and the exploits of Milo and several other Crotoniat victors in the Olympic games, contributed in a high degree to raise the fame of Crotona. Its climate, also, was proverbially excellent, and supposed to be particularly calculated
for producing in its inhabitants that robust frame of body requisite to insure success in those contests. Hence it was commonly said that the last wrestler of Crotona was the first of
the other Greeks. This city was also celebrated for its school
of medicine, and was the birth-place of the celebrated Democedes. However brilliant an epoch in the history of Crotona
its triumph over Sybaris may appear, that event must be regarded also as the term of her own greatness and prosperity,
for from this period it is said that luxury and the love of pleasure, the usual consequences of great opulence, soon obliterated
all the good effects which had been produced by the wisdom
and morality of Pythagoras. As a proof of the remarkable
change which took place in the warlike spirit of the people, it
is said that on their being subsequently engaged in hostilities
with the Locrians, an army of 130,000 Crotoniats was routed
by 10,000 of the enemy on the banks of the Sagras. Such,
indeed, was the loss they experienced in this battle, that, according to Strabo, their city henceforth rapidly declined, though
it was still a considerable city when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, extending on both sides of the _Esarus, and its walls embracing a
circumference of twelve miles. But the consequences of the
war which ensued between that king and the Romans proved
so ruinous to its prosperity, that above one half of its extent
became deserted, and the ZEsarus, which previously flowed
through the town, now ran at some distance from the inhabited part, which was again separated from the fortress by a vacant space. During the second Punic war it was besieged by a
combined force of Carthaginians and Bruttians, and the inhab



378             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
itants, who were reduced to 20,000, were unable to defend the
large extent of their walls. They surrendered, and afterward
sought a refuge among their ancient enemies, the Locrians.
The Romans subsequently sent a colony to this place. It became afterward of some consequence in the time of Belisarius,
on account of its position, and was made by him a chief point
in his operations along the coast. Its harbor, however, does
not seem to have been any of the best, or well calculated to
afford protection against storms and winds. It was rather what
Polybius calls a summer harbor, and was formed by the mouth
of the IEsarus. This little river is entitled to notice from its
banks being made the scene of some of the prettiest bucolics
in Theocritus.
Passing the celebrated Lacinian Promontory, of which we
have elsewhere spoken (page 256), and the three promontories
of the lapyges, of which mention has also been made (ib.), we
first find several navigable rivers, the Targines, now Tacina;
the Arocha, now the Crocha or Crocchio; the Semirus, now
Simmari; and the Crotalus, now Corace.   Near this lastmentioned stream we find the station marked in the Theodosian table as Castra Hannibalis, and noticed by Pliny as situate at the narrowest part of the isthmus which terminates
Italy. We then come to, 5. Scyllacium or Scylletium, a Greek
city of considerable note, now Squillace. According to Strabo,
it was colonized by the Athenians under Mnestheus. It was
the birth-place of Cassiodorus. Virgil calls the place " Navifragum," an epithet which alludes either to the rocky and dangerous shore in its vicinity, or else to the frequent storms which
prevailed in this quarter. The elder Dionysius at one time
entertained the design of carrying a fortification across the
isthmus in this quarter, which would have been the means of
cutting off the more southern Greeks from communicating
with their allies to the north of this narrow peninsula; but he
was prevented by the latter from executing his plan. The distance across was not more than twenty miles. Passing down
the coast, we come to the little river Ellep6rus, now Callipari,
rendered memorable from a severe defeat sustained by the allied Greeks on its banks in an engagement with the forces of
the elder Dionysius. This is said to have occurred the same
year that Rome was taken by the Gauls.




ITALIA.                    379
Passing the Cocintum Promontorium (p. 256), we come to,
6. Caulon or Caulonia, originally, perhaps, Aulon, on the left
bank of the Sagras, and one of the earliest colonies founded by
the Acheans on these shores. It held a distinguished rank
among the republics of Magna Graecia, and was in alliance
with Crotona and Sybaris. It was razed to the ground by
Dionysius, who removed the inhabitants to Syracuse, while
their former territory was added to that of the Locrians. Caulonia, however, must have subsequently risen from its ruins,
since we are told that during the war with Pyrrhus it espoused
the cause of that prince, and was, in consequence, attacked and
pillaged by the Mamertini, who were the allies of the Romans.
The inhabitants migrated to Sicily, and the town was occupied
by the Bruttii, who defended it against the Romans in the second Punic war. We learn from Virgil that the town stood on
an elevated situation. Its site is placed by the Italian topographers at Castro Vetere, but this requires confirmation. It
was on the banks of the Sagras that the memorable overthrow
of the Crotoniats took place, when they were defeated by a force
of 10,000 Locrians, with a small body of Rhegians. So extraordinary a result did this appear, that it gave rise to the proverbial expression, dUOruarepa rrp vw e7r aypa. The modern Sagra answers to the ancient Sagras.
7. Locri, one of the most ancient and distinguished republics
of Magna Graecia. According to Strabo, this city was built,
not long after the foundation of Crotona and Syracuse, by a
body of Locrians from the Crissaean Gulf, who are designated
by the name of Ozilce. They first settled near the promontory
of Zephyrium, and thence obtained the appellation of Epizephyrii, by which they were distinguished from the Locrians of
Greece. They removed, however, from this position three or
four years afterward, and built another city on a height named
Mount Esopis. According, however, to Ephorus, another Greek
writer, the city was founded by a band of Locri Opuntii and
Epicnemndii. Locri was mainly indebted for its prosperity and
fame to the institutions of its great lawgiver Zaleucus. His
laws, which, according to the assertion of Demosthenes, continued in full force for the space of two hundred years, are said
to have been a judicious selection from the Cretan, Lacedaemonian, and Areopagitic codes, to which were added several orig.




380             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
inal enactments. From its greater proximity to Sicily, Locri
appears to have been involved in the politics of that country at
an earlier period than the other Italian cities. In the Peloponnesian war, the Locrians are generally mentioned as the allies
of the Syracusans, and were consequently exposed to hostilities
on the part of Athens. The alliance which this city contracted
not long after with Dionysius the elder, who had espoused Doris, the daughter of one of its principal citizens, is regarded by
Aristotle as the source of many of the subsequent troubles of
Locri. And more particularly was this seen in the case of the
younger Dionysius, who, on his expulsion from Syracuse, having found refuge here, secretly introduced a number of his satellites, and made himself master of the place, when he gave
loose to all the vicious propensities of his nature. He was afterward reinstated in Syracuse by a revolution, and the citizens
of Locri were thus delivered from an obnoxious tyrant. When
Pyrrhus invaded Italy, Locri was occupied by a part of his
forces; but, on his crossing over into Sicily, it joined the Romans,
after having put the Epirot garrison to the sword. This offence
was visited with the severest vengeance of the incensed monarch. In the second Punic war it sided with Hannibal, but
toward the close of the contest it fell into the hands of the Romans, who left a garrison there under the command of Q. Pleminius. The conduct of this officer and his troops was so cruel
and licentious that the senate.were compelled to interfere. Pleminius was removed, and ended his days in prison at Rome.
The site of Locri is to be found near the modern Gerace. This
modern town stands on a hill, which is probably the Mons Esopis of Strabo, and where the citadel was doubtless placed.
8. Orra or Uria, to the south, on the coast, said to have been
founded by Idomeneus. Its site has been fixed at a spot called
Palazzi.  The Zephyrium Promontorium, below this place, is
now Capo di Bruzzano, and the Herculis Promontorium, to
the southwest, is now Capo Spartivento.
Having now concluded the topography of the eastern coast,
we will proceed to describe that portion of the province situated
on the Mare Inferum, commencing from the River Lais, which,
as before remarked, separated the Lucanian from the Bruttian
territory. Starting from this point, we come to, 1. Cerillce,
now Cirella Vecchia. 2. Patycus, now Paola, about twenty



ITALIA.                    381
four miles south of the preceding. 3. Clampetia or Lampetia,
as the name was written by the Greeks (AapTrirela), probably
the modern Amantea. 4. Terina, on the left bank of the Sabatus, now the Savato. This was an ancient Greek city, and
said to have been a colony from Crotona. It gave name to
the adjacent gulf, of which we have already spoken (page 268).
Strabo informs us that this city was destroyed by Hannibal
when he found he could no longer retain it. It was subsequently, however, restored, and is mentioned by Pliny and
Ptolemy. Its ruins are close to the town of Nocera, about five
miles from the coast. 5. Temesa or Tenmpsa, to the southwest.
This was a town of great antiquity, and was celebrated for its
copper mines, to which Homer is supposed to allude in the
Odyssey (i., 184). This circumstance, however, is doubtful,
as there was a town of the same name in Cyprus. In Strabo's
time these mines appear to have been exhausted. The site of
this place has been fixed by Cluverius at Torre Loppa. 6. Hipponium, a city of great importance and celebrity, situate on the
coast. It was founded by the Epizephyrian Locri. Dionysius
the elder destroyed it, and removed the inhabitants to Syracuse.
It was restored, however, by the Carthaginians, who were then
at war with that prince. Subsequently it fell into the hands
of the Bruttii, from whom it was wrested'for a short time by
Agathocles. It became a Roman colony A.U.C. 560, and took
the name of Vibo Valentia. Frequent mention is made of this
town by Cicero, who resided here for some time, on the estate
of his friend Sica, previous to his quitting Italy, whence he had
been exiled. In the vicinity of this place was a grove and
meadow of singular beauty, also a building said to have been.
constructed by Gelon of Syracuse, and called Amalthaea's horn.
It was here, probably, that the women of the city and its vicinity assembled on certain festivals, to gather flowers and twine
garlands for their hair in honor of Proserpina, who had herself,
as was said, frequented this spot for the same purpose, and to
whom a magnificent temple was here erected. The site of
Hipponium answers to that of the modern town of Monte
Leone.
7. Medma or Mesma, on the right bank of the River lIesima,
now Medamza, which retains some traces of the ancient name.
This was a city of considerable importance, and of Greek origin,




382             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
having been colonized, together with Hipponium, by the Locrians. Strabo says it derived its name from a fountain in its
vicinity. The ruins of this city are to be seen between Nicotera and the River Medama. Passing down the coast, we come
to the famous rock of Scylla, to which antiquity attached such
ideas of terror, and opposite was the equally famous Charybdis.
According to modern travellers, Scylla is a lofty rock on the
Calabrian shore, with some caverns at the bottom, which, by
the agitation of the waves, emits sounds resembling the barking
of dogs. The only danger is when the current and wind impel vessels toward the rock. Charybdis is not a whirlpool or
involving vortex, but a spot where the waves are greatly agitated by pointed rocks. Strabo speaks of the Scyllceum as an
elevated cliff, surrounded on nearly every side by the sea, but
connected with the land by a low isthmus easily accessible on
either side. This peninsula was inclosed by a fortification,
which Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, raised against the Tyrrheni. By this means was formed a commodious haven, where he
stationed his fleets in order to defend the straits. We must,
therefore, ascribe to this prince the origin of the town of Scyllceum. The isthmus has now disappeared, owing to the encroachments of the sea, caused by the current which sets in
toward the Italian coast.
8. Rhegium, now Reggio, one of the most celebrated and
flourishing cities of Magna Graecia, and known to have been
founded nearly 700 B.C. by a party of Zancleans from Sicily, together with some Chalcidians of Euboea. According to.Eschylus, the name of Rhegium ('Plytov) was supposed to refer to
the great catastrophe which had once separated Italy and Sicily (pr7yvvu, "' to break"). We may collect from different passages that the constitution of Rhegium was at first an oligarchy.  Charondas, the celebrated lawgiver of Catana in
Sicily, is also said to have given laws to the Rhegians. This
form of government lasted nearly two hundred years, until
Anaxilaus, the second of that name, usurped the sole authority, and became tyrant of Rhegium, about 496 years B.C.
Under this prince the prosperity of Rhegium reached its highest elevation. Having subsequently recovered its independence,
it became a prey to adverse factions, and did not obtain a stable government until after many revolutions in its internal ad



ITALIA.                   383
ministration. At a subsequent period it was taken and destroyed by Dionysius the elder, and the remaining inhabitants
were removed to Sicily. Some years after it was partly restored by the younger Dionysius, who gave it the name of
Phwebia. This place sustained great injury at a later period
from the repeated shocks of an earthquake, which occurred not
long before the Social War, or 90 B.C. It was, in consequence,
nearly deserted, when Augustus, after having conquered Sextus Pompeius, established here a considerable body of veteran
troops; and Strabo affirms that, in his day, this colony was in
a flourishing state. Hence, also, the appellation of Julium,
which later authors have applied to designate this town. Few
cities of Magna Graecia could boast of having given birth to
so many distinguished characters as Rhegium, whether statesmen, philosophers, men of letters, or artists of celebrity. Among
the first were many followers of Pythagoras, who are enumerated by Iamblichus in his life of that philosopher. Theagenes,
Hippys, Lycus, surnamed Butera, and Glaucus were historians; Ibycus, Cleomenes, and Lycus, the adoptive father of Lycophron, were poets; Clearchus and Pythagoras are spoken of
as statuaries of great reputation; the latter, indeed, is said to
have even excelled the famous Myron.
What relates to the interior of Bruttium will not detain us
long. We may enumerate the following: 1. Consentia, now
Cosenza, near the sources of the River Crathis. This was a
town of great note, and is designated by Strabo as the capital
of the Bruttii. It was taken by Hannibal after the surrender
of Petilia, but again fell into the hands of the Romans toward
the end of the war. 2. Pand6sia Bruttiorum, so called to distinguish it from Pandosia in Lucania. It lay to the southwest of
Consentia. This place is known in history as having witnessed
the defeat and death of Alexander, king of Epirus. The ruins
of Pandosia are probably to be sought near the village of Mendocino, between Cosenza and the sea. Near Pandosia was the
River Acheron, now iIaresanto or Arconti, of which mention
is made in the story of the King of Epirus. It unites with the
Crathis near Consentia.
To the south of Consentia, the country of the Bruttii was
anciently covered with a vast extent of forest, known by the
name of Sila Silva. These woods, which consisted chiefly of




384             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
fir, were celebrated for the quantity of pitch which they yielded. Dioscorides and many other writers have noticed the pix
Bruttia, or " Bruttian pitch."  Strabo describes the Sila Silva
as occupying an extent of seven hundred stadia, or eighty-seven
miles, from the neighborhood of Rhegium northward. These
immense forests may probably, in ancient times, have furnished
the Tyrrheni with timber for their fleets, as we know they
afterward did to the sovereigns of Sicily, and to the Athenians.
The only town of note which the Bruttii appear to have possessed in this district was Mamertium, placed by Strabo apparently in the interior of the province, above Locri and Rhegium. But, though this writer has ascribed it to the Bruttii,
it is more natural to suppose that it was a colony of those Campanian mercenaries who derived their name from Mamers, the
Oscan Mars, and are known to have served under Agathocles
and other princes of Sicily. Here they seized upon the city of
Messana by surprise, which circumstance gave rise to the second Punic war. We know that the Mamertini were employed
by the Romans against Pyrrhus, whom, on his return from Sicily into Italy, they ventured to attack in the woods and defiles
above Rhegium. The site of this place is supposed to correspond to the modern Oppido.
We have now completed our sketch of Italia, and will proceed to the islands of Sicilia, Corsica, and Sardinia, together
with the.Eolice or Vulcanice Insulce, adjacent to the first.
I. SICILIA.
(A.) NAME.
I. THE island of Sicilia was so called from the Sicili, an ancient race, who came from Latium, and, having crossed over
into this island, gave it their name. It was also sometimes
styled Sicania, from the Sicdni, an early race; whom the Sicalli, on their arrival in the island, found already established
there, and whom they drove to the western and southern parts
of the same.
II. Sicily also obtained appellations from its triangular shape.
Thus it was called Trinacria (TptvaKpia) by the Greeks, from
its three promontories (rpe aKtcpat), which give it this triangular
form; and, for the same reason, the Latin poets often employ




SICILIA.                          385
the name Triquetra.      According to Strabo, the appellation of
Trinacria was gradually changed, for eupjony' sake, into Tri.
nakia, although some modern scholars regard this latter form
of the name as the earlier one, and seek to connect it with the
Thlrinakia of Homer.
III. The three main promontories here referred to are Pelorum, Pachynum, and Lilybceum, to which we will presently
revert; the first of these being the northeastern cape, the second the southeastern one, while the third is situate at the
southwestern extremity of the island.
(B.)   SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF SICILY.
I. THE legends of the Greeks speak of the giants, Cyclopes and Lcestrygones,
who inhabited Sicily previous to the epoch of the Trojan war. The Sicdni are
next mentioned, who are said by some to have been Iberians (Thucyd., vi., 2)
from the River Sicdnus in Iberia. Hence some modern writers regard the Sicari as a Celtic race, and seek to identify the Sicanus with the Sequana or Seine.
II. According to tradition, Ceres taught the Sicani to plough the ground and
sow corn; Aristaeustaught them to cultivate the olive-tree and rear bees; Dedalus the art of building, while his nephew is said to have invented the saw and
other mechanical instruments. Hercules next visited Sicily, built Solois and
Motya, as well as other towns, established laws, and repressed and punished
robbers. Through the veil of these legends it is easy to perceive the history
of the transition of Sicily from a savage to a civilized state.
III. The Siculi (ImKEXO) next came from Italy, and occupied the eastern part
of Sicily, about three hundred years before the Greeks made any settlements in
the island. The Siculi drove the Sicani to the southern and western parts of
the island, to which they gave their name Sicelia. They built Zancle, Enna,
ErLcssus, and Hybla. The Phoenicians are said to have colonized Panormus,
Solois, and Motya. Then came the Elymaei, who are said to have built Elynma,
Entel!a, and Egesta.
IV. In the year 750 B.C., a colony of Chalcidians from Eubca, and Megarians, led by the Athenian Thucles, landed on the eastern coast, where they found
the country deserted, the Siculi having withdrawn to the interior in consequence
of the irruptions of the Etruscans or Tyrrhenians. These Greek colonists built
the town of Naxos.
V. In the following year a party of Corinthians and other Dorians, led by Archias, landed in the island of Ortygia, defeated the Siculi who inhabited it, and
laid the foundation of the great city of Syracuse. Four years later, the Greeks
of Naxos drove the Siculi out of Leontini and Catdna, and occupied both those
owns. About 712, a party of Rhodians and Cretans built Gela on the southern coast. In course of time, both, Syracuse and Gela sent colonies to other
parts of the island; a colony from Gela built Agrigentum, or, as the Greeks
called it, Acragas, and the Syracusans colonized Cmiirzna. A colony of Megarians settled at Hybla, and afterward built Selinus, 651 B.C. Colonies from
Zancle founded Miyle and Himera. The interior of the country remained in possession of the Siculi, under their respective princes.
VI. The Greek towns governed themselves at first as republics, mostly arisB B




386                 ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
tocratic, as Dorian towns generally were. Afterward, however, some citizens
rose to be tyrants or permanent chief magistrates. Hippocrates, tyrant of
Gela, was one of the oldest and most distinguished among these. He flourished
about 495 B.C. He defeated the Siculi, took Naxos and Leontini, and obliged
the Syracusans to give up Cankarina. Having joined Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, they surprised Zancle and shared the plunder between them. Anaxilaus
then invited a party of Messenians to colonize Zancle.
VII. Phalaris was tyrant of Agrigentum from about B.C. 565 to 550. Many
stories, probably exaggerated, are told of his cruelty. He; however, extended and
consolidated the power of Agrigentum. Phalaris was killed in a popular insurrection, and about sixty years later Th6ron was tyrant of Agrigentum. He
raised most of the splendid buildings of that city, and conquered Hme~ra, thus
extending the dominion of Agrigentum from the southern to the northern coast
of the island. His daughter Demarata married Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, who
was the most illustrious of the early Sicilian princes. Gelon and Theron together defeated the first invasion of the Carthaginians, 480 B.C., called in by
the people of Selinus, and also by Therillus, tyrant of Himera, who had been
driven away by Theron, and had taken refuge at Carthage. Syracuse and Agri
gentum were now the preponderating states in Sicily. Gelon was succeeded
in Syracuse by his brother Theron, tyrant of Gela, who died 467 B.C. His successor Thrasybulus being driven away by a popular insurrection, Syracuse
adopted a democratic form of government.
VIII. The people of Agrigentum about the same time expelled their tyrant
Thrasydaeus, and restored the democracy. Empedocles is said to have framed
a new constitution for Agrigentum, and Charondas did the same for Tauromenium, Catana, Himera, and the other cities of Chalcidic origin. Between 452 and
440 B.C., Sicily was distracted by an internal war between the Siculi, led by
their king, or chief, Deucetius, and the states of Agrigentum and Syracuse. It
terminated with the destruction of Trinacria, a stronghold of the Siculi, after a
desperate resistance of the inhabitants. The Syracusans next attacked Leontini. This was a war of races, the Doric cities taking part with Syracuse, and
the Chalcidic cities with Leontini. The latter, being the weakest, applied to
the Athenians for assistance. The first Athenian expedition to Sicily took place
427 B.C., but it led to no decisive result. A truce was concluded between the
Sicilian towns, and the Athenians withdrew their fleet, B.C. 425. A new quarrel between Egesta and Selinus led to the second Athenian expedition to Sicily,
415 B.C., which terminated fatally for the Athenians. The Egestans, being
left at the mercy of their enemies of Selinus, applied to Carthage, and this led
to the second invasion of Sicily by the Carthaginians (409 B.C.), who, under the
command of Hannibal, son of Giscon, took and plundered Selinus, and destroyed
its splendid temples. The Siculi of the interior having joined the Carthaginians,
their united forces attacked Himera, which stood on the northern coast, took it,
and destroyed it completely, two hundred and forty years after its foundation.
The Carthaginians next attacked the powerful city of Agrigentum, and after a
long siege took and destroyed it.
IX. The Carthaginians now settled in Sicily, where they remained for about
a century and a half, till the first Punic war. Syracuse was the only city that
effectually opposed Carthage, and prevented its dominion extending over the
island. After a succession of wars between Carthage and Syracuse, a treaty
was concluded about 340 B.C., by which the Carthaginians retained possession
of the western part of the island, the River Hdlycus forming the boundary of
their dominions on that side. Lilybaum, Eryx, and Panormus were their prin



SIcILIA.                         387
cipal settlements, and they flourished by commerce. The other towns formed
a league, of which Syracuse was the head. Timoleon invited fresh Greek colonies to repeople Agrigentum, Gela, and other places which had been devastated during the war.
X. The Carthaginians availed themselves of the civil dissensions of Syracuse
and of a war between Agathocles, tyrant of that city, and the people of Agrigentum, to interfere as mediators, when, in reward for their mediation, they secured an extension of territory, by which Selinus, Heraclea, and the Thermce
Himerenses were included within the Carthaginian possessions, which now ex
tended eastward to the River Himera. Fresh civil dissensions in Syracuse
encouraged the Carthaginians again to attack that city, which thereupon called
Pyrrhus to its assistance. Pyrrhus came and drove the Carthaginians out of
the island, with the exception of the strong town of Lilybceum, which he could
not take, and he suddenly.abandoned Sicily to its own dissensions and the mercy
of the Carthaginians. It was lucky for Syracuse, in this emergency, that it
found in Hiero II. a citizen equal to the task of saving his country.
XI. After this followed the struggle in Sicily between the Romans and Carthaginians during the first Punic war. At the end of that war the Romans succeeded the Carthaginians in the possession of the western part of Sicily, Hiero
II., king of Syracuse, retaining possession of the eastern part as ally of Rome.
His son Hieronymus imprudently quarrelled with Rome during the second
Punic war, and the result was the conquest of Syracuse by the Romans after his death; and thus the Romans became possessed of the whole island,
which they administered as a province under a praetor. The character of that
administration has been transmitted to us through Cicero, in his Orations against
Verres, and appears to have been the very worst species of misgovernment.
XII. About 134 B.C. the first Servile War broke out in Sicily, caused by the
ill treatment of the numerous slaves, who had become almost the only cultivators of the soil. The insurgents took possession of Enna, ravaged the country
around, defeated four Roman praetors, and surprised Tauromenium. They were
at last reduced by the consul Rupilius. About 102 B.C. another and more formidable insurrection broke out in Sicily, among a class of men born free, who had
been brought thither from other Roman provinces, to be engaged as hired laborers, and were afterward put in chains and confounded with the common
slaves. This movement, also, was with difficulty quelled.
XIII. Some time after this came the praetorship of Verres, and his wholesale
spoliations of Sicily. During the wars of the triumvirate, Sicily was for a time
in possession of Sextus Pompeius, who was at last defeated by Octavianus.
After his assumption of supreme power, the latter restored many towns in Sicily, and sent colonies to Tauromenium, Catana, Therme, Himerenses, Panormus,
Syracuse, Himera, and other places. Finding the extent of Syracuse too large
to be filled again, he contented himself with colonizing the island of Ortygia,
which has constituted ever since the modern town..XIV. Little is known of the history of Sicily under the empire, except that
Christianity spread early into the island, and that a persecution of the Christians
took place under Nero. About A.D. 440, the Vandals under Genseric landed
from Africa on the western coast of Sicily, and took Lilybleum. Theodoric,
the Gothic king of Italy, added Sicily to his continental dominions. In the year
534, Belisarius reconquered Sicily for the Emperor Justinian. In 827 the Saracens landed, and held the island under their sway until 1037, when it passed
into the hands of the Normans.




388                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(C.)   MOUNTAINS.
I. Mons Eryx, in the northwestern corner of the island, now
JMonte Santo Juliano.      On its summit stood a famous temple
of Venus Erycina, and on its western declivity the town of
Eryx.
II. Her(ei Montes ("Hpata opr7), or Mountains of Juno, in the
northeastern part of the island, now Monti Soni.
III. Nebrodes Montes (Nevp'dq0 opy), the main chain in the
island, running along the northern part from east to west, and
being, in fact, a continuation of the Apennines. Particular
names were also given to different parts of the chain. Thus
the Hercei Montes, already mentioned; Mons Neptunius, near
Messana; Mons Crates, in the western part of the island;
Montes Gemelli, to the south of Panormus, &c.
IV. jEtna Mons, a lofty and celebrated volcano, in the northeastern part of the island, now M1ongibello, a name evidently
derived from the Italian Monte and the Arabic Jebel (or Gibel),
both signifying "a mountain."      It is ninety miles in circurnfeience at the base, and attains, by a gradual ascent, to the
height of 10,874 feet above the level of the sea. From Catania
(the ancient Catana), which stands at the foot, to the summit,
is thirty miles, and the traveller passes through three distinct
zones, called the cultivated, the woody, and the desert. The
summit of the mountain consists of a conical hill, containing a
crater about two miles in circumference.
OBS. The silence of Homer respecting the fires of,Etna has given, rise to the
opinion that the mountain in his time was in the same state of repose as Vesuvius in the days of Strabo. The earliest writers who make mention of.Etna
and its eruptions are the author of the Orphic poems (Argonaut., v. 12), and more
particularly Pindar (Pyth., i., 21). Thucydides is next in order. He speaks of
the stream of lava which in his time (B.C. 426) desolated the territory of Catana. He asserts that this was the third eruption of lava on record since the
Greeks had been settled in Sicily. Diodorus Siculus mentions an eruption 396
B.C., which stopped the Carthaginian army in their march from Messana to
Syracuse, and obliged them to go round the whole base of the mountain in order to reach Catana. This stream of lava may be seen on the eastern slope of
the mountain, near Giane, extending over a breadth of more than two miles,
and having a length of twenty-four, from the summit of the mountain to its final
termination in the sea. The whole number of eruptions on record is said to be
eighty-one.




SIcILIA.                    389
(D.) PROMONTORIES.
I. Pelorum Promontorium, called also Pelorus, at the northeastern extremity of the island, and now Cape Peloro, or, as
some call it, Cape Faro. The strait between it and Italy was
called Fretum Sicilum, now Faro di Messina. This promontory was fabled to have been named from Pelorus, a pilot of
Hannibal. It hardly deserves even the appellation of a promontory, being, in fact, a low point of land.
II. Pachknum Promontorium, orPachynus, the southeasternmost extremity of the island, and now Cape Passaro. Its southernmost point is called by Ptolemy Odyssea Acra ('06vaoeia
"Atcpa).
III. LDbcanum Promzontoriunm, at the western extremity of
the island, and now Cape BOeo. It is not, in fact, however, a
mountain promontory, but a low, flat point of land, rendered
dangerous to vessels by its sand-banks and concealed rocks.
Lilybaeum was the nearest point to Carthage, and the ancient
writers pretend that from it vessels could be discerned sailing
out of the harbor of that city. The distance across, however,
shows the story to be false.
(E.) RIVERS.
ON the eastern coast we have, 1. Onobalus or Taurominzus,
flowing into the sea just below Naxos. It is now the Alcantara.
2. Acis, now the laci, a small stream, celebrated by the ancient
poets. Acis, a Sicilian shepherd, who had won the love of the
nymph Galatsea, was crushed to death with a fragment of rock
by his rival Polyphemus, and was transformed into this stream.
3. Symcethus, to the south of Catana, now the Giaretta. Among
its tributaries may be named the Cyanzosorus, now the Trachino; the Cl.rysas, now the Dittaino; and the Eryces, now
the St. Paolo. 4. Terias, to the south of the Symathus, and
passing in its course a short distance to the north of Leontini.
It is now the Guaralunga. The Lissius flows into it from the
southwest, and passes close to Leontini on the west. It is now
the Lentini, which is also the modern name of Leontini itself.
5. Pantagias, now the Porcari. 6. Alibus or Alabon, now
the Cantaro. 7. Anaipus, flowing into the harbor of Syracuse,
now the Alfeo. 8. Cacypdris, now the Cassibile, to the south




390             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of the Longum Promontorium, now Cape Lungo. 9. Erin.
cus, now the Miranda. 10. Asinarus, now the Falconara, or,
according to others, the Fiume di Noto. This last, however,
appears to correspond rather to the Phacncus. 11. Helorus,
now the Abisso.
On the southern and southwestern coast we have, 1. Motycanus, now the Sicali, flowing by Casmence, the modern Sicali.
2. Hirminius, now Flume di Ragusa, entering the sea at Cancana, the modern Longobardo. 3. Hipparis, now the Carinia,
passing by Camarina. 4. Achates, now the Drillo. 5. Gela,
new Fiume di Terra Nuova, passing by the city of Gela.
6 Himera, the southern part of which bears the name of Fiume Salso, in consequence of the saline taste communicated to
its waters by a salt spring: the northern part is called Fiume
di:Po/ina. This river, as already remarked, separated at one
time the Carthaginian dependencies from those of Syracuse.
T!.is must lnot be confounded with another and smaller river
of the same name, on the northern coast. 7. Camicus, now
the Naro. 8. Acradgas, now Girgenti, passing by the city of
Acragas or Agrigentum. 9. Halycus, now the Platani, and
which formed for some time the eastern limit of the Carthaginian dependencies. 10. Crimissus, now Fiume di St. Bartolomeo.  On its banks Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians.
Some erroneously make it a branch of the Hypsas, and give it
the modern name of Belici destro. 11. Hypsas, now the Belici,
flowing into the sea a little to the east of Selinus. 12. Halyccus,
now the Arena, not to be confounded with the larger river of
that name already mentioned. 13. Mlazrus, now Flume di
Mazzara. 14. Sossius, now Fiume di lIlarsala, a little helow Lilybvcum, the modern li3arsala.
On the northern coast we have, 1. Bathys, now the Iati,
emptying into the Sinus Seestanus. 2. Orethus, now the
Orfeto, emptying into the sea at Panormus, the modern Palermo. 3. Eleutherus, now the Bajaria, to the east of Panorinus. 4. Himnzra, now St. Leonardo, emptying into the sea
near the city of Himiera. 5. M3ondlus, now the Pollina, falling into the sea near Apollonia, the modern Pollina. 6. Ahesus, now the Pattineo, passing by the city Alcesa. 7. Tiscethus, now Fiume di Naso. 8. Helicon, now Olivero, emptying into the sea near Tyndaris, the modern Tindaro. 9. Lon.




SIcILIA.                   391
ganus, now Fiune di Castro Reale, between Tyndaris and
Mylce, the modern Melazzo.
(F.) PRODUCTIVENESS OF SICILY.
I. A country like Sicily, lying between the thirty-sixth and
thirty-eighth parallels of latitude, and consequently belonging
to the sbuthernrtost regions of Europe, and which is well supplied with streams of water from its numerous mountain chains,
must of course be a fertile one. Such, indeed, was the character of the island throughout all antiquity; and the Romans,
while they regarded it as one of the granaries of the capital,
placed it, in point of productiveness, by the side of Italy itself,
or rather regarded it as a portion of that country.
II. The staple of Sicily was its excellent wheat. The'Romans found it growing wild in the extensive fields of Leontini,
and when cultivated it yielded a hundred fold: that which grew
in the plains of Enna was regarded as decidedly the best. It
was natural enough, therefore, in the early inhabitants of the
island, to regard it as the parent country of grain, and they had
a deity among them whom they considered as the patroness of
fertility, and the discoverer of fertility to man. In this goddess
the Greeks recognized their Ceres, and they rade Proserpina
to have been carried off by Pluto from the rich fields of Enna.
(G.) CITIES OF SICILY.
ON the eastern shore we find, 1. Zancle, so called from the
scythe-like form of its harbor (adyxcki, "a scythe"). It was
founded by the Siculi. A colony from Chalcis in Eubcea afterward settled here, and were joined by some of the inhabitants
of Naxos, on the lower part of the eastern coast: Zancle soon
became powerful enough to colonize, and founded, in consequence, the cities of Hiimera and Mylce. It was. subsequently
surprised and plundered by Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, and
Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. Anaxilaus then invited a party
of Mlessenians to colonize the place, and the city assumed, in
consequence, the name of Messdna. It soon became flourishing, and was regarded by the Greeks as the key to Sicily, as
being the place, namely, to which vessels cruising from Greece
to Sicily directed their course on leaving the Iapygian promontory. And yet, notwithstanding these advantages, it was never




392             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
other than an unlucky place, and always undergoing changes,
and no Greek city ever contained within its wall a more mixed
population. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians, and rebuilt by Dionysius of Syracuse, and remained for some time
under his sway and that of his son. At a subsequent period
it was seized by the Mamertini, a band of Campanian mercenaries, who slew the males, and took the ferrles to wife, and
called the city, at the same time, Mamertini. The movements
of the Mamertines subsequently gave rise to the first Punic
war. A Roman colony was afterward planted here. Messina
now answers to the ancient city.
2. Tauromeniumj now Taormino, between Messana and Catana, originally built by the Siculi on the rock Tautrus, and
subsequently colonized by a number of the old inhabitants of
the neighboring but ruined city of Naxos. 3. Naxos, to the
south of the preceding, founded by a colony of Chalcidians and
Megarians, and which, in its turn, founded Leontini. It was
destroyed by Dionysius of Syracuse. The old inhabitants, together with some new comers, settled in the immediate vicinity, and colonized Tauromeniumr. 4. Catana, now Catania,
founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, five years after
the settlement of Carthage. Hiero transferred the inhabitants
to Leontini, but after his death they returned and once more
occupied the place. Dionysius afterward got possession of the
city, sold part of the inhabitants as slaves, and settled here a
body of his mercenaries called Campani. Catana fell into the
hands of the Romans during the first Punic war. 5. Leontini,
to the southwest, now Lentini. It was founded by a colony
from the city of Naxos, already mentioned, and was situate in
the Campi Leontini or Laestrygonii, where Ceres was said to
have scattered the wheat. Leontini eventually sank under the
superior power of Syracuse, and its quarrel with the latter city
led to the first Athenian expedition to Sicily. The celebrated
Gorgias was a native of this place. 6. Hybla Parva, a little
above Syracuse. It was also denominated Galaotis, but more
frequently Megara, or Megara Hyblcea, and was famed for its
bees and honey. There were two other places of the same
name in Sicily, one south of Mount IEtna, and the second to
the east of Gela. 7. Thapsus, a short distance to the east of
the preceding, and founded by a colony from it, on a peninsula
now called Penisola dei Bagnoli.




SICTLIA.                    393
S. Syractuse, now Siracusa or Syracuse, in the time of its
splendor the largest city of Sicily, and one of the largest in the
ancient world. It was founded by a party of Corinthians and
Dorians, who landed in the island of Ortygia, defeated the Siculi, and made their first settlement there.  The history of
this city has already been briefly given in the sketch of Sicilian affairs that has preceded. It was taken by Marcellus, the
Roman praetor, in the second Punic war, B.C. 212, and was
also before this the scene of the memorable defeat of the Athenians, so finely related by Thucydides, in his seventh book of
the Peloponnesian war. The ports of Syracuse lay at the south
below the town. The smaller port was formed by the town
and the north side of the little island Ortygia, in which was
the fountain Arethusa, fabled by the poets to communicate
with the River Alpheus in Elis, and which last was said to
pursue its course to this island by passing under the surface
of the sea. The greater harbor, in which was the mouth of
the River Anapus, was formed by the southern side of the island
and a bay reaching to the promontory called Plemmyrium, in
the recess of which promontory was a castle. The city was
of a triangular form, and consisted, in fact, of five towns adJoining one another, but separated by walls, and the whole was
surrounded by an external wall, the length of which was one
hundred and eighty stadia, or above twenty-two English miles.
The five divisions of Syracuse were Ortygia, Acradina, Tyche,.
Epipolae, and Neapolis. The part called Acradina was nearest the shore, and its southern extremity formed one side of the
smaller port. The southwestern side of the city, lying toward
the Anapus, and separated from it by some marshy ground,
was called Neapolis, built after the Athenian invasion, between
which and Acradina was Tyche, and above Neapolis was Epipoil. Between the Anapus and Neapolis -was a grove and
temple of Apollo, who was hence called Tevmenites.  The Latomice were originally granaries, excavated in the rocks that
divide the upper from the lower town. Some of them afterward served as prisons, and, on the surrender of Nicias, the
whole of the Athenian prisoners were confined in them, and
mostly died. One of these Latomiee forms the so-called " Ear
of Dionysius." After the Roman conquest, the population, having gradually decreased, became restricted to'the original Orty



394            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
gia and the lower'art of Acradina, and all the upper city was
already abandonf ry -he time of Augustus. The Saracens, in
the ninth centur.nagiidered and devastated Syracuse, which
contained till thE - -a s',000 inhabitants, and from that time
Ortygia, or the island, has been the only part inhabited.
9. Helorum, below Syracuse, and near the mouth of the River
Helorus. Pliny speaks of it as a mere castle or fortified post,
with a good fishery attached to it; but it was, in truth, a very
ancient city, and a place of some importance before the arrival
of the Greeks. The adjacent country was very fertile and
beautiful, and hence Ovid calls it the " Helorian Tempe."
The remains of this city are called Muri Ucci.
On the southern and southwestern coast we find, 1. Camarina, on the River Hipparis, a colony of Syracuse. This was
a most unfortuna;e city, having been several times destroyed,
and as often rebu.t. In the neighborhood of this place the river
formed a low isi aid, covered at high water, but, when the tide
fell, converted in ) a marsh. This marsh proving unhealthy,
the inhabitants c insulted an oracle whether they should drain
it. Although th,; oracle dissuaded them, they drained it, and
opened a way to their enemies to come and plunder the city.
Hence arose the proverb, from the words of the oracle, q KitVEL
KapapTlav, "I Move not Camarina," applied to those who, by
removing one evil, bring on a greater. The ruins of this plac3
are found at Torre di Canerina. 2. Gela, on the river of the
same name, and a short distance from the sea. It was founded by a party of Rhodians and Cretans. 712 B.C., and became
one of the most powerful of the Grecian colonies in Sicily, so
that, one hundred and eight years after its own foundation, it
colonized the celebrated city of Agrigentum. This state of
prosperity continued until the time of Gelon, who removed a
large part of the inhabitants to Syracuse. After this it sarn
in importance, and never recovered its former power. Phintia:;,
at length, tyrant of Agrigentum. built a small and commodious
city, called after his own name, and transferred to it all the inhabitants of Gela, which from this period (four hundred and four
years after its foundation) ceased to exist. On a part of the
ancient site s;'hds the modern Terra Nuova. The plains
around Gela (C rnpi Geloi) were famed for their fertility and
beauty. 3. ReJ'^,ium Gela, nearer the coast. The term re



SICILIA.                    395
fugiumn denoted a place where a vessel mig' be brought safely
to land, although there was there no res  harbor. 4. Agrzgentum, called by the Greeks Acraga.^ yar), a celebrated
city, about three miles from the coast  deriving its name
from the small river Acragas in its   liate vicinity. It
was a colony of Gela, and was built on  ky height eleven
hundred feet above the level of the sea.  was therefore a
place of great strength, and enjoyed also ac.ntages of a commnercial nature, having a port or dock-yard (Navale) on the coast,
which afforded it the means of easy intercourse with the harbors of Africa and southern Europe. The adjacent country,
noreover, was very fertile. From the combined operation of
all these causes, Agrigentum soon became a wealthy and powerful city, and inferior to Syracuse alone. It was taken and
plundered by the Carthaginians under Hamil. ar, and the inhabitants fled to Gela, whence they were trans erred to Leontini.
It subsequently recovered from this blow, anew at the commencement of the second Punic war was one of t e most important
strongholds which the Carthaginians possessed in the island.
After falling into the hands of the Romans, it long continued a
flourishing place. Its site corresponds to the modern Girgenti.
This place is often mentioned in the poetry of Pindar. It was
the birth-place of Empedocles.
5. Heraclea Minoa, at the mouth of the Halycus. The
place was first called Minoa, and was a colony of Selinus.
It was afterward seized by a band of Spartans, who had migrated from home under a leader named Dorieus, an unsuccessful competitor for the Spartan throne.  These Spartans
changed the name to Heraclea, and subsequently both names
were combined, Heraclea Minoa. Its ruins are found at the
mouth of the Camicus, now the Platani. 6. Selinus, a large
and flourishing city, at the mouth of the River Selinus, now
the Madiuni. It was founded by a colony from Meg Iar Hyb.
1cea, B.C. 651.  Selinus was engaged in almost continual
wars with the city of /Egesta or Segeste, on the northern coast,
and the latter having called in the aid of the Carthaginians,
Selinus was taken, plundered, and in a great r-asure destroyed.
The Carthaginians afterward allowed the ftu live inhabitants
to return and reoccupy their city, but it nev r' recovered fully
from the blow, and they finally transferred ilae inhabitants to
Lilybaeum. The ruins exist near the modern Terra dei PF-cr;




396             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
On the western and northern coasts we have, 1. Lilybceum,
near the promont o   the same name. It was the principal
fortress of the Car  l ians in Sicily, and is said to have been
founded by them a//ronghold in this quarter against Dionysius of Syracus e.  eqeived as a part of its population the
remaining inhabjl of the old Phlinician settlement of Mofya, lying to the  th of it, after that place had been taken by
Dionysius. Th trength of its fortifications was evinced by
its holding out against Pyrrhus, after all the other Carthaginian cities in Sicily. had yielded to his arms. It afterward came
into the hands of the Romans, by the conditions of the peace
which brought the whole of the island into their power, and they
subsequently used it as the harbor whence their fleets sailed
for the reduction of Carthage. In a later age, Cicero calls it
"splendidissima civitas."  The modern Marsala occupies the
southern half of the ancient city. 2. Motya, to the north, a
Phoenician settlement, on a small island, now called di Mezze.
Its inhabitants were transplanted by Himilco to Lilybmum,
after the former place had been taken by Dionysius. Up to
this time it had been an important naval post of Carthage.
3. Drepanum or Drepana, to the north, now Trapani. It took
its name from the curvature of the shore in this quarter resembling a scythe (6peravov). This place was founded in the
beginning of the first Punic war by the Carthaginian commander Hamilcar, who removed to it the inhabitants of Eryx
and other places adjacent. Drepanum and Lilybaeum formed
the two most important maritime cities held by the Carthaginians in Sicily. Off this place, near the JEgates Insulce, was
fought the famous naval battle between the Romans, commanded by Lutatius Catulus, and the Carthaginians under
Hanno. The Romans gained a decisive victory, which put an
end to the first Punic war. Virgil makes LEneas to have lost
his father Anchises here, a poetic anachronism worth noting.
4. Eryx, to the northeast, founded, in all probability, by the
Phoenicians, and situate on the western declivity of the mountain of the same name. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians
in the time of Pyrrhus, who, a short time previous, had taken
it by storm, and the inhabitants were removed to Drepanum.
It soon revived, however, owing to the celebrity of the adjacent
temple of Venus Erycina, which stood on the summit of the




SICILIA.                   397
mountain. In the first Punic war it fell into the hands of the
Romans, but was surprised by the Carthaginians, and the inhabitants who escaped the slaughter were again removed to Drepanum. The place never recovered from this blow, and was
never rebuilt. No traces of the temple remain at the present
day. On the summit of.the mountain is an ancient castle,
supposed to have been erected by the Saracens.
On the northern coast we have, 1. Segeste or.Egesta, to
the southeast of Eryx. According to Thucydides, a body of
Trojans settled here after the fall of Troy, and, uniting with
the Sicani, formed one people under the name of Elymi. They
afterward received accessions from some wandering Achei.
Such is the Greek account of the origin of the Elymi and
Egestei. When the Romans became masters of these parts
after the first Punic war, they readily adopted the current tradition respecting the Trojan origin of the people of 2Egesta,
and the affinity was recognized in the Duilian inscription, where
the ZEgestmeans are styled Cocnati P. R. The true link, in all
probability, was a Pelasgic one. The AEgestaeans were engaged
in a long contest with Selinus, which proved eventually the
cause of overthrow to the latter; but Segeste itself suffered severely at a subsequent period from Agathocles. It became
flourishing again, however, under the Roman sway. Its ruins
are found near the modern Alcamo. 2. Panormus, now Palermo, to the northeast, built by the Phaenicians. The Greek
name is derived from the excellence and capaciousness of its
harbor (nrra, o5ppo), and is equivalent to All-port. Panormus
was subsequently an important stronghold of the Carthaginians,
and the chief station of their fleet. Here, also, were the winter-quarters of their army. The Romans obtained possession
of it A.U.C. 500, and it became subsequently one of the free
cities' of Sicily. 3. Soluntum, a strong harbor, to the southeast, now Castello di Solanto, occupies a part of its site.
4. Himera, founded, according to Thucydides, by a colony from
Zancle, and destroyed by the Carthaginians two hundred and
forty years after. The Carthaginians subsequently established
a number of the old inhabitants in the n.ew city of Thermce
Himerenses, in the immediate vicinity of Himera. This spot
was remarkable for its warm baths. The ruins of Therma
are now called Termini. Himera was the birth-place of Ste



398             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
sichorus. 5. Cephalkedium, a fortified post, belonging to the
territory of Himera, afterward to the Carthaginians, now Cefali.  6. Calacta ( beautiful shore," Kaj/ aEc-rq), so called
from its situation. Vestiges of it are to the north of the modern Caronia. 7. Agathyrna, a city of the Siculi, near the modern hamlet of Santa Agatha. 8. Tyndaris, founded by Dionysius the elder, and which became in time an important city.
It was at the mouth of the Helicon, and answers to the modern Tindaro. Part of the ancient site, however, has been inundated by the sea. 9. 1Iclie, now Milazzo, at the mouth of
the River lIylas, now the Mela. Between this place and a
station named Naul6chus, farther to the east, the fleet of Sextus Pompeius was defeated by that of Octavianus under the
command of Agrippa.
In the interior of Sicily we may notice the following: 1. Noce,
northeast of Mount iEtna, now Noara. 2. Tissa, to the southwest of the preceding, and at the foot of iEtna, now Randazzo.
3. JEtna, on the southern declivity of the mountain of that name.
Its first name was Inessa or Inessos. It was changed to that
of.Etna when the remains of the colony were settled here,
which Hiero had established at Catana, and which had been
driven out of the latter place by the Siculi. Hiero had called
Catana by the name of 2Etna, and the new comers applied it
to the city which now furnished them with an abode. At a
subsequent period we find the elder Dionysius in possession of
the place, a post of much importance to him, since it commanded the road from Catana to the western parts of the island.
The ancient site now bears the name of Castro. 4. Centuripce,
to the southwest, a very ancient city of the Siculi, rich by reason of its agriculture, and its trade in salt and saffron. It was
the birth-place of Celsus. The modern Centorbi marks the
ancient site. 5. Adranum, to the northwest of the citr of
LEtna, founded by Dionysius the elder, and named after the
native deity Hadranus. It is now Aderno. 6. Hybla Major,
a short distance to the southwest of the city of 2Etna, on a hill
named Hybla, and near the River Symcethus. It was famous
for its honey and bees. It is now Paterno. There were two
other places of the same name in Sicily: one, called Megara
Hybicea, already mentioned, and a little above Syracuse, on the
sea-coast; and another, called Hybla Herea, to the east of Gela.




SICILIA.                    399
This last is now Calata Girone. 7. Agjyrium, some distance
to the west of the city of JEtna, and the birth-place of Diodorus
Siculus. Its ruins are in the vicinity of St. Filippo d'Agyro
8. Enna, to the southwest of the preceding, and one of the most
ancient seats of the Siculi. It was celebrated over the whole
island, not so much for its size and opulence as for its being
the centre of the worship of Ceres. The adjacent country was
remarkable for its fertility, and in the plains of Enna Proserpina was fabled to have been sporting when she was carried off
by Pluto. Enna was regarded as the navel of Sicily, and here
Ceres and Proserpina had one of their most sacred temples.
The site of the ancient place is occupied by the modern Castro
Giovanni, but nearly all traces of the blooming meads in its
vicinity have disappeared.
9. Palica, southwest of Leontini, a strong place of the Siculi,
and having in its vicinity the famous lakes of the deities called
Palici. These lakes were properly the craters of extinct volcanoes, and of unknown depth, and emitted a strong sulphureous stench. If one swore by these waters and perjured himself, it was supposed to be followed by some supernatural punishment. The city of Palica was already in ruins in the time
of Diodorus Siculus. 10. Tri6cala, southeast of Selinus, and
near the River Crimissus. It was at one time the residence
of Tryphon, king of the slaves, in the Sicilian slave rebellion;
and it derived its name from its threefold advantages (rpia
icaid) of strong situation, good water, and extensive trade in
wine and oil. Its ruins may still be seen near the modern
Calata Bellotta.
Each of the three main promontories of Sicily had a celebrated temple either on or near it. At Pelorum was that of Neptune, at Pachynumn that of Apollo, and on Mount Eryx, not
far from Lilybceum, was that of Venus. The ancient poets
fabled that the giant Typhoeus was buried under Sicily, Pelorum and Pachynum being placed on either arm, Lilybmeum on
his feet, and.E tna on his head, and that the earthquakes and
eruptions of IEtna were caused by his attempts to move.




400                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
II. IEO(LIAE INSULIE.
I. These were situate to the' north of Sicily, and were called,o6lice, from their
having formed the fabled domain of E6olus, god of the winds. They were also
called Vulcdniae (in Greek Hephcestiades), from their volcanic character; and like
wise Liparice, from Lipara, the largest of the number.
II. The group consists of seven islands, and their names, according to Mela,
were as follows: Lipara, Osteodes, Heraclea, Didyme, Phoanicasa, Hiera, and
Strongyle. Pliny and Diodorus Siculus, however, substitute Ericasa and Euonymus for Osteodes and Heraclea.
III. These islands are supposed by some to be the same with Homer's IILayKrai, or " wandering islands." The island of Lipdra was the largest and most
important of the group, and is now Lipari, giving their modern name to the
whole cluster. The island of Strongyle was so named by the Greeks on account of its round form (2rpoyyVi'X, scil. vsaof, " the round island"), and is now
Stromboli, celebrated for its continual volcano. The ancients made this island
the residence of AEolus, monarch of the winds; and Pliny gives us the germ
of the whole fable, when he states that the inhabitants could tell three days
beforehand, from the smoke of the volcano, what winds were going to blow.
III. MELITA AND GAULUS.
1. Melita, now MIalta, lay sixty miles southeast of Sicilia. It is first mentioned
by Scylax, but is considered by him as belonging to Africa, from its having
Punic inhabitants, and being no farther from Africa'than from Sicily. The
earlier Greek historians do not mention it, since it was regarded as a Carthaginian island, and lay without their historical limits.
II. Diodorus Siculus is the first that gives us any account of it. "There
are," he says, " over against that part of Sicily which lies to the south, three
islands, at a distance in the sea, each of which has a town, and safe ports for
ships overtaken by tempests. The first, called Melite, has several excellent harbors. The inhabitants are very rich, inasmuch as they exercise many trades,
and, in particular, manufacture cloths remarkable for their softness and fineness. Their houses are large, and splendidly ornamented with projections and
stucco (yeiaaotL tal KovluaatL). The island is a colony of the Phoenicians, who,
trading to the western ocean, use it as a place of refuge, because it has excellent ports, and lies in the midst of the sea. Next to this island is another,
named Gaulus, with convenient harbors, which is also a colony of the Phoenicians." The island of Gaulus, here mentioned, is the modern Gozo. The third
island of Diodorus was Cercina, off the coast of Africa, now Kerkine.
III. Melita is said to have oeen subsequently occupied by the' Greeks; but,
however this may be, the Carthaginians obtained possession of it B.C. 402. In
the first Punic war it was plundered by the Roman consul Atilius. In the second Punic war it was surrendered to the Romans, and was regarded henceforth
as an appendage to the province of Sicily. Its commerce declined under its
new masters, and the island became a not unfrequent haunt of piraies. It ap-.
pears, however, that its temple of JuQo was rich enough to be an object of
plunder to the rapacious Verres, when he waS pretor of Sicily. The linen cloth
of Malta was considered an article of luxury at Rome.
IY. After the division of the Roman empire at the death of Constantine, this
island was included in the share allotted to Constantius. It fell subsequently




CORSICA.                           401
into the hands of the Vandals and Goths, who were expelled by Belisarius, A.D.
533. The Arabs conquered it in 870, and though it was recovered and held by
the Eastern empire for the space of thirty-four years, it was retaken by the
Arabs, and the Greek inhabitants were exterminated. In 1120, Count Roger,
the Norman conqueror of Sicily, took possession of Malta and expelled the
Arabs.
IV. CORSICA.
I. THE first notice of Corsica is in Herodotus, under the name of Cyrnus
(Kvpvoc). The people of Phocaa in Asia Minor, unable to resist the Persian
Cyrus, determined to desert their native town. In the year 544 B.C. they embarked, with their wives and children, first for Chios, and afterward for Corsica,
in which they had twenty years before founded the town of Alalia. Half the
number, however, returned to Phocaea, but the remainder pursued their voyage,
and joined the people of Alalia, with whom they continued five years, plundering the surrounding nations, until, having suffered dreadful loss in a sea-fight
against the allied fleet of the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians, they abandoned
Corsica to seek another settlement.
II. In the time of Gelon of Syracuse, B.C. 480, we find mention of Corsicans
(Kvpvtot) among the troops with which the Carthaginian Hamilcar came to the
aid of Terillus, tyrant of Himera. The Carthaginians had probably possessed
themselves of Corsica, at least of the coast, and on their downfall it came
under the power of the Romans. A tribute of two hundred thousand pounds
of wax imposed on them deserves notice, as indicating one of the chief products
of the island at that time.
III. The Romans founded twe colonies, both on the eastern 6oast: Mariana,
at the mouth of the Tavbla, now the Golo, founded by Marius; and Aliria, on the
site of the ancient Alalia, at the mouth of the Rhotanus, now the Tavignano, by
the dictator Sylla. The Romans used the island as a place of banishment.
Seneca was sent to it as an exile. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Corsica came into the hands of the Vandals, and subsequently of the Goths; but
the successes of Belisarius forced them to abandon the island, which was then
included in the exarchate of Ravenna, a dependency of the Eastern empire.
Early in the eighth century, the Saracens, then masters of Spain, possessed
themselves of Corsica; but the decline of their power, and the attacks of the
kings of France and Arragon, and ultimately of the Pope, led them to abandon
the island.
(A.)   MOUNTAINS       OF   CORSICA.
THE whole country is exceedingly mountainous and woody. The two chains,
however, most deserving of special mention are, 1. Aureus Mons (7o Xpvaoiv
opor), running from north to south, and dividing the island into two parts. 2.
Mons Rhoetius (ro'Poi7Tov pof), on the western side, near the River Cercidius.
(B.)   RIVERS     OF   CORSICA.
1. Tavola, in the north, now the Golo, having Mariana at its mouth. 2. RhStdnus, now the Tavignano, having at its mouth Alalia or Aleria. 3. Sacer, now
the Orbo. 4. Ticarius, now the Tigari, on the western side. 5. Locras, now the'alavo. 6. Cercidius, now the Liamone.
C c




402                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(C.)   PROMONTORIES.
1. Promontorium Sacrum, the north land's end, now Capo Corso. 2. Actium
Promontorium, now Capo d'Acciajualo, on the western side. 3. Viriballum Promontorium, now Capo di Gargalo, on the same side. 4. Rhium Promontorium,
to the south of the preceding, now Capo di Feno. 5. Marinum Promontorium,
now Capo di Casa Barbarica.
(D.) PRODUCTS OF CORSICA.
Rosin; honey of a bitter taste, in consequence of the great abundance of yewtrees (taxi) in the island; wax, subsequently wine, oil, &c. It must be observed, that the eastern coast, where the Romans had their settlements, was
the only quarter that was well cultivated.
(E.) INHABITANTS OF CORSICA.
I. THE inhabitants, called Ccrsi or Cyrnii, were, according to Seneca, an
Iberian race; and this remark of his is of considerable value, since he himself
was a native of Spain. They lived, after a patriarchal fashion, on milk and
cheese, and hence were long lived. These aboriginals were mixed with Tyrrhenians and Ligyans.
II. The Phocaean Greeks founded the town of Alalia. Their subsequent
movements have already beer. referred to.
(F.)   CITIES OF CORSICA.
1. Clunium, in the north, on the eastern side of the island, and near the Promontorium  Sacrum; now Santa Catharina. 2. lMantZnorum Oppidum, to the
southof the preceding, now Bastia. 3. Mariana, to the" south, at the mouth of
the Tavola, now the Golo. It was founded by Marius. 4. Aldlia, to the south,
at the mouth of the Rhotanus, now the Tavignano. It was founded, as already
stated, by the Phocaeans, when they left their native city in Ionia, in order to
avoid the rule of Cyrus. It was subsequently colonized by Sylla, and became
the capital of the island. From this period we find the name written Aleria.
The modern appellation is also Aleria. 5. Talcinum, in the interior, to the northwest of the preceding. It is now Talcino. 6. Centurinum, in the north, on the
western side of the island, and near the Promontorium Sacrum. It is Row'Centuri. 7. Palanta, some distance to the southwest of the preceding, and near the
western coast. It is now Balagna. 8. Tarabenorum Vicus, some distance below the preceding, and removed from the western coast, now Vico. 9. Urcinium, to the southeast of the Rhium Promontorium, or Capo di Feno. It was
fabled to have been founded by Eurysaces, the son of Ajax, and is now Ajaccio.
10. Portus Titianus, some distance to the south, now Porto Tiziano. 11. Palla,
near the southern extremity of the island, and now Porto S. Giulia. Some,
however, make it the same with Bonifacio. The strait in this quarter, between
Corsica and Sardinia, was called Taphros, and is now the Strait of Bonifacio.
Passing around to the eastern side of the island, we may name, 12. Portus Syracusanus, now Porto di S. Manza, and, 13. Portus Favonius, to the north, now
Porto Favone.
V. SARDINIA.
I. THE oldest Greek form for the name of this island was Sardo (lapd6), ana
the inhabitants were called Sardoi (.papd6ot) and Sardonii (lapso6vio). The




SARDINIA.                           403
Romans called the island Sardinia, and the inhabitants Sardi, rarely Sardinienses. In outline, the island is not unlike the rough footsteps of a man, and
hence it was sometimes called Ichnfisa ('Ixvovaa) and Sandaliotis (ZavdatCLr3t),
from Zivor and cav6ridtov, both meaning " a footstep."
II. Whence Sardinia received its first inhabitants we are not informed by any
ancient writer. They speak, indeed, of settlements made at various times in
the island, but the new comers always found a rude race of inhabitants already
in possession. The first who is said to have led a colony hither was Sardus,
a son of Hercules. He introduced among the rude inhabitants, who were accustomed to dwell in caves, the first rudiments of civilization; taught them
agriculture, and was their earliest lawgiver. In gratitude to him, they are said
to have called the island after his name, and to have worshipped him as a god.
III. A colony of Iberians is said to have come next, under Norax, from Baetica. He settled in the southern part of the island, and founded the city of Nora,
calling it after his own name. Descending to more historic times, we find lolaus to have led the first Grecian colony to this island, and to have founded Olbia
on the northern coast, afterward a considerable town in the Roman period, and
of which vestiges are found near Terranova. Strabo says that the colonists of
Iolaus inhabited the island jointly with the barbarians. From an inscription
found at Stampace, it appears that Caralis, the modern Cagliari, assumed at one
time the name of " Civitas Iloe," and, even at the present day, a part of the
territory of Cagliari is called Euradoria di Iola.
IV. The fertility of Sardinia soon invited over numerous Grecian settlers,
and various petty republics were established, independent of each other. Traces
of Grecian customs and attire are said still to remain. The Carthaginians
would seem to have obtained a footing in Sardinia at a very early period, as the
situation of the island, in a commercial point of view, was too important to be
neglected. Its fertility, moreover, made it one of their granaries, and they used
every means in their power to promote agricultural labors. We have no accounts of the wars of the Carthaginians in Sardinia, but it appears that they
never reduced it entirely, as the natives took refuge in the mountains, ever
ready to rise at any favorable opportunity. The lower country, however, was
permanently in possession of the Carthaginians until the first Punic war:
V. Sardinia fell into the hands of the Romans, and was incorporated into a
province about B.C. 228, in the interval between the first and second Punic
wars. Its new masters, however, could only, as the Carthaginians had done
before them, obtain possession of the lower country. The inhabitants of the
mountainous country, in the interior, defended themselves successfully for nearly one hundred years. Indeed, it may be said that Sardinia was never completely subdued by the Romans, and the predatory movements of the mountaineers still occasioned trouble in the days of the emperors. In the fifth century
the island fell into the hands of the Vandals.
VI. Livy describes the Sardinian mountaineers as clothed in skins, a.species
of attire not entirely laid aside by them even at the present day. In war they
carried small bucklers covered with skin. From this peculiar kind of covering
for their bodies they were called mastrucati (the term for a garment of skin
being mastraca), and mastrucati latrunculi (" skin-clad banditti") were often very
dangerous antagonists for the Romans.
(A.)   CLIMiTE OF SARDINIA.
I. THE mountain atmosphere of Sardinia was healthy; but the plains and
some of the lower valleys were notoriously unhealthy, and have continued so




404                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
tp the present day. Cicero, Strabo, Martial, and, in later times, Dante, all speak
in strong terms of the insalubrity of Sardinia. The noxious effects. of the
climate were still more sensibly felt by strangers than by natives. Hence,
whenever the Romans wished to'designate a particularly unhealthy region, they
named Sardinia; and so greatly did they dread the effects of its climate, that
they never ventured to keep a standing force in this island for any length of time.
II. The principal causes of this unhealthiness were thie pools of standing
water in the hollows of the island, and the want of northerly winds. These
winds were kept off, as some of the ancients believed, by the mountains of Corsica, and even of Italy. The Insani Montes of Sardinia also contributed to produce this. In modern times, the active causes of the unhealthiness of the island are the exhalations from the marshes and the beds of rivers, which are
nearly dry in summer, and the putrescent vegetation.
(B.) FERTILITY, PRODUCTS, &C.
I. THE fertility of Sardinia is attested by all the ancient writers. Rome obtained her supplies of grain not only from Sicily, but also from Sardinia; large
quantities of salt, too, as in modern times, were manufactured on the western
and southern coasts. The ancient writers make mention, also, of the mines in
this island; and some of these were worked to a great extent, as is attested
by vast excavations and the remains of founderies. Southwest of Iglesias is
Monte d'Oro, which appears to have derived its name from the gold formerly
extracted from it; the mountain has been reduced by excavation to a mere
shell. There is no doubt that silver also was procured in considerable quantities, and Solinus makes mention of mines of this metal.
II. Two products of the island, however, deserve particular notice. One of
these is its wool, which in modern days has fallen off in quality, and is now
principally manufactured into coarse cloth for the peasantry. The beautiful
tincture, also, of a delicate vermilion hue, mentioned by the ancients under the
name of tinctara Sardonica, is no longer known. The other remarkable product
was a species of wild parsely (apiastrum), a sort of ranunculus, called by Solinus " herba Sardonia." It grew very abundantly around springs and wet places.
Whoever ate of it died, apparently laughing; in other words, the nerves became
contracted, and the lips of the sufferer assumed the appearance of an involuntary and painful laugh. Hence the expression Risus Sardonicus.
III. Sardinia was famed also for its fisheries, especially of tunnies and sardines, the latter deriving their name (sardinia) from that of the island.
(C.)   MOUNTAINS.
I. SARDINIA may be called a mountainous island, a chain of mountains running
through it from north to south, though nearer to the eastern than the western
coast. From the northern part of this chain another rises, which proceeds
from east to west, and which separates the island, as it were, into two parts.
Tlhis cross range is called by Ptolemy ra' MawLov6eva'Opr, and by the Latin
writers Insdni Montes, or the "Mad Mountains."
II. The mountains of Sardinia exercise a very important influence on the
character of its coast, on the temperature, and on the productiveness of the
island. The numerous side ranges, running down to the very coast, form
spacious bays, and, on the southern and western shores, safe harbors. On the
east side of the island, however, the cliffs are high and steep, and scarcely
afford any where a safe anchoring place, while gusts of wind.frequently blow
with very sudden and great fury from the interior of the mountain ranges, and




SARDINIA.                            405
do great damage to vessels along these shores. Hence probably the appellation
of " Insdni Montes," and hence, too, the language of Claudian (Bell. Gildon., v.
512), " Insdnos infdmat ndavta montes."  Along the whole range, therefore, of
the eastern coast, although so conveniently situated for intercourse with Italy,
the ancients had but one really good harbor, Olbia, and that far to the north;
and in modern days, too, no place of any importance is found along this part of
Sardinia.
(D.)   RIVERS.
1. THE Termus, on the western side, now the Termo; but, according to Reichard, the Serra. 2. The Thyrsus, on the same side, below the preceding, now
the Oristano. 3. The Sacer, to the south of the preceding, and on the same
side, now the Uras. 4. The Seprus, on the eastern side, now the Flamendoso.
(E.)   PROMONTORIES.
1. Erebantium Promontorium, at the northern extremity, now Longo Sardo;
according to others, Capo delta Testa. 2. Columbarium Promontorium, on the
upper part of the eastern coast, now Capo Figari. 3. Caralitdnum Promontorium, on the coast of the Sinus Caralitanus, in the southern part of the island,
now Capo S. Elia. 4. Cunicularium Promontorium, to the southwest of the preceding, now Capo di Puia. 5. Sulcense Promontorium, on the western coast, in
the lower part, now Capo dell' Ulga. 6. Crassurn Promontorium, to the north of
the preceding, now Capo di Pecora. 7. Hermceum Promontorium, to the north,
now Capo della Caccia. 8. Gorditdnum Promontorium, to the north, now Capo
di Monte Falcone.
(F.) CITIES OF SARDINIA.
CITIES on the eastern coast: 1. Olbia, in the north, the only really good haibor on this side of the island, and where the Roman magistrates landed. Traces
remain near the modern Terra Nova. 2. Cochlearia, to the south, now Porto
Pedrami.  3. Luquido, to the southwest, some distance inland, with a port
called Portus Luquidonis. It is now Lugodor. 4. Feronia, to the southeast,
now Monte Santo. 5. Saraldpis, to the southwest, near the River Scprus; now
a village named Burgus occupies its site. 6. Scarcdpos, to the southeast, at
the mouth of the Scprus, now Sarabus or Scarabo.
On the southern side: 1. Caralis, the capital of the island, founded by the
Carthaginians, and now Cagliari. In fact, however, the modern Cagliari answers only to a part of its site, since the ancient city is said to have extended
in a long line toward the Caralitanum Promontorium. Its harbor, which afforded
a good shelter against the winds and waves, rendered it always a place of importance. The bay in front was called Sinus Caralitanus, now the Gulf of Cagliari. 2. Bibra or Biotha, to the southwest, the ruins of which are seen near the
village of Uras. 3. Nora, east of Sulci, on the coast, now' Torre Forcadizo.
On the western coast: 1. Sulci, a Carthaginian settlement of note, the ruins
of which are in the vicinity of the village of Sulci, on the harbor of Palma di
Solo. Others, however, make it to have been on the island Plumbaria, now
Antioco, where extensive remains still exist, and where in 1819 an inscription
was found in which Sulci is styled a Roman municipium. 2. Neapblis, to the.
north, now Neapoli. 3. Comus, to the north, near the River Termus, and the
capital of the free Sards. It was a strongly fortified place, and lay among the
mountains. The ruins on Monte Santo appear to indicate its site. 4. Turris
Libyssonis, a considerable distance above, where the coast faces the northwest;




406                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
now Porto Torre. 5. Tibula, to the northeast, the landing place from Corsica,
now Porto Longo Sardo.
In the interior, the only places worth mentioning are, 1. Lesa, to the northwest, with its baths, called Aquce Lesitanc. 2. Forum Trajani, to the northwest, now Fordongir;,,.
VII. ILLYRICUM.
I. THE name of Illyrians appears to have been common to the numerous tribes
which were anciently in possession of the countries situated to the west of
Macedonia, and which extended along the coast of the Adriatic, from the confines of Istria and Italy to the borders of Epirus.
II. Still farther north, and more inland, we find them occupying the great
valleys of the Savus and Dravus, which were only terminated by the junction
of those streams with the Danube. This large tract of country under the Roman emperors constituted the provinces of Illyricum and Pannonia.
(A.)   HISTORICAL       SKETCIf.
I. ANTIQUITY has thrown but little light on the origin of the Illyrians, nor are
we acquainted with the language and customs of the barbarous hordes of which
the great body of the nation was composed. Their warlike. habits, however,
and the peculiar practice of puncturing their bodies, which is mentioned by
Strabo as being in use also among the Thracians, might lead us to connect them
with that widely-extended people. It appears evident that they were a totally
different race from the Celts, since Strabo carefully distinguishes them from
the Gallic tribes which were incorporated with them.
II. The Illyrians appear to have spread themselves at a very early period
along the Italian shores of the Adriatic, as we have already mentioned in our
remarks on Italy. At a later day we find them frequently engaged in hostilities with the princes of Macedon, to whom their warlike spirit rendered them
formidable neighbors. Their rising power was checked, however, by Philip
and his son Alexander, although they still asserted their independence against
the Macedonian kings.
III. The conquest of Illyria by the Romans led the way to the first interference of Rome in the affairs of Greece, and an account of the events which
then took place may be found detailed in the pages of Polybius. When Illyria
became a Roman province it was divided into three portions; but it received
afterward a considerable accession of territory on the reduction of the Dalmatians, Iapydes, and other petty nations, by Augustus, these being included from
that period within its boundaries. So widely, indeed, were the frontiers of 1lyricum extended under the Roman emperors, that they were made to comprise
the three great districts of Noricum, Pannonia, and Mcesia.
(B.) BOUNDARIES, &C.
ILLYRICUM may be considered as divided into Illyria Barbara or Romana, and
Illyria Grcca. The former comprised the country lying between the River
Arsia, now Arsa; the Savus, now Save, and its tributary the Drinus, now Drina;
the Adriatic, and the Drilo, now Drino Bianc-ho; together with the islands along
the shore. It'was divided into lapydia, Liburnia, and Dalmatia. The country
called Illyria Greca, added to Macedonia by Philip, the father of Alexander, extended from the Drilo to the Aous, now the Vojussa.




ILLYRICUM.                          407
I. ILLYRIA BARBARA, OR ROMANA.
(A.) MOUNTAINS.
1. Albius Mons, forming the extremity of the great Alpine chain, and answering to the great and small Capella, near the Lugeus Laous, now the Czirknitz
See, where the territory of the Iapydes commenced. 2. Bebii Montes, separating Liburnia and Dalmatia from Pannonia. 3. Adrius Mons, called also Ardius
and Ardion, dividing Dalmatia lengthwise; now Tartari. 4. Scardus or Scordus, forming the natural boundary of Illyria on the side of Macedonia. It was
connected on the north with the great chain extending from the head of the
Adriatic to the Euxine, and so well known in ancient times under the names
of Orbelus, Rhodope, and Haemus, while to the south its prolongations assumed
the appellation of Pindus. It is now Tchar Dagh.
(B.) RIVERS.
1. Arsia, now Arsa, the boundary of Italy on the east, after Histria had been
added to that country by Augustus.  2. Tedanius, the boundary of Iapydia,
and now the Zermagna. 3. Titius, the boundary between Liburnia and Dalmatia, now the Kerka. 4. Ndro, now the Narenta, rising in what are now the
mountains of Bosnia, and falling into the sea opposite the island of Lesina. 5.
Drilo, now the Drino. This river is formed principally by the junction of two
streams, the one distinguished in modern geography by the name of Drino Biancho, or' the White Drino," rising in the chain of Djamous Dagh, anciently
Mons Bertiscus; the other called the Drino Nero, or "Black Drino," flowing
from the south, out of the great Lake of Ochrida, the ancient Lychnitis Palus,
and uniting with the former after a course of nearly sixty miles. 6. Clausiila,
uniting with the Barbdna, below the town of Scodra, the capital of Gentius, after
which the united stream takes the common name of Oriuns. The Clausula is
now the Drivasti.
(C.) TRIBES ON THE COAST.
I. THE first tribe on the coast, to the southeast of Histria, were the Iapydes
or lapodes. They occupied an extent of coast of more than a thousand stadia,
from the River Arsia to the neighborhood of what is now Zara, a district which
forms part of the present Morlachia. In the interior, their territory was spread
along Mount Albius. They were a people of warlike spirit, and were not subdued until the time of Augustus.
II. The Liburni, who followed next on the coast, are much more spoken of
in history. They appear to have been a maritime people from the earliest times,
as they communicated their name to the vessels called Liburnce by the Romans.
The Greeks, who colonized Corcyra, are said on their arrival in that island to
have found it in their possession. Strabo makes them to have extended along
the coast for upward of fifteen hundred stadia. Their country was called Liburnia.
III. Dalmatce.-These follow after the Liburni, and give name to Dalmatia.
No mention is made of them by the Greek writers, but they acquired a decided
ascendency over the Ardici, PlerTei, Labeates, and other neighboring tribes. The
Dalmatae were not easily conquered by the Romans; they often revolted, and
not unfrequently obtained advantages over their enemies. Augustus at length
accomplished their subjugation. According to Appian, he concluded the war
in person before he became emperor.
IV. Labeates, whose territory constituted the principal part of the dominions
of Gentius.




408                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(D.) CITIES OF THESE TRIBES.
AMONG the lapydes we find, 1. Metilum, their principal town, taken by Augustus after an obstinate defence. Its site remains at present unknown, although some are in favor of the modern Metling. 2. Arupenum, south of the
place now called Modrush. 3. Vendum, now Vendo.
Among the Liburni we find, 1. ladera, a city of some note, and a Roman colony, tl ruins of which are still to be seen near the modern town of Zara, on
the spot called Zara Vecchia. 2. Scardona, the capital of the Liburni, on the
Lacus Scardonius, and now Scardin. The national council of the Liburni was
held here.
Among the Dalmata: we find, 1. Tragurium, a sea-port, now Trau, and, it
Sclavonian, Troghie. 2. Salon or Salona, to the northeast, now Salona, and in
ancient times the principal harbor of Dalmatia. It was always considered an
important post by the Romans after their conquest of the country. At Aspalothos, the modern Spalatro, about three miles from Salona, are to be seen the
ruins of Diocletian's palace. According to Zosimus, Diocletian was born here.
3. Epetium, belonging to the Issai, to the southeast, now Stobrea, at the mouth
of the Xernovnissa. 4. Narona, to the southeast, on a branch of the River Naro.
It was a Roman colony of some note, and its ruins should be sought for in the
vicinity of Castel Norin. 5. Delminium or Dalminium, inland to the northeast,
and from which the Dalmatee probably derived their name. 6. Epidaurus, to
the southeast, the name of which leads to the supposition that it was a Grecian
colony. It is now Ragusa Vecchia, a little south of Ragusa, which last was
built by those who fled from the old town at the irruption of the Sclavonians,
7. Rhizon, at the northern extremity of the Sinus Rhizonicus, or Bocca di Cattaro. It is now Risano. Rhizon is mentioned by Polybius as a strong place,
to which Teuta, queen of the Illyrians, withdrew on being attacked by the Romans. 8. Butua or Buthoe, the foundation of which was ascribed to Cadmus,
who, with his wife Harmonia, abandoned Thebes late in life, and ended his days
on the shores of Illyria. It was situate among the Enchelees.
Among the Labedtes we find, 1. Scodra, the capital of Gentius, situate between
the rivers Clausfla and Barbana. Its present site is evidently not precisely
the same as that of the modern Scutari, but it must have been situate on the
site of the present fortress, near the junction of the two rivers. It was a place
of great strength. 2. Medeon, to which Gentius removed his wife and family.
It is now Medani. 3. Lissus, near the mouth of the Drilo, with a fortress called
Acrolissus. Diodorus Siculus makes it to have been founded by some Syracusans, in the time of Dionysius the elder. Caesar makes frequent mention of
this place during the progress of the civil war carried on by him in Illyricum.
The site of Acrolissus answers to that of the modern Alessio.
(E.) TRIBES IN THE INTERIOR.
WE now pass to the interior of Illyricum, which Strabo describes as a cold
and mountainous country, where the vine was rarely seen to grow. This extensive tract was occupied by several tribes of Illyrian origin, though they are
more commonly known to the Roman writers under the generic term of Pannbnii. Among these tribes we may notice, 1. The Scordisci, a numerous and
powerful people, reaching as far as the Danube, and who, having successively
subdued the several nations around them, extended their dominion from the
borders of Thrace to the Adriatic. They were reduced by the Ratnans only
after numerous struggles and much bloodshed. 2. The Dardini, more to the
south, occupying the upper valleys of the Drilo, and spreading to the borders




ILLYRICU!M.                          409
of Paeonia and Macedonia. They were often at war With the latter power, more
particularly under the reigns of its last two monarchs. Their territory corresponds to part of the modern Pachalik of Scutari. Strabo describes them as a
savage race, living mostly in caves formed out of mud and dirt, and yet possessing great taste for music, having from the earliest period been acquainted
with both wind and stringed instruments. 3. The Autariatc:   According to
Strabo, these were once the bravest and most numerous of the Illyrian clans.
They conquered the Triballi, a people of Thrace, who occupied a very extensive
territory south of the Danube, but were at length subdued the-mselves by the
Scordisci.
II. ILLYRIS     GRIECA.
I. THIS country forms a more interesting portion of'Illyricum than that which
has just been described, and is more immediately connected with Greece by
means of the colonies which that country at an early period had established on
these shores. It is now wholly comprised in the Turkish proviqce of Albania,
and is a mountainous tract. Along the coast it occupied an extent of nearly
ninety miles from the mouth of the Drilo to the Acroceraunian Mountains and
the confines of Chaonia.
II. Among the tribes inhabiting this country, independently of the Greek colonists, we may name the Taulantii, Parthini, Dassaretii, Pirustce, &c.
III. Illyris Greca was wrested from Queen Teuta by the Romans, in the first
Illyrian war, and subsequently, as a part of the Eastern Empire, bore the name
of Epirus Nova. At a later period it was overrun by the Visigoths. The Bul
garians afterward erected here an empire, with Akrida, the ancient Lychnidus,
as its capital. During these invasions of their country, the Illyrians took to the
mountains, where they united under the name of Albani, and became a powerful nation, formidable to the Eastern empire, and possessed themselves of Dardania. the whole of Epirus, and all the mountains up to Macedonia.
CITIES OF ILLYRIS GRIECA.
1. Epidamnus, in the territory of the Taulantii, an important and flourishing
city, founded by the Corcyreans. It changed its name subsequently to Dyrrhachium, but for what reason is not known. According to some, the Romans
made the change because Epidamnus conveyed to their ears an ill-omened sound.
The more correct explanation, however, appears to be, that the founders of
Epidamnus gave the name of Dyrrhachium to the high and craggy peninsula on
which they built their town; and in time this may have usurped the place of
the former name. It is probable, also, from the language of Pausanias, that the
town called Dyrrhachium did not exactly occupy the site of the ancient Epidamnus. Epidamnus successfully withstood all the attacks of the neighboring bar
barians, until dissension and faction weakened its power. It then sought aid
from the Corcyreans as well against domestic as foreign enemies. Corcyra
having refused, Corinth was next applied to, which gladly sought this opportunity of increasing its influence at the expence of Corcyra. A quarrel thereupon
arose between the Corcyreans and Corinthians, which was intimately connected
with the origin of the Peloponnesian war. We know but littlQ of the fortunes
of Epidamnus from this period to its conquest by the Romans. Dyrrhachium,
as it was called under the Roman sway, became the scene of the contest between Caesar and Pompey, until the latter, who had been sought to be blockaded
in his intrenched camp close to the town, at length succeeded in forcing his
opponent to retire, and was thus enabled to transfer the seat of war to Thessaly




410                ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
Dyrrhachium was also of importance to the Romans, besides its strong.situation,
from its vicinity to Brundisium. Cicero landed there on his banishment from
Italy. It sided with Antony in the civil war, and hence Augustus, after his
victory, rewarded his soldiers with estates in its territories. The Byzantine
historians speak of it as being still a considerable place in their time; but it is
now scarcely more than a village, which is rendered unhealthy by its proximity
to some marshes. Its modern name is Durazzo.
Passing the River Geniisus, now the Scombi or Tobi, and the Apsus, about
twelve or fifteen miles to the south of this, now the Ergcnt or Beratino, and
memorable from the military operations of Caesar and Pompey on its banks,
we come to, 2. Apollonia, a celebrated colony of Corinth and Corcyra, situate
near the mouth of the Aius, one of the largest rivers of Greece, and now the
Vojussa. It was renowned for the wisdom of its laws, which appear.to have
been framed on the Spartan rather than the Corinthian model. Apollonia was
often exposed to attacks from the Illyrians, and also from the Macedonians; and
it was probably the dread of such powerful neighbors which induced it to place
itself under the protection of the Romans, on the first appearance of that people
on its coast. From its proximity to Brundisium and Hydruntum, ports in Lower
Italy, Apollonia was always deemed an important station by the Romans. Augustus spent many years of his early life in this city, in the study of literature
and philosophy. The ruins still bear the name of Pollina. In the territory of
Apollenia was a place called Nymphaum, famed for a mine of asphaltum.
3. Oricus or Oricum, a celebrated town and harbor, at the head of the bay, now
called the Gulf of Valona, from the city of Valona, the ancient Aulon. Oricum
was much frequented by the Romans in their communication with Greece. Its
site is marked by the modern Ericho. 4. Amantia, at some distance from the
coast, above Oricum, and said to have been founded by the Abantes of Eubaea,
on their return from Troy. Its name, according to this account, was at first
Abantia. It became a town of some note under the Roman sway. The ruins
are near the modern village of Nivitza. 5. Byllis, in the vicinity of Apollonia
and Amantia, and a city of some note. It became a Roman colony under the
name of Colonia Byllidensis. Its site is supposed to have been near the modern
Gradista, on the right bank of the Vojussa, the ancient Aous.
In the interior of Grecian Illyria, several obscure and petty nations occur, of
whose limits we can form no precise idea, though their relative position may
be ascertained with sufficient accuracy for the purposes of history. Of these
we may mention the following:
I. The Parthini, who may be placed to the north, in the vicinity of Epidamnus,
and next to the Taulantii. They are often mentioned in the course of the 11lyrian war, but as friends rather than as foes of the Romans, having submitt( d
at an early period to their arms. Their principal town was Parthus, taken by
Caesar in the course of his campaign against Pompey. It was probably not far
removed from the modern Presa and Croja. In the vicinity of the Parthini, if
not included within their territory, was Dinmallum, a fortress of some consequence, occupying, probably, a position between Lissus and Epidamnus, on the
spot now called Malosse, near the small town of Ichin.
II. The Perishdii, in the vicinity of the Parthini. III. The Sesarethii, or inhabitants of Sesarothus, a town, some traces of the name of which are still apparent in that of a small village called Sersdit. Strabo mentions a place named
Damastium as being also in their territory, and possessing valuable silver mines.
IV. The Albdni, whose chief town was Albanopolis. This obscure people would
hardly deserve notice were it not for the connection between them and the mod



ILLYRICUM.                           411
ern Albanians, who are not, however, confined within the narrow limits of their
ancestors, as they now extend over the whole of ancient4Epirus also.
V. The Dassaritii, contiguous to the Albani and Parthini, and occupying the
shores of the Palus Lychnitis, now the Lake of Ochrida, together with the mountains that surround it. Frequent mention is made of them by Polybius and
Livy in their narratives of the Macedonian wars, since their country, from its
situation on the Macedonian borders of Illyria, often became the scene of hostilities between the contending armies. The principal town was Lychnidus or
Lychnidium, on the Palus Lychnitis, a place of great importance from its situation on the frontier, especially after the great Egnatian Way passed through it.
Under the Greek emperors it appears to have been still a large and populous
town. The ruins of this place are still apparent near the monastery of St. Naum
or Nahaun, about fourteen miles to the south of the modern Ochrida.
The Palus Lychnitis, formed principally by the waters of the Drino Nero, is
about twenty miles in length and eight in breadth. Strabo says it abounded
in fish, which were salted for the use of the inhabitants in the vicinity. We
collect from Livy that the country of the Dassaretii was in general fertile in
corn, and well calculated to support an army. It was also very populous.
On the Macedonian border, and commanding the pass leading into that country, was Pelion, a place of considerable importance from its situation, and of
which Arrian speaks at some length in his relation of an attack made upon it
by Alexander. Arrian does not state that it belonged to the Dassaretii, but
we learn thes from Livy. The site of this place must have been near the modern town of Bichlistas.
VI. The PenestcE appear to have possessed a considerable tract of mountain
ous country, to the north of the Dassaretii, and extending to the east as far as
the frontier of Macedonia, while on the west and northwest it almost reached
to the Labeates and the dominions of Gentius. Their principal city was Uscdna,
a place of some extent and importance, since it contained ten thousand inhabitants. Its site must have been near Isturga and Dibre, in the valley of the
Drino.
ISLANDS     OF ILLYRICUM.
l. Absyrtides Insiula, already mentioned in the description of Italy (page 288).
They were four in number, and lay off the Promontorium Polaticum. 2. Curicta
or Curiacte, to the northeast of the preceding, and now Veglia, in which Ptolemy
places the towns of'Fulsinium and Curictum. 3. Scardona, to the southeast of
the Absyrtides, and now Arbe, a name which it derives from Arba, one of its
ancient towns, now Arbe. Another town was called Collentum. 4. Liburnides
Insule, the Liburnian Islands, forty in number, in what is now the Zara Channel. The largest of these is Lissa, now Isola Grossa. 5. Cratece Insulce, together with Proteras and Olynta; now Solta, in the Solta Channel. 6. Colentum,
now Mortero.
The islands along the coast of Dalmatia were more important by their size
or their commerce: they are, 1. Bavo or Boas, still called Bua, joined to the
town of Tragurium by an embankment. It was fruitful in oil, wine, &c., and
was likewise a place of banishment. 2. Brattia, now Brazzo, valued for its
goats' cheese and wine, tle best in Dalmatia. 3. Issa, with its Greek settlements, famous for the Issaici lembi, a sort of light craft. It is now Lissa. This
island became a constant station for the Roman galleys in the wars with the
kings of Macedon. Athenaeus states that its wine was very much esteemed.
4. Pharos, colonized from the island of Paros in the _/Egean. It is now Lcssiza.




412                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
5. Corcyra Nig'ra, in Greek MlXatva, or " Black Corcyra," to distinguish it from
the more celebrated island of the same name. It is now Curzola. Apollonius
accounts for the epithet applied to it from the dark masses of.wood with which
it was crowned. 7. Melita, now Meleda, must not be confounded with the more
famous island so called, which answers to Malta. It is to the Illyrian Melita,
and not to the other island just mentioned, that we must refer the shipwreck
of St. Paul. The similarity in the names of these islands has also given rise
to another dispute, though of a less interesting nature, namely, which furnished
the Catuli Melitci, so much esteemed by the Roman ladies. Pliny, on the authority of Callinachus, and Stephanus Byzantinus pronounce in favor of the
Illyrian Melita, Strabo in favor of the other. 8. Tauris, now Torkola, where Vatinius, Caesar's admiral, routed Cn. Octavius. 9. Sdso, at the entrance of what
is now the Gulf of Valona, was, according to Scylax, near the Acroceraunian
Mountains, and within one third of a day's sail from Oricum. It is now Sasseno.
VIII. EPIRUS.
1. NAME.
1. Epirus (?rrretpo'), or " mainland," was a name given at a
very early period to that northwestern portion of Greece which
is situate between the chain of Pindus and the Ionian Gulf,
and between the Ceraunian Mountains and the River Achelous.
II. This name was given to the country in question to distinguish it probably from the large, populous, and wealthy island of Corc.yra, which lay opposite to the coast.         As it appears, however, that in very ancient times Acarnania was also.
included in the term, the name, in that case, might have been
used in opposition to all the islands lying along the coast.
2. BOUNDARIES.
Epirus, in the later sense of the name, was bounded on the
east by Thessaly, from which it was separated by the range of
Mount Pindus; on the west by the Ionian Sea; on the north
by Illyricum   and Macedonia; and on the south by Acarnania.
3. HISTORICAL SKETCH.
I. THE inhabitants of Epirus were scarcely considered Hellenic. The population, in early times, had been Pelasgic. The oracle at Dodona was always
called Pelasgic, and many names of places in Epirus were also borne by the
Pelasgic cities of the opposite coast of Italy. But irruptions of Illyrians had
barbarized the whole nation; and though Herodotus speaks of Thesprotia as a
part of Hellas, he refers rather to its old condition, when it was a celebrated
seat of the Pelasgians, than to its state at the time when he wrote his, history.
In their mode of cutting the hair, in their costume, and in their language, the
Epirotes resembled the Macedonians, who were an Illyrian tribe.
II. Theopompus, as quoted by Strabo, divided the inhabitants of Epirus into
fourteen different tribes, of which the most renowned were the Chaonians and




EPIRUS.                           413
Molossians, who successively maintained a preponderance in this district. The
Molossians claimed descent from Molossus, the son of Neoptolemus and Andromiache. Neoptolemus is said to have migrated from Thessaly into Epirus
after the Trojan war, and to have settled there in obedience to the injunctions
of an oracle. We hear nothing of his descendants till the time of Themistocles, who was hospitably received by Admetus, king of the Molossians, while
flying as a persecuted exile from the reach of his enemies.
III. The other kings of the Molossians are mentioned between this period
and the time of Philip of Macedon, when this kingdom rose into importance by
the matrimonial connection of Alexander of Epirus with the King of Macedon.
Philip married Alexander's sister, Olympias, and gave him his daughter Cleopatra in marriage. Alexander was the first of the Molossian princes who bore
the title of King of Epirus. He invaded Italy, to assist the Tarentines against
the Bruttii and Lucani, but was slain near Pandosia.
IV. After the death of Alexander,.Eacides and Alcetas, the sons of his predecessor Arybas, successively mounted the throne. Pyrrhus is the best known,
however, of the sovereigns of Epirus. The family of Pyrrhus became extinct
three generations after his death, and the government was turned into a republic, which subsisted till the year 167 B.C., when the Epirotes were suspected
of favoring Perseus of Macedon, and utter destruction was inflicted upon them
by the Roman general Paulus ZEmilius. He is said to have destroyed seventy
towns, and reduced to slavery one hundred and fifty thousand of the inhabitants,
after which the greater part of the country remained in a state of absolute desolation, and where there were any inhabitants they had nothing but villages
and ruins to dwell in.
V. Of the other Epirotic nations, the Thesprotians were most celebrated.
They are mentioned by Homer, who does not name the Chaonians and Molossians, and are considered by Herodotus to have been the progenitors of the
Thessalians. In their territory were the oracle of Dodona, the old city of Ephyra, and the rivers Acheron and Cocytus, celebrated in the old mythology. It
is not possible to draw accurately boundary lines of the district occupied by
these three tribes of the Epirots: it is known that the Chaonians occupied the
northern district, and the Molossians the southern, while the Thesprotian territory lay in the middle. Epirus is now included in the Pachalik of Albania.
3. MOUNTAINS.
1. Acroceraunii Montes, a chain stretching along the coast of Northern Epirus,
and forming part of the boundary between it and Illyricum. The name was
derived from the circumstance of the summits of these mountains (aKpa) being
often struck by lightning (KEpavv6c), especially that portion which extended beyond Oricum, and formed a bold promontory called the Acroceraunium Promontorium, now Cape Linguetta. This part of the coast was famed as the seat of
storms and tempests, which the mariners of antiquity believed were attracted
by these mountains. Augustus narrowly escaped shipwreck here when returning from Actium. The Greek name of the range was'AKCpoKepavva (scil. opq).
The modern name is Monti Della Chimera.
2. Pindus (6 IIiv6o), an elevated chain separating Epirus from Thessaly, and
the waters falling into the Ionian Sea and Ambracian Gulf from those streams
which discharge themselves into the _Egean. Toward the north it joined the
great Illyrian and Macedonian ranges of Bora and Scardus, while to the south
it was connected with the ramifications of CEta, and the zEtolian and Acarnanian Mountains. The most frequent passage from Northern Epirus into Thes




414                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
saly appears to have led over that part of the chain of Pindus to which the name
of Mons Cercetius was attached The range of Pindus was sacred to the Muses.
The modern name is Agrapha.
3. Tomarus or Tamdrus Mons, called also Tmarus (To'6apoc, Ta/lapof, TCjpop),
on the declivity or else at the foot of which stood the oracle of Dodona. It appears to answer to the modern Mount Chamouri. This lofty mountain was remarkable for the number of springs which burst from its sides. Holland, less
correctly, makes it coincide with the modern Tzumerka.
4. RIVERS.
1. Acheron (o'Axepuv), rising in the mountains to the west of the chain of
Pindus, and falling into the Ionian Sea near Gtykys Limen (rPvKiC ASqv). In
the early part of its course it forms the Palus Acherusia, and after emerging
from this sheet of water, disappears under ground, from which it again rises
and pursues its course toward the sea. D'Anville, misled by Thucydides, places
the Palus Acherusia directly on the coast. Pausanias, more correctly, assigns
it a position in the interior of Thesprotis. The modern Parga lies a short distance above the mouth of the Acheron, which is now known by the name of
the Souli. The gloomy scenery on the banks of this river, which is still noticed
by modern travellers, gave rise to the fable of its communicating with the realms
of Pluto, who, under the name of Aidoneus, was said to have once reigned on
its shores.
2. Celydnus, falling into what is now the Gulf of Valona,. a little above Oricum.
Ptolemy says that it formed in his time the southern limit of Macedonia.
3. Thiimis, now the Calama, a large stream, which, according to Thucydides, anciently divided Thesprotia from a particular district called Cestrine, contiguous to Chaonia, and therefore lying along its right bank. The historian
Phylarchus, as Athenaeus reports, affirmed that the Egyptian bean was never
known to grow out of Egypt, except in a marsh close to this river, and then. only for a short period. It appears from Cicero that Atticus had an estate on
the banks of the Thyamis.
4. Arachthus or Arethon ('Apax6oo or'ApE0Ov), called by Lycophron the Aracthus
('ApatOor), rising in that part of the chain of Pindus which belonged to the ancient Tym.phei, and flowing by Ambracia into the Sinus Ambracius. It is now
the Arta, which is the modern name also of the town that marks the site of ancient Ambracia.
5. PRODUCTIVENESS, &C.
I. EPIRUS, though in many respects wild and mountainous, was esteemed a
rich and fertile country.  Its pastures produced the finest oxen, and horses
unrivalled for their speed. It was also famous for a large breed of dogs, thence
called Molossi, and modern travellers have noticed the size and ferocity of these
dogs at the present day.
II. The climate of Albania, in modern times, is colder than that of Greece;
the spring does not set in before the middle of March; the vintage begins in
September, and the heavy rains during December are succeeded in January by
some days of frosty weather. The inhabitants cultivate cotton and silk; but
the olive, for want of proper care, does not yield an abundant harvest. The
horses of the country are still excellent; but the oxen have degenerated, being
now small, stunted, and ill shaped,




EPIRUS.                           415
6. DIVISIONS OF EPIRUS.
I. The ancients, as already remarked, divided Epirus into three districts or
regions, namely, Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis.
II. Chaonia comprehended that northwestern part of Epirus which bordered
on the territory of Oricum, Amantia, and still more to the east on the country
of the Atintanes, while it extended along the coast of the Ionian Sea from the
Acroceraunian promontory to the harbor of Buthrotum, opposite the island of
Corcyra.
III. Thesprotia was mainly situated between the rivers Thyamis and Acheron,
now the Calama and Souli, while inland it extended beyond the source of the
former to the banks of the Aius.
IV. Molossis occupied the northeastern portion of Epirus; that is, from the
head of the Aous, and the mountainous district which connected Macedonia,
Thessaly, and Epirus, to the Ambracian Gulf, a small portion of the shores of
which was considered to belong to it. Molossis, therefore, must have comprehended the territory of Joanina, the present capital of Albania, together with
its lake and mountains, including the country of the Tymphai, which bordered
on that part of Thessaly lying near the sources of the Peneus.
7. CITIES OF EPIRUS.
(A.) CH iNIA.
1. On the Chaonian coast, south of the Acroceraunian promontory, is the little
harbor of Palast-e, where Cesar landed his forces from Brundisium, in order to
carry on the war against Pompey in Illyricum. Some trace of the ancient name
is perceptible in that of the modern Paleassa, about twenty-five miles south of
the Acroceraunian Cape. 2. Chimaera, to the south, now Chimara, and which
communicates its name to the Acroceraunian Mountains, at the foot of which
it stands. Hence, also, that of Chimariots given to the inhabitants. 3. Panormus, a harbor lower down on the coast, now Panormo. 4. Onchesmus, opposite
the northeastern extremity of Corcyra.  Cicero seems to refer to this port
when he speaks of the wind Onchesmites as having favored his navigation from
Epirus to Brundisium. Onchesmus appears to agree now with the town of
Agioi Saranta, or the forty saints. 5. Cassi6pe Portus, to the south, and so
called from its vicinity to a port and town of the same name in Corcyra.
There are but few towns to be pointed out in the interior of Chaonia, from
the country being so mountainous, and the population confined chiefly to villages. Of these the most worthy of notice are, 1. Antigonea, so called from its
situation near a celebrated pass called Fauces Antigone<, in Greek ra napi rr7iv'Avrly6vetav arev. It led from Illyria into Chaonia. The modern Argyro
Castro represents the ancient city. 2. Phanote, a fortress near Antigonea, but
separated from it by a chain of mountains. It corresponds to the modern Gardiki, a fortress of great strength, which once belonged to the Suliots, but which
was afterward taken and destroyed by Ali Pacha. 3. Phenzce, to the south of
the preceding, and nearer to the sea. Polybius describes it as surpassing all
the other cities of Epirus in opulence and importance, before it was, through the
treachery of some Gauls in the pay of the town, surprised and plundered by a
party of Illyrians. It still, however, continued to hold a distinguished rank
among the cities of Epirus, and it was here that peace was negotiated between
Philip of Macedon and the Romans in the second Punic war. It appears to
have escaped the destruction to which so many towns in Epirus were doomed
by the decree of the senate. The ruins of this place are to be seen near Del



416                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
vino. 4. Hadrzanopolis, situate, according to the Antonine Itinerary, fifty-five
miles to the southeast of Amantia, and lying also to the northeast of Phcenice.
It was apparently built in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. According to Procopius, it subsequently bore the name of Justinianopolis. A spot now called
Drinopolis appears to mark the ancient site.
(B.) THESPROTIA.
Resuming our description of the coast from the harbor of Cassiope, the first
point in maritime Thesprotia is the promontory PosidZum, now Coperta. A little
beyond is a narrow channel leading into a bay of some extent, thus forming
with the sea a peninsula, on which was situated the ancient town of, 1. Buthroturn. The outer bay and channel was named Pelodes portus, or the muddy haven.
Buthrotum is now Butrinto. It was fabled to have been founded by Helenus,
son of Priam, after the death of Pyrrhus. Buthrotum was occupied by Caesar
in the civil wars, and was afterward colonized by the Romans. The river alluded to by Virgil under the name of Xanthus falls into the Pelodes portus, a
little to the south of Butrinto. It is now called Saronia.
To Cestrine in this quarter we have already alluded. From Hesychius and
the scholiast on Aristophanes we learn that this part of Epirus was celebrated
for its breed of oxen, hence called Cestrinici.  The name Larini, by which
these animals were also known, is said to have been derived from Larina, a
vilrage of Epirus. Beyond the mouth of the Thyamis we come to, 2. the harbor called Sybota, and also the little island of the same name, close to the main
land, and nearly opposite the southernmost promontory of Corcyra. These
islands are mentioned by Thucydides in his narrative of the collision between
the Corcyreans and Corinthians, just before the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. Following still the coast, we come to, 3. Torbne, a haven near
the modern Parga. According to Plutarch, the fleet of Augustus was moored
here for a short time previous to the battle of Actium. 4. Ephyre, in this same
vicinity, and at some distance from the sea, a city spoken of by Thucydides and
other ancient writers. Among these we must rank Homer, who, in several
passages of the Iliad and Odyssey, alludes to one or more cities of that name.
It appears to have been the capital of the ancient kings of Thesprotia. This
place afterward took the name of Cichyrus. The ruins of Ephyre are now to
be seen at no great distance from the Acherusian Lake, near a deserted convent dedicated to St. John.
Here terminates the description of maritime Thesprotia; the remaining part
of the coast, as far as Ambracia, belonged to the Cassopei, who are generally
considered to be a portion of the Molossi. As no towns of note seem to have
existed in the interior of Thesprotia, which was mountainous and rugged, there
is nothing else worthy of remark, with the exception of Dodona, the most ancient oracle of Greece, and inferior in celebrity and importance to the Pythian
shrine alone. Many passages in the ancient writers ascribe this famed temple
to the Molossi, but it can not be doubted that it originally belonged to Thesprotia. This is clearly stated, indeed, by Strabo, who observes that the tragic
poets, together with Pindar, bestow the epithet of Thesprotian on the temple,
and the god worshipped there. Subsequently, however, Dodona passed under
the dominion of the Molossians. It is somewhat remarkable, that, notwithstanding the frequent mention of this renowned oracle by the poets, geographers,
and historians of Greece, its site should, at the present day, have remained undiscovered. This is partly to be accounted for from the political change just
mentioned, and still more from the imperfect knowledge which we have till




EPIRUS.                           411
Fly possessed of the present state of Epirus, and its comparative geography
is universally allowed that this celebrated temple owed its origin to the Peagi at a period much anterior to the Trojan war, since many writers represent
it as existing in the time of Deucalion, and even of.Inachus. Herodotus distinctly states that it was the most ancient oracle of Greece, and represents the
Pelasgi as consulting it on various occasions. Hence the title of Pelasgic assigned to Jupiter, to whom the temple was dedicated. Setting aside the fables
which Herodotus has transmitted to us respecting Dodona and its doves, and
to which he evidently attached no belief, it appears from this author that in his
time the service of the temple was performed by ernmales. Strabo, however,
asserts, that these duties were originally allotted to men, from the circumstance
of Homer's mention of the Selli as attendant upon the god. The responses of
the oracle were originally delivered from a sacred oak or beech. Its reputation
was at first confined to the inhabitants of Epirus, Acarnania, lEtolia, and the
western parts of Greece, but its fame was afterward extended over the whole
of that country, and even to Asia, since we know that on one occasion the oracle was consulted by Crcesus. The Bceotiais were the only people who received
the prophetic answers from the mouth of men; to all other nations they were
always communicated by the priestesses of the temple. Dodona was the first
station in Greece to which the offerings of the Hyperboreans were dispatched,
according to Herodotus. They arrived there from the Hadriatic, and were
thence passed on to the Sinus Maliacus. Among the several offerings presented to the temple by various nations, one dedicated by the Corcyreans is
particularly noted. It was a brazen figure, placed over  uldron of the same
tal this statue held in its hand a whip, the lash of  consisted of three
having an astragalus fastened to the end N; these, when agithe wind, struck the cauldron, and produced a ind so continued that
idred vibrations could be counted before it ceased. Hence arose the
proverbs of the Dodonean cauldron and the Corcyrean lash. At length,
the Social War, Dodona was, according to Polybius, almost entirely deed in an irruption of the 2Etolians, under their prator Dorimachus, then at
war with Epirus. "Tgey set fire," says the historian, " to the porches, destroyed many of tile offerings, and pulled down the sacred edifice." It is probable that the temple of Dodona never recovered from this disaster, as, in Straho's time, there was scarcely any trace left of the oracle; but the town must;still have existed, as it is mentioned by Hierocles among the cities of Epirus
in the seventh century; and we hear of a bishop of Dodona in the Council of
Ephesus. Dodona stood either on the declivity or atthe foot of Mount Tomarus,
sand hence the name of Tomuri, supposed to be a contraction for Tomaruri (Totnapovpot), or guardians of Tomarus, which was given to the priests d the temple.
According to the most probable opinion, Tomarus answers to the modern Cham ouri, and if so, the remains of Dodona ought, according to Cramer, to be sought
on the shores of a small lake on the northeastern side of the mountain. Leake,
however, places the ancient site at the southeastern extremity of the Lake of
Joanina, near the modern Kastritza. For a full examination of the question,
the student is referred to that author's Travels in Northern Greece (vol. iv., p.
168, seqq.), with which he may compare the remarks of Cramer (Anc. Greece,
vol. i., p. 121, seqq.) and WTordsworth (ilist, of Greece, p. 247, seqq.).
There is another question connected with this subject. It was the general
belief of the ancient readers of Homer that there were two Dodonas, one in
Thessaly, the other i-l Epirus; the former situated in Perrhaebia, near Mount
Olympus. Stepharmis 3vw. atinls enters fully into the ld ieussion, and is in favi r
D 




418                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of the existence of two places of this name; and the same view is takei
Ritter in modern tinrs (Vorhalle, &c., Berlin, 1820).  Leake, however, 
proved the position to be an untenable one.
(C.) MOLOSSIS.
1. Pandosia, not fa:: emoved from the Acheron and the Acnerusian Lake, and
answering now, acc. ing to Lease, to Kastri. It was a colony of Elis, and
gave name to anothe Pandosia, in Italy, iu the country of the Bruttii. Alexander, king of Epirus, was warned by the oracle of Dodona to avoid Pandosia
and the Acherusian water, and erroneously appl;ed it to this his own Pandosia,
instead of that of Italy, where he received his fatal wound. 2. Buchatium,.Bucheta, or Bucenta, close to the Acherusian Lake, and the remains of which are
now to be found at the harbor of St. John. 3. Nicopilis, situate on an isthmus,
on the coast, and answering now to Prevesa Vecchia. This place was founded
by Augustus in commemoration of the victory' obtained by him at Actium, and
may be said to have arisen- out of the ruins of all the surrounding cities in Epirus and Acarnania, and even as far as XEtolia, which were compelled to contribute to its prosperity. So anxious, indeed, was Augustus to raise his new
colony to the highest rank among the cities of Greece, that he caused it to be
admitted among those states which sent deputies to the Amphictyonic assembly.
He also ordered games to be celebrated with great pomp every five years.
Having afterward fallen into decay, it was restored by the Emperor Julian.
The Molossi must' ve possessed several towns in the interior, since we are
told by Polybius tl  )ut of the seventy Epirotic cities destroyed by Paulus.Emilius, the great^ amber belonged to this people. Few of theo e, however,
are named in histo     The most celebrated was Passaron, which  I
sidered as their cap  since Plutarch, in the life of Pyrrhus, report
kings of Epirus con Wed here the solemn assembly of the whole nati!
after having performt 1 the customary sacrifices, they took an oath' _
would govern accord ag to the established laws; and the people, ir 
swore to maintain the constitution and defend the kingdom. Cramer 
identify it with some ruins near Joanina, in a south-touthwest direction,.
about four hours from that city. Leake leaves the site uncertain.
Modern travellers have expressed some surprise that no mention is made ir
history of the Lake of Joanina, and have even been led to suppose that this
considerable expanse of water could not have existed in ancient times. But
the truth is, that the present Lake of Joanina is the ancient Palus Pamboti.
(HIItay6rt Aitiov) mentioned by Eustathius. He describes it as a lake having
an island in the middle, containing a remarkable hill, which was fortified by Justinian, and to which he removed the inhabitants of the adjacent city of Eurcea
which was in a defenceless state. The fortress of Joanina now occupies the
site of Justinian's castle, and the city of Joanina that of the ancient Eurcea, in
all probability.
We must now close this description of Epirus with some account of the city
and republic of Ambricia. This celebrated city was situate on the banks of thf
Arachthus or Arethon, a short distance from the waters of the Sinus Ambracius
to which it gave name: It is said to have been founded by some Corinthian
headed by Tolgus or Torgus, who was either the brother or the son of Cypselus,
chief of Corinth. It early acquired maritime celebrity by reason, of its advantageous position, l twas a powerfull and independent city toward the commencement of tlonsec!oponnesian war, in which it espoused the car "of Corinth and Sparta. No t, a later period we find its independence  reatened by




CORCYRA.                            419
lat. lip, wno seems to have entertained the project of annexing it to the doIt nions of his brother-in-law, Alexander, king of the MAlossians. Whether it
actually fell into the power of that monarch is uncertain, but there can be no
doubt of its having been in the occupation of Philip, since the Ambraciots, according to Diodorus Siculus, on the accession of Alexi ler the Great to the
throne, ejected the Macedonian garrison stctrpned in thei: ity. Ambracia, however, did not long enjoy the freedom whic'h it thus reg  1ed, for, having fallen
into the hands of Pyrrhus, we are told that it was selecf i by that prince as his
usual place of residence. Many years after, being under the dominion of the
*.Etolians, who were at that tirrm. invoired in hostilities with the Romans, it sustained a siege againft the latter, almcst unequalled in the annals ofancient warfare for the gallantry and perseverance displayed' in the defence of the place.
Ambracia at last opened its gates to the foe, and was stripped of all the statues
and pictures with which it had been so richly adorned by Pyrrhus. From this
time it sank into a state of insignificance, and Augustus, by transferring its
inhabitants to Nicopolis, completed its desolation. It stood near the modern
Aria, which town also gives its modern name to the Ambracian Gulf.
CORCYRA.
I. TIns celebrated island, which, from its vicinity to the coast
of Epirus, seems naturally to belong to this part of our subject,
was called by the Greeks KepicVpa.      It is no.   ^orfu.
II. It, said to have been first known bylhic name of Drechains, trd:naps from  its resemblance in shapof it a scythe (6petated by  To this name succeeded that of Sc,soua, always used
four he "
various  er, and by which it was probably k-.own in his time.
various 
during the Odyssey we learn that this island Tvas then inhabitstro',y Phaacians, a people who, even at that'early period, had
acquired considerable skill in nautical affairs, and possessed extensive commercial relations, since they traded with the Phoenicians, and also with Euboea and other countries.
HISTORICAL SKETCH.
I. HOMER'S account leads us to suppose that the Phaeacians came from another
country, which he calls Hyperia, -whence they had been expelled by their more
powerful neighbors the Cyclopes. But it is very difficult to deteimine to what
countryhe alludes. The commentators on the poet imagine that Sicily is'meant.
from the circumstance ofCamarlna, a city of that island, having once been called
Hyperia; and also from the Cyclopes, according to Homer himself, having once
had their abode in Sicily. But it seems very improbable that the Phaeacians
vould have removed to such a distance, and it may be doubted, also, whether'he Cyclopes were ever a real people.
II. It is more probable that the Phaacians came from the continent of Illyria
or Epirus. Mannert thinks they were Liburnian Illyrians, and this is not un
likely, as we have seen that there was an island named C'cyra on'their coast,
and th( v were certainly a seafaring people. But what i.l  more conclusive
is the fact"mentioned by Strabo, that the Corinthians, wl-  ey colonized the
island, found'it already occupied by the Liburni. Apollsp states that Cor



420                ANC.IENT     GEOGRAPHY.
cyra had received a colony of Colchians before the arrival of the Corinthians.
Plutarch speaks also of an Eretrian colony; but it is to Corinth that the importance of this settlement unquestionably belongs.
III..Strabo informs us that Archias, the founder of Syracuse, touched at Corcyra, on his way from Corinth to Sicily, for the purpose of landing Chersicrates,
a descendant of the Heraclidae, with a force sufficient to expel the Liburni then
in possession of the island. The date of this event may be placed about 758 B.C.
So rapid was the increase and prosperity of this new colony, that we find it able
to cope with its opulent mother state not many years after its establishment,
when it defied the power of Periander, who then had the sovereign direction of
its affairs.
IV. At a later period we find Corcyra engaged in a quarrel with Corinth, on
the subject of Epidamnus. A war followed between the states, which was a
prelude to the great Peloponnesian war. Corcyra had at first the advantage,
and defeated the Corinthian fleet off Actium; but the Corinthians being joined
by other states of the Peloponnesus, the Corcyreans had recourse to Athens,
which made a defensive alliance with them. The Corcyrean fleet of one hundred and ten triremes, beside% ten auxiliary Athenian ships, engaged with the
Corinthian fleet at the south entrance of the channel, near the coast of Thesprotia. The fight ended in favuo of the Corinthians, but the appearance of a
fresh Athenian squadron of twenty triremes induced them to return home.
After this, Corcyra was distracted by civil commotions between the aristocratic
and democratic factions, the former being favorable to the Peloponnesian or
Spartan alliance, and the latter to the Athenian. Atrocities were committed by
both, which ended in a general massacre of the aristocratic party, connived at
by the Athenian commander. This tragedy occurred B.C. 425. The island remained in alliance with the Athenians until the end of the war.
V. The name of Corcyra does not again appear in history until the time of
Cassander, when it was surprised and occupied for some time by Cleonymns,
king of Sparta, who infested the seas of Greece and Italy with a piratical fleet.
After his departure it was besieged by Cassander himself, at the head of a considerable squadron; but Agathocles, tyrant'of Syracuse, having come to the
assistance of the islanders, attacked the Macedonians, burned several of their
ships, and dispersed the remainder. Corcyra was afterward attacked by Pyrrhus,
when driven'from the throne of Epirus by Ptolemy, king of Egypt. On the death
of that prince it regained its independence for a short time, but it soon fell into
the power of the Illyrians, from whom it subsequently passed to tle Romans
LOCALITIES OF CORCYRA.
Corcra, the principal city of the island, was situate precisely where the modern town of Corfu stands. Scylax speaks of three harbors, one of which *wan,
remarkable for its beauty, and is probably that to which Thucydides gives the
name of Hyllaicus. Near it was the citadel, and the more elevated part of t he
city. In the Middle Ages, the citadel obtained the name of Kopv06, from its
two conical hills or crests, which appellation was in process of time applied to
the whole town, and finally to the island itself. Hence the modern name os
the city and island of Corfu, which is but a corruption of the former naree.
To the north of the city of Corcyra was the town and port of Cassiopc, which
has been already mentioned in speaking of the opposite coast of Epirus. wlre
there was a town  he same name. It is supposed to have derived i.!F: i.!, i*
from a temple cr   ated to Jupiter Cassius. Suetonius'relates,!i;:i. ";eri,
in a voyage made Wlis island, sang in public at the altar of the god.




THRACIA.                           421
Ptolemy also notices Cassiope, and near it a cape of the same name, Cassiope Promontorium, now Capo di Santa Caterina. The farthest point of the
island to the northwest bore the appellation of Phalacrum Promontorium, now
Capo Drasti. More to the south, but on the same side, Ptolemy places a cape
which he calls Amphipdgus, answering, probably, to the modern Capo S. Angelo. The southernmost extremity of the island was named Leucimna, according to Thucydides, near which lay the islets called Sybota. The modern name
of the promontory is Capo Bianco.
Southeast of Corcyra are two small islands which bore anciently the common
name of Paxos, but are now distinguished as Paxo and Antipaxo. Polybius
speaks of a naval fight which took place in the vicinity between %ome Illyrian
ships and a combined fleet of Achaeans and Acarnanians, in which the lather
were defeated. Pliny says they were five miles distant from Corcyra.
IX. THRACIA.
1. NAMiE, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Thracia (Opda'r)) was in ancient times the name of the
country bounded on the north by the chain of Mount H(nus;
on the south by the JEgean and Propontis; on the east by
the Euxine, and on the west by the River Strymontand the
chain of mountains forming the continuation of Mount Rhodope.
II. The Thracians were divided into many separate and independent tribes; but the name of Thracians (9OpiKe) seems to
have been applied to them collectively in very early times.
Thrace, according to Stephanus Byzantinus, was originally
called Perce (IlpKr).
Oss. 1. Ukert supposes Pcrcc to mean any country in the north, and quotes
the remark of Andron of Halicarhassus (Schol. ad Lycophr., 894, 1283), that
Oceanus had four daughters, Asia, Libya, Europa, and Thrace, from whom the
four parts of the world were named; and thence he concludes that Asia signified the east, Libya the south, Europa the west, and Thrace the north. This
conclusion, h'owever, hardly amounts to a small probability. (Ukert, Geogr. der.
G. und R., i., p. 282.)
2. Josephus and many Biblical scholars suppose that the name is derived from
Tiras, the son of Japhet (Gen., x., 2); but this opinion rests on little more than
an apparent similarity of sound.
2. HISTORICAL        SK   TCII.
I. THE Thracians, of whom we are about to speak, mdst not be confounded
with what are called the Old Thracians, and who are so intimately connected
with the earliest literature of Greece. An account of these last will be given
under the head of Pieria, in the account of Macedonia.
II. The Thracians are said to have been subdued by Sesostris (Herod., ii.,
103), and subsequently by the Mysians and Teucri, who crossed over into Europe before the Trojan war, and penetrated as far as the Ionian Sea and the
Peneus. (Herod., vii., 20.) But the first real historical event respecting them
is their conquest by Megabazus, the general of Darius, who conquered all ihl




422                  ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
separate tribes with the exception of the Satiee, who were the only Thracian
people that had retained their independence down to the time of Herodotus.
II. After the failure of the expedition of Xerxes, the Thracians appear to have
recovered their independence; and in the time of the Peloponnesian war, we
find a powerful native empire in Thrace, which was under the dominion of Sitalces, who is called by Thucydides (ii., 29) King of the Thracians. This empire was founded by the father of Sitalces, Teres, king of the Odrsse, one of the
most powerful of the Thracian tribes. It extended along the coast from Abdera
to the mouth of the Danube, and inland from Byzantium to the Lseei and the
Strymon. The power of the Odrysian empire, however, did not last long. In
little more than twenty years from the death of Sitalces it had lost its former
greatness; and when Xenophon crossed over into Thrace in B.C. 400, he found
Medocus, the reigning king of the Odrvsians, unable to command the obedience
of his Thracian subjects.
IV. In the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander, Cotys was the most powerful of the Thracian chiefs, and is usually called King of Thrace; but he was
deprived by Philip of almost all his dominions between the Strymon and the
Nestus, and became little else than a vassal of Macedon. He was a savage and
vindictive barbarian, and was assassinated in B.C. 358. His son Cersobleptes
succeeded to the throne, but he was eventually stripped of all his territories by
Philip, who reduced, in B.C. 343, the whole of southern Thrace at least, and
compelled it to.pay tribute. On the death of Philip there was a general movement amdng the Thracians to throw off the Macedonian supremacy, at the head
of which the Triballi placed themselves. But Alexander, by his activity, suppressed this rising: he crossed the range of Hamus, marched into the country
of the Triballi, and, after defeating them, advanced as far as the Danube, which
he crossed, and offered a sacrifice on its right bank.
V. On the death of Alexander, Thrace fell to the share of Lysimachus, who
erected it into an independent monarchy; but it subsequently came under the
dominion of the Macedonian kings.  They seem, however, to have left the
country undey the government of its native rulers, and were probably contented
with what the Greeks called a hegemony. In the Roman war against Perseus,
Cotys, king of the Thracians, is mentioned as an ally of Perseus, though the
Thracians, just before the war broke out, had sought the alliance of the Romans. On the conclusion of the war, however, Cotys was allowed to continue
in possession of his kingdom, notwithstanding the assistance he had rendered
to Perseus.
VI. At what time Thrace was reduced to the form of a Roman province is
uncertain, but it seems not to have constituted a distinct province until a late
period. Under Augustus, the country north of Hemus was conquered by the
Romans, and was afterward erected into a separate province named ]MoIsia. It
is from this time that the range.of Mount Humus becomes, strictly speaking,
the northern boundary of Thrace. The boundary on the west differed at various
times. In the time of Ptolemy it seems to have been the Nestus; but the more
ancient boundary was the Strymon, as we have given it.
3. MOUNTAINS.
I. HIEMUS, a range of mountains, stretching its great belt
round the north of Thrace, in a direction nearly parallel with
the IEgean.     The modern name is Emineh Dagg, cr Balkan.




THRACIA.                    423
The ancients regarded this range as one of the highest with
which they were acquainted. Polybius, however, thought it
inferior in elevation to the Alps, in which he was doubtless correct. It was reported that from the summit could be seen at
once the Euxine, the Adriatic, the Danube, and the Alps. The
length of the chain of Hmmus is five hundred miles, from tl.e
Gulf of Venice to the Black Sea.
II. RHOD6PE, a mountain range, forming in a great degree
the western boundary of Thrace, and evidently identical with
the Scomius of Thucydides. It is now Despoto-Dag. Theocritus classes it xith the highest summits of the ancient world.
III. PANGsEUS, a ridge' apparently connected with the central
chain of Rhodope and Hemus, and which, branching off in a
southeasterly direction, closed upon the coast at the defile of
Acontisma. It is now called Pundar Dagh, or Castagnats.
Herodotus informs us that Mount Pangaeus contained gold and
silver mines, which were worked by the Pieres, Odomanti, and
Satrw, clans of Thrace, but especially the latter. These valuable mines naturally attracted the attention of the Thasians,
who were the first settlers on this coast, and they accordingly
formed an establishment in this vicinity at a place named Crenides.
4. PROMONTORIES.
1. Philia Promontorium, called, also, Hcemi Extrema, the
eastern extremity of the chain of Mount Hemus, forming a
bold promontory, running out into the Euxine, and now Cape
Emineh. 2. Thynias Promontorium, below the preceding, and
on the same sea, now Cape Inada, or, as some call the name.
Kiada. 3. Hestias Promontorium and Chrysoceras, both near
Byzantium. 4. Mastusia Promontorium, at the entrance'of
the Hellespont, now Capo Greco, or Jenischer. 5. SarpedonZum Promontorium, at the upper entrance of the MIelas Sinus,
and now Cape Dragontina. Sorme, less correctly, make this
correspond to Capo Greco. 6. Serrheum Promontorium, to the
northwest, now Capo Makri. 7. Ismarium Promontorium, to
the west of the preceding, now Capo Marogna.




424             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
5. RIVERS.
1. Hebrus, now the Maritza, one of the most considerable
rivers in Europe. It rises in the chain of Hmmus, which separates the plains of Thrace from the great valley of the Danube, and, after receiving several tributaries, falls into the JEgean
near the city of -Enos. An estuary, which it forms at its
mouth, was called Stentoris Palus, now the Gulf of Enos.
The sands of this river were said to be auriferous. According
to the ancient mythologists, after Orpheus had been torn in 
pieces by the Thracian Bacchantes, his head and lyre were cast
into the Hebrus, and, being carried down the river to the sea,
were borne by the waves to the island of Lesbos. At the junction of the Hebrus with the Tonskus and Harpessus, Orestes
was said to have purified himself from his mother's blood. Several streams swell the waters of the Hebrus. First, on the
right or southern bank, the Harpessus, now Arda; then, a
short distance from this, on the left or northern bank, the
Tonskus or Tonzus of Ptolemy, now the Tonja; then the Arliscus of Herodotus, now the Bujuk-dere; farther south it is
joined by the Agrianes, now the Ergene, which, according to
the same historian, receives the Contadesdus, now the Saradjala; and the Contadesdus, the Tearus, now the Teke-dere.
It was at the head of this last river that Darius, in his Scythian expedition, erected a pillar, with an inscription, pronouncing the water of the Tearus to be the purest and best in the
universe.
2. Nestus (less correctly Nessus)~ formed the boundary between Thrace and Macedonia in the time of Philip and Alexander, and this arrangement subsequently remained unchanged
by'the Romans on their conquest of the latter empire. According to Thucydides, it rose in Mount Scomius. The Nestus fell into the AEgean opposite the island of Thasos, and a
short distance to the west of Abdera. In the Middle Ages its
name was corrupted to Mestus, and is still called Mesto by the
modern Greeks. The Turkish name is Kara-su, or " Black
Water."
3. Strymon, rising in the chain of Mount Scomius, and after
a course of nearly two hundred miles falling into the Sinus
Strym6nicus, to which it gave name. The -Strymon formed




T  RACIA.                         42 a
the earlier boundary between Macedonia and Thrace, and con.
tinued so until the time of Philip and Alexanderi when Macedonia was extended more to the east, and the Nestus.became
the boundary.    The modern name of the Strymon is the St^uma, according to Leake, who also makes the Turkish name
the same as that of the Nestus, namely, the Kara-su. The
modern name of the Sinus StrymonicuS is the Gulf of Contessa.
Its northern extremity, however, according to Leake, is called
the Bay of Rendina.
6. STRAITS, &c.
i. Hellespontus, now the Dardanelles, and, according to mythologists, deriving
its name from the circumstance of Helle's having been drowned therein,'"EXanc
7,OVTOc, " the Sea of Helle." The modern name is supposed to come from the
ancient Dardania in its vicinity. The Hellespont is famed for the bridge of
boats built over it by Xerxes, and also for the legend of Hero and Leander.
Passing up this strait, we have on the left the Thracian Chersonese, which remains to be described. We pass from the Hellespont into the Propontis, or Sea
of Marmara, and on reaching its upper extremity we come to the Thracian Bosporus, now the Strait of Constantinople, and which has already been referred to
elsewhere (p. 9, seq.). The Propontis received its ancient name from the circumstance of its lying in front of or beLpre the Pontus Euxinus (7rpo JI6vrov). The
modern appellation comes from the miodern name of the island of Proconnesus,
which will be described in the account of Asia Minor.
2. Emerging from the Thracian Bosporus, we enter on the Euxine, of which
an account has already been given (p. 236). At the northeastern extremity of
the Euxine we come to the Cimmerian Bosporus and the Tauric Chersonese,
which, not belonging to the geography of Greece, have been elsewhere described
(p. 9, 237, seqq.).
7. PRODUCTS.
CORN in abundance in the Thracian Chersonese, which hence formed one of
the granaries of Athens; fruit in the plains, but not in the high and bleak mountains; wine, oil; various metals, but more especially gold.
8. CHARACTER        OF THE     INHABITANTS.
I. THE Thracian nation, according to Herodotus, was, next to the Indians,
the most numerous of all, and, if united under one head, would have been invincible. He observes that the usages of the different tribes were similar, with
the exception of the Getce, the Trtusi, and those who dwelt above the Crestonei.
The account which he gives of the most striking national peculiarities of the
Thracians represent them as a savage and barbarous people, which is supported
by other ancient writers, though the districts on the southern coast seem to
have attained to some degree of civilization, owing to the numerous Greek
cities which were founded there at various times.
II. The Thracians, according to Herodotus, sold their children to be carried
out of the country as slaves; they purchased their wires with great sums; they
punctured or tattooed their bodies, and regarded this as a mark of noble birth;
agriculture they despised, and considered it most honorable to live by war and




426.                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
robbery. Deep drinking prevailed among them extensively, and the quarrels
over their cups became almost proverbial. In the time of Xerxes the Thracian
warrior carried a shield, and was dressed in goat-skin trowsers; a fox-skin cap
covered Iris head; a spear and dagger were his weapons of offence. Human
sacrifices were customary on important national occasions.
9. THRACIAN       TRIBES.
1. The Triballi, i'n the northwest, about the Angrus, extending east to the
River Oscius, in the territory of the modern Sophia. They consequently occupied modern Servia and a portion of Bulgaria. They were so powerful tha:;,
in the time of the Peloponnesian war, they wrested the power from the Odrysc,
and sent thirty thousand men to destroy Abdera. But soon after the reign of
Alexander they were so oppressed by the Gauls and Bastarna, and then so
roughly handled by the Illyrian Autariatc, that the remainder of them were fain
to cross the Danube, and seek refuge among the Getae.
2. Tite Crobyzi, eastward of the foregoing, and extending to the River lant-a.
3. The Trausi, who wept when their children were born, and were loud in their
expressions of joy at the death of their friends. 4. The Dii, in Mount Rhodope,
probably the same as the Dahi, and called by the Greeks Macharophori, from
their short dirks. 5. The Bessi, descended from the preceding, and dwelling il
that quarter where Rhodope diverges from Haemus; these were the most barbarous of all the Thracians, being mere robbers. 6. The Satrea, a branch of the
Bessi, resident in the snow-clad mountains between the Nestus and the Strymon. They had an oracle of Bacchus, the interpreters of which were taken
from the BesSi. 7. The Treres and Tilathi, about the head of the Angrus.
8. The Dolonci, in the Thracian Chersonese. 9. The Apsinthii, neighbors of
the preceding. 10. The Peati, on the River Hebrus. 11. The Cic6nes, next to
them on the west, famous for their wine, gold, and cavalry. 12. The Biatones,
about the Lake Bistonis, where Pliny subsequently places the Corpilli, in the
Corpillian pass. 13. The Sapcei or Saii, at the mouth of the Nestus, near the
Sapaean defile and the forts or castles of the Pierians. 14. The Odomanti, who,
as well as the Satrce, worked the gold mines of Pangaus. 15. The Edones, at
the mouth of the Strymon, in whose country the Athenians built Amphipolis.
16. The Odrysae, of whom we have already spoken in the Historical Sketch of
Thrace.
10. CITIES     OF   THRACE.
IN the territory of the Edones we have, 1. Myrcinus, one of
their principal towns, on the left bank of the Strymon, near its
mouth, and to the southeast of the Cercinitis Palus, now Lake
Takinos.    This city is often mentioned by Herodotus as the
place chosen by Histieus of Miletug for his settlement, which
was granted to him by Darius, in consideration of the important services he had rendered that sovereign in the Scythian
expedition. The advantages which this situation presented to
the enterprising Ionian consisted in an abundant supply of timber for ship-buildingthe number of mariners and soldiers which
the country affirded, the richness of the mines it contained, and




THRACIA.                   427
its proximity to the Greek colonies. His designs, however, did
not escape the vigilant observation of Megabyzus, who commanded the Persian army in Thrace, and, on his representation
to Darius, Histimeus was recalled. At the time of the Peloponnesian war, Myrcinus had fallen again into the hands of the
Edones, but it subsequently went over to Brasidas. The situation of the placb probably corresponds to that of Orphano.
2. Near this town was'Evvia'Odo1, called by the Latin writers
Aovem Vice, a spot doubtless deriving its name from the number of roads which met here from different parts of Thrace and
Macedon; a supposition confirmed by travellers who have explored this country, and who report that all the principal communications between the coast and the plains must have led
through this pass. It was here, according to Herodotus, that
Xerxes and his army crossed the Strymon on bridges, after having offered a sacrifice of white horses to that river, and buried
alive nine youths and maidens. 3. In this immediate vicinity
the Athenians afterward founded a colony, which became so
celebrated under the name of Amphip6lis, an appellation derived from the circumstance of its being surrounded on two
sides by the River Strymon, which a little above the city made
a considerable lake or marsh. The position of Amphipolis was
one of the most important in Greece. It stood in a pass which
traversed the mountains bordering on the Sinus Strymonicus,
and commanded the only easy communication from the coast
of that gulf into the great Macedonian plains. The surrender
of Amphipolis to Brasidas was. a severe blow to the prosperity
and good fortune of the Athenians, and Thucydides, who arrived too late wifli the fleet to'prevent its falling into the hands
of the enemy, was banished in consequence. Cleon was sent
to recover possession of the place, but his army was totally
routed, and he himself slain. Brasidas, also, who was commander against him, received a mortal wound in the conflict.
Amphipolis, after this, never came again into the hands of the
Athenians. It was subsequently taken by Philip, and from
that time became a Macedonian town. On the subjugation
of this country by the Romans, it was constituted the chief
town of the first region of the conquered territory. Under the
Byzantine empire it seems to have exchanged its name for that
of Chrysopolis. The spot on which its ruins may still be traced
bears the name of Jenikeui.




428             ANCIENT GEOGRAPH Y.
4. Eion, at the mouth of the Strymon, a colony of lMende
in Macedonia, distant twenty-five stadia from Amphipolis, of
which, according to Thucydides, it was the port. It was from
this place that Xerxes sailed to Asia, on his return from Greece
after the battle of Salamis. Boges was left in command of
the town on the retreat of the Persian armies, and made a
most gallant defence when besieged by the Grecian forces under Cimon. On the total failure, however, of all means of subsistence, he destroyed himself, together with his family and all
his valuables. In the Middle Ages a Byzantine town was built
on the site of Eion, which now bears the name of Contessa.
Continuing along the coast to the east of the Strymon, we
find a small part of the Edonian territory inhabited by the Pi5res, a people of whom we will make further mention under the
head of Macedonia. Thucydides informs us that, on their expulsion from that country, they retired across the Strymon,
and settled on the shores of the Sinus Strym6nicus, which was
sometimes called, from them, Sinus Piericus. Herodotus mentions Pergamus and Phagres as two of their fortresses, near
which the Persian army passed on their march toward Greece,
To the east of these was (Esj/me, or, as Homer writes the name,
iEsyme, a sea-port town. In the time of Stephanus Byzantinus it was called Emathia. Its site appears to have been near
the modern Eski Cavala.
Resuming our survey of the Edonian cities, we come to,
5. Scapie-Hyle (SKa7rrr7j "r), called, also, Scaptesyle (IcarTVi7a7), a small place to the northeast of (Esyme, celebrated
for its rich gold mines, which, according to Herodotus, belonged
to the Thasians, and produced annually eightytalents. In these
mines Thucydides the historian had some property, as he informs us, and, according to Marcellinus, he had obtainedthis
by marrying a Thtacian heiress. The same writer states that
he resided here after his banishment, and employed himself in
arranging the materials for his history. According to D'Anville and Reichard, this place answers to the modern Skepsilar.
6. Datos, a sea-port, to the northeast, was the scene of an engagement between the natives and the Athenian colonists, who
had attempted to settle in this territory, with a view of possessing themselves of the gold mines. The latter were defeated with great loss. According to Strabo, the territory of Datos




THRACIA.                     429
presented great advantages; it was highly fertile, and possessed
excellent docks for the construction of ships, and most valuable
gold mines. Hence arose the proverb Aadro aya&3v, i. e., " an
abundance of good things." Leake thinks that Datos and NYeapolis, or the modern Cavala, were one and the same place,
though on maps they are laid down as separate but closely-contiguous places.
On reaching the defile of Acontisma, to the east of Datos, we
encounter the range of Pangeus, already referred to, and which,
coming down in a northwest direction, closes here upon the
coast. This celebrated ridge forms at this point a natural division between the maritime part of the district which we are
considering and the interior, and to the latter we now turn.
The chief place of importance in the interior of the Edoniaia
territory was Crenides, afterward Philippi. It seems that the
valuable mines in Mount Pangmus naturally attracted the attention of the Thasians, who were the first settlers on this
coast, and they accordingly formed an establishment in this vicinity, at a place called Crenides (Kpnvi6er), from the circum.stance of its being surrounded by numerous sources (rprivat).
which descended from the neighboring mountains. Philip of
Macedon having turned his attention to the affairs of Thrace,
the possession of Crenides and Mount Pangmus naturally en.
tered into bis views. Accordingly, he invaded this country, ex
pelled the feeble Cotys from his throne, and then proceeded tc
found a new city on the site of the old Thasian colony, which
he named, after himself, Philippi. When Macedonia became
subject to the Romans, the advantages attending the peculiar
situation of Philippi induced that people to settle a colony there;
and we know from the Acts of the Apostles that it was alleady,
at that period, one of the most flourishing cities of this part of
their empire. It is, moreover, celebrated-in history from the
great victory gained here by Antony and Octavianus over the
forces of Brutus and Cassius, by which the republican party
was completely subdued. Philippi, however, is rendered far
more interesting from the circumstance of its being the first
place in Europe where the Gospel was preached by St. Paul
(A.D. 51). The ruins of the place still retain the name of Fi-.
ibah. Theophrastus speaks of the Rosa centifolia, which grew
in great beauty near Philippi, being indigenous on Mount Pan



430             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
gseus. Nicander mentions another sort which bloomed in the
gardens of Midas, in Thrace.
~In the territory of the Satrce, Sapcei, and Bistones, we find,
1. Nicopolis ad Nesturn, near the River Nestus, and now Nicopoll. 2. Abdera, on the sea, and to the east of the River Nestus.
This was an opulent and celebrated Greek city, founded originally by Timesius of Clazomena; but as this settlement did
not prosper, owing to the enmity of the natives, it was subsequently recolonized by a large body of Teians from Ionia, who,
as Herodotus asserts, had abandoned their city when it was besleged by Harpagus, a general of Cyrus. It was already a
large and wealthy townwhen Xerxes arrived there on his way
to Greece. On that same monarch's return from Greece, he
presented the town with his golden cimeter and train as an acknowledgment of the reception he had met with there. We
learn from Thucydides that Abdera was the limit of the Odrysian empire to the west. Abdera continued to increase in.prosperity and importance, and its having given birth to the two
philosophers Democritus and Protagoras added much to its celebrity. Still, however, notwithstanding this, the people of.
Abdera, as a body, were reputed to be a stupid race, and many
sayings arose at their expense. In the Middle Ages it degenerated into a very small town,.to which the name of Polystylus was attached. Its ruins are said to exist near Cape Baloustra. A short distance to the north of Abdera were the city
and lake of Pistyrus, and beyond these, in the territory of the
Bistones, was another lake named Bistonis Lacus, into which
flowed two rivers, namely, the Travus and Compsatus. 3. Diccea: a Greek city, on the shore of the Bistonis Lacus, and the
site of which is thought to be marked by the modern Boar
Kalis.
Passing into the territory of the Cic6nes, we come to, 1. Maronea, on the coast, at the mouth of the River Schoenus, and a
Greek town of some note. According to Scymnus, it was
founded by a colony from Chios. Pliny states that the more
ancient name was Ortagurea. The sarr    writer extols the
excellence of its wine. The ruins of this place still retain the
name of lcatrogrna. 2. Serrheuzm, to the east, near the promontory of the same name, and now Macri. 3. Zone, to the
southeast of the preceding, and in the neighborhood of which




CuERSONESUS.                      431
Orpheus drew    down after him   the woods and wild beasts.
4. Doriscus, a fortress in a vast plain, near the coast, watered
by the great river Hebrus.  The fortress was erected by order
of Darius, at the time of his Scythian expedition. Here it was
that Xerxes numbered the multitude he was conducting into
Greece.   Doriscus was near the Hebrus.    An estuary at the
mouth of this river was called Stent6r.is Palus.  Crossing the
Hebrus, we come to the territory of the Apsyhnthi, in which
we need mention only the city of EEnos, at the mouth of the
Stentoris Palus, where it communicates by a narrow passage
with the sea.  Herodotus calls it an AEolic city, without specifying from which of the ZEolic settlements it derived its origin;
but Scymnus ascribes its foundation to Mytilene.  Apollodorus
and Strabo inform us that its more ancient name was Poltyobria, or the "City of Poltys," with regard to the termination
of which word, consult page 161 of this work. Virgil supposes
iEneas to have landed on this coast after leaving Troy, and to
have discovered here the tomb of the murdered Polydorus; he
also intimates that he founded a city here, which he named after
himself. This, however, is mere.poetic fiction. Homer, moreover, makes 2Enos to have existed before the siege of Troy.
After the death of Lysimachus, 2Enos, together with Maronea,
and the other places on this part of the Thracian coast, fell into
the possession of the kings of Egypt. It afterward was betrayed into the hands of the Macedonian monarch Philip, and
subsequently fell under the Roman power. The Romans, made
it a free city. The modern name remains the same as the ancient. After leaving JEnos, the coast makes a bold indentation, forming the Melas Sinus, now the Gulf of Saros,'into
which empties a river called anciently the Melas, and now the
Cavatcha.   This brings us to the Thracian Chersonese.
CHERSONESUS.
I. THOUGH the Thracian Chersonese, or, as it is sometimes designated, the
Chersonese on the Hellespont, formed but a small portion of the extensive country to which it was annexed, yet its fertility of soil and proximity to the coast
of Asia Minor early attracted an influx of Grecian settlers, and its shores soon
became crowded with flourishing and populous cities.
II. We are told by Thucydides that, during the siege of Troy, this country
was always occupied by a large portion of the Grecian armament, stationed
there to cultivate the soil, and furnish provisions for the besieging force. Eu
ripides, however, says that it was in the possession of Polymestor.




432                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
III. From Herodotus we learn, that in after times the Dolonc, a Thracian
tribe, holding the Chersonese, were engaged in war with the neighboring Ap
synthii, and, finding themselves unable to resist these more warlike adversaries,
consulted the oracle of Delphi. The god, in reply, advised them to elect foi
their chief the first person to whom they should stand indebted for the rites of
hospitality on their return homeward. Accordingly, as they passed through
Attica, they were invited into the houie of Miltiades, a noble and wealthy Athenian. The Dolonci, having acquainted Miltiades with the oracle delivered to
them, offered him the sovereignty of their country, which he accepted, and,
having quitted Attica, he took possession of his newly-acquired principality
At his death his nephew Stesagoras succeeded, who afterward bequeathed the
crown to his brother, the famous Miltiades, son of Cimon. This celebrated
character was compelled to flee from the Chersonese, and withdrew to Athens,
from dread of the vengeance of Darius, whose enmity he had provoked.
IV. On the invasion of Xerxes, the Chersonese was overrun with Persian
troops, by whom several of its towns were garrisoned; but, after the battles of
Salamis and Mycale, the Grecian fleet removed to the Hellespont, and succeeded
in reconquering the whole of the country, which henceforth became dependent
on Athens, until the disastrous battle of 2Egospotamos, when it resumed its
state of independence. Dercyllidas, a Lacedaemonian general, who had a command in Asia Minor, raised a fortification, at the request of the inhabitants,
across the isthmus, and by this great undertaking effectually secured the country from the incursions of the Thracians.
V. In the reign of Philip, we find Cersobleptes, the son of Cotys, acknowledged as sovereign of the Chersonese; but of this possession he was deprived
by the Athenians, as he had been of the rest of his territory by the King of
Macedon. The Athenians, not long after, sent a colony under the direction of
Diopeithes, to strengthen their settlements in that quarter. Philip subsequently
made aa attempt to conquer the Hellespontine cities, but, having failed in the
silege of Perinthus and Byzantium, he was compelled to withdraw his forces.
The towns of the Chersonese made a decree on that occasion, by which they
awarded a ierowr of gold, and erected an altar to Gratitude and the Athenian
neople for their deliverance from the enemy.
VI. After the death of Alexander, the Chersonese, together with a large portion -f Thrace, was allotted to Lysimachus, who founded on the isthmus the
city of Lysimachia, which he made his principal residence. At the beginning
of:he Macedonian war. most of the Chersonitic towns were in the occupation
of Philip, son of Demetrius. afterward of Antiochus, and finally of the Romans.
CITIES OF THE        CHERSONESE.
On crossing the River Melas, we come to, 1, the port of Diris; then 2, follows
C9brys, which Scylax calls the haven of Cardia. Next in order we have, 3.
Cardia, a town of some note, situate at a short distance from the sea, and near'he isthmus. It owed its origin, as Scynnus reports, to some Clazomenians
and Milesians. Pliny asserts that it took its name from its position, the ground
)n which it stood being shaped like a human heart (Kapda). Eumenes, one of
Alexander's most able generals, and Hieronymus the historian, were natives of
Cardia. When Lysimachus took possession of the Chersonese, and the towns
on the Thracian side of the Hellespgnt, he founded a city near the site of Cardia. which was ther fast declining in prosperity, and transferred the greater
part of its inhabitants to this new settlement, which was called Lysimachia,
after h:is riame. On his death, this new city fell successively into the hands of




CHERSONE SU S.                        433
Seleucus and Ptolemy, and Philip, king of Macedon. It afterward suffered
considerably from the attacks of the Thracians, and was nearly in ruins, when
it was restored by Antiochus, king of Syria. On the defeat of that monarch by
the Romans it was bestowed by them upon Eumenes, king of Pergamus. In
the Middle Ages, the name of Lysimachia was lost in that of Hexamilion, a fortress constructed probably out of its ruins, and so called, doubtless, from the
width of the isthmus on which Lysimachia stood, namely, six miles.
4. Alopeconnesus, some distance to the southwest of the preceding, and near
the lower extremity of the Chersonese. It was an lEolian colony, and is men
tioned by Demosthenes as one of the chief towns in this quarter of Thrace.
According to Athenaeus, trufles of excellent quality grew near it. The site is
now called Alexi. 5. Elaus, to the south of the preceding, and very near the
lower extremity of the Chersonese. It contained a temple and shrine of Protesilaus. Strabo remarks that the name of this town is of the masculinegender. 6. Cynossema, to the northeast, on the shore of the Hellespont. It was so
called (" the dog's monument") from the tradition relating to the metamnorphosis and death of Hecuba on that spot. Here the Athenian fleet, under the command of Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus, gained an important*victory over the
allied squadron toward the close of the Peloponnesian war. The site is said
to be now occupied by the Turkish fortress of the Dardanelles, called Kelidil-bahar.
7. Madytus, to the northeast, mentioned by Demosthenes among the principal
towns of the Chersonese. The name of Maito is still attached to the site on
which it stood. 8. Sestos, to the northeast, and always considered, from its situation on the Hellespont, as a most important city, as it commanded, in a great
measure, that narrow channel. It appears to have been founded at an early
period by some 2Eolians, as well as Abydos on the opposite coast. The story
of Hero and Leander, and, still more, the passage of the vast armament of Xerxes, have rendered Sestos celebrated in ancient history.  Herodotus states
that the foot of the bridge was placed on the European side, between Sestos
and Madytus, the breadth of the Hellespont being in this part only seven stadia,
whereas from Sestos to Abydos the distance was thirty.  The Athenians,
when at the height of their power, justly attached the greatest value to the possession of Sestos, which enabled them to command the active trade of the
Euxine. Hence they were wont to term it the corn-chest of the Piraeus. After
the battle of _Egospotamos, Sestos received its independence; but the Athenians, many years after; having resolved to recover that fertile province, sent
Chares to the Hellespont with a considerable force. Sestos, after a short resistance, ivas taken by assault, when Chares barbarously caused all the male
inhabitants capable of bearing arm~ to be put to death. This severe blow probably caused the ruin of the town, as from this time little mention of it occurs in
history. Strabo, however, speaks of Sestos as being a considerable place in
his time. He observes that the current which flowed from the shore near Sestos greatly facilitated the navigation of vessels from that place, the reverse
being the case with those sailing from Abydos. According to Mannert, theisite
of Sestos is now called Jalowa.
To the northeast of Sestos we find JEgospotamos, a small river, which apparently gave its name to a town or port situated at its mouth. Here the Athenian fleet was totally defeated by the Spartan admiral Lysander; an event
which completely destroyed the power of the former, and finally led to the capture of Athens itself. The village of Galata probably stands on the site oi'
the port of 2Egospotamos.
EE




434                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
9. Calipolis, about five miles beyond the preceding, and now Gallipoli. A Byzantine writer ascribes its foundation and name to Callias, an Athenian general;
while another, probably with more correctness, derives its appellation from the
beauty of the site. From the itineraries we learn that.Callipolis was the point
~whence it was usual to cross the Hellespont to Lampsacus or Abydos. It is
from Gallipoli that the Chersonese now takes its name as a Turkish province.
10. Pactye, the last town of the Chersonese on the Hellespont. It owed its
origin to Miltiades, according to Scylax and Scymnus. To this place Alcibiades
retired when banished for the second time by his countrymen.
Before proceeding with the remainder of the geography of Thrace, we will
find it more convenient to notice certain northern islands of the _Egean, which
lay at no great distance from the coast of Thrace. These are,
1. THiSOS.
I. THE island of Thasos lay off that part of the coast of Thrace where the
River Nestus empties into the JEgean. According to Herodotus, it received at
a very early period a colony of Phoenicians, under the conduct of Thasus, that
enterprising people having already formed settlements in several islands of the
AEgean. They wvere induced to possess themselves of Thasos from the valuable silver mines which it contained, and which it appears they afterward worked
with unremitting assiduity.
II. Herodotus, who visited this island, reports,' that a large mountain on the
side of Samofhrace had been turned upside down (in Greek avearpapuyfvov) in
search of the precious metal. Thasos, at a later period, was colonized by a
party of Parians, pursuant to the command of an oracle delivered to the father
of the poet Archilochus. From this document, quoted by Stephanus, we learn
that the earlier name of the island was iEria.
III. On the'expulsion of the Persians from Greece, Thasos, together with
the other islands on this coast, became tributary to Athens. Dispute, however,
having arisen between the islanders and that power on the subject of the mines
on the Thracian coast, a war ensued, and the Thracians were besieged for three
years. On their surrender, their fortifications were destroyed, and their ships
of war removed to Athens. Thasos once more revolted after the great failure
of the Athenians ii Sicily; at which time, also, a change was effected in the
government of the island from democracy to oligarchy.
IV. According to Herodotus, the revenues of Thasos were very considerable:
they commonly amounted to two hundred, and sometimes to three hundred
talents annually. These funds were principally derived from the mines of
Skapte-Hyle on the Thracian coast.
V. The capital of the island was the city of Thasos. Besides this, we hear
of two others, named _Enyra and Coxnra, situate in that part of the island which
looks toward Samothrdce.
VI. Thasos, besides gold and silver, furnished marbles and wine, which were
much esteemed. The soil, moreover, was excellent. The modern name is
Tasso.
2. SAMOTHRX CE.
I. THE island of Samothrdce lay to the southeast of Thasos, and opposite the
Melas Sinus. It bore various names at different periods, being called Dardania,
Electris, Melite, &c. The name of Samothrace (" Thracian Samos") is said to
have been given to it by a colony from the Ionian Samos, though Strabo conceives this assertion to have been an invention of the Samians.
II. Though insignificant in itself, considerable celebrity attaches to this island




CHERSONESUS.                        435
from the worship of the Cabiri, which appears to have been brought into it by
the Phoenicians. According to Herodotus, however, Samothrace was originally
inhabited by the Pelasgi, from whom the inhabitants, as he affirms, learned the
religious mysteries which they solemnized. These mysteries imparted a kind
of sacred character to the island, and rendered it a species of asylum; ani it
was here that Perseus, king of Macedonia, took refuge after the battle ofPydna
The Romans, however, seized him here when preparing to escape from Demetrium, a small harbor near one of the promontories of the island. Stephanus
informs us that there was a town of the same name with the island. Samothrace contains a very high mountain, called Saoce by Pliny, and from which
Homer says that Troy could be seen. The modern name of the island is Samothraki. Samothrace was reduced, in the reign of Vespasian, along with the
other isles of the AEgean, to the form of a province.
Reserving an account of Lemnos and Tenedos for the general description ol
the Asiatic islands, we will now return to the cities of Thrace.
CITIES OF THRACE BEYOND THE CIIERSONESUS
LEAVING the MaKpov TedXo~, or Long Wall, erected, as already
mentioned, by Dercyllidas the Lacedamonian, across the isthmus of the Chersonese, and proceeding along the coast of the
Propontis, we come to, 1. Leuce Acte (AevKc)'AKi-T), or "the
White Shore," a town and roadstead, now         Santo Giorgio.
2. Heraclea, now Ileraclitza.    3. Bisanthe, a Samian colony,
called at a later period Rhcedestus, and now Rodosto.     4. Perinthus, also a colony of Samos, and one of the most flourishing cities on the Propontis, becoming eventually the rival of
Byzantium. It subsequently suffered from the attacks of the
Thracians, but principally from those of Philip of Macedon,
who besieged and vigorously pressed the city, but was unable'
to take it. It continued to be a flourishing place, even under
the Roman power, until the seat of empire was transferred to
Byzantium. About this last-mentioned period, moreover, it
appears with the additional name of Heraclea, without our bein  able t a   ascertain either the exact cause or time of the change.
With the writers of the fourth century, this name Heraclea became the more usual one; sometimes, however, they join both
names together. Perinthus could not but be an important city
under the eastern empire, since all the roads to Byzantium from
Italy and Greece met here. The modern Erekli occupies the
site of the ancient city.  5. Selybria, a Megarian colony, and
founded at a still earlier period than Byzantium. The name
of its founder, the leader of the colony, was Selys (EAlZvM); at
least Strabo explains the name by VXJvor. T7rro, "the city of




436             AN-CIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Selys," the term bria being the Thracian word for " a city."
It became a flourishing place and one of considerable strength,
and for a long time defended itself against the inroads of the
Thracians, and the attempts of Philip of Macedon. It fell at
last, however, into the hands of that monarch, and after this
event sank in impbrtance. With the common people, in the
Doric dialect, the form Salabria was used. At a later period
it changed its name to that of Eudoxiopolis, in honor of Eudoxia,
the wife of the Emperor Arcadius, but the earlier appellation
was not thereby disused, and the modern Selivria is a corruption of it.
6. Byzantium, an ancient Greek city, occupying part of the
site of modern Constantinople. According to Eusebius and
other ancient authorities, it was founded by a colony from
Megara, B.C. 658, seventeen years after the building of Calchedon (less correctly written Chalcedon), on the opposite or
Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, by another colony from Megara.
Others say that the first colonists of Byzantium were a mixed
people from Megara and Argos. They were, however, a Dorian colony, and Doric customs and the Doric dialect continued
to prevail at Byzantium for many centuries. Strabo, Pliny,
and other ancient writers speak of the abundance of fish at
Byzantium, especially of the Pelamys kind, which, coming
down in shoals from the Palus Meotis, and round by the eastern and southern shore of the Euxine, entered the Bosporus,
whence the harbor of Byzantium was called Chrysoceras, or
" the Golden Horn," in consequence of the riches derived from
the fishery. The Byzantines salted the fish, which was an article of considerable trade. The harbor of Byzantium became
a place of resort for vessels trading with the Euxine, the northern coasts of which already, in the time of Herodotus, supplied
with corn, as they do now, Greece and other countries of the
Mediterranean. The name of Byzantium is said to be derived
from Byzas, the leader of the Megarean colony. In the reign
of Darius Hystaspis, the Persian satrap Otanes took both Calchedon and Byzantium. After the battle of Platea, however,
Pausanias, at the head of the united Greek forces, retook the
place, and a fresh colony of mixed Athenians and Lacedaemonians was sent to it. This second colony has given occasion
to Justin and other writers to say that Byzantium was founded




CHERSONESUS.                  437
by Pausanias. The possession of this place fluctuated between
the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, it having been frequently
taken and retaken, until Thrasybulus drove the. Lacedemonians away, B.C. 390, and changed the form of government,
which was before oligarchical, into a democracy. It appears,
however, that there was a class of the original inhabitants of
the country, who were treated by the Greek Byzantines pretty
much as the Helots were treated at Sparta.
Philip of Macedon, having extended his conquests into Thrace,
laid siege to Byzantium. The Byzantines made a bold defence,
and Philip's army became distressed for want of provisions and
money. Philip relieved his wants by seizing one hundred and
seventy ships and confiscating their cargoes. On a dark night
Philip's soldiers were near surprising the town, when a light
suddenly shone forth from the north, and revealed to the inhabitants their danger. In gratitude for this, the Byzantines built
an altar to Diana, and assumed the crescent as the emblem of
their city. The crescent is found on several medals of Byzantium, and it is said that the Turks, on their conquest of Constantinople, adopted it for their own device. Under Alexander
the Great and Lysimachus, who, after his death, succeeded to'the government of Thrace, Byzantium was obliged to submit
to th6 Macedonians; but it afterward recovered its municipal
independence, which it retained till the time of the Roman emperors..Its commerce was prosperous, but it was exposed.on
the land side to continued incursions of Thracians, Scythians,
and other barbarians, who ravaged its territory, cut down the
harvest, and reduced it to great distress. The most troublesome of these incursions was that of the Gauls, who overran
Macedonia and Northern Greece about 270 B.C. The Byzantines, in order to have some respite from them, were obliged to
pay heavy sums, from three thousand to ten thousand pieces
of gold a year, and at last as much as eighty talents, to save
their lands from being ravaged in harvest time. These and
otlher burdens compelled them to have recourse to extraordinary
measures for raising money, one of which was the exacting of
a toll from all ships passing through the Bosporus, which became the cause of a war between Byzantium and Rhodes, about
221 B.C.
Byzantium allied itself to Rome against Philip II. of Mace



438             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
donia, as well as against Antiochus and Mithradates. In consequence of its services, it retained its liberty as a free town,
confederate with Rome, and its envoys were treated as foreign
ambassadors. They were subject, however, to a tribute, at.
least under the first emperors, which Claudius remitted for five
years, in consideration of their losses during the Thracian war.
In consequence of some fresh domestic broils, Vespasian took
away their liberties and sent them a governor. In the civil
war between Severus and Pescennius Niger, the Byzantines
took the part of the latter, and were severely punished for this
by Severus, the armed men and chief citizens being put to death,
the walls being razed, and the remaining inhabitants being
placed under the jurisdiction of Perinthus. Severus, however;
relented afterward, and, visiting Byzantium, took pains to embellish the town, and gave it the name of Augusta Antonina,
in honor of his son Antoninus Bassianus, or Caracalla. Tho
Byzantines afterward had the misfortune of offending'Gallie
nus, who massacred most of the inhabitants. Finally, Constantine, struck with the situation of the place, determined to
build a new city by the side of old Byzantium, and which he
chose afterward for the capital of his empire. It was called at
first lVea Roma, "New Rome," and afterward Constantin6p6lis. The new city was founded in A.D. 328, and in May; A.D.
330, was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It became the capital of the empire under Constantine, and, on the division of the
Roman world into the eastern and western empires, the capital
of the former. It was taken by the Turks in 1453. As regards
the extent of old Byzantium previous to the time of Constantzie, there is some discrepancy of authority; but it appears almost certain that it was much larger than has generally been
supposed. The common opinion is that its arc corresponded
to that of'the present seraglio and gardens of the sultan; but
it appears to have occupied at least four out of the fourteen regions of the subsequent city of Constantine, namely, the four
most easterly ones. The acropolis, or citadel, stood on thehjill
where the seraglio now is.
The ground on which Constantinople stands is fitted by nature for the site of a great commercial city, the connecting link
between Europe and Asia. A gently-sloping promontory, secured by narrow seas, stretches out in a triangular form to



CE RSONE SUS.                 439
ward the Asiatic continent, from which its extreme point is
separated by so narrow a strait (the Bosporus) that in a quarter of an hour a boat can row from one continent to the other.
Just before the Bosporus enters the Sea of Marmara, the classical Propontis, it makes a deep elbow or inlet on the European
shore, flowing between the'triangle of Constantinople proper
and its European suburbs of Galata and Pera, and forming
the magnificent port of the "Golden Horn."  The triangle,
which, allowing for many vacant spaces within the walls, is
entirely covered by Constantinople, is thus.washed on one side
(the northern) by the deep waters of the port, and on the other
(the southeast) by the Sea of Marmara. The area of the triangle is occupied by gentle hills. As Rome was built on seven
hills, so the Roman founders of Constantinople called these the
" Seven hills," though, if the principal chain only were counted,
there would be less, and if the minor hills or spaces were included, there would be more than seven. The modern name of
Constantinopolis is Stamboul, a corruption from 8e rav 7ro6Av,
a phrase employed by the Greek peasants in the neighborhood,
who, when repairing to Constantinople, say that they are going
" to the city."
Proceeding up the Bosporus, we come to, 1. Sycea, subsequently Justiniance, a harbor answering to the bay near Pera,
one of the suburbs of Constantinople. 2. Portus Mulierum,
" the Harbor of the Women," now Balta Lirnan. 3. Portus
Senum, " the Harbor of the Old Men," now Steina. 4. Sinus
Caspenes or Bathycolpus, now the Bay of Boiuk-Dere. 5. Phinea or Phin6oplis, near the mouth of the Bosporus, and now
Dercus.
On reaching the mouth of the Bosporus, we perceive the
Cydnoce Insulae, two small, rugged islands, about forty stadia
from it, and situate, according to Strabo, one near the European, the other near the Asiatic side, the' space between them
being twenty stadia. The term Cyanece (Kvcveat) has reference to the dark blue or azure color of their rocks. There was
an ancient fable relative to these islands, namely, that they
floated about, and sometimes united to crush to pieces those
vessels which might chance at the time to be passing through
the straits. The Argo, we are told by Apollonius Rh6dius, had
a narrow escape in passing through, and lost the extremity of




440             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
her stern. Hence to the name Cyanece is frequently joined the
term Symplegades (2vp1nrydsE), i. e., the "Dashers," in allusion to their supposed collision, whenever vessels attempted
to pass. HIomer calls them IIXayKrai, or " the Wanderers."
The fable relative to the movements of these islands arose probably from their appearing, like all other objects, to move toward
or from each other, when seen from a vessel in motion itself.
These islands are now called Pavonare.
Returning to the mainland of Thrace, and bending around
the Promontorium Paneum, we come to, 1. Philee, called by
Arrian Phrygia, and in the Peutinger Table Philias, now
Philine, having near it a'promontory also called Philias. Near
this was one of the extremities of the MaKpbv TelXof, or Long
Wall, erected to secure the territory of Byzantium from the
inroads of the Thracians and other barbarous nations, and the
erection of which is ascribed to the Emperor Anastasius.
2. Haltmydessus or Salmydessus, to the northwest. The name
properly belonged to the entire range of coast from the Thynian
Promontory to the mouth of the Bosporus; and it was this portion of the coast in particular that obtained for the Euxine its
earlier name of Axenos, or "inhospitable."  The shore was
rendered dangerous by shallows and marshes, and, when any
vessels became entangled among them, the Thracians in the
vicinity poured down upon them, plundered their cargoes, and
made slaves of the crews. The modern Midjeh answers to the
ancient city. 3. Aulei Tichos, a short distance beyond the
Thynian Promontory, now Kurudere. 4. Apollonia, to the northwest, a Milesian colony, with a celebrated temple' of Apollo,
and from which, according to Strabo, Lucullus brought the
colossal statue of the god to Rome. This place was called at
a later day Sozopolis, from which the modern name Sizeboli
has come by corruption. 5. Anchialus, to the north, belonging to the territory and under the sway of Apollonia. 6. Mesambria, farther north, called, at an earlier period, Menebria,
or " the city of Mena," and now Misseviria. It was also a colony of Miletus.
We have now reached the confines of Lower Melsia, a country already described by us (page 246). It only remains, therefore, to notice a few places'in the interior of Thrace. 1. Phiiippop6lis, on the southeast side of the Hebrus, and near the




MACEDONIA.                    441
nortkwestern angle of Thrace. Its'earlier name was Eumol.
pias and Poneropolis, and, being situate ord a mountain with
three summits, it received a name also from this, which in the
Latin geographers appears as Trimontium. Philip, the father
of Alexander, founded the place anew, and called it after himself, Philipp6oplis. Under the Romans it became the capital
of the province of Thrace. The modern nam'e is Filibe or Phil.
ipopoli. 2. Hadrianopolis, one of the most important cities of
Thrace, on the River Hebrus, where it is joined by the Tonskus, now Tonja, and the Harpessus, now Arda. It was fcunded by and named after the Emperor Hadrian, and is now Edrene
or Adrianople. The site of this city, however, was previously
occupied by a small Thracian settlement named Uskudama,
and its very advantageous position determined the emperor in
favor of erecting a large city on the spot. Adrianople was
taken by the Turks in 1360, and continued to be the imperial
city until the fall of Constantinople.  3. Plotinopolis, south of
the preceding, founded and named in honor of Plotina, the wife
of Trajan. On its site, at a later day, appears the city of
Didymotichos.  It is now Dsjisr-Erkene.  Some, however,
imake Didymotichos to have been a little to the north, and to
answer to the modern Demotica. 4. Trajan6oplis, to the south,
founded by the Emperor Trajan, and subsequently the capital
of the Provincia Rhodopcea. 5. Maximianioplis, to the west
of the preceding. It was called at an earlier period Jamphora
and Porsulli. The ruins still exist near the village of Gumergine. 
Thrace is now the Turkish province of Roumelia.
X. MACEDONIA.
1. BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Macedonia Proper was bounded on the north by Malsia,
from which it was separated by the ranges of Orbilus'and
Scomius; on the east by Thrace, from which it was separated, down to the time of Philip and Alexander, by the River
Strymon, and from this'period by the Nestus; on the west by
Illyricum and Epirus, from which it was separated by the
chains of Scardus and Pindus; and on the south by Thessaly,
from which it was separated by the Cambunian Mountains




442                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
II. In the time of Herodotus, the name of Mlacedonis comprehended only the country to the south and west of the Lydias.
How far inland he conceived that it extended, does not appear
from his narrative.
III. The boundaries of what was afterward the Romianprovince of Macedonia are very difficult to determine.        According
to the Epitomizer of Strabo, it was bounded by the Hadriatic
on the west, by the mountain ranges of Scardus, Orbelus,
Rhodope, and Hcemus on the north, by the Via Egnatia on
the south, while on' the east it extended as far as Cypsela and
the mouth of the Hebrus.
IV. But this statement with respect to the southern boundary of the province of Macedonia can not be correct, since we
know that this province was bounded on the south by that of
Achaia, and it does not appear that the province of Achaia extended farther north than the south of Thessaly.
V. Macedonia now forms part of Turkey in Europe, under
the name of Makedonia, or Filiba Vilajeti.
2. HISTORICAL SKETCH.
I. IN inquiring into the early history of the Macedonians, two questions, whick
are frequently confounded, ought to be kept carefully distinct, namely, the origin of the Macedonian people, and that of the Macedonian monarchy under the
Temenidae; for, while there is abundant reason for believing that the Macedonian princes were descended from an Hellenic race, it appears probable that
the Macedonians themselves were an Illyrian people, though the country must
also have been inhabited in very early times by many Hellenic tribes.
II. The Greeks themselves always regarded the Macedonians as barbarians,
that is, as a people not of Hellenic origin; and the similarity of the manners
and customs, as well as the languages, as far as they are known, of the early
Macedonians and Illyrians, appear to establish the identity of the two nations.
III. According to many ancient writers, Macedonia was anciently called Emathia; but we also find traces of the name Macedonians, from the earliest times,
under the ancient forms of Macetae (Mai/crat) and Macedni (MaKEdvoi). They
appear to have dwelt originally in the southwestern part of Macedonia, near
Mpuint Pindus. Herodotus says that the Dorians dwelling under Pindus were
called Macedonians; and although it may for many reasons be doubted whether
the Macedonians had any particular connection with the Dorians, it may be inferred from the statement of Herodotus that the Macedonians once dwelt at
the foot of Pindus, whence they emigrated in a northeasterly direction.
IV. The origin of the Macedonian dynasty is a subject of some intricacy and
dispute. There is one point, however, on which the ancient authorities agree,
namely, that the royal family of that country was of the race of the Temenidoe
of Argos. The difference of opinion principally regards the individual of that
family to whom the honor of founding this monarchy is to be ascribed. The
account of Herodotus seems most worthy of being received. According to this




MACEDONIA.                           443
writer, three brothers, named Gavanes, 2Eropus, and Perdiccas, descended from
Temenus, left Argos, their native place, in quest of fortune, and, arriving in
Illyria, passed thence into Upper Macedonia, where, after experiencing some
singular adventures, which Herodotus details, they at length succeeded in acquiring possession of a principality, which devolved on Perdiccas, the youngest
of the three brothers, and who is therefore considered, by both Herodotus and
Thucydides, as the founder of the Macedonian dynasty. These writers have
also recorded the names of the successors of this prince, though there is little
to interest the reader in their history.
V. Before the time of Philip, father of Alexander, all the country beyond the
River Strymon, and even the Macedonian peninsula from Amphipolis to Thessalonica, belonged to Thrace, and Paeonia likewise on the north' Philip conquered this peninsula, and all the country to the River Nestus and Mount Rhod6pe, as also Paeonia and Illyria beyond Lake Lychnitis. Thus the widest limits of Macedonia were from the.Egean Sea to the Ionian, where the Drino
formed its boundary. The provinces of Macedonia in the time of Philip amoqnted to nineteen. Macedonia first became powerful under this monarch, who,
taking advantage of the strength of the country, and the warlike disposition of
its inhabitants, reduced Greece, which was distracted by intestine broils, in the
battle of Chaeronea.
VI. His son Alexander subdued Asia, and by an uninterrupted series of victories for ten successive years, made Macedonia, in a short time, the mistress
of half the world. After his death this immense empire was divided. Macedonia received anew its ancient limits, and, after several battles, lost its dominion over Greece. The alliance of Philip II. with Carthage, during the second Punic war, gave occasion to this catastrophe. The Romans delayed their
revenge for a season, but Philip having laid siege to Athens, the Athenians
called the Romans to their aid. The latter declared war against Macedonia,
and Philip was compelled to sue for peace, to surrender his vessels, to reduce
his army to five hundred men, and defray the expenses of the war.
VII. Perseus, the successor of Philip, having taken up arms against Rome,
was totally defeated at Pydna by. Paulus 2Emilius, and the Romans took possession of the country. Indignant at their oppression, the Macedonian nobility
and the whole nation rebelled under Andriscus; but, after a long struggle, they
were overcome by Quintus Caecilius, surnamed, from his conquest, Macedonicus,
and the country became a Roman province B.C. 148.
VIII. On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, the country was divided into four distinct regions. The first of these comprised all the country
between the Rivers Strymon and Nestus, and whatever Perseus held on the
left bank of the latter, with the exception of JEnos, Maronea, and Abdera. On
the right bank of the Strymon the districts of Bisaltia and Heraclea Sintica were
included in this division. The second was formed of the country situated between the Strymon and the Axius, with the addition of ancient Paeonia. The
third extended from the latter river to the Peneus. The fourth region reached
from Mount Bermius to the confines of Illyricum and Epirus. Amphipolis was
made the capital of the first division, Thessalonica of the second, Pella of the
third, and Pelagonia of the fourth.




444             ANCIENT GEOGRAP.HY.
3. MOUNTAINS.
THE chief mountain ranges of Macedonia are the following.
I. MONS SCARDUS, separating in part Illyricum from Macedonia, and now called by the Turks and Servians Tchar Dagh.
II. ORBELUS, a prolongation, in fact, of the range of Scardus,
and separating in part Macedonia on the north from Upper
Mesia. Its continuation to the east was called Sc6ius, which
also formed part of the northern boundary of Macedonia. The
greater portion of the range of Orbelus is at the present day in
modern Servia, and is called Argentaro.
III. PANGJEUS, a ridge forming part of the eastern boundary
of Macedonia from the time of Philip and Alexander. It has
already been described (page 423).
IV. RHODOPE, forming, in a great degree, the eastern boundary of Macedonia, and already described (page 423).
V. CANDAVII MONTES, on the confines of Illyricum, and a
branch of the Canalovii JIontes, which last were between II.
lyris Grcaca and Macedonia. The modern name is Crasta
VI. MONS ATHOS, a mountain in the district of Chalcidice,
and situate on a peninsula called Acte, between the Sinus
Strym6nicus, now the Gulf of Contessa, and the Sinus Singiticus, now the Gulf of Monte Santo. Modern travellers give
the height as three thousand three hundred and fifty-three feet;
the ancient writers, however, in their usual style of exaggera
tion, say that the inhabitants of the mountain saw the sun rise
three hours before those who lived on the shore at its base
They also inform us that, at the summer solstice, it projected
its shadow on the market-place of Myrina, the capital city of
the island of Lemnos, though at the distance of eighty-seven
miles! When Xerxes invaded Greece, he cut a canal through
the peninsula of Athos, in order to avoid the danger of doubling the promontory, the fleet of Mardonius having previously
sustained a severe loss in passing around it. Athos was fabled
to have received its name from a giant, who, in the battle with
the gods, hurled it from Thrace to its position in Macedonia.
The modern name of the mountain is Monte Santo, an appellation derived from the number of religious houses upon it.
The situation is extremely healthy, and the inhabitants are
said to be remarkable for their longevity.




MACEDONIA.                   445
VII. OLYMPUS MONS, a celebrated mountain on the coast of
Thessaly, forming the limit, when regarded as an entire range,
between the latter country and Macedonia. The highest summit in the chain, the one, namely, on the Thessalian coast, and
to which the name of Olympus was specially confined by the
poets, was fabled to be the residence of the gods. Travellers
dwell with admiration on its colossal magnificence, the mountain seeming to rise at once from the sea, and to hide its head
amid the clouds. The modern name of Olympus with the
Greeks -is Elimbo, and with the Turks Semavat Evi. Its
rugged outline is broken into many summits, from which circumstance Homer gives it the epithet of 7rovdeltpd, " of many
ridges."  It is never completely free from snow, and hence
Hesiod characterizes it with the epithet of vto6elc. An account
of the passes in the range of Olympus will be found under the
Geography of Thessaly.
VIII. CAMBUNII MONTES, a range forming the southern boundary of Macedonia, and separating it from Thessaly. In this
range was the Perrhabian defile, known more particularly by
the name of Volustana, now Volutza, and not far from Azorus. The security of this pass appeared so important to Perseus, on the approach of the consul Q. Marcius Philippus, in
the third year of the last Macedonian war, that he occupied it
with ten thousand men. The ancient name Cambunii (Kay6ovvia "Oprl) has evidently fovv6o, 1" a hill," as its root.
4. RIVERS.
I. Nestus, the eastern boundary of Macedonia from the time
of Philip and Alexander. We have already spoken of it in the
geography of Thrace (page 424).
II. Strymon, rising in the chain of Mount Scomius, and forming the earlier boundary of Macedonia on the east. This river
has already been mentioned in the geography of Thrace (page
424, seq.).
III. Haliacmon, a large and rapid river, rising in the chain
of mountains to which Ptolemy gives the name of Canalovii,
and which are properly a continuation of the range of Pindus
to the north. It empties into the Sinus Thermaicus, or Gulf
of Saloniki, and is called by the Turks, according to Leake,
Inje-Kard-sou. In the time of Herodotus this river was joined




446             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
by the Lydias, a discharge of the Lake of Pella; but a change
has now taken place in the course of the latter, which joins, not
the Haliacmon, but the A.xus.
IV. Axius, next to the Strymon the most considerable river
of Macedonia. It rises in the chain of Mount Scardus, above
Scopi, the modern Scopia, and, after receiving the waters of
the Erigonuz, Lydias, and Astrceus, it falls into the Sinus
Thermdicus. In the Middle Ages this river assumed the name
of Bardarus, whence is derived that of Varddri, which it now
bears.
5. GULFS.
1. Sinus Strym6nicus, now the Gulf of Contessa, receiving
the waters of the River Strymon. 2. Sinus Singiticus, now
Gulf of Monte Santo.   3. Sinus Toronaicus, now Gulf of
Cassandhra. 4. Sinus Thermaicus, now Gulf of Saloniki.
6. PROMONTORIES.
1. Acrodthon or Acroth6on, the upper extremity of the peninsula of Acte, now Cape Monte Santo. 2. Nymphcumn Promontorium, the.lower extremity of the same peninsula, now Cape
St. George. 3. Anmpelos Promontorium, at the extremity of
the peninsula of Sithonia, now Cape Falso. 4. Derrhis Promontorium, at the extremity of the same promontory, and to the
southwest of the preceding, now Cape Drepano.  5. Canastrxaum Promontorium, at the extremity of the peninsula of Pallene, now Cape Canistro, or, as others say, Cape Pagliari.
6. Posidium Promontorium, on the same peninsula, and to the
west of the preceding.
7. PRODUCTS.
ANCIENT Macedonia was a mountainous and woody region,
the riches of which consisted chiefly in mines of gold and silver.
The coasts, however, produced corn, wine, oil, and fruit. The
cold, rugged mountains abounded in timber, kine, and goats,
particularly about 2Edessa. Modern Macedonia is said to possess a soil more fruitful than the richest plains of Sicily, and
there are few districts in the world so fertile as the coasts of
Athos or the ancient Chalczdzce.




MACEDONIA.                            447
8. DIVISIONS.
THE main divisions of Macedonia were the following: 1. Lyncestis or Lyncus; 2. Stymphalia; 3. Orestis; 4. Elimea or
Elimniotis; 5. Eordea; 6. Pieria; 7. Botticea; 8. Emathia;
9. Mygdonia; 10. Chalcidice; 11. Bisaltia, together with
Pteonia and its subdivisions. We will now proceed to consider
these subdivisions separately.
1. LYNCUS OR LYNCESTIS.
I. Lyncus, so called by Thucydides and Livy, was situate to the east of the
Dassaretii of Illyria, from whose territory it was parted by the chain of Mount
Bernas or Bora, while on the north it adjoined Pelagonia and Deuriopus, districts of Peonia. It was wateredfby the Erigonus and its tributary streams, and
was traversed by the great Egnatian Way.
II. The Lyncestae were at first an independent people, governed by their own
princes, who were said to be descended from the illustrious family of the Bacchiadae at Corinth. Arrhibaeus, one of this line, occupied the throne when Brasidas undertook his expedition into Thrace. At the solicitation of Perdiccas,
who was anxious to add the territory ofArrhibaeus to his own dominions, Brasidas, in conjunction with a Macedonian force, invaded Lyncus, but was soon
compelled to retire by the arrival of a large body of Illyrians, who joined the
troops of the Lyncestian prince, and had some difficulty in securing his retreat.
III. Strabo informs us that Irrha, the daughter of Arrhabaeus (as he writes the
name), was mother of Eurydice, who married Amyntas, the father of Philip.
By this marriage it is probable that the principality of Lyncus became annexed
to the crown of Macedonia.
IV. Our knowledge of the ancient geography of this part of Macedonia would
be very limited, were it not for the information we derive from Livy's history
of the first campaign of the Romans in Macedonia, which commenced apparently
with the invasion of Lyncestis.
PLACES, &C., IN       LYNCESTIS.
ON entering this territory from the country of the Dassaretii,
the consul Sulpicius encamped on the River Beuus (BeVog)
doubtless a small stream flowing into the Erigonus, and near it
must have stood the town of Beue (BEVty), mentioned, as well as
the river, by Stephanus. Philip and the Macedonian army were
stationed on a hill not more than two hundred yards distant
from the enemy, near Athdcus, which was probably a. town so
called. After some skirmishing, the Roman general advanced
to Octolophus. Thucydides, before this, in his narrative of the
expedition of Brasidas, does not notice any towns, but merely
villages belonging to the Lynceste. At a later period, however, we hear of one city of importance in their territory, name



448                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ly, Heraclea, sqrnamed Lyncestis by Ptolepny, and which we
know to have stood on the Egnatian Way both from Polybius,
as cited by Strabo, and from the Itineraries.   The editor of the
French Strabo says its ruins retain the name of Erekli.     More
than one writer of antiquity has noticed some remarkable acidulous springs in the district of Lyncestis, which were said to
inebriate those who drank the water in sufficient quantity.
Their locality has been fixed by Brown at Eceisso Verbeni.
2. STYMPHALIA.
I. THIS district, called also Stymphalis, was situate in the southwestern angle
of the country, and was annexed to Macedonia on the conquest of that country
by the Romans.
II. It lay on the borders of Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly, and adjoining
the territory of the Atintanes, who were also annexed to Macedonia by the Romans, with the Chaonians and the Tymphaei of Molossis. This will answer in
modern geography to the district of Konitza, so called from a flourishing town
north of the Zagora Mountains, and at no great distance from the source of the
Aous, where the ancient city of Gyrtona may perhaps have stood. This city of
Gyrtona is. mentioned by Ptolemy, but by no other author, and must not be
confounded with the Thessalian Gyrton.
3. ORESTIS.
THE Oreste were situated apparently to the southeast of the Lynceste, and,
like them, were originally independent of the Macedonian kings, though afterward annexed to their dominions. From their vicinity to Epirus, we find them
frequently connected with that country; indeed, Stephanus terms them a Molossian tribe. At a late period they became subject to the last Philip of Mace
don, but, having revolted under the protection of a Roman force, they were de
dared free on the conclusion of peace between Philip and the Romans.
PLACES IN ORESTIS.
THE country of the Orestae was apparently of small extent,
and contained but few towns. Leake makes it to have extendbd from the crest of the ridge of Pindus to the mountains beyond the valleys of Kastoria and Mdvrovo, and to have comprehended the modern districts of Gramista, Anaselitza, and
Kastoria.   We may notice, 1. Orestia, fabled to have been
founded by Orestes, and the chief town of the race. Leake
supposes it to have been situated.at the foot of Mount Grammos, a part of the great central ridge in what is now the plain of
Anaselitza, and the most central and fertile part of the country.
Stephanus says it was the birth-place of Ptolemy, the son of
Lagus. Arrian, however, makes him to have been an Eordean.
According to Leake, we must seek for the site of Orestia neai




MACEDONIA.                          449
the issue of the Haliacmon into the plain of Anaselitza. 2. Celetrum, said by Livy to have been situated in a peninsula, and
to have had its walls surrounded by a lake, to which there was
but one approach from the main land by a narrow path.       These
particulars serve to identify it exactly with the modern Kastoria, on a peninsula in the lake of the same name.
4. ELIMEA.
THIS district lay to the southeast of Orestis, and comprehended, according to
Leake, the modern districts of Grevena, Venja, and Tjersemba. It was. at one
time independent, but was afterward conquered by the kings of Macedonia, and
finally included by the Romans in the fourth division of that province. Though
a mountainous and barren tract, it must have been a very important acquisition
to the kings of Macedonia, from its situation with regard to Epirus and Thessaly, there being several passages leading directly into those provinces from
Elimea. The Cambunii Montes separated Elimea from Thessaly.
PLACES IN ELIMEA.
1. Elimnea or Elimeunm, the capital of the district, on the River Haliacimoy, and not far from     the modern Greuno.      Tradition made it to have been founded by Elymas, a Tyrrhenian
chief. Ptolemy calls it Elyma. Livy probably alludes to this
place, in his account of the expedition undertaken by Perseus
against Stratus, when that prince assembled his forces and reviewed them at Elymea. 2. Eadne, another town of Tyrrhenian origin, founded, as was said, by     Eanus, the son of Elymas, king of that nation.    It is supposed to have been situated
in the vicinity of Elimea.     Some traces of the name seem      to
be preserved in that of Vanitches, which is a little to the east
of Greuno.
5. EORD3E A.
THIS district lay to the northeast of Orestis, and, according to Leake, comprehended the modern Budja, Sarighiul, and Ostrovo. Thucydides reports that
the Eordaei were dispossessed by the Macedonians of their original settlements,
which, however, still continued to be called Eordea, and he farther states that
a small remnant of this ancient race had established itself near Physca, which
was apparently a town of Mygdonia. There is in Stephanus a curious quotation relative to this people, which would be very important in proving that the
population of Greece was principally derived from the north, could we rely on
the authority of the writer whom Stephanus quotes, an historian named Suidas.
This individual asserts that the Centauri and Leleges were at an early period
called Eordi.
PLACES IN EORD. A.
1. Cellke, on the Egnatian Way, to the southwest of Edess,.
FF




450                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
from which, according to the Itineraries, it was twenty-eight
miles distant.   It is mentioned by Hierocles as a town of lMacedonia Consularis.     We may place its site not far from the present Khan of Kirpini, near the defile which anciently connected
Macedonia with the territory of Arrhibmus.      2. Arnissa, a short
distance to the east of the preceding.     According to Leake, it
was situate in what is now the vale of Ostrovo, and possibly
may have been the same place as the Barnus of Polybius.
6. PIERIA.
I. THIS district lay to the east and southeast of Eordaea and Elimea, and is
one of the most interesting parts of Macedonia, both in consideration of the
traditions to which it has given birth, as being the first seat of the Muses, and
the birth-place of Orpheus, and also of the important events which occurred
there at a later period, involving the destiny of the Macedonian empire and
many other parts of Greece.
II. The name of Pieria was known to Homer, and was derived from the Pieres.
These Pieres, having been pressed by the early Macedonian princes, crossed the
River Strymon, in part at least, and settled in Thrace, where Herodotus mentions the castles of the Pierians in his account of the expedition of Xerxes,
and where we have already noticed them in the geography of Thrace. It is
customary to call the Pieres a Thracian race, but this is manifestly erroneous,
since they have nothing in common with the semi-barbarous communities of
Thrace proper, namely, the Edones, Odrysae, and Odomanti of the historical
ages. They appear to have obtained the appellation of Thracians merely from
the accidental circumstance of their having settled in Thrace.
III. Hence, when we read in the accounts which have come down to us respecting the earliest minstrels of Greece, such as Eumolpus, Orpheus, Musasus,
and Thamyris, that they were Thracians, we must understand by this merely that
they were Pierians. These Pierians, moreover, from the intellectual relations
which they maintained with the Greeks, appear to have been a Grecian race; and
this supposition is confirmed by the Greek names of their places, rivers, fountains, &c. We find them, also, up to the time of the.Eolic and Doric migrations,
living in certain districts of Beotia and Phocis, that is, around Helicon and Parnassus, and their name is thus intimately connected with the poetical history of
Greece.
IV. The boundaries which historians and geographers have assigned to this
province vary considerably. It will be safest, however, to adhere to the arrangement of Ptolemy, who gives the name of Pieria to all the country between
the mouth of the Peneus and that of the Lydias. The natural boundary of
Pieria toward Perrhwebia, the contiguous district of Thessaly to the west, was
the great chain of Olympus, which, beginning from the Peneus, closely follows
the coast of Pieria till beyond Dium, where it strikes off in a northwestern direction toward the interior of Macedonia.
PLACES IN PIERIA.
BEGINNING from the mouth of the Peneus, the first Macedo.
nian town is Phila, situate apparently near the sea, at no great




MACEDONIA.                   451
distance from Tempe. It was occupied by the Romans when
their army had penetrated into Pieria by the passes of Olympus from Thessaly. This place was built, as Stephanus informs us, by Demetrius, son of Antigonus Gonatas, who named
it after his mother Phila. The ruins of this city are, according to Cramer, probably those which Dr. Clarke observed near
Platamona, and which he regarded as the remains of Heraclea. Leake, however, adopts the opinion of Clarke. We come
next to, 2..Heraclea or Heracleum, five miles beyond Phila,
and half way between Dium and Tempe. Cramer makes it
answer to the modern Litochori, but Clarke and Leake agree
in identifying it with Platanmona, as already remarked. Livy
informs us that it was built on a rock overhanging a river.
IHeraclea was taken in a remarkable manner by the Romans
in the war with Perseus, as related by Livy. Having assailed
the walls under cover of the manoeuvre called testudo, they succeeded so well with the lower fortifications, that they were induced to employ the same means against the loftier and more
difficult works; raising, therefore, the testudo to an elevation
which overtopped the walls, the Romans drove the garrison
from the ramparts, and captured the place. A little distance
beyond Heraclea was the River Enipeus, rising in Mount Olympus, and, though nearly dry in summer, yet in winter rendered
a considerable torrent by the heavy rains. The modern name,
according to Dr. Clarke, is lIalathria.
3. Dium, five miles beyond, one of the principal cities of
Macedonia, and, though not large, the great bulwark of its
maritime frontier to the south. It was noted for its splendid
buildings and the multitude of its statues. Here were deposited twenty-five of the works of Lysippus, representing the
Vratpot, or peers of Alexander, who fell at the battle of the
Granicus.  It suffered severely, however, during the Social
War, from an incursion of the Etolians, who levelled to the
ground the walls, houses, and gymnasium, destroying the porches around the temple with the offerings, and all the royal statues. The Macedonians, however, soon retaliated on the ZAtolian capital. In the war with Perseus, Dium seems to have
thoroughly recovered from this disaster, and, by the importance
of its situation, it became at length a Roman colony. D'Anville and Cramer fix the'Ate of Dium on a spot now called




452             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Standia; Clarke, however, and Leake are in favor of the plain
of Katerinia. Dium is one among numerous instances of ancient cities of opulence and celebrity situated in the most unhealthy spots. It lay about one mile from the sea, and half of
this space was occupied by marshes formed by the mouth of
the River B6phyrus, now, according to Clarke, the Mauro Nero,
but, according to others, the Spkletili.
4. Libethra or Libethrium, between Dium and Heraclea, ana
near a torrent named Sus. Pausanias reports a tradition that
this town was once destroyed, together with all its inhabitants,
by an inundation of this torrent, and that, on the preceding day,
the tomb of Orpheus, which was near Libethra, had been in.
jured by another accident, which exposed the poet's bones to
light. His remains were removed by the people of Dium to a
spot twenty stadia distant from their city toward Olympus,
where they erected a monument to him. Leake thinks that
the Sus is the same river with the Enipeus, and that Libethra
was situated not far from its junction with the sea. Cramer
places Libethra to the southwest of Dium. The name of Libethrus was given to the summit of Olympus, which stood above
the town. Hence the Muses were surnamed Libethrides as
well as Pierides. 5. Pivmplea, not far from the preceding, and
the birth-place of Orpheus. Cramer places it to the northeast
of Libethra. Leake fixes its site at the modern Litochoro.
From this place the Muses were called Pimlpledes. 6. Pydna.
to the north of Dium, following the coast, and celebrated for the
decisive victory gained by Paulus 2Emilius over the Macedonian army under Perseus, which put an end to that ancient
empire. Pydna, before this, had been a cause of dispute between Philip, father of Alexander, and the Athenians, and that
monarch eventually took it from them and gave it to Olynthus.
Here, also, at a later period, Olympias, the mother of Alexander, was besieged by Cassander, and having been compelled at
length to surrender, from the want of provisions, she was thrown
into prison, and soon after put to death. Leake places Pydna
at the modern Ayan. Beyond Pydna was a considerable forest named Pieria, which probably furnished the Pierian pitch
alluded to by Herodotus (iv., 195).
7. Methone, about forty stadia north of Pydna, according to
the epitomist of Strabo. This place is celebrated in history




MACEDONIA.                        453
from the circumstance of Philip's having lost an eye in besieging it. It was a Greek colony, and was settled by a party of
Eretrians.   There was another Methone in Thessaly, which
must not be confounded with the Macedonian city.        Leake
fixes the site of the latter at Eleutherochori.
The interior of Pieria is little known to us, and even this little is so unsatisfactory that we pass at once to
7. BOTTIE A.
I. THE name of Bottiaa, or Botticeis, was anciently given to a narrow space
of country situated between the Haliacmon and Lydias, as Herodotus informs
us (vii., 127), though in another passage he extends it beyond the Lydias as far
as the Axius.
II. The Botticei, however, had been early expelled from this district by the
Macedonian princes, and had retired to the other side of the Axius, about Therme
and Olynthus, where they formed a new settlement with the Chalcidians, another
people of Thracian origin, occupying the country of Chalcidice, and along with
them were engaged in hostilities with the Athenians, who held Potidaea during
the Peloponnesian war.
PLACES IN BOTTIEA.
1. TILE first town on the coast, after crossing the River Haliacmon, is Alorus, seventy stadia from Methone, according to
the epitomizer of Strabo.  It appears to have stood not far from
Kapsochori, the position of which is opposite to the innermost
part of the Sinus Thermaicus.    2. Ichne, placed by Herodotus
in Botticea, and which, perhaps, stood near the mouth of the
Lydias.   The name was sometimes -ritten Achnce.      3. Pella,
at the distance of one hundred and twenty stadia from the
mouth of the Lydias, in the interior.  Herodotus assigns it to
Bottiaea, but Ptolemy to Emathia.     We are told by Demosthenes that Pella was but a small and insignificant place before it became the birth-place of Philip. This monarch appears
to have enlarged and embellished it, as did also his son Alexander, who was likewise born here.   From this time it continued the residence of the kings of Macedonia, the earlier capital
having been 2Egee or Edessa.   Stephanus reports that the more
ancient appellation was Bunonzus or Bunomeia, which it exchanged for the name of its founder Pellas. It was situate near
a lake of considerable size, the outlet of which was the River
Lydias, now the Karasmak or Mauroneri.          Into this lake
D'Anville and Cramer make a river to flow, named the jstrceus, the modern name of which they give as the Vistritza;




454               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Leake, however, gives Moglenitiko as the appellation employed
by the modern Greeks, and makes its ancient name to have
been the Lydias, so that, according to him, the River Lydia3
flowed into, or rather formed the lake, and then emerged from
it at the lower extremity. The baths of Pella are spoken of
by the ancient writers, but are said to have been injurious to
health, producing biliary complaints. The ruins of Pella are
yet visible on the spot called Palatisa or Alaklisi.
8. EMATHYA.
I. Emathia was the most ancient name applied to Macedonia by the GreeK
writers, and appears originally to have meant merely the territory around XEgx
or Edessa, between the Lydias and Haliacmon. It was to this Emathia, according to the tradition mentioned by Pausanias and other writers, that Perdiccas,
the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, came from Argos, and obtained possession of the city of jEgae or Edessa, the capital of the district, at that time ruled
over by Midas, where he established his empire.
II. At a later period, Emathia was the name given to the district lying north
of Bottica and south of Pelagonia, and having the Axius during a part of its
course as its eastern boundary. It is in this sense we shall here consider the
term.
PLACES IN EMATHIA.
1. _Egc  or Edessa, the early capital of Emathia, and subsequently the chief city of the Macedonian dynasty, until the seat
of government was transferred to Pella. Even after this event
it remained the place of sepulture for the royal family, since
we are told that Philip and Eurydice, the king and queen of
Macedonia, who had been put to death by Olympias, were
buried here by Cassander. Pausanias states that Alexander
was to have been interred here.    It was at AEgm, moreover,
that Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, while celebrating
the marriage of his daughter Cleopatra with Alexander, king
of Epirus. It is uncertain which of the two appellations, AEgae
or Edessa, is the more ancient.  The Greek writers often call
the place by the latter name. It.is generally agreed that the
modern Vodina answers to this ancient city.     Leake speaks
of the surrounding mountain scenery as affording a remarkable
combination of sublimity and beauty. He also remarks that
the site is well adapted for an ancient capital by its lofty, salubrious, and strong position at the entrance of a pass which was
the most important in the kingdom, as leading from the maritime provinces into Upper Macedonia, and by another branch of




MACEDONIA.                    455
the same pass into Lyncestis and Pelagonia. Such a situation
would have been ill exchanged for the marshes of Pella, had not
the increasing power and civilization of the Macedonians rendered maritime communication of more importance to their capital than strength of position, while in the winter Pella had the
recommendation of a much milder climate.
2. Mieza, to the northeast of the preceding, and deriving its
name, according to Theagenes, as quoted by Stephanus, from
Mieza, granddaughter of Macedon. He also states that it was
called, at an earlier period, Strymonium. Alexander, in conse
quence of the destruction of Stagira, is said to have established
a school for the exiled Stagirites at Mieza, in honor of Aristotle. Cramer thinks that we should look for its site near the
modern Cailari or Sarigeul. 3. Cyrius, the same, probably,
with the Cyrrkus of Thucydides, and corresponding, probably,
to a Palco Castro, about sixteen miles northwest of Pella. 4.Idomene, to the north of the preceding, and on the borders of
Paeonia, according to Thucydides. The Theodosian Table places
it on a road leading from Stobi to Thessalonica. It was situate near the Axius. The modern name is given by some as
Idomeni. 5. Gortynia, to the west of the preceding, according
to Cramer's map; Ptolemy, however, places it to the south,
writing the name Gordynia, while Leake places it on the right
bank of the Axius.
6. Beraea or Berrhea, in the southernmost part of Emathia,
and lying in a southwest direction from Pella. It was a city
of great antiquity, and is often mentioned by the early writers.
It was thirty miles from Pella, thirty-five from Dium, and fiftyone from Thessalonica. Its situation answers to that of the
modern Kara Veria. Some interesting circumstances respecting Bercea are to be found in the Acts of the Apostles (xvii.,
11). The Epitome of Strabo states that Bercea stood at the
foot of Mount Bermius. This mountain, according to Herodotus, was inaccessible on account of the cold. Beyond it were
the gardens of Midas, in which roses bloomed spontaneously,
each flower having sixty leaves, and surpassing in fragrance
every other sort. Mount Bermius appears to be a continuation
of the great range of Olympus. The modern name is Xere
Livado.




456               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
9. MYGDONIA.
I. Tins. province of Macedonia appears to have extended from the Axius to
the Lake Bolbe, and at one period even to the Strymbn. It originally belonged
to the Edonians, a people of Thrace; but these were expelled by the Temenidae.
II. Under the division of Mygdonia we must include several minor districts,
enumerated by different historians and geographers. These are Amphaxitis and
Paraxia, Anthemus, and Grestonia or Crestonia. Amphaxitis, as its name sufficiently indicates, was situated near the River Axius, and on the left bank of
that river, since the Epitome of Strabo states that the Axius separated Bottiea
from Amphaxitis.
PLACES IN MYGDONIA.
1. AMPHAXITIS.
1. Amyjdon or Abydon, mentioned by Juvenal. Near it rose
a fountain named JEa, which mingled its waters with those
of the neighboring Axius.  2. Chalastra, at the mouth of the
Axius, mentioned by Herodotus in his account of the expedition of Xerxes. Cassander removed its inhabitants to Thessalonica.  3. Sindus, to the northeast, near the mouth of the River Echedorus, now the Gallico. 4. Thessalonica, to the east
of the preceding, and at the head of the Sinus T/termiaicus, or
Gulf of Salonzchi.  Thessalonica was at first an inconsiderable place under the name of Therma, by which it was known
in the times of Herodotus, Thucydides, Eschlines, and Scylax,
and, as such, it gave name to the Sinus Thermaicus just mentioned. Cassander cnanged the name to Thessalonica, in honor of his wife, who was daughter of Philip. Cassander is said
to have collected together the inhabitants of several neighboring towns for the aggrandizement of the new city, which thus
became one of the most important and flourishing ports of northern Greece.   It surrendered to the Romans after the battle of
Pydna, and was made the capital of the second region of Macedonia.  Situated on the great Egnatian Way, and possessed
of an excellent harbor, well placed for commercial intercourse
with the Hellespont and Asia Minor, it could not fail of becoming a very populous and flourishing city.  The Christian will
dwell with peculiar interest on the circumstances which connect the history of Thessalonica with the name of St. Paul.
It will be seen from the epistles which he addressed to his converts there, how successful his exertions had been, notwithstanding the opposition and enmity of his misguided countrymen.
The modern town of Salonichi represents the ancient city.




MACEDONIA.                           457
2. PARAXIA.
THE Alexandrian geographer assigns to this district the towns of Chctce,
Moryllus, and Antigonia. The second of these is noticed by Pliny. Aniigonia
was surnamed Psaphara, to distinguish it from another Antigonia in the vicinity
of Stobi. Leake thinks that Chcte, Moryllus, and Antigonia Psaphara were situate on the Sinus Thermaicus, between Thessalonica and the promontory of.Eneum.
3. ANT TI MUS.
THE territory of Anthemus was probably to the northeast of Thessalonica.
There was also a town of the same name, which Amyntas, king of Macedonia,
offered as a residence to Hippias, son of Pisistratus. It was ceded by Philip to
Olynthus, together with Potidea. The ruins of Atthemus are supposed to lie in
the vicinity of Langaza and its lake. The ancient Bolbe Palus is no doubt that
of Besikia or Bctchik at the present day, and which is more to the east than that
of Langa-:. According to Thucydides, this lake emptied its waters into the
sea near Aulon and Bormiscus, both belonging to Chalcidice. Stephanus mentions a town as well as a lake named Bolbe. Clarke makes the Lake of Betchik
(or, as he writes it, Beskek) to be about twelve miles long, and six or eight
broad.
4. CRESTONIA.
Crestonia or Grestonia was chiefly occupied, as we learn from Herodotus, by
a remnant of Pelasgi, who spoke a different language from their neighbors. He
also states that the River Echedorus took its rise in the Crestonian country, and
farthcr remarks that the camels of the Persian army were attacked by lions in
this quarter, which animals, according to him, were to be found in Europe only
between the Nestus, the Thracian River, and the Achelous. Thucydides also
mentions the Crestonians as a peculiar race, part of whom had fixed themselves
near Mount Athos. This district is now known by the name of Caradagh.
10. CHALCIDICE.
I. To the south and east of Mygdonia was the country of Chalcidice, so named
from the Chalcidians, a people of Eubcean origin, who appear to have formed
settlements in this part of Macedonia at an early period. Thucydides always
terms them the Chalcidians of Thrace, to distinguish them apparently from the
Chalcidians of Eubea. At the instigation of Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, the
Chalcidians, having entered into a league with the Bottiaei, made war upon the
Athenians, who held Potidaea and several towns in their vicinity, and they
proved victorious in more than one engagement. We also learn from Thucydides that Brasidas was mainly indebted to their co-operation for his first successes. It is certain that the expedition of this enterprising commander was
in the end productive of the most beneficial results to the Chalcidic towns, since
it finally secured their independence, and greatly promoted the prosperity to
wlieh those republics, and especially Olynthus, attained before they were annexed to Macedonia by the arms of Philip.
II. The whole of Chalcidice may be considered as forming one great peninsula, confined between the Sinus Thermaicus, or Gulf of Salonichi, and the Sinus
Slrymonicus, or Gulf of Contessa. But it also comprised within itself three
smaller peninsulas, separated from each other by so many inlets of the' sea
These we shall take in the order in which they present themselves.




458             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PLACES IN CHALCIDICE.
1. JEnea situate on the eastern shore of the Sinus TiZermaicus, and opposite to Pydna, on the other side of the gulf.
It was fabled to have been founded by AEneas on his departure from Troy, and, according to Livy, sacrifices were annually
performed here to that hero. It was much reduced in population and importance when Cassander founded Thessalonica.
This place was given up to plunder by Paulus LEmilius, after
the battle of Pydna, in consequence of the resistance which had
been offered by it to the Roman arms. Its ruins are visible
near the small town of Panomi. In the immediate vicinity is
the promontory of JEneum, now Cape Panomi. The headland some distance to the north was the Hegonium Promontoriumn, now Cape Cara Bourun. Beyond yEneia, Herodotus
names, 2. Smila; 3. Campsa; 4. Gigonus. This last-mentioned town is also spoken of by Thucydides, who states that
an Athenian force, which had been employed against Perdiccas,
arrived there from Berrhoea in three days, on their way to attack Potidea. 5. Combrea, mentioned by Herodotus in his
account of the expedition of Xerxes. 6. Antigonia. Somewhat inland, and north of Combrea.
We now reach the southwesternmost of the three smaller
peninsulas already referred to, namely, that of Pallene, of
which frequent mention occurs in the historians of Greece. It
is said to have anciently borne the name of Phclgra, and was
fabled to have witnessed the conflict between the gods and the
earth-born Titans. The peninsula is connected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus of little rrrore than two miles in
breadth, on which anciently stood, 7. The rich and flourishing
city of Potidcea, founded by the Corinthians, though at what
period is uncertain. It must, however, have existed some time
before the Persian war, as we know from Herodotus that it
sent troops to PlatseEe, having already surrendered to the Persians on their march into Greece. But after the battle of Salamis it closed its gates against the Persian forces. At a subsequent period it appears to have fallen under the power of the
Athenians, as it was then termed a tributary city. We learn
from Thucydides that the harsh conduct of Athens toward the
Potidmans, who were naturally inclined to the Dorian interest,




MACEDONIA.                    459
compelled them to revolt. They were finally subdued, however, and were allowed to leave the city, which was afterward
recolonized from Athens. It was subsequently seized upon by
Philip of Macedon. 7. Cassandrea. When Cassander ascended the throne, he founded a new city on the neck of the peninsula of Pallene, which he called after his own name, Cassandrea (KaaadvdpELa, scil. rro6t), or "' City of Cassander." Thither
lie transferred the inhabitants of several neighboring towns, and,
among others, those of Potidea and the remnant of the population of Olynthus. Cassandrea is said to have surpassed all the
Macedonian cities in opulence and splendor? Philip, son of
Demetrius, made it his principal naval arsenal, and at one time
caused a hundred galleys to be constructed in its docks. From
Procopius we learn that this city at length fell a prey to the
Huns, who left scarcely a vestige of it remaining.' The isthmus on which this city stood is now, according to Leake, called
the Gate of Kassandhra, as being the entrance into the peninsula of Pallene, the whole of which is known by the name of
Kassandhra.
Among the other towns of Pallene may be named the following: 1. Aphytis, south of Potidsea, and containing a celebrated
temple of Bacchus, to which Agesipolis, king of Sparta, who
commanded the troops before Olynthus, desired to be removed
shortly before his death, and near which he breathed his last.
According to Plutarch, there was here an oracle of Jupiter
Ammon. 2. Mlende, to the south of the preceding, and a colony
of Eretria in Euboea. It became subject to Athens together
with Potidea and other towns of Pallene and Chalcidice; revolted on the arrival of Brasidas, but was retaken by Nicias and
Nicostratus. 3. Scione, on the opposite side of the peninsula,
and to the northeast of the preceding. It was said to have been
founded by some Pellenians of Achaia, who had wandered thither
on their return from Troy. Having revolted from Athens, it
was besieged and taken by Cleon, who, by order of the Athenians, put to death all the men, and reduced the women and
children to slavery.
Leaving the peninsula of Pallene, we come to the head of
the gulf which separates Pallene from Sithonia, and there find
the celebrated and powerful city of Olynthus, founded probably
by the Chalcidians and Eretrians of Euboea. The republic of




460             1 ICIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Olynthus gradually icquired io much power and importance
among the northern states of meece, that it roused the jealousy
and excited the ala;m of the more powerful of the southern republics, Athens ana Lacedremon. This brought on eventually
a war between the states of Peloponnesus and this city, in
which an army of ten thousand men was dispatched into Thrace,
under the command of Teleutias, brother of Agesilaus. Teleutias was defeated and slain. Agesipolis, one of the Spartan
kings, succeeded him in the conduct of the war, but was seized
with a disorder which proved fatal. Polybiades, his successor,
ended the war bI compelling Olynthus to sue for peace, which
was granted on condition of its acknowledging its dependence
on Sparta, and taking part in all its wars. At a subsequent
period, we find this city again powerful and independent, and
engaged in'hostilities with Athens and Philip son of Amyntas.
It was only a feeling of jealousy between these two powers that
saved Olynthus from being worsted. Shortly after, we find
Philip and the Olynthians in league against Athens, with the
view of expelling that power from Thrace. Amphipolis was
besieged and taken by assault. Potidaea surrendered and was
restored to Olynthus, which for a time became as flourishing
and powerful as at any former period of its history. Of the
circumstances which induced this republic to abandon the interests of Macedon in favor of Athens, we are not well informed;
but the machinations of the party hostile to Philip led to a declaration of war against that monarch, and the Athenians were
easily prevailed upon by the eloquence of Demosthenes to send
forces to the aid of Olynthus. The city, however, was compelled eventually to surrender to Philip, who gave it up to plunder, reduced the inhabitants to slavery, and razed the walls to
the ground. Its ruins are now called Agios Manmas.
We come next to the second of the three smaller peninsulas,
namely, Sithonia, a name applied also to the territory in which
Olynthus was situated. The Sithonians are mentioned by
more than one writer as a people of Thrace. The more imr
portant places in this peninsula are the following: 1. Sermnle
to the southeast of Olynthus. From Thucydides we learn that
it was in the hands of the Athenians at the time of the Peloponnesian war. The latest mention of it is to be found in the
Byzantine historians. 2. Galepsus, mentioned as a Greek city




MACEDONIA.                    461
by Herodotus. 3. Torone, giving name. the gulf on which
it stood, Sinus Toronaicus, or "ulf of 1 4ssandhra. It was
situated toward the southern extremity of the peninsula, and
was probably founded by the Eubceans. 1ear Torone was a
marsh, in which the Egyptian bean grew naturally. The
modern Toron marks the site of the ancient place. The harbor
of Torone was called Cophos (Kwb6o), from the circumstance
of the noise of the waves being never heard there. Hence the
proverb, "K K&06rpog rOp   Topwvaiov qtpEqvog."
The third peninsula is that in which Mlount Atlos rises, and
it forms the eastern side of the Singiticus Sinus, now the Gulf
of 1Monte Santo. It is called Acte by Thucydides; and it was
inhabited in his time by various nations of Thracian and Pelasgian origin. Mount Athos, which forms so imposing a feature in this peninsula, has already been described. Its modern
name, as before remarked, is Monte Santo, from the number
of religious houses upon it. Among the towns in this peninsula worthy of mention, the following"may be noted: 1. Sane,
on the neck connecting this peninsula with the mainland, and
on the shore of the Sinus Singiticus. According to Thucydides, it was a colony of Andros. Here began, as we learn from
Herodotus, the celebrated canal, cut by order of Xerxes for his
immense armament. It is well known that the disaster which
the fleet of Mardonius sustained in attempting to double the
promontories of Athos first suggested this vast enterprise to
the Persian monarch. Herodotus says that three years were
employed in its excavation, its breadth being sufficient to allow
of two galleys rowing abreast, while its length amounted to a
mile and a half. Juvenal ranks this undertaking with the
other fables to which the expedition of Xerxes gave rise; the
existence of the canal, however, is too well attested by Herodotus and subsequent writers to be regarded as a subject of
doubt, and, notwithstanding the assertions of some travellers,
it is now ascertained that considerable remains of this work
are still visible.
2. Urdnopolis, northeast of Sane, founded by Alexander,
brother of Cassander, and now Callitzi. 3. Dium, to the southeast of the preceding. 4. Olophyxus, to the southeast. 5. Acr6thoos or Acr6thoum, situated high up on the mountain, as its
name implies; and the inhabitants of which were supposed to




462              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
live beyond the usual time allotted to man. This town was
said to have been swallowed up by an earthquake on account
of the impiety of its inhabitants, and the town of Apollonia,
called also Macrobia, appears to have succeeded to it.  6.
Acanthus, on the other side of the isthmus from Sane, and at
the extremity of the canal of Xerxes. It was at one time a
flourishing city, and was colonized, like Sane, from the island
of Andros.  The geographers of antiquity do not agree entirely
as to the position assigned to this city. Strabo, or, rather, his
epitomizer, places it on the Singiticus Sinus; but Herodotus
distinctly fixes it on the Strymonicus Sinus, and so also does
Scymnus. Ptolemy follows Strabo; but the error of these two
writers may perhaps have arisen from the territory of Acanthus
having stretched for a considerable distance along the shore of
the Singitic as well as the Strymonic Gulf. It is probable that
the spot now called Erissos answers to the site of the ancient
Acanthus.
7. Calarna, or Turris Calarnea, to the northwest, and in the
main district of Chalcidice. 8. Stagira or Stagirus, to the
northwest of the preceding, a colony of Andros, as we learn
from Thucydides, and celebrated as the birth-place of Aristotle,
who hence derived his appellation of "the Stagirite."  Some
trace of the ancient name is apparent in that of Stauros. The
harbor of Stagira was called Capros, as well as the small island
which lay off from it. 9. Arethusa, nearly due west from the
preceding, and celebrated in antiquity as containing the remains
of Euripides. Other accounts place the tragedian's tomb at
Bromiscus, another town of Macedonia; but it is easy to reconcile this discrepancy, as Bromiscus was situated in the immediate vicinity of Arcthusa. 10. Apoll6nia, in the interior of
Chalcidice, a town of some note, and situate on the Egnatian
Way. Mention is made of it in the Acts of the Apostles (xvii.,
1), St. Paul having passed through it on his way from Philippi
to Thessalonica. Its ruins are said still to retain the name of
Pollina.
11. BISALTIA.
I. THAT part of Macedonia between the Lake Bolbe and the Strymon appears
to have been anciently called Bisaltia, from the Bisaltae, a Thracian nation who
were governed by a king at the time of the invasion of Xerxes. Herodotus
relates that this sovereign caused his own sons to be deprived of sight for
having disobeyed his orders in joining the Persian army, he himself having re



MACEDONIA.                           463
tired to the wilds of Mount Rhodope. We find from Thucydides that Bisaltia
not long after fell into the hands of the kings of Macedon (ii., 99), but that a
small part of the nation remained in the peninsula of Mount Athos.
II. The only place deserving of mention in this district is Argilus, on the
coast, beyond Bromiscus, and the outlet of the Lake,of Bolbe. According to
Thucydides, it was a colony of Andros. It seems from Herodotus to have been
a little to the right of the route of the army of Xerxes in marching from the
Strymon to Acanthus, and its territory extended as far as the right bank of the
Strymon, for Cerdylium, the mountain immediately opposite to Amphipolis, was
in the territory of Argilus.
12. PzEONIA.
I. THE Pceonians were a numerous and ancient nation, who once occupied
the &eater part of Macedonia, and even a considerable portion of what is more
properly called Thrace, extending along the coast of the 2Egean as far as the
Euxine. This we collect from Herodotus's account of the wars of that people
with the Perinthians, a Greek colony settled on the shores of the Propontis, at
no great distance from Byzantium.
II. Homer, who was apparently well acquainted with the Peonians, represents them as following their leader Asteropaeus to the siege of Troy in behalf
of Priam, and places them in Macedonia, on the banks of the Axius. We know,
also, from Livy, that Emathia once bore the name of Peeonia, though at what
period we can not ascertain (xl., 3).
III. Herodotus, who dwells principally on the history of the Paonians around
the Strymon, informs us that they were divided into numerous small tribes,
most of which were transplanted into Asia by Megabyzus, a Persian general,
who had made the conquest of their country by order of Darius. It appears,
however, from the same historian, that these Paeonians afterward effected their
escape from the Persian dominions, and returned to their own country. Herodotus seems to place the main body of the Paonian nation near the Slrymon,
but Thucydides, with Homer, extends their territory to the Axius. If, however,
we follow Strabo and Livy, we shall be disposed to remove the western limits of
the nation as far as the great chain of Mount Scardus and the borders of Illyria
IV. In general terms, then, we may affirm, that the whole of northern Macedonia, from the source of the River Erig6nus, which rose in the chain of Mount
Scardus, to the Strymon, was once named Paeonia. This large tract of country
was divided into two parts by the Romans, and formed the second and third regions of Macedonia.
V. The Paeonians, though constituting but one nation, were divided into
several tribes, each probably governed by a separate chief. We hear, howerer,
of a king of Paeonia named Autpleon, who is said to have derived assistance
from Cassander against the Autariate, an Illyrian horde, who had invaded his
country. Among the tribes of Paeonia, the most deserving of mention are the
following:
1. PELAG6NES.
I. THE Pelagones, though not mentioned by Homer as a distinct people, were
probably known to him, from his naming Pelagon, the father of Asteropaeus, a
Peonian warrior. They must at one period have been widely spread over the
north of Greece, since a district of upper Thessaly bore the name, as we shall
see, of Pelagonia Tripolitis. Frequent allusion is made to Pelagonia by Livy, it.
his account of the wars between the Romans and the kings of Macedon. It was




464                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
exposed to invasions from the Dardani, who bordered on its northern frontiers;
for which reason, the communication between the two countries was carefully
guarded by the Macedonian monarchs.
II. The only places deserving of mention in Pelagoiia are, 1. Pelagonia, the
capital of the fourth division of Roman Macedonia. It appears to have been a
considerable place, and is noticed by the Byzantine historian Malchus, who
speaks of the strength of its citadel. Cramer, on his map, places it near the sources of the Beuus, on the confines of Illyricum, at the foot of Mount Bernus, or
Bora, and makes it correspond to the modern Monastir, or Toli. Leake writes
the latter of these modern names Bitolia, and makes Pelagonia the designation of
the Greek metropolitan bishopric, of which Bitolia is the see. 2. Stobi, not far
from the junction of the Erig6nus and Axius. On the conquest of Macedonia by
the Romans, it was made the depot of the salt with which the Dardani were
supplied from that country. Stobi, at a later period, became not only a IOman
colony, but a Roman municipium, a privilege rarely conferred beyond the limits
of Italy. In the reign of Constantine, it was considered as the chief town of
Macedonia Secunda, or Salutdris, as it was then called. It was the birth-place
of John Stobaeus, the compiler of the Greek Anthology which bears his name.
The site of this place has not been ascertained in moder times.
2. ALMIPES.
PTOLEMY places them near the source of the Erigonus, on the borders of Illyria. Thucydides speaks of this tribe as one of the original Macedonian tribes
before the conquest of that country by the Temenidae. Lycophron designates
Macedonia by the name of Almopia. Strabo ascribes three towns to this tribe,
namely, Horma, Apssahs, and Europus, respecting which all other writers are
silent
3. AGRIXNES.
I. TV Paeonian Agrianes were apparently a considerable tribe in point of territory and population. Their geographical position is also better ascertained
than that of those already mentioned, from the fact noticed by Strabo, that the
Strymon had its source in their country. In the'time of Alexander, the Agrianes were governed by their native princes, as we learn from Arrian, and rendered important services to that monarch by repressing the incursions of the
Triballi, a powerful Thracian horde situated on their northern frontier. They
formed excellent light troops, and were often employed with advantage by both
Alexander and his successors.
II. We may assign to the Agrianes the two following towns, namely, 1. Bylazora, on the frontier leading into the country of the Dardani. It was taken and
fortified by Philip, the last king of that name, with a view of resisting the attacks of these barbarians. Polybius describes it as the largest city of taeonia.
Leake makes it correspond to the modern Velesa or Velesso. 2. Almdna, on
the Axius, where Perseus encamped, in expectation of being joined by twenty
thousand Gauls, whom he was anxious to engage in his service, not long before
the battle of Pydna, but whose demands were deemed by him too exorbitant.
It answers now to the modern Gradiska.




GRX CIA.                           465
XI. GR..JE CIA.
1. NAME.
I. THIS country was called Grcecia by the Romans, whence
the name has descended to us.         The Greci, however, were
only one of the ancient tribes of Epirus, according to Aristotle,
and never became of any historical importance, though their
name must at some period have been extensively spread on the
western coast, since the inhabitants of Italy appear to have
known the country at first under this name.
II. In the Greek authors, the country we are now considering is called Hellas ('EKUaU), though it must be remarked that
the name Hellas had a more extensive signification than we
attach to it, and was used, in general, to denote the country of
the Hellenes, wherever they might happen to be settled; and
in this way the Grecian colonies in Asia Minor, in Africa, in
Italy, and in Sicily, formed as essential parts of Hellas as Attica,
Arcadia, or Bceotia.
OBS. 1. The name Hellas was not applied originally to the whole country ot
Greece, but merely to a part. According to Aristotle, the most ancient district called Hellas was-about Dodona and the River Achelous, " for," he adds,
"the Sellians dwelt there, and the people who were then called Gracians
(rpatKoi), but are now termed Hellenes ("EXV7ves)." The Sellians (IeRtoi) are
called Hellians ('E2Aoi) by Pindar, and are mentioned in the Iliad as the ministers of the Dodonean, Pelasgian Jove. The country about Dodona was celebrated by Hesiod for the richness of its pastures, under the name of Hellopia. The
sanctuary of Dodona itself was called Hella; and a temple legend, different from
that which Herodotus heard there, spoke of Hellus, a wood-cutter, to whom the
sacred dove had revealed the oracular oak. All this would seem to show that
the tribe of the Hellenes passed into Greece from Epirus.
2. We next meet with the name Hellas in Thessaly, and, indeed, according to the general but erroneous opinion of the Greeks, the primitive Hellas
was in this same country, since they made Thessaly the scene of the myth of
Deucalion, and the residence of Hellen his son, from whom they pretended to
trace the Hellenic race. Hellas, in this second sense of the name, meant a
district in the south of Thessaly, near the foot of Mount Othrys; and from this
the appellation was gradually extended, until it embraced, as we have seen, the
whole of Greece. The extension of this name was the result of the extension
of the people called Hellenes, who gradually spread themselves over the whole
country, dispossessing or else subjugating the earlier Pelasgic inhabitants.
2. BOUNDARIES        AND    DIVISIONS.
I. GREECE, in the sense in which we here consider it, excluding, namely, Macedonia and Epirus, as non-Hellenic states, was
GG




466                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
bounded on the north by Macedonia, on the northwest by
Epirus, on the west by the Ionium          Mare, or Ionian      Sea,
on the east by the     Egceum    Mare, or Egcean Sea, and on
the south by the Mare Mediterraneum, or Mediterranean, of
which the other two seas are merely parts.
II. The main divisions of Greece were two in number, namely, GR iECIA PROPRIA and PELOPONNESUS.        By Grecia Propria,
called otherwise Middle Greece, and also Northern Greece, was
meant all the country lying without the Isthmus of Corinth,
and by the Peloponnesus, otherwise called        Southern Greece,
was meant all the country lying within, or on the lower side
of the same isthmus, and forming one large peninsula.
III. Grcecia Propria was subdivided into the following countries: 1. Thessalia.   2. Acarncnia.     3..Etolia.  4. Locris.   5.
Doris.    6. Phocis.   7. Bototia.   8. Megaris.     9. Attica.
IV. Peloponnesus was subdivided into the following: 1 Corinthia.   2. Sicyonia.    3. Achaia.    4. Elis.   5. Arcadia.    6.
Argolis.    7. Messenia. 8.      cnia.
OBs. 1. The name Peloponnesus (IIeorr6vvlaoC) means "the island of Pelops" (IIEoTroc vO1caor), and is said to have been derived from Pelops, son of
Tantalus, who is made by Grecian mythologists to have been of Phrygian origin. Thucydides (i., 9) simply observes that he camefrom Asia, and brought
great wealth with him. He married Hippodamia, the daughter of CEnomaus,
king of Pisa, in Elis, and succeeded to his kingdom. He is said to have subsequently extended his dominions over many of the districts bordering upon
Elis, whence the whole country obtained the name of Peloponnesus. Agamemnon and Menelaus were descended from him.
2. The word IIE.oTo'vvVaor'does not occur in Homer. The original name of
the peninsula appears to have been Apia, and was so called, according to AEschylus (Suppl., 266), from Apis, a son of Apollo; or, according to Pausanias (ii., 5,
5), from Apis, a son of Telchin, and descendant of AEgialeus. When Argos had
the supremacy, the peninsula, according to Strabo (viii., 371), was sometimes
called Argos, and, indeed, Homer seems to use the term Argos in some cases
as thus including the whole peninsula. (Thucyd., i., 9.)
3. In giving the limits of Greece or Hellas, we have followed the custom of
previous geographical writers. The precise line of demarcation, however, appears to be impracticable. The word Hellas did not convey to Greeks the notion of a certain geographical surface, determined by natural or conventional
boundaries; it denoted the country of the Hellenes, and was variously applied,
according to the different views entertained of the people who were entitled to
that name. When the Hellenes, emerging from their primitive settlement in
Epirus, had imparted their name to other tribes, with which they were allied by
a community of language and manners, Hellas might properly be said to extend
as far as these national features prevailed. Ephorus regarded Acarnania as the
first Grecian territory on the west (ap. Strab., viii., 334). Northward of the
Ambracian Gulf, the irruption of barbarous hordes had stifled the germs of the




GR    ~CIA.                      46.7
Greek character in the ancient inhabitants of Epirus, and had transformed it
into a foreign land.
4. On the east, Greece was commonly held to terminate with Mount Homolc,
at the mouth of the Peneus; the more scrupulous, however, excluded even
Thessaly from the honor of the Hellenic name, while Strabo, with consistent
laxity, admitted a part of Macedonia (viii., init.). Sometimes Ambracia and the
mouth of the Peneus were taken as the extreme northern points; but, even when
this was done, it was still impossible to draw a precise line of demarkation; for
the same reason which justified the exclusion of Epirus, applied, perhaps, much
more forcibly to the mountaineers in the interior of Etolia, whose barbarous
origin, or utter degeneracy, was proved by their savage manners, and a language which Thucydides describes as unintelligible. When the.Etolians bade
the last Philip withdraw from Hellas, the Macedonian king could fully retort
by asking where they should fix its boundaries, and by reminding them that of
their own body a very small portion was within the pale from which they wished
to exclude him. (Thirlwall, Hist. Gr., vol. i., p. 3, seq., 8vo ed.)
3. EARLY AND LATER-INHABITANTS.
I. THE people whom we call Greeks, or Hellenes, were not the
earliest inhabitants of the country. Among the names of the
many tribes which are said to have occupied the land previous
to the Hellenes, the most celebrated is that of the Pelasgi, who
appear to have settled in most parts of Greece, and from whom
a considerable portion of the Greek population was probably
descended. The Caucones, Leleges, and other barbarous tribes,
who also inhabited Greece, are all supposed by Thirlwall to
have been parts of the Pelasgic nation. He regards the name
"Pelasgi" as a general one, like that of Saxons, Franks, or
Alemanni, and supposes each of the Pelasgian tribes to have
had also a name peculiar to itself.
II. All these tribes, however, were obliged to submit to the
power of the Hellenes, who eventually spread over the greater
part of Greece. Their original seat, as already remarked, was,
according to Aristotle, near Dodona in Epirus; but they first
appeared in the south of Thessaly about B.C. 1384, according
to the common chronology.
III. In accordance with the common method of the Greeks
of inventing names to account for the origin of nations, the
Hellenes are represented as descended from Hellen, son of Deucalion.  Hellen had three sons, Drcus, Xuthus, and _JElus.
Achceus and Ion are represented as the sons of Xuthus; and
from these four, Dorus,.Eolus, Achceus, and Ion, the Dorians,.Eolians, Achceans, and lonians were descended, who formed
the four tribes into which the Hellenic nation was for many




4t18                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
centuries divided, and who were distinguished from each other
by many peculiarities in language and institutions.
OBs. We have given here the ordinary Greek account of the origin of the
name Dorians, &c. Modern scholars, however, have indulged in some ingenious speculations on this subject, which assume an air of great plausibility. According to these writers, the name Hellenes means " the Warriors" (compare
the name of their god'AnreLov); the Dorians (Aopte!S) are " Highlanders," from
Ja and opog; the Eolians (Aio2edg) are " the mixed men," a name which arose
when the Dorians first descended from their mountains in the north of Thessaly
and incorporated themselves with the Pelasgi of the Thessalian plains. So,
again, the lonians ("love) are " the men of the coast" ('Htovia), called, also,
AiytlaGez, "Beach-men," and the'4xaaoi are "Sea-men." (Compare Kenrick,
Phil. Mus., ii., 367; Miller, Dor., ii., 6, 6; Donaldson, G. G., p. 2.)
IV. At the same time that the Hellenic race was spreading
itself over the whole land, numerous colonies from the East
are said to have settled in Greece, and to their influence many
writers.have attributed the civilization of the inhabitants.
Thus we read of Egyptian colonies in Argos and Attica, of a
Phoenician colony at Thebes in Boeotia, and of a Mysian colony
led by Pelops. The very existence of these colonies has been
doubted by some writers; but though the evidence of each one
individually is perhaps not sufficient to satisfy the critical inquirer, yet the uniform tradition of the Greeks authorizes us to
believe that Greece did at early times receive colonies from the
East.
4. HISTORICAL EPOCHS.
THE history of Greece may be divided into four periods, of each of which a
brief sketch will be here given.
First Period.-From the Earliest Times to the Trojan War.  Some account
of this period has been given under the preceding section. The time which
elapsed from the appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly to the siege of Troy is
usually known by the name of the Heroic Age. Whatever opinion we may form
of the Homeric poems, it can hardly be doubted that they present a correct picture of the manners and customs of the age in which the poet lived, which, in
all probability, differed little from the manners and customs of the Heroic Age.
The state of society described by Homer very much resembles that which existed in Europe in the Feudal Ages. No great power had yet arisen in Greece;
it was divided into a number of small states, governed by hereditary chiefs,
whose power was limited by a martial aristocracy.
Second Period. —From the Sieg& of Troy to the Commencement of the Persian
Wars, B.C. 500. We learn from Thucydides (i., 12) that the population of
Greece was in a very unsettled state for some time after the Trojan war. Of
the various migrations which appear to have taken place, the most important
in their consequences were those of the Bceotians from Thessaly into the country afterward called Bceotia, and of the Dorians into the Peloponnesus, the
former in the sixtieth, and the latter in the eightieth year after the Trojan war




GRE CIA.                           469
About the same period, the western coast of Asia Minor was colonized by the
Greeks. The ancient inhabitants of Beotia, who had been driven out of their
homes by the invasion of the Boeotians, together with some 2Eolians, left Boeotia,
B.C. 1124, and settled in Lesbos and on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor.
This has been called the AEolic migration, and thd settlement in Asia Minor was
known by the appellation of AoElis. The JEolians were followed by the lonians
in B.C.1040, who, having been driven by the Achaeans from their abode on the
lower shore of the Corinthian Gulf, had taken refuge in Attica, whence they
migrated to Asia Minor, and settled on the Lydian coast. The southwestern
part of the coast of Asia Minor was also colonized about the same period by
Dorians, and obtained the name of Doris. The number of Greek colonies, considering the extent of the mother country, was very great; and the readiness
with which the Greeks left their homes to settle in foreign parts forms a characteristic feature in their national character.  The coasts of Sicily and the
southern part of Italy became studded with Greek cities, and the latter region,
in particular, obtained on this account the name of Magna Gracia.
The two states of Greece which attained the greatest historical celebrity were
Sparta and Athens. The power of Athens was of later growth; but Sparta had,
from the time of the Dorian conquest, taken the lead among the Peloponnesian
states, a position which she maintained by the conquest of the fertile country
of Messenia, B.C. 688. Her superiority was probably owing to the nature of
her political institutions, which are said to have been fixed on a firm basis by
her celebrated lawgiver Lycurgus, B.C. 884. Athens only rose to importance
in the century preceding the Persian wars, but even in this period her power
was not more than a match for the little states of Megaris and 2Egina. The
city was long harassed by intestine commotions, till the time of Solon, B.C.
594, who was chosen by the citizens to frame a new constitution and a new code
of laws, to which much of the future greatness of Athens must be ascribed.
The kingly form of government was prevalent in the Heroic Age. But during
the period that elapsed between the Trojan war and the Persian invasion, hereditary political power was abolished in almost all the' Greek states, with the
exception of Sparta, and a republican form of government was established in its
stead. Frequent wars, however, between each other, were the almost unavoidable consequence of the existence of so many small states almost equal in power.
The evils which arose from this state of things were partly remedied by the influence of the Amphictyonic Council, and partly by the religious games and
festivals which were held at stated intervals in different parts of Greece, and
during the celebration of which no wars were carried on.
In the sixth century before the Christian era, Greece rapidly advanced in
knowledge and civilization. Literature and the fine arts were already cultivated in Athens under the auspices of Pisistratus and his sons, and the products
of remote countries were introduced into Greece by the merchants of Corinth
and.Egina.
Third Period.-From the Commencement of the Persian Wars to the Death of
Philip of Macedon, B.C. 336. This was the most splendid period of Grecian history. The assistance which the Athenians gave to the Asiatic Greeks in their
resistance to the Persians, and the part which they took in the burning of Sardis, B.C. 499, drew upon them the vengeance of Darius. A Persian army was
sent into Attica, but was ehtirely defeated at Marathon, B.C. 490, by the Athenians under Miltiades. Ten years afterward, the whole power of the Persian
empire was directed against Greece, and an immense army, led in person by
Xerxes, advanced as far as Attica; but this expedition also failed; the Persiaa




4 70                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
fleet was worsted in the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, and the land forces
were entirely defeated in the following year, B.C. 479, at Plataee, in Boeotia.
After the battle of Plataeee, a confederacy was formed by the Grecian states
for the purpose of carrying on the war against the Persians. Sparta was at first
placed at the head of it; but*the allies, disgusted with the tyranny of Pausanias,
the Spartan commander, gave the supremacy to Athens. The Athenians, under
the command of Cimon, carried on the war vigorously, defeated the Persian
fleets, and plundered the maritime provinces of the empire. During this period,
the power of Athens rapidly increased; she possessed a succession of distinguished statesmen, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, who all contributed to the advancement of her power, though differing in their political
views. Literature was also cultivated by her, and the arts of architecture and
sculpture, which were employed to ornament the city, were carried to a degree
of excellence that has never since been surpassed.
The haughty conduct of Athens toward the allied states, whom she began to
regard as subjects rather than as independent states in alliance with her, produced a confederacy against her, at the head of which stood Sparta; and thus
arose the war between this last-mentioned state and Athens, which lasted for
twenty-seven years (B.C. 431-404), and is usually known by the name of the
Peloponnesian War. It terminated by Sparta's being again placed at the head
of the Grecian states.
Soon after the conclusion of this war, Sparta engaged in a contest with the
Persian empire, which lasted fronr B.C. 400 to 394. The splendid successes
which Agesilaus, the Spartan king, obtained over the Persian troops in Asia
Minor, and the manifest weakness of the Persian empire, which had been already shown by the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks from the heart of the
empire, appear to have induced Agesilaus to entertain the design of overthrowing the Persian monarchy; but he was obliged to return to his native country
to defend it against a powerful confederacy, which had been formed by the Corinthians, Thebans, Argives, Athenians, and Thessalians, for the purpose of
throwing off the Spartan dominion. The confederate states were not, however,
successful in their attempt, and the Spartan supremacy was again secured for
a brief period by a general peace, made B.C. 387, and usually known by the
name of the Peace of Antalcidas. Ten years afterward, the rupture between
Thebes and Sparta began, which led to a general war in Greece, and for a short
time placed Thebes at the head of the Grecian states. After the death, however, of Epaninondas, at the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362, Thebes again sank
into her original obscurity. The Spartan supremacy, however, was destroyed
by this war, and her power still more humbled by the restoration of Messenia
to independence, B.C. 361. From the conclusion of this war to the reign of
Philip of Macedon, Greece remained without any ruling power.
It is only necessary here to mention the part which Philip took in the Sacred
War, which lasted ten years (B.C. 356-346), in which he appeared as the defender of the Amphictyonic Council, and which terminated by the conquest of
the Phbcians. The Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, made an alliance
with the Thebans, for the purpose of resisting Philip; but their defeat at Chberonea, B.C. 388, secured for the Macedonian king the supremacy of Greece. In
the same year a congress of Grecian states was held at Corinth, in which Philip
was chosen generalissimo of the Greeks in a projected war against the Persian
empire; but his assassination in B.C. 336 caused this enterprise to devolve
upon his son Alexander.
Fourth Period.-From the Accession of Alexander the Great to the Roman Con.




GRIECIA.                          471
quest, B.C. 146. The conquests of Alexander extended Greek influence over the
greater part of Asia west of the Indus. After his death, the dominion of the
East was contested by his generals, and two powerful empires were permanently established; that of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the Seleucidae
in Syria. The dominions of the early Syrian kings embraced the greater part
of Western Asia; but their empire was soon divided into various independent
kingdoms, such as that of Bactria, Pergamus, &c., in all of which the Greek
language was spoken, not merely at court, but to a considerable extent in the
towns. From the death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, Macedonia remained the ruling power in Greece. The 2Etolian and Achaean leagues were
formed, the former B.C. 284, the latter B.C. 281, for the purpose of resisting
the Macedonian kings. Macedonia was conquered by the Romans B.C. 197,
and the Greek states were declared independent. This, however, was merely
nominal; they only exchanged the rule of the Macedonian kings for that of the
Roman people, and in B.C. 146 Greece was reduced to the form of a Roman
province called Achaia, though certain cities, such as Athens, Delphi, &c., were
allowed to have the rank of free towns. The history of Greece from this period forms part of that of the Roman empire. It was overrun by the Goths in
A.D. 267, and again in A.D. 398, under Alaric; and, after being occupied by the
Crusaders and Venetians, at last fell into the power of the Turks on the conquest of Constantinople.
5. M OUNTAINS.
I. THE chain called Olympus and the Cambunian Mountains, ranging east and west, and commencing with the.Sgean
Sea, or the Sinus Thermaicus, near the fortieth parallel of
north latitude, is prolonged, under the name of Mount Lingon,
until it touches the Adriatic at the Acroceraunian promontory.
II. At a point about midway between the.Egean and Ionian
Seas, Olympus and Lingon are traversed nearly at right angles
by the still longer and vaster chain called Pindus, which strikes
off nearly southward from the southern face of Olympus, and
forms the boundary between Thessaly and Epirus.
III. About the thirty-ninth degree of latitude, Pindus sends
forth the lateral chain of Othrys, which takes an easterly course,
forming the southern boundary of Thessaly, and reaching the
sea between Thessaly and the northern coast of Euboea.
IV. Southwest of Othrys, the chain of Pindus, under the
name of T*mphrestus, still continues, until another lateral
chain, called CEta, projects from  it again toward the east, terminating at the Euboean Strait and the Pass of Thermopyle.
V. At the point of junction with CEta, the chain of Pindus
forks into two branches; one striking to the westward of south,
and reaching across ZEtolia, under the names of Aracynthus,
Curius, Corax, and Taphiassus, to the promontory called An



472             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHIY.
tirrhion, situated on the northern side of the narrow entrance
of the Corinthian Gulf, over against the corresponding promontory of Rhion in Peloponnesus; the other tending southeast,
and forming Parnassus, Helicon, and Cithcvron.  Mounts
aEgaleus and HyRnettus, even down to the southernmost cape
of Attica, Sunium, may be treated as a continuation of this
chain.
VI. From the eastern extremity of CEta, also, a range of
hills, inferior in height to the preceding, takes its departure in
a southeasterly direction, under the various names of Cnemis,
Ptoon, and Teumessus. It is joined with Cithseron by the lateral communication, ranging from west to east, called Parnes;
and the celebrated Pentelicus, with its abundant marble quarries, constitutes its connecting link, to the south of Parnes,
with the chain from Cithmeron to Sunium.
VII. From the promontory of Antirrhion the line of mountains crosses into the Peloponnesus; and stretches in a southerly
direction down to the extremity of that peninsula called Tcena7'us, now Cape Mlatapan. It forms the boundary between Elis
with Messenia on one side, and Arcadia with Laconia, on the
other, and bears the successive names of Olenus, Panachaicus.
Pholoe, Erymanthus, Lycceus, Parrhasius, and Taygetus.
VIII. Another series of mountains strikes off from Citheeron
toward the southwest, constituting, under the names of Oneia
and Geraneia, the rugged and lofty Isthmus of Corinth, and
then spreading itself into the Peloponnesus.  On entering
the peninsula, one of its branches tends westward to the north
of Arcadia, comprising the Acrocorinthus, or citadel of Corinth, the high peak of Cyllene, the mountains of Aroanii and
Lampeia, and ultimately joining Erymanthus and Pholoe;
while the other branch strikes southward toward the southeastern Cape of Peloponnesus, the formidable promontory of
Mialea, now Cape St. Angelo, and exhibits itself under the
successive names of Apesas, Artemisium, Parthenzizm, Parnon,
Thornax, and Zarex.
IX. From the eastern extremity of Olympus, in a direction
rather to the westward of south, stretches the range of mountains first called Ossa, and afterward Pelion, down to the southeastern corner of Thessaly. The long, lofty, and naked backbone of the island of Euboea may be viewed as a continuance




GRACIA.                           473
both of this chain and of the chain of Othrys. The line is farther prolonged by a series of islands in the Archipelago, namely,
Andros, Tenos, Myconos, and Naxos, belonging to the group
called the Cyclades, or islands encircling the sacred centre of
Delos. Of these Cyclades, others are in like manner a continuance of the chain which reaches to Cape Sunium, namely,
Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siphnos, joining on to Attica, as
Andros does to Eubcea.
X. We might even consider the great island of Crete as a
prolongation of the system of mountains which breasts the winds
and waves at Cape Malea, the island of Cythera forming the
intermediate link between them.     Scidthus, Scopelos, and Scyros, to the northeast of Euboea, also mark themselves out as
outlying peaks of the range comprehending Pelion and Euboea.
XI. We may remark, in conclusion, that no part of Europe,
if we except Switzerland, is so mountainous throughout the
whole of its extent as Greece, being traversed in almost every
direction by numerous ridges, the summits of which, though
not so lofty as the central range of the Alps, attain, in many
instances, to the elevation of perpetual snow. A comparatively
small proportion, therefore, of the surface of Greece, is left for
level ground. Not only few continuous plains, but even few
continuous valleys, exist throughout all Greece proper. The
largest spaces of level ground are seen in Thessaly, in XEtolia,
in the western portion of the Peloponnesus, and in Bceotia; but
irregular mountains, valleys frequent but isolated, landlocked
basins and declivities, which often occur, but seldom last long,
form the character of the country.
OBS. A more detailed account of individual mountain chains will be given in
the geography of the separate divisions of Greece.
6. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES.
1. THE islands of the Cyclades, as also Euboea, Attica, and Laconia, consist for
the most part of micaceous schist, combined with and often covered by crystalline granular limestone. Professor Ross remarks upon the character of the
Greek limestone, that, hard and intractable to the mason, jagged and irregular
in its fracture, it first determined in early times the polygonal style of architecture, which has been denominated (he observes) Cyclopian and Pelasgic, without the least reason for either denomination.
2. The centre and western part of the Peloponnesus, as well as the country
north of the Qorinthian Gulf, from the Gulf of Ambracia to the Strait of Euboea,
present a calcareous formation; varying in different localities in color, consistency, and hardness, but generally belonging or approximating to the chalk. It




474                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
is often very compact, but is distinguished in a marked manner from the crystalline limestone above mentioned. Two of the loftiest summits in Greece exhibit this formation, Parnassus, and the point of St. Elias in Tajygtus.
3. Clay slate, and conglomerates of sand, lime, and clay, are found in many
parts; a close and firm conglomerate of lime composes the Isthmus of Corinth;
loose deposits of pebbles, and calcareous breccia, occupy also some portions of
the territory.
4. But the most important and essential elements of the Grecian soil consist
of the diluvial and alluvial formations with which the troughs and basins are
filled up, resulting from the decomposition of the older adjoining rocks. In
these reside the productive powers of the country, and upon these the grain and
vegetables for the subsistence of the people depend.
5. The mountain regions are to a great degree barren, destitute at present of
wood or any useful vegetation, though there is reason to believe that they
were better wooded in antiquity. In many parts, however, and especially in
XEtolia and Acarnania, they afford plenty of timber, and in all parts pasture for
the cattle during summer, at a time when the plains are thoroughly burned up.
6. The low grounds of Thessaly, the valley of the Cephisus, and the borders
of the Lake Copais in Bceotia, the western portion of Elis, the plains of Stratos
on the confines of Acarnania and XEtolia, and those near the River Pamisus in
Messenia, both are now, and were in ancient times, remarkable for their abundant produce.
7. RIVERS.
General Remarks.
BESIDES the scarcity of wood for fuel, there is another serious inconvenience
to which the low grounds of Greece are exposed, namely, the want of a supply
of water at once adequate and regular. Abundance of rain falls during the autumnal and winter months, little or none during the summer. The naked limestone of the hills neither absorbs nor retains moisture, so that the rain runs off
as rapidly as it falls, aAd springs are rare. Most of the rivers of Greece are
torrents in early spring, and dry before the end of summer. We will now proceed to give an enumeration of the more important rivers of this country.
(A.) Rivers on the Western and Southern Side.
1. Achclous, a large and rapid stream, probably the largest
in Greece, rising in Mount Pindus, and which divided Acarnania from LEtolia. Thucydides describes it as flowing through
the country of the Dolopians, Agreans, and Acarnanians, and
discharging itself into the Ionian Sea near the city of (Eniadee.
It was particularly noted for the quantity of alluvium      which it
deposited at its mouth, and which formed there a cluster of
small islands called Echinades, and now the islands of Curzolari. As the course of this rapid river varied greatly, which
occasioned inundations in the districts through which it flowed,
it was found necessary to check its inroads by means of dikes
and dams.     Hence arose the legend of the poets, that Hercules,




GR ECIA.                    475
namely, and the river-god, contended for the hand of Deianira,
and that Hercules, having proved victorious, tore off one of the
horns of the god, who had assumed in the contest the form of
a bull. The Naiads took the horn, and, having filled it with the
various productions of the seasons, gave it to the Goddess of
Plenty. The Achelois appears to have been a celebrated river
in the earliest times, since its name is frequently employed by
the ancient poets for the element of water. The modern name
is Aspro Potamo, or " the White River;" Leake calls it simply
the Aspro. Among the tributaries of the Achelois may be
mentioned, 1. The Indcltus, rising in Mount Lacmus, in the
chain of Pindus, and now, according to Leake, the Ariadha.
2. The Anapus, coming in, like the former, from the northwest,
and emptying into the. Achelois about eighty stadia south of
Stratus. It is now the Aetos. 3. The Campylus, coming in
from the east through the territory of Aperantia, and passing
by the city of Aperantia. It is now the Carpenitze.
2. Evlnaus (Eviyvog), the chief river of AEtolia, and a stream
of considerable size, rising, according to Strabo, in the country
of the Bomienses, who occupied the northeast extremity of
2Etolia. It is now the Fidari, and near its mouth stood the
modern llissolonghlt. The more ancient name of this river
was the Lycormas. The Evenus is celebrated in fable from
the story of Nessus, the centaur, who was slain here by Hercules.
3. Plistus (nIelaoro^), a river of Phocis, three stadia from
Delphi, and flowing between Parnassus and Mount Cirphis.
It is now the Sizaliska, and flows into the Sinus Crissaeus,
near the ruins of the ancient Cirrha. The Sinus Crissaeus is
now the Gulf of Salona, and was an inlet of the Corinthian Gulf.
4. Ncmea, a small river separating the territory of Corinth
from that of Sicyon, and falling into the bay of Lechmum, a
part of the Sinus Corinthiacus. It rose in ArgoliS, a little
above the celebrated village of the same name. It is now the
Coutzomadi. A severe battle was fought on its banks between
the Bceotians, Corinthians, Athenians, and other allies, against
the Lacedemonians, on the first breaking out of hostilities
posterior to the Peloponnesian war, when the latter were victorious.
5. Asopus, rising in the Argolic Mountains, and falling into




476             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the Sinus Corinthiacus a little below Sicyon. It is now the
Basilico. That portion of Sicyonia which this river watered
in its course was called Asopia. The games instituted by
Adrastus in honor of Apollo were celebrated on its banks.
6. Crathis, a river of Achaia, descending from a mountain
of the same name on the borders of Arcadia, and flowing into
the Sinus Corinthiacus to the west of ~Egira.  It was from
this stream that the Italian Crathis, which flowed between
Crotona and Sybaris, derived its appellation.  The Achaan
Crathis is now the Acratha, and is one of the few streams on
this coast that retain their water throughout the year.
7. Pirus, the most considerable stream of Achaia, called by
Strabo the Melas, and falling into the outer part of the Sinus
Corinthiacus about eighty stadia from Patrce. Near its mouth
stood Olenus, one of the most ancient cities of Achaia. The
Pirus is now the Camenitza.
8. Larissus, rising in Mount Scollis in Elis, and forming the
separation between Achaia and Elis. It is now the Risso or
Mana. Pausanias notices a temple of the Larissean Minerva
near this stream.
9. Peneus (HIrveto), a river of Elis, falling into the sea a
little below the promontory Chelonites. Modern travellers describe it as a broad and rapid stream. The city of Elis was
situated on it, in the upper part of its course. It is now the
Igliaco. There was a celebrated river of the same name in
Thessaly, flowing through the Vale of Tempe.
10. Alpheus ("A estloq), a celebrated river of Elis, rising on
the Laconian border of Arcadia. After losing itself under
ground for some miles, it reappeared not far from Megal6oplis,
traversed the remainder of Arcadia, and then, entering Elis,
discharged its waters, now swelled by numerous tributary
streams, into the Ionian Sea. Here, however, as the poets reported, itf course did not terminate, for, flowing beneath the
ocean, it hastened to mingle its waters with those of the fountain Arethusa, in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. The
Alpheus flowed a little to the south of Olympia, the scene of
the celebrated Olympic games. The m6dern name is usually
given as the Rofea or Rufia; but, according to Leake, it has
this name only below its junction with the Ladon, above which
it is commonly called the River of Karitena.




G RaECIA.                          477
Tributaries of the Alpheus on the North.
1. Helisson, a small but rapid river, rising in the eastern part of Arcadia, and,
after traversing Megalopolis, which it divided into two halves, falling into the
Alpheus a little below the city. According to Leake, it is now the Davia. 2.
Gortynius, to the west of the preceding, called at its source the Lusius, because
Jupiter was said to have been washed there when he was born. It flowed by
the town of Gortys or Gortyna, and was remarkable for the coldness of its waters,
especially in summer. It is now, according to Leake, the Atzikolo. 3. Bulphagus, to the west of the preceding, and forming the line of separation between
the territories of Herea and Megalopolis. Leake says that it is dry in summer.
4. Aroanius, called also the Olbius, which descends from the mountains to the
north of Pheneus, and usually finds a vent in some natural caverns, or katabothra, at the extremity of the plain; but when by accident these happened to
be blocked up, the waters filled the whole valley, and, communicating.with the
Ladon and Alpheus, overflowed the beds of these rivers as far as Olympia. 5.
Ladon, rising near the village of Lycuria, between Pheneus and Clitor. It was
accounted the most beautiful stream of Greece, and was farther celebrated, as
Pausanias affirms, from the adventure of Daphne and Apollo. According to
Leake, the Ladon is now called the Rufea or Rofia, and the Alpheus bears this
same name only below its junction with the Ladon, above which it is usually
called the River.of Karitena. 6. Enipeus, a small stream, called in Strabo's
time the Barnichius, and flowing near Salmone.
Tributaries of the Alpheus on the South.
1. Thius, a small stream on the road from Megalopolis to Sparta. 2. Mallus
and Syrus, two small streams more to the west, on the road from Megalopolis
to Messenia. 3. Carnion and Gatheates, two small streams more to the west,
the latter of which rose near the village of Gathee. 4. Acheron and Dalion, flowing into the Alpheus near Typana in Elis. The Acheron was probably so called
from the peculiar veneration with which Ceres, Proserpina, and Pluto were worshipped on its banks. The more celebrated Acheron was in Thesprotia, in
Epirus; and there was also a third river of the name in Bruttium, in Italy.
11. Anigrus, rising in a mountain of Arcadia called Lapitha,
and after flowing through Elis, falling into the Sinus Cyparissius, or Gulf of Arcadia. It formed marshes at its mouth from
the want of a fall to carry off the water fully.     This stagnant
pool exhaled an odor so fetid as to be perceptible at the distance of twenty stadia, and the fish caught there were so tainted
with the infection that they could not be eaten. Pausanias,
however, affirms that this miasma was not confined to the
marshes, but could be traced to the very source of the river.
It was ascribed to the centaurs having washed the wounds inflicted by Hercules's envenomed shafts in this stream. The
Anigrus received the waters of a fountain said to possess the
property of curing cutaneous disorders. This source issued
fiom a cavern sacred to the nymphs called Anigriades. Leake




478             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
gives the modern name of the Anigrus as the Mavro-Potamo,
or " Black River," and says that in summer the marsh is still
very fetid, and the air extremely unwholesome.
12. Neda, rising in Mount Lycceus, in Arcadia, and, after a
short but rapid course, falling into the sea a little below Pyrgos.
Near Phigalea it received the small river Limax. The Neda
formed the boundary between Elis and Messenia. Leake gives
the modern name as the Buzi; Cramer makes it the Paulizza.
13. Cyparisseis, a river of Messenia, rising in Mount zEgaleus, and flowing into the sea near Cyparissia. The modern
name is the River of Arcadia.
14. Pamisus, a river of Messenia, and the largest stream in
the Peloponnesus, from the quantity of its water, though in
length of course it was inferior to the Alpheus and Eurotas,
since it flowed for the space of only one hundred stadia. It
rose near the city of Messene, and fell into the Sinus Messeniacus, or Gulf of Coron. Pausanias affirms that the waters
of the Pamisus were remarkably pure, and abounded with va.
rious kinds of fish.  He adds that it was navigable for ten
stadia from the sea. Walpole makes the modern name the
Pirnatza; but Leake, the Dhipotamo.
15. Eurotas, a river of Laconia, and one of the largest streams
of the Peloponnesus. It rose near Asea in Arcadia, and not
long after lost itself under ground, and then reappeared in the
district of Belmina, on the borders of Laconia. After this it
traversed the latter province, passing by Sparta, and emptied
into the sea near Helos. The Eurotas flowed to the east of
Sparta, as we are informed by Polybius; its stream was full
and rapid, and could seldom be forded. On its left bank was
a range of hills, called Menelaium, stretching to the southeast
of the city, and rising abruptly from the river. The Eurotas
is now called the Vasili Potamo (Basilipotamo as written), or
" the Royal River," in allusion to certaif petty princes, dependent upon the Eastern emperors, who possessed a small kingdom
in this quarter during the Middle Ages. Dodwell, however,
states that the most common appellation for the Eurotas, at
the present day, is the Iri.  The Eurotas receives, a little
below the ruins of Sparta, a river named Pantalimona or Trypiotiko, which, coming from the chain of Taygetus, flows to the
west of the ancient city. It is probably the ancient Cnacion.




GR ECIA.                    479
(B.) Rivers on the Eastern Side.
1. Tdnus, a river of Argolis, near the confines of Laconia,
rising in Mount Parnon, and flowing into the Gulf of Thyrea,
or Sinus Thyreates, now the Bay of Astro, an inlet of the Sinus Argolicus, or Gulf of Nauplia.' It is now called Hagios
Petros, or St. Peter's River, from a small place of the same
name, which is also that of the surrounding district.
2. Erasmus, a river of Argolis, north of the preceding, and
mentioned by several writers of antiquity. Herodotus states
that it was said to derive its waters from the Lake of Stymphalus, in Arcadia, by a subterranean channel. According to
Pausanias, it reappeared in Arcadia, at the foot of Mount Chaon,
and, joining itself with another river named Phrixus, the united
streams entered the Sinus Argolicus between Lerna and Temenium. The modern name of the Erasinus is given by Leake
as the Kefalari.
3. Inachus, a river of Argolis, rising in Mount Lyrceius, on
the confines of Arcadia, and, after flowing at the foot of the
acropolis of Argos, falling into the Sinus Argolicus.  The
poets fabled that it was a branch of the Inachus of Amphilochia,
in Acarnania, which, after mingling with the Acheloiis, passed
under ground, and reappeared in Argolis. According to modern travellers, the Inachus is usually dry, but is supplied with
casual floods after hard rains, and the melting of snow on the
surrounding mountains. In the winter it sometimes descends
from the mountains in a rolling mass, when it does much damage to the modern town of Argos. It rises about ten miles from
Argos, at a place called Mushi, in the way to Tripoli, in Arcadia. The modern name is the Xeria, which means "the dry."
4. Cephisus, a river of Attica, rising, according to Strabo, in
the demus of Trinemes, and, after flowing through the Attic
plains to the west of Athens, and passing under the long walls,
discharging itself into the Sinus Saronicus, or Gulf of Engia,
near the port of Phalerum. The geographer adds, that in summer it was nearly dry, which corresponds with the accounts of
modern travellers, though Sophocles, in the CEdipus Coloneus,
describes it as a perennial stream The modern name is said
to be the Podhonista. This river was generally called the
Cephisus Atticus, to distinguish it from the Cephisus of Eleu



480             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
sis, another stream of the same name flowing near the city of
Eleusis, and falling into the Sinus Saronicus between this lastmentioned place and the Piraeeus. There was a third Cephisus
in Bceotia.
5. Ilissus, a small stream of Attica, rising in the mountains
to the east of Athens, and which, after receiving the still smaller
Eridanus, flowed by Athens, and entered the Sinus Saronicus
a little below the mouth of the Cephisus Atticus. From it
Athens was principally supplied with water. At the present
day it loses itself, after a course of a few miles, in the marshes
to the south of Athens. From the beautiful passage of the
Phaedrus, in which Plato alludes to it, it appears to have been
at that period a perennial stream, whereas now it is almost
always dry, its waters being either drawn off to irrigate the
neighboring gardens, or to supply the artificial fountains of the
modern city. It is called at the present day the Ilisse.
6. As6pus, a river of Boeotia, rising in Mount Citheron, near
Plataes, and flowing into the Euripus, or strait between the
mainland and the island of Eubcea. It separated the territories of Platae  and Thebes, and also traversed in its course the
whole of southern Boeotia. Though generally a small and
sluggish stream, yet after heavy rains it could not easily be
forded. It was on the banks of the Asopus that the battle of
Platmee was fought. The plain along its northern bank was
called Parasopias. This river still retains the name of Asopo.
7. Ismenus, a small river of Bceotia, flowing, not into the sea,
but into the Lake of Hylice, now the Lake of Likari. The
Ismenus flowed in the immediate vicinity of Thebes, at the foot
of a hill. It was sacred to Apollo, hence called Ismenius, who
had a temple here. According to Dodwell, this stream has no
water except after heavy rains, when it becomes a torrent, and
rushes into the Lake of Likari about four miles to the northwest of Thebes. The modern name of the Ismenus is the Ismgeno.
8. Permessus, a small river of Baeotia, rising in Mount Helicon, and which, after uniting its waters with those of the 01mius, flowed along with that stream into the Lake Copais, near
Haliartus. Both the Permessus and Olmius received their
supplies from the fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene. The
Permessus is now the Panitza.




GaP.CIA.                    481
9. Cephisus, a river rising at the foot of Mount Parnassus,
close to Lilea, and which, after traversing the plains of Phocis
and part of the Baeotian territory, emptied into the Lake Copais. The modern name is lkIavro Polaamo, or "l Black River."
Hesiod compared it to a serpent, from the many sinuosities of
its course. According to the poets, the son of the god of this
stream introduced the worship of the Graces into Boeotia, and
hence the peculiar attachment which these deities were said to
have for the waters of this river.
10. Asopus, a river of Thessaly, rising in Mount (Eta, and
falling into the Sinus Maliacus, a little distance beyond Thermopylae. It flowed through a gorge in the mountains inclosing
the Trachinian plain.
11. Sperchius (rsepXEut6), a river of Thessaly, flowing from
Mount Tymphrestus, a lofty range forming part of the chain
of Pindus, in the country of the _Enidnes.  Homer frequently
mentions this river as belonging to the territories of Achilles
around the Sinus Maliacus. It empties into this gulf. The
ancient name of this stream appears to have reference to its
rapid course (arrepxeaOat, "to move rapidly"). The modern
name is the Hellada.
12. Peneus (IIiveto6), a river of Thessaly, rising in the chain
of Pindus, and falling into the Sinus Thermaicus, or Gulf of
Saloniki, after traversing the whole breadth of the country.
Toward its mouth it flows through the celebrated Vale of
Tempe. It is said to be never dry, though in summer it is
shallow. After heavy rains, and the sudden melting of the
snows on Pindus, it sometimes overflows its banks, and becomes an impetuous torrent. JElian, in his description of the
Vale of Tempe, makes the Peneus flow through it like oil;
and Dodwell remarks that, in its course through the modern
town of Larissa, it has at the present day a surface as smooth
as oil. The Peneus is called by the Turks Ababa, by the
Greeks the Salambria. This latter name appears to be derived from aadtz6lr, " an outlet," and was applied originally to
that part of the stream flowing through the Vale of Tempe,
where the river has forced a passage through the rocks of Ossa
and Olympus. Among the tributaries of the Peneus may be
mentioned the Phwnix, the Titaresius, accounted a branch of
the infernal Stvx, from its having a thick, unctuous substarnc
Ha




482                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
floating like oil on its surface, the Apidanus, and Enipeus.        The
last two united their waters to the north of Pharsalus.
8. LAKES.
I. THE disposition and properties of the Grecian territory, though not maintaining permanent rivers, are favorable to the multiplication of lakes and marshes. There are numerous hollows and inclosed basins, out of which the water
can find no superficial escape, and where, unless it makes for itself a subterranean passage through rifts in the mountains, it remains either as a marsh or a
lake, according to the time of the year.
II. In Thessaly we find the Lakes Nestnis and B&abeis; in XEtolia, between
the Acheloiis and Evenus, Strabo mentions the Lake of Trichonis, besides several other lakes, which it is difficult to identify individually, though the quantity
of ground covered by lake and marsh is, as a whole, very considerable.
III. In Boeotia are situated the lakes Copais, Hylice, and Harma, the first of
the three being formed chiefly by the River Cephisus, flowing from Parnassus
on the northwest, and shaping for itself a sinuous course through the mountains
of Phocis. On the northeast and east, the Lake Copais is bounded by the high
land of Mount Ptoon, which intercepts its communication with the Strait of
Eubcea. Through the limestone of this mountain the water has either found or
forced several subterranean cavities, by which it obtains a partial egress on the
other side of the rocky hill, and then flows into the strait.
IV. The Catabothra, as they were termed in antiquity, of the Lake Copais,
still exist, but in an imperfect and half-obstructed condition. Even in antiquity,
however, they never fully sufficed to carry off the surplus waters of the Cephisus; for the remains are still found of an artificial tunnel, pierced through the
whole breadth of the rock, and with perpendicular apertures at proper intervals
to let in the air from above. This tunnel, one of the most interesting remnants
of antiquity, since it must date from the prosperous days of the old Orchomenus,
anterior to its absorption into the Bceotian league, as well as to the preponderance of Thebes, is now choked up and rendered useless. It may, perhaps, have
been designedly obstructed by the hand of an enemy, and the scheme of Alexander the Great, who commissioned an engineer from Chalcis to reopen it, was
defeated first by discontents in Bceotia, and ultimately by his early death.
V. The Catabothra of the Lake Copais are a specimen of the phenomenon
so frequent in Greece, namely, lakes and rivers finding for themselves subterranean passages through the cavities in the limestone rocks, and even pursuing
their unseen course for a considerable distance before they emerge to the light
of day. In Arcadia, especially, several remarkable examples of subterranean
water communication occur: this central region of Peloponnesus presents a
cluster of such completely inclosed valleys or basins.
OBS. 1. A more particular account of the Grecian lakes will be given in the description of the
different divisions of the country.
2. The familiarity of the Greeks with the phenomenon of the subterranean courses of certain
rivers was in part the source of some geographical suppositions, which now appear to us extravagant, respecting the long subterranean and submarine course of streams, and their reap.
pearance at very distant points. Sophocles said that the Inachus of Acarnania joined the Argolic Inachus; Ibycus, the poet, affirmed that the Asopus, near Sicyon, had its source in Phrygia;
the River Inopus, of the little island of Delos, was alleged by others to be an effluent from the
mighty Nile. This disappearance and reappearance of rivers connected itself, in the minds of
ancient physical philosophers, with the supposition of vast reservoirs of water in the interior of
the earth, which were protruded upward to the surface by some gaseous force. (Grote, Histor;
of Greece, vol. i., p. 287, seqq.)




G R  CIA.                   483
9. PROMIONTORIES.
(A.) Promontories on the Western Side.
1. Leucate Promontorium, at the southwestern extremity of
the island of Leucas or Leucadia, off the coast of Acarnania.
It is now Cape Ducato, and the modern name of the island is
Santa Maura. 2. Crithote Promontorium, on the coast of
Acarnania, facing Ithaca, now Cape Candilli. 3. Antirrhium
Promontorium. on the coast of Etolia, at the narrow entrance
of tile Sinus CorinLhiacus, and facing the promontory of Rhium,
on the opposite coast of Achaia, from which circumstance it
derived its name. The narrowness of the strait rendered this
point of great importance for the passage of troops to and from
IEtolia and the Peloponnesus. Antirrhium was sometimes
called Rhium Molycricum, from its vicinity to the town of
Molycrium, and also Rhium JEtolicum. At the present day
there are two castles on Antirrhium and Rhium, and the strait
is sometimes called the Dardanelles of Lepanto.
4. Araxus Prormontorium, on the coast of Achaia, to the
southwest of Rhium, and now Cape Papas. 5. Hyrmine Promontorium, on the coast of Elis, to the southwest of the preceding, and west of the harbor of Cyllene. It is now Cape Chiarenza.  6. Chelonites Promontorium, to the southwest of the
preceding, and forming the westernmost extremity of Elis. It
is now Cape Tornese. 7. Pheia Promontortum, on the coast
of Elis, to the southeast of the preceding, and now Cape Scaphidia. S. Ichthys Promontorium, on the same coast, and near
its termination, now Cape Catacolo. 9. Cyparissiumn Pronontorium, on the coast of Messenia, now Cape Canello, or, according to others, Cape Apidaglia.
(B.) Promontories on the Southern Side.
1. Acritas Promontoriumi, on the coast of Messenia, at its
southernmost extremity, now Cape Gallo. 2. Thyrides Promontorium, on the coast of Laconia, at its southwesternmost extremity, now Cape Grosso.  3. Tenarum Promontorium, on
she same coast, at its southernmost extremity, and forming the
most southern part also of the Peloponnesus. It is now Cape
IMatapan, a corruption of the ancient Greek tcorwrov,' a fronts"
and a name alluding to the bold front with which this promot



484             ANCIENT GEOGRAPIY-.
tory projects into the Mediterranean. Near it was a cave, one
of the fabled entrances to the lower world, and through which
Hercules was said to have dragged up Cerberus to the light of
day. On the promontory was a temple of Neptune, which was
accounted an inviolable asylum. Teenarum became subsequently famous for the beautiful marble of its quarries, which
the Romans held in the highest estimation, and which was a
species of verd antique. 4. Onugnathos Pronzontorium, on the
coast of Laconia, and to the northeast of the preceding, being
situate at the opposite extremity of the Sinus Laconicus. The
Greek name means " the ass's jaw-bone" (6yov yvadOo). The
promontory at the present day is detached from the main land,
and is called Cape Xyli, forming the extremity of an island called Isola dei Servi, or the island of Cervo. 5. Malea Promontorium, a celebrated headland, on the coast of Laconia, to the
east of the preceding, and forming the southeasternmost extremity of Laconia and the Peloponnesus. It was considered
by the ancients the most dangerous point in the circumnavigation of the peninsula, and hence arose the proverbial expression, quoted by Strabo, MaXeav 6de Kaipba, 8ertradov r-ov ol'cae,
"After having doubled Malea, forget the things at home,"
where, no doubt, we ought to read cdclTrrT-ov,  while doubling."
This promontory is now called Cape St. Ang elo, but sometimes
Cape ]Ialio.
(C.) Promontories on the Eastern Side.
1. Struthnus Promontoriunz, on the coast of Argolis, facing
to the west, and projecting into the Sinus Argolicus. It answers, probably, to the modern Cape Coraka. 2. Buporthmnus
Promontorium, on the southeastern coast of Argolis, facing the
island of Hydrea. It was a lofty headland rising boldly from
the sea, and on the summit were erected temples to Ceres,
Proserpina, and Minerva Promachorma. 3. Scyllceum Proimontoriunm, now Cape Skyllo, at the southeastern extremity of
Argolis, and said to have derived its name from Scylla, the
daughter of Nisus. It formed, together with the opposite promontory of Sunium, the entrance of the Sinus Saronicus. 4.
SpIirceun Promontorium, on the eastern coast of Argolis, neai
its upper extremity; now Cape Franco.  5. Amphiale Promtontoriumn, on the western coast of Attica, over against the isl



G IctcIA.                   485
and of Salamis, and now Cape Daphne. 6. Zoster Promontoriurn, on the same coast, but more to the southeast. It consisted of several slender points extending into the sea. This
cape, according to Pausanias, was sacred to Latona, Diana, and
Apollo. It is now Cape Halikes. 7. Astypalea Pronmontoriurn, to the southeast of the preceding, and near the extremity
of Attica. Now Cape Anaphiso.
8. Suniurn Promontorium, a celebrated headland of Attica,
forming the extreme point of that country toward the south.
It was sacred to Minerva, and here the goddess had a beautiful
temple crowning the height. According to modern travellers,
nine columns, without their entablatures, front the sea, in a
line from west-northwest to east-southeast; three are standing
on the side toward the land, on the north; and two, with a pilaster, next to the corner one of the northern columns, toward
the sea, on the east; and there is a solitary one on the southeastern side. This last has obtained for the promontory the
name of Capo Colonna, or the Cape of the Column.
9. Petalia Prorzontoriuni, a promontory of Eubcea, at the
southwestern extremity of the island. It is now Cape Carysto.
10. Gercestus Prornontoriuzn, to the east of the preceding, and
at the southeastern extremity of the island. It is now Cape
3Iantelo. Here, as we learn fiom Strabo, was a celebrated
temple dedicated to Neptune. 11.'Capharedus Promnontoriunz,
north of the preceding, and now Cape D' Oro. It was famed
for the shipwreck of the Grecian fleet returning from Troy, a
disaster brought about by the false beacons which Nauplius,
king oi' the country, set uip f)r this purpose, in order to avenge
the death of his son Palaecdes. 12. Chersonesus Promonto1riunt, on thel eastern coast of Eubea, and to the northwest of
the preceding.  it is now Cape Cherronisi. 13. Phalasia.Pron2oontorimll on the same coast, higher up, now Cape Kandili. 14. Artemliiuz n Proznontoriunm, about the middle of the
northern coast, and deriving its name from a temple of Artemis
(Diana) in its vicinity.  )ff this coast the Greeks gained their
first victory over the fleet of Xerxes. The modern name, accordingr to Mannert, is Cape Syrochori.  15. Centeum Prom.ontoriumn, the extreme point of Eubcea to the northwest, and
projecting into the Sinus Mlaliacus.  It is now Cape LiL
tha-da.




486                AN C I E NT G E OGRA P   Y.
16. Posidiunm Promontorium, a promontory of Thessaly, m
the district of Phthiotis, and closing the Sinus Pagasweus to.the south.  It is now Cape Stauro.    17. LEantium Promontorium, a promontory of Thessaly, in the same district, to the
north of the preceding, and closing the' Sinus Pagaseus on the
Magnesian side.    It is now Cape Trikeri or Volo.    18. Magnesiwc  Promontorium, or    slagnesium Promontorium, a promontory of Thessaly, at the southeastern extremity of Magnesia,
and now IIagios Georgrios, or Cape St. George.       19. Sepias
Promontorium, to the northwest of the preceding, and on the
same coast of Magnesia, now probably the cape which bears
the modern name of Hacios Demetrios, or St. Demetrius.
Leake, however, makes it the same with Cape St. George.
This promontory is celebrated in mythology as the spot where
Peleus lay in wait for Thetis, and whence he carried off the
goddess. In history it is famed as the scene of the great disaster which befell the Persian ships in the expedition of Xerxes.
Near it were some rocks or shoals called Ipni ('Irrvoi), or the'~ Ovens," which in modern maps are styled Ipnous, and lie to
the north of Hagios Demetrios.
OBS. In making the promontory of Sepias distinct from, and to the northwest
of that of Magnesia, we have followed the maps of Cramer, Perthes, and the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. D'Anville's wonted accuracy
deserts him when he makes Sepias and the Magnesian promontory one and the
same. It is manifest, from the language of Herodotus (vii., 193), that they were
entirely distinct, and that the former lay above the latter; for he makes the
Persian fleet double the Magnesian promontory after having left that of Sepias,
and the scene of their disaster in its vicinity. So, again, as regards the modern
name of Sepias, Leake evidently confounds it with that of the Magnesian promontory, erring with D'Anville, as his map shows, in making the two promontories the same.
10. GULFS AND BAYS.
(A.) On the Western Side of Greece.
I. Sinus AmbracZus, between Epirus and Acarnania, now
the Gulf of Arta. Scylax calls it the Bay of Anactorium, and
observes that the distance from its mouth to the farthest extremity was one hundred and twenty stadia, while the entrance
was scarcely four stadia broad. The entrance of this gulf resembles the passage called the Sleeve, at the entrance of the
Baltic.  On the southern side of the straits was the city aind
promontory of Actium, the scene of the great naval action be




GRa CIA.                    487
tween Octavianus and Antony, Sept. 2, B.C. 31. and which decided the fate of the Roman world.
II. Sinus Corinthiacus, now Gulf of Lepanto or Corinth, an
arm of the sea running in between the northern shore of the
Peloponnesus and the coasts of.Etolia, Phocis, and Boeotia.
It formed, also, several small bays or inlets along these coasts,
the most important of which was the Sinus Crisseus, or Gulf
of Salona. The victory of Don John of Austria, in 1571, over
the Turkish fleet, has immortalized the name of the Gulf of
Lepanto in modern history.
III. Sinus Cyparissius, an extensive gulf off the coast of
Elis, extending from the Pheia Pronontorium in the north to
the Cyparissium Promontoriumr in the south. Pliny makes
it seventy-two miles ia circumference. It is now the Gulf of
Arcadia. The ancient name was derived from the town of
Cyparissia, at the lower extremity.
(B.) On the Southern Side.
I. Sinus MZessenidcus, on the southern coast of Messenia, and
running some distance up into the land. It extended from the
promontory of Acritas on the west to that of Thyrides on the
southeast. It is now the Gulf of Coron, and is so called from
the modern town of Coron, near the site of the ancient Colonides, on its western shore. Another ancient name was the
Sinus Asinweus, from the town of Asine, a little above the promontory of Acritas.
II. Sinus Laconicus, on the southern coast of Laconia, from
the promontory of Tendrurm to that of Onugnathus. It was
sometimes called Gytheates Sinus, from the town of Gythium
at its head. The modern name is the Gulf of Colokythia.
Pliny makes it one hundred and six miles in circuit, and thirtynine in width.
III. Sinus Bosaticus, to the east of the preceding, between
the promontory of Onugnathus and that of Malea. Its ancient
name was derived from the town of Bwte, at its southeastern
extremity.  It is now the Gulf of Vathika.
(C.) On the Eastern Side.
I. Sinus Argolicus, on the coast of Argolis, and washing also
a part of the eastern shore of Laconia. It is now the Gulf of




488             ANCIENT GE O G APHIY.
NTaupliz3  or Napoli, which latter is the more correct appellation, and is derived from Napoli di Romania, the ancient Nauplia.
If. Sinus Saronicus, between Argolis and Attica, and having the territories of Corinthia and Megaris at its head. At
its mouth it extends from the promontory of Scyllceum to that
of Sunium. It is now the Gulf of Engia, from the modern
name of Egina, which island lies about the centre of it. The
ancient name, according to Pliny, is derived from the old Greek
word naprvip, " an oak," the shores of this gulf having at one
time been covered with groves of oak.
III. Sinus Opuntius, on the coast of the Locri Opuntii, and
washing a portion of the northeastern shore of Bceotia. It is
now the Gulf of Talanta, from the modern name of the island
of Atalanta, lying in it near the shore.
IV. Sinus Malidcus, between the coast of Thessaly to the
north and that of Phocis to the south. It is now the Gulf of
Zeitoun, from a neighboring town of that name. The ancient
appellation was derived from the Malians (MaLteig), who occupied a large portion of the shores of this gulf on the west.
On the lower shore of the Sinus Maliacus was the famous pass
of Thermopylce.
V. Sinus Pagasceus, on the coast of Thessaly, to the northeast of the preceding, and now the Gulf of Volo. The ancient
name is derived from Pagasce, the ancient port of lolcos, at
its upper extremity. The modern appellation comes from the
town of Volo, near the ancient Iolcos.  This bay was also
called, anciently, Pagaseticus Sinus and Pagasites Sinus.
11. ADJACENT SEAS.
I. Mare Ionium, or Ionian Sea, lying along the western
shores of Greece, and of which the lonicus Sinus formed a
part, answering at one time to the Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice.
Consult page 269, Obs.
II. Mare Sicilum, or Sicilian Sea, that portion of the Mare
[onium which adjoins Sicily.
III. Mare Libycum, or Libyan Sea, the sea which washed
the southern coast of the Peloponnesus, and which took its name
from the great Libyan or African continent, which it served to
separate from Greece.




GRYCCIA.                    48&
IV. Miare Creticum, or the Cretan Sea, dividing Greece from
the celebrated island of Crete.
V. Mare JEgezum, or ZEgean Sea, that portion of the Mediterranean which was bounded on the north by Macedonia and
Thrace, on the west by Greece, on the east by Asia Minor, and
which was comprised between the 41st and 36th degrees of latitude.  The modern name is the Archipelago, a corruption
manifestly of the ancient AlyaZov IIeaayoo. The origin of this
ancient appellation is altogether doubtful. Strabo thinks it
probable that it was derived from iEgee, a city of Euboea, on
the inner coast, and about midway between Chalcis and the
upper extremity of the island. Others, more fabulously, derive the name from  ZEgma, a queen of the Amazons, who
perished in this sea; or from IEgeus, the father of Theseus,
who threw himself into it. Others, again, derive it from alyi~,.
" a squall," from the violent and sudden storms which render
it dangerous to sailors even in the present improved state of
nautical science. This sea contains numerous islands, many
of which are undoubtedly of volcanic orig'. Of these, the
more southern are divided into two groups: le called the Sporddes, or scattered islands, lying along the coasts of Caria and
Ionia; the other called the Cyclddes, or circling islands, lying
off the coast of Attica and the Peloponnesus, from which they
were separated by the Myrtoan Sea, and occupying a large
portion of the southern IEgean. Another part of the JEgean,
lying about Icaria, one of the Sporades, was called the Icarian
Sea. The northern part of the AEgean contains fewer but
larger islands; the principal of these were Chios, Lesbos, Lemnos, Thasos, and Eubcea. At the northeast corner it communicated with the Propontis. now the Sea of MlIarmara, by the
narrow strait called Hellespontus, now the Dardanelles. The
Turks call the Archipelago the White Sea, to distinguish it
from the Black Sea or Euxine.
V. Mlare Myrtoum, or Myrtoan Sea, the part of the 2Egean
between Attica and the Peloponnesus on one side, and the Cyclades on the other, and extending from the lower extremity
of Euboea to the promontory of Malea, now Cape St. Angelo,
at the southeastern extremity of Laconia. It is said to have
derived its name froth the island of Myrtos, lying to the west
of the southern extremity of Eubcea.




490                ANCIENT GEOGRA1 PHY.
12. GR2ECIA     MORE IN DETAIL.
1. TIIESSALIA.
(A.) NAME ANT) BOUNDARIES.
I. EARLY traditions, preserved by the Greek poets and other
writers, ascribe to Thessaly the more ancient names of Pyrrha,
IEvmonia, and JEolis.     The two former of these belong to the
age of mythology; the latter refers to that remote period when
the plains of Thessaly were inhabited by the.Eolian Pelasgi,
previous to the occupation of any part of it by the Thessalians.
II. The Thessalians, according to Herodotus, came originally
from Thesprotia in Epirus, and from them the country we are
now describing derived its future name. At what time, however, it received this appellation can not be determined.'It
-does not occur in the poems of Homer, from whom         we derive
our earliest information about this part of Greece, although the
several principalities of which it was composed at the time of
the Trojan war are there enumerated, together with the different chiefs by whom they were governed.
III. Thessaly was bounded on the north by the chain called
Olympus and the Cambunian Mountains, which separated it
from Macedonia; on the west by the chain of Mount Pindus,
separating it from   Epirus; on the east by the iEgean Sea;
and on the south by the chain of Mount (Eta.
(B.) ASPECT AND PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE COUNTRY.
I. IT seems to have been the general opinion of antiquity, founded on very
early traditions, that the great basin of Thessaly, formed by the mountain chains
just mentioned, was at some remote period covered by the waters of the Peneus and its tributary rivers, until some great convulsion of nature had rent
asunder the gorge of Tempe, and thus afforded a passage to the pent-up streams.
This opinion, which was first reported by Herodotus, in his account of the celebrated march of Xerxes, is again repeated by Strabo, who observes, in confirmation of it, that the Peneus, in his time, was still exposed to frequent inundations, and also that the land of Thessaly is higher toward the sea than towaird
the more central parts.
II. The plains of Thessaly were among the most fertile and productive in
Greece in wine, oil, and grain, but more especially in grain, of which a considerable quantity was exported. The Thessalians consequently became very rich,
and luxurious in their mode of life; and so notorious were they for it, that they
were charged with having encouraged the Persians to invade Greece, with a
view of rivalling them in sensuality and extravagance. Thessaly was also famous for its cavalry, who were the best in Greece; its plains supplying not
only ample room for exercise, but also abundance of forage for horses.




GR     ECTA.                       491
III. The lands of Thessaly were not cultivated bythe Thessalians themselves,
but by a subject population, the Penestce. The account given of them is, that
they were the descendants of the AEolian Bo-otians, who did not emigrate when
their country was conquered by the Thessalians, but surrendered themselves to
the conquerors, on condition that they should remain in the country, and cultivate the land for the new owners of the soil, paying, by way of rent, a portion
of its produce. Many of them were richer than their lords. They sometimes
accompanied their masters to battle, and fought on horseback as their vassals.
They formed a considerable portion of the population, and frequently attempted
to emancipate themselves.
(C.) SKETCH OF THESSALIAN HISTORY.
I. THE earliest information about the history of Thessaly is given by Homer
(II.. ii., 710), who describes the country as divided into several independent
principalities and kingdoms, and enumerates the chiefs, as before remarked, to
whom they were subject et the time of the Trojan war. This arrangement,
however, was not of long continuance, and a new constitution, dating probably
from that epoch, was adopted, as it would seem, by the common consent of the
different states. They agreed to unite in one confederate body, under E president or Tagus, elected by the members of the confederacy.
II. It does not, however, seem that this confederation was productive of any
great benefit to the country; for, except during a very short period, under Jason of Pherae, Thessaly never assumed that rank among the states of Greece
to which it was by its position and extent entitled. Many of the cities, moreover, were from time to time in the power of usurpers, or under the sway of
powerful families, so that the nation had no means of acting as a body. One
remarkable instance of this occurred at the time of the Persian war, when the
Thessalian house of the Aleuadae, the princes of Larissa, either because they
thought their power insecure, or with a view to increase it by becoming vassals
to the Persian king, invited Xerxes to the conquest of Greece.
III. After the Persian invasion, the Greek historians take little notice of the
affairs of Thessaly, except on the occasion of the expedition undertaken by the
Athenians for the purpose of reinstating Orestes, son of Echecratidas, a king
of Thessaly, as Thucydides (i., 1l1) calls him, who had been banished from his
country. The Athenian general Myronides marched on that occasion as far as
Pharsalus, but he was checked in his progress by the Thessalians, who were
superior in cavalry, and was forced to retire without having accomplished the
objects of his expedition.
IV. In the Peloponnesian war, the Thessalians did not, as a nation, take any
part, though several of the towns were in favor of the Athenians, between whom
and the Thessalians there was an old alliance. In B.C. 394, the Thessalians
were in league with the Boeotians and their allies, who had formed a hostile
confederacy against Sparta. The Spartans thought it necessary to recall from
Asia their great commander Agesilaus, and on his way home he had to march
through Thessaly. The Thessalians, with their cavalry, endeavored to harass
and obstruct him on his march. His skillful manceuvres, however, thwarted
their designs, and Agesilaus gained considerable credit by defeating on their
own ground, with horsemen of his own training, the most renowned cavalry of
Greece.
V. While Sparta, however, was struggling to make head against the formidable coalition of which Bceotia had taken the lead, Thessaly was acquiring
a degree of importance and weight among the states of Greece w.ich it had




.192               ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
nr rf r possessed in any former period of its history. This was effected, apparuntll, solely by the energy and ability of Jason, who, from being chief or tyrant of Pherae, had risen to the rank of Tagus, or commander of the Thessalian
states. By his influence and talents the confederacy received the accession of
several important cities; and an imposing military force, amounting to eight
thousand cavalry, more than twenty thousand heavy infantry, and light troops
sufficient, as Xenophon observes, to oppose the world, had been raised and fitted
by him for the service of the commonwealth. His other resources being equally
effective, Thessaly seemed destined, under his direction, to become the leading
power of Greece. We may estimate the influence that he had already acquired
from the circumstance of his having been called upon to act as mediator between
the Boeotians and Spartaris after the battle of Leuctra.
VI. This brilliant period of political influence and power was, however, of
short duration, as Jason not long after lost his life by the hand of an assassin,
during the celebration of some games he had instituted; and Thessaly, on his
death, relapsed into that state of weakness and insignificance from which it
had so lately emerged. The Thessalians, finding themselves unable to defend
their liberties, continually threatened by the tyrants of Pherae, successors of
Jason, first sought the protection of the Boeotians, who sent to their aid a body
of troops commanded by the brave Pelopidas. They next applied for assistance
to Philip of Macedon, who succeeded in defeating, and finally expelling, these
oppressors of their country; and by the important services thus rendered to the
Thessalians, secured their lasting attachment to his interests, and finally obtained the presidency of the Amphictyonic council.
VII. Under the skillful management of Philip, the troops of Thessaly became
a most important addition to the resources he already possessed, and to this
powerful re-enforcement may probably be attributed the success which attended
his campaign against the Boeotians and Athenians. On the death of Philip, the
states of Thessaly, in order to testify their veneration for his memory, issued
a decree, by which they confirmed to his son Alexander the supreme station
which he had held in their councils, and also signified their intention of supporting his claims to the title of commander-in-chief of the whole Grecian confederacy.
VIII. The long absence of Alexander, while engaged in distant conquests,
subsequently afforded his enemies an opportunity of detaching the Thessalians
from his interests; and the Lamiac war, which was chiefly sustained by that
people against his generals Antipater and Craterus, had nearlyproved fatal to
the Macedonian influence, not only in Tiessaly, but over the whole continent
of (.reece. Byv the conduct and ability of Antipater, however, the contest was
brought to a successful issue, and Thessaly was preserved to the Macedonian
clown until the reign of Philip, son of Demetrius, from whom it was wrested
by the Romlans after the victory of Cynoscephalae.
IX. All Thessalv was now dec;ared free and independent by a decree of the
senate and people, but from that time it may be fairly considered as having
passed under the dominion of Rome, though its possession was still disputed
by Antiochus, and again by Perseus the son of Philip. Thessaly was already a
Roman province when the fate of the empire of the vorld was decided in the
plains of Pharsalus.
(D.) DI;vslox OF THrE COU-NTRY.
T. ACCORDING to Strabo, Thessaly was divided into four dis



GRAECIA.                           493
tricts, distinguished by the names of Phlthlitis, Hesticeotis,
Thessaliotis, and Pelasgiotis.
II. As this arrangement of Strabo, however, appears to omit
some districts which are more commonly known in history by
different names, the following nomenclature of the Thessalian
cantons appears decidedly preferable, and we will proceed to
describe them in the order in which they are here placed: 1.
Hesticeotis.   2. Pelasgiotis, including the country of the Perrhcebi.   3. Phthiotis.   4. Dolopia.     5. Magnesia.      6. Malienses.   7. 2Enianes.
1. HESTI OTIS.
I. Hestieotis, according to Strabo, was that portion of Thessaly which lay near
Pindus, and between that mountain chain and Macedonia. This description applies to the upper valley of the Peneus, and the lateral valleys which descend
into it from the north and west. The same writer elsewhere informs us, that,
according to some authorities, this district was originally the country of the
Dorians, who certainly are stated by Herodotus and others to have once occupied the regions of Pindus, but that afterward it took the name of Hestiaeotis,
from a district in Euboea so called, whose inhabitants were transplanted into
Thessaly by the Perrhaebi.
II. The most northern part of Hestiaeotis was possessed by the AXthices, a
tribe of uncertain but ancient origin, since they are mentioned by Homer, who
states that the Centaurs, when expelled by Pirithous from Mount Pelion, withdrew to the iEthices. Marsyas, a writer cited by Stephanus Byzantinus, describes the AEthices as a most daring race of barbarians, whose object was
robbery and plunder.
III. Mount Pindus, in this district, has already been described in general
terms (page 471). This mountain range, striking off nearly southward from
the southern face of Olympus, formed the boundary between Thessaly and
Epirus, and separated the waters falling into the Ionian Sea and Ambracisn
Gulf from those streams which discharged themselves into the 2Egean. The
most frequented passage from northern Epirus into Thessaly appears to have
led over that part of the chain of Pindus called Mons Cercetius, and which was
near the sources of the Aous. The modern Mount Zygos, or else that of Ian
Cantara, in its immediate neighborhood, appears to indicate the ancient Mons
Cercetius.
PLACES IN      HESTIT    OTIS.
1. Phaleria or Phaloria, the first town which presented
itself on entering Thessaly by Mount Cercetius. It was captured and burned by Flamininus. Its site coincides, according
to Leake, with that of the modern Ardham.n          2. Pialia, to the
northwest of the preceding, now Sklatina, according to Leake.
Cramer, however, says its ruins are still called Piali.    3. JEginiunm according to Leake, to the northwest of Phaleria, and
now   Stagozus, or, as the Turks call it, Kalabachi.        Cramer,




49 4               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
on the other hand, places it to the southeast of Phaleria, near
the modern Mocossi.     Leake's opinion appears the more correct
one. Livy describes iEginium as a place of very great strength.
4. Gomphi, according to Cramer and others, some distance to
the southeast of Phaleria, and near the left bank of the Peneus;
bit, according to Leake and Kiepert, near the River Pamisus,
toward its source, and in the southwestern angle of the country, not far from the passes leading to Ambracia. It was a
place of considerable strength, and regarded as the key of Thessaly on the side of Epirus. Caesar describes it as a large and
opulent city. Cramer makes it correspond to the modern Stagous; but Leake, more correctly, to Episcopi, an insulated
height near Rapsista. 5. Tricca, to the southeast of Phaleria,
according to Cramer; but, according to Leake, to the southwest of it. It was situate on the Lethmus, a small tributary
of the Peneus, and possessed a temple of ZEsculapius, which
was held in great veneration. Close to the Lethoeus IEsculapius was said to have been born. The modern Triccala answers, in all probability, to the ancient Tricca. 6. Metropolis,
to the northeast of Tricca, according to Cramer. It must not
be confounded with another place of the same name in Dolopia
Leake places the former near the modern Turnazo.
2. PELASGIOTIS.
I. ACCORDING to Strabo, the lower valley of the Peneus, as far as the sea, had
been first occupied by the Perrhebi, an ancient tube apparently of Pelasgic origin.
On the northern bank of the great Thessalian rver, they had peopled also the
mountainous tract bordering on the Macedonian districts of Elimiotis and Pieria,
while to the south they stretched along the base of Mount Ossa, as far as the
shores of the Lake Bebeis. These possessions were, however, in course of
time, wrested from them by the Lapithe, another Pelasgic nation, whose original abode seems to have been in the vales of Ossa and the Magnesian district.
Yielding to these more powerful invaders, the greater part of the Perrhaebi retired, as Strabo informs us, toward Dolopia and the ridge of Pindus; but some
still occupied the valleys of Olympus, while those who remained in the plains
became incorporated with the Lapithae, under the common name of Pelasgiota!.
II. The territory occupied by the Perrhaebi seems to have been situated chiefly
in the valley of the River Titaresius, now, according to Leake, the Elasonitiko.
Cramer makes the Titaresius to be now the Saranta Poros (Sarandaforo), but
this is merely the modern name of one of its branches. Around the upper part
of the course pursued by this river lay a peculiar district called Tripolis, from
its containing three principal towns, Pythium, Doliche, and Azorus, and which
was connected with Macedonia by a narrow defile over the Cambunian Mouitains. This was the pass of Volustana, now Volutza, already alluded to (page
445).




GR     CIA.                       495
III. The two principal passes which led over Mount AOympus into the territory ot the Perrhaebi were those of Callipeuce and Petra, The former was the
one by which the Roman army under Q. Marcius made their perilous march into
Macedonia. The latter led to Pythium in Thessaly by the back of Olympus, and
was commanded by the fortress of Petra. Nothing can more strongly show
the importance of this latter pass than the many occasions on which it is noticed in connection with the military operations of the ancients.
PLACES IN PELASGI6TIS.
COMMENCING with the district of Tripolitis, we have, 1. Pyth
ium, which appears to have stood exactly at the foot of Olympus, as well from its having been the point from which Xenagoras, a geometrician and poet, measured the perpendicular
height of Olympus, as from its having been in the road across
the mountain by Petra. Its name Was derived from a temple
of Apollo Pythius, in whose honor games were here celebrated.
2. Doluche, the second city of Tripolitis, to the southwest of
Pythium.     Its site corresponds to the village of Duklista.    3.
Azorus, to the southwest of Doliche, and the third city of Tripolitis.  Leake places it at Vuvala.       To the east of Azorus,
and near the base of Olympus, some geographers place a city
named Bodona or Dodona Thessalica.          The actual existence
of such a place, however, has been disproved by Leake.
Leaving Tripolitis,,and proceeding to the southeast, we come
to, 1. Eudierum, a fortress answering now to Konispoli, and
lying beyond the Lake Ascuris, now Mavro Limne, or Ezero.
2. Gonnus, to the southeast of the preceding.        According to
Livy, it was twenty miles from Larissa, and close to the entrance of the gorge of Tempe. It was strongly fortified by
Perseus in his first campaign against the Romans, and became
one of the keys of Macedonia.      Hawkins is wrong in placing
it on the right bank of the Peneus; it stood on the left, or Olympian, side of the river.
The beautiful Vale of Tempe, which has already been alluded to (page 481),
may here be more particularly noticed. It lies between Mount Olympus on the
north and Ossa on the south, and is traversed throughout its whole length by
the River Peneus in a gentle course. Tempe is five miles in length, and is often
so narrow as to afford room only for the river and a caravan to travel side by
side. It is, in fact, a narrow, rocky defile, inclosed on each side by lofty and
perpendicular heights, and is, as its name indicates, a cleft or chasm between
Olympus and Ossa. The ancients in general believed that the gorge of Tempe
was caused by some great convulsion of nature, which burst asunder the great
mountain barrier by which the waters that covered the plains of Thessaly in
early days were pent up, and thus afforded them an egress to the sea. The




496              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.;reeks and Roman:# equently allude to the beautiful scenery of Tern, ZnU.ltlan, in particular, s left a glowing description of it. Modern trave'iers,
also, are kiud in its pr.:se. Tempe is now called by the modern Greeks Lycostomo; by the Turks, Bogaz, this latter woid signifying, il the Turkish langulage
a pass or strait.
3. Elai ia, according to Cramer, to the southwest of 0oonrns;
whereas Leake places it to the south, and on the other side of
the Peneus. It was occupied by Perseus in his first campaign
against the Romans. 4. Gyrton or Gyrtone, in the angle between the Titaresius and Peneus, and, according to Leake,
answering to the modern Tatari. It was probably the same
with the city of the Phlegym, mentioned by Homer.    This
place is frequently alluded to in the account of the wars between the Macedonians and Romans. 5. Phalanna, north of
Gyrton, and beyond the Titaresius. Its ruins, according to
Leake, are on a height above the village of Karadjoli. Cramer,
less accurately, places Phalanna to the west of Gyrton, and
makes it answer to Turnavo. 6. Larissa, to the southeast of
Gyrton, and on the right bank of the Peneus. It was one of
the most ancient and flourishing cities of Thessaly, and still
retains its name and position. The appellation Larissa was
peculiar to the Pelasgi, and wherever it is found in the ancient
world it indicates a Pelasgic settlement. Some writers have
supposed that Homer means Larissa by his Argos Pelasgicum,
but, as Leake remarks, the Argps Pelasgicum of the poet appears to be, not a city, but a district. Larissa stood in a very
fertile part of the country, but still its territory was subject to
great losses by the inundations of the Peneus. The.Aleuadae,
mentioned by Herodotus as princes of Thessaly at the time of
the Persian invasion, were natives of this city.
7. Atrax, according to Cramer, to the southwest of Larissa,
and on the right bank of the Peneus; but, according to Leake,
to the northwest, and answering now to Gunitza. Atrax was
only ten Roman miles from Larissa. It was famed for its
green marble, known by the name of Atracium Marnor. 8.
Cranon or Crannon, to the southeast of Atrax, and one of the
most ancient and considerable towns of this part of Thessalv.
Its site is near the modern Hadjilar.  Near Cranon was a
spring, which possessed, according to Theophrastus, the property
of warming wine when mixed with it, and keeping it w:.m for
two or tlhee days. 9. Scotussa, to the southe-st of the preced



G R.E CIA.                         497
inL  and often noticed by ancient authors.''"was a short distance to the northwest of Pherae, and wit          on one occasion
Treacherously occupied and plundered by Alexander, the tyrant
of that place.   Its ruins are near the modern Supli.        Within
the territory of Scotussa were the heights of Cynoscephalce, famous for the victory gained there by the consul T. Quintius
Flamininus over Philip, king of Macedonia, B.C. 197.              10.
Pherce, to the southwest of the Lake Boebeis.        Cramer's map
less correctly places it near the lake's southern extremity. Its
site answers in part to that of the modern Velestino.         Phere
was one of the most ancient and important cities of Thessaly,
and the capital of Admetus in the heroic age.         At a later period, Jason, a native of Pheree, became master not only of his
own city, but nearly the whole of Thessaly.        It came not long
after into the power of another tyrant, Alexander, the same
into whose hands Pelopidas fell. It passed subsequently to the
Macedonian rule.      Strabo says that the constant tyranny under
which this city labored hastened its decay.       The fountains of
Hyperea and Messeis, celebrated by Homer and other poets,
are generally supposed to have belonged to this ancient city.
3. PITHIoTIS.
I. ACCORDING to Strabo, Phithiotis included all the southern part of Thessaly
as far as Mount CEta and the Maliac Gulf. To the west it bordered on Dolopia,
and on the east it reached the confines of Magnesia. Referring to the geographical arrangement adopted by Homer, we shall find that he comprised within this
extent of territory the districts of Phthia and Hellas properly so called, and, generally speaking, the dominions of Achilles, together with those of Protesilaus
and Eurypylus.
II. Many of Homer's commentators have imagined that Phthia was not to he
distinguished from the divisions of Hellas and Achaia, also mentioned by him;
but other critics, as Strabo observes, were of a different opinion, and the expressions of the poet certainly lead us to adopt that notion in preference to the
other. Again, it has been doubted whether, under the name of Hellas, Homer
meant to designate a tract of country or a city. Those who inclined to the
former opinion applied the term to that portion of Thessaly which lay between
Pharsalus and Thebce Phthioticce, while those who contended for the latter identified it with the ruins of Hellas, in the vicinity of Pharsaius, close to the River
Enipeus and the town of Mcilcea.
III. The Phthiote were separated apparently from the Melians by Mount
('.rys, which, branching out from the chain of Pindus, closed the great basin
of'F.hessaly to the south, and served, at the same time, to divide the waters
which flowed northward into the Peneus from those received by the Sperchius.
This i, /untain is often celebrated by the poets of antiquity. At present it is
known, according to Leake, by the name of Mount Icrako. Pouqueville, however, makes it have the different appellations of Hcllovo, Varibovo, and Goura.
I I




498             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PLACES IN PHTHIOTIS.
1. Pharsdlus, situate, according to Strabo, near the River
Enipeus, and not far from its junction with the Apidanus,
which afterward enters the Peneus. The Enipeus is now the
Fersaliti, and the Apidanus the Vlacho Iani.  Pharsalus is
famous in history for the memorable battle fought in its plains
between the armies of Caesar and Pompey, in which the former
was victorious. The plains, or, more correctly speaking, the
territory around the city, was called Pharsalia (QapoaXta),
whence the name of the battle. The ancient site is marked
by the modern Fersala. Livy seems to make a distinction between the old and new.town, since he speaks of a Palceo-Pharsalus. 2. Eretria, between Pharsalus and Pherae, and near the
modern Tzangli. To the southwest of Eretria was Mount
Narthacium, now Nartakion, where Agesilaus defeated a
strong body of Thessalian cavalry, who attacked him on his
return from Asia Minor. Cramer places it too far to the southeast of Pharsalus. 3. Arne, a city of great antiquity, situate
near Mount Titdnus, which mountain Leake places near Peiresic, on the Enipeus, and a short distance from the junction
of that river with the Peneus. Strabo affirms that Arne was
founded by a colony of Bceotians, who had been expelled from
their country by the Pelasgi. Thucydides, on the contrary,
states that the Bceotians were expelled from Arne by the Thessalians, and thus colonized Boeotia, sixty years after the siege
of Troy. 4. Thebce Phlthioticce, to the east of Pharsalus, and
near the shore of the Sinus Pagasceus, or Gulf of Volo. It
was called Phthiotice, to distinguish it from the Bceotian city
of the same name. In a military point of view its importance
was great, as it commanded the avenues of Magnesia and Thessaly from its vicinity to Demetrias, Pherae, and Pharsalus. Its
ruins are situate on a height half a mile to the northeast of
Ak-Ketjel, according to Leake.
5. Pyrcsus, a harbor on the Sinus Pagasaus, just below
Pyrrha Promontorium now Ankistri, and which here terminates the coast of Phthiotis. Close to this headland were two
rocks named Pyrrha and Deucalion, which preserved in their
appellations the tradition of the great Thessalian deluge. 6. Demetrium, a short distance to the west of the preceding.  It




GR ECIA.                    499
took its name from a temple of Demeter or Ceres, which it contained, and must not be confounded with the celebrated city
of Demetrias, which belonged to Magnesia. Proceeding along
the coast in a southerly direction, we come to the River Amphrrysus, celebrated by several poets of antiquity, and fabled to
have been the stream on the banks of which Apollo fed the
flocks of Admetus. It is now called the Armyro, from the
town of that name on its left bank. Leake appears to be in
error with regard to it, and to have mistaken a smaller stream
for this river. 7. Alos or Halos, a little below the mouth of
the Amphrysus, and founded by Athamas, whose memory was
here held in the greatest veneration. This place was called Alos
Phthioticum or Achaicum, to distinguish it from another of
the same name in Locris. 8. Iton, to the west of the preceding, and on the River Cuarius or Coralius. It was celebrated
for a temple of Minerva Itonis, who was also worshipped under
the same name in Bceotia. Leake places the site of this city
a short distance to the southwest of Armqro.  9. Phylace,
placed by Leake to the northwest of Iton; by Cramer, to the
southwest of Alos. It contained a temple consecrated to Protesilaus, and games were celebrated here in his honor. Its site,
according to Leake, is near Ghidek. 10. Larissa Cremaste,
to the south of Phylace. It was situated on the slope of a hill
facing the sea, and hence was called Cremaste, as " hanging"
on the side of the hill just mentioned, which formed a prolongation of Mount Othrys. This epithet served to distinguish it
from the great Larissa, which stood in the midst of a plain.
Larissa was the capital of the dominions of Achilles, who is
hence, as some explain it, called Larissceus by Virgil. The
ruins of Larissa Cremaste are about five or six miles from
Khamako. 11. Aphetce, a port just below Larissa, and now
Fetio. The ancient name is fabled to have been derived from
the departure of the Argonauts from this place, when setting
out on their Colchian expedition. Hence'A(erTai, from d0pi/u.
The bay itself is also called the Bay of Fetio. The promontory
Posidium closes this bay to the south, now Cape Stauro. The
little island of Myonnesus, just below this promontory, is now
the island ofoArgyro.
12. Melitcea, to the southwest of Iton, at the foot of Mount
Othrys, and near the River Enipeus. Strabo informs us that




00                 ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
-its ancient name was Pyrrha, and that it boasted of possessing
the tomb of Hellen, son of Deucalion.   It was also affirmed that
the ruins of the ancient city of Hellas were to be seen about
ten stadia distant on the other side of the Enipeus. Leake
places its site on a lofty hill, at the foot of which stands the
small village of Keuzlar; Cramer, in the vicinity of Goura,
which lies considerably south of Keuzlar.     13. Thaumdci, to
the west of the preceding, and now Dhomoko.        It is said to
have derived its name from the singularity of its situation, and
the astonishment produced on the minds of travellers upon first
reaching it (0avlzaioi, from  9av4ta, "wonder").  "You arrive,"
says Livy, in describing it, " after a very difficult and rugged
route over hill and dale, when you suddenly open on an immense plain like a vast sea, which stretches below as far as the
eye can reach." The town was situated on a lofty and perpendicular rock, which rendered it a place of great strength.
Dodwell says that the view from Dhomoko is one of the most
wonderful and extensive that he ever beheld.
4. DOLOPIA.
I. THE ancient Dolopians appear to have been early established in that southwestern angle of Thessaly formed by the chain of Pindus on one side, and
Mlount Othrys branching out of it on the other. By the latter mountain they
were separated from the XEnianes, who were in possession of the upper valley
of the Sperchius, while to the west they bordered on the Phthiotee, with whom
they were connected as early as the siege of Troy. This we learn from Homer,
who represents Phcenix, the Dolopian leader, as accompanying Achilles thither
in the double capacity of preceptor and ally.
II. Xenophon, at'a later period, enumerates the Dolopians among the subjects
of Jason, tyrant of Pheras. We afterward find Dolopia a frequent subject of
contention between the.Etolians, who had extended their dominion to the borders of this district, and the kings of Macedon. It was finally conquered by
Perseus, the last Macedonian monarch.
PLACES IN DOLOPIA.
THESE were few in number, and of little note.       We may
mention, 1. Ctzmene or Ctemene, perhaps the most important
of all. Stephanus mentions the tradition of its having been
ceded by Peleus, father of Achilles, to Phoenix.     Livy gives
the form of the name corruptly as Cymnine. It is supposed to
have stood near the northwestern shore of the Jake Xynias,
now the Lake of Taukli, and the name Ctemeno is still attached to a site in this quarter. 2. Phalachthia, to the nortit.




GRE C I A.                         501
west of Ctimene, and. now Falaclia.       3. Sosthcnis, to the west
of the preceding, said still to retain its name, and near the
sources of the River Phoenix, now the Emicassos, and a tributary of the Apidanus.      4. Metropolis, to the north of the preceding according to Cramer, but some distance to the northwest according to Leake. It must not be confounded with the
place of the same name in Estieotis.
5. MAGNESIA.
1. THE Greeks gave the name of Magnesia to that narrow portion of Thessaly
which is confined between the mouth of the Peneus and the Sinus Pagasseus to
the north and south, and between the chain of Ossa and the sea on the west and
east. The people of this district were called Magnates, and appear to have been
in possession of it from the most remote period.
II. Among the mountains in this district may be mentioned, 1. Mount Hom6e,
the extreme point of Magnesia to the north. It was probably a portion of the
chain of Ossa, and was celebrated by the poets as the abode of the ancient Centaurs and Lapithae, and a favorite haunt of Pan. From Pausanias we learn that
it was extremely fertile, and well supplied with springs and fountains. One Of
these was apparently the Libethrian fountain, spoken of by Pliny and Lycophron.
Strabo says that Mount Homole was near the mouth of the Peneus, and Apollbo
nius describes it as close to the sea. 2. Mount Ossa, named by the modern
Greeks Kissovo, and extending from the right bank of the Peneus along the
Magnesian coast to the chain of Pelion. It was supposed that Ossa and Olympus were once united, but that an earthquake had rent them asunder, thus forming, as already remarked, the vale or defile of Tempe. This locality, too, was
famous in the legends of poetry, the giants, in their attempt to scale the heavens,
having sought to pile Ossa upon Olympus, and Pelion upon Ossa. 3. Mount
Pelion, whose principal summit rises behind Iolcos and Ormenium, forms a chain
of some extent from the southeastern extremity of the Lake Bcebeis, where it
unites with one of the ramifications of Ossa, to the extreme promontory of Magnesia. Homer alludes to this mountain as the ancient abode of the Centaurs,
who were ejected by the Lapithae. It was, however, more especially the haunt
of Chiron, whose cave, as Dicaearchus relates, occupied the highest point of the
mountain. Euripides and other poets speak of the forests of Pelion. On the
most elevated part of the mountain was a temple dedicated to Jupiter Acteeus,
to which a troop of the noblest youths of the city of Demetrias ascended every
year, at the rising of the dog-star, by appointment of the priest, and such was
the cold experienced on the summit that they wore the thickest woollen fleeces
to protect themselves from the inclemency of the weather. Leake makes the
modern name of Pelion Mount Plessidhi.
PLACES IN MAGNESIA.
1. Homolium, at the foot of Mount Homole, and on the right
bank of the Peneus.     It sWood probably near the modern Fteri,
where is now the convent of St. Demetrius.          2. Myrce, below
the mouth of the Peneus, mentioned by Scylax.         3. Eurym6ncw,
below the preceding, and also on the coast.        4. Rhizus, south




502             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of the preceding, and on the coast. Its ruins are a little to the
south of Cape Pozi, and close to the village of that name.
5. Melibeca, on the coast, a little to the south, and assigned by
Homer to Philoctetes. Livy places it at the base of Mount
Ossa, in that part which stretches toward the plains of Thessaly
above Demetrias. Leake fixes its site at a place called Castri,
not far beyond Dhematd, where now exists only a monastery
of St. John Theologus. 6. Lacerea, to the northwest of the
preceding, and close to the shores of the Lake Bebeis. It was
the birth-place of the nymph Coronis, the mother of 2Esculapius. The Lake Boebeis is now the Lake of Carla. 7. Amyrus, southwest of Meliboea, and on a river of the same name.
8. Casthaneea, on the coast below Melibcea, and noticed by
Herodotus in his account of the storm experienced by the fleet
of Xerxes off this coast. According to some, the chestnut (castanea), a tree still abounding on the eastern side of Pelion, derived its appellation from the name of this town, in Greek and
Latin.  The truth, however, is probably the other way, that
the town took its name from the tree. Leake makes the moderA name Port Tamukhari.
9. Thaiumacia, to the south of Casthanaea, and belonging to
the dominions of Philoctetes. It must not be confounded with
Thaumaci of Phthiotis. 10. Magnesia, supposed to have been
situated in the lower part of the peninsula, near the Pagasaean
gulf. Cramer places it too high up. Leake makes it correspond to the modern Argalasti. 11. Ormenium, on the upper
part of the Pagasean gulf, and northwest of the preceding. It
was an ancient city, and is mentioned by Homer. It was said
by some to have been the birth-place of Phoenix, the preceptor
of Achilles. It sank in importance after the founding of Demetrias, from which it was only twenty-seven stadia distant.
12. lolcos, a short distance to the northwest, and a city of great
antiquity.  It was celebrated in the heroic age as the birthplace of Jason and his ancestors. Pindar places it at the foot
of Mount Pelion, and near the small river Anaurus, in which
Jason is said to have lost his sandal. The place was ruined
by the founding of Demetrias in its immediate vicinity. In
Strabo's time the town no longer existed, but the neighboring
shore still retained the name of Iolcos. 13. Pagadse, the port
of Iolcos, and afterward of Pherae. It was said by some to have




GRAECIA.                         503
derived its name from the circumstance of the Argo's having
been built here (Ilayaaai, from rn~yvvpt); but Strabo is of opinion
that it rather owed its appellation to the numerous springs
which were found in its vicinity (IIayaaai, from     7ayat).  Its
site is nearly occupied by the present castle of Volo. Pagass
gave name to the Sinus Pagasceus, now the Gulf of Volo.
14. Demetrias, a short distance to the northwest of Pagase,
and deriving its name from Demetrius Poliorcetes, who founded
it about 290 B.C. It derived its population in the first instance,
as Strabo reports, from the neighboring towns of Nelia, Pagasue,
Ormenium, Rhizus, Sepias, Olizon, &c., all which were finally
included within its territory.  It soon became one of the most
flourishing towns of Thessaly, and, in a military point of view,
was allowed to rank among the principal fortresses of Greece.
It was, in fact, most advantageously placed for defending the
approaches to the defile of Tempe, as well on the side of the
plains as on that of the mountains. Its maritime situation
also, both from its proximity to the island of Eubcea, Attica,
and the Peloponnesus, the Cyclades, and the opposite shores of
Asia, rendered it a most important acquisition to the sovereigns
of Macedonia.    Hence Philip, the son of Demetrius, is said to
have termed it one of the chains of Greece. Demetrias, according to Leake, occupied the southern or maritime face of a height
now called Goritza, which projects from the coast of Magnesia,
between two and three miles to the southward of the middle of
Volo.
6. MALIENSES.
I. THE Malians, oi Mtielc, as they are called by Attic writers, or Malians,
Marr~f, according to the Doric form, which was doubtless their own dialect,
were the most southern tribe belonging to Thessaly. - They occupied principally
the shores of the gulf to which they communicated their name, the Sinus Maliacus, now the Gulf of Zeitoun, and extended as far- as the narrowest part of
the Straits of Thermopylae, and to the valley of the Sperchius, a little above its
entrance into the sea.
II. According to Herodotus, their country was chiefly flat. In some parts the
plains were extensive, in others narrow, being confined on one side by the Malian Gulf, and toward the land by the lofty and inaccessible mountains of Trachinia.
III. Thucydides divides the Melians into three different tribes, which he names
Paralii, Iierenses, and Trachinii. The first were so called from their dwelling
along the sea-coast, the last fr.om their being the occupants of the Trachinian
district. The Hierenses are supposed to have been priest-nobles.




I50;4         ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PLACES AMONG THE MALIENSES.
I. Anticjra, at the mouth of the Sperchius, and famed for
its hellebore, so much recommended by the ancient physicians
as a cure for insanity. It must not be confounded with another
Anticyra, which also produced hellebore, situate in Phocis, on
the Sinus Corinthiacus. The River Sperchius has already been
mentioned (page 481). 2. Lamia, to the northwest of the preceding, about thirty stadia from the Sperchius, and one of the
most considerable of the Malian cities. It is celebrated in history as the principal scene of the war which was carried on between the Macedonians under Antipater, and the Athenians
with other confederate Greeks, commanded by Leosthenes;
from which circumstance it is generally known by the name
of the Lamiac war. Antipater, having been defeated in the
first instance, retired to Lamia, where he was besieged by the
allies; but he afterward contrived to escape from this place,
and retire to the north of Thessaly. The site of Lamia is supposed to correspond to the modern Zeitoun, which, as already
remarked, gives name now to the ancient Sinus Maliacus.
On crossing the Sperchius we enter into the Trachinian district, which took its. name from, 3. The town of Trachis or
Trachin, known to Homer, and assigned by him to Achilles,
together with the whole of the Melian territory. It was here
that Hercules retired after having committed an involuntary
murder, as we learn from Sophocles, who has made it the scene
of one of his deepest tragedies. The town took its name from
the rugged and mountainous character of the country. 4. Her.
aclea Trachinia, about six stadia to the east of Trachis. According to Thucydides, the Lacedaemonians, in the sixth year
of the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 426, at the request of the Trachinians, who were harassed by the mountaineers of CEta, sent
a colony into their country. These, jointly with the Trachinians, built a town, to which the name of Heraclea was given,
distant about sixty stadia from Thermopyle, and twenty from
the sea. It became in time a flourishing city, especially under
the IEtolians, who sometimes held their general council within
its walls. The vestiges of this city may still be traced on a
high flat on the roots of Mount CEta.
Leaving Heraclea, we come to the celebrated defile of Ther.




GREsCIA                     505
moopjle, formed by a morass of the sea on one side, and the
clifs of Mount (Eta on the other.  The word Thermopyle
(Oepaial IIhat, " Warm Gates or Pass") denotes both the narrowness of the defile, and also the vicinity of certain warm
springs. In the immediate vicinity of Anthela, the northern
slope of the mighty and prolonged ridge of (Eta approached so
close to the Maliac Gulf, or, at least, to an inaccessible morass
which formed the edge of the, gulf, as to leave no more than one
single wheel-track between. This narrow entrance formed the
western gate of Thermopylae. At some little distance, seemingly about a mile to the eastward, the same close conjunction
between the mountain and the sea was repeated, thus forming
the eastern gate of Thermopylae, not far from the first town of
the Locrians, called Alpeni.  The space between these two
gates was wider and more open, but it was distinguished, and
is still distinguished, by its abundant flow of thermal springs,
salt and sulphureous.  This copious supply of mineral water
spread its mud and deposited its crust over all the adjacent
ground; and the Phocians had designedly endeavored so to conduct the water as to render the pass utterly impracticable, at
the same time building a wall across it, near to the western
gate. They had done this in order to keep off the attacks of
the Thessalians. It was at Thermopylae that Leonidas and his
little band of heroes withstood the attack of the immense host
of Xerxes, and nobly died in defending the pass. The Greeks
stationed themselves at the wall erected by the Phocians, and
were only overcome when a body of Persians had got in their
rear by a circuitous path over the mountains. The name of
this path, as well as that of this part of the mountain itself, was
Anopca. The modern name of CEta is Katavothra. The
highest summit, according to Livy, was named Callidromus.
It was occupied by Cato with a body of troops in the battle
fought at the Pass of Thermopylae between the Romans under
Acilius Glabrio, and the army of Antiochus; and, owing to
this manceuvre, the latter was entirely routed. At the present
day, CEta and Sperchius form the boundary of the new kingdom of Greece in this quarter; but the whole face of the country has undergone a considerable change since the days of Leonidas. Thermopyle no longer exists as a pass, and, were it
not for the hot springs, it could not be identified with the an.




506                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
cient place. The sea, instead of bordering the defile, is now
at a distance of three or four miles from it
7. 2ENIANES.
I. THE MEnidnes or Enienes were a Thessalian tribe, apparently of great antiquity, but of uncertain origin, whose frequent migrations have been alluded to
by more than one writer of antiquity, but by none more than Plutarch in his
Greek Questions. He states that they occupied, in the first instance, the Dorian Plain; after which they wandered to the borders of Epirus, and finally
settled in the upper valley of the Sperchius.
II. Their antiquity and importance are attested by the fact of their belonging
to the Amphictyonic council. At a later period we find them joining other Grecian communities against Macedonia, in the confederacy which gave rise to the
Lamiac war. But in Strabo's time they had nearly disappeared, having been
exterminated, as that author reports, by the.Etolians and Athamanes, upon
whose territories they bordered.
PLACES AMONG        THE GZENIANES.
1. Hypata, their principal town, on a rising ground or slope
a little distance from the lower bank of the Sperchius. Leake
makes its site correspond to that of the modern Neopatra, called
by the Turks Badrajik.     Cramer places it at Castritza, in the
vicinity of Neopatra. The women of Hypata were famed for
their skill in magic. 2. Sperchic, as its name implies, was
situated near the Sperchius, and was taken and plundered by
the ZEtolians. Cramer places it to the northwest of Hypata,
on the other side of the stream.
Mount Tymphrestus, from which the Sperchius was said to
derive its source, closed the valley of the 2Enianes to the west,
and thus separated them    from  the Athamanes and the small
district of Aperantia.  The modern name of this mountain is,
according to Leake, Velukhi.
2. ACARNANIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE Acarnanians ('AKcapvave) are never mentioned by
Homer, though their neighbors and brethren, the.Etolians, aro;
and this would tend to prove that the name of Acarnanians,
as the name of a people, is not so old as the time of Homer.
They belonged probably, at least in part, to an old and widelydiffused race called the Leleges, and, by gradual intermixture
with Hellenic stock, became, to a certain extent, a Greek people.
In the course of time they formed a kind of union and civil polity,
which Aristotle thought worth describing; but his work is lost.




GRaECIA.                         507
II. Acarnania was bounded on the west and southwest by
the Mare Ionium, or Ionian Sea; on the north by the Sinus
Ambracius, or Gulf of Arta; on the northeast by the territo
ries of the Agrcei and Amphilochi.
The eastern boundary is not so easy to determine. In the
time of Thucydides, it extended east of the River Achelous, and
encroached upon the territory which seemed the property of the
A.Etolians. Under the Romans, however, or somewhat earlier,
the Achelous was made the dividing line.
III. Acarnania finally became part of the Roman province ofEpirus. Its modern name is Carlelia or (arnia, the latter
being an evident corruption of the ancient name.
IV. As the history of the Agrcei and Amphilochi is chiefly
connected with that of Acarnania, we may include them in the
description of this country.
(B.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY, &C.
I. ACARNANIA, like AXtolia, was a mountainous land, but its
hills, clothed with thick forests, were less lofty and rugged.
The valleys of both countries contained extensive lakes, surrounded by rich pastures. Modern travellers in like manner
represent the interior as covered with forests, and mountains
of no great elevation, but wild and deserted, while the valleys
are still filled with several lakes.
II. The Acarnanians, like the.Etolians, were a semi-barbarous people, who possessed none of the taste and refinement
which belonged to the more civilized portion of the Grecian
race. Thucydides testifies that in his time they still retained
much of the rude and primitive mode of living which generally
prevailed in the earliest period of Grecian history.
(C.) SKETCH OF ACARNANIAN HISTORY.
I. THUCYDIDES (who wrote during the Peloponnesian war, which commenced
B.C. 431) is the earliest extant writer that gives us any exact information about
a people called Acarnanians, inhabiting the country which we have called Acarnania. The Acarnanian confederacy is first presented to our notice as leagued
with Athens in the Peloponnesian war. The motive which seems to have
brought about this alliance was principally the enmity subsisting between the
Acarnanians and the republic of Ambracia.
II. The Acarnanians proved valuable allies to the Athenians in this struggle,
successfully opposing a formidable invasion of the Ambraciots and Peloponnesians, and effectually checking all the efforts of the Lacedaemonians in this
quarter. At a subsequent period, however, their country was ravaged by Agesilaus, king of Sparta, and the Acarnanians were compelled to sue for peace.




508                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
III. From this period little is known of the Acarnanian republic, until the
affairs of Greecebecame blended with Roman politics. We find, however, that
it suffered considerably from a coalition formed by Alexander of Epirus and the
zEtolians. Polybius states that on this occasion the Acarnanians lost several
towns, which were divided between the two conspiring parties. Indeed, as
the.Etolians increased in power and importance, they became more formidable
and troublesome neighbors to the Acarnanians; and the latter were frequently
compelled to apply for succour to the Acheans, and to Philip, the second king
of Macedon.
IV. It was their attachment and fidelity to the house of Macedon, and their
hatred of the AEtolians, which caused them to reject the overtures of Q. Flamininus, the Roman commander; but on the siege and capture of Leucas, their
principal town, and the total defeat of Philip at Cynoscephlae, the whole nation
finally submitted to the dominion of Rome.
V. The Amphilochi, to whom we have already referred, occupied the eastern
shores of the Sinus Ambracius, and the mountainous country north of the Agrai.
Like the latter, they were ranked rather with the barbarians than the Greeks;
but Strabo seems to class them with the tribes of Epirotic, not with those of.Etolian origin. They at length formed part, however, of the AEtolian republic,
when that people had so greatly increased their territory, and were afterward
conquered by Philip, son of Demetrius; but, on the recovery of Athamania from
that prince, they were again attached to _Etolia. Their only town was Argos.
VI. The Agrei appear from Thucydides to have been independent of the
Acarnanian confederacy at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. At
a subsequent period, however, they are said to have been conquered by the
Acarnanians and Athenians.
(D.) PLACES IN ACARNANIA, &C.
1. Actium, a point of land at the entrance of the Sinus Ambracius, deriving its chief importance from the sea-fight which
took place near it, in what is now the Bay of Prevesa, between
Octavianus and Antony, when the latter was totally defeated.
The conqueror,'to commemorate his victory, beautified the
Temple of Apollo, which stood at Actium, and erected Nicopolis, or "the City of Victory," on the northern side of the gulf,
in Epirus. The exact site of Actium has been a subject of dispute, some placing it at La Punta, and others at Azio.          The
best recent travellers and geographers are in favor of the former.
D'Anville, who advocates the latter, was misled by the modern
name Azio, which is merely a Venetian' term, probably given
through some misunderstanding as regards the true site. On
D'Anville's map, therefore, and those that are copied from it,
Actium   should have the place of Anactorium.       2. Anactorium,
more within the Sinus Ambracius, and to the southeast of Actium.   Its site, according to Leake, corresponds to that of Aghios Petros, and not to La Punta, as D'Anville maintains.           It




GRa CIA.                    509
was colonized originally by the Corcyreans and Corinthians,
the latter of whom finally obtained sole possession of it. These
were subsequently, however, ejected by the Acarnanians and
Athenians. Anactorium ceased to exist when Augustus transferred its inhabitants to Nicopolis. 3. Argos Amphil6chicum, in
the territory of the Amphilochi, and on the River Inachus now
the Ariadha. It was founded by a colony from Argos in the Peloponnesus, led, according to some, by Amphilochus, son of Amphiaraus, on his return from Troy; according to others, by his
brother Alcmaeon. The inhabitants, having experienced many
calamities, admitted their neighbors, the Ambraciots, into their
society. These, however, subsequently gained the ascendency,
and expelled the original inhabitants, who thereupon applied
for aid to the Acarnanians. The latter, in conjunction with
the Athenians, recovered Argos by force, after which the place
remained for some time in the joint possession of the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Many years after it fell into the
power of the IEtolians. Argos, at a later period, contributed
to the formation of the colony of Nicopolis, and became itself
deserted. Leake places the site at Neokh6ri, near Vlikha.
4. Olpce, a fortified post to the north of the preceding, where
the Acarnanians held a court of justice, and where a decisive
victory was gained by the Acarnanians and Amphilochians
over the Ambraciots and Peloponnesians. Leake places the
site of Gpae at Arapi or in its vicinity. 5. Myrtuntium, a little
distance below Actium, and on a salt-water lake of the same
name. The lake is'new the lagoon of Vulkaria. 6. Echinus,
to the aoqth of the preceding, a town of considerable importance,
and one -of the earliest colonies on this coast. It stood on a
mountain, removed from the sea, and appears to answer now
to Ai Vasili.
7. Leucas or Leucadia to the southwest of the preceding.
This projection of land once formed part of the continent, but
was afterward separated from the main land by a narrow cut,
and became, as it now is, an island, the modern name of which
is Santa Maura, or Lefkadha. The cut itself, three stadia
in length, was called Dioryctos, and the passage through was
somewhat intricate on account of the shallows.  These were
marked out by stakes fixed at certain intervals. Strabo says
that in his time the Dioryctos was crossed by a bridge.  Ae



510             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
cording to Pliny, the earlier name of the peninsula was Neritis.
It was first colonized by a body of Corinthians, to whom Strabo
ascribes the cutting of the channel. This work, however, must
have been posterior to the time of Thucydides, who describes
the Peloponnesian fleet as having been conveyed across the
isthmusson more than one occasion. The city of Leucas was
situate, according to Livy, on the upper part of the narrow
strait which separated the island from the main land. The
same writer states that it was the principal town of Acarnania.
Leake fixes the site at Amaxikhi. 8. Nericum, to the south
of the city of Leucas, and in the same peninsula or island. It
was probably the oldest town in the Leucadian peninsula, and
is mentioned by Homer as having been taken by Laertes before the siege of Troy.  9. The southernmost extremity of
Leucas was called Leucate Promontorium, now Cape Ducato,
and received its ancient name, according to Strabo, from the
white color of the rock. It was celebrated in antiquity for the
lover's leap. Sappho is fabled to have been the first to try the
remedy of this leap, when enamored of Phaon. On the summit of the promontory was a temple of Apollo; and every year,
on the festival of the god, it was customary to hurl from the
cliff some condemned criminal as an expiatory victim. Feathers and even birds were fastened to each side of his person, in
order to break his fall; a number of boatmen were also stationed
below, ready to receive him in their skiffs, and, if they succeeded
in saving him, he was conveyed out of the Leucadian territory.
Returning to'the Acarnanian coast after quitting Leucas,
we find, 10. Palcerus, near the modern Zavedra. 11. Sollium,
now Selavena, a Corinthian settlement. 12. Astacus, below
Crithote Promontorium, now Cape Candili. Its site is thought
to correspond to the modern Tragamesti. It was the chief
maritime city northward of (Eniadce, near the Echinades.
13. (Eniadce, near the mouth of the Achelous, or Aspropotamo,
a little above the sea, and surrounded by marshes, caused by
the overflowing of the river, which rendered it a place of great
strength. It was made still stronger, however, by Philip, son
of Demetrius, king of Macedon, who, aware of the advantage
to be derived from the occupation of a place so favorably situ.
ated with respect to the Peloponnesus, fortified the citadel
and inclosed within a wall both the port and arsenal. The




GRJECIA.                     511
ancient site corresponds, according to Leake, to that of Trikardho. Cramer is*in favor of Gardako.
Opposite the mouth of the Achelous were the islands called
Echinddes, many in number, but which, in process of time, have
for the most part become connected with the land by the alluvial deposits of the muddy waters of the river. These rocks,
as they should rather be termed, were known to Homer, who
mentions them as being inhabited, and as having sent a force
to Troy under the command of Meges, a distinguished warrior
of the Iliad. Dulichium, as it appears, was the principal one
of these islands, and its name occurs more than once in the
Odyssey, as being well peopled and extensive. Its situation has
never been determined by either ancient or modern critics. The
modern Petala, being the largest of the Echinades, and possessing the advantage of two well-sheltered harbors, seems to
have the best claim to be considered the ancient Dulichium.
The group of the Echinades is now commonly known by the
name of Curzolari.
Having terminated our description of the Acarnanian coast,
we will now take a brief survey of the interior of the country. 1. Ascending the Achelous, we find on its right bank
_Enia, the remains of which are to be seen at Palaeo Catouna.
2. Stratus, higher up the Achelous, and also on the right bank
of the stream. It was the principal city of Acarnania, and often
mentioned in history. Leake places the site at the village of
Surovigli.  3. Phytia or Phetice, to the southwest of the preceding, and deriving its name, according to Stephanus, from
Phcetius, son of Alcmmeon.   Leake places its site at Porta.
4. Medeon, to the west of the preceding, and a place of considerable note. It was famed for the siege which it stood on
one occasion against the.Etolians.   Leake thinks that the
ruins near Katuna are those of this ancient city.
ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF ACARNANIA.
These are, 1. Ithaca. 2. Cephallenia. 3. Zacynthus. 4. Telchbo or Taphica
Insull. These now form part of what are termed the Ionian Islands. The
whole number of islands composing the Ionian Republic or Confederation is
seven, namely, Corfu, the ancient'Corcyra; Theaki, the ancient Ithaca; Cephalonia, the ancient Cephallenia; Z&kyntho or Zante, the ancient Zacynthus;
Santa Maura, the ancient Leucas; Paxo, the ancient Paxos; and Cerigo, the
ancient Cythera. They are all under the protection of Great Britain..




512                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
1. ITHACA.
Ithaca, now Theaki, lay directly south of Leucadia, from which it is distant
about six miles. It is celebrated as the native island of Ulysses. Its extent,
however, as given by ancient authorities, does not correspond with modern
computation. Dicaearchus describes it as narrow, and measuring eighty stadia,
meaning probably in length; but Strabo affirms in circumference; which is very
wide of the truth, since it is not less than thirty miles in circuit. Its length is
nearly seventeen miles, but its breadth not more than four. The island throughout was rugged and mountainous, as we learn from more than one passage of
the Odyssey.
OBS. Some modern scholars have raised doubts whether the modern Theaki be the Ithaca of
the Odyssey or not. The question is discussed by Dr. Woordsworth, in his Pictorial History of
Greece, p. 272, seqq. According to Sir W. Gell, the Venetian geographers have in a great degree
contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by
giving in their charts the name of Val di Compare to this island. That name, however, is totally
unknown in the country itself, where the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the upper classes, and
Theaki by the lower. It has been asserted that Ithaca is too inconsiderable a rock to have produced any contingent of ships which could entitle its king to so much consideration among the
neighboring isles; yet the unrivalled excellence of its port has in modern times created a fleet
of fifty vessels of all denominations, which trade to every part of the Mediterranean. (Gell's Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30.)
The highest and most remarkable mountain in the island is that'so often
alluded to under the name of Neritos. According to Dodwell, the modern name
is Anoi, which means " lofty;" he observes, also, that the forests spoken of by
Homer have disappeared; it is at present bare and barren, producing nothing
but stunted evergreens and aromatic plants. Leake speaks of the village of
Anoi, on the side of the mountain. There was another mountain, to which the
poet applies the name of Neion (Ni'ov). Leake supposes this to be the present
mountain of Oxoi.
It is evident, from several passages in the Odyssey, that there was a city
named Ithaca, probably the capital of the island, and the residence of Ulysses.
Leake supposes it to have stood on the harbor at present called Port Polis, the
very name of which favors his supposition, as marking the vicinity of some ancient city. The port called by Homer Phorcys, and which he describes so minutely, is supposed'by Leake to correspond to the modern Skhino, by others to
Port Molo. There was also another haven, called Rheithron, situate apparently
under Mount Neion, and which was in the Bay of Afales, as Leake supposes,
toward Perivolio. The fondness with which Homer dwells on the scenery of
Ithaca gave rise to the erroneous opinion that he was a native of this island.
2. CEPHALLENIA.
Cephallenia, now Cephalonia, lay to the southwest of Ithaca, from which it is
separated by a strait of six miles. Its circumference is little less than one
hundred and twenty miles. The more ancient name of this island, as we learn
from Homer, was Samos. In another part, however, the poet speaks of the
Cephallenians (KeaTAvef) as the subjects of Ulysses. Strabo describes the
island as very mountainous, and gives to the highest ridge the name of Mount
Enos. On the summit was the temple of Jupiter XEnesius. It is now called.
Monte Leone, and is said to be little less than four thousand feet high. Some
remains of the temple still exist. Thucydides speaks of four cities in this island,
namely, 1. Palle or Pale, which is said to have furnished two hundred soldiers
to the army that fought at Plataea. According to Polybius, it was situate in that




GRa     CIA..513
part of the island which looks toward Zacynthus, and possessed an ample and
fertile territory. It appears to have been a place of considerable strength, from
the siege which it was enabled to sustain against Philip of Macedon. The ruins
of this city still exist at Palio, a little to the north of the modern Lixfiri. 2. Crdnii, situate, according to Strabo, on the same gulf With Palle, but on the opposite
shore. According to Holland, it stood on an eminence at the upper end of the
Bay of Argostoli. The site answers to the modern S: Giovanni. 3. Sdme, the
only town in the island noticed by Homer, from which we may infer that it was
the most ancient and considerable. It must have been a place of considerable
strength, from its having stood a vigorous siege of four months against the Romans in 189 B.C. The spot still retains the name of Samo, which is also that
of the bay at the extremity of which it is situated. 4. Proni or Pronesus, an inconsiderable town, close to the sea, and southeast of Same.
3. ZACYNTHUS.
Zacynthus (ZaidvvOor), now Zakyntho or Zante, to the southeast of Cephallenia, and said to have derived its name from Zacynthus, son of Dardanus, an
Arcadian chief. Thucydides states that at a later period this island received a
colony of Achaeans from the Peloponnesus. It was subsequently reduced by
Tolmides, the Athenian general, from which period we find Zacynthus allied to,
or rather dependent upon Athens. At a later period it fell into the hands of
Philip III., king of Macedon, and finally into the power of the Romans.. Pliny
speaks of its fertility. The chief city was also called Zacynthus, and, according
to Strabo, was a considerable place. The citadel was called Psophis, from a
town of the same name in Arcadia, of which Zacynthus, its reputed founder,
was a native. The modern name of the city of Zacynthus is the same as
that of the island. The famous pitch wells, noticed by Herodotus, and which
he himself visited, are about twelve or thirteen miles from the city. The mountain called Elatus by Pliny, and now known by the name of Monte Scopo, rises
on the southern side of the town of Zante to an elevation of about twelve hundred feet. Zacynthus is still very fertile, but it has lost its woody character,
alluded to by the ancient poets. A very ancient tradition ascribed to Zacynthus
the foundation of Saguntum in Spain, in conjunction with the Rutuli of Ardea.
4. TELIEBOfE OR TAPHIiE INSUL.E.
THESE'form a considerable group of islands, lying northeast of Ithaca, or,
rather, between Leucadia and the coast of Acarnania, and are often mentioned
by Homer and other classical writers as the haunt of notorious pirates. The
principal island is that which is called by Homer Taphos, but by later writers
Taphius and Taphiussa, and is probably the same with the one known to modern
geographers by the name of Meganisi. It is near the mouth of the Leucadian
canal, and contains a good port. Dodwell informs us that Calamo, another of
the Taphian group, produces perhaps the finest flour in the world, which is sent
to Corfu, and sold as a luxury.
3. 2ETOLIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. ZEtolia was so called from       its inhabitants, the    Etoli
(AI'rooi), and these were said to have derived their name from
JAtolus, son of Endymion, who, according to the common acKK




514                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
count, came from Elis in the Peloponnesus, defeated and drove
out the early settlers, and established his followers in the land.
II. AEtolia was bounded on the north by the mountainous
districts of Aperantia and the Enianes; on the west by Acarnania, from which it was separated by the Achelous; on the
south by the Sinus Corinthiacus; and on the east by Doris
and the country of the Locri Oz6ole.
(B.) DIVISIONS.
I..LETOLIA, according to the ancient geographers, was divided
into AEtolia Antiqua and lEtolia Epictetus.
II. LEtolia Antiqua extended along the coast from the mouth
of the Achelous eastward, following the northern shore of the
Corinthian gulf, as far as its narrow entrance at Antirrhium.
_Etolia Epictetus, or " 2Etolia the acquired," was the northern
and mountainous part.
III. There were three great divisions of the 2Etolian name,
the Apodoti, Ophioneis, and Eurytanes, each of which was subdivided into several different village-tribes.
IV. In modern times, under the Turkish empire, ZEtolia
was part of the province of Livadia. According to the original
arrangements, only the part east of the Achelous and south
of the two great lakes was to belong to the new kingdom of
Greece; but these boundaries are now extended toward the
north and west as far as the Gulf of Arta.
(C.) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY.
I. THE northern and eastern portion of the LEtolian territory was rugged and
mountainous, consisting in great part of lofty ridges branching out from Pindus
and CEta into the basin of the Achelous. In these highlands, during the winter,
all passage and intercourse between the villages, which are built like nests on
the top of the rocks, are often long interrupted by the severity of the cold. The
Achelous, however, traverses some broad and fruitful plains; and at its mouth
a great level, originally produced by its deposits, was continually receiving fresh
accessions, which at length partially united a group of islands (the Echinades),
once at some distance from the shore, with each other and with the continent.
II. The fertile land thus gained became the theatre of many conflicts between the bordering tribes. Another fertile plain was similarly formed by the
Evenus, the second in size of the AEtolian rivers, which, descending from the
side of CEta, parted the ancient districts of Pleuron and Calydon.
(D.) CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS.
I. IT was partly the legendary renown of the AEtolians, partly their ethnical
kindred (publicly acknowledged on both sides) with the Eleans in the Peloponnesus, which authenticated the title of the _Etolians to rank as Hellenes. But




GRXECIA.                           515
the great mass of the Apodoti, Eurytanes, and Ophioneis, in the inland mountains,
were so rude in their manners, and so unintelligible in their speech (which,
however, was not barbaric, but very bad Hellenic), that this title might well
seem disputable; in point of fact, it was disputed in later times, when the LEtolian power and depredations had become obnoxious to nearly all Greece.
II. It is probably to this difference of manners between the LEtolians on the
sea-coast and those in the interior that we are to trace the geographical division, already mentioned, into Etolia Antiqua and Epictetus. When or by
whom this division was introduced we do not know; it can not be founded upon
any conquest, for the inland _Etolians were the most unconquerable of mankind;
and the affirmation which Ephorus applies to the whole.Etolian race, that it
had never been reduced to subjection by any one, is most of all beyond dispute
concerning the inland portion of it.
(E.) SKETCH OF ZE]TOLIAN HISTORY.
1. THE Leleges in the north, and the Curetes, probably a kindred race, in the
level plains of the south, are the oldest inhabitants of this country that we can
trace. The name of AEtolia and Etoli was introduced, according to tradition, by
Etolus and his followers from Elis, in the Peloponnesus, six generations before
the war of Troy.
II. The history of the AEtolians, as a nation, is closely connected with that
of the Acarnanians; but, like the latter, they were a people of little importance
during the most flourishing periods of the commonwealths of European Greece.
After the death of Alexander the Great, B.C. 323, they came into notice by
their contests with the Macedonian princes, who allied themselves with the
Acarnanians.
III. In the reign of Philip II. of Macedon (which commenced B.C. 220), the
UEtolians, after seeing their chief town, Thermus, plundered by this king, and
feeling themselves aggrieved by the loss of all they had seized from the Acarnanians, applied to the consul Valerius Laevinus (B.C. 210). Though this produced no beneficial effects, they formed a second treaty with the Romans (about
B.C. 198), after the end of the second Punic war. The immediate object of the
Romans was the conquest of Macedonia, but it proved eventually that this fatal
alliance of the XEtolians was the first step that led to the complete subjugation
of all Greece by the Romans.
IV. A series of sufferings and degradations led the way to the occupation of
all XEtolia, when it was made part of the Roman province of Achaia. Under
Roman dominion, the few towns of Etolia almost disappeared; many of the
inhabitants were transplanted to people the city of Nicopolis, which Augustus
had built at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, now Gulf of Arta. Since the
time of the Romans, it is probable that the face of this country has undergone
as few alterations, or received as few improvements from the hand of man, as
the most remote parts of the globe.
(F.) PLACES IN E TOLI A.
1. Conope, on the left bank of the Achelous, and near the
junction of the Cyathus with that stream. According to Strabo and Polybius, it was near one of the ordinary passages of
the Achelous, and corresponds probably to the modern Angelokastro.   It was an inconsiderable place until it received im



516             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY
portant augmentation from Arsinoe, the sister and wife of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, when it became a large city, bearing
her name. Some, however, suppose Arsinoe and Conope to
have been distinct places, and they are so laid down on several
maps; but this appears to be an error. Near Conope was a
lake of the same name with the city, and which Ovid calls
Hyrie. It was likewise styled the Lake of Lysimachia, from
the city of that name in its vicinity, a little to the south of it.
Its modern name is the Lake of Zygos. The site of Lysimachia answers to the modern Papadhates. 2. Ithoria, a strong
fortress, to the southwest of Arsinoe, taken and destroyed by
Philip of Macedon. The modern Ivoria is supposed to answer
to its site. 3. Pceanium, to the southwest, and on the Achelous. Philip razed its fortifications, and transported some of
the materials, such as timber and bricks, on rafts down the
Achelous to CEniadae, which he intended to besiege. It lay a
little below the modern Stamna.
4. Pleuron Nova, to the southeast, and at the foot of Mount
Aracynthus. It was built after the ancient city of that name,
one of the earliest and most celebrated towns of Etolia, had
become deserted by its inhabitants in consequence of the ravages of Demetrius the LEtolian, as Strabo calls him, meaning
probably Demetrius II. of Macedon, son of Antigonus Gonatas.
The old city stood some distance to the southeast of the new,
in the plain toward Calydon. Leake supposes that the site of
old Pleuron was near the modern Mesolonghi. 5. Calydon, to
the southeast of old Pleuron, famed in Grecian story, and the
theme of poetry from Homer to Statius. We are told by mythologists that CEneus, the father of Meleager and Tydeus.
reigned at Calydon, while his brother Agrius settled in Pleuron,
and that frequent wars arose between them on the subject of
contiguous lands. In the vicinity of Calydon the famous boar
hunt took place in which Meleager so distinguished himself.
From Homer we gather that it stood on a rocky height, but
yet that its territory was ample and productive. Some time
after the Peloponnesian war we find it in the possession of the
Achaeans. It was still a town of some importance in the time
of Csesar; but Augustus accomplished its downfall by removing
the inhabitants to Nicopolis. Leake found what he supposed
to be traces of Calydon at the hamlet of Kurt-Aga. In the




GRE3CIA.                    517
vicinity of Calydon, but nearer the sea arose Mount Taphiassus,
where Nessus the centaur was said to have died, and to have
thus communicated a fetid odor to the waters which issued
from it.
6. Molycrza or Molycrium, to the southeast, and close to the
sea. It was colonized by the Corinthians, who were expelled
by the Athenians, and was afterward taken by the ZEtolians and
Peloponnesians. According to Strabo, its foundation was subsequent to the return of the Heraclida. Leake places its site
on the first rise of the hills behind the castle of Rumili. 7. Antirrhium, a promontory already referred. to (p. 483), and so
called from its being opposite to Rhium, another promontory
in Achaia. It was sometimes styled Rhium Molycricum, from
its vicinity to the town of i]Iolycrium, and also Rhium JEtolicum. The Turkish fortress on Antirrhium is now called the
castle of Rumili. 8. Thermus, some distance inland, to the
northwest, and situate in.the midst of a very rugged and mountainous country. So great, in fact, were the difficulties of its
approach, and so remote its situation, that it was considered
inaccessible, and was therefore deemed, as it were, the citadel of
all 2Etolia. It was here that the assemblies for deciding the
elections of magistrates were held, as well as the most splendid
festivals and commercial meetings. Hence the place was stored
not only with abundance of provisions and necessaries of life,
but with the most costly ornaments, and every thing requisite
for splendid entertainments. This city was taken by Philip III.
of Macedon, in his memorable expedition into LEtolia, and
given up to pillage. More than two thousand statues were
defaced on this occasion; a variety of costly arms were carried
off, and fifteen thousand complete suits of armor were destroyed.
This will give some idea of the size and opulence of the place.
According to Leake, Thermus was situated on the slope of a
pyramidal hill, and was of a triangular shape. He places its
site at Vlokho.
9. Trichonium, and near the Lake Trichonitis, which derived its name from the city. Leake places it on the southern
side of the lake, at the modern Gavala; but Cramer to the
northwest. The latter calls the lake by the modern name of
Vrachori; but Leake styles it Apokuro. The remaining ge.
ography of Etolia is unimportant and obscure.




31J8               ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
4. LOCRIS.
(A.) NAME, DIVISIONS, &C.
I. Locris was so called from    the Locri, its inhabitants, of
whom    there were three distinct tribes, namely, the Locri
Ozolce, Locri Epicnemidii, and Locri Opuntii.
II. The Epicnemidian and Opuntian Locri alone appear to
have been known to Homer, as he makes no mention of the
Ozolee; whence we may conclude that these last were not so
ancient as the rest of the nation.
III. The earliest and most authentic accounts concur in ascribing the origin of the Locrians to the Leleges; but it would
seem that, in very early times, some tribes of Hellenic origin,
probably LEolians, became intermingled with the Leleges, and
that from this fusion the Locrian race arose.
1. LOCRI OZ6L2E.
I. THE Locri Ozola occupied a narrow tract of country, situated on the northern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, commencing at Antirrhium, and terminating
near Cirrha, in Phocis, at the head of the Sinus Crissceus. To the west and
north they adjoined the JEtolians, and partly, also, in the latter direction, the Dorians, while to the east they bordered on the district of Delphi, belonging to
Phocis.
II. According to Strabo, the Ozolae were a colony from the more celebrated
Locri Epicnemidii and Opuntii to the east; and their name, according to some
accounts, was derived from some fetid springs (ou, " to emit a stench"), near
Mount Taphiassus, in their vicinity, on the coast, and beneath which the centaur Nessus was said to have been entombed. Others, however, ascribed the
name to the undressed skins worn by the ancient inhabitants; while Archytas,
an Ozolian poet, derived the name from the abundance of flowers which scented
the air!
III. Thucydides represents them as a wild, uncivilized race, and addicted from
the earliest period to theft and rapine. In the Peloponnesian war they appear
to have sided with the Athenians, as the latter held possession. of Naupactus,
their principal city and harbor, probably from enmity to the 2Etolians, who had'spoused the cause of the Peloponnesians.
PLACES AMONG        THE    LOCRI OZOLE.
1. Naupactus, situated at the western extremity of the Locrian territory, and close to Antirrhium. It was said to have
derived its name from the circumstance of the Heraclida having
there built the ships (vaig and 7riyvvpt) in which they crossed
over into the Peloponnesus.     After the Persian war this city
was occupied by the Athenians, who there established the Messenians, after these last had evacuated Ithome. The acquisi



GRaECIA.                     519
tion of Naupactus was of great importance to the Athenians
during the Peloponnesian war, as it was an excellent station
for their fleet in the Corinthian Gulf, and not only afforded the
means of keeping up a communication with Corcyra and Acarnania, but enabled them also to watch the motions of the enemy
on the opposite coast. On the termination of the Peloponnesian
war Naupactus surrendered to the Spartans, who expelled the
Messenians thence. Philip of Macedon subsequently ceded it
to the _Etolians, from whom it passed to the Romans. It was
nearly destroyed by an earthquake during the reign of Justinian.
The modern town is called Enebechte by the Turks, Nepacto
by the Greeks, and Lepanto by the Franks. The Sinus Corinthiacus is called the Gulf of Lepanto. 2. (Eneon, to the
northeast, and a sea-port. Near it was a temple of Nemean
Jove, in which Hesiod is said to have expired. CEneon stood
near the modern   Iiagula, according to Leake. 3. (Eanthe,
some distance to the east of the preceding, and also on the
coast. It was a city of some note, and is often mentioned by
the classic writers. It contained temples to Venus, Diana, and
I.Esculapius.  Its site was near Galaxidi.  Cramer errs in
placing it at Veternitza. 4. Chalceon, the last maritime town
of Locris on the Crissaean Gulf. Leake places it at Larnaki.
5. Amphissa, the most celebrated city of the Ozolke, to the
north of the head waters of the Crisssean Gulf, and deriving' its
name from the circumstance of its being surrounded on every
side by mountains (a/ic, "'around").  It was destroyed by
order of the Amphictyons for having dared to restore the walls
of Crissa, and cultivate the ground which was held to be sacred,
and also on account of the manner in which the inhabitants molested travellers who had occasion to pass through their territory. At a later period, however, Amphissa appears to have
somewhat recovered from this ruined state when under the dominion of the IEtolians. It is generally agreed that the modern town of Salona represents the ancient Amphissa. The
Sinus Crissseus is now called the Gulf of Salona.
2. LOCRI EPICNEMIDII.
THE Locri Epicnemidii occupied a small district immediately adjoining Thermopyla, and confined between Mount Cnemis, a branch of CEta, and the Sea of
Eubea. They were called Epicnemidii from their being adjacent to Mount
Cnemis (Ewl, Kypigr) Manner classes them with the Opuntii under the general
name of Locri.




520              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PLACES AMONG THE LOCRI EPICNEMIDII.
1. Alpeni or Alpenus, just below Thermopylae, and wherce,
as Herodotus informs us, Leonidas and his little band diew
their supplies. 2. Nicewa, to the southeast, occupied during the
Sacred War by Phalaecus, the Phocian general, in order to obstruct the passage of Philip through Thermopyla.  Gell places
it at the modern Molo.  3. Scarphe or Scarpheia, to the southeast.  It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, which raised
the sea to such an elevation that it was buried beneath its
waters.  It is supposed to have stood between the modern villages of Molo and Andera.  4. Thronium, to the southeast, near
the River Boagrius, and some distance from the coast. It was
taken by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, but
several years afterward fell into the hands of the Phocians, who
enslaved the inhabitants. Its site corresponds with an ancient
ruin above Romani. 5. Cnemides, a fortress, to the northeast, opposite to the Promontory of Cenceum in Eubcea, from
which it was separated by a distance of ten stadia. Along this
part of the coast were the small islands called Lichades. In
one of these islands was a monument of Lichas (whence the
name of the group), who was fabled to have been hurled into
the sea, in this quarter, by Hercules, when suffering from the
effects of the poisoned tunic.
3. LOCRI OPUNTII.
I. THE Opuntian Locri followed after the Epicnemidii, and occupied a line of
coast of about fifteen miles, beginning a little south of Cnemides, and extending
to the town of Hala, on the frontier of Beotia. Inland their territory reached
to the Phocian towns of Hyampolis and Abe. They derived their name from
the city of Opus, their metropolis.
II. The Opuntian Locri pretended that they were the most ancient Hellenic
people in Greece; and that Cynus, their principal maritime city, had been inhabited by Deucalion, when he first descended from Parnassus.
PLACES AMONG THE LOCRI OPUNTII.
1. Daphnus, the first town on their coast, but at an earlier
period included within the limits of Phocis. It no longer existed in Strabo's time. 2. Alope, to the southeast of the preceding, where the Athenians obtained some advantage over the
Locrians in a descent which they made on this coast during
the Peloponnesian war. 3. Cynus, to the southeast of the pre



GRA.CIA.                      521
ceding, and opposite to AEdepsus in Euboea.  It was the principal maritime city of the Opuntian Locri. According to ancient traditions, it had long been the residence of Deucalion and
Pyrrha; and the latter was even said to have been interred
here. The ruins of this city are probably those near the village
of Lebanitis. 4. Opus, to the southeast, and one of the most
ancient cities of Greece.  It is celebrated by Pindar as the domain of Deucalion and Pyrrha, and by Homer as the birth-place
of Patroclus. Plutarch commends the piety of the inhabitants,
and their observance of religious rites. This place was the metropolis of the Opuntian Locri. Leake places its site at Kardenitza. Opus gave name to the Opuntius Sinus, now the
Gulf of Talanti.  Opposite to Opus was the island of Atalanta,
fortified by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, with
a view of checking the depredations of the Locrian pirates on
the coast of Eubcea.  It is now called Talanta.  5. Naryx or
Naarycium, to the northwest of Opus, and celebrated as the
birth-place of Ajax, son of Oileus. It was taken by the Phocians and razed to the ground.
5. DORIS.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Doris, called, also, from its four cities, Dorica Tetrapolis,
was a small tract of country, deriving its name from its Doric
inhabitants.  It was situate to the northeast of 2Etolia, and
confined between the high chains of mountains belonging to
that province, as well as those of Parnassus to the south, and
of (Eta to the east and north.
II. This rugged and obscure canton would have presented
but little to attract notice, were it not for the circumstance of
its having been the fourth and last settlement of the great Doric race, before their final migration to the Peloponnesus. According to Herodotus, the more ancient name of this small tract
of country was Dryopis, derived probably from Dryopes, one
of the earliest tribes of Greece.
(B.) HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE DORIANS.
I. THE Dorians were the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, and derived
their origin, according to their own account, from the mythic Dorus, the son of
Hellen. Modern scholars, however, as we have before remarked, make the
name Dorians (AopEir) equivalent to " Highlanders," from da and 6po,.
II. Herodotus mentions five successive migrations of this race. Their first




522                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
settlement was in Phthiotis, in the time of Deucalion; the next, under Dorus,
in Hestieotis, at the foot of Ossa and Olympus; the third on Mount Pindus, after they had been expelled by the Cadmaeans from Hestiaeotis; the fourth settlement was in Dryopis, afterward called the Dorian Tetrapolis.
III. From the Doric Tetrapolis the Dorians migrated into the Peloponnesus,
though some of their number remained behind. This last migration is commonly termed the return of the Heraclida, and is stated to have occurred eighty
years after the Trojan war, or 1104 B.C. The origin and nature of the connection which subsisted between the Heraclidee and the Dorians are ihvolved
in much obscurity. The Heraclidae appear to have been a powerful Achean
family, united with the Dorians in a similar manner with, but by a stronger tie
han, tie UEtolians under Oxylus, who are also said to have taken part in this
expedition.
IV. The Dorians were, from very early times, divided into three tribes,
namely, the Hylleis, the Dymanes, and the Pamphylians. The two latter are
said to have been descended from Dymas and Pamphylus, the two sons of LEgimius, a mythic Dorian king, and the first claimed descent from Hyllus, the son
of Hercules. Some, however, make the Hylleis and Dymanes to have been the
genuine Dorians, and the Pamphylians to have been made up of volunteers who
joined the expedition in the Peloponnesus.
V. The Dorians, when transplanted into the more genial climate and the
more ample and fertile territory of the Peloponnesus, seem always to have
preserved a grateful recollection of their earlier abode in the Doric Tetrapolis,
and to have been anxious to maintain that interchange of good will with the
Dorians who had remained behind there, which was especially cherished by the
ancient Greeks toward their mother country, and forms one of the most pleasing
features in their system of colonization. Lacedaemon, more particularly, as the
leading Peloponnesian state of Dorian origin, was frequently called upon to assist its little metropolis when threatened by attacks from the more powerful
Phocians and the highlanders of CEta.
VI. But still this small territory was occasionally an object of contention to
the neighboring states, more especially in the latter period of Grecian history,
during the LEtolian and Macedonian wars; so that, as Strabo observes, it is a
matter of surprise that its few towns should have still existed when the Romans became masters of Greece.
PLACES IN      THE   DORIC     TETRAPOLIS.
THE Dorian Tetrapolis contained, as its name denotes, four
cities.  1. Erineus, on the River Pindus, now the Apostolia, a
branch of the Cephisus.      2. Boeum or Boium, to the southeast
of the preceding, on a branch of the Pindus, and supposed by
Leake to correspond to the modern Jlfariol6tes. 3. Pindus, according to Strabo, stood above Erineus.        He adds, that in its
vicinity flowed a stream    of the same name with the city (the
Pindus, already mentioned by us), which joined the Cephisus
close to Liluea, a Phocian town, near which the latter river rose.
He also informs us that some writers gave to the town of Pindus the name of Acyphas.        Leake supposes this place to have




GRXECIA.                          523
been toward the sources of the river in the mountain, which is
connected northward with CEta proper, and which to the south
gives rise to the River Mornos, which joins the sea near Nepakto.
4. Cytinium, situated, according to Thucydides, to the left or
west of Parnassus, and on the borders of the Locri Ozolae.       It
was probably the most considerable of all the four Dorian cities;
at least it is more frequently mentioned in history than any
other.   Leake thinks there can be little doubt that Gravia answers to this ancient city. -The modern town of Gravia stands
exactly at the northern entrance of the pass that led from the
valley of Doris to the plain of Amphissa.
6. PHOCIS.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Phocis was said to have derived its name from        Phoous,
the son of 2Eacus. It was bounded on the north by the Epicnemidian and Opuntian Locri, on the south by the Corinthian
Gulf, on the west by the Locri Ozole and Doris, and on the
east by B'eotia.
II. The territory of Phocis originally extended to the Eubcean
channel, but was afterward entirely separated from the sea by
Locris.   Strabo says that it was divided into two parts by the
range of Parnassus, which extends in a southeasterly direction
through Phocis till it joins Mount Helicon on the borders of
Beotia.
(B) ASPECT OF THE COUNTRY, &C.
I. PARNASSUS and the mountains which separate Phocis from Locris form
the upper valley of the River Cephisus, on the banks of which there is some
fertile country, though in many parts the mountains approach very near both
banks of the river.
II. The southern part of Phocis is almost entirely covered with the mountains
which branch off to the south from the huge mass of Parnassus, though there
are a few fertile plains between these mountains, of which the largest is the
celebrated Crissaean plain.
III. Territorially speaking, the most valuable part of Phocis consisted in the
valley of the Cephisus. It was on the projecting mountain ledges and rocks
on each side of this river that most of the Phocian towns were situated.
(C.) SKETCH OF PHOCIAN HISTORY.
I. VE know very little respecting the early inhabitants of Phocis. According to Pausanias, they derived their name, as already stated, from a king Phocus, son of Eacus; and that the name is of considerable antiquity is evident
from the Phocians being mentioned by Homer. Previous to the Persian invasion, they appear to have been frequently engaged in hostilities with the




524                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Thessalians, and to have been successful in maintaining their independence.
Xerxes, at the instigation of the Thessalians, ravaged Phocis, with fire and
sword, and destroyed many of their cities.
II. The Phocians had no political importance till after the battle of Leuctra,
but, shortly after that event, circumstances occurred which occasioned the celebrated Phocian or Sacred War, in which all the great states of Greece were
more or less concerned. The immediate occasion of this war is said to have
been an act of sacrilege committed by the Phocians in cultivating a part of the
Crisseean plain, which had been doomed by a decree of the Amphictyons, in
B.C. 585, to lie waste forever. But, whatever may have been the immediate,
the real occasion of the war was the animosity between Thebes and Phocis,
which had long prevailed under a show of peace. The Thebans used their influence in the Amphictyonic council to induce the Amphictyons to sentence
the Phocians to pay a heavy fine to the god for the violation of the sacred land;
and, on their refusing to pay this fine, the council passed a decree, that, if the
fine were not paid, the Phocians should forfeit their territory to the gods, which
decree was, in all probability, intended to reduce the Phocians to the condition
of the Helots in Laconia, subject to the jurisdiction of the temple of Delphi.
III. In these alarming circumstances, the Phocians were induced by Philomelus, who appears to have held some high office in the Phocian state, and was
a man of great talent and energy, to make the bold attempt of seizing the city
and temple of Delphi. This attempt was successful, and the Phocians obtained
in the treasures deposited in the temple ample means for carrying on the war.
This war, which lasted fourteen years, was waged with various success on both
sides. The Thebans and almost all the northern states of Greece were opposed
to the Phocians; and though the Athenians and Spartans were willing, in consequence of their fear of the power of Thebes, to afford assistance to the Phocians, the former were too much weakened by the Peloponnesian war; and the
latter by the Theban victories and the formation of Messenia as an independent
state, to render any effectual aid.
IV. But what the Phocians wanted in allies was compensated by mercenary
troops; and it is difficult to say how long the struggle might have lasted, had
not the Amphictyons called in the assistance of Philip of Macedon, who took
possession of Delphi, and put an end to the war, B.C. 346. The Phocians were
severely punished for their sacrilege; all their cities, with the exception of Abae,
were razed to the ground, and their inhabitants dispersed in villages not containing more than fifty inhabitants. Their two votes in the Amphictyonic council were taken away and given to Philip. Many of the towns, however, appear
to have been rebuilt soon afterward. Phocis subsequently, under the R(oman
sway, formed part of the province of Achaia.
(D.) PLACES IN PHOCIS.
1. Cirrha, at the head of the Sinus Crissceus, or Gulf of
Salona, and close to the mouth of the River Plistus.         It was
the harbor of Delphi,- from    which it was distant sixty stadia
according to Pausanias, and eighty according to Strabo. This
place is often confounded with Crissa, which stood more inland
between Cirrha and Delphi. According to some of the ancient
writers, the Cirrhean plain and port were inhabited at an early




GR ECIA.                    525
period by the Cirrhei and Acragallidae, a nefarious race, who
violated the sanctity of the temple of Delphi, and ransacked
its treasures. The oracle, on being consulted by the Amphictyons, declared. that a war of extermination was to be carried
on against these offenders, and that their land was never thereafter to be cultivated. This decree was executed in the time
of Solon, who took an active part in the expedition. The port
of Cirrha was then demolished, and its territory declared accursed.  This edict, however, was afterward violated by the
Amphissians, who tilled the land and repaired the port. It is
evident that Cirrha still existed in the time of Pausanias, as
he mentions the temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona. According to Gell, the ruins of Cirrha are near the village of Xeropigado. Above Cirrha was Mount Cirphis, separated from
the chain of Parnassus by the valley of the Plistus. 2. Crissa,
higher up than Cirrha, toward the foot of Parnassus. It not
only gave name to the Sinus Crissueus, now the Gulf of Saiona,
but the plain also in which it stood was called the Crissaean
plain. In this plain the Pythian games were celebrated. The
Crissmeans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions
from the' strangers who came to consult the Delphian oracle.
The Amphictyons declared war against them, which, after
lasting for ten years, ended in the destruction of Crissa, B.C.
588, the land of which was dedicated to the god. The ruins
of Crissa still exist at a spot called Crisso.
3. Anticyra, to the southeast. on the coast, and celebrated
for its preparation of hellebore, which grew on the mountains
above the town. It must not be confounded with the Thessalian Anticyra (page 503). Although, like the other Phocian
cities, Anticyra was for a time dismantled and abandoned at
the end of the Sacred War, it had survived many of the other
towns of Phocis in the time of the Roman empire, an advantage
which it chiefly owed to its situation on a sheltered gulf, and
its importance as a point of communication with the interior.
Its ruins are at Aspraspitia. 4. Medeon, near Anticyra, and,
according to Strabo, one hundred and sixty stadia from the confines of Bceotia. Cramer places it on the opposite side of the
bay; but Leake assigns it a position to the northwest of Anticyra, and makes it answer to the modern Desfina. It was
destroyed with the other cities at the termination of the Sacred




526             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
War, and probably never restored. The Pharygium Promontorium is Cape Aghia, beyond which was, 5. Mychus, a port,
and the extreme point of Phocis on the eastern frontier, where
it was contiguous to Boeotia. It was the port of Bulls, and
answers now to the haven called Hagios Lukas.
6. Ambrysus, to the northeast of Anticyra, situate in a rich
and fertile country, abounding in vines, and a plant producing
a scarlet dye, by means of an insect which was bred in the berries. The tree meant was the Quercus coccifera. This place,
having been destroyed by the Amphictyons, was rebuilt and
fortified by the Thebans before the battle of Choeronea.  Its
ruins are near the village of Dystomo. Advancing toward
Parnassus, which rises to the northwest of Ambrysus, we enter
on the celebrated road known by the name of Xltarri'066d, or
the divided way," often mentioned by the Greek tragedians
as the spot where Laius fell by the hand of his unfortunate son
CEdipus. It was also called Triodos, from the circumstance
of the three roads leading to Delphi, Daulis, and Ambrysus
uniting there. Dodwell makes the modern name Derbeni,
which means a pass.  7. Lycorea, to the northwest, and a
place of the highest antiquity, since it is stated in the Arundelian marbles to have been once the residence of Deucalion.
Strabo affirms that it was more ancient than Delphi. It was
high up on the mountain, and its site is supposed to correspond
to that of the village of Li6kura.
8. Delphi, a celebrated city, the largest in Phocis, situate on
an elevation sixteen stadia in circumference, at the foot of the
southern side of Parnassus, and built in the form of an amphitheatre. It was the focus of the Dorian religion, and the seat
of the oracle of Apollo, the most famous one in Greece. It
naturally, therefore, became populous and wealthy. The inhabitants consisted of Dorians, who formed the privileged class,
and of the descendants of the bondsmen of the temple. The
constitution was originally monarchical: the kings were also
called prytanes. The Dorian families made an oligarchy, from
which the priests, the Pythian court of justice, and a limited
senate were chosen. Delphi was, from very early times, the
rendezvous of an important federal union, or amphictyony, the
organization of which is attributed by Strabo to Acrisius. Its
site is occupied by the modern Castri.




GRECIA,                           527
MORE PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF DELPHI.
THE original name of the place was Pytho; and Homer does not call it by its
more modern appellation, which seems to have been derived from the cavern
whence the prophetic vapor issued, or from the serpent which Apollo slew there.
(Hesych., AeLq6of, Pirpa, Kac 6 kv Aer2~oi dpaK6v.) From the description which
Strab'o gives of the cavern, and from the fact that Delphi was called the " navel
of the earth," it should seem that the former derivation is preferable. There
was a legend that two eagles, sent by Jupiter from the east and west, met at
Delphi; and in the temple was a stone adorned with two. golden eagles, and
other devices, which was called the navel stone: representations of this may
be seen on many ancient monuments; as, for instance, in the bas relief representing the combat between Apollo and Hercules for the Delphic tripod. The
oracles were delivered by a priestess, who sat upon a tripod, placed over the
mouth of the cavern, and who, having exhaled the vapor, pronounced some
prophecy in verse or prose: if in prose, it was afterward set to verse by the
poets attached to the temple. The oracle is said to have been suggested by
the effects produced by the vapor upon some goats and the man who attended
them. The great reputation of the Delphian oracle made it the richest shrine
in Greece, as every person who was satisfied with the response he obtained
made a point of offering some costly donation to the temple. The first stone
temple at Delphi was built by Trophonius and Agamedes: this having been
destroyed by fire, B.C. 548, a new one was built by the Amphictyons from the
proceeds of a voluntary subscription, to which even Amasis, the king of Egypt,
largely contributed. The Alcmaeonidae, who contracted to build it, very liberally substituted Parian marble in the front of the building for the common stone
of which they had undertaken to construct the edifice. The wealth of Delphi
naturally attracted plunderers. The Persians under Xerxes made an unsuccessful attempt to get possession of the treasures accumulated there.  The
Phocian leaders in the Sacred War did not hesitate to appropriate them as a
fund for the payment of their mercenaries. At a still later period, Delphi becamne exposed to a formidable attack from a large body of Gauls, headed by their
king Brennus. These barbarians, having forced the defiles of CEta, possessed
themselves of the temple, and ransacked its treasures. The booty which they
obtained on this occasion is stated to have been immense; and this they must
have succeeded in removing to their own country, since we are told that, on
the capture of Tolosa (now Toulouse) by the Roman general Caepio, a great part
of the Delphic spoils were found. Such is the account of Strabo. Pausanias,
however, relates, that the Gauls met with great disasters in their attempt on
Delphi, and were totally discomfited through the miraculous intervention of the
god. Sylla is also said to have robbed this temple; and the Emperor Nero carried off five hundred statues of bronze at one time. Constantine the Great,
however, proved a more fatal enemy to Delphi than either Sylla or Nero. He
removed all the sacred tripods to adorn the Hippodrome of his new city, and
among these was the famous one which the Greeks, after the battle of Plataeae,
found in the camp of Mardonius, and which they consecrated to Apollo. The
priestess at Delphi could only be consulted on certain days, and never oftener
than once in the course of a month. Delphi derived farther celebrity from its
being the place where the Amphictyonic council held one of their assemblies.
Above Delphi rises Mount Parnassus, a chain which extends
in a northeasterly direction from the country of the Locri Ozole




528                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
to Mount CEta, and in a southeasterly direction through the
middle of Phocis till it joins Mount Helicon on the borders of
Bceotia. The name, however, was more usually restricted to
the lofty mountain at the foot of which Delphi was situated.
According to Stephanus, it was anciently called Larnassus,
because the ark or larnax of Deucalion landed here after the
flood.  It is called at the present day Lidkura.    This mountain
was sacred to Apollo and the Muses.
Parnassus is the highest mountain in central Greece. Strabo says that iL
could be seen from the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, and also states that it was of the
same height as Mount Helicon, but in the latter point he was mistaken, according to Leake, who informs us that Liakura is some hundreds of feet higher than
Palaeovuni, which is the highest point of Helicon. Parnassus was covered the
greatest part of the year with snow, whence the epithet of" snowy," so generally applied to it by the poets. Above Delphi there were two lofty rocks, from
which the mountain is frequently called by the poets the' two headed" (dtK6pvooc), one of which Herodotus names Hyampeia, but which were usually called
Pheedriades. Between these two rocks the celebrated Castalian Fount, which
was sacred to the Muses, and supposed to impart poetic inspiration unto those
who quaffed its waters, flows from the upper part of the mountain. It at present is clear, and forms an excellent beverage. The water which oozes from
the rock was in ancient times introduced into a hollow square, where it was retained for the use of the Pythia and the oracular priests. The fountain is now
ornamented with pendent ivy, and overshadowed by a large fig-tree. Above the
spring, at the distance of sixty stadia from Delphi, was the Corycian Cave, sacred to Pan and the Corycian nymphs, which Pausanias speaks of as superior
to every other known cavern. When the Persians were marching against Delphi, a great part of the inhabitants took refuge in this cavern. It is described
by a modern traveller as three hundred and thirty feet long and nearly two
hundred wide. As far as this cave, the road from Delphi was accessible by
horses and mules, but beyond it the ascent was difficult even for an active man.
9. Tithorea or Neon, above the Corycian Cave, and near the
summit of Parnassus, and eighty stadia distant from Delphi.
Its ruins are near the modern village of Velitza.         Near Tithorea flowed the River Cachales, now Kako-Rheuma, or "the
evil torrent."   It emptied into the Cephisus.       10. Lilcea, to
the northwest of the preceding, and near the sources of the
Cephisus.    Pausanias states that the water issued from        the
spring at midday with a sound like the bellowing of a bull.
This city was destroyed by Philip and the Amphictyons at the
termination of the Sacred War, but was restored by the Bceotians and the Athenians. Its site is marked by ruins, called by
the usual name of Paleocastro.       11. Elatea, to the northeast
of Tithorea, and the most considerable and important city of
Phocis after Delphi.    It was situate, according to Pausanias,




GRaECIA.                    529
one hundred and eighty stadia from Amphissa, on a gently
rising slope above the plain watered by the Cephisus. It was
captured and burned by the army of Xerxes, but, being afterward restored, was occupied by Philip of Macedon in his advance into Phocis to overawe the Athenians. The alarm and
consternation produced at Athens by his approach is finely described by Demosthenes in his oration for the Crown. Strabo
remarks on its advantageous position, which commanded the
entrance into Phocis and Boeotia, and hence the sensation produced at Athens by the news of its capture. Its ruins are to
be seen on the site called Elephta or Lefta, on the left bank
of the Cephisus, and at the foot of some hills which unite with
the chain of Cnemis and CEta. The river Cephisus has already
been described (page 481).
12. Daulis, to the southeast of Elatea, and south of the
Cephisus. It was a city of great antiquity, and celebrated in
mythology as the scene of the tragic story of Philomela and
Procne.  Thucydides affirms that Teres, who had married
Procne, the daughter of Pandion, sovereign of Athens, was
chief of Daulis, then occupied, as well as the rest of Phocis, by
a body of Thracians. By these probably are meant the " Old
Thracians," or Pierians. Philomela is often called by the poets
"' the Daulian bird."  Strabo asserts that the word " Daulos,"
signifying a thick forest, was given to this district from its
woody character. Livy represents Daulis as situate on a lofty
hill, difficult to be scaled. The name was changed at a later
period to Daulia and Daulium. Near the ancient site stands
the modern village of Davlia. 13. Hyampolis, east of Elatea
according to Cramer, but to the southeast according to Leake.
It was one of the most ancient cities of Phocis, and was said
to have been founded by the Hyantes, who are named among
the earliest tribes of Greece.  It was situate near a defile
leading toward Thermopyle, and on the road from Elatea
to Opus. It was destroyed by Philip and the Amphictyons;
but it afterward became again a place of some note in the time
of Strabo, having been restored and embellished by the Emperor
Hadrian. Its ruins are near the village of Bogdana. 14. Abe,
southeast of the preceding, founded by a colony from Argos,
and celebrated for an oracle of Apollo held in great esteem and
veneration.  Its temple, richly adorned with offerings, was
LL




530                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
sacked and burned by the Persians.        Having been restored, it
was again consumed in the'Sacred War by the Bceotians.
Hadrian caused another to be built, but much inferior in size
to the former. According to Aristotle, the Abantcs of Euboea
came from Aba. This city, on account of the sanctity of its
temple and oracle, was not destroyed at the end of the Phocian
or Sacred War. Its ruins are near the village of Exarcho.
7. B E OTIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Bceotia, now part of Livadia, derived its name from its inhabitants the Bceotians (BoworoT), who were originally a Thessalian race, and drove out the earlier occupants of the land.
II. It was bounded on the west by Phocis, on the northwest
by the territory of the Locri Opuntii, on the north and northeast by the Opuntius Sinus and Euripus, on the southeast
by Attica, and on the southwest by the Sinus Corinthiacus.
(B.)  ASPECT AND PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE COUNTRY.
T. B(EOTIA may be described as consisting of two basins of very irregular
form and of unequal dimensions, namely, the valley of the Asopus, and the
lower part of the vale of the Cephisus. The valley of the Asopus is bounded
on the south by the range of Parnes and Citheron. The upper valley of the
Cephisus belonged to the Phocians.
II. According to the recent survey of Captain Copeland, a mountain wall
lines the whole continental coast of the Euripus, from the valley of the Asopus
to the flats at the outlet of the Sperchius. A large portion of this forms the
coast of ancient Boeotia, the whole length of which, following the indentations,
is perhaps about thirty miles.
III. Strabo describes the interior of Bceotia as consisting of hollow plains,
surrounded on all sides by mountains. The most remarkable feature is the
Lake Copais, of which we have already spoken (p. 482). Its basin must be at
a considerable elevation; but Thiersch's assertion, that the level of this lake is
more than one thousand feet above the sea, is an exaggeration, and appears, in
fact, to be only a guess. This lake is the receptacle of an extensive drainage,
and, among other streams, receives in particular the Cephisus (p. 481). The
basin of the Lake Copais contains a large amount of fertile land, capable of
growing cotton and other products in abundance.
IV. Bceotia was remarkable in ancient times for its extraordinary fertility, and
it was this cause, probably, more than the dampness and thickness of their atmosphere, that depressed the intellectual and moral energies of the Bceotians, and
justified the ridicule which their temperate and witty neighbors, the Athenians,
so freely poured on their proverbial failing. Some of the principal productions
and manufactures of the country are enumerated in the Acharnians of Aristophanes (v. 781, seq.). The linen fabrics of Beotia were held in great estimation,
and the iron mines, which were anciently worked in the eastern chain of mount.
ains, supplied the material for the famed Bceotian cutlery; hence we read ir




(GRiExIA.                         531
ancient waiters of Aonian iron, Aonian weapons, and helmets of Beotian workmanship, when excellence is meant to be described.
(C.) SKETCH OF BCEOTIAN HsTORY,, &C.
I. THERE is, perhaps, no country of Hellas, with respect to the ancient inhabitants of which so many and such complicated traditions exist. We may divide
the earliest of these into two classes, one including those traditions which refer
to the,Egyptians as the earliest inhabitants of Bceotia, the other containing
those traditions to which we owe the old story of a Phoenician colony. It is
very difficult to distinguish between truth and fiction in these narratives.
II. The best modern scholars are inclined to reject the first class of traditions
altogether. The traditions of the second class, which are much older, and consequently more involved than the former, relate that Thebes was founded by a
Phoenician prince named Cadmus, when in search of his sister Europa, who had
been carried off by Jupiter. It is not probable, however, that Thebes, an inland
town, which had no internal commerce, and where trading was, in fact, stigmatized, should have been founded by the Phoenicians, who generally built no
cities but as emporia for traffic. We are therefore thrown back upon the supposition that the whole story is a fiction, and that Cadmus was an indigenous
Theban name. The old inhabitants of Thebes were called Cadmeans, their
city Cadmea, and they carried this ethnic name along with them into their colonies. Cadmus was probably a deity of the Pelasgic Tyrrheni. When Strabo,
therefore, and other writers, inform us that Boeotia was occupied before the
arrival of Cadmus by several barbarous clans ifnder the various names of Aones,
Ectenes, Temmices, and Hyantes, we must probably regard these as none other
than branches of the very Cadmeans themselves.
III. The Cadmeans, and the cognate tribe of the Minyans, occupied Bemoia
till about sixty years after the taking of Troy, when they were driven out by
the LEolian Boeotians, a Thessalian people settled in the upper vale of the Apidanus, and in the neighborhood of the Sinus Pagaseeus, who had themselves
been forced to leave their settlements by the Thessalian immigration from Thesprotia. We have only fragmentary information with respect to the early history
of the people who from this time continued to be the inhabitants of Bceotia, nor
are we able to speak with much certainty of the constitutions of the different
towns, and of their relation to one another. We know merely that the Boeotian
towns became members of a league, of which Thebes was at the head. The
deputies of the confederate states met in the plain before Coronea, at the temple of Athena of Iton; and this meeting took place at the festival of the Pambceotia. Every one of the confederate states was, as such, free, but several
of them had smaller towns dependent on them. It is very difficult to determine
the number of the independent states. They are supposed, however, to have
been fourteen, and Miller conjectures them to have been Thebes, Orchomenus,
Leladea, Coronia, Copax, Haliartus, Thespice, Tandgra, Ocalece, Onchestus, AlrthJdon, Chalia, Platte, and Eleutherce.
IV. The representatives of the different towns of the confederacy were called
Boeotarchs, and Thebes had two votes among them. The affairs of the confederacy were debated at four national councils, the Booetarchs having the initiative authority, the members of the council the power of confirmation. The
Boeotian confederacy was dissolved in B.C. 171, after having undergcne many
changes and fluctuations. With regard to the form of government which prevailed in the several Bceotian towns, we have good reason for believing that it
was the same with that of Thebes which was in the historical times generally




532                 A NCItENT r EOGRIAPHY.
a rigid oliin:iny. With such a government, the Thebans must naturally hav6
been opposed to the neighboring demociatical state of Attica; and accordingly
we find them, about the year 507 B.C., joining the Peloponnesians and Chalcid
ians in an attack upon the Athenians; and probably the same cause made
them go over to the Persians in 480 B.C. The victory of Platsee deprived
them of their authority in the Bceotian league, until the Lacedaemonians, froan
interested considerations, acceded to the wishes of the oligarchical party in the
lesser states, and restored to them, in 457 B.C., the power which they had taken
from them.
V. In the year 455 B.C., the decisive battle of CE;nophyta subjected all Bceotia to the Athenians, and Thebes became democratical; but, a few years after
(447 B.C.), in consequence of some abuse of power on the part of the democracy,
the oligarchical form of government was restored, and the signal defeat sustained
by the Athenians at Coronea freed Bceotia from her foreign yoke. The Thebans were active partisans of Sparta in the Peloponnesian war, and contributed
mainly to the downfall of Athens; but in the year 395 B.C. they became members
of the confederacy against Lacedaemon, which was broken up in the course of
the following year by the victory which Agesilaus gained over them at Coronea.
The peace of Antalcidas followed (387 B.C.); and, five years after, the treacherous seizure of the Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes, by Phcebidas the Lacedaemonian, and its subsequent recovery by Pelopidas, brought about another war between Bceotia and Lacedarnon, in which the great abilities of the Theban generals Epaminondas and Pelopidas made Bceotia the leading power in Greece.
But the former fell at Mantinea, and the power of Thebes fell with him.
VI. The Macedonian influence now began to prevail; Athens and Thebes
were overthrown by Philip at Chaeronea (338 B.C.), and, three years after, the
latter city was entirely destroyed by Alexander the Great. In the year 315 B.C.,
Cassander rebuilt Thebes, with the zealous co-operation of the Athenians, but
it never regained its political importance. Thebes favored the Roman cause in
the war with Perseus, but it dwindled away to a mere nothing under the Roman
dominion.
(D.) PLACES IN BCEOTIA.
1. Siphce or Tiphce, the first Boeotian port on the Mare Alcybnium, beginning from     the Phocian frontier.    It boasted of
having given birth to Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts. Its
site is probably at the modern Agiani.      The Mare Alcyonium
was an arm of the Sinus Corinthiacus, at its eastern extremity,
and derived its name from the peculiar calmness of its waters
at certain seasons. 2. Thisbe, a few miles inland, and to the
northwest, noticed by Homer as abounding in wild pigeons.
Strabo says it was still distinguished in his day for the same
local characteristic. Its site corresponds to that of Kakosia,
where, according to Gell, there is still an immense number of
rock pigeons.
Above Thisbe rises Mount Helicon, now Palceovouni, so famed in antiquity as
the seat of Apollo and the Muses. Pausanias ascribes the worship of the Muses
here to the Pierians, or Old Thracians, of whom we have already spoken (p. 450),




GRE CIA.                        533
and who transferred from Macedonia the names of Libethra, Pimplea, and the
Pierides, to the dells of Helicon. Strabo affirms that Helicon retains its snows
during the greater part of the year. According to Leake, it is some hundred
feet less in height than Parnassus. On the summit was the grove of the Muses,
adorned with several statues, and a little below was the fountain of Aganippe,
sacred to the Muses, who were hence called Aganippides. About twenty feet
above the grove was the fountain Hippocrene, said to have been produced from
the ground, when Pegasus first struck it with his hoof. Hence the name of
"Horse's Fountain,"'I7riroKpvTT   or'IlrovwKprvj, from ir7ror, "' horse," and Kp7/Pv,
"a fountain." These two fountains or springs supplied the small rivers Olmius
and Permcssus, which, after uniting their waters, flowed into the Lake Copais
near Haliartus.
3. Ascra, situate on a rocky summit belonging to Helicon,
and celebrated as the birth-place of Hesiod. Pausanias reports,
that in his day only one tower remained to mark the site of
As3ra.   Leake fixes the site at Pyrgaki, where a ruined tower,
whence the spot gets its name, still remains. 4. Thespice, according to Strabo, forty stadia from Ascra, and near the foot
of Helicon, looking toward the south and the Crissean Gulf.
The Thespians deserve honorable mention for their brave and
generous conduct during the Persian war, when the rest of
Bceotia basely submitted to Xerxes. The troops sent by them
to Thermopyle, to aid Leonidas, chose rather to die at their
post than desert the Spartan king and his heroic followers.
Their city was in consequence burned by the Persians, after
the inhabitants had evacuated it and retired to the Peloponnesus.   A small body of them, however, fought at Platesm,
under Pausanias. The Thespians distinguished themselves
also at Delium, against the Athenians, being nearly all slain
at their posts. The Thebans afterward basely took advantage
of this heavy loss to pull down the walls of their city, and bring
it under subjection, under the pretext of their having favored'the Athenians. Phryne, the heterist, was a native of this place,
and here she caused the statue of Cupid, which she had received
as a present from Praxiteles, to be set up, which added greatly
to the prosperity of her native city, from the crowd of strangers
who came to view this master-piece of art. The site of Thespimr
is at Eremo Castro, or, as Leake writes it, Rimokastro.
5. Eutresis, to the southeast of Thespie, and said to have
been once the residence of Amphion and Zethus. It was situat c0.  t;he road from Thespime to Platese, and possessed a eelebrated temple and oracle of Apollo.   6. Leuctra, likewise on




634               ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ilhe road from Thespiae to Platmie. It was famed for the vic.
tory obtained here by Epaminondas over the Spartans.   From
that moment the power and fame of Sparta began to decline,:ttnd after the second victory of Epaminondas over them at Mantinea in Arcadia, this state ceased forever to be the arbiter of
Greece.   The spot is now called Lefka (Aevica).  Leake less
correctly seeks to identify Lefka with the ancient Thespire.
7. Platecae, one of the most ancient Boeotian cities, situate at
the foot of Mount Cithaeron, and near the River Asopus, which
separated its territory from that of Thebes.   The Platseans
withdrew at an early period from the Bceotian confederacy, and
placed themselves under the protection of Athens.   Grateful
for the aid afforded by that city, they sent one thousand soldiers
to Marathon, who shared in the glory of that memorable fight.
They also manned some of the Athenian vessels at Artemisium.
Platree was famous for the great battle which took place in its
vicinity, in which the Persians under Mardonius were defeated
by the combined Greek forces under the Spartan Pausanias.
The town had been burned by the army of Xerxes, but was rebuilt by the aid of the Athenians. In the third year of the Peloponnesian war, Plateea was taken and destroyed by the Peloponnesian forces. It was restored after the peace of Antalcidas, but again destroyed by the Thebans. Cassander rebuilt
it together with Thebes. The ruins of this place are near the
modern village of Kokhla.  The River Asopus has already been
mentioned (p. 480).
Mount Citharon, at the foot of which stood Plateae, is an elevated ridge, dividing Bceotia first from Megaris, and afterward from Attica, and finally uniting
with Mount Parnes and other summits which belong to the northeastern side
of the province. It was dedicated, as Pausanias affirms, to Jupiter Cithaeronius,
and was celebrated in antiquity as having been the scene of many evfrtts re
corded by poets and other writers. Such were the metamorphosis of Actaop,
the death of Pentheus, and the exposure of CEdipus. Here also Bacchus was
said to hold his revels with the satyrs and frantic bacchantes. The modern
name is Mount Elatia, from the forests of fir (iLdrqT) with which it is crowned.
8. Erythrce, to the east of Platse, and the parent city of the
flourishing colony of the same name in Ionia.. The Grecian
forces were stationed here previous to the battle of Plataean.
9. Scolus, northeast of Plataen.  Its territory was so rugged
and unproductive that it gave rise to the proverb, "Never let
us go to Scolus, nor follow any one thither."  10. PotniKe,. to
the north of Scolus, and about ten stadia from Thebes.  H.eie




GR.:CIA.                          535
was a sacred grove dedicated to Ceres and Proseipina.         It was
at Potnie that Glaucus was said to have been torn in pieces by
his infuriated mares. Gell makes its site nearly correspond
with that of the modern village of Tatki.        11. Thebe, one of
the most ancient and important cities of Greece, and the capital,
in a general sense, of Bceotia. It was situated in the plain between Lake Hylice (now Lake Livadhi) on the north and a
range of low   hills on the south.     Thebes was fabled to have
been founded by Cadmus and a Phcnician colony, and to have
been called from him    Cadmea, a name which, in after days, was
confined to the citadel only, standing as this did on the site of
the earlier city. Around this citadel arose the later city, which
was so disposed that the greater portion of it occupied the part
north of the citadel. According to an ancient legend, the city
was fortified by Zethus, and Amphion, the wonderful lyre-player,
who, by his music, made the stones move and form the walls
round the city.
Previous to the Trojan war, the city of Thebes was destroyed by the Epigoni,
that is, the descendants of the seven Argive heroes who had been defeated by
the Thebans, and from this destruction it does not appear to have recovered before that war, as it took no part in the expedition against Troy. In the time
of Homer, however, who calls it a city ", with seven gates" (TrrrT-rvoc), and
gives it the epithet of eVpVXopoc, on account of the extensive plain which formed
its territory, it appears to have been again in a flourishing condition. In 335
B.C. Thebes was destroyed a second time, by Alexander the Great, on whose
accession to the throne of Macedonia it had revolted, and had attempted to
shake off the Macedonian yoke. Of the lower city nothing was left on this occasion except the gates, the temples, and the house of Pindar the poet: six
thousand inhabitants were'killed, and thirty thousand sold as slaves. Twenty
years afterward it was rebuilt by Cassander, with the generous aid of the Athenians, Messenians, and Megalopolitans. It suffered a third time in B.C. 291,
under Demetrius Poliorcetes. Dicaearchus, who saw Thebes about this time
or shortly after, has left us an interesting description of it. Its population about
this time is supposed to have been between fifty and sixty thousand. After
the Macedonian time, however, the city declined still more, and Sylla seems to
have given it the last blow by depriving it of half its territory, which he assigned
to the Delphians. Strabo remarks, that in his time it had scarcely the appearance of a village. The place which now occupies the ancient Cadmea is called
Theba or Pheba, and in Turkish Stiva. The inhabitants of ancient Thebes were
distinguished above all the other Greeks for rusticity, fierceness, and passion.
Hence a Theban was always ready to settle any dispute by fighting rather than
by the ordinary course ofjustice. The women were celebrated for their gentleness and beauty.
Near one of the gates of Thebes was a hill and temple consecrated to Apollo
Ismenius. At the foot of this hill flowed the little stream of the Ismenus. According to Dodwell, the Ismenus has less pretensions to the title of a river than




536              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the Athenian Il1ssus, for it has no water except after heavy rains, when it becomes a torrent, and rushes into the Lake of Hylice, to the north of Thebes.
The celebrated fountain of Dirce was also in the immediate vicinity of this city.
Gell noticed a brook to the west of the Cadmea, by some Turkish tombs, which
he considered to be the ancient Dirce. Beyond Dirce was Pindar's house. The
fountain of Mars, said to have been guarded by the dragon slain by Cadmus, was
above the temple of Apollo Ismenius.
12. Onchestus, northwest of Thebse, and near the Lake Hylice.  It took its name from Onchestus, a son of Neptune,
which deity had here a celebrated temple and grove.  13. lIaliartus, to the west, on the shore of the Lake Copais. Lysander, the Lacedemonian, was slain in an engagement under the
walls of this town. Having favored the cause of Perseus, king
of Macedonia, it was taken by assault, sacked, and entirely destroyed by the Roman praetor Lucretius. The inhabitants were
sold, and their territory was given to the Athenians. 14. Alalcomence, to the west of Haliartus, and celebrated for the worship
of Minerva, thence surnamed Alalcomeneis.    The temple of
the goddess was plundered and stripped of its statues by Sylla.
It was said that when Thebes was taken by the Epigoni, many
of the inhabitants retired to Alalcomene, as being sacred and
inviolable. The ruins of this place are near the village of Sulinari.  The mountain, at the foot of which stood the town, was
named Tilphussius, and from it flowed a small stream  called
Tilphussa. This stream is said to have caused the death of
the celebrated soothsayer Tiresias, in consequence of his drinking of its waters, which were extremely cold. 15. Coronea, to
the west of the preceding, a city of great antiquity, having been
founded, together with Orchomenus, by the descendants of Athamas, who came from Thessaly.   Several important actions took
place at different times in its vicinity, the chief of which was
the battle gained by Agesilaus and the Spartans against the
Thebans and their allies, 394 B.C. Near Coronea was a celebrated temple of Minerva Itonis, where the general council of
the Bceotian states assembled until it was dissolved by the Romans. The ruins of Coronea are observable near the village
of Corunies, on a remarkably insulated hill. At the distance
of forty stadia to the south of Coronea rose Mount Libethrius,
one of the summits of Helicon, dedicated to the Muses and the
Nymphs, hence called Libethrides. There was also a fountain
named Libethrias.




GRAECIA.                          537
16. Lebadea, to the northwest of Coronea, and toward the
frontiers of Phocis. It is said to have derived its name from
Lebadus, an Athenian, under whose conduct the inhabitants
of the Homeric Midea removed from a neighboring height, and
settled here in the lower ground. Lebadea was celebrated for
its oracle of Trophonius, situate.in a cave above the town, into
which those who wished to consult it were obliged to descend,
after performing various ceremonies.        Lebadea was richly
adorned with works of art, but was plundered by the troops of
Mithradates.    It is now   Livadia, a name which is applied
also to a large province, of which Baeotia forms merely a part.
17. C/ceronea, to the northwest of the preceding, a city of some
consequence, and celebrated in history for the battle gained by
Philip of Macedon over the Athenians and Boeotians. Several
years after, this town witnessed another and bloodier engagement between the Romans under Sylla, and the troops of Mithradates commanded by Taxiles and Archelaus. The ruins of
Chaeronea are found at the village of Kapurna.
18. Orch6menus, on the western shore of the Lake Copazs,
and near the entrance of the Cephisus into that lake. It was
the second city in Boeotia, and at one time even rivalled Thebes
itself in wealth, power, and importance.
Its first inhabitants are said to have been the Phlegyae, a lawless race. These,
having been destroyed by the gods for their impiety, were succeeded by the
Minyee, who came apparently from Thessaly, and are commonly regarded as
the real founders of Orchomenus, which thence obtained the surname of the
"Minyan." At this period it was so renowned for its wealth and power that
Homer represents it as vying with the most opulent cities in the world. These
riches are said to have been deposited in a building erected for that purpose by
Minyas, and which Pausanias describes as an astonishing work, and equally
worthy of admiration with the walls of Tiryns or the pyramids of Egypt.
Thebes was at that time inferior in power to the Minyan city, and in a war
with Erginus, king of the latter, was compelled to become its tributary. As
another proof of the wealth and civilization to which Orchomenus had attained,
it is mentioned that Eteocles, one of its early kings, was the first to erect a
temple to the Graces. Hence Orchomenus is called by Pindar the city of the
Graces, and the most prevalent worship here was that of these divinities.
Thirlwall says that the early legends about the Minyans may be considered as
indications of a native race, apparently Pelasgians, overpowered by.Eolian invaders. It was in the sixtieth year after the Trojan war that the Eolian Bceotians, who had been expelled from Thessaly, drove out the Minyans from Orchomenus, which was then, with its territory, added to Boeotia, and joined the
Bceotian confederacy. At and shortly before the time of the Peloponnesiar
war, we find Orchomenus one of the most powerful states of the Bceotian league,
and having under it the towns of Chaeronea and Tegyra. Its government was




538              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
oligarchical: the ruling order was called " Knights." It was destroyed by the
Thebans in 368 B.C., but was rebuilt after the destruction of Thebes. Its ruins
are to be seen near the modern village of Scripu. Near Orchomenus flowed the
small river Melas, and in the marshes near the junction of this river with the
Cephisus grew the auletic or flute reed, so much esteemed by the ancient Greeks
for making flutes and other wind instruments. Pliny describes it as very long
and without knots. Leake says they are still produced here in abundance.
19. Larymna, on the coast, and belonging originally to the
territory of the Locri Opuntii. Near it the Lake Copais discharged its waters into the sea by subterranean passages. (Consult page 482, ~ III., IV.) The precise spot where the stream
issued from under ground was named Anchoe, and near, it was
a very deep lake.  There were, strictly speaking, two places
named Larymna, an upper or northern, and a lower. Leaving
the sea in order to return to the Lake of Copais, we have to
cross the ridge of Mount Ptous, celebrated in antiquity as the
seat of an oracle and temple of Apollo. On its western slope,
and near the shore of the Copaic Lake, stood, 20. Acrtephia or
Acrcephium, which, according to Strabo, was looked upon by
some writers as the Arne of Homer. It had a temple of Bacchus.  Its remains are to be seen near the village of Karditza.
21. Copce, a short distance to the north of the preceding, giving
name to the Lake Copais, on which it stood, and situated near
the deepest part of it. It contained temples of Bacchus, Ceres,
and Serapis. The modern village of Topolia is on the ancient
site, which Dodwell describes as a low, insular tongue of land,
projecting from the foot of Mount Ptous. The Lake Copais
was chiefly formed by the River Cephisus, and is now called
the Lake of Topolia. Anciently, however, this lake received
various names from the different cities situated along its shores.
At Haliartus it was called Haliarlius Lacus; at Orchomenus,
Orchomenius. Homer and Pindar distinguish it by the name
of Cephisis.  That of Copais, however, finally prevailed, since
Copse, as already remarked, was situate near the deepest part
of it. This was by far the most considerable lake in Greece,
being not less than three hundred and eighty stadia in circuit.
It was famous for its eels, which grew to a large size, and were
esteemed highly by the epicures of antiquity. According to
Dodwell, they are still held in high repute. For an account
of the outlets of this lake, consult page 482. Tradition asserted
that near Copse there stood, in the time of Cecrops, two ancient




G RN CIA.                   539
cities, named Eleusis and Athence, and Stephanus reports that,
when Crates, by order of Alexander the Great, drained the
waters which had overspread the plains, the latter town became
visible.
22. Hyle, a small town, northeast of Thebes, mentioned more
than once by Homer, and giving name to the Lake Hylice, now
Livadhi or the Lake of Senzina. Hyle appears to have been
renowned for its manufacture of shields. The celebrated seven.
fold shield of Ajax was made, according to Homer, by Tychius
of Hyle. 23. Harma, northeast of Thebes, in the direction of
Chalcis. It was said to have derived its name from the fate
of Amphiaraus, who disappeared on that spot, together with
his chariot (&appa) and horses. 24. Mycalessus, an ancient city,
to the northeast of Harma, and known to Homer. Its inhabitants were all cruelly butchered, during the Peloponnesian war,
by some Thracian troops in the pay of Athens. 25. Aulis, to
the northeast of the preceding, a sea-port celebrated as the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet when about to sail for Troy.
Strabo remarks, that, as the harbor of Aulis could not contain
more than fifty ships, the Grecian fleet must have assembled in
the neighboring port of Bathys, which was much more extensive.  Bathys is still called Vathi, and is described by Gell
as an excellent harbor. 26. Salganeus, above Aulis, and an
important post, as commanding the passage of the Euripus.
27. Anthedon, northwest of the preceding, and on the coast. It
was celebrated for its wine. Dicaearchus represents the inhabitants in his time as nearly all fishermen, and claiming descent
from Glaucus, the sea-god. Near the sea was a spot called the
leap of Glaucus. The Cabiri, according to Pausanias, were
worshipped at Anthedon. 28. Tanagra, southeast of Thebes,
and near the left bank of the Asopus. Its earlier appellation
was Grcea. An obstinate battle was fought in its vicinity between the Athenians and Spartans prior to the Peloponnesian
war, in which the former were worsted. Tanagra was famous
for its breed of fighting cocks. The modern village of Grim6da
or Grimala marks the ancient site.
29. Delium, to the northeast, close to the sea, and facing
Eretria in Eubcea. It was celebrated for the battle which took
place in its vicinity between the Athenians and Boeotians, when
the former were totally routed. It was in this engagement




540                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
that, according to some accounts, Socrates saved the life of Xenophon, or, according to others, of Alcibiades. Some vestiges of
it still remain near the village of Dramisi. 30. Oropus, to the
east of the preceding, and on the right bank of the Asopus.
From its situation on the borders of Attica and Boeotia, this
place was a continual subject of dispute between the two people.
It is now called Oropo.    31. Delphinium, a port at the mouth
of the Asopus, sometimes called the Sacred Port ('Iespo Atqnv).
8. ME G A RIS.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Megaris, according to one tradition, derived its name from
Megarus, a Baeotian chief, and a son of Apollo or Neptune
According to others, however, it had this name from the earliest historical times.
II. It was bounded on the north by Bwotia; on the west by
the Sinus Corinthiacus; on the southwest by the territory.of
Corinth; on the south and southeast by the Sinus Saronicus,
now the Gulf of Engia; and on the east and northeast by
Attica.
III. Megaris is a rugged and mountainous country, and contains only one plain of small extent, in which the capital, Meg'dra, was situated. The rocks are chiefly, if not entirely, calcareous.   The country is very deficient in springs.     The extreme breadth on the Corinthian Gulf is reckoned by Strabo at
one hundred and twenty stadia, and the area of the country is
calculated by Clinton at seven hundred and twenty square miles.
Megaris was separated from Bmotia by the range of Mount Cithieron, and
from Attica by the high land which descends from the northwest boundary of
Attica, and terminates on the west side of the Bay of Eleusis in two summits,
anciently called Kerata (Kepara), or "the Horns," and now Kandili. It was divided from the Corinthian territory, on the southwest, by the Onean range of
mountains, through which there were only two roads from Corinth into Megaris.
One of these roads, called the Scironian Pass, was said to have been the haunt
of the robber Sciron, who plundered travellers, and then threw them from the
high rocks into the sea, until he was overcome and treated in the same way by
Theseus. This narrow pass was situated between Megara and Crommyon, a
small maritime town belonging to Corinth. The road followed the shore for
the space of several miles, and was shut in on the land side by a lofty mountain
range, while toward the sea it was lined by dangerous precipices. Pausanias
reports that it was afterward rendered more accessible by the Emperor Hadrian,
being made wide enough for two vehicles abreast. At present, however, it
~.dmits, according to Thiersch, only a single vehicle, except in a few places.
Leake, on the other hand, says that it is only practicable by foot passengers.




GRACIA.                            541
h'le other road, following the coast of the Corinthian Gulf, crossed the Geranean Mountains, which belong to the Onean range, and led to Pagae, on the
Corinthian Gulf, and thence into Bceotia.
(B.) SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF MEGARIS.
I. ACCORDING to the traditions preserved by Pausanias, Car, the son of Photoneus, originally reigned at Megara, and was succeeded, after the lapse of
twelve generations, by Lelex, who gave to the people the name of Leleges. Lelex was succeeded by Cleson, and Cleson by Pylas. By the marriage of Pylas
with the daughter of Pandion, Megara became annexed to Attica; and there can
be no doubt that Megaris also, in early times, belonged to Attica, since it is
represented on the best authority that Megaris formed one of the four ancient
divisions of Attica.
II. On the death of Pandion, Megaris fell to the lot of his son Nisus; but it
was wrested from the Athenians during the reign of Codrus, when the Dorians
invaded Attica. A Corinthian colony was settled at Megara, and the country
was from this time regarded as a Doric state. It remained for some time subject to Corinth; but it afterward asserted its independence, although at what
time is uncertain. Its wealth and power rapidly increased, as is evident from
the numerous colonies which it planted, of which the most important were Selymbria, Calchedon, and Byzantium, on the Bosporus and Propontis, and Hyblaan Megara in Sicily: The navy of Megara was once powerful enough to
cope with that of Athens; and it was only after a long and obstinate struggle
that the Athenians were enabled to recover the island of Salamis, which had
been seized by the Megarians.
III. The government was originally in the hands of the great Dorian landholders; but they were deprived of their power by Theagenes, who put himself
at the head of the popular party, and obtained the sovereignty about B.C. 620.
He adorned the city with several public buildings. He married his daughter
to Cylon, who was assisted by him in his attempt to usurp the government at
Athens. Theagenes was at length expelled from Megara; and shortly afterward a most violent struggle arose between the aristocratic and democratic
parties, of which a vivid picture is drawn in the poems of Theognis, a native
of Megara, who appears to have been born shortly before the death of Solon, and
to have lived down to the beginning of the Persian wars.
IV. For some time after the Persian wars, Megara appears to have been constantly engaged in war with Corinth; and her enmity to Corinth was the occasion of her forming an alliance with Athens, about B.C. 461. Athenian garrisons were placed in Megara and Pegae; but six years afterward the Megarians
renounced their alliance with Athens, and put to death the Athenian garrison
at Megara. In the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, the democratic party
formed a plan for surrendering the city to Athens, which was defeated by the
arrival of Brasidas with a Lacedaemonian force. We read little more of Megara
in Grecian history. In B.C. 357, democracy was again the established constitution. Megara was taken and almost destroyed by Demetrius; it was also
taken by the Romans under Metellus. It suffered greatly in the invasion of
Alaric; and its ruin was completed by the Venetians in 1687.
(C.) PLACES IN MEGARIS.
1. lIeg'ara, the capital of Megaris, situate at the foot of two
hills, on each of which a citadel was built.     These hills were




542             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
named Carla and Alcathous. It was connected with the port
of Niscea by two walls, the length of which was about eight
stadia, according to Thucydides. They were erected by the
Athenians at the time when the Megarians placed themselves
under their protection. The distance from Athens was two
hundred and ten stadia, as we learn from Procopius.  Chrysostom calls it a day's journey. Modern travellers generally
reckon eight hours. Alaric, as already remarked, nearly ruined
this once flourishing place. According to Pausanias, it was
the only city of Greece which was not restored by Hadrian, in
consequence of its inhabitants having murdered Anthemocritus,
the Athenian herald. The site is occupied by the modern town
of Megara.   2. Niscea, the harbor of Megara, with a citadel
called also Nismsa.  This citadel was a place of considerable
strength, as we learn from Thucydides, but might be cut off
from the city by effecting a breach in the long walls. The port
itself was sheltered by the small island of Minoa, which lay off
it. In the time of Strabo, Minoa had become connected with
the main land, and is called by him a promontory. 3. Pagce,
a port on the shore of the Mare Alcyonium, and the first place
after leaving the Bceotian frontier. It was occupied by the
Athenians before the Peloponnesian war, and was used by them
as a naval station. It is supposed to correspond to the modern
harbor of Psatho.  4. iEgosthence, placed by Cramer to the
southeast of Pagae, but by Leake to the northeast of it. To
this place the Lacedaemonians retreated by a difficult road along
the coast, after their defeat at Leuctra. Its site is marked by
the modern village of Porto Ghermano. 5. Tripodiscus, at the
foot of the Geranean chain of mountains, a part of the Onean
range.  It was the birth-place of Susarion, one of the earliest
comic poets of Greece.
9. ATTICA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. Attica ('A-TTrt ) derived its name, according to some, from
Atthis, a daughter of Cranaus, one of the earliest kings of
the country.  Others, however, deduced it from Acte (dtrO,'shore"), in allusion to its maritime situation and great extent of coast; and, according to these, the country itself was
actually known by the appellation of Acte, even before the reign
of Cranaus.




GR     CIA.                         543
II. It is more than probable, however, that the name Attica
contains the element Atth or Ath, which we observe in the
words Atth-is and Ath-enle.
III. Attica may be considered as forming a triangle, the base
of which is common also to Basotia, while the two sides lie upon
the sea, and the vertex is formed by the Promorntory of Sunium.
The prolongation of the western side, till it meets the base at
the extremity of Cithaeron, served also as a common boundary
to Attica and Megaris. Hence Attica may be said to be bounded
on. the north and northwest by Boeotia, and on a part of its
western side by Megaris, and the rest of the country to be
washed by the sea.
(B.) DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.
I. A WILD and rugged, though not a lofty range of mountains, bearing the name
of Citheron on the west, and of Parnes toward the east, divides Attica from
Boeotia. A considerable part of the range of Parnes is covered with forests of
pine, oak, arbutus, and wild pear trees. Lower ridges, branching off to the
south, and sending out arms toward the east, mark the limits of the principal
districts which compose this little country, the least proportioned in extent of
any on the face of the earth to its fame and its importance in the history of
mankind.
II. The most extensive of the Attic plains, though it is by no means a uniform level, but is broken by a number of hills, is the Athenian, or that in which
Athens itself lies, at the foot of a prccipitous rock, and in which, according to
the Attic legend, the olive, still its most valuable production, first sprang up.
It is bounded on the east by Mount Pcntclicus, and by the range which, under
the names of the greater and the lesser Hymetnzus, advances till it meets the sea
at the Promontory of Zoster.
III. The upper part of Pentelicus, which rises to a greater height than Hymettus, was distinguished, under the name of Epacria or Diacria, as the Attic
Highlands. This range, which, after trending eastward, terminates at the Promontory of Cynossema, forms with Mount Parnes and the sea the boundary of the
plain of Marathon.
IV. On the eastern side of Hymettus, a comparatively level tract, separated
from the coast by a lower range of hills, seems to have been that which was
called lVesogcea, or the midland country, and is still termed Mes6gia. The hills
which inclose it meet in the mountainous mine district of Laurium, and end with
the Promontory of Sunium, the southernmost foreland of Attica.
V. The tract on the coast, between Sunium and Cape Zoster, a range of low
hills and undulating plains, was designated by the name of Paralia, or the seacoast district.
VI. On the western side, the plain of Athens is bounded by a chain of hills,
issuing from Parnes, and successively bearing the names of Icarius, Corydallus,
and ZEgaleus, as it stretches toward the sea, which, at the Promontory of Amphiale, separates it by a channel, a quarter of a mile in width, from the island,f Salamis. It parts the Athenian from the Eleusinian plain, in which stood the
city of Eleusis.




544                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHYv.
VII.'Thp chief part of the Eleusinian plain was called the T,',,'i,;a,'a;, Athe
ancient wrn'ers, from the demus of Thria, and extended between the rdng.l 1),5;galpus arid Eleusis, along the borders of the bay, and to the north o'; it.  is
plain snd the Rarian, which last also formed part of the Eleusinian. were remarkable for their fertility, and were celebrated in the Attic mytholQgy as the
soil which had been first enriched by the gifts of Ceres, the goddess of harvests.
VIII. Attica is, on the whole, a meagre land, wanting the fatness of the BCcotian plains, and the freshness of the Bceotian streams. The waters of its principal river, the Cephisus, are expended in irrigating a part of the plain of Athens;
and the Ilissus, though no less renowned, is a mere brook, which is sometimes
swollen into a torrent. It could scarcely boast of more than two or three fertile
tracts, and its principal riches lay in the hearts of its mountains, in the silver of
Laurium, and the marble of Pentelicus. It might also reckon among its p8culiar advantages the purity of its air, the fragrance of its shrubs, and the fineness
of its fruits.
IX. But in its most flourishing period the produce of Attica was never sufficient to supply the wants of its inhabitants, and their industry was constantly
urged to improve their ground to the utmost. Traces are still visible of the
laborious cultivation which was carried, by means of artificial terraces, up the
sides of their barest mountains. After all, they were compelled to look even
to the sea for subsistence. Attica would have been little but for the position
which it occupied as the southeast foreland of Greece, with valleys opening on
the coast, and ports inviting the commerce of Asia. From the top of its hills
the eye surveys the whole circle of its islands, which form its maritime suburbs,
and seem to point out its historical destination.
X. As to the ancient population of Attica, it is difficult to come to any satisfactory conclusion. Clinton considers that, about B.C. 317, it may have been
five hundred and twenty-seven thousand six hundred and sixty, a large population for such a territory (being above seven hundred to the square mile), even
if we take into account that it contained a populous city. At the present day,
Attica is one of the eparchies of the actual kingdom of Greece. It contains one
city, Athens, and above one hundred villages. The population is not known.
(C.) SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ATTICA.
I. IF we want any proof as to the remote antiquity of political communities
in Attica, and its occupation at some time by a people not of the same Greek
stock as those of the age of Pericles, we may find it in the names of mountains,
streams, and places. The names of mountains and rivers are in all countries
the most permanent memorials of a nation's existence. Many Attic names can
be explained from the Greek language as known to us, and others can be traced
to personal names which belong to the circle of the Greek mythi. But there
still remain many which we can only explain by a comparison of Greek words
with those of kindred languages, or which we can not explain at all: such are
Ceph-isus, Il-issus, Hym-ettus, Bril-essus or Bril-ettus, Garg-ettus, Parn-es (compare Parn-assus), Braur-on, MIarath-on, Sun-ium, &c.
IT. Another proof of the remote antiquity of settlements in Attica is found in
the numerous political divisions, of which traces remained in the historical period. The oldest political division of Attica known by tradition was that by
Cecrops into twelve parts, the names of which, with a few exceptions, belong
to that class of words which the Greek language can not explain. Another divizion into four parts, among the four sons of Pandion, has a distinct reference
to the physical divisions of the Attic peninsula, including in this term Megaris,




GR2ECIA.                           545
which afterward fell into the hands of the Dorians. That there is an historical
fact contained in the division of the peninsula among the four sons of Pandion
appears from there being three great natural divisions of Attica after the separation of Megaris, which three divisions formed the ground-work of the three
political parties in the time of Pisistratus. These parties were the Diacrii or
Hyperacrzi, the inhabitants of the mountainous northeast region and the range
of Parnes; the Men of the Plain (under which name the plain of Athens, and
probably the Eleusinian also, are included), and the Parali, or inhabitants of
the Paralia (sea-coast), to which we have already referred.
III. A division into four tribes (0v.ai), and also a division into four castes, is
attributed to Ion. This division into four tribes remained until the time of Clisthenes, who increased the number to ten. These ten were called Hippothoontis,
Antiochis, Cecropis, Erechtheis, Pandionis, Leontis,.Egeis, Acamantis, (Eneis, and
JEantis. The ten tribes were subdivided into one hundred and seventy-four
demi (6juot) or townships, each demos apparently containing a town or small
village. Under Macedonian influence two tribes were added, Antigonia and
Demetrias, but these were afterward changed to Ptolemais and Attalis. A new
tribe was added in honor of Hadrian.
IV. The first period of Athenian history, ending with the war of Troy, is of
a mythical character. Actaeus was the first king of Attica. Cecrops, according to one fable, was a native of Attica, who married the daughter of Actaus,
and succeeded to the monarchy; according to another fable, he was an Egyptian, who brought from Egypt the arts of social life, and laid the foundation of
the religious and political system of the Athenians. Of the successors of Ce
crops, Erechtheus the first, otherwise called Erichthonius, was of divine or unknown descent. A second Erechtieus fought with the Eumolpidoe of Eleusis,
and lost his life. _Egeus, the son of the second Pandion, in the course of time
came to the throne; and his son Theseus, as he was the last, so he was the
greatest of the Athenian heroes. As the reputed founder of the Athenian polity,
who united into one confederation the twelve hitherto independent states or
cities of Attica, established by Cecrops, he appears to be invested with the char
acter of an historical personage.
V. If we endeavor to trace the history of the Athenian people, we find the
obscurity of their origin expressed by the' statement that they were Autochthoncs, sprung from the earth, or a people coeval with the land which they inhabited. Herodotus says that the Athenians were originally Pelasgi, and that they
became changed into Hellenes, or Greeks. Such a change implies the conquest
of the country by one race, while it was already in possession of another; it
implies, also, either the amalgamation of the conquered and the conquering races,
or the extinction of those who were compelled to yield. The former is supported by more probabilities. Xuthus, the son of Hellen, married a daughter
of the second Erechtheus, and became the father of Achaeus and Ion; and thus
the name lonian became attached to the Attic soil. We have the historical
fact that the names of the four tribes which existed till the time of Clisthenes
were supposed to be derived from the names of the four sons of Ion.
VI. The line of Athenian kings, whatever may have been its historical commencement, terminated with Codrus, when the office of king ceased at Athens,
and the supreme executive power was vested in an archon or governor, whose
office, from being at first hereditary and for life, was by degrees changed into
a decennial, and finally into an annual office. When the last change took place,
a further alteration was made by distributing the duties of the archon among
nine magistrates instead of giving them all to one. From the death of Codrus
MM




546                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
to the legislation of Solon, Athenian history presents but few and doubtful facts,
and though the personality of Solon, and his framing of a code, can not be matters of doubt, yet the events of his life belong to that epoch where the records
of-history are still obscure and disputed. With the legislation of Solon (B.C.
594) Athenian history begins to assume a more definite form, and the same
epoch marks the historical commencement of that series of events which brought
the inhabitants of the countries east of the Tigris into connection with the south
of Europe.
VII. The history of Athens now becomes more or less intimately connected
with.that of Greece in general, of which we have elsewhere given a rapid sketch
(page 468, seqq.). Its political history during and after the age of Alexander
is of little importance. The city was often involved in the revolutions and
movements of the Macedonian kingdom; but, on the whole, it enjoyed internal
tranquillity to the time of the Roman occupation of Greece, which it owed chiefly
to the control exercised by the various rulers of Macedonia. Soon after the
death of Alexander the Lamian war broke out, in which the city showed almost
the last feeble spark of that military spirit, which once led it to triumph ovei
the armies of the East. The result of the campaign was the occupation of Munychia by a Macedonian garrison (B.C. 322); and the death of Phocion, which
took place soon after, left Athens without a representative of her ancient statesmen.
VIII. Cassander, having got possession of Athens (B.C. 317), appointed De
metrius of Phalerum, supported by a Macedonian garrison, the governor of the
city. During ten years Demetrius secured to Athens, if not prosperity, at least
repose. During the subsequent wars between the last Philip of Macedon and
the Romans, the Athenians, together with Attalus, king of Pergamus, took the
part of the foreign invaders. Athens, though weak in the field, was still strong
within her walls; the Macedonian king attacked both the Piraeus and the city
before the Romans could come to their assistance; but, failing in his object, he
turned his vengeance against the suburbs, and the numerous beautiful temples
wiich adorned the Attic plain. There can be no doubt that the invasion of
Philip was most destructive to the monuments of Attica, though Eleusis anc
Athens itself escaped.
IX. The next great calamity of Athens was its capture by the Romans under
Sylla (B.C. 86). This was the first time that the fortifications of Athens had
been forced by an enemy. Sylla demolished the walls of the Piraeus, together
with the great arsenal of Phiro, and from this time the commerce of Athens was
annihilated. Under Roman government, Athens, though she had lost her political power and her commerce, was still the centre of the arts and of philosophy, and a favorite residence of the wealthy Romans. From the time of Julius Caesar to that of Hadrian, it was occasionally honored by the visits of the
masters of the Roman world, and to them it owed much of that splendor which
Pausanias admired in the second century of our era. The gradual decay of its
buildings has been attributed, with good reason, partly to the decline of paganism,
and to the slow though gradual progress of the new faith.
(D.) PLACES, &c., IN ATTICA.
Athence, now Athens ('AO0vat), the capital of Attica, situated about five miles from the coast, and occupying part of the
central plain of Attica, together with some heights, which run
down into the plain. Of these eminences themzost conspicuous




GRAECIA.                          547
are Mount Lycabettus, with its peaked summit, on the northwest of the city; erroneously called Anchesmus by Leake; the
Acropolis, or citadel; the Areopagus, opposite to the west end
of the Acropolis; and the hill of the Museum, the highest eminence on the south. On the east of the city, the little river
Ilissus ran in a southwest direction, separating the heights of
Athens on the west from the higher and more continuous range
of Hymettus on the east. This little river, which, in its natural
state, may have reached the marshy lands near the coast, is
now reduced by the heats of summer, and the channels for artificial irrigation, to an inconsiderable stream. Another river,
the Cephisus, ran due south, past the western side of the city,
at the distance of about a mile and a half from the walls.
This is also nearly exhausted at present by the cuts for irrigation before it reaches the neighborhood of the Pirmeus. Athens
had three harbors, Piracus (the largest), Munychia, and Phaleruin, and it was connected with these by Long $Wails, as they
were called (MaKpda Teixrl), which abutted on the city, respectively, at the hill of the Museum    and the Gate of the Pirmeus.
A more particular account of these walls will be given further
on.   The whole circuit of the city proper was about forty three
stadia, or a little over five English miles. That of Athens, with
its three harbors, however, was, according to Thucydides, in
B.C. 431, not less than one hundred and seventy-four stadia,
or about nineteen or twenty miles. The population in the time
of Xenophon appears to have been one hundred and twenty
thousand for the city proper.
TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS.
VWE have little or no information respecting the size of Athens under its
earliest kings. It is generally supposed, however, that, even as late as the time
of Theseus, the town was almost entirely confined to the Acropolis and the adjoining hill of Mars. Subsequently to the Trojan war it appears to have increased considerably both in population and extent, since Homer applies to it
the epithets of ErriTtEvoC and evpviyvtoc. These improvements continued probably during the reign of Pisistratus, and, as it was able to stand a siege against
the Lacedaemonians under his son Hippias, it must evidently have possessed
walls and fortifications of sufficient height and strength to insure its safety.
The invasion of Xerxes, and the subsequent irruption of Mardonius, effected
the entire destruction of the ancient city, and reduced it to a heap of ruins; with
the exception only of such temples and buildings as were enabled, from the solidity of their materials, to resist the action of fire and the work of demolition.
When, however, the battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale had averted all
danger of invasion, Athens, restored to peace and security, soon rose from its




548                 ANCIENT G EOGRAPHIY.
state of ruin atl desolation. And having been furnished, by the prudent foresight and einergetic conduct of Themistocles, with the military works requisite
for its defence, it attained, under the subsequent administrations of Cimon and
Pericles, to the highest pitch of beauty, magnificence, and strength. It was in
the time of Pericles that Athens attained the summit of its beauty and prosperity, both with respect to the power of the republic, and the extent and magnificence of the architectural decorations with which the capital was adorned.
We will now proceed to mention some of the structures and places in ancient
Athens worthy of more particular notice.
1. Pompeutm, near the Piraic gate, and so called from its containing the sacred vessels (7rouwrreia) used in certain processions. In it were also a statue of
Socrates by Lysippus, and several paintings. 2. The Ccramicus, one of the
most considerable and important parts of the city, and so called, most probably,
from some potteries anciently situated there. It was divided into the Outer and
Inner Ceramicus. The former was without the walls, and contained the tombs
of those who had fallen in battle and were buried at the public expense. The
communication from the one Ceramicus to the other was by the gate Dipylum.
3. The Agora. There were two Agorce, the Old and the New. The Old Agora
formed part of the Ceramicus. The New was in a quarter of the city which
had previously belonged to the demus of Eretria. The change was made from
the Old to the New Agora after the former had been defiled with massacre by
Sylia. 4. Stoa Basileios, or Royal Portico, so called because the archon basileus, or king archon, held his court here. Its roof was adorned with statues
of baked clay. This structure was in the Ceramicus. 5. MIetroumn, also in the
Ceramicus. It was a temple consecrated to the mother of the gods, whose
statue was the work of Phidias. Here the archives of the state were deposited,
and it served also as a tribunal for the archon eponymus, or chief archon
6. Bouleutirium (Bov2?evr/ptov), or Senate-house, adjacent to the Metroum.
Here the Senate of Five Hundred, who formed the annual council oi tie t;:l.,i.,
had their meetings. It contained statues of Jupiter the counsellor, of Apollo,
and the Athenian Demos. 7. Tholus, a building close to the preceding, and
where the Prytanes held their feasts and sacrifices. It was also called Scias.
S. Poeczle Stoa (floCKiD ZTrod), so called from the celebrated paintings which it
contained. Its more ancient name is said to have been Peisianactius. The
pictures were by Polygnotus, Micon, and Pamphilus, the most famous among
the Grecian painters, and represented the battle of Theseus against the Amazons, and that of Marathon, as well as other achievements of the Athenians
It was in this portico that Zeno first opened his school, which from this place
derived its name of Stoic, or the school of the Porch. Leake supposes that some
walls which are still to be seen at the church of Panaghia Fanaromeni are the
remains of this celebrated structure.
9. Macra Stoa, a range of porticoes extending from the vicinity of the Stoa
Basileios to the Poecile. Behind it rose the hill of Colonus Agoraus, where
Meton erected a table for astronomical purposes. 10. Theseum, the celebrated
temple of Theseus, erected to that hero after the battle of Marathon, when Cimon was sent to the island of Scyros to convey his remains thence to Athens.
It stood north of the Macra Stoa. This great edifice, which was held by the
Athenians in the highest veneration, and possessed an inviolable sanctuary, was
built about 465 B.C., under the direction of Cimon. Its precincts were so extensive as to contain on certain occasions a large military assembly. In the
interior it was decorated with pictures representing the achievements of Theseus, his battle with the Amazons, and the fight of the Centaurs and Lapithar




GREaCIA.                           549
It was built of Pentelic marble, and is still one of the best-preserved public buildings of Athens. It stands upon an artificial foundation formed of large quadrangular blocks of limestone.
11. Hadriani Stoa, or Portico of Hadrian, one of the monuments with which
that emperor embellished Athens. It stood east of the Theseum. 12. Horologium Andronici Cyrrheste, or the Water Clock of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called
likewise the "Tower of the Winds." It was an octagonal structure, erected
to indicate, by means of dials on its walls, the hour of the day when the weather
was clear, and by means of water when it was cloudy. It also denoted the
quarter whence the wind blew. The water clock was supplied with water by
an aqueduct from the spring under the cave of Pan, on the northwest corner of
the Acropolis. The figures of the eight winds were cut in relief on the exterior
wall of the building, with their names above them on the frieze. On the top of
the tower was a Triton of bronze, which moved round with the wind, and indicated by a rod the quarter whence it blew. Beneath the figures of the winds
were traced solar dials. The structure still remains, and the celebrated Delambre bears testimony to the correctness of the.dials, which he describes as
the most curious existing monument of the practical gnomonics of antiquity.
Stuart found traces of the Clepsydra or water clock carefully channeled in the
original floor.
13. IHadriani Arcus, or the Arch of Hadrian, which formed an entrance to the
southeastern quarter of the city. It stood near the peribolus of the Olympeum.
The structure was of Pentelic marble, and consisted of a circular arch with Corinthian columns. Remains of it still exist, and an inscription shows that the
emperor gave his name to the part of the city between this edifice and the Ilissus, this quarter being called Hadrianopolis. 14. Olympeum, one of the most
ancient and magnificent of the sacred edifices of Athens. It was a temple of
Jupiter Olympius, begun by Pisistratus, B.C. 530, and completed by Hadrian,
A.D. 145. The building of this temple went along with the course of the national existence of Athens. Athens ceased to be independent before the structure was completed. Sixteen columns of Pentelic marble, sixty feet high, and
above six and a half in (dilametr.r.-" all thl!t nr:n. remain of the one hundred
and twenty-eight which once adorned this magnificent building. The whole
length of the structure was three hundred and fifty-four feet, and the breadth
one hundred and seventy-one feet. The fountain called Callirrhoe, or Enneacrunzis (the nine springs), the only source of fresh water in the neighborhood,
was a short distance from the southeast angle of the great temple.
15. Via Tripodum, or the " Street of the Tripods," so called from its being
lined with small temples where prize tripods were usually deposited. Of this
description was the beautiful little choragic monument of Lysicrates, erected
about 334 B.C., and vulgarly called the Lantern of Demosthenes. This still
remains, and stands between the southeast angle of the Acropolis and the Olympeum. 16. Lenauml, a temple of Bacchus, a most ancient sanctuary, and probably the same to which Thucydides alludes as the temple of that god in Limnis
(iv Aiuyvar). It stood in a southwestern direction from the monument of Lysicrates. 17. Bacchi Theatrum, or Theatre of Bacchus, called also the Temple
of Bacchus, to the north of the preceding, and near the southeast angle of the
Acropolis. In this theatre, which, according to Diceearchus, was the most beautiful in existence, the dramatic contests were decided, and dramatic exhibitions
held. From Plato we may collect that it was capable of containing thirty thousand spectators. From the level of the plain a semicircular excavation gradually ascended up the slope of the hill to a considerable height, while the part




550                 ANCIENT      GI:OGRAPrIiY.
Which projected into the plain was formed of masonry. Round the concavity
were the seats for the audience, rising range above range; and the whole was
topped and inclosed by a lofty portico, adorned with statues, and surrounded by
a balustraded terrace.
18. Odeum Pcriclis, not far from the preceding. It was. a musical theatre,
said to have been constructed in imitation of the tent of Xerxes. Plutarch informs us that it was richly decorated with columns, and that the roof terminated
in a point. It was set on fire by Aristion, general ofMithradates, who defended
Athens against Sylla; but it was afterward restored at the expense of Ariobartanes, king of Cappadocia. 19. Odeum Regillah, another musical theatre, on the
southwest side of the Acropolis. It was erected by Herodes Atticus, and named
after his deceased wife Regilla. This Odeum was built in the second century
of our era, and was the finest building of the kind in Greece.
20. Acropolis. The Cecropian citadel, or old Cecropian fortress, which forms
so conspicuous a feature in the topography of Athens. It was situated on an
elevated rock, rising abruptly from the plain, and precipitous on every side except at the western end, where it was alone accessible. Here stood the magnificent Propylcea, of Pentelic marble, which served both as an approach and a
niilitary defence to the citadel. It consisted of a great vestibule, with a front
of six Doric columns; behind which was another, supported by as many pillars
of the Ionic order. These formed the approach to the five gates, or entrances
to the citadel. On each side were two wings, projecting from the great central
colonnade, and presenting a wall simply adorned with a frieze of triglyphs.
This great structure is said to have been five years in progress, and to have
cost two thousand talents. It was much injured in 1656 by an explosion of gunpowder. Some portions, however, still remain. The government has lately
cleared the whole of the beautiful entrance, and again opened the five ancient
doorways which gave admission into the Acropolis.
21. Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva, the virgin goddess (rapOevoc), and situate on the highest level of the Acropolis. It was built of Pentelic marble, and
occupied apparently the site of an older temple called Hecatompedon, also dedicated to Minerva, and which had been destroyed in the Persian invasion. The
Parthenon was built during the administration of Pericles (about B.C. 450-440).
The architectwvas Ictinus. The statue of the goddess, according to Pliny, was
twenty-six cubits high, and was of ivory and gold. It was the work of Phidias.
This temple, after having been beautified and repaired by the Emperor Hadrian,
continued from his days almost entire, until 1687, when the roof was destroyed
by a bomb fired from the Venetian army under Morosini, which fell upon a part
of the structure that had been converted into a powder magazine. The columns
suffered much damage also in the late war. The remnant of the sculptures
which decorated the pediments, with many of the metopes and a large part of
the frieze, are now in the Elgin collection of the British Museum.
22. Erechtheum, a beautiful Ionic temple, dedicated to Erechtheus, and situate
on the western side of the Acropolis. Adjoining it was the temple of Minerva
Polias, the tutelary deity of the city, whose statue is said to have been a common
offering of the demi before they were collected into one metropolis by Theseus.
The lamp which was suspended in the sanctuary was never suffered to be extinguished. Another part of this compound building was the Pandroscum, or
chapel sacred to Pandrosus, one of the daughters of Cecrops. The Erechtheum
contained the olive-tree produced by Minerva in her contest with Neptune, as
also the well of salt water created by the latter. Not far from the Erechtheum
was the bronze colossal statue of Minerva Promachus, or the Defender, the work




GRA    CIA.                        551
of,Phidida  THe spear and henmet of this colossal figure weie visible, towering
above the Acropolis, to those who approached Athens by sea; as soon as they
h:d rounded Cape Sunium. The whole of the Acropolis was surrounded by
aails raised on the natural rock. The most ancient part of these fortifications
was constructed by the Pelasgi, and is often mentioned under the nr.me of Peicasicum, an appellation including also a portion of ground below the wall at the
foot of the rocks of the Acropolis. The wall termed Pelasgicum was apparently
on the northern side of the citadel.
23. Areopagus, or Hill of Mars, a little distance to the northwest of the Acrop
olis. It received its name from Mars having been, as was said, the first person tried there, for the murder of Halirrhothius, the son of Neptune. The celebrated court which was here held sat in an open space, in which was an altar
dedicated to Minerva Areia, and two rude seats of stone for the defendant and
his accuser. From Vitruvius we learn, that at a later period this space was inclosed, and roofed with tiles. 24. Pnyx, in the days of Athenian greatness, the
usual place of assembly for the people, especially during elections. It appears
to have been situated on a rising ground to the southwest of the Areopagus,.and
in a line with the Propylaea of the Acropolis, which faced it to the east. It was
also close to the city wall. The celebrated Bema, from which the orators addressed the people, was a simple pulpit of stone, which at first looked to the
sea, but in the time of the thirty tyrants it was turned toward the interior of the
country. 25. Museum, another elevation in the same vicinity, to the south
west of the Acropolis, and so called from the poet Musweus, who was buried
there. At a later period, a monument was erected here by Philopappus, a descendant of the kings of Commagene, and who, having been consul under Trajan, retired to Athens, as we learn from the inscription on the structure.
26. Melite, a demus south of the Acropolis, and both populous and well frequented. 27. Colyttus, another demus, lying to the northeast of the Acropolis.
The children of this quarter were remarkable for being very precocious in their
speech. 28. Eleusinium, on an island formed by the Ilissus, to the southeast
of the Acropolis. It was a temple of Ceres and Proserpina, set apart for the
celebration of the lesser Eleusinian mysteries.  29. Stadium Panathenaicum,
northeast of the preceding, and on the left bank of the Ilissus. It was erected
for the celebration of the games during the Panathenaic festival by Lycurgus,
the son of Lycophron, as we find in Plutarch'S life of that orator. Pausanias
describes it as an astonishing structure rising in the shape of an amphitheatre
above the Ilissus, and extending to the banks of that river. The area of this
building still remains entire, together with other vestiges. 30. Lyceum, a sacred inclosure dedicated to Apollo, where the polemarch formerly kept his court.
It lay above the preceding to the northeast, and was decorated with fountains,
plantations, and buildings, and became the usual place of exercise for the Athenian youths who devoted themselves to military pursuits. Nor was it less frequented by philosophers and those addicted to retirement and study. We know
that it was more especially the favorite walk of Aristotle and his followers.
31. Cynosarges, a spot consecrated to Hercules, and possessing a gymnasium
and groves frequented by philosophers. It is supposed to have been situate at
the foot of Mount Anchesmus. Here was the school of the Cynics. 32. Academia, situate in the outer Ceramicus, and about six stadia from the gate Di
pylum. It was originally a deserted and unhealthy spot. But Hipparchus surrounded it with a wall, and it was afterward adorned with groves, walks, and
fountains by Cimon.  Here Plato possessed a small house and garden, and
from this place his school derived its name of the Academy. Sylla, during the




552                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
siege of Athens, is said tohave cut down the groves of this celebrated spot.
A little to the northwest of the Academy was the demus of Colonus, named
Hippeios, from the altar erected there to the equestrian Neptune, and rendered
so celebrated by the play of Sophocles as the scene of the last adventures of
(Edipus.
33. Longi Muri (MaKpa TeIxr), the celebrated walls which connected Athens
with its several ports. They were first planned by Themistocles after the termination of the Persian war; but he did not terminate this great undertaking,
which was completed by Cimon and Pericles. One of these walls was called
the Pirai'c, and sometimes the Northern Wall, and was forty stadia in length.
The other was called the Phaleric or Southern Wall, and was thirty-five stadia.
The height of these walls was forty cubits, and they were broad enough for two
wagons to pass. In the Peloponnesian war, we learn from Thucydides that
the exterior or Piraic wall alone was guarded, as that was the only direction
in which the enemy could advance, there being no passage to the south and east
of Athens except through a difficult pass between the city and Mount Hymettus, or by making the circuit of that mountain, which would have been a hazardous undertaking. The long walls remained entire about fifty-four years after
their completion, till the capture of Athens by the Peloponnesian forces, eleven
years after which Conon rebuilt them, with the assistance of Pharnabazus. In
the siege of Athens by Sylla, they were again broken down and almost entirely
destroyed. Some vestiges of this great work still remain.
Maritime Athens may be considered as divided into the three
qiuarters of Pireus, Munychia, and Phalerum, which formed
the three ports of Athens, going from west to east. We shall
now consider these in order. 1. Pirceus was the great dockyard of the Athenians, and the chief harbor for the vessels engaged in the corn and other foreign trade. It contained large
warehouses, public arsenals, the armory of Philo, several temples, a theatre, of which some traces remain, a long portico or
arcade (aiaKpd arod) analogous to the bazars of the eastern cities,
and other buildings. The port was subdivided into three lesser
havens, named Cantharus, Aphrodisium, and Zea.            The first
was appropriated to dock-yards, and was probably the innermost of the three.   The second was the middle or great harbor;
while the outermost was Zea, so called from the grain imported
from  the Hellespont and other parts, and deposited in storehouses erected there for that purpose. The Piraeus was thickly
inhabited.   The modern name is Porto Drako, or Leone, de.
rived from   a colossal figure of a lion in white marble, which
once stood upon the beach, but was removed by the Venetians
in 1687.   2. Munychia, now Stratiotiki, is described by Strabo
as a peninsular hill, connected with the continent by a narrow
neck of land.    When inclosed by fortified lines, Munychia became a most important station.      3. Phalerum, now Port Pha



G r EcIA.                  553
nfiri, was the most ancient of the Athenian ports, but after the
erection of the docks in the Piraeus it ceased to be of any importance in a maritime point of view. It was, however, inclosed within the fortifications of Themistocles, and gave name
to the southernmost of the long walls.
Having now terminated the description of Athens, with its
suburbs and dependencies, we will proceed to give some account of the coast of Attica from the Piraeus as far as the Megarian frontier. Leaving Eetionea, we come to, 1. The little
islands of Psyttalea and Atalante. The former is celebrated
in history for the destruction of a corps of Persians by the
Greeks, under the command of Aristides, during the battle of
Salamis. It is now called Lipsocoutalia.  Atalante bears the
name of Talantous.   In the same vicinity was Cynosura, a
promontory mentioned by the oracle delivered to the Athenians
prior to the battle of Salamis. 2. Above this part of the coast
rises Mount Corydallus, now Daphni Bouni, said to have been
the haunt of the robber Procrustes. 3. Amphidle Promontorium, near which were some stone quarries noticed by Strabo.
4. At a little distance from the shore are two islets, named
Pharmacusce, in the largest of which Circe was said to have
been interred. 5. Above this coast rises Mount JEgaleus,
from the summit of which Xerxes beheld the action of Salamis.
The modern name is Skaramanga. Following the coast we
come next to the Thriasian plain, taking its name from the
demus of Thria, and celebrated for its fertility, which Aristotle
ascribes to the south wind that blew from the sea.
7. Eleusis, near the mouth of the Eleusinian Cephisus, so
called to distinguish it from the other Cephisus which flowed
near Athens. It was a very ancient city, and was said to have
existed already in the time of Cecrops. In very early times
it appears to have been an independent state of some importance, and to have carried on a war with Athens, by the result
of which it became subject to that city. Eleusis owed its celebrity in the historical age to its being the principal seat of
the worship of Ceres, and here were celebrated the famous
mysteries in honor of that goddess and her daughter Proserpina,
which it was death to divulge. These mysteries were abolished
by the; Emperor Theodosius. The temple of the Eleusinian
Ceres was a magnificent structure, and the mystic cell in which




554                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the celebration took place was capable of containing as many
persons as a theatre.   Within the temple was a colossal statue
of Ceres, the bust of which was brought to England in 1802
by Dr. Clarke, and is now in the vestibule of the public library
at Cambridge. The temple was entirely destroyed by Alaric,
A.D. 396, and has ever since remained in ruins. A modern
village, on the site of the ancient city, is called Lefsina.  The
Rarian plain, near Eleusis, was celebrated as the one in which
Ceres was said to have first sown corn. It was famed for its
fertility, and is even now remarkably productive.
Opposite the Eleusinian coast was the island of Salamis, anciently called also
Sciras and Cychrea, from the heroes Scirus and Cychreus, and Pityussa, from
its abounding in firs. It was celebrated from the earliest period of Grecian history for the colony of the 2Eacidae, who settled there before the siege of Troy.
The possession of this island was once obstinately contested by the Athenians
and Megarians. It fell, at length, in the time of Solon, into the hands of the
former people, and continued after this always subject to them. On the invasion of Xerxes, the Athenians removed hither with their families, and in the
strait between this island and the main land was fought the famous naval battle
in which the Persians were completely defeated. A trophy was erected on the
island, opposite to Cynosura, where the strait is narrowest. Strabo informs
us that this island contained two cities, namely, Old and New Salamis. The
former was situate on the southern side, and opposite to.Egina, and was deserted in -his time. The latter was on a bay, formed by a neck of land which
advanced toward Attica. Salamis is now, or was very recently, called Colouri,
the modern name of the city is Ambelakia.
Returning to the Pirueus, we will now describe the coast of
Attica below this port. 1. Colias Promontorium, celebrated
for its earthenware. Here was a temple consecrated to Venus
Colias, and the' goddess named Genetyllis. This promontory
is now commonly called Trispyrgoi.       2. JExone, lower down,
whose inhabitants were so addicted to slander and calumny that
altovevg became a term     for "a slanderer."    The site is still
called Axaona. 3. Passing by the small island Hydrusa, now
Cambonisi, and the Zoster Promontorium, which has already
been referred to (page 485), we come to Thorme, near the modern
village of Bari, off which lies the island Phaura, now Phlega.
4. Anaphlystus, lower down, a town of some note, with a harbor and fortifications. Its site is marked by the modern village
of Anaphiso.    The Astypalea Promontorium is now Cape Analphiso, forming one of the sides of the harbor of the same name.
Opposite is the island of Eleusa, now Elissa.
5. Laurium, celebrated for its silver mines, was a range of




GRE CIA.                    555
hills extending from that part of the Attic coast which we have
now reached to the promontory of Sunium, and thence to Prasime,
on the eastern coast. In Strabo's time, the metallic veins were
nearly exhausted. A full account of these mines is given by
Boeckh, in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (1814-1815,
p. 89, seqq.). 6. The Promontory of Sunium has already been
mentioned (p. 485). Near it stood a town of the same name,
with a harbor. Off the coast in this quarter, and a little to the
west, is an insular rock, called the island of Patroclus anciently,
and now Gaidaro-Nesi, or "Ass's Island."  At some distance
to the south of this is the island of Belbina, now S. Giorgio
d'Arbora.
7. Panormus, the first harbor on the eastern coast after
doubling Sunium.  8. Thoricus, to the north, now Thoriko.
It was fortified by the Athenians toward the close of the Peloponnesian war. Opposite Thoricus, and extending down to
Sunium, was a deserted and rugged island named Helena, and
which S-rabo makes the Cranae of Homer. Pliny calls it
Macris. The modern name is Alacronisi, or "Long Island."
9. Prasicc, to the north, now Port Raphti. The Hyperborean
offerings were brought to this place, where there was a temple
of Apollo, and conveyed hence to Delos. 10. Brauron, celebrated in mythology as the spot where Iphigenia first landed
after her escape from Tauris with the statue of Diana. From
this circumstance the goddess was here held in peculiar veneration under the title of Brauronea. The statue of the goddess
was carried off by Xerxes. The ruins of Brauron are near the
spot now called Palaio Braona.
11. Passing Cynosura Promontorium, now Cape Cavala,
we come to Myrrhinus, so called from the numerous myrtles
which grew there. 12. Marathon, to the northeast, memorable
for the victory which the Athenians under Miltiades gained in
the adjacent plain over the Persian forces, B.C. 490. The plain
is about five miles in length and two in breadth. Marathon is
abeut three miles from the sea. According to DodwelU, it i.s
eighteen.miles in a direct line from Athens to the village of
MfJIrathon,, which still preserves its ancient name. The plain
of Iaarathon was watered by a small stream, called Asotyas by'Ptolemy, which forms marshes near the sea, in which, accordI;:g to Pausanias, a great many of the Persians peris'-ed. The




556                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY..
Athenians who fell in the battle were buried in the plain; atnd
also, but apart from the Athenians, the Platreans, Baeotians,
and slaves..A large tumulus of earth still rises from the centre
of the plain; and near the sea there are two others, much lower
than the former.
13. PR/amnus, on the coast, and sixty stadia to the north ot
Marathon.     It was so named from     the plant rhamnus, which
grew there in abundance. The goddess Nemesis was particularly worshipped here, and is hence called by some of the Latin
poets " Rhamnusia Virgo."        The temple of the goddess contained a statue of her, said to be one of the finest works of.Phidias. It was of colossal size, and Parian marble. The site
of this town now bears the name of Vrceo Castro.
Returning to the interior, we come to Mount Hymettus, to
the southeast of Athens.    This celebrated mountain forms the
southern portion of the considerable chain, which, under the
several names of Parnes, Pentelicus, and Brilessus, traverses
nearly the whole of Attica from      northeast to southwest.     It
was divided into summits, one of which was Hymettus properly
so called; the other, Anhydros, or the dry Hymettus.           The
former is now Trelovouni; the latter, Lamprovouni.         Hymettus was famous for its fragrant flowers and excellent honey.
It produced also marbles much esteemed by the Romans. The
honey of Hymettus is still held in high estimation.
To the north of Hymettus was Alopece, not far from Cynosarges, and consequently close to Athens. It was the demus of Aristides and Socrates. To
the northeast of Hymettus was Gargettus, the birth-place of Epicurus, supposed
to correspond to the modern Krabato., Above Gargettus was Mount Pentelicus,
celebrated in antiquity for its beautiful marble. The modern name is Penteli.
It surpasses in elevation the chain of Hymettus, with which it is connected.
To the north was a range of hills called Mount Brilessus, and now Turkovouni.
A little distance to the southwest of Hymettus was the demus of Acharnac, the
most considerable of the Attic boroughs, and which furnished alone three thousand heavy-armed men for the service of the state. This circumstance induced
the Lacedaemonians to ravage the territory of Acharnz, with a view of provoking
the Athenian troops to quit the walls of their city and hazard an engagement.
Aristophanes, in the play which takes its title from this demus, represents the
Acharnians as charcoal burners. Other comic writers stigmatized them as
rough and boorish. The ruins of the town of Acharnae are near the modern
Menidi.
To the north of Acharnat was the demus and fortress of Decelea, about one
hundred and twenty-five stadia from Athens, and the same distance from the
Boeotian frontier. This town was always considered of great importance, from
its situation on the road to Eubca, whence the Athenians derived most of their




GRAECIA.                           557
supplies. When, therefore, by the advice of Alcibiades, it was occupied ant
garrisoned by a Lacedaemonian force, the Athenians became exposed to great
loss and inconvenience. Thucydides reports that Decelea was visible from
Athens. Gell describes it as situate on a round, detached hill, connected by a
sort of isthmus with Mount Parnes. This last-mentioned mountain, to the north
of Decelea, was famous for its wines. Its prolongation formed part of the north
ern frontier. The modern name is Nozea. To the southwest was the fortress
Phylc, a place celebrated in the history of Athens as the stronghold of Thrasybulus and his little band of patriots, before they moved downward to the vicinity
of Athens, and succeeded in freeing their native country from the yoke of the
thirty tyrants. It is now Bigla Castro, according to Gell, who says it is situated
on a lofty precipice, and, though small, must have been almost impregnable, as
it can only be approached by an isthmus on the east. Dodwell, however, makes
the modern name Argiro Castro. The town of Phyle was at the foot of the
fbrtress.
More to the west, and on the road from       Eleusis to Plateae,
was the city of Eleuthl  rce, which appears to have once belonged
to Bceotia, but finally became included within the limits of
Attica. Pausanias reports that the Eleutherians were not.conquered by the Athenians, but voluntarily united themselves
to that people, from    their constant enmity to the Thebans.
Bacchus was fabled to have been born here.         The ancient site
is thought to correspond to the modern Gypto Castro.            Gell.
however, seeks to identify this with the ancient (Enoe, which
was contiguous to Eleutherse.
Having completed our description of Attica, we will now
proceed to give a brief account of Eubora, as this island was
more or less closely connected in its history with that of Attica
EUBCEA.
(A.) SITU ATION, NAMES, &c.
I. Eubeia, now Egripo or Negropont, is an island of the 2Egeari, extending
from the Sinus Maliacus, now Gulf of Zeitoun, along the coasts of Locris, Bceotia, and Attica, from which it is separated by a narrow channel called the Euripus. It is this latter name which, by a series of corruptions, has given its
modern appellation to the island, namely, Euripus, Euripo, Egripo, Negropont.
II. The most ancient name of this large and celebrated island was Macris,
given it from its length, which is so great in comparison with its breadth. Besides this, it was known at different times by the various appellations of Oche,
Ei'opia, Asopis, and Abantia. The last of these names it derived from the
Abantes, who are named as its inhabitants by Homer.
III. The name Euboea is probably derived from the good pastures with which
the island abounded (Ev and 3ov); although some deduced it from the legend
of Io, who was said to have given birth to Epaphus in this island.
IV. The abundance and fertility of this extensive island in ancient times are
sufficiently attested by Herodotus, who compares it with Cyprus, and also by
Thucydides. Its opulence is also apparent from the designation and value af



558                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
fixed to the talents so frequently referred to by the classic w.titers, under the
name of Euboic.
V. Modern computation gives the length of Euboea as ninety miles, and its
extreme breadth thirty. In one part, however, between Aliveri Bay, below the
ancient Tamynae in the southern part of the island, and Port Petries on the eastern coast, it is scarcely four miles across from shore to shore.
VI. The island generally is elevated, and contains among its mountains some
of the highest in this part of Europe. Mount Delfi, the ancient Dirphys or Dirphossus, rises on the eastern side, to the northeast of Chalcis, to the height of
seven thousand two hundred and sixty-six feet above the sea, and its summit
is scarcely ever free from snow; Mount Elias, the ancient Ocha, near Carystus,
at the southern extremity, is four thousand seven hundred and forty-eight feet
high; Mount Khiandili, a little distance above Chalcis, on the western shore, is
four thousand two hundred feet; and Mount Plokovou:ni, the ancient Telethrius,
at the upper part of the island, is three thousand two hundred feet.
(B.) SKETCH OF EUBCEAN HISTORY.
I. TIE first inhabitants of this island were probably a Pelasgic race, who are
said to have occupied, before the historical times, most of the islands of the
iEgean Sea. The Dryopes from Mount CEta were said to have founded Carystus and Styra; and the Athenians founded Chalcis and Eretria at a very
early period. Homer calls the inhabitants of Eathea by the name of Abantes,
and mentions them as having taken a very distinguished part in the expedition
against Troy. The Hestieots were said to be a colony of the Perrhsebi, a Pe
lasgic tribe; but the Athenians appear to have been, from a very remote epoch
the principal colonizers of the island.
II. At the dawn of the historical time., we find Chalcis and Eretria two independent but allied towns, which had advanced to a high state of prosperity,
holding dominion over the islands of Andros, Tenos, and Ceos, and sending
colonies to the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, as well as to the shores of
Italy and Sicily. Naxus, the first Greek settlement in Sicily, and Cumae, one
of the oldest i!. Italy, were colonies of Chalcis. Eretria and Chalcis, however,
quarrelled, and Thucydides mentions the war between these two states as one
of the oldest wars on record among the Greeks. This war was not, however,
one of extermination, and we find, in the sixth century B.C., the two communities sfill flourishing under the government of their Hippobotce, or wealthier citizens. Unfortunately for them, they co-operated with Cleomenes in his invasion
of Attica, w hich followed the expulsion of the Pisistratida; in consequence of
which, after the Athenians had repulsed Cleomenes, they invaded Euboea, about
506 B.C., defeated the Baeotians, who had come to the assistance of Chalcis,
and, having taken the latter city, punished it severely, put many of the citizens
into fetters until they ransomed themselves, confiscated all the property of the
Hippobote, and gave their lands to Athenian colonists, whom they sent over to
the island to the number of four thousand.
III. Euhoea now became, in a great measure, a dependency of Athens. Afterward the EJboeans, together with the Athenians, sent assistance to the Ionians (if Asia in their war against Darius Hystaspis, and their troops were among
those which burned Sardis, B.C. 499. The first invasion of Greece was the consequence of that expedition. The satraps, Datis and Artaphernes, landed in
Euboea with an immense force, completely destroyed Eretria, and sent its inhabitants as slaves into Asia. At the end of the Persian war, we find the Athenians under Cimon making war against the Carystians, who had revolted, and




GR      EC.IA.                     559
reducing them to subjection. A general revolt of Euboea against Athens broke
out in 445 B.C., but Pericles, with five thousand regular troops, marched into
the island, and recovered possession of it. The towns of Eubcea were reduced
to the condition of tributaries to Athens, and an Athenian colony was settled at
Oreus, in the northern part of the island.
IV. Eubcea was of great importance to the Athenians; it furnished them with
corn, supplied them with horses, and was considered of more value to them
than all their other colonies put together. During the Peloponnesian war, after
the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, another general revolt of Euboea took place,
and the island placed itself under the protection of Lacedaemon, but afterward
returned to the Athenian allegiance. In the general prostration into which the
principal states of Greece fell after the death of Epaminondas, Euboea seems to
have been left, in a great measure, to itself. Its principal towns came under
the rule of chiefs, or tyrants, as they were called, without any interference on
the part of the Athenians.
V. About 350 B.C., Callias and Taurosthenes, who were ruling in Chalcis,
sons of the late tyrant Mnesarchus, made overtures to Philip of Macedon in
order to have his assistance in subduing the rest of the island, an opportunity
which was eagerly seized by Philip. Plutarch, who was at the same time tyrant of Eretria, applied to the Athenians to check Philip's interference. The
Athenians sent an expedition under Phocion, who defeated the Chalcidians aftei
hard fighting; but this led to no favorable result, as Callias remained in possession of Chalcis, and the Macedonian influence was established over the island.
VI. When the Romans began to extend their influence to Greece, Chalcis
and the other towns of Euboea contracted an alliance with Rome, and remained
steadfast to that alliance during the _.Etolian war. Chalcis afterward submitted
to Antiochus, and was finally destroyed by the Romans. In the dismemberment
of the eastern empire by the Latins or Franks, the Venetians obtained possession of Euboea, but lost it again in 1470. The island now forms part of the new
kin,'dom of Greece.
(,) PLACES IN EUB:A.
BEGINNING at the upper part of the island, we come to, 1. Histica, near its northeastern extremity, and one of the most considerable of the Eubcean cities. It fell into the hands of the
Athenians on the termination of the Persian war, and having
subsequently attempted to revolt, was severely punished, the
inhabitants being driven out, and Athenian colonists sent to
supply their place. According to Strabo, the Histimans withdrew on this occasion to Macedonia. The name of the place
was now changed to Oreus, which was at first that of a small
settlement dependent on Histiaea, at the foot of Mount Telethrius. This city was in ruins in Pliny's time. Leake places
its site near the modern village of Oreos.       2. Artemisium, to
the southwest, a celebrated promontory, off which the Greeks
fought their naval battle with the Persian fleet prior to the
action at Salamis. It has already been referred to (page 485'




560             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Beyohd was the Cernean Promontory, forming the e:xtreme
point of the island to the northwest (page 485).
3. Athence Diades, a little to the east of the Centean Promontory, and founded, according to Strabo, by an Athenian colony. The modern name is Port Calos. 4. Cerinthus, lower
down, near a small river named Budorus. The hamlet of Geronda appears to mark its site. 5. Edepsus, lower down, on
the western coast. Near it were some celebrated warm springs,
consecrated to Hercules. The spot still retains the name of
Dipso. The warm baths are a mile above it. 6. 2Egtc, lo wer
down, and celebrated for the worship of Neptune. According
to Strabo, this place gave name to the AEgean Sea. The site
is now called Akio. 7. Orobice, below the preceding, and famed
for an oracle of Apollo Selinuntius. This place suffered severely
from an earthquake during the Peloponnesian war. It probably occupied the site now called Rovies.
8. Chalcis, the most celebrated and important city of Eubaea,
founded by an Ionian colony from Athens shortly after the siege
of Troy. Some account of it has already been given in the
sketch of Eubcean history, and of the numerous colonies sent
forth from it at an early period. The Chalcidians, after the
termination of the Persian war, became dependent on Athens
with the rest of Euboea, and did not regain their liberty till the
close of the Peloponnesian war, when they asserted their freedom, and, aided by the Bceotians, fortified the Euripus, and established a communication with the continent by throwing a
wooden bridge across the channel. Towers were placed at each
extremity, and room was left in the middle for one ship only
to pass. This work was undertaken 410 B.C. From the advantages of its situation and the strength of its works, Chalcie
was considered in the latter period of the history of Greece as
one of the most important fortresses of that country, and hence
we find it a frequent object of contention between the Romans
and Philip, son of Demetrius, who termed it one of the fetters
of Greece. According to the epitomist of Livy, it was eventually destroyed by Mummius for having aided the Achseans
against Rome. It was restored by Justinian, and in the Middle
Ages assumed the name of Euripos, which was, in process of
time, corrupted to Egripo or Negropont, the modern appellation
of the whole island as well as that of its capital.




GR ECIA.                          561
OBs. The Euripus, a channel between Eubcea and the mainland, was remarkable for the rapid changes of its tides. Several of the ancients have reported
that the tide in this strait ebbed and flowed several times in the day, and as
many times during the night, and that the current was so strong as to arrest
the progress of ships in full sail. Livy, however, attributes the variableness
of the current to the iffect of winds, which were so violent as to cause the sea
to rush through the channel like a mountain torrent. Modern accounts do not
uphold Livy's account, but are rather in favor of the popular notion.  The
breadth of the Euripus, according to recent authorities, is diminished by a rock
in mid-channel, on which a fort is built, thus dividing it into two channels; that
toward the main land, though rather the broader, is only practicable for small
boats, as there is not more than three feet water at any time. Between the rock
and the walls of the city of Egripo or Negropont is a distance of thirty-three feet,
and the least depth at the highest water is seven feet. It is here, say modern
writers, that the extraordinary tides take place, for which the Euripus was once
so noted. At times, the water runs as much as eight miles in an hour, with a
fall under the bridge of about one and a half feet; but what is most singular is
the fact that vessels lying one hundred and fifty yards from the bridge are not
in the least affected by this rapid. It remains but a short time in a quiescent
state, changing its direction in a few minutes, and almost immediately resuming
its velocity, which is generally from four to five miles an hour either way, its
greatest rapidity being, however, always to the southward. No satisfactory explanation has yet been given of these singular changes.
9. Eretria, to the southeast of the preceding, and a city of
very early origin, said to have been founded by an Ionic colony
from Athens.    Mention of its early commercial prosperity, and
the colonies established by it, has been made in the sketch of
Eubcean history; and also of its subsequent capture and destruction by the Persians, in the reign of Darius Hystaspis.
It was subsequently rebuilt, and again became flourishing,
though at a later period it fell under the dominion of tyrants.
The Romans made it a'free town. Eretria, according to Strabo,
was famed for the excellence of its flour and bread. Its ruins
are still seen at a spot called Castri. 10. Tamynce, to the east,
noted for an ancient temple of Apollo, said to have been erected
by Admetus.     Its site is now occupied by the village of Ghymno.
11. Dystus, to the southeast, now Disto.     12. Porthmus, lower
down, probably the modern harbor of Bufalo.        13. Styra, now
Stoura, founded by some Athenians belonging to the demus of
Stiria.  14. Carystus, at the foot of Mount Ocha, in the lower
extremity of the island, and now Castel Rosso.      It was a place
of great antiquity, having been founded, as was said, by some
Dryopes, who were driven from their country by Hercules. It
was taken and plundered by Datis and Artaphernes, and subsequently had heavy contributions laid upon it by Themistocles,
NN




562                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
which induced it to take up arms against the Athenians. This
difference, however, was eventually settled. This place fell into
the hands of the Romans during the Macedonian war.            Carystus was principally celebrated for its marble, which was
highly esteemed and much used by the Romans. The spot
whence the marble was obtained was termed Mairmarium,
where a temple was erected to Apollo Marmarius. Asbestos
was also found in the territory of Carystus, which was wovenr
into garments, and cleansed by the action of fire. Carystus
was also famed for its fish: The promontories of Geraestus,
Caphareus, &c., have already been mentioned (page 485).
PELOPONNESUS.
(A.) NAME.
I. Peloponnesus (IIeo7rov6vrlaog) is commonly supposed       to
mean the "Island of Pelops" (ItAorroS vryao), and answers to
what is now called the Morea.     It is a peninsula, comprehending the most southern part of Greece, and would be an island
were it not for the Isthmus of Corinth.
II. The word Peloponnesus does not occur in Homer.         The
original name of the peninsula appears to have been Apia, the
origin of which has been much disputed. When the house of
the Pelopidme held the supremacy, the peninsula was sometimes
called Argos, a name which Homer in some cases employs in
this same sense.
OBS. 1. The Peloponnesus is said to have derived its name from Pelops, who
is reported by the later Greek mythologists to have been of Phrygian origin.
Thucydides, however, simply observes that he came from Asia, and brought
great wealth with him. He married Hippodamia, the daughter of (Enomaus,
king of Pisa, in Elis, and succeeded to his kingdom. Pelops is said to have
subsequently extended his dominion over many of the districts bordering upon
Elis, whence the whole country obtained the name of Peloponnesus. Agamemnon and Menelaus were descended from him.
2. The name Apia is said to have been derived from Apis, an ancient monarch, and son of Apollo. Some modern scholars, however, make it signify " a
far-distant land" ('AriTT, from crro), as used by the Greeks before Troy in speaking of their native land far away over the waters. Buttmann, again, thinks that
this name is connected with that of a most ancient people, who inhabited the
European coasts of the Mediterranean.
(B.) EXTENT, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. STRABO estimates the breadth of the peninsula at fourteen hundred stadia
from Cape Chelondtas, now Cape Tornese, its westernmost point, to the isthmus,
being nearly equal to its length from Cape Malea, now Cape St. Angelo, to AEgium, now Vostizza, in Achaia.




GRcCIA.                            563
II. By some of the ancient writers the Peloponnesus was supposed to resemble the leaf of the plane-tree, being indented by numerous bays on all sides.
The modern appellation Morea is derived either from the supposed resemblance
of the peninsula to a mulberry leaf, or from the mulberry trees introduced in
modern times to supply the silk-worms with food.
III. The Peloponnesus is bounded on the north by the Sinus Corinthiacus,
on the west by the Mare Ionium, on the south by the Mare Libycum, and on
the east by the Mare Myrloum and zEgceum. The indentations along its coasts
form five large bays, namely, the Cyparissius Sinus, now Gulf of Arcadia; the
Messeniacus Sinus, now Gulf of Coron; the Laconicus Sinus, now Gulf of Colokythia; the Argolicus Sinus, now Gulf of Nauplia; and the Saronicus Sinus,
now Gulf of Engia.
IV. Peloponnesus contains but one small lake, that of Stymphalus, now the
Lake of Zaraka. Its principal mountains are Cyllene, on the confines of Arcadia and Achaia; Erymanthus, in Arcadia; Olenus, in the same country, and
Taygetus, in Laconia. Its principal rivers are the Alpheus, running through
Arcadia and Elis; the Eurotas, in Laconia; and the Pamisus, in Messenia.
These will be more particularly alluded to hereafter, and have already been referred to.
V. The Peloponnesus was subdivided. into the following countries: 1. Cointhia. 2. Achaia. 3. Elis. 4. Messenia. 5. Laconia. 6. Argolis. 7. Arcidia,
1. CORINTHIA.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
1. Corinthia was a small, but wealthy and powerful district
at the entrance of the Peloponnesus, deriving its name from
Corinthus, its capital city.
II. It was bounded on the north by the Sinus Corinthiacus,
on the south by Argolis, on the west by Argolis and Achaia,
and on the east by the Sinus Saronicus.
III. The Corinthian territory was fertile and well watered.
The fountain of Pirene, on the Acrocorinthus, a high hill overhanging the city, was celebrated by the poets; but, in the time
of Hadrian, the inhabitants were so little satisfied with the
springs in the vicinity of the capital, that they induced the
emperor to supply them     with water from     the Stymphalus by
means of an aqueduct twenty miles long.
IV. The neck of land between the Corinthian and Saronic
Gulfs was called the Isthmus of Corinth, and in its narrowest
part can not be less than six modern Greek miles (not quite
five English), whence the modern name of Hexamili applied
to a village and tower in this quarter. A more particular aocount of the isthmus will be given hereafter.




564              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
(B.) PLACES IN CORINTHI A.
1. Corinthus, the capital, built upon a level to the north of
a steep and high hill, called the Acrocorinthus, which served
as a citadel, and was included within the wall. Corinth, from
its favorable situation between two arms of the sea, the Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs, became the most wealthy emporium
of Greece. Its opulence, and the confluence of merchants from
all parts, favored every thing which ministered to the gratification of the senses, and both architecture and the other arts were,
according to the testimony of the ancients, cultivated here with
the greatest success. Corinth had three ports, Lecheum, Cenchrece, and Schcnus. Lechaeum, the nearest of them, was on
the Corinthian Gulf, and was connected with the city by two
parallel walls, which were partly destroyed by the Lacedtemonians B.C. 393. This harbor, which Leake conceives to have
been for the most part artificial, is now nearly filled up, all that
remains of it being a lagoon near the supposed site. The harbor of Cenchreae was on the Sinus Saronicus, but does not appear to have been connected with the city. It was, however,
a more considerable place than Lecheum, and contained several
temples. The modern name is Cechriccs (Keyptafq). A few
miles to the north of Cenchreee was a small bay called Schcenus,
forming the third harbor. Here was the narrowest part of the
isthmus; and a kind of land-carriage, called the Diolcus, was
established from the harbor of Schcenus to the eastern extremity of Port Lechoeum, and ships were run ashore at one of these
points, and dragged to the other sea. This work existed in the
time of Aristophanes; but in the Peloponnesian war it appears
they had a method of transferring naval operations from the
Corinthian to the Saronic Gulf without dragging their ships
across the isthmus. A little to the south of the Diolcus was
a wall, which was always guarded when any danger threatened the Peloponnesus. The site of Schcenus is now called
Gocosi. Corinth is now called C6rintho, or by an abbreviation
Gortho.
SKETCH OF CORINTHIAN HISTORY.
I. THE earlier name of Corinth was Ephyra, and under this name it was one
of the seats of the AEolic race. Even in the time of Homer it was called " the
wealthy," an epithet which it acquired from the commercial spirit of its inhab



GRXECIA.                           565
Itants, occasioned by the favorable situation of the place, already alluded to,
which threw all the inland carrying trade of Greece into its power, while the
difficulty of weathering Cape Malea (which was proverbial) made it the emporium of most of the trade between Asia and Italy.
II. About thirty years after the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus, that fb,
about 1074 B.C., Ephyra fell into the power of Aletes, the son of Hippotes, a
Heraclid, who had slain a soothsayer on the passage from Naupactus, and had
been compelled to separate himself and his followers from the army of the Dorians. The city then assumed the name of Corinthus, or the Corinthus of Jupiter, and the zEolian inhabitants became a subject class, though not altogether
deprived of their civic rights. The descendants of Aletes ruled Corinth for five
generations with royal power; hut at length a rigid oligarchy was substitued
for the monarchical form of government, and the power was vested in prytanes,
chosen annually from the powerful Heraclid clan of the Bacchiadae. The members of this clan intermarried only with one another, and consequently kept
aloof from all immediate intercourse with their fellow-citizens, whom, besides,
they did not treat with much forbearance.
III. In the year 660 B.C., Cypselus, an opulent citizen of Xolian descent,
putting himself at the head of the lower orders, overthrew the oligarchy without
much difficulty, and assumed the sovereign power. His son Periander, who
succeeded to his authority, occupies a very prominent place in the early history
of Greece. His reputation for wisdom (by which we must understand that
practical wisdom which consists in governing men) procured him a place among
the seven sages of Greece. Upon his death in 579 B.C., his power devolved on
one of his relatives, who, after three years, was deposed by the Lacedaemonians.
The former constitution was then restored, but doubtless much modified,'and
Corinth remained an oligarchical state till the beginning of the fourth century
B.C.
IV. In the Peloponnesian war, which was in some measure brought about by
them, the Corinthians were stanch supporters of the Lacedw.monians, and the
bitterest enemies of Athens. Like the other states of Greece, Corinth felt the
influence of the Macedonian power, and was garrisoned by Macedonians unde
Antigonus, but liberated by Aratus. The Corinthians took the lead in the Achean confederacy, and were at first allies of the Romans, but at last the temptation
held out by the wealth of the place, and the pretext furnished by some insults
which the Corinthians had offered to the Roman embassy, led to the destruction
and plunder of the city by L. Mummius, in 146 B.C., according to an express
decree of the Roman Senate. Many works of art were destroyed, but some of
the finest pictures and statues were removed to Rome, and contributed to encourage a taste for the fine arts in Italy.
V. Corinth was restored by Julius Caesar about one hundred years after its
conquest by Mummius, and peopled with freedmen, who enjoyed the privileges
of a Colonia. Little now remains of the ancient city but the ruins of a Doric
temple, probably the oldest existing specimen of that style.
VI. The colonies of Corinth were very numerous, but, as has been justly remarked by Miiller, they were all sent out from Lechaeum, and confined to seas
west of the isthmus. The most celebrated were Syracuse and Corcyra. Potidsea, in Pallene, however, is an exception to Muller's remark.
2. Crommyon, on the Saronic Gulf, east of Schcenus, and
celebrated in mythology as the haunt of a wild boar destroyed




566                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
by Theseus.     The little hamlet of Kinetta is generally thought
to occupy its site, though Leake makes them          to be at some
distance from each other. 3. Tenea, in the interior of Corinthia, south of Corinthus, said to have been colonized by some
Trojan captives brought from Tenedos by the Greeks. It was
also celebrated as the place where (Edipus was brought up by
his supposed father Polybus.       Its inhabitants could likewise
boast that the greater part of the colonists who followed Arcbias to Syracuse were their fellow-citizens. This small town
became latterly so prosperous that it assumed a government
of its own, distinct from    that of Corinth; and having wisely
submitted, in the first instance, to the Roman power, it was
preserved from the destruction which overwhelmed that unfortunate city. We shall terminate our account of Corinthia
by some remarks on the Isthmus of Corinth.
ISTHMUS OF CORINTH.
THE tediousness and expense attending the usual mode of drawing ships
across the isthmus, by means of machinery, from Schcenus to Lechaeum, led to
frequent attempts, at various periods, for effecting a junction between the two
seas; but all proved equally unsuccessful. According to Strabo, Demetrius
Poliorcetes abandoned the enterprise, because it was found that the two gulfs
were not on the same level. We read of the attempt having been made before
his time by Periander and Alexander, and, subsequently to Demetrius,.by Julius
Caesar, Caligula, Nero, and Herodes Atticus. Lucian informs us that Nero was
deterred from proceeding by a representation made to him, similar to that which
Demetrius received, respecting the unequal levels of the two seas. He adds,
however, a more probable reason; the troubles, namely, that were excited by
Vindex in Gaul, and which occasioned the emperor's hasty return from Greece
to Italy. Travellers inform us that some remains of the canal undertaken by
the Roman emperor are yet visible, reaching from the sea, northeast of Lechueum, about half a mile across the isthmus.
We hear, also, of various attempts made to raise fortifications across the isthmus for the Peloponnesus when threatened with invasion. The first undertaking of the kind was made before the battle of Salamis. Many years after,
the Lacedaemonians and their allies endeavored to fortify the isthmus from
Cenchreae to Lecheum agaist Epaminondas, but this measure was rendered
fruitless by the conduct and skill of that general, who forced a passage across
the Oneian Mountains. Cleomenes also threw up trenches and lines in order
to prevent the Macedonians under Antigonus Doson from penetrating into the
peninsula.
The Isthmus of Corinth derived great celebrity from the games which were
held there every five yjars in honor of Palemon or Melicerta, and subsequently
of Neptune.




GR ECIA.                        567
2. ACHAIA.
(A.) NAME, &C.
I. ACHAIA was first called  Egialus, either from a hero of
that name, or, more probably, from the maritime situation of
the country (alytao6g, " shore"), since it lay along the southern
shore of the Corinthian Gulf. Its earliest inhabitants were a
Pelasgic race, who became afterward blended with a large Ionian colony, and the name of the country was then changed to
lonia, and also.Egialean lonia.
II. Eighty years after the war of Troy (B.C. 1104), when
the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus took place, a numerous body of Achaei, driven from Laconia and Argolis, retreated
to AEgialean Ionia, drove out the Ionians, and gave the country
the name of Achaia.
III. After the Roman conquest of Greece, the term Achaia
received an extension in its signification, principally due to the
importance which the Achean league had obtained. The Roman province of Achaia was then formed, comprehending all
Peloponnesus, with northern Greece south of Thessaly. But
it is extremely difficult to fix the precise limit between the
province of Achaia and that of Macedonia to the north of it.
(B.) BOUNDARIES.
Achaia, including Sicyonia, was bounded on the north by
the Sinus Corinthiacus, on the south by Arcadia and Elis, on
the east by Corinthia, and on the west by the Mare Ioniumn.
Sicyonia, though, strictly speaking, not forming a part of
Achaia, yet seems, from its early admission into the Achean
league, to belong naturally to this country.
(C.) SKETCH OF ACHAEAN HISTORY.
I. THE Achaei are first mentioned by Homer as the ruling people of the eastern and southeastern part of the Peloponnesus. From comparing Homer with
k;trabo and Pausanias, we may infer that the Achaei came from Thessaly, and
that, at the time of the Trojan war, according to Homer's notion, they were the
ruling nation in a large part of the Peloponnesus, and the chief people in the
war against Troy. Eighty years after the war of Troy (B.C. 1104), the Dorians
from the north drove the Achei from Laconia and Argolis. Those who did not
leave the country became an inferior caste, and entere' into the condition of a
conquered people; but a large part retreated to XEgialean Ionia, and expelled
the Ionians. From this date the name of Achaia was given to that province.
II. The history of the Achaans forms an inconsiderable part of the general
history of Greece till about B.C. 251. During the invasion of Greece by the




568                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Persians they took no part in the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Plateea,
nor during the long war of twenty-seven years did they take any thing more
than a forced share in this protracted struggle between Athens and Sparta. At
the commencement of this war (B.C. 431), they were, with the exception of
Pellene, neutral; but afterward favored the Lacedaemonian interest, in compliance with the general feeling that prevailed in the peninsula.
III. During the struggles of the southern Greeks against the successors of
Alexander, the Achaeans still wished to remain neutral; but, like all weak spectators of a contest in which they refuse to engage, they became the prey of the
victorious party, and suffered under the Macedonians all the evils of anarchy
and civil war. There would be little in the whole history of the Achaean stat s
to attract attention were it not for the feudal union which arose out of the,discordant elements.
IV. Four of the western states of Achaia, namely, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and
Phare, seeing the difficulties in which Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia,
was involved, formed a union for mutual protection B.C. 281. Five years afterward, JEgium ejected its garrison, and Bura killed its tyrant, which examples
moved Iseas, who was then tyrant of the neighboring town of Cerynea, to surrender his authority and save his life. These three towns joined the new league.
In B.C. 251, Aratus, having delivered Sicyon, which was not properly an Acheean
town, brought it over to the confederacy. In B.C. 243, Corinth was added to
the confederacy, and Megara, Epidaurus, and Trcezene joined it not long after.
Other accessions, including Sparta herself, followed. But the Romans, having
humbled Philip II. of Macedonia, and reduced him to the rank of a dependent
king, proceeded to weaken the power of the confederacy, which was easily
effected by the Roman and anti-Roman parties that had for some time been
growing up in the Greek cities. The league finally fell with the destruction
of Corinth by the Roman general Mummius, and the Roman province of Achaia.
already referred to, was established.
(D.) PLACES IN ACHAIA.
1. Sicyon, capital of the district Sicyonia, and one of the
oldest cities in Greece.    It is said to have existed, under the
names of aEgialea and Mec6ne, long before the arrival of Pelops in the peninsula. The Sicyonians were conquered by the
Dorians and Heraclide, and afterward, during the Peloponnesian war, espoused the cause of Sparta. This city was celebrated for its wealth and luxury, and also for its manufacture
of slippers.  These last were highly esteemed by the effeminate
and luxurious.     The modern name of Sicyon is Basilico.         A
short distance to the southeast was the River Asopus, now Basilico, on whose banks were celebrated the games instituted by
Adrastus in honor of Apollo. 2. Crossing the Sythas, now
Xylo Castro, we come next to Pellene, situate on a lofty and
precipitous hill, about sixty stadia from the sea.     The Pellenians alone first aided the Lacedaemonians in the Peloponnesian
war. They were frequently engaged in hostilities with their




GRxLClA.                    569
neighbors the Phliasians and Sicyonians. Pellene was celebrated for its manufacture of woollen cloaks, which were given
as prizes to the riders in the gymnastic games held there in
honor of Mercury. The ruins of this place are near the modern Tricala. The harbor of Pellene was Aristonautce, so called
from the Argonauts having touched there in the course of their
voyage. 3. AEgira, to the northwest, called at an earlier period Hyperesia, but which changed its name, according to
Pausanias, from the following circumstance. The Ionians,
who had colonized the city, being attacked by a superior number of Sicyonians, collected a large herd of goats, and, having
tied fagots to their horns, set them on fire, when the enemy,
conceiving the besieged to have received re-enforcements, hastily
withdrew. From these goats (a&ro riv alyuvv) Hyperesia took
the name of LEgira (Alyetpa), though its former appellation never fell into total disuse. The ruins are to be seen on a woody hill
above the spot now called Bloubouki. To the left are. the ruins
of the port, choked with sand. The black posts on the two
piers have occasioned the name of Mavro Lithari. To the west
of IEgira was the River Crathis, now Acratha, which descended from a mountain of the same name on the borders of Arcadia. It was from this stream that the Italian Crathis, which
flowed between Crotona and Sybaris, derived its appellation.
4. 2Egse, on the banks of the Crathis, near its mouth, and
celebrated for the worship of Neptune as early as the days of
Homer. In Strabo's time it had ceased to exist, the inhabitants having been removed to AEgira, when their territory was
annexed to that of AEgium.  5. Bura, to the northwest. It
was one of the twelve original Achean cities, and stood at first
close to the sea, but, having been destroyed with the neighboring city of Helice by a violent earthquake, the surviving inhabitants rebuilt it afterward, about forty stadia from the coast,
andl near the small river Buraicus, now the Calavrita. On
the banks of this river was a cave consecrated to Hercules, and
also the seat of an oracle, usually consulted by the throwing
of dice. According to Gell, the whole country in this quarter
exhibits strong marks of the violence of earthquakes. 6. ilelice,
near Bura, and one of the chief cities of Achaia. It was here
that the general meeting of the Ionians was convened, while
they were yet in possession of the country. A prodigious influx




570             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of the sea, caused by a violent earthquake, overwhelmed and
completely destroyed this place two years before the battle of
Leuctra, B.C. 373. Vestiges of the submerged city were to be
seen long after. This disaster took place during the night, and
the city and all that lay between it and the sea, a distance of
twelve stadia, were inundated in an instant. The inhabitants
appear to have all perished.
7. Cerynea, to the right of and near Helice. It afforded a
refuge to the inhabitants of Mycenae when their city was taken
and destroyed by the Argives. Marcus of Cerynea was the
first praetor of the Achaan league. Near it flowed the River
Cerynites, now, according to Leake, the Bokhusia. This river
rose in Mount Cerynea, on the borders of Arcadia. 8. AEgium,
to the northwest, near the coast, and now Vostizza. The
states of Achaia held their general assemblies here, until a law
was made by Philopcemen, by which each of the federal towns
became in its turn the place of meeting. 9. Rhypce, farther
along the coast, on the River Meganitas, now the Gaidouriari.
It was one of the twelve Achaean cities, but was no longer inhabited in Strabo's time. It was the birth-place of Myscellus,
founder of Crotona. Beyond is the River Phoenix, now the
Salmenico. Leaving Rhypse, we come to Drepanum Promontorium, now Drepano, near which was port Panormus, and
farther on was the more celebrated promontory of Rhium, already referred to (page 483). It was sometimes surnamed
Achaicum, to distinguish it from the Molycrian or IEtolian
Rhium on the apposite coast, called also Antirrhium. The intervening strait was only seven stadia.
10. Patrce, below the promontory of Rhium, now Patras, and
still a place of considerable importance. It was said to have
been built on the site of three towns called Aroe, Anthea, and
Messatis, which had been founded by the lonians when they
were in possession of the country. On their expulsion by the
Achaei, the small towns just mentioned fell into the hands of
Patreus, a distinguished chieftain of that people, who, uniting
them into one city, called it by his name. Its maritime situation, opposite to the coast of 2Etolia and Acarnania, rendered
it a very advantageous port for communicating with these
countries. It sustained severe losses, however, in the Achean
war from the Romans, so much so that the few inhabitants




GRnECIA.                    571
who remained in it determined at length to abandon the place,
and to reside in the neighboring villages and boroughs. Patre,
however, was raised to its former flourishing condition after the
battle of Actium by Augustus, who, in addition to its dispersed
inhabitants, sent thither a large body of colonists, chosen from
his veteran soldiers. In Strabo's time it was a large and populous town, with a good harbor. 11. Olenus, to the southwest,
and one of the most ancient Achaea towns. It was deserted
in Strabo's time. 12. Dyme or Dymce, the last of the Achaean
towns to the west. Its more ancient name was Palea. Strabo
thinks that the appellation Dyme has reference to its western
situation (6itu, duo, "to set"). The river Larissus, now Risso or Mana, formed the boundary between Achaia and Elis.
13. Tritea, some distance to the east, and the most inland of
the twelve Achaean cities. Its remains are supposed to be those
at Goumenitza, and are sometimes called St. Andrea, from a
church dedicated to that apostle in the immediate vicinity.
3. ELIS.
(A.) BOUNDARIES, NAME, &C.
I. Elis was bounded on the north by Achaia, on the south
by MIessenia, on the east by Arcadia, and on the west by the
Mare Ionium. It was separated from Messenia by the River
Neda, now the Bouzi, and from Achaia by the Larissus, now
the Risso, although originally the promontory of Araxus was
the common limit of Elis and Achaia.
II. Elis was originally divided into several districts or principalities, each occupied by a separate clan or people. Of these
the Caucones were probably the most ancient, and also the
most widely disseminated, since we find them occupying both
extremities of the province, and extending even into Achaia.
Next to these were the Epci, who are placed by Homer in the
northern part of the province, and next to Achaia. The names
Elis and Elei are said to have come in at a later date, and to
have been derived from Eleus, a son of Endymion.
III. The more common division of Elis was into three districts, namely, Hollow Elis (Kot71'HItCi) in the north, Pisdtis
in the middle, and Triphfjlia in the south.
IV. Elis was far the most fertile and populous district of
Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants are described as fond of ag



572                 ANCIEN.T GEOGRAPHY.
riculture and rural pursuits. It was the only part of Greece
in which the byssus was known to grow.
(B.) SKETCH OF ELEAN HISTORY.
I. PRIOR to the siege of Troy, the Epei are said to have been greatly reduced
by their wars with Hercules, who conquered Augeas their king, and with the
Pylians commanded by Nestor. They subsequently, however, acquired a great
accession of strength by the influx of a large colony from ZEtolia, under the
conduct of Oxylus, and their numbers were farther increased by a considerable
detachment of the Dorians and Heraclidae.
II. Iphitus, descended from Oxylus, and a contemporary of Lycurgus, re-established the Olympic games (828 B.C.), though the Olympiads did not begin to be
reckoned until 776 B.C. These games had been originally established by Hercules. The Pisatae, having remained masters of the plain of Olympia from the
first celebration of the festival, long disputed its possession with the Eleans,
but they were finally conquered, and the temple and presidency of the games
fell into the hands of their rivals. The preponderance obtained by the latter is
chiefly attributable to the assistance they derived from Sparta, in return for the
aid afforded to that power in tfe Messenian war.
III. From this period we may date the ascendency of Elis over all the other
surrounding districts hitherto independent. It now comprised- not only the
country of the Epei and Caucones, which might be termed Elis Proper, but the
territories of Pisa and Olympia, forming the ancient kingdom of Pelops, and the
whole of Triphylia, which constituted the greater part of Nestor's dominions
The Eleans were present in all the engagements fought against the Persians,
and in the Peloponnesian war zealously adhered to the Spartan confederacy,
until the conclusion of the treaty after the battle of Amphipolis, when an open
rupture took place between them and the Lacedaemonians, in consequence of
protection and countenance afforded by the latter to the inhabitants of Lepraeum,
who had revolted from them. Such was the resentment of the Eleans on this
occasion, that they prohibited the Lacedaemonians from taking part in the Olympic games.
IV. The Spartans retaliatei by frequent incursions into the territory of Elis,
the fertility of which presented an alluring prospect of booty to an invading
army. They were twice defeated, however, once at Olympia, and again before
the city of Elis. At length the Eleans sued for peace, and renewed their ancient
alliance. In the time of Philip, they joined the Macedonian alliance, but refused
to fight against the Athenians and Thebans at Chaeronea; and in the Lamiac
war they united with the other confederates against Antipater.
V. During the Social war the Eleans were the firmest allies of the AEtolians
in the Peloponnesus, and though they were on more than one occasion basely
deserted by that people, and sustained heavy losses, they could never be induced
to abandon their cause and join the Achaean league. They were included, however, in the general decree by which the whole of the Peloponnesus was annexed to the Roman empire.
(C.) PLACES IN ELIS.
1. ELIS PROPER.
1. Buprasiumn, the first town on the Elean side after leaving
the Larissus. It is often mentioned by Homer as one of the chief




GRiECIA.                    573
cities of the Epei. Buprasium had ceased to exist in the time
of Strabo, but the name was still attached to a district on the
road leading from Dyme to Elis. This seems to be what is
now called the plain of Bakouma. 2. Myrsnuzs, another Epean
town, to the southwest, called afterward Myrtuntium.  Its
ruins are near the village of Kaloteichos, according to Gell.
3. Cyllene, to the west of the preceding, and forming the haven
of the city of Elis. It was the usual place of debarkation for
those who sailed from Peloponnesus to Sicily and Italy. Its
ruins are at Glarentza. The promontory of Hyrmine to the
west is now Cape Glarentza. The Chelonatas Promontorium,
farther on, formed the extreme point of Peloponnesus to the
west. It is now Cape Tornese. Below this headland is the
River Peneus, now the Igliaco, to the south of which, and near
its mouth, was Coryne, now Gastouni.
4. Elis, on the River Peneus, and the capital, not only of
this district, but of the whole country. Strabo and Diodorus
assert that it did not exist as a city until after the Persian war,
when, according to Strabo, several previously detached villages
were united into one town. On the other hand, it was the
opinion of Pausanias, and of the natives themselves, that Elis
had been founded, on the return of the Heraclidae, by Oxylus
the AEtolian. Leake thinks it probable that the town of Elis
was at that time named Ephyra, and that it assumed under
Oxytls, who enlarged it, the name (Elis) which had before
been applied to the district. Cramer, on the contrary, places
Ephyre, which he m'akes the same with CEnoe, on the coast,
near the mouth of the Selleis.  The ruins of Elis are now
termed Palcopoli. 5. Pylos, to the southeast of the preceding,
and called, for distinction' sake, Pylos Elidis.  There were
two other places named Pylos, one in Triphylia and the other
in Messenia. They all laid claim to the honor of having been
the capital of Nestor. The Triphylian city, however, appears
to have had the best right to be so considered. In the neighborhood of the Elean Pylos was Mount Pholoe, which Leake
regards as a general name, comprising all the southwestern
part of the summits of what is now called Mount Olono.




674             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
2. PISATIS.
1. Pisa, the capital, on the Alpheus, and a very ancient city.
It was the city of CEnomaus and Pelops, and originally enjoyed
the presidency of the Olympic games until its rights were usurped by the Eleans and Heraclidee. A war ensued, which ended in
the overthrow and destruction of Pisa. Cramer places Pisa on
the left bank of the Alpheus; Leake, however, on the right, in
close proximity to Olympia. The ruin of the city occurred at
so early a period as to render the determination of its site impossible at the present day. Leake's opinion, however, is probably the more correct one. 2. Olympia, a name given to the
aggregate of temples, altars, and other structures on the right
bank of the Alpheus, in the immediate vicinity of the spot
where the Olympic games were celebrated. It was not, as
many have incorrectly supposed, a city, nor did it at all resemble one. The main feature in the picture was the sacred
grove Altis, planted, as legends told, by Hercules, and which he
dedicated to Jupiter. Throughout the grove were scattered in
rich profusion the most splendid monuments of architectural
sculpture and pictorial skill. The site was already celebrated
as the seat of an oracle, but it was not until the Eleans had
conquered the Pisatse, and destroyed their city, that a temple
was erected to the god with the spoils of the vanquished. The
statue of Jupiter was the master-piece of Phidias. The god
was represented as seated on his throne, composed of gold,
ebony, and ivory, studded with precious stones.  The figure
itself was of ivory and gold, and of such vast proportions, that,
though seated, it almost reached the ceiling. The head was
crowned with olive. In the right hand it grasped an image of
Victory, and in the left a sceptre on which was perched an eagle.
A conspicuous feature at Olympia was the Hill of Saturn (Kpovtov opog), often alluded to by Pindar, and on the summit of
which priests named Basilae offered sacrifices to the god every
year at the vernal equinox. The Olympic games were celebrated every fifth year; or rather, the exact interval at which
they recurred was one of forty-nine and fifty lunar months alternately. The period between two celebrations was called an
Olympiad. The festival lasted five days. The Olympic crown
was of wild olive. The Olympiads began to be reckoned from




GR ECIA.                       575
the year 776 B.C., in which year Corcebus was victor in the
foot-race.
3. Letrini, near the mouth of the Alpheus, and a town of
great antiquity. It derived its name from Letrinus, son of
Pelops. It was celebrated for the worship of Diana Alphea.
4. Salm6ne, northeast of.and near to the preceding. It was
also-a place of great antiquity, and was said to have been founded by Salmoneus.
3. TRIPHYLIA.
THE name of this district is supposed to have arisen from the circumstance
of the inhabitants having sprung from the blending of three different races, the
Epei, Minya, and Eleans. Before the Social War, the whole of this district had
been reduced by the Eleans; but several of its towns during that contest were
taken by Philip of Macedon, who gave them up to the Achaeans, and though the
Eleans afterward disputed their possession,:they were awarded by the Romans
to the former people. The Triphylian territory was rich and fertile, and appears to have been thickly inhabited. The places most worthy of notice are
the following:
1. Scillus or Scilluns, rendered interesting from Xenophon's
having fixed his abode there during his exile. The town itself
had been destroyed by the Eleans, but the territory being afterward wrested from Elis by the Lacedaemonians, was made over
by the latter to Xenophon, when that celebrated Athenian was
banished from Athens for having served in the army of the.
younger Cyrus. Between Scillus and the Alpheus, in the direction of Olympia, was a craggy and lofty summit, named
Typceum, from which the law decreed that those women should
be hurled headlong who had infringed the regulations which
prohibited their appearance at Olympia. This barbarous sentence, however, was never carried into execution. 2. Samia,
near the mouth of the Anigrus. In Strabo's time the fortress
of Samicum had replaced the ancient city. The River Anigrus formed marshes near its mouth, remarkable for the fetid
odor which they exhaled, and which was popularly ascribed to
the circumstance of the centaur's having washed in this stream
the wounds inflicted by his envenomed shafts.
3. Pylos Triphyliacus, to the southeast, and regarded by
Strabo, with great probability, as the city of Nestor, although
Leake is in favor of the Messenian Pylos. Notwithstanding
its ancient celebrity, this city is scarcely mentioned in later
times.  Gell places its remains at Piskini, about two miles




576             ANCIENT GEOGRAPIY.
from the coast. 4. Leprceum, to the southeast of Pylos, founded, as was said, by the Caucones.  It was a place of some
strength, and possessed a rich and fertile territory. Its ruins
are to be seen near the village of Strobitzi. 5. Macistus, to
the northeast of the preceding, and giving name at one time to
the whole surrounding district.  Its site is occupied by the
modern Mofkitza. 6. Pyrgos, the last town of Triphylia to
the south, at the mouth of the River Neda. Herodotus says it
was founded by the Minyae. Its ruins lie on the right bank of
the Neda, near the Khan of Bouzi. Apollodorus seems to assign to Elis a river once called Tigres, but afterward Harpys,
from the fall of one of the Harpies into its stream. The Strophades were small islands off the coast, two in number, and
which were fabled to have been so called from the circumstance
of Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, having returned thence
(arTp0c, " to turn") after they had driven the Harpies thither
from the table of Phineus. They are now called Strivali.
4. MESSENIA.
(A.) NAME AND BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Messenia, called also Messene, is said by Pausanias to
have derived its name from Messene, the wife of Polycaon, one
of the earliest sovereigns of the country.  This, however, is
mere fable.
II. It was bounded on the east by Laconia, on the north by
Elis and Arcadia, and on the west and south by the Mare
Ionium. It was separated from Laconia by the mountain chain
of Taygetus, and from Elis and Arcadia by the River Neda,
and the high land which runs between the bed of the Neda and
the sources of the Pamisus.
III. Messenia is described by Pausanias as the most fertile
province in the Peloponnesus; and Euripides, in a passage
quoted by Strabo, speaks of it as a land well watered, very
fertile, with beautiful pastures for cattle, and possessing a climate neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer. The
lower part of the country in particular, south of Ithome, was
celebrated in ancient times for its great fertility. Leake describes it as covered in the present day with plantations of the
vine, the fig, and the mulberry, and as rich in cultivation as
can well be imagined.




GR E CI A.                        577
(B.) SKETCH OF MESSENIAN HISTORY.
I. AT the time of the Trojan war Messenia appears to have been subject to
Menelaus, with the exception of Pylos, and probably part of the western coast.
After the death of Menelaus, the Neleid princes of Pylos are said by Strabo to
have obtained the whole of the country. On the division of the Peloponnesus,
after the Dorian conquest, under the Heraclidas, Messenia fell to the share of
Cresphontes, who fixed his capital in Stenyclerus.
II. In the middle of the eighth century before the Christian era, a series of
disputes and skirmishes arose on the borders of Messenia and Laconia, which
gave rise to a confirmed hatred between the two nations. Prompted by this
feeling, the Spartans are said to have bound themselves by an oath never to return home till Messenia was subdued; and they commenced the contest by a
midnight attack on Ampheia, a frontier town, which they took, and put the inhabitants to the sword. This was the commencement of what is called the
first Messenian war, the date of which was about 743 B.C. After a contest of
twenty years, during which the Messenian king Aristodemus distinguished himself by deeds of heroic valor, the Messenians were subdued, and reduced to the
condition of Laconian helots.
III. After bearing the yoke for thirty-nine years, the Messenians took up arms
against their oppressors B.C. 685, under the conduct of Aristomenes, a youth
of royal blood. They were, however, again subdued, and those who remained
in their native country were treated with the greatest rigor. The majority of
freemen, however, withdrew from Messenia, and a considerable number, under
the two sons of Aristomenes, sailed to Italy and settled at Rhegium. They
afterward obtained possession of Zancle, on the opposite coast of Sicily, and
called it Messana, the Doric form of Messene. This is now Messina.
IV. The Messenians again revolted in B.C. 464. This war, usually called
the third Messenian war, lasted ten years; at the end of which time the Messenians, who had occupied the stronghold of Mount Ithome, surrendered on condition of being allowed to retire from the Peloponnesus. The Athenians, who
were not at that time on good terms with Sparta, gladly allowed them to settle
at Naupactus, which they had recently taken from the Locri Ozolae. This place,
however, the Messenians were obliged to quit, when, at the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Spartans became masters of Greece.
V. After, however, the supremacy of Sparta had been overthrown by the
battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas formed the design of restoring the independence
of Messenia, and accordingly sent messengers to Italy, Sicily, and all parts of
Greece, to invite the long-exiled Messenians to return to their native country.
Numbers obeyed the summons, and in B.C. 359 a town was built at the foot of
Mount Ithome, which they called Messene. The independence of the Messenians was guaranteed by the peace concluded B.C. 361; and Messenia continued to remain an independent state till the dissolution of the Achean confederacy. In the Messenian state, as restored by Epaminondas, the ancient
national manners are said to have been retained; and the dialect remained, up
to the time of Pausanias, the purest Doric that was spoken in the Peloponnesus.
(C.) PLACES IN MESSENIA.
1. Cyparissia, on the western coast, below the mouth of the
River Cyparissus.     It is now Arcadhia, and gives their modern names to the river just mentioned, and also to the Sinus
Oo




578             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Cyparissius, into which it flows. The Cyparissium Promontorium, near this town, is now Cape Konello. 2. Erana, lower
down on the coast, and which some have identified with the
Arene of Homer. Its site corresponds to that of Ordina. Off
this coast, and a little to the south, was the island of Prote,
now Proti or Prodano, where the Athenian fleet anchored previous to the naval fight in the harbor of Pylos. 3. Pylos Messeniacus, to the south, and also on the coast. It was situate
at the foot of Mount AZEgaleus, now Mount Geranio, or Agio
Elia, and was one of the cities named Pylos, which laid claim
to the honor of having been the capital of Nestor. Strabo is
in favor of the Triphylian Pylos in Elis, but Leake of the
Messenian. Pylos answers to the modern Navarino, and must
not be confounded with Coryphasium, the fortress erected by
the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war at one of the entrances
into the harbor, and which corresponds now to Old Navarino.
The harbor of Pylos was a very spacious one, and was protected
from the swell of the sea by the island of Sphacteria, having
an entrance on either side of it. It is now the best harbor in
the Peloponnesus, and is commonly called the Bay of Navarino.
This bay has attained celebrity in modern times by the defeat
of the Turco-Egyptian fleet by the combined fleets of England,
France, and Russia. The island of Sphacteria also was rendered memorable by the defeat and capture of a Lacedaemonian
detachment in the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war. It
was likewise called Sphagia, which name it still retains.
4. Methione, lower down on the coast.  Pausanias calls it
Mothone, and makes it to have derived its name from the rock
Mothon, which formed the breakwater of its harbor. It was
identified by some with the Pedasus of Homer, one of the seven
towns offered by Agamemnon to Achilles. The Emperor Trajan especially favored this town, and bestowed several privileges
on its inhabitants. Its site at the present day is called Palaio
Mothone, and is a little to the east of the modern Modon. The
(Enuss(e Insulce, in its vicinity, are now Sapienza and Cabrera.
After doubling the Acritas Promontorium, now Cape Gallo, we
enter the great Messenian Gulf, now the Gulf of Coron, and
reach, 5. Colonides, an Attic colony, nearly corresponding to
the modern Coron. 6..Epea, to the north, on the coast, and
which changed its name to Corone, after the restoration of the




GRaECIA.                    579
Messenians. It was in attempting to take this town, during
the war occasioned by the secession of Messene from the Achaean
league, that Philopaemen was made prisoner. The Messenian
Gulf was sometimes called Coronaeus Sinus. Corone answers
to the modern Petalidi, about fifteen miles to the north of Coron. Passing the River Pamisus, famed for the purity of its
waters, and now the Pirnatza, we come to, 7. Abice, opposite
to Corone, and supposed to be the Ira of Homer, though not to
be confounded with Ira on the borders of Arcadia. It possessed
a celebrated temple of Hercules, and another of gEsculapius.
8. Cardamvle, farther south, now Scardamoula.  Augustus
adjudged it to belong to Laconia. 9. Leuctrum, the last town
of Messenia on this coast, and from its frontier situation a
source of dispute between the Messenians and Laconians. The
ancient site is still called Leutro.
Advancing into the interior of Messenia, we come to, 1. Gerenia, to the northeast of Cardamyle, and a very ancient city,
where, according to some, Nest6r was educated, and whence
he derived the epithet of Gerenian. Other accounts, however,
identify Gerenia with the En6pe of Homer. 2. Limnce, some
distance to the north, sacred to Diana, and having a temple
where a festival was celebrated by both the Messenians and
Laconians.  3. Calamce, to the west, and near the modern
Calamata. 4. Thuria, to the north, annexed by Augustus to
Laconia, for having espoused the cause of Antony. 5. Stenyclerus, to the north, said to have been the capital of the country
in the reign of Cresphontes. The region around was called the
Stenyclerian plain, and was celebrated in the songs of the natives as the scene of the achievements of Aristomenes. 6. Messene, to the west, at the foot of Mount Ithome, founded, as we
have already remarked, by Epaminondas, after the overthrow
of the Spartan power. Pausanias says that the walls of the
city were the strongest he had ever seen. The citadel was on
Mount Ith6me, now Mount Vourkano, and celebrated for the
long and obstinate defence which the Messenians there made
against the Spartans in their last revolt. On the summit was
the temple of Jupiter Ithomatas, to whom the mountain was
dedicated.  This citadel and the Acrocorinthus were deemed
the two strongest places in Greece. The ruins of Messene are
still visible at the village of Mavrommati. The River Balyra,




580             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
flowing near the town, was said to have derived its name fron
the lyre of Thamyris, which the bard threw into the stream
after losing his sight. It is now the Mavro Zoumena, and is
the largest of the tributaries of the Pamisus.
Aulon was that district of Messenia which bordered on Triphylia and part of Arcadia, being separated from them by the
Neda. It contained the city of Aulon, near the mouth of the
Neda. Higher up the river stood Ira, a mountain fortress, celebrated in the history of the Messenian wars as the last stronghold whither Aristomenes retreated, and which he so long defended against the enemies of his country.
5. LACONIA.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
1. The Greek name of this country was Laconice (AagcoviKm,
soil. yT]). The Roman writers, however, call it Laconia.
II. Laconia was bounded on the north by Arcadia and Argolis, on the west by Messenia, on the east and south by the
Mare JEgeunm.
III. Laconia is a long, narrow valley, running from north to
south, and lying between two mountain masses, which stretch
from Arcadia to the southern extremities of the Peloponnesus.
The western range, which terminated in the Promontory of
Teenarus, now Cape Matapan, was called Taygetus, and the
eastern, terminating in the Promontory of Malea, now Cape
S. Angelo, was known by the names of Parnon, Thornax, and
Zarex. The whole drainage of this valley is collected in the
River Eurotas, now the Basilipotamo, which flows from the
high lands of Arcadia, and is joined by the CEnus, a little above
Sparta.
IV. From its source to its junction with the CEnus, the
Eurotas flows through a very deep and narrow valley, which
near Sparta is so much contracted as to leave room for little
more than the channel of the river. After it leaves Sparta, the
hills recede farther from the river; but near (Enoe they again
approach it for a short distance, and afterward retire to the
west and east, toward the Capes of Tenarus and Malea respectively, leaving between them a plain of considerable breadth,
through which the Eurotas flows to the sea.
V. The snow remains on the highest points of Taygetus, in




GRXE CIA.                          581
the neighborhood of Amycle, to the month of June.                The
streams on the eastern slope of this mountain range are abundant. Leake describes the soil of Laconia as in general a poor
mixture of white clay and stones, difficult to plough, and better
suited to olives than corn.     This description is in conformity
to that of Euripides, who says that it possessed much arable
land, but difficult to work.
VI. Strabo informs us that there were some valuable stone
quarries near Teenarus, and in the mountains of Taygetus;
and Pausanias also speaks of the shell-fish on the coast, which
produced a dye inferior only to the Tyrian. Laconia was subject, in common with the southern countries of Greece, to earthquakes, the most remarkable of which occurred B.C. 462, and
destroyed the whole of the city of Sparta, with the exception of
five houses.
OBs. Laconia is well described by Euripides as difficult of access to an enemy.
On the west the range of Taygetus formed almost an insuperable barrier to any
invading force; and on the north there were only two natural passes by whiet
the country could be entered, one by the valley of the upper Eurotas, as thl
course of that river above Sparta may be termed, and the other by the valley
of the CEnus. Both of these natural openings led to Sparta, which shows how
admirably the capital was situated for purposes of defence. The want of go6d
harbors on the coast also protected it from invasion by sea; and the possession
of the island of Cythera, at the Sinus Laconicus, was therefore always considered by the I,acedaemonians as a point of great importance.
(B.) SKETCH OF LACONIAN HIISTORY.
I. ACCORDING to the most ancient traditions of Laconia, the Leleges were thif
earliest inhabitants of the country. Lelex, the first king, was succeeded by his
son Mules, who left the kingdom to his son Eurotas. This last monarch, dying
without issue, bequeathed the kingdom to Lacedamon, the son of Jupiter and
Taygeta, who married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas. The sovereignty is said
to have remained in this family till shortly before the Trojan war, when the descendants of Pelops, Menelaus and Agamemnon, obtained possession of the country by marrying, the former Helen, the latter Clytemnestra, daughters of Tyndareus, the last monarch of the ancient dynasty. At the time of the Trojan
war we fi-nd the country in the possession of the Achaeans, who undoubtedly
settled in Laconia at a very early period, and probably conquered the Leleges.
Menelaus was succeeded by Orestes, who had married his daughter Hermione,
and Orestes by Tisamenus, during whose reign the Peloponnesus was invaded
by the Dorians.
II. The Heraclidae established a double dynasty of two kings at Sparta; for
as neither the mother nor the Delphic oracle could decide which of the twin
sons of Aristodemus, namely, Eurysthenes and Procles, was first born, the country of Laoonia was assigned to them in common; and it was determined that
the descendants of both should succeed them. The previous inhabitants, however, had little cause to rejoice in the arrival of these foreigners, whose fierce




582                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
disputes ulder seven rulers of both houses distracted the country with civil
feuds, while it was at the same time involved in constant wars with its neighbors..The royal authority was continually becoming feebler, and the popular
power was increased by these divisions, until Lycurgus came upon the scene.
This distinguished man, the only individual in whom both parties confided, established a new constitution for Sparta about 880 B.C.
III. Lacedaemon now acquired new vigor, which was manifested in her wars
with her neighbors, particularly with the Messenians, whose country was subjugated. The battle of Thermopylae gave Sparta so much distinction among the
Greeks, that even Athens consented to yield the command of the confederate
forces by land and sea to the Spartans. Pausanias gained, in consequence, the
celebrated victory of Plataeae, and, on the same day, the Grecian army and fleet,
under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, and the Athenian general
Xanthippus, defeated the Persians at Mycale.
IV. With the rise of the political importance of Sparta, the social organiza
tion of the nation was developed. The power of the kings was gradually limited,
while that of the ephori was increased. After the Persians had been.victoriously repelled, the Grecian states, having now acquired warlike habits, carried
on hostilities against each other; jealousy arose between Sparta and Athens,
and the Peloponnesian war ensued, B.C. 431. This ended in the ascendency
of Sparta, and the entire humiliation of her rival. The Spartans next became
involved in a war with Persia, and the Persian throne was shaken by the victories of Agesilaus; but Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and some of the Peloponnesian states, were instigated by Persian gold to declare war against Sparta, and
Agesilaus was recalled. This commander defeated the Thebans at Coronea;
but, on the other hand, Conon, the Athenian commander, gained a victory over
the Spartan fleet at Cnidus, and took fifty galleys. To this contest succeeded,
after some interval, the celebrated Theban war, in which Epaminondas broke
the power of Sparta, and this state thenceforth ceased to act a prominent part
in Greece.
V. The Macedonian power now gained the ascendency, and Sparta, along
with the other states, was compelled to succumb. Luxury and licentiousness
after this began to make gradual inroads, and after Cleomenes had in vain attempted to stem the torrent, the state fell under the power of the tyrants Machanidas and Nabis. Its final downfall, however, was effected by the Achaeans
and Romans, and, on being compelled to join the Achaean league, it passed
eventually with that confederacy under the dominion of the Romans.
VI. Under the Roman rule, the inhabitants of Laconia enjoyed a greater degree of freedom than was allowed to the other provinces of Greece, being, says
Strabo, regarded rather as allies than as subjects. A considerable part of the
nation, consisting of several maritime towns, was dignified with the title of
Eleuthero-Lacones, or Free Laconians, conferred upon it by Augustus, together
with other privileges, for the zeal which its inhabitants had early testified in
favor of the Romans.
VII. Laconia is said to have once contained one hundred towns. When the
Dorians conquered it, they selected Sparta for the place of their own residence.
and permitted the rest of the province to be occupied by a mixed population
composed of Dorians and other strangers, and of the Achaeans the previous in
habitants. The Dorians who held Sparta received from their city the name of
Spartans; the Laconians who inhabited the surrounding towns were termed
repiOltKCt. The name of Lacedcemonians was common to both. The rCepiotKot
were treated generally with great oppression, and held their towns as subjects




GRE:CIA.                    583
or vassals of the Spartans. They formed, however, a part of the military force,
and were sometimes even placed in offices of trust. The slaves were called
Helots. These Helots were originally composed of the inhabitants of Laconian
towns reduced to slavery; but their name was afterward communicated to those
Messenians who remained in the country after the second Messenian war.
(C.) PLACES IN LACONIA.
AFTER leaving the mouth of the Pamisus, which separated
Laconia from Messenia, we come to, 1. Pephnus, now Pekno,
according to Cramer. Leake places it at the harbor of Platza.
Opposite to it was a little island, also called Pephnus, in which
the Dioscuri were said to have been born. 2. Thaldmce, now,
according to Gell, Calamo. 3. CEtylus, lower down, now Vitulo. It contained a temple of Serapis. 4. ]Iessa, some distance below, and mentioned by Homer. Cramer makes it answer to the modern Maino, but Leake to the harbor of Mezapo. 5. Tcenarum, to the east of the Thyrides Promontorium,
or Cape Grosso. It was called Ccenepolis at a later period,
under the Roman sway, and was the chief place of the Eleuthero-Laconic confederation.  The ruins are near Cyparisso.
Doubling the promontory of Thenarus, now Cape Matapan, and
entering the Sinus Laconicus, sometimes called Gytheates Sinus, now the.Gulf of Colokythia, we meet with no place of importance until we come to, 6. Gythium, at the head of the gulf,
frequently mentioned by ancient writers as the port of Sparta,
from which it was distant two hundred and.forty stadia. Accoraing to Pliny, it was the nearest point to embark from for
the island of Crete. The site is now called Paleopoli, but no
habitation is left upon it. The small island of Cranae lay off
this place, alluded to by Homer, according to some, in his account of the abduction of Helen.  It is now Marathonnisi.
Some, however, lay the scene of this adventure in the island
of Helena or Macris, off the coast of Attica.
7. Helos, to the east, on the opposite side of the gulf, and not
far frdm the mouth of the Eurotas. The inhabitants of this
town, having revolted against the Dorians and Heraclidee, were
reduced to slavery, and called Helots, which name was afterward extended to the various people who were held in bondage
by the Spartans. Polybius says that the district of Helos was
the most extensive and fertile part of Laconia. But the coast
was marshy, from which circumstance it probably derived its
name (EAo~, "a marsh").  The site is uncertain, probably near




584             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Priniko. 8. Cyparissia, according to Strabo, situate on a pen.
insula. It lay to the south of Helos, and its site is now occupied by the modern fortress of Rupino or Rampano, sometimes called Castel Kyparissi. Doubling the promontory of
Onugnathus, we enter the Sinus Bwacticus, now the Gulf of
Vathika, off which, to the southwest, lay the island of Cythtra,
now Cerigo, celebrated as having received Venus on her birth
from the sea. According to Eustathius, it was once called
Porphyris, from the quantity of purple-yielding shell-fish found
on its shores. This island was of great importance to Sparta,
since its harbors sheltered the Spartan fleets, and afforded protection to merchant vessels against the attacks of pirates. It
was taken by the'Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, and the
Spartans were in consequence exposed to much annoyance from
the ravaging of the coast of Laconia. The principal town was
also called Cythera; the principal harbor was called Scandea,
and is mentioned by Homer.
Returning to the coast of Laconia, we come to, 9. Bwee, on
the Sinus Baeaticus, and giving name to it. The site is now
called Vathika. Doubling the Promontory of Malea, now Cape
St. Angelo or Malio, we pass to, 10. Epidelium, now, according to Cramer, S. Angelo. Its ruins are near the modern Cape
Kamili.  11. Epidaurus Linzmra, to the north, said to have
been founded by the Argives, to whom, at one time, this whole
coast, as far as the Malean promontory, belonged. This place
contained a celebrated temple of YEsculapius. Its site is now
called Palcea Monembasia. The modern Monembasia, which
lies a little to the south, appears to correspond to the ancient
Minoa.
12. Sparta, sometimes called Lacedcemon, was the capital
of Laconia, and the chief city of the Peloponnesus. It was situate on the right or western bank of the Eurotas, about twenty
miles from the sea. Sparta was built in a plain of some extent, and was bounded on the east by the Eurotas, and on the
south by a smaller stream, called the Knakion, now Trypiotiko.
Polybius describes it as of a circular form, and, though situate
in a plain, containing within it several rising grounds and hills.
Homer calls it the "hollow Lacedemon," from the mountain
ranges by which the plain is surrounded  Sparta was not regularly fortified till the time of the Roman interference in Greece,




GRE CIA.                    586
though fortifications had been hastily thrown up against the attacks of Demetrius Poliorcetes (B.C. 280) and Pyrrhus (B.C.
272). It was at last completely surrounded with walls by
order of Appius, the Roman legate. The ruins are about two
miles distant from the modern Mistra. The villages of Magula and Psykhiko occupy a part of the immediate site. Sparta
was much subject to earthquakes, and, on one of these occasions, prior to the Peloponnesian war, only five houses were left
standing.
13. Therapne, on the left bank of the Eurotas, and southeast of Sparta. Here were to be seen the temple of Menelaus
and his tomb, as well as that of Helen. The ruins are near
the village of Amnphisu. 14. Amyclce, south of Sparta, and to
the west of the Eurotas. It was one of the most ancient cities
of Laconia, having been founded long before the invasion of the
Dorians. It was celebrated for its temple of the Amyclsean
Apollo. Hyacinthus, the favorite of Apollo, was fabled to have
been buried here. It was also celebrated as the birth-place of
Castor and Pollux, who, according to another legend, were born
on the island of Pephnus. The country around was beautifully
wooded, and is so still at the present day. Leake places the
site of Amyclm at Aia Kyriaki.  15. Sellasia, some distance
to the north of Sparta, near the confluence of the CEnus and
Gongylus, in a valley confined between two mountains, named
Euas and Olympus. It commanded the only road by which
an army could enter Laconia from the north, and was therefore a position of great importance for the defence of the capita].
According to Boblaye and Ross, its site is near the Kh.can of
Krevata. Leake, however, places it more to the south.
6. ARGOLIS.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Arg6lis derived its name from the Pelasgic term Argos,
which properly meant "a plain," but which served also to indicate as well the district of country afterward called Argolis,
as the city situate therein. Argos, too, as has already been remarked, is sometimes put for the whole Peloponnesus.
II. Argolis was of a peninsular shape for the most part, and
was bounded on the north by Corinthia and Sicyonia, on the
west by Arcadia, on the south by Laconia and the Sinus Ar



586                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
g'olicus, now the Gulf of Napoli, and on the east by the Sius
Saronicus, now Gulf of Engia.        Its greatest length, measured
in a straight line along its western frontier, was nearly thirtyeight miles, and the peninsular part of it varied from twentyfive to eleven miles in breadth.
III. Argolis is traversed by a ridge of mountains, which run
nearly in a continued line through the peninsula, from Mount
Cyllene in Arcadia, on its northwestern frontier, in an eastward
direction to the promontory of Scylleum. These mountains
are intersected by deep valleys, through which flow rivulets,
generally dry during summer. The ancient name of part of
this ridge was Arachnceus, which was crossed by the road from
Argos to Epidaurus. The valleys are very numerous, and of
greatest breadth on the southern side of the ridge, but none of
them  are of any great extent.     That in which Argos and Mycenae were situate is the largest, and through it flowed the
Inachus. The coast is of an irregular shape, with numerous
indentations, and is generally low. The only good harbor was
lVauplia, now   Napoli di Romania, at the head of the Sinus
Argolicus.
(B.) SKETCH OF ARGIVE HISTORY.'
I. THE earliest inhabitants of Argolis were Pelasgi. The term Argos itself
was one of Pelasgic origin, and we find it applied to cities in Thessaly and other
quarters of Greece, once in the occupation of this people. On the arrival of
Danaus, who is said to have come from Egypt, the inhabitants are reported to
have changed their ancient appellation of Pelasgi to that of Danai. At that
time the whole of what was afterward called Argolis acknowledged the authority of one sovereign; but after the lapse of two generations, a division took
place, by which Argos and its territory were allotted to Acrisius, the lineal descendaht of Danaus, while Tiryns and the maritime country became the inheritance of his brother Pretus. A third kingdom was subsequently establish d(
by Perseus, son of the former, who founded Mycenae. But these were all fina ly
reunited in the person of Atreus, son of Pelops, who acquired, in right of tLe
houses of Pelops apd Perseus, which he represented, possession of nearly t e
whole of the Peloponnesus, which ample territory came in course of succession
to Agamemnon.
II. After the death of Agamemnon, the crown descended to Orestes, and subsequently to his son Tisamenus, who was forced to evacuate the throne by the
invasion of the Dorians and Heraclida. Temenus, the lineal descendant of
Hercules, now became the founder of a new dynasty; but the Argives, having
acquired a taste for liberty, curtailed so much the power of their sovereigns as
to leave them but the name and semblance of kings. At length, having deposed
Meltas, the last of the Temenid dynasty, they changed the constitution into a
republican form of government.
III. In the more certain historical ages, Argos becomes first known to us




GRAECIA.                           587
when engaged in war with the Spartans respecting the territory of Thyrea
This war was contemporaneous with the capture of Sardes by Cyrus. Before
this epoch the possessions of Argos had extended along the coast to Cape Malea, and included Cythera and other islands. At a later period, B.C. 493, there
was another contest between Argos and Sparta, in which Argos was unsuccess
ful, and so many of the citizens fell in battle, that the slaves, or more probably
the Periceci, found no difficulty in seizing the government, and are said to have
retained it till the sons of their masters had grown up, when they were again
expelled from the city. It was probably on this account that the Argives took
no part in the Persian war, B.C. 480, though many believed them to have been
bribed by Xerxes.
IV. A few years afterward we find them at war with the inhabitants of Mycena,, who had refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Argos, and had been
supported for many years in their independence by the Spartans. Mycenae fell,
and never arose again from its ruins.
V. Though Argos remained neutral during the earlier part of the Peloponne
sian war, her feelings were at all times opposed to the Spartans, and she at last
took an active part with the Athenians. The defeat, however, of the Argives
at Mantinea, B.C. 418, dissolved the confederacy of which she was the head,
and Argos was compelled to accept an aristocratic constitution. Sne subsequently shook off the yoke, and we find her assisting the Thebans at the battle
of Mantinea, B.C. 362. But her history becomes gradually less important; nor
is there any fact worthy of being noticed till the unsuccessful attempt made by
Pyrrhus, B.C. 272, to take the city. It joined the Achaean league, and continued to form a part of this confederacy until its final dissolution by the Romans.
(C.) PLACES IN ARGOLIS.
ADVANCING from the Laconian frontier, we come to the small
territory of Cynuria, the possession of which led to frequent
disputes between the Spartans and Argives. Its principal town
was Thyrea, near which the celebrated battle was fought between three hundred Spartans and an equal number of Arg;ves.
The Argives being defeated in a general action not long after,
Thyrea was held by the Spartans, who established here the
Eginetce, upon the expulsion of that people from        their island
by the Athenians. Thyrea was afterward ceded by treaty to
the Argives.    Its site was probably not far from     the modern
town of Astro.    The Thyreates Sinus is now the Bay of Astro.
Leaving Cynuria, and moving upward along the coast, we
come to, 1. Lerna, a small lake or marsh, formed by several
sources which discharged themselves into its basin.          It was
celebrated as the scene of the contest between Hercules and
the Hydra. The most famous of the streams which formed
this lake was the fountain Amymone.         The Lernean Lake is
now a small marshy pool, overgrown with reeds.         Bending our
course around the head of the bay, we come next to, 2. lNauplia,




588             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY
the port of Argos, now Napoli di Romania. Both in ancient
and modern times this has been an important harbor, and, indeed, the only good one in Argolis. 3. Argos, to the northwest, inland, and still preserving its name. It was generally
regarded as the oldest city of Greece. The walls of this city
were constructed of massive blocks of stone, or, in other words,
were of Cyclopean structure. It was also protected by two citadels, situated on towering rocks, and surrounded by fortifications equally strong. The principal one was named Larissa.
Argos stood on the banks of the Inachus. In Strabo's time it
was inferior only to Sparta in extent and population. An account of the River Inachus has already been given (p. 479).
4. Mycence, to the northeast of Argos, said to have been
founded by Perseus after the death of his grandfather Acrisius,
It was the capital of the Pelopidae, and under Agamemnon attained to its highest degree of opulence and power. It was attacked and captured by the people of Argos, B.C. 468, who
levelled it with the ground, and enslaved the inhabitants. According to Diodorus Siculus, the war arose from a dispute relative to the Temple of Juno, which was common to the two republics. Modern travellers have given a full and interesting
account of the ruins of this place, among which the most remarkable is a subterranean chamber, called by Pausanias the
Treasury of Atreus. The Gate of the Lions still remains in the
same state in which it was when seen by Pausanias, and also
a magnificent wall of Cyclopean masonry. The ruins are close
to the village of Krabata. 5. Tiryns or Tirynthus, to the southeast of Argos, arnd celebrated for its massive walls. It was.said
to have been founded by King Prcetus, brother of Acrisius, who,
as Strabo reports, employed for the construction of his citadel
workmen from Lycia, or, in other words, Cyclopean builders.
Tiryns is connected with the legend of Hercules. Alemena,
his mother, was daughter of Electryon, a descendant of Prcetus,
and the crown would have devolved on her husband Amphitryon
had he not been expelled by Sthenelus, king of Argos. Hercules, however, afterward regained possession of his inheritance,
whence he derived the surname of Tirynthius. This city was
destroyed by the Argives, and the greater part of its inhabitants
removed to Argos.  The ruins are still very imposing. The
general form of the citadel is said to be that of a ship or boat.




GRXCIA.                     589
6. Ilermi6ne, on the southeastern coast, and some distance
to the west of the Scyllaeum Promontorium. According to
Herodotus, it was founded by the Dryopes. This place was
one of considerable importance, and contained many temples,
one of which, that of Ceres, was famed for its affording an inviolable refuge to suppliants.  Not far from this was a cave
sulpposed to communicate with the infernal regions. It was
p;obably owing to this speedy descent to Orcus that the Hermionians, as Strabo informs us, omitted to put a piece of money
into the mouths of their dead. Lasus, an early poet of some
note, said to have been the instructor of Pindar, was a native
of this place. The ruins are near Castri, opposite to the island
of Hydra, the ancient Hydrea. The bay in front was called
the Sinus Hermionicus, now Gulf of Castri.
This part of the Argolic coast was lined with several small
islands, of which we may name the following: 1. Aperopia,
now, according to Cramer, Hydron; but, according to Boblaye
and Leake, Dhoko. 2. Hydrea, now the celebrated commercial island Hydra. 3. Tiparenus, now Spezzia, and also celebrated for its commerce.
Returning to the main land, we come to, 7. Trcezene, northeast of Hermione, and said to have been a very ancient city.
It derived its name from Trcezen, son of Pelops, but had existed
long before this period under the several appellations of Orea,
Althepia, and Posidonia. Trcezene was the native place of
Theseus, and, here he long resided. In the Persian war, the
Trcezenians received' most of the Athenian families who were
forced to abandon their city. From the description which Pausanias has given of its buildings, we learn that it was still a flourishing town in the second century of the Christian era. The
ruins are near the modern village of Damala. The harbor of
Trcezene was called Pogon, from its shape, being formed by a
curved strip of land which resembled " a beard." Off this harbor
was the island of Calauria. Neptune had a temple here, which
was regarded as an inviolable asylum. In this sanctuary Demosthenes took refuge, and here he ended his existence. Calauria is now called Poro. 8. Methone or Methana, to the north
of Trcezene, and now Methana or Mitone. It was situate on
the neck of a peninsula. In its vicinity were some hot springs,
produced by a volcano in the reign of Antigonus Gonatas.




590                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
9. Epidaurus, higher up on the coast.      Its earlier name was
Epicarus, its founders having been Carians, as Aristotle reported, who were afterward joined by an Ionian colony from Attioa.
Epidaurus was celebrated for its vines, and also for its breed of
horses; but its greatest celebrity arose from its temple of AEsculapius, which was the resort of invalids of all kinds. It was
erected on the spot where 2Esculapius himself was said to have
been born and brought up. Leake makes the site of Epidaurus
correspond to that of Pidavro, but Boblaye to that of Nea
Epidavros.
10. Lessa, to the west of the preceding, and near Mons Arachnmeus,.which mountain is mentioned by 2Eschylus as the last
station of the telegraphic fire by which the news of the capture
of Troy was transmitted to Mycene.        Arachneus is now     Sophico. 11. Nemea, some distance to the northwest, and celebrated as the spot where the Nemean games were held. In its
vicinity was the haunt of the lion slain by Hercules.      It was
not a city, but, like Olympia, a sacred spot, with temples and
other buildings.   12. Cleonwe, to the northeast, situate on a rock,
and well fortified.  The ruins are near Kurtesi.      13. Phlius,
to the southwest, and properly a small independent republic,
though in early times dependent on Mycene.          Its ruins are
near Agios Giorgios.
E GINA.
I. IT only remains now to give some account of the island of Egina, lying as
it does in the Sinus Saronicus, and off the coast of Argolis. From its position,
therefore, it naturally belongs to the latter country, and Homer, moreover, has
ranged its warriors under the standard of I)iomede, sovereign of Argos.
II. In fabulous times this island is said to have borne the name of.Enone,
which it afterward exchanged for that of.Egina, daughter of Asopus, and
mother of _Eacus, and the long line of heroes descended from him. The renown of the JEacidae, indeed, reflected no small glory on the country which had
given them birth, and formed one of the chief boasts of its inhabitants. Angina
subsequently received colonies from Crete, Argos, and Epidaurus. The Cretan
establishment may be referred to the time of Minos; that of Argos to the period
in which Phidon was tyrant of that city; while the Epidaurians who crossed
over into the island were a detachment of those Dorians who had left Argos
under Deiphontes, to settle at Epidaurus.
III..Egina soon became distinguished by the industry and enterprise of its
inhabitants, and its extensive commerce and its powerful navy enabled it to
contend successfully even with the power of Athens. As early as B.C. 563, in
the reign of Amasis, before any town of European Greece except Corinth had
acquired great commercial wealth, we find that _Egina had a factory established
in lower Egypt for its merchants. The island was then one of the great cen



GRaECIA.                          591
tres of the Mediterranean commerce. lEgina had also a very early silver coinage, and many of its coins still exist. According to the common account, the
first silver money was coined here by Phidon of Argos, who at that time held
the island under his sway.
IV. When Xerxes invaded Greece, the people of Egina took a brilliant part
in the great sea fight of Salamis. They sent thirty ships besides those which
guarded their own island, and were allowed to have acquitted themselves better
than any other of the Greeks; which tended to wipe off the disgraceful imputation of previous treachery to the common cause, of which they were apparently not altogether guiltless. This event may be fixed as the latest period
of their great prosperity, which had probably lasted for more than a century.
After the Persian wars the old jealousies of Athens and.Egina again broke out,
and finally resulted in the capture of the island by the former, and the expulsion
of the inhabitants, B.C. 430. A remnant of them were restored by Lysander
at the close ef the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 404; but.Egina never afterward
recovered its importance.
V. The capital of the island was likewise called Egina, and was situate in
the northwestern part of it. Its vestiges cover at the present day an extensive
plain. The modern name of the island is Egina or Enghia. JEgina is celebrated for its remains of antiquity, particularly those of the great temple of Jupiter Panhellenius.
7. ARCADIA.
(A.) NAME, BOUNDARIES, &C.
I. Arcadia was fabled to have derived its name from Arcab,
the son of Jupiter and Callisto, who ruled at one time over the
country, according to an early legend, and was instructed in
agriculture by Triptolemus.
II. Arcadia was bounded on the north by Achaia, on the
west by Elis, on the south by Messenia and Laconia, and on
the east by Argolis.
III. It was a mountainous region, and may be regarded as
the Switzerland of Greece, though its mountains are of much
less elevation. The centre of the Peloponnesus, indeed, may
be regarded as a high table land, traversed by numerous mountain ridges, and contains the sources of some of the most considerable rivers that flow into the seas around the peninsula.
IV. The most fertile part was toward the south, where the
country sloped off, and contained many fruitful vales and numerous streams.      The scenery in this quarter is still very
beautiful.
(B.) CHARACTER OF THE INHABITANTS.
I. As Arcadia is a mountainous country, and abounds in forests and grass
lands, the character of its inhabitants and their mode of life were, to a great
extent, determined by these physical circumstances. The tending of cattle,
therefore, and hunting, were their chief occupations.




59.2                ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
II. To their pastoral mode of life may also be ascribed the attachment of the
Arcadians for music; and hence, also, the worship of Pan, as the tutelary deity
of Arcadia. It was their diligent cultivation of music which, according to Polybius, himself an Arcadian, changed his countrymen from the fierce and almost
savage character which they had in their early state, to mildness and innocent
simplicity.
III. The Arcadians, like the people of Switzerland at the present day, possessed a strong love of freedom, and likewise a love of money; for, wherever
there was money, you might see Arcadian mercenary troops.
(C.) SKETCH OF ARCADIAN HISTORY.
I. ACCORDING to their own account, the Arcadians had occupied the central
parts of the Peloponnesus from time immemorial. According to Aristotle, however, they expelled a prior race frorm the country. They appear, in fact, to have
been a branch of the great Pelasgic nation; and hence the tradition, that a king,
named Pelasgus, taught them to build huts, and clothe themselves with the
skins of animals.
II. In the second Messenian war, B.C. 685-668, we find the Arcadians under
the rule of a monarch named Aristocrates, whom they stoned to death on account of his treacherous behavior to the Messenians; and the country was
thereupon divided into a number of small republics. Herodotus says that they
took part with the other Greeks against Xerxes, and that they sent to Thermopylae a body of two thousand one hundred and twenty men.
III. Their history, however, for a long time subsequent to this, clearly shows
that they did not possess the feelings of a united people. They were, as already
remarked, mere soldiers of fortune, ready to draw their swords in behalf of any
one willing to pay them. In the celebrated Sicilian expedition they were found
in the ranks of both armies; nor do they appear to have acted as a nation till
they had founded, under the advice of Epaminondas, the city of Megalopolis,
B.C. 371, which became the metropolis of the country.
IV. From this time the Arcadians appear as a confederate state, with a general council to manage the affairs of the nation. It is said to have consisted of
ten thousand members, called olf iptot; and if it were not frequently mentioned
by ancient writers under this appellation, we should be inclined to imagine that
there must be some mnistake. What makes it still more inexplicable is, that it
possessed the executive and judicial powers, but not the legislative, which resided in the whole assembled people.
V. On the death of Alexander we find the country a prey to a number of
petty tyrants, and the part they took in the Achaean league did not relieve them
from their difficulties, or enable them to re-establish peace and security. The
Romans at last made themselves masters of their country, and included it with
the rest of the Peloponnesus in the province of Achaia.
(D.) PLACES IN ARCADIA.
1. Mantinea, at the foot of Mount Artemisius, on the borders of Argolis, and nearly due west from     Argos.   It was one
of the oldest and most celebrated cities of Arcadia, and was said
to have been founded by Mantineus, son of Lycon.         Mantinea
was situate on the banks of the little river Ophis, and was at
first composed of four or five hamlets, which were afterward




G  s c I A.                 593
collected into one city; and, previous to the founding of Megalopolis, was the largest and most populous place in Arcadia.
The great but indecisive battle was fought in its plain between
the Boeotians and Spartans, in which Epaminondas was slain.
The ruins are now called Palceopoli. 2. Orchomenuzs, to the
northwest, also a very ancient city, and not to be confounded
with the place of the same name in Boeotia. The adjacent
plain was, in a great measure, occupied by a small lake formed
by the rain water which descended from the neighboring hills.
The site of this city is partly occupied by the modern village
of Kalpaki.  3. Stymphalus, to the northeast, founded by
Stymphalus, son of Areas, and called by Pindar, from its great
antiquity, the mother of Arcadia. Near the town was a lake
of the same name, once the fabled haunt of the birds called
Stymphalides, which were destroyed by Hercules. The town
stood on the northern shore of the lake. The ruins are near
the modern Kionia, according to Leake.
4. Pheneus, to the northwest. Hercules is said to have dwelt
here after his departure from Tiryns. Homer mentions it
among the principal Arcadian cities. It was surrounded by
extensive marshes, formed principally by the River Aroanius.
These are said to have once inundated the whole country, and
to have destroyed the ancient town.  Its ruins are near the
village of Phonia. Between Pheneus and Stymphalus rose
Mount Cyllene, the loftiest and most celebrated mountain of
Arcadia, and on which, according to the poets, Mercury was
born.  A temple was dedicated to him on its summit. The
modern name is Zyria. 5. Nonacris, to the northwest, on the
confines of Achaia. It was surrounded by lofty mountains and
perpendicular rocks, over which a torrent called Styx precipitated itself to join the River Crathis. The waters were said to
be poisonous, and to possess the property of corroding metals
and other hard substances. The fall of the Styx is now called
Mauronero, or "the Black Water."
6. Clitor, nearly due west from Pheneus, and a town of some
celebrity. There was a fountain here, which made those who
tasted its waters averse to wine. The town was situate on the
River Clitor, a tributary of the Aroanius.  The ruins, now
called Paleopoli, are near the modern Mazi. 7. Cyncetha, to
the northwest, and on the northern declivity of Mount Aroanius.
PP




594             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
The inhabitants were depraved and barbarous, owing, it is said,
to their neglect of music, to which the other Arcadians paid so
much attention. Near the town was a fountain called Alyssus,
from its curing hydrophobia. Cynetha probably stood near the
site of the modern Calavrita. 8. Psophis, some distance to the
southwest, on the River Erymanthus, and at the foot of the
mountain of the same name. Mount Erymanthus is celebrated in fable as the haunt of the wild boar destroyed by Hercules. The River Erymanthus is now the Dogana. The ruins of Psophis are near the Khan of Tripotamo. 9. Herea,
some distance to the southwest, between the Ladon and Alpheus, and on the slope of a hill rising gently above the right
bank of the latter stream. It was near the confines of Elis,
which country frequently disputed its possession with Arcadia.
Its site is now partly occupied by the village of Aiani. 10. Aliphera, to the southwest, a place of considerable strength, and
occupied by the Eleans after the inhabitants had retired to Megalopolis. Its site corresponds to the modern Nerovitza.
11. Megal6polis, to the southeast, and near the borders of
Messenia and Laconia. It was the most recent of all the Arcadian towns, and also the most extensive, and was situate in
a wide and fertile plain watered by the Helisson, which nearly
divided the town into two equal parts. It was founded by the
advice of Epaminondas, as a check upon the Spartans, with
whom the Megalopolitans often came subsequently into collision. It was at last surprised by them and destroyed. The'Achaeans restored it after the battle of Sellasia, but it never
rose to its former flourishing condition. Megalopolis was the
birth-place of Philopcemen and Polybius. Its site is in part occupied by the modern Sinano. 12. Lycosura, to the northwest,
and which Pausanias makes to have been the oldest city in the
world. It still contained a few inhabitants when he made the
tour of Arcadia. It was situate on the slope of Mount Lycoeus.
On this mountain Jupiter was worshipped, and, according to
the Arcadians, he was born on its summit. Mount Lycsets
was also sacred to Pan, who had a temple here, near which the
Lycmean games were performed. On the eastern side of the
mountain was the temple of Apollo Parrhasius. The modern
name of Mount Lycmus is, in its northern part, Dioforti, and
in its southern, Tetrazi.




GRXECIA.                         595
13. Phigalea, to the west of Lycosura, and beyond the River
Platanistus, on the brow of a lofty and precipitous rock, which
overhung the bed of the Neda. It was said to have been founded by Phigalus, son of Lycaon. The site is supposed to be
occupied by the modern town of Paulizza.      The so-called Phigalean marbles are a series of sculptures in alto-relievo, preserved in the British Museum, and derive their name from
having been discovered among the ruins of a temple at the ancient Bassce, on Mount Cotylon, not far from the site of Phigalea. The subjects represented in them are the battle of the
Centaurs and Lapithme, and that of the Greeks and Amazons.
These sculptures show a fine school of design, and are to be referred to about the same period with that when the Parthenon
was erected at Athens.    14. Tegea, to the northeast of Megalopolis, and, next to Mantinea, the most ancient city of Arcadia.
The Tegeatae were early distinguished for their valor, and gained
many victories over the Spartans.    They furnished'three thousand soldiers at the battle of Plateie.   It was the only town
of Arcadia which in Strabo's time preserved any degree of consequence and prosperity. Its remains are to be seen about an
hour east of Tripolizza, at a site now called Piali.
Between Megalopolis and Tegea extended the range of Mount
Mcenalus, one of the most celebrated in Arcadia, and sacred to
Pan, whose favorite haunt it was supposed to be. The surrounding district was called from it Mcinalia, or the Mtenalian
region. The modern name of this mountain range is Roino,
according to Cramer.' Leake, however, gives the name of the
highest summit as Aidin.
GRECIAN ISLANDS.
1. CYCLXDES.
I. THE name Cyclades was applied by the ancient Greeks to that cluster
(KcVKrog) of islands which encircled Delos. Strabo says that the Cyclades were
at first only twelve in number, but were afterward increased to fifteen. These,
as we learn from Artemidorus, were Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, Milos, Szphnos,
Cimolos, Prepesinthos, Oledros, Pdros, Naxos, Syros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros, and
Gyaros, which last, however, Strabo himself was desirous of excluding, from its
being a mere rock, as also Prepesinthos and Olearos.
II. It appears from the Greek historians that the Cyclades were first inhabited by the Phenicians, Carians, and Leleges, whose piratical habits rendered
them formidable to the cities on the continent, till they were conquered and
finally extirpated by Minos, king of Crete. These islands were subsequently




596                 ANCIEN' GC ELOGRAPILY.
occupieJ for a short time by Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, and by the Persians;
but after the battle of Mycale they became dependent on Athens.
III. Many of these islands are of volcanic formation; others are composed
almost entirely of a pure White marble, of which the Parian, from Paros, where
it was formerly most worked, is often mentioned by ancient writers. They
now form a portion of the kingdom of Greece.
1. DELOS.
I. ACCORDING to the poetic tradition, Delos was originally a floating island,
moving beneath the surface of the AEgean, until Neptune caused it to become
manifest (67Lor) above the face of the waters, and made it stand firm, for the
purpose of receiving Latona when about to be delivered of Apollo and Diana.
It had several other ancient names, such as Asteria, Ortygia, Lagia, &c. It
was named Ortygia from 6p7rv, I" a quail," and Lagia from RayoJc, " a hare," the
island abounding with these. On this account, according to Strabo, it was not
allowed to have dogs at Delos, because they destroyed the quails and hares.
II. Delos was celebrated from the earliest times as a seat of the worship of
Apollo, it being his natal island. His temple and that of his mother Latona
were in the town of Delos, which was built on a little plain, on the west side
of the island, at the foot of a lofty mountain called Cynthus, whence Apollo obtained the surname of Cynthius, and Diana that of Cynthia. The River Inopus
ran into the sea to the south of the town.
III. Delos was a place of meeting for the Ionians in the time of Homer; and
athletic sports, with dancing and singing, were carried on there in honor of
Apollo. Polycrates of Samos consecrated the adjoining island of Rhenea to the
Delian god, and joined it to Delos by a chain. Delos fell into the power of the
Athenians in the time of Pisistratus, and then a partial purification of the island
took place by the removal of the tombs which were within sight of the temple.
In the year 426 B.C., a complete purification of Delos was made by the Athenians, and it was proclaimed that no one should thenceforth die or be born in
the island, but that all persons likely to die or bring forth should be sent over
to Rhenea.
IV. The Athenians instituted at Delos a festival, which returned at the beginning of every fifth year, called the Delia, and sent thither annually a sacred
vessel called the Theoris, in commemoration of the delivery of Athens by Theseus from the Cretan tribute. In 422 B.C., the tenth year of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians removed the whole population to Adramyttium, where
they were allowed to settle by the satrap Pharnaces, and where many of them
vyere treacherously murdered by the Persians. Finally, however, the Athenians restored those that survived to their country after the battle of Amphipolis,
as they considered that their ill success in the war proceeded from the anger
of the god on account of their conduct toward this unfortunate people. They
had removed them, in the first instance, because not satisfied with the purifications which the island had undergone.
V. When Corinth was destroyed by Mummius, Delos succeeded to the commerce of that city, and was for a time very flourishing; but the generals of
Mithradates having landed there in the war between that monarch and the
Romans, the island was laid waste by them, and remained in a state of great
desolation. In the days of their prosperity the Delians carried on a very extensive slave trade with Cilicia, and thousands of slaves were landed and sold
in a single day. The modern names of this little island are Delo, Dili, and Sdilli.
It is little more than a mass of bare rock.




GRAECIA.                           597
2. CEOS, CYTHNOS, AND SERIPHUS.
I. Ceos, now Zea, lay off the promontory of Sunium. It once possessed four
towns, namely, Iulis, Carthea, Coresia, and Pceessa (IIotieaca). Of these, Iulis
was the largest, and its site corresponds to that of the modern Zea, which gives
name to the whole island. Iulis was the birth-place of Simonides and his
nephew.
II. Cythnus, now Thermiza, lay to the southeast of Ceos. It had a town named
Cythnus, and now Thermia, from the hot springs in its vicinity, and this mod.
ern name has become that of the whole island. Cythnus was famed in ancient
times for these hot springs, and also for its cheese.
III. Seriphos to the south of Cythnos, is now Serpho. It was celebrated in
mythology as the scene of some of the most remarkable adventures of Perseus,
who changed Polydectes, king of the island, and his subjects into stones, to
avenge the wrongs offered to his mother Danae. Strabo seems to account for
this fable from the rocky nature of the island. In Juvenal's time state prisoners
were sent thither.
3. MELOS AND SIPHNOS.
I. Melos, now Milo, lay, according to Strabo, seven hundred stadia from the
Scyllaeum Promontorium, and nearly as many from the Dictynnwum Promontorium of Crete. It was first inhabited by the Phoenicians, and afterward colonized by the Lacedaemonians. The'chief town was also called. Melos. This
island was taken by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, who put all
the males to death, enslaved the women and children, and sent five hundred
colonists into the island. Melos was a very rich and productive isle.
II. Siphnos, now Siphanto, lay to the southeast of Seriphus, and northeast of
Melos. It contained gold and silver mines. In the age of Polycrates, the revenues of the Siphnians surpassed those of all the other islands, and enabled them
to erect a treasury at Delphi equal to those of the most opulent cities, and their
own buildings were sumptuously decorated with Parian marble. They afterward, however, sustained a heavy loss by a descent of the Samians, who levied
upon the island a contribution of one hundred talents. In Strabo's time, this
island was so poor and insignificant as to give rise to proverbs.
4. CIMbLUS, PREPESINTHUS, AND OLEARUS.
I. Cimolus, now Cimoli or Argentiera, lay to the northeast of Melos, and between that island and Siphnos. It produced a kind of fuller's earth, which was
of great use in whitening cloth. Its figs also were much esteemed. The island
was of small size. The town of Cimolus was situate on its western side.
II. Prepesinthus, a small island between Cimolus and Olearos, and now, according to Cramer, Spotiko or Despotiko. Others, however, give the modern
name as Strongylo.
III. Oledros, now Antiparo, lay a short distance to the west of Paros. The
ancients made the intervening space eighteen stadia. It is famous in modern
times for its grotto.
5. PAROS AND NAXOS.
I. Paros, now Paro, to the northeast of Siphnos, was celebrated for its beautiful marble. Its early prosperity is evinced by the colonies it established at
Thasos, and on the shores of the Hellespont. During the time of the Persian
war it was the most flourishing and important of the Cyclades. After the battle




598                 ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
of Marathon it was besieged in vain by Miltiades for twenty-six days, and thus
proved the cause of his disgrace. The marble quarries were on Mount Mfarpessa. Paros was the birth-place of the poet Archilochus.
II.., Naxos, now Naxia, lay to the east of Paros, and was the longest of the
Cyclades. It was first peopled by the Carians, but afterward received a colony
of Ionians from Athens. The failure of the expedition undertaken by the Persians against this island, at the suggestion of Aristagoras, led to the revolt of
the Ionian states. Not long after, however, it was conquered by the Persian
fleet under Datis and Artaphernes, who destroyed the city and temples, and enslaved the inhabitants. It soon, however, recovered from this blow. Naxos
was celebrated for the worship of Bacchus, who, according to one legend, was
born here. The principal town was Naxos; there were also two others, named
Nysa and Tragece.
6. SYROS AND MYC6NOS.
I. SYROS, now Syra, lay between Cythnos and Rhenea, and was celebrated
for having given birth to Pherecydes the philosopher. At the present day, the
excellence of its harbor, and its central situation, have made it a considerable
commercial dep6t. It is the principal seat of the Protestant missionaries to the
Levant.
II. Myc6nus, a little to the east of Delos, was a poor and barren island, and
the inhabitants consequently were rapacious and fond of money. They are said
to have lost their hair at an early age, whence the name of Myconian was proverbially used to designate a bald person. It was also said that the giants whom
Hercules had conquered lay in a heap under this island; a fable which gave rise
to another saying (1la MVKovoc), applied to those authors who confusedly mixed
together things which ought to have been treated of separately. The island had
two towns. Its modern name is Myconi.
7. TENOS, ANDROS, &c.
I. Tenos, now Tino, lay to the northwest of Myconos. It was also called
Hydrussa, from the abundance of its springs. Near the town of Tenos was a
temple of Neptune, held in great veneration, and much frequented by the in
habitants of the surrounding isles.
II. Andros, now Andro, lay to the northwest of the preceding. The island
was a poor one, and was fruitlessly sought to be reduced by Themistocles
Eventually, however, it was rendered tributary.
III. Gyarus, the last of the Cyclades. So wretched and poor was this barren
rock, inhabited by only a few fishermen, that they deputed one of their number
to go to Augustus, then at Corinth after the battle of Actium, to petition that
their taxes, which amounted to one hundred and fifty drachmae, might be diminished, as they were not able to raise more than one hundred. It became
subsequently notorious as the spot to which criminals or suspected persons were
banished by the Roman emperors. The modern name is Ghioura.
2. SPORADES.
THE Greeks comprised under the name of Sporddes the numerous islands
scattered around the Cyclades, with which, in fact, several of them are intermixed, and those also which lay toward Crete and the coast of Asia Minor
The following are the most worthy of notice:
1. Thera, now Santorin, about seven hundred stadia to the north of Crete, and
nlearly two hundred in circumference. It appears to have been produced by the




GR E CIA.                          599
action of submarine fire, as well as the island of Therasia contiguous to it.
This latter still retains its name. Thera was first occupied by the Phoenicians,
but was afterward colonized by the Lacedaemonians, who settled there the descendants of the Minym, after they had been expelled from Lemnos by the Pelasgi. Several generations afterward, a colony was led from this island under
Battus, a descendant of the Minyae, into Africa, and there founded the city of
Cyrene, about 630 B.C. 2. Aniphe, now Anphio, to the east of Thera. It was
so named, according to Apollonius, from the circumstance of Apollo's having
appeared (avabaiveaOal) in this quarter to the Argonauts in a storm. A temple
was, in consequence, erected to him in this island, under the name of.gletcs
(Aiyk7rn'), or " the radiant one."
3. los, north of Thera, and now Nio. Here, according to some accounts
Homer was interred. It was also said that his mother was a native of this
island. 4. Sicinos, to the west of Ios, now Sikino, but originally called (Enoe,
from the quantity of wine which it produced. 5. Pholegandros, to the west of
Sicinos, now Policandro. It was so barren and rocky that Aratus called it the
iron isle. 6. Donysa, to the northeast of Ios, and now Raclia. 7. Amorgos, to
the east of Donysa, and now Amorgo. It was of considerable size, and contained
three towns, namely, Arcesine, now Arkesini; XJEgialus, now Porto S. Anna; and
Minoa, now Porto Bathy. Amorgos gave its name to a peculiar kind of flax
(iuopyir) produced here, and remarkable for its fine quality. It was also the
birth-place of Simonides, the iambic poet. 8. Astypalea, to the southeast of
Amorgos, and now Stanpalia. It contained a town of the same name. It is
said that hares having been introduced into this island from Anaphe, it was so
overrun by them that the inhabitants were compelled to consult an oracle, which
advised their hunting them with dogs, and that in one year six thousand were
caught. 9. Tglos, to the southeast of the preceding, and near the coast of Asia
Minor. It was noted for a particular ointment made there. The modern name
is Episcopia. 10. Nisyrus, to the northwest of Telos. According to the legend,
it was separated from Cos by Neptune, in order that he might hurl it against
the giant Polybotes. The modern name is Nisari. 11. Carpathus, between
Crete and Rhodes, and now Scarpanto. It contained four towns.
3. CRETA.
1. NAME, DESCRIPTION, &C.
I. Creta, now Candia, is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea,
and lay to the south of all the Cyclades and Sporades. It was fabled to have
derived its name from the Curetes, who are said to have been its first inhabitants.
II. Its length from east to west is about one hundred and sixty miles; its
nreadth is very unequal. In some places, toward the middle of the island, it is
about thirty-five miles broad; in others, about twenty miles. Between the Amphimallius Sinus and Phoenix Portus it is only ten miles; and in the eastern part,
between the Didymi Sinus and Hierapytna, it is merely six miles across.
III. Crete has three principal capes: 1. Salmonium Promontorium, now Cape
Salmone, at the eastern extremity. 2. Corycum Promontorium, now Cape Karabusa, at the western end, looking toward the Peloponnesus. 3. Criuf Metbpoin,
now Cape Crio, at the southwestern extremity. Its coast, especially toward the
north, is indented by deep gulfs. The southern coast is rugged and iron bound.
A continuous mass of highland runs through the-whole length of the island,
about the middle of which, Mount Ida, now called Psilorati, rises far above the




600                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
rest, to the height of seven thousand six hundred and seventy-four feet. The
mountains in the western part were called Leuci Monies (AevKa'Opry). The
rivers are only a kind of torrents, very shallow in the dry season.
IV. The modern name Candia comes from the Arabic Chandea, an appellation given by the Saracens to the town founded by them, and which still exists
as the capital of the island, signifying " an intrenchment."
2. SKETCH OF CRETAN HISTORY.
I. HISTORIANS and poets tell us of a king called Minos, who lived before the
Trojan war, and resided at Cnosus. He ruled over the greater part of the island.
Minos was the legislator of the country, and his laws became celebrated among
the Greeks, who borrowed from them. Lycurgus, in particular, is said to have
taken many of the features of the Spartan constitution from the Cretan code.
Minos was also the first who had a navy. He cleared the Grecian seas of pirates, and expelled the Carians from the Cyclades. Idomeneus, a grandson of
Minos, was one of the chiefs who went with Agamemnon to the siege of Troy.
On his return, however, he was driven from his throne by a faction, and sailed
to Iapygia in Lower Italy, where he founded Salentum. At this period the island
appears to have been inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks and barbarians.
The eastern parts of the island were colonized by the Dorians, under the command of Althamenes of Argos, after the death of Codrus, and the foundation of
Megara.
II. After the expulsion of Idomeneus, the principal cities of Crete formed
themselves into several republics, for the most part independent, while others
were connected by federal ties. These, though not exempted from the dissensions which so universally distracted the Greek republics, maintained for a long
t'me a considerable degree of prosperity, owing to the good system of laws and
education which had been so early instituted throughout the island by the laws
of Minos. The Cretan soldiers were held in high estimation as light troops and
archers. The character of the inhabitants, however, was decidedly bad, and
they were accused of habitual lying and deception, and of the grossest immorality.
III. Crete was conquered by the Romans, B.C. 67, under the command of the
proconsul Quintus Metellus. It became a Roman province, and a colony was
sent to Cnosus. It remained subject to the Roman emperors, and afterward to
the Byzantines, until A.D. 823, when it was conquered by the Saracens, who
built the town of Candia, which, besides giving name to, has ever since been
regarded as the capital of the island.
3. PLACES IN CRETE.
HOMER, in one passage, (II., 2, 649), ascribes to Crete one hundred cities, and
in another (Od., 20, 174) only ninety. This variation has been accounted for
by some on the supposition that ten of the Cretan cities were founded subsequently to the siege of Troy. Others, however, affirmed that during the siege
of Troy the ten deficient cities had been destroyed by the enemies of Idomeneus.
In the present enumeration we will name merely a few of the most important
places.
1. Phalasarna, to the south of Corycum Promontorium, and a port of some
consequence in this, the western part of the island. It was the nearest Cretan
harbor to the Peloponnesus. 2. Cydonia, to the east, on the northern coast, and
one of the most ancient and important towns of Crete. It was said to have
been founded by a party of Samians, exiled by Polycrates. The Malum Cydo



ASIA.                            601
mum, or " Quince," derived its name from this place. Its ruins are on the site
of Jerami. 3. Amphimalla, to the southeast, near the modern fortress of Armiro.
4. Cnosus or Gnosus, some distance to the east, the ancient royal city of Crete,
and capital of Minos.  Its earlier name was Caratus, according to Strabo.
Near this place was the celebrated labyrinth, constructed by Daedalus, but of
which no traces remained in the time of Diodorus. Cnosus long preserved its
rank among the chief cities of Crete, and by its alliance with Gortys obtained
the dominion of nearly the whole island. The vestiges of this place are discernible to the east of the modern town of Candia. The precise site of the ruins
is called Long Candia.
5. Minoa, some distance to the southeast, and on the Didymi Sinus, now Gulf
of Mirajello. Here is the narrowest part of the island, the distance across to
Hierapytna being merely six miles. To the southeast is Mons Dicte, celebrated
as the birth-place of Jupiter, and now Lassiti or Lasthi. Here was the Dictaan
cave, in which the infant Jove was fed by bees. 6. Hierapytna, on the southern
coast, and directly across from Minoa. It was a town of great antiquity, and
was fabled to have been founded by the Corybantes. It was successively called
Cyrba, Pytna, Camirus, and Hierapytna. The site corresponds to that of the
modern Girapietra. 7. Lyctus, to the northwest, and an important town in the
days of Homer and Hesiod. According to the latter poet, Jupiter was brought
up on Mount XEgeus in its vicinity. Lyctus subsequently received a Lacedaemonian colony. It was destroyed, however, by the Cnosians. The inhabitants ranked high in regard to moral character among the other Cretans. 8. Prasus, to the southwest, and one of the most ancient cities of the island. It was
destroyed by the people of Hierapytna. The ruins are near Castel Belvedere.
9. Gortys or Gortyna, to the west, and next to Cnosus in splendor and importance. It was situate on the River Lethaeus, ninety stadia from the Libyan Sea,
and had two harbors, Lebena and Metalla. To the northwest was the Cretan
Mount Ida, now Psiloriti. 10. Phoenix Portus, farther to the west, and now
probably Castel Franco, a little to the east of Sphakia. The ship which conveyed St. Paul to Rome endeavored to put in here before it was overtaken by
the tempest. In the westernmost part of the island were the Leuci Montes, now
Aspro Vouna.
The Grecian islands that remain to be described will be noticed under the
head of Asia.
A S I A.
1. NAME.
I. HOMER applies the name of Asia to a small district of
Maeonia or Lydia, situated near the River Cayster.
II. It would appear that the Ionian Greeks, on their first arrival on the banks of the Cayster, found the name of Asia attached to this part of the continent, and communicated it to
their European countrymen, who, in process of time, applied
it to all the countries situate to the east of Greece.
OBs. 1. It would be wrong, however, to suppose that the name Asia belonged
merely to that part of the continent with which the Ionian colonists first became
acquainted. It would rather seem to have been given at an early period to va



602                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
rious spots connected with the worship of the Asi, and all pointing to some region of the remote east, where the name most probably originated.
2. The term Asi is a general appellation given in the mythology of northern
Europe to the deities that came in with Odin from the east. Asia, therefore,
will mean the land of the Asi, or the " Holy Land," and will indicate the region
where religion arose, and whence it spread to the countries of the west. Compare Anthon's Class. Diet., s. v. Asz.
2. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE ancients were unacquainted with the extreme northern and eastern portions of Asia. They seem to have been
aware, however (at least after the expedition of Alexander the
Great), that this quarter of the globe was washed by three
different oceans, and on the western side by an inland sea, the
most considerable in the world.
II. The boundaries of ancient Asia, therefore, may be given
as follows: on the north, the great Northern Ocean; on the
east, the great Eastern Ocean; on the south, the Oceanus Indicus, or Indian Ocean; on the southwest, the Sinus Arabicus,
or Red Sea, which separated it from Egypt. The western
boundary was formed by the Mediterranean and.ZEgean Seas,
and a line drawn through the Hellespontus, or Dardanelles,
the Propontis, or Sea of Marmara, the Pontus Euxinus, or
Black   Sea, the Palus      lkceotis, or Sea of Azof, and then by
the River Tanais, or Don.
OBs. Herodotus mentions the Phdsis as separating Asia from Europe, but
later and better authorities name the Tanais. The older geographers considered Egypt sometimes partially, sometimes entirely as belonging to Asia.
3. PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY.
I. FROM the earliest records of European history, the Homeric poems, we
learn that an intercourse existed, before the war of Troy, between the inhab.tants of Europe and Asia. But, as far as we can infer from our authorities,' it
was more of a hostile than a pacific nature. Commercial exchange seems to
have been nearly confined to a few Phoenician vessels, which visited the islands
of the Archipelago and some ports of Greece. The establishment of Greek
colonies in Ionia, and the Greek navigation of the Black Sea, gradually led to
a knowledge of western Asia.
II. About 550 B.C., a large number of separate states were incorporated into
the extensive Persian empire, which comprehended nearly all the countries between the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and the Belur Dagh on the east, the
Caspian on the north, and the mountains which border the valley of the Indus
on the south; and as many of the Greek colonists were placed in close communication with this empire, geographical knowledge of the interior rapidly extended.
ll. Before the time when Herodotus wrote, the Persian empire had become




ASIA.                               603
stationary. Accordingly, we find that the geographical knowledge of the Greeks,
for more than a century, did not advance beyond the ancient boundaries of that
empire. But as the intercourse, both hostile and pacific, between the Greeks
and Persians, had during that period considerably increased, their knowledge of
the different provinces composing the Persian empire was also enlarged. By
the subsequent conquests of Alexander, the remoter provinces of the Persian
monarchy were at once opened to the Greeks.
IV. The successors of Alexander, being almost continually engaged in wars
among themselves, did not add largely to the then existing knowledge of Asia
At a later date, when the Romans extended the boundary of their empire to the
Tigris and the Euphrates, their military expeditions being carried on in countries previously known, could add very little to the store of information. We
ought, however, to make an exception with respect to the Caucasus. In their
wars with Mithradates, king of Pontus, the armies of the Romans passed the
boundaries of the then known world, and arrived at Mount Caucasus, with whose
extent and situation they became acquainted, though they did not enter the
valleys which lie in its bosom. In proceeding farther to the shores of the Caspian Sea, they got information of a commercial road through Bactria, by which
the countries on the south of the Caspian Sea carried on an active commerce
with India; and soon after another route was discovered, which led over the
high table land of Upper Asia to the Seres or Chinese.
OBS. 1. The knowledge which the ancients acquired concerning the geography of Asia is embodied in the systematic works of Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, the last of whom raised geography to a science by basing it on astronomical principles. From these writers, it is evident that
only those countries into which the Macedonian conqueror had carried his arms were known
with some degree of correctness as to their general features, and that beyond them their knowledge was limited to a few places traversed by commercial roads, and to the harbors.
2. Besides the works just mentioned, the " Periplus" of Nearchus, and another probably written
in the second century, and attributed to Arrian, give a more particular description of the coast of
eastern Africa and Asia. Another " Periplus" likewise, which certainly is the work of Arrian, contains a brief description of the Pontus Euxinus. As to the geography of northern Asia, few additions seem to have been made after the time of Herodotus and Alexander. In some respects
there seems to have been a retrograde movement, as Herodotus knew the Caspian to be a lake,
which Strabu believed to communicate with the Northern Ocean. Ptolemy, in his map, restored
the Caspian to its true character of an inland sea, but he placed its length from east to west, instead of from north to south as Herodotus had done.
4. SEAS, GULFS, STRAITS, &C.
IN enumerating these, we will include some which have been
already mentioned, but which may be said to belong in common to both Asia and Europe:
1. Mare Scythzcum... Frozen Sea (p. 9).
2. Oceanus Eous...                      Eastern Ocean.
3. Oceanus Indicus.... Indian Ocean.
4. Mare Erythrceum.... (Erythrcean Sea).
5. Mare llediterraneum... Mediterranean (p. 8).
6. Mare./Egeum.....     gean Sea (p. 489.)
7. Propontis.... Sea of Marmara (p. 425)
8. Pontus Euxinus..... Black Sea (p. 236).
9. Palus Mceotis....      Sea of Azof (p. 237).




604                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
10. Mare Caspium... Caspian Sea.
11. Paludes recipientes Araxem.. Sea of Aral.
OBs. 1. The name Mare Erythrasum was first applied by the Greeks to the
whole ocean, extending from the coast of Ethiopia to the island of Taprobana,
when their knowledge of India was as yet in its infancy. It would mean at that
time the whole Indian Ocean. Afterward, however, when the Greeks learned
the existence of an Indian Ocean in a special sense, the term Erythrean Sea
was applied merely to the sea below Arabia, or, more strictly speaking, between
the peninsulas of Arabia and India.
2. The Caspian Sea was known to the Greeks and Romans. Herodotus, the
first who mentions it (i., 203), calls it by this name, and the appellation would
seem to have been derived either from the Caspii, who inhabited its southern
coast, or from casp, "a mountain," in allusion to its vicinity to Caucasus. Later
writers, however, limited the term Caspian to the western portion, calling the
eastern Mare Hyrcanium, or the Hyrcanian Sea. At one time it became a general belief among the ancients that the Caspian was connected with the Arctic
Sea by a strait, an opinion which seems to have arisen from some slight information obtained respecting the mouth of the Wolga. Ptolemy, however, who
knew the Wolga, which is named by him Rha, does not mention the existence
of this strait.
3. The ancients were not acquainted with the Sea of Aral, but confounded it
with the Caspian. The language of the text is mainly based upon the account
of Herodotus, who speaks of a large river named Araxes, coming in from the
east, and losing itself amid marshes, with the exception of one of its mouths,
which flowed into the Caspian. This river is thought by some to have been the
laxartes, by others the Oxus, both of which empty into the Sea of Aral. For
a discussion of the whole subject, consult Bahr, ad Herod., i., 202.
The following are the most important gulfs, commencing
with the remote east:
1. Magnus Sinus...... Gulf of Siam.
2. Gangeticus Sinus..                    Bay of Bengal.
3. Persicus Sinus..                     Persian Gulf.
4. Avalites Sinus...        Bay of Zeyla.
5. Arabicus Sinus..        Red Sea.
6. Issicus Sinus....Bay of Iskenderoon
7. Doridis Sinus... Gulf of Syme.
8. Ceramicus Sinus... Gulf of Cos.
9. lassius Sinus... Gulf of Asyn Alessi
10. Smyrnceus Sinus... Gulf of Smyrna.
11. Adramyttenus Sinus.....Gulf of Adramyti.
12. Cianus Sinus......Gulf of londanich
13. Astacenus Sinus.....     Gulf of Isnid.
Among the straits may be enumerated the following, some
of which have already been mentioned:
1. Dire or Dere.,.. Strait of Bab-el.mandeb.




ASIA.                          605
2. Hellespontus..  Darda  nelles (p. 425).
3. Bosporus Thracicus. Strait of Constantinople (p. 9).
4. Bosporus Cimmerius. Strait of Caffa or Feodosia (p. 9).
OBS. 1. The term Dire is in Greek Altp^, and signifies " the neck." The name
is said to have been given to the strait by the Greeks, from its appearance as it
stretched along the coast. Ptolemy, however, writes the name AVpl, Dere.
Mannert maintains that Dire is now Ras-bel, and that the opposite promontory
of Posidium is now Bab-el-mandeb. This modern name means "the Gate of
Danger."
5. PROMONTORIES.
1. Satyrorum Promontorium... Point Condor.
2. Magnum Promontorium...Romania Point
3. Comaria Promontorium... Cape Comorin.
4. Syagros Promontorium.... Cape Ras-al-Had.
5. Carmelum Promontorium... Cape Carmel.
6. Anemurium Promontorium.. Cape Anamour.
7. Sacrum Promontorium.... Cape Kelidoni.
8. Triopiumv Promontorium..   Cape Krio.
9. Trogilium   Promontorium...Cape S. Maria.
10. Coryceum Promontorium... Cape Courco.
11. Phance Promontorium.... Cape Mastico.
12. Melcena Promontorium.... Cape Kara-bouroun.
13. Lectum Promontorium.... Cape Baba.
14. Signcum   Promontorium.... Cape Jenischer.
15. Rhtteum Promontorium... Cape It-Ghelmes.
16. Calpe Promontorium.... Cape Kirpe.
17. Carambis Promontorium... Cape Karempi.
18. Iasonium Promontorium... Cape Iasun.
6. RIVERS.
(A.) Rivers emptying into the Oceanus Indicus, or Indian
Ocean.
1. Ganges, a celebrated river of India, rising in Mons Imaus, or the Himmaleh
Mountains, and flowing into the Sinus Gangeticus, or Bay of Bengal. It is computed to be fifteen hundred miles in length.
2. Indus, another celebrated river of India, rising also in Mons Imaus, and
falling, after a course of thirteen hundred miles, into the Erythrceum Mare, a
part of the Oceanus Indicus. It receives in its course the following five rivers,
which reach it through a common affluent: 1. The Hydaspes, now the Jhylum.
2. The Acesines, now the Chunab. 3. The Hydraotes, now the Ravee. 4. The
Hyphasis, now the Beyah. 5. The Xeradrus, now the Setledge. The country
watered by these five rivers was called by the Greek writers Pentapotdmia, and




6(06                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
is now the Pendjab, or "country of the five rivers."  Of these streams tne
Hyphasis was the limit of Alexander's conquests. Ptolemy gives the Indus
seven mouths. At the present day, however, it enters the sea in one volume,
the lateral streams being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean.
3. Tigris, a large river of Asia, rising in the mountains of Armenia Major,
in the district of Sophene, and falling into the Euphrates. The stream formed
by their junction was called Pasitigris, now Shat-el-Arab, or " the River of
Arabia." The length of the Tigris is eight hundred miles.
4. Euphrates, a celebrated river rising near Arze, the modern Erze Roum, in
the most northern branch of Mount Taurus. It receives the Arsanias from the
east, a river often mistaken for the true Euphrates. Its main tributary, however, is the Tigris. The Euphrates flows into the Sinus Persicus after a course
of one thousand one hundred and forty-seven miles.
(B.) Rivers emptying into the Mare Caspium.
1. Rha, now the Wolga. No ancient writer prior to Ptolemy mentions either
its name or course.
2. Araxes, a river of Armenia Major, issuing from Mons Abus, on the side
opposite to that whence the Arsanias, or southern arm of the Euphrates, flows.
It runs east until it meets the mountains which separate Armenia from northern
Media, when it turns to the north, and, after receiving the Cyrus, now the Kur,
falls into the Caspian. It is now the Arras.
(C.) Rivers emptying into the Sea of Aral.
1. laxartes, rising in the chain of Mons Imaus, and flowing into the Sea ot
Aral after a course of one thousand six hundred and eighty-two miles. It is
now the Sir. Ptolemy makes it flow into the Caspian, as he was unacquainted
with the existence of the Sea of Aral. Herodotus, long before, had called the
Iaxartes by the name of Araxes, and confounded it with the Oxus.
2. Oxus, rising in the northeastern extremity of Bactriana, and flowing for
the greater part of its course in a northwest direction. It receives numerous
tributaries, and falls, after a course of twelve hundred miles, into the Sea of
Aral. It is now the Amoo or Jihon. The ancient writers make it flow into the
Caspian, but they were ignorant of the existence of the Sea of Aral.
(D.) Rivers emptying into the Palus Mceotis.
1. Tanais, now Don, forming the boundary in this quarter'between Asia and
Europe. It has been already mentioned (p. 236).
2. Hypanis, called also Vardanus, rising in the central part of Caucasus, and
falling into the Palus Meotis by several mouths. It is now the Kuban. We
must not confound it with the European Hypanis, now the Bog, which flows
into the Euxine.
(E.) Rivers emptying into the Pontus Euxinus.
1. Phdsis, rising in the southern portion of the Moschian Mountains, which
were regarded as belonging to Armenia, and flowing through parts of Armenia,
Iberia, and Colchis, into the Euxine. It is now the Rion or Rioni. The Turks
call it the Fasch. It is famous in mythology from Jason's having obtained in its
vicinity the golden fleece.
2. Lycus, rising on the confines of Armenia Minor, and flowing into the Euxine to the southeast of Amisus. It is now the Yeshil-Ermak, or "the Green




ASIA.                           607
River." The Lycus receives the River Iris, which also rises on the confines
of Armenia Minor, and is now called the Tokat-su.
3. Halys, now the Kizzl-Ermak, or "Red River," rising on the confines of
Pontus and Armenia Minor, and entering the sea some distance to the northwest of Amisus. It is the largest river in the peninsula of Asia Minor. This
river formed the eastern boundary of the dominions of Crcesus, king of Lydia.
4. Sangarius, rising in Mount Adoreus, a branch of Mount Dindymus, near the
southern confines of Galatia, and falling into the Euxine after flowing through
Galatia and Bithynia. It is now the Sakaria.
(F.) Rivers emptying into the Mediterranean.
1. Scamander, a river near Troy, rising in Mount Ida, and, after receiving the
Simois, falling into the AEgean at the entrance of the Hellespont. It is now
the Bounarbachi. The modern name of the Simois is Mendere-Sou. The Scamander was also called the Xanthus.
2. Hermus, rising in Mount Dindymus in Phrygia, and falling into the Sinus
Smyrnaus. It received in its course the waters of the Hyllus and Pactolus
The modern name is the Sarabat.
3. Mceander, rising near Celaene in Phrygia, and, after forming the common
boundary between Lydia and Caria, falling into the AEgean below the promontory of Mycale. It was remarkable for its winding course. The modern name
is the Minder.
4. Xanthus, a river of Lycia, rising in the range of Mount Taurus, and falling
into the Mediterranean below the Cragi Vertices, or the projections made bv
the range of Cragus on the Lycian coast. It is now the Etchen Chai.
5. Cydnus, a river of Cilicia Campestris, rising in Mount Taurus, and falling
into the sea near Tarsus, which stood upon its banks. It was remarkable fol
the coldness of its waters, and Alexander the Great nearly lost his life by bathing
in them. It is now the Tersus-Chai.
6. Orontes, a river of Syria, rising on the eastern side of the range of Libanus,
and falling into the Mediterranean about six leagues below Antiochia. It is now
the Aasi.
7. MOUNTAINS.
1. Mons Taurus, according to the later Greek geographers, a great chain ol
mountains extending nearly due east and west from the shores of the AEgean
to those of the supposed Eastern Ocean, and dividing Asia into two parts, Asia
within the Taurus, and Asia without the Taurus. The chain of Taurus, however, properly so called, commences at the southwestern point of Asia Minor,
and proceeding eastward, parallel and near to the Mediterranean, it incloses
between itself and the coast Pamphylia and Cilicia. At the River Pyramus the
chain divides into two, namely, that of Amanus, which proceeds to the east,
dividing Syria from Asia Minor, and the continuation of Taurus, which runs
northeast, along the southeast side of Cappadocia, across the Euphrates into
the northern part of Armenia, where it joins Mons Masius. This chain now
bears the name of Enamas, Ramadan, and Gourin.
2. Antitaurus, a great branch thrown off by Taurus, and which passes through
the middle of Cappadocia, northeast to the sources of the Halys, and thence east
to the Euphrates. Its modern name is Alidagh.
3. Caucasus, a lofty range of mountains between the Euxine and Caspian
Seas. This chain is entirely unconnected with any of the great mountain sys



608                ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
tems of Europe an 1 Asia. The intercourse between the countries south and
north of the Caucasus is carried on by two roads. The most easterly runs
along the shores of the Caspian, and was called by the ancients Albania Pyle.
It is now the pass of Derbend. The other traverses the Caucasus nearly in its
centre. The ancients called it the Porte Caucasia. It is now the pass of
Dariel.
4. Emodi Montes, a part, in fact, of the range of Mons Imaus, or the great chain
of Himmalah. That part of the chain which Alexander crossed in order to invade Bactriana was called Paropamisus; the more easterly continuation of the
range was termed Emodi Montes; and its still farther continuation in a northeastern direction was styled Imaus.
MAIN DIVISIONS OF ASIA.
I. THE most natural division of this continent will be into.
1. Southern Asia.    2. Central Asia.    3. Northern Asia.
II. By Southern Asia is meant the country south of Taurus,
in the enlarged sense of this latter name, now Asiatic Turkey,
Arabia, Persia, India, Thibet, and the islands of Southern
Asia.
III. By Central Asia is meant the Caucasian region, Asiatic Tartary, Mongolia, Corea, Japan, &c.; by Northern
Asia, on the other hand, Asiatic Russia.
1. SOUTHERN ASIA.
I. SOUTHERN Asia comprises the country from       the fortieth
degree of north latitude nearly to the equator. It possesses
great advantages over Central and Northern Asia in respect
of agriculture, and the abundance of its costly and varied products.
II. Here it appears that man first adopted political governments and fixed residences; here, therefore, was always the
main seat of Asiatic industry, exhibited in the manufacture of
fine cottons, silks, &c. The natural marts in the interior were
on the great rivers, and the principal caravan roads were from
the Euxine across Armenia, or from the Wolga across the Iaxartes, far into the east.  Marts of the Greeks and Phoenicians
crowded the western shores.
III. Southern Asia may be subdivided into, 1. Southwestern
Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus. 2. Southeastern
Asia, from the Indus to the Eastern Ocean.
(A.) SOUTHWESTERN ASIA.
I. Tins country, again, may be subdivided into three parts,




ASIA.                     609
namely, 1. The countries between the Mediterranean and the
Euphrates. 2. The countries between the Euphrates and Tigris. 3. The countries between the Tigris and Indus.
COUNTRIES AWEST OF THE EUPHRATES.
THE grand divisions of the land between the Mediterranean
and the Euphrates are, 1. Asia Minor. 2. Syria, including
Phwnicia and Palestine. 3. Arabia.
i. ASIA MINOR.
I. Asic Minor is a peninsula, bounded on the north by the
Pontus Euxinus; on the northwest by the Thracian BosporZns,
the Propontis, and the Hellespont; on the west by the Egean
Sea; on the south by the MIediterranean; on the southeast
by Syria, from which it is separated by the range of Mount
Amranus; and on the east by Airmenia, from which it is separated by the rivers Euphrates and Acamnpsis.
II. The interior of this peninsula forms a westerly continuation of the Armenian highlands, separated from the coast on
the north by the range of Mount Taurus, and on the south by
that of Anti-Tauruzs, and broken toward the west into chains
of lower mountains, such as Tmolus, Sipylus, Ida, and Olympus. The highest point is Mount Argczus, now Arjish Daghl
on the Upper Halys, the point from which the rivers run in different directions into the Euxine and Mediterranean Seas, and
the Euphrates.
III. Asia Minor contained twelve provinces, namely, three
on the southern coast, Cilicia, Pazmpiylia, Lycia; three on
the western coast, Caria, Lydia, Mysia; three on the northern coast, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; and three in the
interior, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Cappadocia. Under Phrygia
was comprehended Galatia; and under Cappadocia, Lycaonia
and Isauria. This order will be observed in describing them,
and we will then give an account of the islands along the
southern and western coasts.
IV. The name Asia llinor was not employed by the Roman
writers in the classical period. It occurs first in Orosius, who
flourished about the beginning of. the fifth century of our era.
The Greeks and Romans had no special designation before this
time for the Asiatic peninsula, for the name'Aaca ivrbs Tro
0,




610             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Tavpov, or Asia Cis Taurum, only referred to the western half.
as did also Pliny's Asia Propria. The Roman province of
Asia, or Asia Proconsularis, comprised Mysia, Lydia, Caria,
and Phrygia, with the exception of Lycaonia.
CILICIA.
I. Cilicia was bounded on the north by Mount Taurus, on
the south by the Mediterranean, on the east by Mount Amanus, and on the west by Pamphylia and Pisidia. It was divided into two parts, the names of which were derived from
their physical character. The western division was called Cilicia Trachea, (KOtLtia TpaxeZa),. that is, mountainous or rough
Cilicia; and the eastern division Cilicia Campestris (KtXucia
remdul), that is, level Cilicia.
II. The inhabitants of the. interior were of Syrian origin.
The coast was first settled by the Phoenicians, and afterward
by the Greeks. The character of the Cilicians did not stand
high. They became addicted to piracy, and at one time ruled
a great part of the Mediterranean.  They were put down completely, however, by Pompey. Cilicia Trachea produced valuable ship timber in great abundance. Cilicia Campestris was
well watered and fertile, and has always been famous for a fine
breed of horses. The annual tribute to Darius consisted of
three hundred and sixty white horses, and five hundred talents
of silver.
III. The rivers of Cilicia all come down from Mount Taurus,
and as they all carry down the melted snow from this mountain chain, the water of all, but especially of the Cydnus, is extremely cold. Among them may be named, 1. The Pyramus,
now the Jyhoon.   2. The Sarus, now the Sihoon.   3. The
Cydnus, now the Tersoos.  Alexander the Great nearly lost
his life by bathing, when overheated, in this cold stream; and
it proved fatal in a later age to the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa. 4. The Lamus, now the Lamas, separating Cilicia Campestris from Trachea. 5. The Calycadnus, now the Ghiuk.
Sou. 6. The Selinus, now the Selenti.
PLACES IN CILICIA.
IN Cilicia Trachea we have, 1. Coracesium, the first town after leaving Pam
phylia. It was a strong and important fortress, on a steep rock, and is nov
Alaya. 2. Hamaxia, to the east. The country around was famed for its cedare
and was given by Antony to Cleopatra for the construction of her fleet. 3. S,




ASIA.                           6 1linus, at the mouth of the Selinus. Here Trajan died, and it was afterward
called Trajanopolis. It is now Selenti, which is the modern name also of the
river. 4. Anemurium, a town and promontory, now Anamour. This cape is the
most southern point of Asia Minor. 5. Celendfris, to the northeast, a Phoenician settlement originally. Afterward a colony from Samos was established
here. It was a place of great strength, built on a lofty precipice, and is now
Chelindreh. 6. Seleucia Trachea, in a fertile plain, watered by the Calycadnus.
It was founded by Seleucus Nicator, and became distinguished as a school of
literature and philosophy. Its remains are called Sclefkieh. 7. Corcyus, the
chief landing place from Crete, and a city of great importance under the later
Roman emperors, now Korghoz. Near it was a deep vale'famed for producing'
the best saffron, and containing also a cave fabled to have been inhabited by
the monster Typhon, but probably the crater of an extinct volcano.' 8. Ho.
monada, in the interior, north of Anemurium, and the chief town of the Homonadenses, a hardy mountaineer race, subdued by Sulpicius Quirinius, the Cyrenius of St. Luke. D'Anville makes it answer to the modern Ermenak. 9. Clans
diopolis, to the east, on a branch of the Calycadnus, and now probably Mout.
10. Olbia, to the east, famed for its temple of Jupiter, the priests of which enjoyed great power and wealth, and were at one time lords of the whole of Cilicia Trachea.
In Cilicia Campestris we have, 1. S6li, the first maritime town after crossing
the River Lamus. It was founded by a mixed colony of Achaeans and Rhodians from Lindus, in Rhodes. The inhabitants, from their communication with
the Cilicians of the interior, spoke in time incorrect and ungrammatical Greek,
whence the term aoOLtwOj/6, "a solecism."  Having been nearly depopulated
by Tigranes, king of Armenia, it was founded anew by Pompey, who settled
here a colony of Cilician pirates, whom he had conquered, and the place then
took the name of Pompeiopdlis. It was the birth-place of the philosopher Chrysippus, and the poets Philemon and Aratus. The site is now called Mezetlu.
2. Anchiale, said to have been founded by Sardanapalus, king of Assyria, and to
lhave contained his tomb. 3. Tarsus, on the River Cydnus, and the capital city
under the Persian sway, tihe tributary kings of Cilicia residing here. It was a
very flourishing city also under tibo successors of Alexander, and still more so
under the lolnman sway, Ju.lius Casar having granted unto its citizens both
freedom and exemption froin tribute, for having zealously espoused his cause,
and these privileges having been contirmed by Augustus. It was to these acts
of favor and protection that St. Paul, who was a native of Tarsus, owed the
right of being a free-born citizen of the place. Tarsus was celebrated, also, under
the earlier Roman emperors, fbr its schools of literature and philosophy, which
rivalled those of Athens and.Al,xan(drea. Julian the Apostate was buried here.
The nmodern name is Tersoos, and it is still the chief town of this part of Karamania.  The River Cydnus has undergone a great change here, from the deposits carried down from the mo:lntains; formerly it allowed large vessels of
war to approach Tarsus, now none but the smallest boats:an enter the stream.
4. AMopsucrlne, to the north, just below the point where the Cilician pass (Pylte
Ciliciae) enters Cilicia. 5. Adana, to the southeast, on the River Sarus, and
of Phoenician origin. It is still called Adana, and gives name to the modern
pachalik, which corresponds nearly to the ancient Cilicia Campestris. 6. Mal.
lris, to the southeast, on thie Pyramus. Between this place and Tarsus was the
Alci.an Plain, or "Plain of Wandering" ('AXtZov rrediov), where Bellerophon
wandered after having been thrown from the winged steed Pegasus. 7. Anaal 6(f, to, the northeast, at tl:e foot of Mount Anazarbus, and called, in Roman




612                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
times, CSsa-Za. ad Anazarbum. It was the birth-place of Dioscorides the naturalist, and Oppian the poet. 8. Issus, at the base of Mount Amanus, a.?d at
the head waters of the Sinus Issicus, now the Gulf of Scanderoon. In its vicinity was fought the second great battle between Alexander and the Persians,
the latter being commanded by Darius in person. 9. Alexandrea, surnamed ad
Issum (cKaa "laaov), from its being situate near the battle field of Issus, and
built in commemoration of that victory. It is now Scanderoon or Alexandretta,
a small town, but with a fine harbor. 10. Myriandrus, to the west of and near
the preceding, a place of considerable trade, and of Phcenician origin. 11. Pin.
denissus, in the interior, to the northeast, a town of the Eleuthero-Cilices, a wild
and fierce mountaineer race. It was a place of great strength, but was taken by
Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia, after a siege of fifty-seven days.
Before leaving Cilicia we must mention some mountain passes leading into
or from it. These were, 1. Pyla Cilicice, leading from Cappadocia into Cilicia,
and entering the latter country to the north of Mopsucrene. It was by this defile that the younger Cyrus, and subsequently Alexander the Great, penetrated
into Cilicia. Here, likewise, Pescennius Niger, against whom Severus marched, took possession of the road, flanked on one side by precipitous rocks, and on
the other by a deep abyss. 2. Pyla Syrica, to the south of Maryandrus. 3. Pylae
Amdnicce, to the east of Issus, and leading through the range of Mount Amanus.
It was through this defile that Darius marched from northern Syria into Cilicia,
at the very time that Alexander was passing into Syria in pursuit of him, through
the Pylca Syria:.
PAMPHY LIA.
I. Pamphylia was bounded on the east by Cilicia, on the
north by Pisidia and Isauria, on the west by Lycia, and on
the south by the Mare Pamphylium, or Gulf of Adalia or Satalia.  It was separated from     Pisidia by the range of Mount
Taurus, and was drained by numerous streams flowing from
the highlands of the latter country.
II. The main population of the country derived their origin
probably from the same stock with the Cilicians. The Greek
account, however, as given by Herodotus, made them to be the
descendants of those who followed the fortunes of Calchas and
Amphilochus after the fall of Troy, and as these Grecian emigrants were said to have been portions of various Hellenic
tribes that had been engaged in the Trojan war, a plausible
derivation was found in this circumstance for the appellation
Pamphyli (IIauv;lot'), namely, from nrav and vAov, as indicating
an assemblage of different nations or tribes.        Several towns,
however, on the coast, were undoubtedly of Grecian origin.
III. Pamphylia possesses but little interest in an historical
point of view. It became subject, in turn, to Crcesus, the Persian monarchs, Alexander, the Ptolemies, Antiochus, and the
Romans. It was entirely a maritime country, and its coast; is




ASIA.                           613
indetnted by a dcep gulf, called anciently Mare Pamphylium,
and now the Gulf of Adalia or Satalia.        The eastern part of
the coast is described by Beaufort as flat, sandy, and dreary;
the western part, on the other hand, is surrounded by lofty
mountains, which rise from the sea, and attain their greatest
height in Mount Solyma, on the borders of Lycia.          The interior of the country is said by Fellows to be very beautiful and
picturecsque.   Pamphylia forms part of the modern Karanzania,
and is called by the Turks Teke-Ili.
IV. Among the rivers of Pamphylia we may mention, 1. The
Melas, now the lMenougat-Sou.        2. The Eurymedon, now the
Kapri-Sou, celebrated for the double defeat, by land and sea,
which the Persian fleet here sustained from       Cimon.     3. The
Cestrus, now the Ak-Sou.       4. The Catarrhactes, now DudenSou.    This last was a large and impetuous stream, which
poured its waters over a high rock near Termessus, with a
very loud noise, and hence derived its Grecian name.
PLACES IN PAMPIIYLIA.
1. Olbia, the first town on the western coast, and a strongly fortified place,
according to Strabo. 2. Atlalea, to the east, and founded by Attalus Philadelphus of Pergamus. This city was visited by St. Paul on his route from Perge to
Antioch. It is probably represented by the modern Adalia or Satalia. 3. Perge,
to the east, and sixty stadia from the coast, on the River Cestrus. In its neighborhood was a celebrated temple of the Pergaean Diana, at which a sacred meeting (ravyvptg) was held twice a year. Perge was twice visited by St. Paul.
Its ruins are probably those at Eski Kclcsi. 4. Aspendus, to the east, on the
River Eurymedon, and about sixty stadia from its mouth. It was built for the
greater part on a precipitous rock, and appears to have been a place of considerable importance in the time of Alexander, who punished the inhabitants severely for refusing to contribute fifty talents, and to supply him with the horses
which they had been accustomed to rear for the King of Persia. Cicero speaks
of it as an ancient and noble city in his time, and full of works of art. Its site
is doubtful. 5. Side, to the southeast, near the mouth of the Melas, and founded
by an lEolian colony from Cuma. The inhabitants, however, soon forgot the
Greek language, and spoke a barbarous tongue peculiar to themselves. It was
the principal harbor of the Cilician pirates. The Turks, according to Leake,
ignorantly give the site of this place the name of Eski Adalia (Old Attalea).
LYCIA.
I. Lycia was bounded on the north by Phrygia, on the east
by Pamphylia, on the west by Caria, and on the south by the
Mediterranean.      According to Herodotus, Lycia was originally
called Milyas, and its inhabitants Solymi.         These probably
belonged to the Syrian stock.       A  colony subsequently came




614                ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
from the island of Crete, under the guidance of Sarpedon, who
had been driven out by his brother Minos.       These colonists
bore the name of Termile, and waged war upon the Solymi,
driving them into the interior; and the new settlers retained
the name of Termile until Lycus, son of Pandion, led a colony
hither from Athens, and then, it is said, the country changed
its name to Lycia, and the people were called Lycians (Av5itot).
II. In the Homeric poems the country is always called Lycia,
and the Solymi are mentioned as a warlike people, against
whom Bellerophon was sent by the King of Lycia. In later
times, the southern part of Phrygia, on the north of Lycia, was
always called Milyas, but the people dwelling therein are never
called Solymi, though the name still remained in that of Mount
Solyma, on the northeastern coast.    That Lycia was early colonized by Greeks is evident, not only from the account of Herodotus, but also from many Lycian traditions, as well as from
the worship of Apollo, which was spread over the whole coun
try. The chief temple of the god, however, was at Patara.
III. The interior of this country was entirely unknown to us
until the visit of Mr. Fellows in 1838, and subsequently.   This
traveller has made many important discoveries. According to
him, there are no mountains of any consequence in the interior,
but the country is a fertile plain, surrounded by mountains,
which rise in many places to a great height, and it is drained
throughout its whole extent by the River Xanthus, now the
Etchen-Chai.     The coast is rocky and mountainous, but still,
according to Strabo, contained a great many good harbors.
PLACES IN     LYCIA.
1. Telnessus or Telmissus, near the western extremity of the coast, at the
mouth of the River Glaucus, which empties into the Glaucus Sinus, or Gulf of
Macri, sometimes called Telmessicus Sinus. Telmessus was famed for the skill
of its augurs. The remains of this place are near the modern Meis. Beyond
Telmessus the coast rises abruptly, forming the lofty and precipitous range of
Anticragus, now Soumbourlu; after which we come to another mass of mountains, rising precipitously from the sea, and called anciently Mons Cragus. It is
remarkable for its numerous detached summits, termed by the ancients Cragi
Vertices, and now called by the Turks Yedi Bouroun, or " the Seven Capes."
Cragus, according to Strabo, was the fabled abode of the Chimaera; but Pliny
and others are in favor of Mount Chimeera, near the eastern coast, above Olympus. 2. Pinara, at the foot of Cragus, and a little to the west of the Xantlus.
The Lycian hero Pandarus received divine honors here. The site, markcl -. 
lIumerous rock-tombs, a common feature in the antiquities of Lycia, is near tihe
modern Minara. 3. Patara, just below the mouth of the Xanthus, one of' tha




ASIA.                            615
most celebrated cities of Lycia, and a commercial place of much importance.
Here was a temple and oracle of Apollo, second only to that at Delphi. The
oracles were delivered during the six winter months, as those at Delphi were
during the summer ones. Hence Apollo was fabled to reside at Patara during
the six months of winter. He received, moreover, from this place, the surname of Patareus. The ruins of Patara are near the village of Fornas. 4. Xanthus, the principal city of the Lycians, on the river of the same name, and some
distance from its mouth. It was twice remarkable in history for the dauntless
courage of its inhabitants, once against Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, and a
second time, in a later age, against Brutus and the republican forces of Rome.
On both these occasions they set fire to their city rather than surrender. The
ruins are near the modern Koonik, and in the vicinity are some beautiful rocktombs. 5. Tlos, to the northeast, and one of the principal cities of Lycia. Its
ruins are near the modern village of Doover, two and a half English miles to
the east of the Xanthus.
6. Myra, to the east of Patara, an important commercial city. Its haih'r was
Andriace, now Andraki. Here St. Paul was transferred from the Adramvttian
ship to that of Alexandrea, in which he suffered shipwreck. Myra still retains
its name among the Greeks, but is called by the Turks Dembre, from the river
in its vicinity. To the southeast was the Sacrum Promrnntorium ({'lrepi  A ),
regarded commonly as the commencement of the great chaln of Taurus,;hough
Strabo makes Taurus begin on the coast of Caria, opposite Rhodes. The modern name is Cape Kelidoni, from the islands which lie near it, the ancient Chelidonics Insulce. 7. Olympus, to the northeast, on a mountain cf the same name.
and commanding a view of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia. It was an important
and opulent place, but became eventually the haunt of Cilician pirates, and was
taken by Paulus Servilius, the Roman commander. The site is called by the
Turks Deliktash, or " the perforated rock," the only approach to it being thr.uigh
a natural aperture in the cliff. In the interior of the country was Mount Chqmaera, regarded by some as the fabled residence of the monster of the same
name, though other ancient authorities are in favor of Mount Cragus. 8. Phaselis, to the north, of Dorian origin. It had three harbors, and was a very
flourishing commercial city. Having become one of the principal resorts of the
Cilician pirates, it was destroyed by Paulus Servilius. It was afterward rebuilt, but never recovered its former importance. The ruins are at Takova.
A short distance inland are the Solymean Mountains (ra Zo6vyza 6opl). Beyond
Phaselis the mountains press in upon the shore, and leave a very narrow passage along the strand, which at low water is practicable, but when storms prevail, and the sea is high, it is extremely dangerous, and travellers must then
take a long circuit inland. This defile was called Climax, and derived great celebrity from Alexander's having led his army through it under circumstances of
great difficulty and danger, when marching eastward after the conquest of Caria.
The student is referred to Fellows's "Asia Minor" and " Discoveries in Lvcia," for interesting information respecting the antiquities of Lycia.
CARIA.
I. Caria was bounded on the north by Lydia, from which it
was separated by the River Mceander, on the west and south
by the Mediterranean, on the east by Lycia, and on the northeast 1y Phrygia.      In extent it was the least considerable of




616             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the divisions of Asia Minor; but from the number of towns
and villages assigned to it by the geographers of antiquity, it
would seem to have been very populous. It answers to the
Turkish province of Muntesha.
II. The Carians were not considered to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of'the country to which they communicated
their name, but to have previously occupied the islands of the
2Egean under the name of Leleges, until, having been reduced
by Minos, king of Crete, they were removed by that monarch
to the continent of Asia, where they still continued to be his
vassals, and to serve him more especially in his maritime expeditions. The cause of their expulsion from the islands appears to have been their notorious proneness to piracy. They
excelled, too, at this period, in the manufacture of arms, and
the Greeks ascribed to them the invention of crests, and the
devices and handles of shields. Before the Carians settled in
this quarter of the peninsula, it is probable that the Phoenicians
occupied a portion of it.
III. The Carians appear to have offered little resistance to
the Greek colonists who subsequently established themselves
en their coasts. The Ionians first drove them from Miletus
and Priene; and the Dorians next obtained a footing on their
shores.  The Rhodians also appropriated to themselves the
southern coast, called, in consequence, Percea Rhodiorum, from
its lying over against their island. This tract extended from
the borders of Lycia to the castle and mountain of Phoenix on
the Doridis Sinus, after which Doris commenced, and reached
to the Bargylieticus or lassicus Sinus on the north.
IV. When the Dorians arrived in Asia Minor they formed
themselves into six independent states or small republics, which
were confined within the bounds of as many cities.  These
cities were Cnidus and Halicarnassus, on the mainland; Cos,
ia the island of that name; and the three Rhodian towns of
Lindus, lalyssus, and Camirus. Other cities belonged also to
the confederacy, but the inhabitants of these six alone, as true
and genuine Dorians, formed the regular Doric league; and
the members of this alliance met on the Triopian promontory
to celebrate in public national festivals the rites of Apollo and
Ceres.  This confederation was called the Doric Hexapolis
until Ilalicarnassus was excluded, when it took the name of




AsIA.                            617
Pentapolis. The reason for the exclusion was, that a citizen
of that place, who had gained a tripod as a prize, violated the
regulation which required that the tripod should always be consecrated as an offering in the Triopian temple of Apollo, in
order that he might carry it off to decorate his own house.
Probably, too, the increasing predominance of the Carian element at Halicarnassus had some effect in producing the exclusion.
PLACES IN CARIA.
In Perata Rhodiorum we have, 1. Daeddla, close upon Lycia, and on the Glaucus Sinus. It was said to have been called after Daedalus, who, being bitten
by a snake on crossing the neighboring River Ninus, died and was buried here.
Inland was the mountain range of D&cdala, on the confines of Lycia. 2. Calynda, to the northwest, near the junction of the Axon with the Indus, now the
Kaiguez. At Calynda was a grove sacred to Latona. The remains of this city
were discovered by Fellows. 3. Caunus, supposed to be of Cretan origin, and
famed for its figs. It had a harbor and roadstead. It was very unhealthy in
the'summer season. The site is now occupied by the small sea-port town of
Kaiguez. Passing the River Calbis, now the Tavas, according to some, but
more correctly the Dollomon-chai, we come to, 4. Physcus Portus, the harbor by
which Ephesus communicated with Rhodes. 5. Phoenix, a mountain and castle,
marking the limit of Percsa Rhodiorum to the west.
Proceeding along the coast, we come to Cynossema Promontorium, where Doris commences, and, doubling this, enter the Doridis Sinus, now the Gulf of Symi,
so called from the island of Symi, the ancient Syme, lying off the promontory.
We then come in order to, 1. Cnidus, at the extremity of a peninsula called
Triopium, and sometimes the Carian Chersonese. The extreme point of this
neck of land was called the Triopium Promontorium, now Cape Krio, and on it
was the temple of the Triopian Apollo, where the members of the Doric league
used to.meet. Cnidus was a celebrated city, and the metropolis of the Asiatic
Dorians. Venus, in particular, was worshipped here, and among other remarkable works of art which this place contained was the famous statue of that
goddess by Praxiteles. The historian Ctesias and the mathematician Eudoxus
were natives of this city. It is now a heap of ruins. On doubling the Triopian
promontory we enter the Ceramicus Sinus, now the Gulf of Budrun. The andient name is derived from the town of Ceramus, on the northern shore, now:eramo, the modern name from that of Halicarnassus. To the west of Ceran:ls we come to, 2. Halicarnassus, a celebrated city, founded by a colony of
Trzezenians, and the birth-place of Herodotus. It belonged originally to the
Do:ic confederacy, but had been excluded for the reason already mentioned.
it fill afterward under the sway of Lygdamis, one of its own citizens, who transnit.ted his authority to his daughter Artemisia, of whom Herodotus makes such!)ooorable rnentlln, and who took part in the expedition of Xerxes. Somewhat
lerter we find it ruled by princes of Carian extraction, as, for instance, Mausolus
and his sister and wife, the younger Artemisia. The monument erected by this
Princess to the memory of her husband, and called the Mausoleum, was one of
the seven wonders of the world. This city was famous also for the siege which,t stood. under MIemnon, against Alexander the Great. The ruins are at the




618                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
modern Budrun.   3. Myndus, to the northwest, on the Sinus Bargylieticus or
lassicus, now the Gulf of Hassan (or, more correctly, Asyn) Kalcssi. Athenaeus
praises the wine of this place as good for digestion. Leake identifies Myndus
with Gumishlu, but Cramer is in favor of Mentesha. 4. Caryanda, to the east,
the birth-place of Scylax the geographer. 5. Barg-ylia, to the northeast, giving
one of its ancient names to the gulf. It was noted for a temple and statue of
Diana Cindyas (so named from the adjacent village of Cindye). Whenever it
rained or snowed, the image of the goddess was observed to be free from moisture. 6. lassus, to the north, giving one of its ancient names to the gulf. The
fisheries in its neighborhood are very abundant, and on these the Iassians chiefly
depended for subsistence. The town was situate on an island close to the shore,
and had a good harbor. The neighboring mountains supplied a beautiful kind
of marble, used for ornamental purposes. The color was blood-red and livid
white striped. The remains of Iassus are at Hassan (or Asyn) Kalessi. With
Iassus Doris terminated on the north.
In the interior of Caria we have, 1. Euromns or Europus, to the east of Iassus,
founded by Idrieus, son of Car, and a place of considerable importance. It included several adjacent towns within its territory, which were afterward taken
by Mylasa, lying to the southeast of it. 2. Myldsa, one of the most considerable towns of Caria, and the residence of the Carian dynasty before Halicarnassus fell under their power. It was situate in a fertile plain, at the foot of a
mountain containing veins of a beautiful white marble, a material which enabled
the inhabitants to adorn their citymost sumptuously with porticoes and temples.
The site is now occupied by Melasso. 3. Labranda, to the north, and dependent
on Mylasa. It was celebrated for two temples sacred to Jupiter Labrandenus
(or Labradeus) and Stratius. The former of these titles was derived by some
from the Carian term Labrys, "a hatchet," the statue of the god bearing this
utensil. A paved road, called the Sacred Way, led to the other temple from
Mylasa. This latter temple was held in great veneration by the Mylasians and
the neighboring communities. 4. Stratonicia, to the southeast of Mylasa, founded by Antiochus Soter in honor of his queen Stratonice. The site is now marked
by the village of Eski-hissar. 5. Alabanda, to the north of Labranda, and said
to have been founded by the hero Alabandus, br else to have derived its name
from an equestrian victory, ala, in the Carian tongue, signifying "( a horse," and
banda, "'a victory." This place was famed for its quarries of dark-colored
marble approaching to purple. It is now represented, according to Leake, by
Arabi-hissar. 6. Antiochia ad Millandrum, to the northeast of Alabanda, and near
the junction of the rivers Meander and Orsinus. It was founded by Antiochus,
son of Seleucus. The country around was famed for its abundance of fruits of
every kind, but especially of the fig called triphylla. The site corresponds to
the modern Jeni-sher. 7..Aphrodisias, to the southeast, and in the time of Hierocles the metropolis of Caria. Its site corresponds to that of Gheira.
L Y D I A.
I. THE boundaries of Lydia differed at various times; but
under the Roman empire it was bounded on the south by Caria, from   which it was separated by the Meander; on the
north by    llysia, from   which it was separated by the rivers
Caicus and Macistus, and the intervening range of Mount
Tamnus; on the east by Phrygia, and on the west by the




ASIA.                     619
Zrgean. The coast was occupied by the Ionian colonies, and
bore the general name of lonia.
II. The origin of the Lydian people is uncertain. According
to Herodotus, they were of the same stock with the Carians
and Mysians. Homer does not appear to have known the name
of " Lydia," but always calls the people.iJeones. According
to most ancient writers, they were originally called Maeones,
and obtained the name of Lydians from Lydus, the son of Atys,
who is mentioned in tradition as the first king of the country.
III. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia:
the Atyadce, from the earliest times to B.C. 1221; the Heraclidde, from B.C. 1221 to 716; and the Mermnadce, from B.C.
716 to 556. The first two of these are almost entirely fabulous. The monarchs of the last were engaged in almost uninterrupted wars with the Greek cities on the coast; but the empire steadily increased in wealth and power, until it attained
its greatest prosperity under Crcesus. This empire, however,
was overthrown by Cyrus (B.C. 556). After Alexander's conquests, Lydia, with the rest of western Asia, formed part of the
empire of the Seleucida; and on the conquest of Antiochus by
the Romans, B.C. 189, it was given to Eumenes, king of Pergamus. On the termination of the kingdom of Pergamus,
B.C. 133, it came into the power of the Romans.
IV. The ancient Lydians appear to have enjoyed great commercial prosperity, and to have possessed abundance of the precious metals. They are said to have obtained large quantities
of gold from the sands of the River Pactolus; but there is no
proof that they ever carried on the operation of mining. Crcesus, king of Lydia, made himself famous by the rich presents
which he sent to the different oracles of Greece. The fertility
of Lydia, and the salubrity of the climate, are frequently mentioned by the ancient writers; and their accounts are confirmed
by the reports of modern travellers.
V. The mountain ranges of Lydia are, 1. Sardene, in the
northwest, and connected with Tamnus, which last separates
Lydia in part from Mysia. 2. Mllessogis, a branch of Taurus,
and forming the northern boundary of the valley of the Maeander. 3. Tmolus, detaching itself from Messogis near the borders of Phrygia, running parallel to that chain through the
centre of Lydia, and terminating on the western coast, opposite




620                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the island of Chios.     4. Sipylus, a branch of Tmolus, stretching more to the northwest, toward the cities of Cuma               and
Phocmea.    The rivers of Lydia are, 1. The Mleander, now the
Minder, rising near Celence, in Phrygia, in the chain of Mons
Aulocrene    (p. 607).     2. The    Cajster, rising    in  the angle
formed by the range of Messogis in the south and Tmolus in
the north, and falling into the lEcgean near Ephesus. Near
its mouth it formed the Asia Palus, or Asian Marsh, much
frequented by water-fowl.       3. The Hermus (p. 607).         4. The
Caicus, now     the Bakir-chai, separating Lydia from          Mysia.
5. The Pactolus and Hyllus or Phrycgius, tributaries of the
Hermus.
VI. Lydia answers now        to the Turkish province of Saroukhan, and the northern part of that of Sighla.          We will now
mention the most important places in Lydia Proper, and will
then give a sketch of lonia.
PLACES IN LYDIA PROPER.
IN the portion of Lydia lying between the Caicus and Hermus we may name,
1. Hiero-Caesarea, where Diana Persica was worshipped, and whose rites are
said to have been established there as early as the reign of Cyrus. 2. Apollonis,
to the south, named after the wife of Attalus, and often mentioned by Cicero.
Its site is probably marked by the hamlet of Bullene. 3. Thyatira, to the northeast, on the River Lycus, a branch of the Hyllus, and built by Seleucus Nicator.
It was famous for the art of dyeing purple. Thyatira is one of the seven churches of the Apocalypse. It is now Ak-hissar. The plain to the south of Thyatira,
watered by the Hyllus, was called Hyrcanius Campus, from a colony of Hyrcanians settled there by the Persians. 4. Julia Gordus, to the southeast, on the
Hyllus, and surnamed Julia in compliment to Julius Caesar, or Augustus. Its
remains are at Ghiurdiz. To the southwest of this place was the Gygcea Palus,
subsequently called Coloe Palus, and now Lake Mermere. It was a work of
human art, and was a large basin excavated to receive the waters which inundated the neighboring plains. Near it were the graves or tumuli of the Lydian
kings, from one of whom, Gyges, it received its earlier name. Among these
mounds the most remarkable was that of Alyattes, the father of Crcesus, being
of enormous dimensions. Hamilton makes the number of tumuli in this quarter
to be upward of sixty, called by the Turks Bin Tepeh, or "the thousand hills;"
and describes the mound of Alyattes as far exceeding them in size, and having
a circumference of nearly half a mile. 5. Attalza, to the southeast, on the Hermus, and now Adala. 6. Silandus, to the northeast, an episcopal see of Lydia,
now a small village named Selendi.
In Lydia, south of the Hermus, we may name, 1. Magnesia ad Sipylum, just
below the Hermus, and near Mount Sipylus, by which it was distinguished from
Magnesia ad Mesandrum, farther south. It was celebrated for the signal victory
gained under its walls by Lucius Scipio, aided by the counsels of his brothel
Africanus, over the forces of Antiochus. In the reign of Tiberius it was nearly
destroyed by an earthquake, which shook and overthrew several other cities in




ASIA.                            6321
Asia. It is now Manissa, and was at one time the residence of the Turkish
sultans. Mount Sipylus, to the south, is celebrated in mythology as the residence of Tantalus, and the scene of the legend of Niobe. There was a city in
early times, also named Sipylus, on the slope of the mountain, and here Tantalus is supposed to have dwelt, though his place of abode is more commonly
referred by classical writers to Phrygia. This city is said to have been swallowed up by an earthquake, and plunged into a crater afterward filled by a lake.
The lake was named Sale or Saloe. Mount Sipylus is now Sipuli-dag or Saboundji-dag. 2. Nymphaum, to the southeast, where the Byzantine emperors
are said to have enjoyed the fine season, apart from the cares of public life.
The site is now called Nymphi. Near this place rose Mons Mastusia, now Ta --
tali, a part of the chain of Tmolus. 3. Sardes, to the northeast, the capital of
Lydia before the Persian conquest, situate in a fertile plain at the foot of the
northern slope of Tmolus. The River Pactolus flowed through it, and soon
after joined the Hermus. Even after the overthrow of the Lydian empire by
Cyrus it still continued to be the chief town of the Persian dominions in this
part of Asia, and the residence of the satrap. The burning of this place by the
lonians and Athenians led to the war between Persia and Greece. Sardes is
one of the seven churches of the Apocalypse. It is now little more than a village in the midst of extensive ruins, and is called Sart. Mount Tmolus is called
by the Turks Bouz-dag.
4. IHypcpa, to the southwest, near the sources of the Cayster, and remarkable
fbr the beauty of its females, a praise to which the Lydian worren in general
were entitled. The ruins are near the modern town of Birkhe. 5. Philadelphia,
to the east, on the River Cogamus, at the foot of Tmolus. It was built by Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamus. This place suffered repeatedly by violent
shocks of earthquakes, and became eventually almost deserted. It was one of
the seven churches. The modern name is Allah-shehr, or " City of God." To
the east and northeast was a district named Catacecaumene (KaraiceKaveivp7), or
" Entirely burnt," from its volcanic appearance and character. The plains were
covered with ashes, and the mountain rocks were of a black color, as if they had
been subject to the action of fire. The vine, however, was cultivated here with
great success. A full account of the geology of this tract is given by Hamilton.
6. Magnesia ad Meandrum, to the southeast of Ephesus, and near the River
Maeander. It was founded by a colony of Magnesians from Dotium in Thessaly,
and became powerful enough to cope even with Ephesus. Its territory was rernarkable for its fertility. The River Lethzaus flowed close to the place, and in
the vicinity was Mount Thorax. Hamilton has proved the site of this city to
be at Inek-bazar, and not Guzel-hissar, as Pococke and Chandler supposed.
7. Tralles, to the southeast, one of the most opulent cities of Asia Minor in the
time of Strabo. It was strongly fortified.  The site is near Ouzel-hissar.
8. Nysa, to the northeast, distinguished for its cultivation of literature. Its
ruins are at Eski-hissar
IO N IA.
I. lonia, as already remarked, occupied the western shore of
Ljydia.   It extended from    the Sinus Cumcezus now Gulf of
Tschanderli, on the north, to Mount Grius, and the Sinus Bargylieticus, on the south, a length of not more than one hundred miles in a straight line, but with a coast three times that




622                ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
length, owing to the many sinuosities that marked it.     Inland
the Ionian territory did not extend above forty miles from the
coast.
II. The Ionic migration from the Peloponnesus to Asia Minor took place in B.C. 1040. In truth, however, as we have
already remarked (p. 469), it was not one single event, but
there seem to have been many and various migrations of Ionians to this quarter. The settlers coming after the LEolians
occupied the coast immediately below these, and gave it their
name.    They established colonies also in Chios and Samos,
besides those on the main land. The cities on the main land,
together with the two islands just named, formed the confederation of the twelve cities of Ionia. Smyrna, being seized by
Colophonian exiles, was in course of time added to the confederation. The names of the thirteen Ionian cities, therefore,
commencing on the north, were as follows: Phoccea, Smyrna,
Clazomence, Erythrce, Chios, Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Samos, Myus, and Miletus.      Other colonies, however, from the original Ionian cities, were founded along the
coast, such as Gerce, Myonesus, Clarus, &o.
III. The Ionian confederation appears to have been mainly
united by a common religious worship, and the celebration of
a periodical festival; and it seems that the deputies of the
several states only met in times of great difficulty. The place
of assembly was the Panionium, at the foot of Mount Mycale,
where a temple, built on neutral ground, was dedicated to Neptune, the national deity of the Ionians.
PLACES IN IONIA.
1. Phocma, the most northern of the Ionian cities, founded by a colony from
Phocis, under the guidance of two Athenian chiefs, but not included in the Ionian
confederacy until it had consented to place at the head of its affairs two princes
of the line ofCodrus. From the excellence of its harbor, and the enterprising
spirit of its inhabitants, it soon became a celebrated commercial city, and sent
out many colonies, the most important of which was Massalia, in southern Gaul,
now Marseilles. The Phocaeans are known in history by the circumstance of
their having abandoned their city, in order to avoid subjugation by Harpagus,
the general of Cyrus, and their having sworn not to return until an ignited
mass of iron which they cast into the sea should rise to the surface. One half,
however, did return; the remainder migrated to Alalia, a Phocaean colony in
Corsica, whence, after a few years, they removed to Velia or Elaa in Lower
Italy. Phocaea still continued to exist under the Persian dominion, and also
subsequently under the empire of the Seleucidae and the Romans, but greatly
reduced in population and commerce. It is now Fokia or Fov:ges. 2. Smyrcna,




ASIA.                           623
to the southeast, at the head waters of the Sinus Snyrneaus or Hermaeus, now the
Gulf of Smyrna, and on the little river Meles. According to Herodotus, it was
originally an _Eolian city, but, having given shelter to some Colophonian exiles,
the latter took advantage of a festival, and made themselves masters of the place.
It was then received into the Ionian confederacy. Smyrna was celebrated for
its commerce, and is still the great mart of the Levant trade. It was also one
of the cities which claimed to have been the birth-place of Homer, and the Smyrnaeans showed a cave near the sources of the Meles where the bard was said
to have composed his verses. From his having been supposed by them to have
been born on the banks of the Meles, Homer was called by the Smyrnaeans Melesigenes. This city is now called Ismir by the Turks, but retains among the
Franks its ancient name. 3. Clazomena, to the southwest, on the lower shore
of the Sinus Smyrneeus, and the birth-place of Anaxagoras the philosopher. Its
ruins are a little to the northeast of the modern Vourla.  Passing along the
coast, we come to the Apocremnus Promontorium, now Cape Esomeno, and then
to the Melena Promontorium, now Cape Kara-bouroun, near which, according to
Strabo, was a quarry where mill-stones were dug up. Bending around to the
south, we come next to, 4. Erythrce, a city which obtained great celebrity from
the sibyl, who is said to have delivered prophecies there. The site is still called
Ritre. The island of Chios, to which we shall subsequently refer, lies opposite.
It is now Scio.
Passing down the coast, and doubling the Argennum Promontorium, now Cape
Bianco, we reach a high and rugged shore formed by Mount Corycus, and inhabited formerly by a wild and daring population, greatly addicted to piracy.
The ridge is now called Mount Kourko, and also the Table Mountain. We then
come to, 5. Teos, originally colonized by a party of Minyae from Orchomenus in
Boeotia, but which subsequently received a great accession of strength from
Athens at the time of the Ionian migration. When Ionia was invaded by the
armies of Cyrus, the Teians, in order to avoid his sway, abandoned their city,
and retired to Abdera in Thrace. A small portion of the inhabitants, however,
still remained, but the place never regained its former importance. Teos was
the birth-place of Anacreon. The chief produce of its territory was wine, and
Bacchus was the deity principally revered here. The site is now called Boudroun. 6. Lebedus, to the southeast, originally held by the Carians, who were
expelled by an Ionian colony under Andreemon, son of Codrus. It was nearly
destroyed by Lysimachus, in a later age, for the purpose of aggrandizing Ephesus; but it became a place of some note afterward as the general rendezvous
of all the Ionian stage-players, who met here once a year, and celebrated games
and sports in honor of Bacchus. The population was very much reduced in the
Augustan age, as we learn from Strabo and Horace. The territory, however,
was very fertile, and the mineral baths near the city were in considerable repute. The site of Lebedus is near some ruins called Ecclesia or Xingi.
7. Coliphon, to the southeast, about two miles from the coast, and having a
harbor called Notium, with which it was connected by means of long walls.
The Colophonian cavalry were at one time very famous, and generally turned
the scale on the side on which they fought; hence KoRofSva enLrtOEvat (Colophonem addere) became, according to Strabo, a proverb for putting an end to an
affair; hence, too, in the early period of the art of printing, the account which
the printer gave of the place and date of the edition, being the last thing printed
at the end of the book, was called the Colophon. This city was one of those
which claimed to be the birth-place of Homer; it did produce, however, many
distinguished poets, among whom may be named Mimnermus, Hermesianax,




624                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
Antimachus and Nicander. The resin, still known in pharmacy as the resina
Colophonia, was obtained from this quarter. Lysimachus nearly ruined the place
by drawing off the greater part of the population to Ephesus, and those who remained migrated soon after to Notium, which then took the name of New Colophon. Near Colophon flowed the little river Hales, noted for the coldness of
its waters. 8. Clarus, in the vicinity of Colophon, and famed for its temple
and oracle of Apollo. The priest who gave the responses first descended into
a cave and drank of a sacred spring, and then revealed in verse to each of those
who consulted the god the subject of his secret thoughts. This oracle foretold
a speedy death to Germanicus. The remains of Clarus are near the modern
village of Chille or Zille.
9. Ephesus, to the southeast, near the mouth of the Cayster, and on its southern bank. Its foundation was ascribed to the Amazons, and it was subsequently
colonized by the Ionians under Androclus, son of Codrus. Ephesus was remarkable for the worship of Diana, who appears to have been the same with
the great goddess of nature, and her rites were established here long before the
Ionian migration. The first temple of the goddess was set on fire by a madman
named Herostratus, and was entirely destroyed, with the exception of the outer
columns. The new structure which arose in its place was remarkable for its
splendor, and was accounted one of the wonders 6f the world. The architect
was the celebrated Dinocrates. The city itself gradually increased with the
celebrity and splendor of its fane, and to this Lysimachus also contributed by
causing the inhabitants to remove from the old site, which was subject to inundations, to a better position; and he also increased the population at the expense of the neighboring cities. Ephesus was the birth-place of Heraclitus, the
weeping philosopher, and of Apelles and Parrhasius, the painters. It is memorable in the writings and travels of St. Paul, and is the first of the churches
mentioned in the Apocalypse. The ruins of this city are near the modern town
of Aiasluck, a name corrupted from Agio-Tzeologos, the modern Greek epithet
for St. John ("Aytof 0e6ooyog), the founder of the church here.
Passing down the coast, we come to the celebrated chain of Mount Mycale,
opposite the island of Samos, at the foot of which was the Panionium, a temple
and place of meeting for the members of the Ionian confederation. Here also
the great victory was obtained by the Greek naval force, under the command
of Leotychides, king of Sparta, against the Persian forces encamped near the
shore, and which wrested the whole of Ionia for a time from the Persian dominion. The modern Turkish village of Tchangeli seems to mark the site of
the ancient Panionium. Doubling the Trogilian promontory, now Cape S.
Maria, and entering the Latmicus Sinus, we come to, 10. Priene, near the upper
shore, with its two harbors, as mentioned by Scylax. When, however, Strabo
wrote, the town was forty stadia from the coast, a change produced by the alluvial deposits of the Mrander. These same deposits have now effected a still
greater change, for the Sinus Lstmicus is now closed up by the slime brought
down by this river, and exists only as an inland lake. Priene originally belonged to the Carians. It was the birth-place of Bias, one of the seven sages
of Greece. The ruins are near the Turkish village of Samsoun. 11. Miletus,
on the lower shore of the Sinus Latmicus, near its mouth. This city also be.
longed originally to the Carians, from whom it was wrested by the Ionian colonists. The admirable situation of Miletus, and the convenience of having foui
harbors, gave it, at an early period, a great preponderance in maritime affairs.
Its coimmerce was most flourishing, and the number of its colonies cxceeded
that of.ny other city of antiquity. Milettis was the birth-place ofThales, Anax



ASIA.                            625
imander, and Anaximenes, the philosophers, and also of Cadmus and Hecateus,
two of the earliest historical writers of Greece. The Milesians, like the rest of
the lonians, were voluptuous and effeminate; they enjoyed, however, a high
repute for their manufacture of couches and other articles of furniture, and their
fine woollen cloths and richly-dyed carpets were especially esteemed. The site
of this place is marked by a mean little settlement called Palat or Palatia, i. e.,
i the Palaces." 12. Latmus, to the southeast, at the head waters of the Sinus
Latmicus, to which it gave name, and in the vicinity of Mount Latmus, the
fabled seat of the adventures of Endymion. 13. Didymi, to.the southwest of
Miletus, the seat of the celebrated temple and oracle of Apollo Didymaus, and
where the Branchidae officiated. The temple was burned by the Persians after
the battle of Mycale, and the Branchidee accompanied them on their retreat,
taking with them the sacred treasury. The Milesians, however, rebuilt the
temple with the greatest splendor, as the remains of it at the present day abundantly testify. The promontory of Posideum, now Cape Arbora, terminated
Ionia to the south. Inland, however, we have to mention, 14. Myus, on the left
bank of the Maeander, and about thirty stadia from its mouth. This was one
of the three places granted by the King of Persia to Themistocles for his subsistence during his residence in Asia. The choking up of the Sinus Latmicus
produced so great an abundance of gnats that the inhabitants of Myus were
compelled to abandon their city and remove to Miletus. This will close our account of Ionia. The description of Chios and Samos will be given with that of
the other islands, at the close of the article on Asia Minor.
M Y S I A.
I. Mysia was bounded on the north by the Propontis, on the
northwest by the Hellespont, on the west by the         Eggwcan, on
the south by Lydia, on the east by Bithynia, from which it
was separated by the Rhyndacus, and on the southeast by
Phrygia.
II. The inhabitants, called 3Iysi (Mvaoo), were of the same
race as the Teucri, both being most probably of Thracian origin, and connected with the MoZsi who dwelt along the Ister
or Danube.     At the time of the settlement of the      Eolic colonies on the shores of this country, a Mysian. kingdom, named
Teuthrania, had arisen on the banks of the Caicus; it was not,
however, of long duration.     The Mysians lived in small tribes
on their mountains or in valleys.
III. The range of Mount Temnus, of which Ida forms part,
traversed this country in an oblique direction, from southeast
to northwest, commencing on the borders of Lydia. From its
southern and southwestern declivity flow the Caicus, lfysius,
Evenus, Simois, and Scamander; from          its northeastern and
northern declivity, the Macestus, Tarsius, Esepus, and Granzcus.
IV. In considering this country, the most convenient division
RR




626                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
will be into, first, the coast of the Propontis, from the headland
and town of Priapus on the west, where the Hellespont com-mences, to the River Rhyndacus on the east, where Mysia
ends; secondly, the Hellespontine shore, from Priapus to the
promontory of Sigmeum, where the strait terminates; thirdly,
Troas; fourthly, the AEolic colonies; and, lastly, the interior of
Mysia.
PLACES ON THE SHORE OF THE PROPONTIS.
1. Priapus, a headland and city at the opening of the Propontis, now Karaboa.
It was founded by a colony from Miletus, and was named after the god Priapus
The territory produced excellent wine. 2. Harpagium, a short distance below,
where Ganymede was fabled to have been snatched away by the eagle of Jove
Near this place the River Granicus empties into the sea, on the banks of which
river Alexander gained his first victory over the Persians. The Granicus is
snow the Kodsha-Su. Cramer less correctly makes it the Satal-Dere. 3. Zela.
to the southeast, on the iEsepus, eighty stadia from its mouth. This was the
city of Pandarus, one of the allies of Priam. It was the head-quarters of the
Persian army prior to the battle of the Granicus. The site is now called Bigah,
and the Palus Aphnitis, in its vicinity, is now the Lake of Bigah. The River.Esepus, according to Leake, is the Boklu; blat. according to Gosselin, the SatalDere. 4. Memnonis tumulus, near the mouth of the JEsepus, the tomb of Memnon, the son of Aurora, and close to it a small town of the same name. 5. Cyzicus, the largest and most celebrated city on the shores of the Propontis, and
a colony of Miletus. It was famed for its commerce, opulence, the splendor of
its public edifices, and the wisdom of its political institutions. It possessed also
extensive arsenals and granaries, and two harbors, one called Chytus, the other
Panormus, which together could contain two hundred galleys. The latter still
retains the name of Panormo. Cyzicus was at first situate on the neck of a peninsula; this peninsula was subsequently converted into an island, and this island, again, was subsequently connected with the main land by Alexander through
two bridges. Now, however, the spot has reverted to its ancient peninsular form.
Cyzicus was famed for the beauty of its golden staters, which, according to Demosthenes, were worth each twenty-eight Attic drachmae. It continued to be
a very flourishing city under the Roman and ByzantiIe emperors. The ruins
are near the modern town of Erdek, which itself answers to the ancient Artace.
6. Placia, to the east, named by Herodotus, together with Scylace, farther on,
among the few settlements belonging to the ancient race of the Pelasgi, which
existed in his time. The inhabitants of these towns spoke a language which
was entirely different from that of the neighboring people. Further on we come
to the mouth of the Rhyndacus. This river, now the Edrenos-Su, rises in Phrygia Epictetus, near Azani, the modern Tjaudere, and after receiving the Macestus, now Mickalick, and other streams, and separating Bithynia from Mysia, falls
into the sea opposite the little island of Besbicus, now Kalolimno.
PLACES ON THE HELLESPONTINE SHORE.
THE Hellespontus, now the Dardanelles, took its name from Helle, daughter of
Athamas, who was drowned in it on her passage to Colchis. Its modern name
is supposed to come from the ancient Dardania, in its vicinity. The strait




ASIA.                           627
properly begins a little to the southeast of the headland of Priapus, now Cape
Karaboa, and terminates with the promontory of Sigaeum, now Cape Jenischor.
Some ancient writers, however, made the Hellespont commence at Callipols,
or where are now the straits of Gallipoli. The breadth of the Hellespont is unequal, but where least, not more than three quarters of a mile across. On the
Hellespontine shore we may name the following places:
1. Linum, to the west of Priapus, and well known for a species of shell-fish
caught there. 2. Pityea, near it, so called from the number of pine-trees (7rrvgf,
" a pine-tree") which grew in its vicinity. 3. Parium, to the west, a place of
importance under the kings of Pergamus, and a Roman colony in the time Vf
Augustus. It had a secure and spacious harbor. 4. Lampsacus, to the southwest, one of the most celebrated of the Hellespontine cities. It was known at
first by the name of Pityusa, but afterward received colonies from Phocaa and
Miletus, and changed its appellation.  The adjacent territory was very productive in excellent wine, and Priapus was worshipped by the people of Lampsacus with peculiar honors. Hence the morals of the place became very corrupt,
and Alexander, it is said, determined in consequence to destroy it; but it was
saved by the artifice of Anaximenes the orator, a native of the city, who, when
Alexander declared with an oath that he would not grant his request, whatever
it might be (the monarch suspecting that he intended to ask him to save the
place), entreated him to destroy it. Lampsacus produced several distinguished
literary men and philosophers, and, among them, Charon the historian and Metrodorus the Epicurean. The ancient site is near the modern town of Lamsaki.
5. Pcrcte, to the southwest, on the Practius, now the river of Bergaz. This
was one of the towns given to Themistocles by the King of Persia. 6. Arisbe,
to the southwest, where Alexander stationed his army, immediately after crossing the Hellespont at Abydos. 7. Abydos, to the west, a rich and flourishing
place, occupied after the Trojan war by some Thracians, who were driven out
by a Milesian colony. Here Xerxes, seated on an eminence, surveyed his immense land and naval forces; and here, in the narrowest part of the strait,
where the breadth did not exceed seven stadia, he constructed his bridge of
vessels for the transportation of his army into Europe. Sestos stood farther to
the north, the distance between it and Abydos being not less than thirty stadia.
Abydos has also derived some celebrity from the romantic story of Hero and
Leander. The point of land on which Abydos stood is now called Cape Nagara.
But few traces of the ancient city remain, the materials having been carried oF
by the Turks to assist in building the Sultanie Kalessi, or Old Castle of Asia,
three miles to the south.
PLACES IN      TROAS.
I. THE territory of Troas, in western Mysia, was bounded on the north by fhe
River Rhodius, and a part of the chain of Ida; on the east by another portion of
the same chain; on the south by the Sinus Adramyttenus, now the Gulf of Adramiti; and on the west by the 3Egaran. The northern part included the district
of Dardania; the western side extended from the Sigean promontory on the
north, to the promontory of Lectum, now Cape Baba on the south.
II. The whole of the Troad is intersected by the branches of Mount Ida, now
Kas-dagh, which, on account of the number of projections thrown out from the
main ridge, was likened by the ancients to the insect named centipede. Two
of its summits, which bore special appellations, were Cotylus and Gargara.
II[. The inhabitants of the Troad were. most probably, of Thracian origin.




628                 ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.
At the time, however, of the Trojan war, they had reached a higher state of
prosperity and civilization than their opponents the Achaei. The first monarch
in Troas is said to have been Teucer, from whom the Trojans are also called
Teucri. In the reign of this king Troy was not yet built. Dardanus, probably
a Pelasgic chief, came from the island of Samothrace to Troas, received the
daughter of Teucer in marriage, together with the cession of part of his kingdom, founded the city of Dardanus, and called the adjacent region Dardania.
Dardanus became the father of two sons, Ilus and Erichthoaius. The former
of these died without issue; the latter, who succeeded him, became the father
ofTros, from whom the names Troas and Troja are derived. Tros had three
sons, one of whom, Ilus, founded the city of Ilium or Troy, which became the
capital of the country of Troas. In the reign of his successor, Laomedon, the
city was said to have been fortified with walls by the assistance of Neptune and
Apollo. Soon after this, Troy was taken by Hercules, but was restored to Priam,
the son of Laomedon, who reigned for a long time in peace and prosperity, until
his kingdom was attacked by the united forces of the Greeks, in consequence
of the conduct of his son Paris. After a siege of nine years the Greeks took
and destroyed the city. We will now mention some of the principal places in
the Troad.
1. Dardanus, about seventy stadia from Abydos, and near the Promontorium
Dardanium, now Cape Kepoburun. Though of great antiquity, it must not be
confounded with the ancient city of the same name founded by Dardanus, which
was farther inland, and at the foot of Mount Ida. By whom the second Dardanus was founded is uncertain. The place existed, however, in the time of IHerodotus, who mentions its capture by the Persians in the reign of Darius. It
was the capital of Dardania, from which the modern name of the Hellespont
(Dardanelles) is derived. 2. Rhotcium, farther to the southwest, on a promontory of the same name. Ajax was buried on this promontory, and the tumulus,
anciently called _Xanteum, still exists. The Turkish name of the place where
this tomb stands is Intepe, and the village of It-Ghelmes represents Rhceteum.
Between the promontory of Rhoeteum and that of Sigeeum, the Grecian naval
camp was placed at the siege of Troy. 3. Gergis, nearly due east of Dardanus,
and a place of very great antiquity. It was of great strength, having an acropolis and very lofty walls. Here Apollo Gergithius was worshipped, and here
also the Erythrean sibyl is said to have been born. 4. Palcescepsis, some distance to the southeast, and so called for distinction' sake from the more recent
town of Scepsis to the northeast. It was said to have been the capital of
XEneas's dominions. 5. Scepsis, memorable as the place where the original
writings of Aristotle were discovered.  It seems, according to the common
story, that Neleus of Scepsis, a disciple of Aristotle and intimate friend of
Theophrastus, having been presented by the latter with his own MSS., as well
as those which he had inherited from their common master, brought them from
Greece to his native town. On his death they fell into the hands of illiterate
relations of his, who at first allowed them to remain in a neglected state, and
afterward buried them in a damp place, in order to keep them from Eumenes
of Pergamus, whose subjects they were, and who was busily employed in adding
to his recently-established library.. They were afterward dug up, very much
injured by damp and worms, and sold to Apellicon of Teos, whose library was
afterward seized by Sylla on the capture of Athens, and the MSS. in question
were conveyed to Rome. Stahr, however, maintains that this story is true only
of certain copies of the writings of Aristotle. The site of Scepsis is still called
Eskiuspchi




ASIA.                           629
6. Troja, called also Ilium, the capital of Troas, and which appears from Homer to have stood in the immediate vicinity of the sources of the Scamander,
on a rising ground between that river and the Simois. The site of this celebrated city is now generally agreed to be near the modern village of BunarBashi. The citadel of Troy was called Pergamus. The city, according to the
most correct opinion, was never rebuilt after its destruction by the Greeks, and
the town of Novum Ilium, to be mentioned presently, must not be confounded
with it. The River Scamander, called also Xanthus, probably from the yellow
color of its waters, rose from some hot and cold springs near Troy. It is now
the River of Bunar-Bashi. The Simois, on the other hand, rose in Mount Ida,
near Gargarus, to the east of Troy, and was a much larger and more impetuous
stream. It is now the Mendere-Su. Both rivers united before entering the sea.
7. Novum Ilium, to the northwest of Troja, and nearer the sea. It appears
to have arisen not long after the /Eolian migration, and, in order to gain celebrity for it, the inhabitants boldly affirmed that it stood on the site of ancient
Troy. This was the city which Xerxes, and subsequently Alexander, visited,
and in the citadel of which they both offered up sacrifices, thinking that they
had seen the famous city of Priam. It was afterward fortified by Lysimachus,
and its population increased at the expense of some of the neighboring towns.
It experienced also the favor and protection of the kings of Pergamus, and after
them of the Romans. According to Leake, its site is on a hill to the eastward
of the villages of Kium-Kiui and Kalafatli, about five miles to the southeast of
the lower castle of the Dardanelles. 8. Sigacum, a town and promontory to the
northwest. The town was founded by a colony from Mytilene in Lesbos, and
was a few years afterward seized by the Athenians, which gave rise to a war
between the two states. This contest was rendered memorable by the prowess
of Pittacus, who commanded the Mytileneans, and the cowardice of the poet
Alcaeus, who left his shield on the field of battle. The town of Signeum no
longer existed in Strabo's time, having been destroyed by the inhabitants of
Novum Ilium. The promontory of Sigaum, now Jenischer, was celebrated as
the spot where the ashes of Achilles, Patroclus, and Antilochus were interred,
and three mounds at the present day are supposed to indicate the three tombs.
9. Alexandria Troas, to the south, on the coast, founded by Antigonus, and
first called from him Antigonea, and afterward called Alexandrea Troas by Lysimachus, in honor of Alexander. Under the Romans it attained to its height of
prosperity, and became one of the most flourishing of their Asiatic colonies. In
the Acts of the Apostles it is simply called Troas, and it was from this port that
St. Paul and St. Luke set sail for Macedonia. Both Julius Caesar and Constantine thought of establishing the seat of empire here. The site is now called
Eski Stamboul, 1. e., "the Old City," and numerous ruins attest its former magnificence. 10. Chrysa, a little to the south, surnamed Dia, and celebrated for
the worship of Apollo Smintheus. The temple itself was called Sminthium.
11. Halesium, to the south, on the coast, and deriving its name from the salt
springs in the vicinity. The salt works themselves were at Tragasae. Leaving
this place, and doubling the promontory of Lectum, now Cape Baba, we enter
the Sinus Adramyttenus, now Gulf of Adramiti, taking its name from Adramyttium, now Adramiti, at its head. On the northern shore of this gulf we have,
12. Assus, a Lesbian colony, and the birth-place of Cleanthes, the Stoic, and the
successor of Zeno.. Aristotle also resided here some time, having married the
niece of Hermias, tyrant of the place. The wheat of Assus was reserved for
the table of the Persian kings. The Assian stone, used for coffins, and said to
consume the bodies of the dead, was found in this vicinity. The site of Assus




630                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
is now called Beriam Kalesi. 13. Gargara, to the east, another _Eolian colony,
taking its name from Gargarus, the celebrated summit of Ida. The country
around was remarkable for its fertility. 14. Antandrus, to the east, at the foot
of Mount Alexandra, one of the summits of Ida, and so called, it is said, from
the judgment of Paris or Alexander, which took place upon this mountain.
Antandrus is now Antandro. 15. Cilla, to the east, where Apollo was particularly worshipped. 16. Adramyttium, at the head of the gulf, with a harbor and!
Winter station for ships. It became at an early period a wealthy and flourishing
City, and is now Adramiti. In the interior of Troas we may notice, 17. Thebe,
to the north of the preceding, surnamed Hypoplacia from being situate at the
foot of Mount Placus (vnro H7iKi),). It was the city of Eetion, father of Andromache, and was sacked by Achilles
E L I S.
I. THE.Eolic colonies in Asia Minor owed their origin to
what is termed the ZEolic migration, which took place from
Greece on the invasion of the Dorians and Heraclide, B.C. 1124.
The new settlements occupied by them on the main land were
called AEolis.   Besides these, however, the ZEolians also formed
insular settlements in Tenedos, Lesbos, and the group of islands
called Hecatonnesi, between Lesbos and the continent.
II..Eolis may be divided into Old and Newv.          Old 2Eolis
consisted of the twelve -ZEolian cities named Cyme, Temnus,
Akgwe, Neon-Teichos, Larissa, Myrina, Gryneum, Argivessa,
Pitane, Atarneus, Canee, and Smyrna.          The last mentioned
of these, as we have already remarked, became at a subsequent
period a member of the Ionian confederacy.
III. On the other hand, we may give the name of New JEolis
to all the other 2Eolic cities, from below    Adramyttium     to the
quarter where Old lZEolis begins. Sometimes, however, the
term zEolis is employed in a very general sense, to denote all
the AEolic settlements on the western and northwestern coasts
of Asia Minor, and then includes both Old and New AEolis, together with the coast as far as the Propontis.
PLACES IN sEOLIS.
I. IN New.Eolis we have, 1. Coryphas, founded by the Mytilenaeans. 2. Cistene, just below, a flourishing town and port, but deserted in the time of Strabo.
3. Peparene, to the southeast, subsequently called Theodosiopolis., having a copper mine in its vicinity, and famous also for its wine. The promontory of
Pyrrha, closing the Sinus Adramyttenus to the south, is now Cape S. Nicolo.
On it was a temple of Venus. The Hecatonnesi, in its vicinity, are now called
Musconisi, and derive their modern name from the'town of Musco, corresponding to the ancient Pardoselene, an AEolian town in the largest one of the group.
4. Carone, to the west of Peparene, and now probably Chirin-Keui.




ASIA.                            631
II. In Old LEolis we may mention, 1. Atarneus, a place of some importance,
and having a rich and productive territory. It was for some time the residence
of Hermias, tyrant ofAssus. The ruins are near the village of Dikheli. 2. Cans,
to the south, a colony of Locrians. 3. Pitdne, to the southeast, a city of some
note, having two harbors, and near the mouth of the Evenus, now the Kozak.
It was the birth-place of Arcesilas, the founder of the Middle Academy. The
bricks made here were so light as to float, it is said, in water. The site of the
place is now called Tchandeli. The promontory of Cana, to the west, is now
Cape Colonni. 4. Pergamus or Pergamum, to the northeast, in a plain watered
by the two small rivers Selinus and Cetius, both emptying into the Caicus. It
was at first a fortress of considerable strength, situate on the top of a conical
hill, and when the city began to be formed around the base of the hill, the fortress served as a citadel.  Pergamus became subsequently the capital of a
flourishing kingdom of the same name, much enlarged by the Romans. It was
famous also for its library, founded by Eumenes II., and which consisted of not
less than two hundred thousand volumes. This noble collection was afterward.
given by Antony to Cleopatra, who transported it to Alexandrea, where it formed
part of the splendid library in the latter city. It was from their being first used
for writing in this library that parchment skins were called Pergamence chartes,
whence " pergamen " or parchment. Eumenes was compelled to employ parchment for books, because Ptolemy, king of Egypt, had forbidden the exportation of papyrus, in order to check the growth of the Pergamenian library, if possible, and prevent it from rivalling his own. Pergamus is one of the seven
churches of the Apocalypse. The modern town retains the name of Bergamah
or Bergma.
5. Elxea, the port and naval arsenal of Pergamus, giving the name of Eleaticus
to the bay on which it stood, but which was more commonly called the Sinus
Cumceus, now the Gulf of Tchandeli. 6. Gryneum or Grynea, to the south, on
the coast, and celebrated for the worship of Apollo, who hence obtained the sur
name of Gryneus. The temple of the god was remarkable for its size, and the
beauty of the white marble of which it was built. The site of this place is now
called Glisselik. 7. Myrina, a short distance to the east, called, subsequently,
under the Roman sway, Sebastopolis, in honor of Tiberius, who had granted it
a remission of imposts on account of the damage it had sustained from an earthquake. 8. Cyme, the most considerable of the twelve.Eolian cities, situate to
the southeast, and surnamed Phriconis, because its first founders had settled for
some time around Mount Phricium in Locris, previous to crossing over into
Asia. Cyme was one of the many cities which claimed to be the birth-place of
Homer. It could claim, however, on surer grounds, the historian Ephorus as a
native. In general, however, the Cymeans were taxed with stupidity and slowness of apprehension. It suffered severely from an earthquake in the reign of
Tiberius, in common with several other cities of Asia. Its ruins are near the
Turkish village of Sanderli. 9. Larissa, to the southeast, surnamed Phriconis
like Cyme, and for the same reason. It was, as its name imports, originally a
Pelasgic settlement prior to the arrival of the AEolians. 10. Neon-Teichos, between Larissa and Cyme, founded by the.Eolians as a temporary fortress on
their first arrival in the country from Locris. It afterward became one of the
leading cities of 2Eolis. The ruins are to be sought on the right bank of the,
Hermus, above Giuzel-Hissar. 11. Temnus, to the southeast, on the lower bank
of the Hermus probably, and in a commanding situation overlooking the plains
of Cyme, Phocaa, and Smyrna. The village of Menimen, to the north of Smyrna, is supposed to mark its site. 12. irgta, to the north of Temnus. 13. ~gi



(i32            ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
rzessa, mentioned by Herodotus as one of the twelve LEolian cities, and probably the same as Attalia Agroira, assigned by Stephanus to Lydia, but by Pliny.(o 2Eolis.
BITHYNIA.
I. Bithynia was bounded on the north by the Euxine, on the
southeast and south by Phrygia, on the west by the Thracian
Bosporus, the Propontis, and Mysia, and on the east by Paphlagonia, from which it was separated by the River Parthenius.
If, however, we exclude, as some do, the Mariandyni from Bithynia, the eastern boundary will then be formed by the River
Sangarius.
II. Bithynia had the advantage of an extensive line of seacoast, indented by two deep bays, the Sinus Cianus, now Gulf
of Kio, and the Sinus Olbianus or Astacenus, now Gulf
of Isnikmid. The ancient writers speak of the country as a
very fertile one, though a great part of it was mountainous.
The mountains themselves, however, were covered with valuable ship timber. The main group is that of Olympus, occupying the whole southern part of the country, and extending
from east to west. The western extremity of the range was
called the Mysian Olympus; the eastern, the Bithynian Olymitus.
III. The earliest inhabitants of Bithynia were called Bebryces. They were afterward conquered or displaced by the Thyni
and Bithyni, cognate tribes of Thracian origin, who came from
the European side of the Propontis. These last were conquered
in their turn by Crcesus, and on his overthrow became subject
to the Persian empire. Bithynia was taken from the Persians
by Alexander, but his general Calantus was defeated by Bas,
a native prince, who founded an independent kingdom, which
continued until 74 B.C., when Nicomedes III. left it by his will
to the Romans. As a Roman province, Bithynia is well known
to us through the letters of the younger Pliny, who was placed
over it as governor by the Emperor Trajan.
IV. The chief rivers of Bithynia are, 1. The Rhyndacus, separating it from Mlysia.  2. The Sangarius, now Sakaria.
3. The Parthenius, now Bartan.  Modern travellers describe
the country as beautiful and romantic, abounding in vines
and forests, and particularly fertile near Brousa, the ancient
Prusias.




ASI.                           633
PLACES     IN  BITHYNIA.
1. Dascylium, near the mouth of the Rhyndacus, the residence of the Persian
satrap of Mysia and Phrygia, and from which the satrapy itself was called the
Dascylian. Near it was the Palus Dascylitis, formed by the River Odrysses or
Horisius, a branch of the Rhyndacus, and now the Niloufer or Oufersu. The
country adjacent to the site of Dascylium is still called Diaskilo. 2. Myrlea, to
the east, a colony of the Colophonians, and a flourishing city until taken and
destroyed by Philip the last of Macedon. It was rebuilt, however, Dy Prusias,
king of Bithynia, who called it Apamea, after his queen. The ruins are near
the site now called Modania.  3. Cius, to the northeast, at the head of, and
giving name to the Sinus Cianus, now Gulf of Kio. It was a colony of the Mi-.esians, and advantageously placed at the mouth of the River Ascanius, which
discharged into the Propontis the waters of the Lake Ascanius, and being navigable, rendered Cius the emporium of a large tract of surrounding country, and
many inland towns of Bithynia and Phrygia. It served also as the port of iNicaa.
Cius was destroyed by Philip the last of Macedon, but rebuilt by Prusias, who
gave it the name of Prusias ad Mare (7rp[b  iXdtacrav). The site is still called
Kio. In the vicinity of Cius was Mount Arganthonius, whence flowed the little
River Hylas, where the youth of that name was fabled to have been carried
away by the Naiads. This mountain range ends in the promontory of Posidium,
now Cape Bozburun. 4. Prusa ad Olympum (e7r T9r'O;V[Tr9J), to the south of
Cius, an important city, and so called from being situate at the foot of Mount
Olympus, or the Mysian part of the chain. It was built, according to one account, by Prusias I., at the suggestion of Hannibal, when residing at the court
of that monarch. Dio Chrysostom was born here. The modern name is Brousa,
and it is still one of the most flourishing cities of Asia Minor. Brousa was the
capital of the Ottoman empire prior to the capture of Constantinople. The Mysian Olympus is now called Toumandji Dagh; the general name for the whole
range is Keschisch Dag. The appellation of" Mysian" is a misnomer, since the
highest part of this branch of the chain is in Bithynia. 5. Hadriani, to the southwest, near the Rhyndacus, and the native place of Aristides the rhetorician. It
is now Edrenos. 6. Niccea, on the eastern shore of the Lake of Ascanius, and
the capital of Bithynia. It was built by Antigonus, son of Philip, who called it
Antigonia; but it subsequently received the name of Nicaea from Lysimachus,
in honor of his wife, daughter of Antipater. It stood in an extensive plain, was
built in the form of a square, and the streets were drawn at right angles to each
other, so that from a monument near the gymnasium it was possible to see the
four gates. It was the birth-place of Hipparchus the astronomer, and of Dio
Cassius. Nicama is celebrated in the history of the Church for the council held
there against the Arian heresy, A.D. 325. The creed drawn up on this occasion
is called the Nicene. This place was often taken and retaken during the wars
between the'Byzantine emperors and the Turks. It is now dwindled to an insignificant town called Isnik. The waters of the Lake Ascanius were so impregnated with natron that garments dipped in them were cleansed without any
farther trouble.
7. Asticus, to the northeast, on the Sinus Olbianus or Astacenus. It was orlginally a colony of Megarians, but, having been strengthened by a colony from
Athens, it received the name of Olbia, or "the Happy." It was destroyed by
Lysimachus, but the inhabitants were transferred by Nicomedes to his new ci;sy',,..;icomedla. 8. Nicomedia, at the head of the' gulf, founded by Nicomeda..




684                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
of Bithynia, and the chief residence of the Bithynian kings, an honor, however,
subsequently divided with Nicaea. It increased greatly under the Romans, and
became the great thoroughfare from Byzantium to the upper part of Asia. It
was often the residence of the Roman emperors when carrying on war against
the Parthians or Persians. Constantine the Great breathed his last at his villa
near this city. Arrian, the historian of Alexander, was born here. It is now
called Isniknid, or Ismid, and is still a place of importance. 9. Libyssa, to the
west, on the northern shore of the gulf, and celebrated as the spot where Hannibal ended his days, and where his remains were interred. Plutarch calls it a
small village. Some writers have identified it with the modern Ghebse, but
Leake more correctly places it at Malsum, a few miles to the south of Ghebse.
10. Calchedon, less correctly written Chalcedon, to the northwest, and lying opposite to Constantinople. It was founded seventeen years earlier than this latter
city, by the Megarians, who were jeered as blind men (though by no means
justly, considering the time when the place was founded) for having overlooked
the far superior site of Byzantium. It was, nevertheless, well situated for trade,
and the surrounding country was remarkable for its fertility, so that this soon
became a very flourishing place.  It contained many beautiful buildings and
wlonulnents. Under the first Christian emperors it was made the capital of the
ancient province of Bithynia, which now assumed the name of Pontica Prima.
Here also the celebrated council was held, A.D. 451, against the Eutychian heresy. The site of Calchedon is now occupied by the village of Kadi-Keui, or
".the Judge's Village." Travellers were ferried across to Byzantium from the
northern headland called Bous or Damalis, the first name being derived from lo,
who swam across the strait at this place, and the latter from Damalis, the wife
of the Athenian general Chares. 11. Chrysopolis, a little to the northwest, and
having a wide and beautiful harbor. It is now Scutari. More to the north, and
near to the opening of the Bosporus, was the temple of Jupiter, surnamed Urizts
(Ovptoc), or the " Dispenser of favoring winds."
Passing into the Euxine, and proceeding in an eastern direction along the
northern coast of Bithynia, we come to, 1. Calpe, a harbor, with fine water,
mentioned by Xenophon, who halted there some time with his fellow-soldiers.
The soil of the adjacent country was extremely fertile, and the surrounding
hills afforded fine naval timber.  There was also a promontory here called
Calpe. The modern name of both port and promontory is Kirpeh. 2. Thynias,
a small island, having a port, and lying close to the land. It was afterward
called Apollonias, from Apollo's being worshipped there. It is mentioned in the
voyage of the Argonauts, and is now Kefken. 3. Prusa ad Hypium, situate a
little distance inland, on the River Hypius, now the Mitan. It was founded by
King Prusias, and was named from its situation, for distinction' sake from Prusias on the Sinus Cianus. Its site is near the modern Uskub. The country
along this part of the coast was occupied by the Mariandyni, a people of uncertain origin, but who, differing neither in language nor in customs materially from
the Bithyni, may justly be considered as part of the same great Thracian stock.
4. IHeraclia Pontica, founded by the Megarians, in the territory of the Mariandyni,
a portion of whom, near the city, they brought into subjection, and treated as helots. It was called Pontica, or in Ponto, for distinction' sake from other cities
named Heraclea, and scattered over the ancient world. It became a very flourishing and powerful commercial city, and acquired possession of all the coast
from the Sangarius to the Parthenius. Heraclea attained its greatest prosperity
under a tyrant named Dionysius, who proved an excellent ruler. The Heracleots, after remaining eighty-four years under kingly authority, passed successively




ASIA.                           635
under the dominion of Mithiadates and Rome. It is now a srfall place, named
Erekli. Near Heraclea, on a peninsula termed the Acherusian, was a celebrated
cave, where Hercules was said to have dragged Cerberus to the light of day.
In the interior of Bithynia we may name, 1. Bithynium, near the Sangarius,
and in a district named Salone, celebrated for its excellent pastures, and a cheese
much esteemed at Rome. It changed its name subsequently to Claudiopolis,
and increased greatly under Hadrian, being the birth-place of his favorite Antinous. Under Theodosius I. it became the capital of the new province of Honorias. It now probably answers to the town of Gheivah.  2. Cratia, to the
southeast, called, also Flauiopilis, flourished under the emperors of the Flavian line. Its site is near the modern Tereboli. 3. Dusis pros Olumpon, to the
northeast. Its site is probably near the village of Dustche. 4. Hadrianopolis,
to the east, now Boli. 5. Dadastana, some distance to the south of Cratia.
Here the Emperor Jovian died on his return from Syria to Constantinople.
fi. Gordium, afterward Juliopolis, to the northeast, on the confines of Galatia,
and near the River Sangarius. It was the residence of the ancient Phrygian
kings Gordius and Midas, and in its citadel, which had been the palace of Gordius, was preserved the famous knot which Alexander cut. It was a place of
much traffic, from its central situation, being nearly equidistant from the Hellespont, the Euxine, and the Sea of Cilicia. It continued to flourish, under the
name of Juliopolis, from the reign of Augustus for many centuries.
PAPHLAGONIA.
I. Paphlagonia is bounded on the north by the Euxine, on
the south by Galatia, on the east by Pontus, and on the west
by Bithynia.     It was separated from     Bithynia by the River
Parthenius, and from     Pontus by the River      Ilalys.   Paphlagonia is described by Xenophon as a country having very beautiful plains and very high mountains. It is traversed by two
chains of mountains. The higher and more southerly of these
chains is called Olgassys by Ptolemy, now       Ulgaz Dagh, and
is a continuation of the great mountain chain which extends
from the Hellespont to Armenia, and which was known to the
ancients under the names of Ida in Mysia,' and Olympus in
Bithynia.
II. The chief rivers are, 1. The Parthenius, already mentioned.   2. The Amnias, now        Kara Su, a tributary of the
Halys; and, 3. The Halys, now Kizil Ermak.              The Halys
formed the eastern boundary of the empire of Crcesus.
III. This rough country had but few roads; in different parts
the soil varied in its degrees of fertility; in the north, but particularly about Sin6pe, the land was fruitful, especially in oil;
the interior produced abundance of wood, red ochre, orpiment,
&c., of which the grand mart was at Sinope. Homer extols
the mules of Paphlagonia.




636                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
IV. The Paphlagonians were a people of Syrian race, and
came to the assistance of the Trojans under the command of
Pylmmenes. Homer says they came from the country of the
Hen6ti, which means, most probably, that the Heneti themselves were a Paphlagonian people, who followed Pylsmenes
to Troy. These Heneti are said, on the death of their leader,
to have migrated to Thrace, and afterward to Italy, where they
settled under the name of Veneti, their new leader being Antenor the Trojan. This story, however, is extremely doubtful.
V. The Paphlagonians were subdued by Crcesus, and after
his fall became subjects of the Persian empire. After the death
of Alexander, they fell, along with Cappadocia, to the share of
Eumenes.      Subsequently they formed part of the kingdom         of
Pontus; but, after the conquest of this kingdom by the Romans,
they were allowed for some time to have kings of their own.
Under the early Roman emperors, Paphlagonia did not form a
separate province, but was united to Galatia till the time of
Constantine, who first erected it into a separate province.
PLACES IN PAPHLAGONIA.
1. Sesamus, a little to the northeast of the mouth of the Parthenius. It was
a Greek colony from Miletus, and is mentioned in the Iliad. It was afterward
colonized by Amastris, niece of Darius Codomanus, and wife of Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclea Pontica, who gave it her name. It was a handsome town, and
adorned with squares and public buildings. The modern name is Amasera.
2. Cytorus, to the northeast, also mentioned in the Iliad, and a factory of Sinope.
Near it was Mount Cytorus, famed for its box wood. The modern name of the
mountain is Sagra. The remains of the city itself are found near the modern
Kidros. Farther on we come to Carambis Promontorium, now Cape Kerempc.
3. Abonitichos, a small town and harbor, the birth-place of an impostor named
Alexander, who assumed the character of LEsculapius. The name of the place
was changed, at his request, by the Emperor Marcian, to lonopolis, of which the
modern Ineboli is only a corruption.  4. Sinope, some distance to the east,
founded by the Milesians, and the most important trading place on the Euxine.
It received an accession of six hundred colonists from Athens, about the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. At the time of the retreat of the ten
thousand, we learn from Xenophon that it was a rich and flourishing city, holding
many of the neighboring towns in its dependence, and possessing considerable
influence over the barbarous tribes of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. Among its
colonies were Ceraisus, Cotyora, and Trapezus, all flourishing cities on the Euxine coast of Asia Minor. It was mistress, also, by means of its powerful navy,
of the Euxine Sea as far as the Cyanean islands, and it shared with Byzantium
the lucrative fishery of the pelamys, a kind of tunny. Sinope was the birthplace of the cynic philosopher Diogenes. Conquered subsequently by Pharnaces, it became the chief town and residence of the kings of Pontus. Here Mithradates Eupator, or the Great, was bore, who greatly embellished and improved




AsIA.                            037
the place, by forming a harbor on each side of the isthmus, dh which the city
was situate, erecting naval arsenals, and constructing admirable reservoirs for
the tunny fishery. Sinope was taken from Mithradates by Lucullus, and a Roman colony was subsequently sent thither by Caesar. It continued for a long
period afterward a flourishing city. In the middle ages it formed part of the
small empire of Trebizond, and fell into the hands of the Turks about 1470. The
modern name is Sinub.
In the interior we may mention, 1. Cimiata, at the foot of Mount Olgassys,
the stronghold originally of Mithradates Ctistes, the first sovereign of his line,
who effected the conquest of Pontus. It was subsequently the capital of a district named Cimiatene. 2. Sandaracurgzum, to the northeast, a great mining
settlement, where sandarach was obtained. This was a red pigment, called
now red sulphuret of arsenic. The mines here were worked by slaves, who
had been sold on account of crime, the process being a very unhealthy one, and
great numbers dying in consequence.  3. Pompeiopolis, to the northwest, on
the River Amnias, and founded by Pompey the Great. Its site is near the
modern Tash-Kupri. The River Amnias is a tributary of the Halys, and is now
the Kara Su, or river of Castamouni. On its banks was fought the great battle
in which Mithradates Eupator defeated with great loss Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, which decisive victory was followed by the conquest of Bithynia, and
nearly the whole of Asia Minor. 4. Castamon, to the southeast of Pompeiopolis,
now Castamouni. Near it was an extensive plain called Gunaria. 5. Gangra,
to the southeast, near the Halys, and the confines of Galatia. It was a city of
some note, and the royal residence of Morezus, a Paphlagonian prince mentioned by Livy. It is often alluded to in the ecclesiastical writers as the metropolitan see'of Paphlagonia. The orchards here. produced apples much esteemed at Rome. The site of this place is occupied by the Turkish town of
Kangreh. 6. Germanicopolis, to the east, built in honor of Germanicus, and situate near the Halys. 7. Andrapa, to the north, on a tributary of the Halys. It
subsequently received the name of Neoclaudiopolis.
PONTUS.
I. Pontus took its name from      the sea on which it lay, and
was bounded on the north by the Euxine, on the northeast by
Colchis, on the southeast and east by Armenia Mlinor, on the
south by Cappadocia, and on the west by Paphlagonia and
Galatia. The boundary between it and Colchis was formed
by the River Acampsis.        Ptolemy, less correctly, places this
boundary as far east as the Phasis; and Strabo, on the other
hand, at Trapezus.      The southern boundary was formed by
the chain of Mount Paryadcres.
II. The northeastern part of Pontus is exceedingly barren.
The western part is very fertile, and is well drained by the
Rivers Iris, now    Yeshil Ermak, and Thermodon, now           Thermeh, and affords good pasture for numerous flocks.          The district of Phanaraea was considered the most fertile part of Pontus, producing wine, oil, and many other things.        Pontus con



638              ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
tained, also, Ynines of salt, iron, and rook crystal; and the coast
exhibited some large and flourishing Greek cities, having good
harbors, and carrying on an extensive traffic.
II. The tribes inhabiting Pontus were various and independent. In the more western part were the Leucosyri, or White
Syrians, really Cappadocians, so called by the Greeks for distinction' sake from the swarthier Syrians of the south, but of
the same origin.  The range of Mount Paryadres, and that part
of Scydises called Frigidarium, from its severe cold, were anciently, as now, occupied by small independent tribes, of whom
an account is given us by Xenophon in his Anabasis.
III. Pontus was first erected into a separate kingdom by
Ariobarzanes I., but does not make any figure in history until
after the death of Alexander the Great, when Mithradates II.,
surnamed Ctistes (ICTTarT), or "the founder," greatly enlarged
and strengthened it. It attained its greatest prosperity under
Mithradates VI., surnamed Eupator, or the Great, who was
overthrown by the Romans in B.C. 63. The Romans rewarded Pharnaces II., the son of Mithradates, who had been treacherous to his father, with the kingdom of Bosporus; but on his
attempting to regain his hereditary dominions in Pontus during
the civil wars between Pompey and Caesar, he was defeated by
the latter, B.C. 47, and soon after slain. Pharnaces left a son,
Darius, who was made King of Pontus by Antony, B.C. 39, but
was soon deposed, and Polemo was appointed in his stead. Polemo was subsequently killed in an expedition, and was succeeded by his widow Pythodoris.
IV. Pontus became a Roman province in the reign of Nero,
and was subsequently divided into three districts, called respectively Pontus Galaticus, Cappadocicus, and Polemoniacus.  In
the time of Constantine another division was made; the western part, which included Pontus Galaticus and Cappadocicus,
being called Helenopontus, after Constantine's mother, while
the eastern part preserved its name of Polemoniacus.
PLACES IN PONTUS.
AFTER crossing the Halys, we enter on what Herodotus calls the district of
Pteria, and in which a great but undecisive battle was fought between Crcesus
and Cyrus. Herodotus describes this as the best and most important part of
the Leuco-Syrian territory, and Strabo mentions it under the names of Gadilonitis and Saramene. It was a rich champaign country, and contained a breed of
sheep with remarkably fine fleeces, accustomed to be protected with skins.




ASIA.                           639
Advancing along the coast from the mouth ofthe Halys, welcome to, 1. Amisus, a Milesian colony, afterward strengthened by one from Athens. It was
eventually under the kings of Pontus, and was greatly enlarged and embellished
by Mithradates Eupator, from whom it was taken by Lucullus. Under Augustus it became a free city, and is now Samsun, a town of considerable trade. It
lay twenty stadia to the west of the river and town of Lycastus. 2. Ieracleum,
a port and promontory to the east of the mouth of the Iris. The headland, on
which was a temple of Hercules, is now Cape Thermeh. Leaving this, we come
to the mouth of the Thermidon, now Thermeh. This river is celebrated in poetry
as the fabled seat ot the Amazons, who are said at one time to have occupied
the adjacent plains of Themiscyra. Apollonius of Rhodes calls this plain the
Doeantian, from a leader named Dceas, and also states that the Amazons were
divided into three separate cantons, all, however, under one queen. Strabo describes the plain of Themiscyra as a most rich and beautiful district, ever verdant, and able to supply food for innumerable herds of oxen and horses. 3. Themiscyra, a Greek city on the Thermodon, near its mouth, in the plain just mentioned, and remarkable for the vigor with which it defended itself against Lucullus. The townsmen sent bears, and other wild beasts, and even swarms of
bees against the workmen who were undermining their walls. 4. (Enc, to the
east, on the coast, and a place of some consequence in the Middle Ages. It is
now Unieh. 5. Polemonium, to the southeast, named after Polemo, king of that
part of Pontus called from him Polemoniacus. It is not named by Strabo, and
therefore probably was founded after his time. It was a place of importance.
The headland Jasonium, in the vicinity, is now Cape Jasoun, and took its ancient name from the ship Argo's having anchored near it. The whole coast,
from the vicinity of the Thermodon as far as this promontory, was once inhabited by the Chalybes, a barbarous people, celebrated in antiquity for the great
iron mines and forges which existed in their country. Hamilton found some
traces of the working of iron still existing in this quarter. Strabo states that
the Chalybes had, in his time, changed their name to that of Chaldei. East of
the Chalybes were the Tibareni, possessing numerous flocks and herds; and to
the east of these the Mosynceci, so called by the Greeks, from their dwelling in
small wooden turrets named /6avvot. They were a wild and robber race. Xenophon gives an account of them in his Anabasis.
6. Cotyora, a colony of Sinope, and a place of note as described by Xenophon.
It furnished supplies to the ten thousand Greeks, who were quartered in its vicinity. In Arrian's time it was little more than a village, the population having
been removed to the more modern Pharnacda. Its site answers to that of Buzuk-Kale. 7. Pharnacia, to the east, founded by Pharnaces, grandfather of Mithradates Eupator, on the site of a Greek settlement named Charades. It is erroneously confounded by Arrian with Cerdsus, which lay farther to the east. The
mistake probably arose from confounding the ancient names Cerasus and Choerades. The modern name of Pharnacia is Keresoon, which has given countenance to the erroneous opinion just mentioned. Pharnacia obtained a large
portion of its population from Cotyora. 8. Cerasus, to the east, near the site
now called Skefie. It was a colony of Sinope. From this vicinity Lucullus first
brought the cherry-tree into Italy. Hence the Latin cerasus, "a cherry-tree,"
and cerasum, " a cherry;" unless we suppose the city to have derived its name
from the tree itself. The adjacent hills are covered with forests, in which
cherry-trees still grow naturally. 9. Trapezus, to the east, a flourishing commercial city, and a colony of Sinope. It derived its name from the square form:n which it was laid out, resembling a table (7rpcnera). Trapezus is celebrated




640                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
for the hospitable reception which it gave to the ten thousand Greeks on thei
return, this being the first Greek colony which the latter had reached after the
battle of Cunaxa. The place was subsequently embellished and improved by
Hadrian. The modern name is Trebizond or Terabezoun. It was the seat of a
small Greek empire in the Middle Ages, under a branch of the Comneni, and
which ended with the capture of the city by the Turks in 1462. There are no
places of any importance between Trapezus and the mouth of the Acampsis.
The country lying inland from this part of the coast was occupied by several
barbarous tribes, such as, 1. The Drilce, the most warlike people in this quarter,
according to Xenophon. 2. The Macrones, supposed to be of Colchian origin,
from their practicing circumcision. 3. The Byzeres, a wild and savage race,
who cut to pieces three cohorts of Pompey's army, by placing on their way a
quantity of honey, which had the effect of intoxicating them, and depriving them
of the power of resistance. Xenophon speaks of a similar effect produced by
honey on the Greeks in the country of the Colchians near Trapezus. Pliny
says that this honey was extracted from the flower of the rhododendron.
In the interior of Pontus we may mention, 1. Amasia, on the River Iris, and
the native place of Strabo, who has left us a minute description of it. The site
is occupied by the modern Amazieh. 2. Zela, some distance to the southeast,
on the'left bank of the Iris, and near the frontiers of Galatia. It was a place
of great antiquity, and erected, according to Strabo, on the mound of Semiramis.
It was at first apparently a spot consecrated to the worship of the goddess
Ana'itis, a deity highly revered by the Persians, Armenians, and Cappadocians.
Zela remained, however, a small town, until Pompey, after the defeat.of Mithradates, increased its population and extent, and raised it to the rank of a city.
Zela is remarkable for the victory obtained here by Caesar over Pharnaces, and
which he expressed in the laconic sentence "( Veni, vidi, vici." The site is still
called Zeleh. 3. Comdna Pontica, to the northeast, and surnamed Pontica, to
distinguish it from a Cappadocian city of the same name. It stood not far from
the sources of the Iris. Comana was celebrated for the worship of the goddess
Ma, supposed to answer to the Bellona of the Greeks, and likewise revered with
equal honors in the Cappadocian town. The priesthood attached to the temple
was an office of the highest emolument and dignity, and sought after by kings
and princes. The city was large and populous, and kept up a considerable
traffic with Armenia. There were no less than six thousand slaves attached
to the service of the temple, and the festivals of Bellona, which were held twice
a year, drew together an immense concourse. The worship was a licentious one.
The remains of the place are now called Komanak. 4. Eupatoria, at the confluence of the Iris and the Lycus, now the Koulehissar. It was founded by Mithradates Eupator, but was not yet completed when he was forced to flee from Pontus by the Roman armies. Pompey, after the conquest of the country, completed
the place, and called it, after himself, Magnopolis. Its remains are near Tchenikeh.
5. Cabira, to the south, at the foot of Mount Paryadres, and once the favorite
residence of Mithradates. Pompey changed the name to Diopolis, and Pythodo.
ris subsequently to Sebaste or Sebastopolis. The site is uncertain. 6. Ccenonchorion, to the south, one of the strongest holds of Mithradates, where Pompey
found all the most precious jewels and other articles belonging to that monarch,
together with his secret correspondence and papers. 7. Neo Ccesarea, to the southeast, near the Lycus, and founded probably in the reign of Tiberius. It was
the native city of Gregory Thaumaturgus, who flourished in the middle of the
third century, and in his days it was the most considerable town of Pontus. It is
now Niksar, a town of some size, and the capital of the district of the same name.




As A.                     641
PHRY GIA.
I. TiH  boundaries of Phrygia differed at various times.
Under the Persian empire and after the death of Alexander,
it was bounded on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on
the south by Lycia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia, on the east by
Pontus and Cappadocia, and on the west by Lydia and Mysia.
On the arrival and settlement, however, of the Gauls in Asia,
a large proportion of the northern part was abstracted by them,
and thenceforth bore the name of Galatia.
II. The ancient writers speak of the Great and Lesser Phrygia; by the former is meant Phrygia Proper; by the latter, a
part of Mysia, comprising the territory of Old Troy, along the
Hellespont and southern shore of the Propontis, and which had
been taken possession of after the Trojan war by the Mysians
and Phrygians. The northern part of Phrygia Proper, remaining after the abstraction of Galatia, was called Phrygia EpictetZs, or the 6 acquired," a name given to it when it was annexed by the Ro.mans to the kingdom of Pergamus; and the
southern part, which bordered on Mount Taurus, was called,
from this circumstance, Phry/g'ia Paroreios.  In the fourth
century, the Romans divided Phrygia into two provinces, Phrygia Salutaris and Phrygia Pacatiana; the former comprising
the eastern, and the latter the western part of the ancient province.
III. Phrygia is a high table-land, supported on the south by
Mount Taurus, and on the north by the high range of mountains running from west to east, under the ancient name of
Olympus. The western and northern parts are very fertile;
but the southern and eastern portions are covered with salt
marshes, rivers, and lakes, which have no visible outlet. Of
these salt lakes the most curious is the one called Tatta by
Strabo, now Tuczia, Twhich is thirty miles in length, and supplies a vast tract of country with salt. An account of this lake
will be given under the head of Lycaonia.
IV. The Phrygians appear to have been of Thracian origin,
and are said by some to have crossed over into Asia a hundred
years before the Trojan war. Of the early history of Phrygia
we know scarcely any thing. There wouid seem to have been
a kingdom of considerable power in the northern part of the
countrv under the Midian or Gordian dynasty. Strabo says,
Ss




642                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
that the palaces of Gordius and Midas were near the River
Sangarius, the neighborhood of which was probably the central
part of the dominions of these sovereigns. The Phrygians were
conquered by Croesus, and subsequently by the Persians. On
the division of Alexander's dominions, Phrygia first came into
the hands of Antigonus, and afterward formed part of the dominions of the Seleucidme.     After the defeat of Antiochus the
Great, it was given to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, and on the
death of Attalus, B.C. 133, it came by his bequest into the
hands of the Romans, together with the other dominions of the
kings of Pergamus.
PLACES     IN  PHRYGIA      EPICTETUS.
1. Azani, near the source of the Rhyndacus, not often mentioned by the ancient writers, but which must have been a place of considerable importance
from the description of its ruins given by Keppel, who says that the modern
village of Tjaudere Hissar is built entirely out of them. 2. Cadi, to the southwest, now Kedous, a town celebrated for its scammony. To the west of it was
Mount Dindymene, now Morad Dagh, and anciently sacred to Cybele, like Mount
Dindymus, near Pessinus in Galatia. 3. Cotyaum, to the northeast of Azani, on
the River Thymbrius, and, according to some, the birth-place of.Esop. It is
now Kutaya, and still a considerable place. 4. Dorylceum, to the northeast, also
on the Thymbrius, and at no great distance from its union with the Sangarius.
It is often spoken of by the Byzantine historians. There were warm springs
in its neighborhood. It corresponds, according to Leake, to the modern EskiShehr, which is celebrated for its natural hot baths. 5. Midaeum, to the northeast, and deriving its name from Midas, an appellation so common to the ancient kings of Phrygia, of whom it was probably once the residence. 6. Nacaolea, southeast of Cotyeum, a place of importance under the eastern emperors,
and often mentioned by later writers. The usurper Procopius was defeated
here by Valens.
PLACES IN CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN PHRYGIA.
1. Synnida, to the southeast of Cotyaum, and the most considerable town of
this part of Phrygia, being a convcntus juridicus for all the surrounding places.
It was situate at the end of a plain sixty stadia long, planted with olives, and
was a city of extensive traffic and commerce, as it lay on the road from Apamea
Cib6tus to Galatia, and also on the way, or nearly so, from Apamea to Iconium
and Cilicia. Its site is uncertain, but probably, as Hamilton thinks, at the modern Surmeneh. 2. Docimia or Docimceum, to the north, at the upper extremity
of the plain in which Synnada stood. It was.celebrated for its marble, of a light
color, interspersed with blood-red spots and veins, fabled to have come from the
blood of Atys. This marble was called by the people of the country Docimitic
or Docimacan, but by the Romans the Synnadic, from the adjacent and more
important city of Synnada. It was highly prized by the Romans, especially in
the reign of Hadrian. The quarries are placed by Leake on the road from
Khosru-khan to Bulwudun. 3. Ipsus, a short distance to the southeast of Synnada, celebrated for the great battle fought in its plains by Antigonus and his




ASIA.                           643
son Demetrius against the combined forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. It ended in the defeat of Antigonus, who lost his life and
all his conquests. 4. Melisse or Melitea, to the southwest, a small place, but
rendered memorable by Alcibiades having been interred there. A statue of
Parian marble was afterward placed on his tomb by order of Hadrian, and a
yearly sacrifice of an ox offered to his shade. This place is probably the same
with Ptolemy's Melitara. 5. Polybotus, to the southeast, now Bulwudun. 6. Philomelium, to the southeast, in Phrygia Paroreios, often mentioned by the Byzantine historians in the wars of the Greek emperors with the sultans of Iconium. It was situate near the modern Ilgun. 6. Laodicea Combusta (KaraKtKavpivri), to the southeast, and so surnamed from the volcanic nature of the
district in which it was situated. It is now Ladik, and famed for its manufacture of carpets.
Returning to the more central part of Phrygia,iwe come to, 1. Pelter, on or
iear the River Orgas, to the west of the Glaucus, and giving the name of Peltenus Campus to the plain in which it was situate. Xenophon, in his Anabasis,
describes it as a well-inhabited city. 2. Eumenia, to the south, near the junction of the Glaucus and Orgas, and founded by Eumenes, king of Pergamus. Its
remains are at Ashkli. 3. Apamea Cibbtus, to the south, near the junction of
the Glaucus and Maeander. It was founded by Antiochus Soter, on the site of
an earlier place named Cibotus, and was called by him Apamea, in honor of his
mother Apama, daughter of Artabazus, and espoused to Seleucus Nicator. The
inhabitants of the neighboring Celeenae were removed to this new city, which
soon became a place of importance, from the fertility of the surrounding country, the abundance and beauty of the rivers which flowed around it, and, above
all, its situation on the great road to Cappadocia and the Euphrates, so that,
when Strabo wrote, its traffic yielded only to that of Ephesus, and it was the
largest town of Phrygia. It suffered severely from an earthquake in the reign
of Claudius, but still continued a very flourishing city for a long period subsequently. Its ruins are at the modern town of Deenare. 4. Celcence, a little to
the southeast, at the sources of the Marsyas, a tributary of the Maeander. It
was celebrated in mythology as the scene of the contest between Apollo and the
satyr Marsyas, and the skin of the latter was said to have been hung up in the
cave whence the river flowed. The greater part of the inhabitants of Celaena
were removed by Antiochus Soter to his new city of Apamea, in consequence of
which the former became a place of small importance. The citadel of Celaen
was built on a precipitous height, and was of great strength, but surrendered to
Alexander.
5. Colossa, to the southwest, on the left bank of the Meander, and mentioned
by both Herodotus and Xenophon as a large and flourishing city. Strabo and.
Piiny, however, at a later day, call it only a small place. It carried on, however, even in Strabo's time, a very lucrative wool trade. At Colossae there was.
formed a Christian church, to which St. Paul, who does not appear to have ever
visited the place himself, wrote an epistle. Colossae suffere'd severely from an
earthquake in the ninth year of the reign of Nero, from which it never fully recovered; and, under the Byzantine emperors, being now in a ruinous state, it
made way for a more modern town named Chonce, built only a short distance
from it. This latter place is chiefly known to us from the account of Nicetas,
the Byzantine annalist, who was born here, whence his surname of Choniates.
Some remains of Colossae and Chonae are to be seen near each other, at the
village of Khonas. 6. Hierapolis, to the west, near the River Lycus, and celebrated for its warm springs. The waters of this place were also remarkable




644                 ANCrENT GEOGRAPHY.
for their petrifying properties, and were likewise extremely useful in serving
the purposes of the dyer. The ruins of Hierapolis are conspicuous on the site
called Pambouk Kalessi.. 7. Laodicea ad Lycum, to the south, and so called from
its proximity to the River Lycus. Pliny says it Was originally named Diospolis,
and afterward Rhoas; and, according to Stephanus, its name was changed to
Laodicea in honor of Laodice, the wife of Antiochus II. There was a Christian
church at Laodicea in the time of the apostles. Strabo says that this place was
celebrated for the sheep which fed in the plains around it, and that their wool
Was considered superior to that of Miletus. The ruins of Laodicea, which are
considerable, are seen a little below Denisli, on the site called Eski Hissar, and
sometimes Ladik.
GALATIA.
I. Galatia originally formed part of Phrygia and Cappadocia,
and derived its name from      the Galdtce or Gauls, who had migrated hither from     Europe.      It was likewise called GalloGrcecia, from the intermixture of the customs and languages
of the Gauls and Greeks in this province.
II. Galatia was bounded on the north by Paphlagonia and
part of Bithynia, on the east by.Pbntus, on the south by Phryg-ia and Cappadocia, and on the west by Phrygia and part of
Bithynia.
ilI. The first horde of Gauls that appeared in Asia (3.C. 279) formed part
of the army with which Brennus invaded Greece. In consequence of some dissensions in his army, a considerable number of his troops, under the command
of Leonorius and Lutarius, left their countrymnen and marched into Thrace;
thence they proceeded to Byzantium, and crossed over into Asia at the invitation of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, who was anxious to secure their assistance
against his brother Zipcetes. With their aid Nicomedes was successful, but his
allies now became his masters, and he as well as the other monarchs of Asia
Minor to the west of Mount Taurus were exposed for many years to the ravages of these barbarians, and obliged to purchase safety by the payment of tribute.
Encouraged by the success of their countrymen, fresh hordes passed over into
Asia, and their number became so great, that, as Justin informs us, the whole
country swarmed with them, and no Eastern monarch carried on war without
a mercenary army of Gauls.
IV. The first check they received was from Attalus I., king of Pergamus, who
defeated them in a great battle (B.C. 239), and compelled them to settle permanently in that part of Asia which was afterward called Galatia. Though
Attalus, however, reduced their power, they still continued independent, and
gave Antiochus great assistance in his contest with the Romans. Having thus
incurred the enmity of the Roman republic, the consul Manlius was sent against
them B.C. 189, and completely defeated them, so that from this time they were
in reality subject to Rome, though allowed to retain their own native princes.
V. According to Strabo, Galatia was inhabited by three tribes of'Gauls, the
Trocmi, the Tectosages, and the Tolistoboii. Each tribe was subdivided into
four parts, and each part was governed by a tetrarch, who appointed a judge
and an inspector of the army. The power of these twelve tetrarchs was limited
by a senate of three hundred, who assembled at a place called Drynemctum, and




ASIA.                            645
who took cognizance of all capital cases. All other offences were left to the
jurisdiction of the tetrarchs and judges.
VI..Subsequently, however, during the times of the first Mithradatic war,
there were only three tetrarchs, to whom the Romans, out of policy, paid the
courtesy of princely dignity. Soon after, the three tetrarchs dwindled into two
chiefs, and finally into one. This last change was made by the Romans in favor
of Deiotaus, who had rendered their arms essential service against Mithradates.
He became sole master of Galatia, and received a part of the kingdom of Pontus with the royal title. On his death, part of his principality was annexed to
Paphlagonia and Pontus under Polefno, and part to the dominions of Amyntas,
chief of Lycaonia. On the demise of the latter, the whole of Galatia became a
Roman province.
VII. In the time of Theodosius the Great, Galatia was divided into two provinces, Galatia Prima and Galatia Secunda. Ancyra was the capital of tile former, Pessinus of the latter. Though intermixed with Greeks, -the Galatians
retained throughout their original tongue, since we are assured by St. Jerome
that in his day they spoke the same language as the Treviri of Gaul. Galatia
was, generally speaking, a fruitful and well-peopled country.
PLACES IN      GALATIA.
THE Tolistoboii occupied the southwestern part of the country. Among them
we find, 1. Pessznus, their chief city, on the confines of Bithynia, and near the
left bank of the River Sangarius. This place was one of great trade, and was
also celebrated in antiquity for the worship of the goddess Rhea or Cybele. The
statue of the goddess, which was nothing more than a great stone, was conveyed to Rome, near the close of the second Punic war, in obedience to the direction of the Sibylline Oracles. Above the town rose Mount Dindymus, whence
the goddess was surnamed Dindymene. The worship of Cybele was still observed in Pessinus after its occupation by the Gauls. The Phrygian name of
the goddess was Agdistis, an appellation given also to Mount Dindymus. The
remains of Pessinus are to be seen at Balahissar. 2. Germa, to the southwest,
called by Ptolemy a Roman colony, and supposed from its coins to have been
established in the time of Vespasian and his sons. It took, at a later period, the
name of Myriangeli. The modern Yerta evidently represents it. 3. Armorium. to the east, a place of great importance under the Byzantine emperors.
It was taken and sacked by the Saracens. The site is still called Amoria.
The Tectosdges were settled to the northeast of the Tolistoboii. Among them
we may mention, 1. Ancyra, their capital, and the largest and most celebrated
city in the whole province. Tradition made it to have been founded by Midas,
who was said to have named the place from an anch'or (6yKvpa) which he found
on the site, and which was exhibited, as Pausanias relates, in the temple of
Jupiter. This city was greatly improved and embellished by Augustus; and
under Nero it was styled the metropolis of Galatia. Its situation was extremely
well adapted fir inland trade, and it became a kind of staple place for the commodities of the east. Here was found, in modern times, the famous inscription,
called Marmor Ancyranum, on a temple erected to Augustus, giving a history
of his several acts and public merits. Ancyra is now called by the Turks Angouri, and by Europeans Angora, and is the place whence the celebrated shawls
and hosiery made of goat's hair were originally brought. Near this place Bajazet was conquered and made prisoner by Tamerlane. 2. Corbeus, to the southeast, the residence of Sacondarius, son-in-law of Deiotarus, and father of Caa



646                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
tor, who accused the former before Caesar of plotting against his life. It an
swers to the modern Corbega.
The Trocmi were settled in the eastern part of Galatia, toward Pontus and
Cappadocia. Their territory formed the best and most productive of any that
had fallen to the Galatian tribes. The only place worth mentioning among
them is Tavium or Tavia, their capital. It was a city of considerable traffic,
and was celebrated for a bronze statue of Jupiter, of colossal size, placed in a
sacred grove having the right of an asylum. The position of Tavium is an important point in the geography of Asia Minor, from the number of routes which
branched off from it. The site of this place answers, not, as is commonly sup.
posed, to the modern Tchorum, but rather, as Hamilton thinks, to Boghaz Kcui.
PISIDIA.
I. Pisidia was bounded on the west and north by Phrygia,
on the east by Isauria, on the south by Pamphylia. It was a
mountainous country, forming part of the chain of Taurus, in
which the Pisidians maintained their independence, not only
under the Persian empire, but also under the Syrian kings, and
even the Roman sway. The Romans were never able to subdue them, though they obtained possession of some of their
towns, as, for instance, of Antiochia, where a Roman colony
possessing the Jus Italicum was founded.       In the time of Strabo, the Pisidians were governed by petty chiefs, and principally
supported themselves by plundering their neighbors.
II. We know very little of the physical geography of Pisidia,
or the situation of its towns. The most singular features in
this country are, according to Fellows, the mountains of volcanic dust, which he saw at ten miles' distance, looking as if they
were smoking; this appearance being caused by the sand, which,
with very little wind, is blown into clouds, and carried into the
air and along the valleys. The whole of this sand or dust is
tufa, the dust of the pumice stone, a volcanic production.
PLACES IN      PISIDIA.
1. Termessus, a fortress at the entrance of the defiles leading from Pisidia into
Pamphylia, and from its commanding situation a place of great importance.
2. Cretopolis, to the north, close to the passes leading into Pamphylia. The
remains are probably those near Buttakli. 3. Sozopolis, to the northwest, regarded by Mannert, incorrectly, as the same place with Cretopolis. It is mentioned by the Byzantine historians, and, according to Nicetas, was taken from
the Turks by John Comnenus, but retaken by them. Its site appears to be that
call.ed at the present day Souzu. 4. Sagalassus, to the north, spoken of by Arrian, and afterward by Livy, as a large and populous city. Livy describes the
adjacent territory as exceedingly fertile. The site is near the modern village
of Aglasoun. 5. Cremna, to the northeast, an important fortress, and deemed
impregnable until taken by the tetrarch Amyntas. It was regarded afterward




ASIA.                          647
by the Romans as a post of such military consequence that they established a
colony there. It is generally supposed that this town is represented by the
modern fort of Kebrinaz, occupying a commanding situation near Lake Egreder,
the ancient Agrioteri Lacus. 6. Antiochia Pisidice, to the north; at the extremity
of the province, a city of considerable importance, and interesting from its colnection with the labors of St. Paul in Asia Minor. It was founded'by a colony
from Magnesia on the Meeander, under the auspices probably of Antiochus, from
whom it derived.its name. The Romans sent a colony hither, and made it the
capital of a proconsular government. It was visited by St. Paul andBjarnabas,
and was afterward the metropolitan see of Pisidia. Arundell supposes the remains of this city to be at Yalobatch, with which Hamilton agrees. 7. Tyriceum,
to the east, mentioned by Xenophon in his Anabasis as the place where the
younger Cyrus stopped three days and reviewed his troops. Hamilton identifies it with the modern Ilghun.
CAPPADOCIA.
I. Cappadocia, including Lycaonia and Isauria, was bounded on,the north by Pontus, Galatia, and Phrygia Paroreios,
on the south by the range of Mount Taurus, dividing it from
Cilicia and Pamphylia, on the west by Pisidia and Phrygia,
and on the east by the Euphrates, separating it from Armenia
Minor.
II. Cappadocia was surrounded on three sides by great ranges
of mountains, besides being intersected by others of as great
elevation as any in the peninsula. Hence its mineral productions were various and abundant, and a source of wealth to the
country. It had, however, but little wood, almost the only
timber district being in the neighborhood of Mount Argaeus.
The tribute which Cappadocia paid to the Persian monarch
consisted chiefly of horses, mules, and sheep, the high tablelands of this country forming admirable pasture land.
III. The Cappadocians appear to have been a branch of the
Syrian tace-at least the Persians considered them      as such,
from the resemblance of their language, customs, and religion;
and they called them by an appellation which the Greeks expressed by that of AevicOavpo (Leucosyri), or " White Syrians,"
because they found that they possessed a fairer complexion than
their swarthy brethren of the south.   The Greeks, on the other
hand, called them KarTrdsdoie (Cappadoces) or Cappadocians,
from the River Cappadox, as is thought, now the Kissilhissar,
a braeu' of the Halys.
IV. The condition of Cappadocia before the period of the
Persian rule is uncertain.   Even after the Persian conquest
the government was left ii the hands of the native princes.




648                  ANCrENT. GEOGRAPHY.
The Romans, when they became masters of it, incorporated
with their province of Cappadocia the adjacent district of Armenia Minor.
V. The Cappadocians were noted for their vicious and unprincipled character, and they were one of the three bad Kappas, or names beginning with the letter K (the Roman C), the
Cretans. and Cilicians being the other two. The whole nation,
too, might be said to be addicted to servitude; for when they
were offered a free constitution by the Romans, they decline 1
the favor, and preferred receiving a master from the hands oL
their allies.
We will first enumerate the most important places in Cappadocia Proper, and then give a separate account of Lycaonia
and Isauria.
PLACES IN CAPPADOCIA PROPER.
IN the prefecture of Morimene, in the northwestern section of the country,
we have, 1. Parnassus, on a mountain of the same name, a place of some consequence, and at a later period a bishop's see. The mountain is now called
Pascha Dagh. 2. Venasa, to the southeast, celebrated for its temple of Jupiter,
to which no less than 3000 slaves were attached, and the high priest over which
was next in rank to the one at Comana. 3. Nyssa, to the southeast, on the
IIalys, celebrated in connection with the name of Gregory, brother of Basil, and
surnamed Nyssenus, from his long residence here as bishop of its church. Its
site is now marked by the village of Nirse. 4. Mocissus, to the northwest, a
town of some size and note in the reign of Justinian, who built it on the site of
an ancient fortress. It was also called, from this circumstance, Justinianopolis.
The next Cappadocian praefecture bore the name of Cilicia, and was situate
to the southeast of the former. The origin of the name is not known. In this
district we have, 1. Mazaca, its chief city, and the capital likewise of the whole
province, better known at a later period by the name of Ccsarea, with the topographical adjunct ad Argceum, to denote its position at the foot of Mount Argmus. It was a city of great antiquity, and its foundation was even ascribed
to Mesech, son of Japhet. The situation was extremely unfavorable,'water being scarce, and the surrounding country a dry, sandy plain. Still, however, the
kings of Cappadocia fixed their residence at Mazaca, in consequence of its central situation in the midst of other and more fertile districts. Mazaca assumed,
in fact, the appearance of a large camp rather than of a regular city, being open
and unfortified. The royal property, consisting chiefly of slaves, was kept in
different fortresses throughout the country. In the reign of Tiberius, when
Cappadocia became a Roman province, Mazaca changed its name to Caesarea,
and appears to have gradually increased in size and consequence under su,:cessive emperors, being now a regular and fortified city. St. Basil was born
and educated here, and presided over its church for many years. The modern
name of the place is Kaisarieh. Mount Argaeus, in the vicinity of this city, is
now called Arjish Dagh, and belongs to the range of Antitaurus. Iarmilton estimates the height at about 13,000 feet above the sea. It is the loftiest peak ir
the peninsula, and affords abundant indications of having once been a volcano.




ASIA.                            649
Tlhe country around has also a volcanic character. Strabo's statement, that
both the Evtxine and Mediterranean are visible from the summit of Argaeus, is
untrue, and confuted by the bare inspection of a map. 2. Dacora, a village near
Caesarea, the birth-place of;unomius, the Arian heretic, and whither he was
banished by Theodosius.
Another Cappadocian prefecture deserving of mention was that of Melitcne,
along the right bank of the Euphrates. Its soil was fertile, and yielded fruits
of every kind, in this differing from the rest of Cappadocia. The chief produce
was oil, and a wine called Monarites, which equalled the best of Grecian growth.
The only place deserving of mention here is Melitene, originally a camp or military station, but converted into a town by order of Trajan, and which became
eventually one of the most important places in Cappadocia. Justinian again
enlarged its circuit, and adorned it with several buildings. It still retains traces
of its former name under that of Malatia, but is in ruins.
The prefecture of Tyanitis lay to the south of that of Cilicia, and bordered on
the defiles of Taurus and the passes leading into Cilicia. It took its name from
Tyana, the principal town, and a place of considerable repute and great antiquity. Strabo reports that this city was built on what was called the causeway of Semiramis, and was well fortified. It is supposed to be the same with
the place called Dana by Xenophon, in his Anabasis. Its proximity to the Cilician pass must have rendered it a place of considerable traffic. Tyana is also
noted for having been the birth-place of the famous impostor Apollonius. Its
ruins are at Ketch-hissar. After Tyana we may mention, 1. Cybistra, to the
northeast, frequently mentioned in the epistles of Cicero, during his command
in Cilicia, and where at one time he established his head-quarters. Leake
places it at Kara-hissar; D'Anville, less correctly, at Bustere, but this last is an
error for Costere. 2. Castabala, to the northeast, remarkable for a temple sacred to Diana Perasia, the priestesses of which could tread with naked feet,
unharmed, on burning cinders. The statue was said to have been the identical
one brought by Orestes from Tauris, whence the name of Perasia, " from beyond the sea," was thought to be derived. More probably, however, Perasia is
merely corrupted from Persia, and the goddess here worshipped was the Persian Anaitis. The site corresponds probably to the modern Nigde. 3. Nora or
Neroassus, a fortress to the northwest of Tyana, where Eumenes sustained a
long and difficult siege against Antigonus. The remains are now called Nour.
4. Faustinopolis, to the southeast of Tyana, and distant twelve miles from that
city. It was named from the Empress Faustina, the consort of Marcus Aurelius,
who died here on her return from Syria. Her husband erected the town and a
temple in it to her memory. The site of the place was previously occupied by
a village named Halala. 5. Podandus, to the southeast, a village often mentioned by Byzantine writers in connection with the defiles of Taurus in its
vicinity. St. Basil describes it as the most miserable place on earth. It retairs the name of Podend.
The prefecture remaining to be noticed is that of Cataonia, consisting chiefly
of deep and extensive plains, surrounded on all sides by chains of monntaina.
We may mention in it, 1. Comdna, the principal city, and celebrated, like its
namesake in Pontus, for the worship of Bellona. The population con;sisted, in
a great degree, of soothsayers, priests, and slaves, belonging to the sacred institution: the latter amounted, in Strabo's time, to more than 6000 of both
sexes. These belonged exclusively to the high priest, who stood next in rank
to the King of Cappadocia, and was generally chosen from the royal family.
The territory annexed to the temple was very considerable, and furnished a




650                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
large income for the pontiff. The Bellona of Comana was probably no other
than the Anaitis of the Persians and Armenians, and perhaps the Agdistis and
Cybele of the Phrygians. ~ Comana received a Roman colony under Antoninus
Pius, and perhaps another under Caracalla.  It is now represented by the
Turkish town of Al-Bostan, on the Seihoun, the ancient Sarus. 2. Curusus, to
the southeast, a lonely spot, to which St. Chrysostom was banished in the reign
of Arcadius. Mountain passes led from it into Commagene and Syria. The
site is still called Cocsou, near the sources of the Gihoun, the ancient Pyramus.
LYCAONIA.
I. Lycaonia is first mentioned by Xenophon, in his Anabasis, who describes
it as extending eastward from Icanium to the beginning of Cappadocia, a distance of thirty parasangs, about one hundred and ten English miles. It was
united during the Persian monarchy to the satrapy of Cappadocia, which seems
the most natural arrangement. Lycaonia is described by Strabo as high table
land, deficient in water, which the inhabitants could only procure by digging deep
wells, but well adapted for sheep.
II. The most remarkable physical feature in Lycaonia is that presented by
the salt lake in the north, on the confines of Galatia, called by the ancients Tatta
I'alus, and now Lake Tuzla or Duslag. It is about forty-five English miles
long, and about eighteen in its extreme width. Its waters, according to the
ancients, were so impregnated with brine, that if any substance was dipped
into the lake, it was presently incrusted with a thick coat of salt; and even
birds, when flying near the surface, had their wings moistened with the saline
particles, so as to become incapable of rising into the air, and were easily caught.
This lake still furnishes all the surrounding country with salt. The specific
gravity of the water is said to be greater than that of the Dead Sea.
III. The northern part of Lycaonia was united, at what time is uncertain,
to Galatia, but the southern part was governed, in the time of Cicero, by an
independent prince of the name of Antipater, who resided in Derbe. Antipater,
however, being afterward conquered by Amyntas, king of Galatia, the whole of
Lycaonia fell under the power of the Galatians. At the death of Amyntas, B.C.
25, Lycaonia, together with Galatia, became a Roman province. In the time
of Pliny it formed a separate tetrarchy, which contained fourteen towns.
PLACES IN LYCAONIA.
1. Iconium, the most considerable city in Lycaonia. Strabo describes it as a
small but well-inhabited place, situate in a more fertile tract of country than
the northern part of Lycaonia. Mythological writers asserted that the name
of this city was derived from the image (elcKv) of the Gorgon, brought thither
by Perseus. The most interesting circumstances, however, connected with
the b.'.tory of Iconium, are those which relate to St. Paul's preaching there, toinard th3e commencement of his apostolical mission to the Gentiles. In Plin's
timen. Iconiurn had become a more considerable town than when Strabo wrote.
iUnt-r the B7zantine emperors frequent mention is made of this place, but it
h:ad been wrested from them first by the Saracens, and afterward by the Turks
wA-o Ai ad it the capital of an empire, the sovereigns of which took the title of
su'ae,.f Ic conium. The modern name of the place is Konieh, and it is still a
large andi populous town. Near Iconium was the Lake Trogitis, now, according
t   l.ramiton, the Lake of Soghla, or Seidi Schehr. 2. Soatra or Sabatra, to the
northeast, and where, according to Strabo, water was so scarce as to be an article
for sale. On the neighboring downs were numerous wild asses. 3 Derbe, to




AsIA.                            651
the southeast of Iconium, the residence and capital of Antipater. It was called
by,::.e Delbia, which, in the Lycaonian language, signified " the Juniper." It
corresponds, according to Hamilton, to the modern Divle. 4. Lystra, to the
northwest, and nearer to Iconium. Both Lystra and Derbe are mentioned in
the Acts of the Apostles, in connection with the history of St. Paul. The ruins
of Lystra are, according to Hamilton, at Binbir-Kilisseh, or "the one thousand
churhehes." 5. Laranda, to the southeast of Derbe, the birth-place of Nestor,
an epic poet. and father of Pisander, also a poet, and of greater celebrity. It is
now Larenda or Karaman, the former name being in use among the Christian
i;llabitants, the latter being the Turkish appellation.
ISAURIA.
1. Isauria, lying to the southeast of Lycaonia, was a wild and mountainous
country, and is mentioned by Strabo as a part of Lycaonia. The character of
the inhabitants partook of the nature of their land and climate. They descended into the level country, and ravaged and plundered wherever they could overcome the resistance of the inhabitants of the valleys, whether in Cilicia, Phry
gia, or Pisidia. These marauding habits rendered them so formidable to their
neighbors that the Roman senate was obliged at length to send a considerable
force against them, under the command of P. Servilius, who, after several campaigns, and a laborious and harassing warfare, succeeded in taking most of
their fort-esses, and in reducing them to submission. He obtained a triumph
for these successes, and the surname of Isauricus.
II. Subsequently we find them still continuing to infest their neighbors, which
induced Amyntas, the Lycaonian tetrarch, to attempt their extirpation. In this
project, however, he lost his life; and they continued to defy the power of Rome
anew from the difficult nature of their country, and the celerity of their moveinents. To the Greek emperors they proved particularly formidable, since whole
armies ae said to have been cut to pieces by these hardy mountaineers. They
once had the honor of giving an emperor to the East, Zeno, surnamed the Isaurian; but they were subsequently much reduced by Anastasius, and were no
longer formidable in the time of Justinian.
PLACES     IN  ISAURIA.
1. Isaura, the principal place, on the road between Iconium and Anemurium
in Cilicia, and to the southwest of the former. The inhabitants, after a brave
resistance to the forces of Perdiccas, who wished to avenge the death of a Macedonian governor slain by them, destroyed themselves and all their property by
the flames. Being subsequently rebuilt, the place was again destroyed by P.
Serviljus. The Romans having after this ceded the ruined city to Amyntas,
the latter built a new Isaura near the old town, and out of its ruins. Hence
the distinction which the ancient geographers make between Isaura Vetus and
Isaura Euerces (evepKlcf, " the well-fortified"), the latter being the appellation of
the new city. D'Anville makes Isaura Vetus answer to the modern Bei-Schehr,
and Isaura Euerces to Sidi Schehr; Hamilton, however, more correctly identities the ruins of Isaura with those at Zengi Bor. 2. Car&lia, to the northwest,
at the upper extremity of the Lake Caralitis, afterward Pusgusa. This lake
was connected with a smaller one to the southeast, called Trogitis. Caralia
answers now to Kereli. Cramer makes the Lake Trogitis to be now that of
Bei Schehr; Hamilton, however, shows that Kereli and Bei Schehr both lie on
the same lake, and that the Lake Trogitis is now that of Soghla or Seidi Schehr.




652                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ISLANDS ALONG THE COAST OF ASIA MINOR.
(A.) ISLANDS IN THE PROPONTIS.
1. Proconnesus, or the Isle of Stags (FIpoK6vvjaof, i. e., TrpOKuv vcaof), now the
Isle of Marmara, from which last the modern name of the Propontis, "the Sea
of Marmara," is derived. It was much celebrated for its marble quarries, which
supplied most of the public buildings in Cyzicus with their materials, as also thle
palace of King Mausolus in Halicarnassus. The marble was white, with black
streaks intermixed. TIhere was a town of the same name in the island, of which
Aristeas, who wrote a poem on the Arimaspians, was a native. It was burned
by a Phoenician fleet, acting under the orders of Darius, but afterward.rebuilt,
and hence Strabo distinguishes between an old and a new Proconnesus. The
island was subsequently conquered by the people of Cyzicus, who removed thence
the statue of Dindymene. 2. p0hiussa, to the southeast, now Afzia. Cramer's
map gives the modern name as Rabby. 3. Halone, to the south of Proconnesus,
and opposite the mouth of the iEsepus. It is now Aloni, and has still the good
harbor which Scylax anciently ascribed to it.
(B.) ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF MYSIA.
1. IMBROS.
Imbros lay to the northwest of the Sigaeum Promonloriurm, and is now Imbro.
It appears to have been originally occupied by the Pelasgi. The Persians next
obtained possession of it, and after them the Athenians, the latter of whom obtained from this island very excellent light-armed troops. There was a town,
probably of the same name with the island, the ruins of which are to be seen at
a place called Castro.
2. LEMNOS.
I. Lemnos lay to the southwest of Imbros, and is now called Stlimene. This
island is known in mythology as the spot on which Vulcan fell when hurled from
heaven, and where he first established his forges. A volcano, named Mosychlus, which once was burning here, appears to have given rise to the fable. A
story is also recorded of the women of Lemnos having murdered all the male
inhabitants, and of the island's having been found in their possession by the Argonatits, when the latter touched there.
II. Lemnos was first occupied by the Sintians, a Thracian tribe. To these
succeeded the Pelasgi, who had been driven out of Attica. These Pelasgi subsequently stole some Attic females from Brauron and carried them to Lemnos;
and it is said that the children of these women having despised their half brethren, born of Pelasgian women, the Pelasgi took the resolution of murdering both
the Athenian females and their offspring. In consequence of all these atrocities, Iemnos had a bad name among the Greeks. The island afterward was
conquered by the Persians, and subsequently taken by the Athenians under
Miltiades.  During the Peloponnesian war it remained in the possession of
Athens, and furnished that state with its best light-armed troops.
III. Lemnos bears evident marks of volcanic origin.  Mosychlus, already
mentioned, is supposed to have been the earliest volcano known to the Greeks.
It was situate on the eastern side of the island, and is thought to have sunk in
the sea a short time after the age of Alexander, along with the little island of
Chrysa, where Philoctetes had once taken up his abode. The western pait of
Lemnos is much more fertile than the eastern; but the whole island is deficient




ASIA.                            653
in timber trees and wood for fuel. The principal harbor, Sant Antonio, is large
and safe. Lemnos was celebrated for a kind of red earth, called ", Lemnian
earth," and supposed to have wonderful medicinal properties, and which is in
equally high repute, for the same reason, among the Greeks and Turks at the
present day. It is shaped into little balls, and stamped with the Turkish governor's seal, whence it has derived the name of terra sigillata, or " sealed earth."
3. TENEDOS.
Tenedos lay off the coast of Troas, about fifty-six miles to the north of Lesbos. The Greeks, according to the legend followed by Virgil, retired to this
island with their fleet preparatory to surprising Troy. It subsequently received
a colony of.Eolians, and became celebrated for the wisdom of its laws and civil
institutions. Aristotle is known to have written on its polity. Subsequently,
on its decline, this island placed itself under the protection of Alexandrea Troas.
At a still later period, it derived again some importance from the granaries
which Justinian caused to be erected there, for the purpose of housing the cargoes of corn brought from Egypt, and intended for Constantinople, but which
were frequently delayed by contrary winds blowing from the Hellespont. Tenedos is now called Tenedo.
4. LESBOS.
I. Lesbos lay just below the Sinus Adramyttenus, and between it and the
Sinus Cumaus. Its modern name is Metelin, which is also that of the ancient
Mytilene, its chief city. Its length is fifty miles, its breadth varies from seven
to fifteen miles. The earliest inhabitants are said to have been Pelasgi. It
was afterward colonized by the JEolians in their great migration, and became
one of the most flourishing and powerful of the Grecian islands. The most
profitable production of Lesbos was wine, which was preferred in many countries to all the other Greek wines. To the present day, the oil and figs of this
island are accounted the best in the Archipelago.
II. The Lesbians were notorious for their dissolute manners; and yet, at the
same time, they had the reputation of high refinement, and distinguished intellectual culture. Poetry and music made great progress among them. The
musicians of Lesbos were deemed the best, generally speaking, in Greece. It
produced some of the first lyric poets-in particular, Alceus and Sappho; several
distinguished philosophers and rhetoricians, such as Theophrastus, Diophanes.
the friend of Tiberius Gracchus, Theophanes, the friend of Pompey, Potamo.
and others; the historian Hellanicus was likewise a native, as well as the
musician Terpander, who invented the lyre with seven chords.
III. Among the cities of Lesbos we may name the following: 1. Mytilene, the
capital, on the eastern coast, having superior advantages as a maritime situation, and possessing two harbors. Besides its natural advantages, it was greatly adorned and beautified by art. It was the native place, also, of Alcaeus and
Sappho, and the historians Hellanicus and Myrsilus. Pittacus, one of the seven
sages of Greece, long presided over its councils and directed its affairs. It is
still a considerable place, called Metelin, and gives name also to the island.
2. Methymna, to the northwest, on the western coast, and next in importance
to Mytilene. It stood near the northernmost point of the island, and vwas only
sixty stadia from the coast of Troas. Arion, the celebrated musician, was born
here. The wine of this place was held in great estimation. The remains of
Methymna are to be seen near the village of Molivo. 3. 2aEirus, a small place,
dependent on Methymna, and situate on the eastern coast, where the island is




654                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
otly twenty stadia broad. 4. Antissa, on the western coast, near the promontory of Sigrium, now Cape Sigri. It was the birth-place of Terpander. 5. Eressus, to the south, on the same coast, and the native place of Theophrastus. It
was famous for the excellence of its wheaten flour. The site still preserves
the name of Eresso. 6. Pyrrha, to the southeast, on the'same side of the island.
It was situate in a deep bay, with a narrow inlet, called from this circumstance
the Euripus of Pyrrha, and which answers now to Port Caloni.
(C.) ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF LYDIA.
1. CHIOS.
I. Chios lay to the south of Lesbos, and facing the Ionian peninsula on which
Clazomene and Erythra were situated. It is separated from the main land by
a channel about eight miles wide. Its length from north to south is about thirty
miles, and its greatest breadth about ten. It is mountainous, especially in the
northern part, the principal summit of which, called anciently Mount Pellineus,
now Mount St. Elias, consists of a long line of bare rocks. The wine of Chios
was celebrated anciently as among the best of the Greek wines, and it still enjoys the same high reputation. The figs of Chios were also excellent. This
island is called by the modern Greeks Chio, and by the Italians Scio. The Turkish name is Saki-Adassi, or " Mastic Island," from the gum mastic which grows
there in abundance, and which is much used at Constantinople, especially by the
ladies of the Seraglio, for chewing.
II. Chios was one of the twelve Ionian states founded by the European colonists from Greece; the population, however, that settled there was not pure
Ionian, but mixed. In the great sea-fight between the Ionian Greeks and the
Persians, 3B.C. 494, which resulted in the entire defeat of the former, the people of Chios alone furnished one hundred ships, and fought bravely. After the
battle, the Persians took possession of the island, which suffered in nearly the
same way that it has again suffered in our own times at the hands of the Turks.
After the close of the Persian war, B.C. 480, the island passed successively
under the dominion of the Athenians, Macedonians, Romans, and Byzantines.
III. Among the places in Chios we may mention, 1. Chios, the chief city,
situate on the eastern side, and nearly in the same latitude with Erythra. Its
modern name is Chio, and it is still the chief town in the island. Chios was a
large and handsome city, adorned with many noble works of art, several of
which were plundered by Verres. The harbor was excellent, and could contain eighty galleys at once. Passing around the promontory of Posidium, now
Cape S. Helen, we come to, 2. Phance, a harbor and promontcry. The latter is
now Cape Mastico. The wine of this district was in high repute, and is alluded to by Virgil. 3. Notium, a roadstead, now Port Mastico. 4. Laius Portus,
now Port Mesta. Inland, and extending to the north, was the district Ariusia,
producing the best wine. 5. Bolissus, toward the northwestern extremity of
Chios, mentioned in the pseudo-Life of Homer, and now represented by the village of Volisso.
2. SAMOS.
I. Sdmos lay to the southeast of Chios, and a short distance to the northwest
of the Trogilian promontory of Ionia. It is now called Samo by tre modern
Greeks, and by the Turks Sussam-Adassi. Strabo says the word Samos means
a mountainous height, and it may therefore be considered as characterizing the
physical features of the island, which is traversed by a,hain of mountains from
one extremity to the other. Samos was celebrated for its extraordinary fertili



ASIA.                           655
ty, and yielded in abundance almost every product. Its wine, however, was
of inferior quality; though, when properly made at the present day, it is said to
be very superior. Samos still continues to be one of the most productive islands of the Archipelago.
II. Samos was one of the twelve confederate states of Ionia, and very soon
became remarkable for commerce and maritime enterprise. It was particularly distinguished for its ascendency in the time of Polycrates, the most able of
the tyrants of his day, who extended his sway over the neighboring states,
Lesbos, Miletus, &c., and had a larger fleet than any other Grecian prince or
state of his time. After his death, however, the island became a prey to civil
dissensions, and fell into the hands of the Persians. It was released from this
bondage after the battle of Mycale; but its maritime strength was tboken subsequently by Pericles, B.C. 440, who feared in Samos a rival to Athens. DXrinZg
the contest between Mark Antony and Augustus, Samos was for a whilo the
head-quarters of the former and Cleopatra, who kept court here with more than
regal magnificence. After Augustus had become the master of the Roman
world, he passed a winter in this island, which he restored. to its freedom, and
conferred on it other marks of favor. This island is particularly distinguished
as having given birth to the celebrated Pythagoras.
III. The only place to be mentioned in this island is Samos, the capital, on
the southeastern shore, opposite to the Terogilian promontory. The citadel,
built by Polycrates, was called Astypalaa.  This city stood in a plain, rising
gradually from the sea toward a hill situate at some distance from it. The harbor was secure and convenient for ships. Near the suburbs was a temple of
Juno, a goddess to whom the whole island was especially sacred, and here, too,
the Heraean games, instituted in her honor, were celebrated in the greatest
splendor. They were so called from "Hpa, the Greek appellation of the goddess. The ruins of this city are to be seen near Megalochora, the present capital of the island. The promontory of Posidium was a little to the north, facing
Mycale, and the distance across to the main land was only seven stadia. In the
contre of the island was Mount Ampelus, now Ambelona; and on the western side
was Mount Cercetius now Kerki, mentioned by Nicander in his Alexipharmaca.
3. ICARIA.
Icaria, or Icarus, lay to the southwest of Samos. Mythology deduced the name
from Icarus, son of Daedalus, whose body was washed upon its shores after the
unfortunate termination cf his flight. The sea to the south, into which he was
fabled to have fallen, was also called from him Mare Icarium. Icaria was of
small extent, being long but narrow. In Strabo's time it was thinly inhabited,
and the Samians used it principally for the pasturage of cattle. The geographer adds that it possessed no harbors, but only a roadstead or two, the best
of which was near a promontory called Isti, in the south. The northeastern
point of the island was called the promontory of Dracanum, now Cape Phanari
or St. John. Dracanum was also the name of a mountain in this island, where
Bacchus, according to some traditions, was said to have been born.  Icaria
was much celebrated for its wine, especially that called Pramnian. The modern name of the island is Nicaria.
(D.) ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF CARIA.
1. PATMOS, LEROS, CALYMNA, AND COS.
1. Patmos was a small rocky island, below Icaria and Samos. It appears to
have had no place which deserved the name of a city; but it became a spot of




6o56                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
soRme consequence in the early history of the Church, from St. John's having
lcpen banished to it, and having there written his Apocalypse. The modern
narme is Patmo. 2. Leros lay to the southeast of Patmos. It was peopled from
Miletus, and probably belonged to that city. Strabo gives its inhabitants a character for dishonesty. The modern name is Lero. 3. Calymna lay to the southeast of Leros. Ovid praises its honey. It is supposed to have belonged to the
group.which Homer calls Calydnaz. The modern name is Calimno. 4. Cos, to
the southeast, an island of some celebrity. It must have been inhabited at an
early period, since Homer represents it as sending its warriors to the siege of
Troy. It was subsequently colonized by a party of Dorians, and hence was
always reckoned of Dorian origin, and obtained a place in the Triopian Pentapolis. Its chief city was also called Cos, without the walls of which was a celebrated temple of.Esctlapius, containing two famous paintings of Apelles, the
Antigonus and Venus Anadyomene. Augustus removed the latter to Rome,
and remitted to the Coans, as a compensation for the loss, a tribute of one hundred talents. Cos was the birth-place not only of Apelles, but also of the celebrated physician Hippocrates. It was a very productive island, especially in
wine, which vied with that of Lesbos and Chios. Cos was likewise celebrated
for its purple dye, and for its manufacture of a species of transparent silk stuff,
against the use of which by the Romans Juvenal so strongly inveighs. The
modern name of the island is Stan-Co.
2. RHODUS.
I. RhSdus, now Rhodes, lay to the south of Caria, and about ten miles from
the main land. It is'thirty-six miles in length, and about fourteen in breadth.
Rhodes was in ancient times sacred to the sun, and was celebrated for its serene sky, its soft climate, fertile soil, and fine fruits. The statement of Pliny,
that scarcely a day passed without more or less sunshine, is confirmed by the
present inhabitants.  Anciently many articles of commerce were exported,
which were in much esteem among the Greeks and Romans, in the number of
which Pliny and other authors mention dried raisins, saffron, oil, glue, pitch,
honey, and wine. The sea supplied every kind of fish. No country, moreover,
could boast of having given to the public games of Greece so many successful
competitors for the prize.
II. The earliest inhabitants of Rhodes were the Telchines, by whom most
probably are meant the Phoenicians. Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, subsequently led a colony hither; but the main emigration was that made by the Dorians,
who established themselves in this island about B.C. 988, and Rhodes, with its
three cities of Lindus, Camirus, and Ialysus, became a part of the Doric coniederacy. The history of this island can only be glanced at here. After being
originally governed by kings, its constitution was changed to a mixed one, combining the elements of democracy and aristocracy in a balanced state. Its naval power was of gradual growth, and it was frequently brought into collision
with foreign powers; but its most rapid rise was after the repulse of Demet.rius Poliorcetes, B.C. 303. Subsequently, in the war waged by the Romans
against Antiochus, the Rhodian navy was of great service to the former, who,
in gratitude to their new allies, gave the Rhodians Caria and Lycia. From this
time, however, the prosperity of the Rhodians began to decline. Her recentlyacquired continental possessions resisted her sway, and in their struggles appeali..g from time to time to the Roman senate, gave that body an opportunity of practicing their usual policy of interference. After various vicissitudes,




ASIA.                            657
Rhodes was incorporated by Vespasian in a Previncia Insularlim, of which it
was probably the seat of government.
III. The commercial laws of the Rhodians were very celebrated, and were
adopted as the basis of marine law on all the coasts of the Mediterranean, and
some fragments of them still retain their authority. In the most flourishing
period of the island, the city of Rhodes, like Alexandrea at the same time, was
a place of resort for learned men from all countries, and a very similar style
of literature sprang up in both places. Rhodes was particularly distinguished
as the parent of a new style of oratory, which the ancients considered of a mixed
or Graeco-Asiatic type.
PLACES IN RHODES.
I. Rhodus, the capital, at the northeastern extremity of the island. It was not
so ancient as the three Dorian cities, Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus, having
been founded, according to Strabo, at the time of the Peloponnesian war. The
same writer affirms that it excelled all other cities in the beauty and convenience of its ports, which were two in number, its streets, walls, and public edifices. The most extraordinary work, however, at this place, was the famous
Colossus of the Sun. It was of bronze, cast by Chares of Lindus, a pupil of
Lysippus, and occupied him twelve years. Its height was seventy cubits, or
one hundred and five Grecian feet, and few men could encompass the thumb
with their arms; the fingers also were thicker than ordinary statues. The cost
was three hundred talents ($317,000), and the money was obtained from the
sale of the machines and military engines which Demetrius Poliorcetes had
left behind him when he raised the siege of Rhodes. The statue is said, though
on no good authority, to have stood with distended legs upon the two moles
that formed the entrance of the inner harbor. It was erected B.C. 280, and
was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world. After having stood
about fifty-six years, it was broken off below the knees, and thrown down by an
earthquake; and it remained in this state for the space of eight hundred and
ninety-six years, until, in the year 672 of our era, it was sold by the Saracens to
a Jewish merchant of Edessa, who loaded nine hundred camels with the bronze.
II. Lindus, to the south, and on the eastern coast. It was one of the three
Dorian cities, and contained a temple of Minerva, of the highest antiquity, since
it was said to have been founded by Danaus. The statue of the goddess was a
shapeless stone. This city was famous for having produced Cleobulus, one of
the seven sages. It still retains the name of Lindo. Inland from Lindus was
Mount Atabyris, the most elevated in the island, whence Jupiter obtained the
surname of Atabyrius. 3. Camirus, on the opposite side of the island, and in a
line with Lindus. Homer gives it the epithet of" chalky." Pisander, the epic
poet, was a native of this place. The modern name is Camiro. Near Camirus
was the Mylantia Promontorium, now Cape Candura. 4. Ialysus, to the northeast, founded at the same time with Lindus and Camirus. The site, however,
had previously -been occupied by the Phoenicians. Its citadel, named Ochyroma,
lay on an adjacent hill. The site of this place is still called Ialiso.
(E.) ISLAND OFF THE COAST OF CILICIA.
CYPRUS.
I. Cyprus, called by the Turks Kibris, lay off the coast of Cilicia, and a short
distance to the west of Syria. Its length is one hundred and forty miles, its
greatest breadth is about fifty miles. A range of mountains runs through the
TT




658                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
island in the direction of its'length, keeping closer to the northern than the
southern coast; the plains are consequently on the south side of the range.
This range was called Olympus by the ancients. Cyprus yielded to no other
island in fertility, since it produced excellent wine and oil, and abundance of
wheat, and various fruits. There was also a great supply of timber for building ships. Its mineral productions were likewise very rich, especially copper,
found at Tamasus, and supposed to be alluded to in the Odyssey.
II. Cyprus appears to have been colonized by the Phoenicians at an early
period. Ethiopians are also mentioned as forming part of the population; but
it is difficult to say exactly who are designated under this name; probably some
of the tribes south of Egypt, who were taken to Cyprus as slaves, after it came
into the possession of the Egyptians. Greek colonies subsequently settled on
the coast. Amasis, king of Egypt, is said to have invaded Cyprus and taken
Citium. The island became subject to the Persians, and afterward submitted
to Alexander the Great, upon whose death it fell with Egypt to the share of
Ptolemy, son of Lagus. It continued under the Ptolemies, sometimes united
with Egypt, and sometimes under a separate prince of the same dynasty. The
last of these princes, brother to Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, incurred the
enmity of P. Clodius Pulcher, who, being taken prisoner by the Cilician pirates,
sent to the king of Cyprus for money to pay his ransom. The king sent a sum
which was too little. Clodius, having recovered his liberty by other means, obtained a decree, when he became tribune of the commons, for reducing Cyprus
to a Roman province. M. Cato was sent to take possession of it. The king,
on hearing of this design, put himself to death, before Cato's arrival. Cato seized
upon the treasury, which was well filled, and sent a large booty to Rome. Cyprus thus became a Romar province.
III. Cyprus was deemed:acred to Venus, and, as might be anticipated from
the worship and rites of this goddess, the inhabitants were sensual and corrupt.
Nevertheless, literature and the arts flourished here to a considerable extent,
even at an early period, as the name of the Cypria Carmina, ascribed by some,
though erroneously, to Homer, sufficiently attests.
PLACES IN CYPRUS.
COMMENCING with the Acamas Promontorium, at the western extremity, no
Cape Amant or Salizano, and which is formed by the termination of a ridge called Acamantis, connected with the main one of Olympus, we pass southward,
by the promontory of Drepanum, now Cape Trepano, and come to, 1. Paphos,
sacred to Venus, and said to have been founded by Agapenor, an Arcadian
chief, who was driven hither by a storm on his return from Troy. Having been
nearly overthrown by an earthquake, it was restored by Augustus, and named
Augusta. It was the seat of government when the island was visited by St.
Paul. The site is still called Baffo. 2. Palce-Paphos, a short distance to the
southeast of the former. This was the earlier city of the two, and was said to
have been founded by Cinyras, the reputed father of Adonis. It was situate on
a height, at a distance of ten stadia from the sea, and near the little river Bocsarus, which flowed from the ridge of Acamantis. Like Paphos, it was sacred
to Venus, and even after the erection of the former place, retained its pre-eminence in sanctity, and in the annual festival of the goddess the road to it was
crowded with her votaries, who resorted here from the other towns. It is said
to correspond with the site of Conclia. 3. Curium, to the southeast, founded
by an Argive colony. Its sovereign, Stesenor, is stigmatized in history as having betrayed his country's cause during the fight between the Cyprians and




ASIA.                            659
Persians, toward the close of the Ionian revolt. The site corresponds with the
modern Episcopia. The hills in the vicinity contained rich veins of copper ore.
The Curias Promontorium is now Cape Gatto. 4. Amdthus, a short distance to
the southeast of Curium, and a town of great antiquity. Adonis was worshipped
here as well as Venus. Amathus was a favorite residence of the latter, andi
the goddess was represented here with a beard. Ovid more than once alludes
to the mineral productions of Amathus, and Hipponax, as quoted by Strabo,
makes it to have been famous for its wheat. Its ruins are near the little town
of Limeson or Limasol.
5. Citium, to the east, one of the most ancient towns of the island, and
whence the name of Chetim or Chittim is not unreasonably supposed to have
been derived. Diogenes Laertius, in his Life of Zeno, makes this place to have
been a Phoenician settlement, a circumstance which is confirmed by Cicero. It
was celebrated for having given birth to Zeno, the founder of the Stoic sect,
and the physician Apollonius. It still retains the name of Chiti. 6. Idilium, a
height and grove, the position of which is uncertain. There was also a town
of the same name, which is first referred to by the later scholiasts. Lucan
would seem'to place Idalium on the sea-shore, and, if this be correct, it may
have been situated near the promontory of Pedalium, now Cape Pila. Cramer,
following D'Anville, places it inland, and makes it answer to the modern Dalin.
The Idalian grove was the favorite abode of Venus; and here, too, Adonis was
slain by the tusk of the wild boar. 7. Leucolla, now Armida, near the promontory of Ammochostos, now Cape Grego. The ancient name of this cape seems
to have been transferred by corruption to the neighboring town of Farnagosta,
which figures in the modern annals of the island. 8. Salamis, to the northeast,
a city of note and of considerable antiquity, said to have been founded by Teucer,
son of Telamon, when driven from the island of Salamis by his irritated parent;
for not having avenged the wrongs of his half-brother Ajax. During the reign.
of Euagoras it was the principal city of the island, and was the rendezvous of
distinguished men from Greece and other countries. Overwhelmed by an
earthquake in the time of Constantine, it was restored under the name of Constantia, which it still preserves under the modern form of Constanza. 9. Soli,
on the northern shore, founded by Demophon, son of Theseus. It derives celebrity from Solon's having resided there some years, at the court of Philocyprus,
the reigning prince. According to some, he ended his days there. The inhabitants were called o62tot, while those of Soli in Cilicia were termed ZoREtl.
The site is now called Solea. 10. Tdmdsus, to the southeast, in the interior
of the island, celebrated for its rich mines of copper, and the metallic composition prepared on the spot, called calcanthum. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, alludes to it as the spot where the golden apples grew by which Hippomanes won
Atalanta.
II. SYRIA, INCLUDING PH(ENICIA AND PALESTINE.
SYRIA.
1. Syria (lj Xvpia) was the Greek and Roman name for that
country of Asia which forms the whole or a part of the district
called in the Bible Aram. By the Europeans it is still called
Syria, but the Asiatics term    it Belad el Sham, or' the counr
try to the left."    The Mohammedans of Mecca direct their




660             ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
faces to the rising sun when they pray, and then Syria is to
their left.
II. In the most usual application of the word, Syria was the
district bounded on the north by the range of Amanus, on the
west by the Mediterranean, on the east by the Euphrates and
Arabia, and on the south by Arabia and Egypt. The name
Syria is probably a shortened form of Assyria.
III. The Syrians (not including the inhabitants of Phoenicia and Palestine under the name) derived their descent from'Aram, the youngest son of Seth. The earliest records represent Syria as consisting of a number of independent kingdoms.
The conquests of David brought these into subjection to the
kingdom of Israel; but they again became independent at the
close of Solomon's reign B.C. 975. The kingdom of Damascus
became by degrees especially powerful. This kingdom was
overthrown by the Assyrians, and from this time Syria formed
in succession a part of the Assyrian, Bablyonian, Persian, and
Macedonian empires. After the battle of Ipsus (B.C. 301), Syria, with the exception of Coele-Syria and Palestine, fell to the
share of Seleucus Nicator, and henceforth it became the central
portion of the kingdom of the Seleucidae, its capital being Antiochia. It was declared a Roman province by Pompey in the
year 65 B.C.
IV. The situation of Syria is peculiar. This country may
be regarded as an isthmus, separating a sea of water (the Mediterranean) from a sea of sand (the desert of Arabia). It was
well watered by numerous small streams; but the only large
river was the Orontes or Axius, now the Aasi, rising in Mount
Libanus, and flowing from south to north. The products of ancient Syria were corn, fruits of various kinds, oil, wine, cedar
wood from Libanus, fuller's earth, &c.
V. Under the Macedonian kings Syria was divided into four
parts or tetrarchies, which were named after their capitals, Antiochia, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea.  Both the Greeks
and Romans, however, called the northern part of Syria, that
ii, the whole of the country with the exception of Ccele-Syria,
Phoenicia, and Palestine, by the general name of Upper Syria
(1 EVo) yvpla, Syria Superior), to distinguish it from COleSyria (rj Coi~j ylvpia) or Hollow Syria, which was the name
given to the valley between the ridges of Libanus and Antilib



ASIA.                           661
anus.   Under the Romans, Upper Syria was divided into nine
districts, namely, Cassiotis, Apamene, Chalcidice, Seleucisj
Pieria, Commnagene, Cyrrhestice, Chalybonitis, and Palmyrene.
PLACES IN UPPER SYRIA.
I. DISTRICT of Cassidtis.-This lay below the mouth of the Orontes, and toon
its name from Mount Casius, now Jcbel Okrab. The ancients give exaggerated
accounts of the height of this mountain, that the rising sun could be seen from
it at the beginning of the fourth night-watch. It is, however, only five thousand three hundred and eighteen feet above the level of the sea. On its sumr
mit was a celebrated temple of Jupiter Casius, in which several Roman emperors sacrificed. In this district we may mention, 1. Gabala, with a harbor, an&
the remains of an amphitheatre; now Jebili. It is the Giblim of Joshua (xiii.,
5). 2. Laodicea ad Mare, to the north, so named to distinguish it from Laodicea
ad Libanum. It *was built by Seleucus Nicator in honor of his mother. The
adjacent territory was celebrated for its wine. This place was greatly beautiy
fied by the Emperor Severus, after Pescennius Niger had laid it waste. It is
now Latikia.
II. District of Apamene, to the southeast of Cassiotis, and along the course
of the Orontes. We have here, 1. Emesa, near a lake formed by the Orontesd
and celebrated for its temple of Elagabalus, or the Sun-god, whose young priest
became, under the same name, emperor of Rome. The sun was worshipped
here under the shape of a black round stone, rising to a point. In later times
it was the capital of the new province of Phoenicia Libani. It was here that.
the great battle was fought between the Emperor Aurelian and Zenobia, queent
of Palmyra. The modern name is Hems. 2. Epiphania, to the northwest, o'r
the Orontes. It is the Hamath of the Bible. The modern name is Hamah. It
the Middle Ages it was the seat of an Arabian dynasty, to which Abulfeda the
geographer belonged. 3. Apamea, the capital, and giving name to the district;
situate on the Orontes, to the northwest. It was founded by Antigonus, and
first called Pella, from the birth-place of Alexander, a name which Seleucus Nicator changed to Apamea in honor of his queen Apama. Seleucus is said to
have kept five hundred war elephants in the adjacent pastures.  It is now
Kalaat el Medyk, or Famieh. 4. Seleucia ad Belum, to the northwest, near Mount.
Belus, and on the Orontes. It was afterward called Seleucopolis. It is probably the modern Seljun. 5. Antiochia, to the northwest, on the Orontes, now
Antioch or Antakia. It was founded by Seleucus Nicator, and intended as the
capital not only of Syria, but even of all Asia. He called it Antiochia after his
father Antiochus, and transplanted hither the inhabitants of the neighboring
city of Antigonia, which had been founded by his opponent Antigonus. It was
afterward increased by the addition of three other cities, each with its separate
walls, and having a common one inclosing all; so that in Strabo's time Rome
was regarded as the first, Seleucia ad Tigrim as the second, and this Antiochia
and Alexandrea in Egypt as the third in rank among the cities of the known.
world. Antiochia was subsequently destroyed by Chosroes, king of Persia, but
restored by Justinian, if not to its former size, at least to its original splendor,
Having been again ravaged by the Egyptian sultan in A.D. 1269, it sunk into
the present wretched town of Antakia. Antioch is intimately connected with
the early history of Christianity, the doctrines of which were planted in it by




562                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Paul and Barnabas, and in it also the term Christian had its origin as a distinctive appellation. Hence Antioch was sometimes called, from this circumstance,
Theopolis, or the Sacred City. About five miles below Antioch was a delightful
grove, with refreshing fountains, and a temple sacred to Apollo and Diana. The
name of the place was Daphne, whence- Antioch is sometimes called, for distinction' sake, Antiochia ad Daphnen.
III. District of Chalcidice, to the north of Apamene, and east of the Orontes.
It took its name from Chalcis, the capital, situate on a lake formed by the Rivei
Chalus, to the southwest of Bercea. Chalcis was not a place of much importance, although greatly beautified by the Emperor Justinian. The adjacent territory was extremely fruitful. Its ruins are near the modern Kinnasrin.
IV. District of Seleucis, north of the mouth of the Orontes, and taking its name
from its capital Seleucia. This city lay on a mountain ridge, near the shore, and
about a mile from the Orontes. It was built originally by Seleucus Nicator as
an impregnable fort, and having bravely defended itself subsequently against
Tigranes, king of Armenia, was declared a free city by Pompey. Seleucus was
buried here. Its ruins are near Kepse. Besides this place we may name Imma,
to the east, where Aurelian gained his first victory over Zenobia. It answers
now to Cuph.
V. District of PiZria, lying on the Sinus Issicus, and reaching on the north to
the Syrice Pyle. It took its name from Mount Pierius, a chain branching off
to the south from Amanus. We may mention here, 1. Rhosus, now Rozos.
2. Pagrce, just below the Syrian pass. Myriandrus and Alexandrea have already been mentioned under the head of Cilicia, to which they more properly
belong.
VI. District of Commagene, the northernmost division of Syria, of small extent, but extremely fertile. We may mention in it, 1. Samosata, the capital, and
residence of the early petty kings, situate on the western bank of the Euphrates.
It was the birth-place of Lucian, and of Paul the heretic. It is now Schemisath. 2. Adata, near Mount Amanus; afterward called Germanicea, and by the
Romans Germanicea Ccasarea, in honor of the Emperor Caligula. At a still later
period it was called Telesaura, and is now Marah. It was the birth-place of the
heretic Nestorius. It was here that Pescennius Niger assumed the imperial
dignity. 3. Antiochia ad Taurun, in the northwestern angle of Amanus. Prob
ably the modern frontier fortress of Bahasna.
VII District of Cyrrheslice, named after a district in Macedonia. It extended from the plain of Antioch eastward to the Euphrates. We may name here,
1. Zeugma, the general place for crossing the Euphrates after the time of Alexander; near the modern Bir, which, on the opposite side of the river, answers
to Birtha or Seleucia. In more ancient times the crossing was usually made at
Thapsacus, lower down.  2. Hierapolis, or the Holy City, so called from the
great Syrian goddess Derceto or Atargatis being highly revered here. She had
in this city a splendid temple, the treasury of wliich was rifled by Crassus in his
Parthian expedition. At the introduction of Christianity it lost all its splendor.
Its Syrian name was Mabog, or, the city of cotton," from the cotton cultivated
abundantly in its vicinity. Out of this name the Greeks made their appellation
of Bambyce (rj Ba#6b;nc), which they also employed, together with that of Hierapolis. It is now Mambej. 3. Beroca, to the southwest, called by the Syrians
Chalep, which latter name still remains in the modern Aleppo, the most important town of modern Syria. Here was the River Chalus, already referred to,
now the Kovaik, anciently full of sacred fish.  4. Cyrrhus, to the north, the
capital of the district, with a temple of Minerva Cyrrhestica.




A   IA.                          663
VIII. District of Chalybonitis, anciently a fertile strip of country on the west
bank of the Euphrates, between the river and the Syrian desert, but now swallowed up by the sands of the latter. We may mention here, 1. Barbalissus, a
castle on the Euphrates, now Balis, less correctly placed by D'Anville on the
Daradax. 2. Resipha, to the southeast, afterward Sergiopolis; now El-Ressafa.
3. Thapsacus, to the southeast, a celebrated city and fording-place on the Euphrates, and the Thaphsach of Scripture, a name denoting " a passage." Seleucus Nicator subsequently gave the city the name of Amphipolis. The Syriac
name is said to have been Turmeda. This was the most usual ford or crossing
place of the Euphrates for those going into Upper Asia, and here the army of
the younger Cyrus crossed, as related by Xenophon. Here, also, at a subsequent period, the immense host of Darius Codomannus passed over; when
marching into Lower Asia against Alexander; as well as the army of the latter
when moving upward after the battle of Issus. Eratosthenes, moreover, chose
this place for the centre of his measures of Asia. The site of Thapsacus is
nearly opposite the modern Racca. Geographers generally err in removing it
to El-Der.
IX. District of Palmyrene, to the south, once partially irrigated and cultivated,
cow, however, forming a portion of the desert. It derived its name from its
capital Palmyra. This celebrated city was situated about midway between the
Orontes and Euphrates, and about one hundred and forty miles E.N.E. of Danascus, in an oasis supplied with wholesome water, and on aline leading from
the coast of Syria to the regions of Mesopotamia, Persia, and India. The
Phoenicians were probably early acquainted with the spot, as a convenient halting place in the desert, and are thought to have suggested to Solomon the idea
of building an emporium there. That monarch accordingly built " Tadmor in
the wilderness." This Tadmor is the same as Palmyra, both names being derived
from the palm-trees which grew here in abundance. In the time of Pliny, Palmyra was the intermediate emporium of the trade with the east, a city of merchants and factors, who traded with the Parthians on the one hand and the
Romans on the other. The produce of India found its way to the Roman world
through this city. Palmyra became allied to the Roman empire as a free state,
and continued to be a splendid and flourishing city until the defeat of its aspiring
Queen Zenobia by the Emperor Aurelian. It was on this occasion that the
celebrated Longinus, her minister, was put to death. Zenobia herself was led
captive to Rome, and was allowed to spend the remainder of her days near the
town of Tibur. Palmyra still continued to exist, though shorn of much of its
former splendor, until plundered and destroyed in A.D. 1400 by the army of
Tamerlane. Since that period it has been in a ruined and desolate state, but
its remains are described by travellers as exceedingly imposing.
C(E LE-SYRIA.
I. COle-Syria (rj KOiA'7 lvpta), or " Hollow Syria," comprised
the valley betwen the mountain chains of Libanus and Antilibanus.   The name took its rise under the Seleucidae; for in
earlier times it formed part of the kingdom of Damascus; then,
under David and Solomon, a part of the kingdom of Israel; and
from the time of Cyrus to'that of Alexander the Great, a part
of the Persian monarchy. Under the later Roman emperors
the name was no longer used, this country being incorporated




664                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
as a province with Phenicia Libani.       Ccele-Syria is now called
El-Bakaah, or "the Valley."         Its average width is fifteen
miles.
II. Libanus separated Ccele-Syria from       Phcenicia, and extended in a direction east of north from a little below the parallel of Tyrus nearly up to that of Aradus. It abounded anciently in excellent pastures, and fine forests of cedar. A few
spots in the range still afford good pasturage at the present day,
but the cedars, " the glory of Lebanon," have nearly all disappeared. The name Libanus is derived from an Oriental root,
signifying " white," the reference being not only to the snowy
summits of the chain, but also to the whitish complexion of
the calcareous soil. Libanus is now called Jebel Libnah, but
more commonly, among the natives, Jebel esh-Sharki, or " the
Western Mountain," in contradistinction to Antilibanus, which
is styled Jebel el-Gharbi, or "the Eastern Mountain."           The
range of Antilibanus lay to the east of, and, as its name imports, "opposite to Libanus," though commencing much farther to the south.     Nearly opposite to Damascus, this chain
separates into two ridges, the easternmost one of which is the
Ilermon of Scripture, now      Jebel esh-Sheikh, or "the Chief's
Mountain."      In Scripture, the name Lebanon is applied indifferently to both Libanus and Antilibanus.
PLACES IN C(ELE-SYRIA.
1. Damascus (the Dammesek of Scripture), at the foot of the range of Antilibanus, in a beautiful and extensive plain, watered by the Bardines or Chrysorrhoas
and its branches. This river is thought to be the Pharphar of the Bible. Damascus is one of the most ancient cities in the world, and existed as early as
the days of Abraham; and, though often taken and devastated, it has always
risen again and flourished. Under Dioclesian several manufactories of arms
were established here, and it is probable that the high reputation to which it
afterward attained for its sword-blades may have had its first foundations laid
in this arrangement of the Roman emperor. Damascus was also made at this
time a general dep6t for munitions of war, and a military post against the inroads of the eastern nations. Under Julian it became a magnificent city; and
in the seventh century it was for some time the seat of the califs. All modern
travellers speak of its delightful situation. The natives call it Es-Sham, or
Syria, according to the practice of designating the chief town by the name of
the country itself. 2. Heliopolis, to the northwest, called by the Syrians Baalbec, and now Balbec: The Syriac name is supposed to mean " the city (or house)
of Baal," of which the Greek Heliopolis is a mere translation. By Baal, in
Asiatic idolatry, was originally meant the Lord of the Universe, of whom the
Sun was subsequently taken as the type. Heliopolis was famed for its temple
Of Jupiter erected by Antoninus Pius, magnificent ruins of which still remain;




ASIA.                           665
Venus was also revered in this city, and its maidens were therefore said to be
the fairest in the land. By Venus is here meant the Syrian Astarte. 3. Aphaca,
to the northwest, in the mountain range of Libanus, having a celebrated temple of Venus (Astarte), near which was a lake, the waters of which had the
property of keeping even the heaviest bodies, when thrown therein, from sinking. The temple was destroyed by Constantine the Great. The ruins of the
city are at a place called Afka.  4. Laodicea ad Libanum, to the northeast,
founded by Seleucus Nicator. It lay in the plain watered by and named after
the River Marsyas, a tributary of the Orontes. The Romans made it the chief
city of the district. It was also called Laodicea Scabiosa (2Ka6ioaa), for which
Ptolemy gives Ka&ioaa (Cahiosa).
P H CE N I C I A.
I. Phoenicia, in Greek      otrvitc1 (Phonice), extended along
the coast of Syria, from the River Eleutherus, and the city and
island of Aradus, on the north, to the River Clorseus, near
Ccesarea, at the foot of Mount Carmel, in the south.           The
length, therefore, was only thirty-five geographical miles. The
breadth was very limited, the mountain range of Libanus forming its utmost barrier to the east. The country was in general sandy and hilly, and not well adapted for agriculture, but,
to counterbalance this, the coast abounded in good harbors, the
fisheries were excellent, while the mountain ranges in the interior afforded, in their cedar-forests, a rich supply of timber for
naval and other purposes. Hence the early proficiency which
the Phoenicians made in navigation, and hence the flourishing
commercial cities which covered the whole line of coast.
II. The native name of Phoenicia, as appears from the Phcenician coinatge, was Kenaan (the Canaan of Scripture), and the
people themselves were called Kenaanim.        The name Phoenicia or Phoenice is of Grecian, not Oriental origin, ard was given
by the Greeks to this country either from the number of palmtrees (aoivet,  a palm-tree") which grew there, so that Phcenicia will signify " the land of palms," or else, as Gesenius thinks,
from fooivIt, in its sense of "purple," making Phoenicia therefore mean " the land of the purple dye," in allusion to the famous purple or crimson of Tyre.
SKETCH OF PH(ENICIAN HISTORY.
I. THE Phoenicians were a branch of the Aramaean or Semitic race. To this
same great family the Hebrews and Arabians belonged, as well as the inhabitants of the wide plain between the northern waters of the Euphrates and Tigris.
The Phoenicians themselves, according to their own account, came originally
from the shores of the Persian Gulf; and Strabo informs us, that in the isles of
Tyrus and Aradus, in the gulf just named, were found temples similar to those




666                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
of the Phoenicians; and that the inhabitants of these isles claimed the cities of
Tyrus and Aradus, on the coast of Phoenicia, as colonies of theirs.
II. It is uncertain what time they migrated to the coast of the Mediterranean,
but it must have been at a very early period, since Sidon was a great city in
the time of Joshua. The Phoenicians far surpassed all the other nations of antiquity in commercial enterprise. Their greatness as a commercial people was
chiefly owing to their peculiar natural advantages. Their situation at the extremnty of the Mediterranean enabled them to supply the western nations with
the different commodities of the east, which were brought to Tyre by caravans
from Arabia and Babylon; while their own country produced many of the most
valuable articles of commerce in ancient times. Off the coast the shell-fish was
caught which produced the purple, the most celebrated dye known to the ancients; and the sand on the sea-shore was well adapted for the making of glass.
Mount Libanus supplied them with abundance of timber for ship-building, and
the useful metals were obtained in the iron and copper mines of Sarepta.
III. In the west they visited not only Britain for tin, but also the shores of
the Baltic for amber; and on the northern coast of Africa, in Spain, Sicily, and
Malta, thy planted numerous colonies, which they supplied with the produce of
the East. Their settlements in Sicily and Africa became powerful states, and
long opposed a formidable barrier to the Roman armies. By their alliance with
the Jewish state in the time of Solomon, they were enabled to sail to Ophir,
where they obtained the produce of India. Herodotus even says that they circumnavigated Africa.
IV. The Greeks attributed the invention of letters to the Phoenicians. There
can be no doubt, however, that they attained to great perfection in the arts in
very early times. The Tyrians supplied Solomon with all kinds of artificers to
assist in the building of the temple at Jerusalem; and the workmanship of the
artists of Sidon was celebrated in the Greek-towns of Asia Minor as early as
the time of Homer.
V. The Phoenician cities appear to have been originally independent of one
another, and to have possessed, for the most part, a monarchical form of government. The oldest of these cities was Sidon; but Tyre became in later times
the most important, and probably exercised some degree of authority over the
other states. After the conquest of Samaria and Judaea, the Phoenicians became subject in succession to the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian monarchies. In the wars between the Greeks and Persians, they.formed the chief
and most efficient portion of the Persian navy. They afterward became part
of the dominions of the Seleucidae, and were eventually included in the Ronln
province of Syria. The language of the Phoenicians closely resembled the lebrew and Aramaic.
PLACES IN PHOENICIA.
PROCEEDING upward from the mouth of the Chorseus, now the Koradsche, we
come to, 1. Dora or Dorus, the Dor of Scripture, a small place with a harbor,
now Tortura. 2. Ecbatdna, at the foot of Mount Carmel, the same probably
with the Bathura of Josephus, and now Caiffa. Here Cambyses gave himself
a mortal wound as he was mounting his horse, and thus fulfilled the oracle
which had warned him to beware of Ecbatana, and which he had supposed to
refer to the capital of Media. 3. Sycaminon, to the north, so called from its
abundance of wild fig-trees. The Syriac name was Chepha. It is.now Kaifa
or Kaffa. Near this place, and at the foot of Mount Carmel, the shell-fish from
which purple was obtained were found in abundance. Mount Carmel, which




AS I A.                         667
consists rather of several connected hills than of one ridge, extends from the
plain of Esdraclon in a northwest direction, and terminates in the Carmelum
Promontorium, the only great promontory on the coast of Palestine, and which
forms the S.W. extremity of the bay of Acre. Above the promontory the River
Kison enters the bay, on the banks of which stream the host of Sisera was overthrown. 4. Ptolemais, at the upper extremity of the bay. The native name of
this place was Accho, which the Greeks changed into Ace ("AK7), but it was eventually better known by the name of Ptolemais, which it had received from the
first Ptolemy, king of Egypt, by whom it was much improved. It was called,
also, Colonia Claudii Ccesaris, in consequence of its receiving the privileges of
a Roman city from the Emperor Claudius. It is now the well-known St. Jean
d'Acre. The River Belus here empties into the sea, from the fine sands of
which stream, according to the common account, the first glass was accidentally
made by some Phoenician mariners. 5. Tyrus, called by the natives Tsor, by the
Greeks Topor. The Carthaginians, colonists of Tyre, called the mother city,
on the other hand, Tsar or Sar, which the Romans, receiving the word from
them, converted into Sarra, and formed from it the adjective Sarranus, equivalent to Tyrius. Tyre was founded by a colony from Sidon, the most ancient of
the Phoenician cities, but its splendid prosperity soon caused it to take precedence of the parent state, and to eclipse its glory. It became, in fact, the first
commercial city of its time. Originally the city of Tyre was built on the main
land, but, having been besieged for a lengthened period by Nebuchadnezzar, tre
inhabitants conveyed themselves and their effects to al island about half a mile
from the shore, where a new city was founded, which enjoyed an increased degree of celebrity and commercial prosperity. The old city hence was called
Palietyrus, the other simply Tyrus.  The new city continued to flourish, extending its colonies and commerce on all sides, till it was attacked by Alexander the Great. After an obstinate resistance it was taken; and severely punished. Still, however, the city continued to flourish, until the founding of Alexandrea, by diverting commerce into a new channel, gave Tyre an irreparable
blow, and she gradually declined, until now hardly a vestige remains. Just
above Tyrus the River Leontes, now Lanto, empties into the sea.
6. Sarepta or Zarephath, where Elijah performed the miracle of multiplying
the contents of the barrel of meal and cruse of oil, and where he raised the
widow's son to life. It is now Surafend. 7. Sidon, one of the most ancient cities of Phoenicia, with an excellent harbor, and already extant in the time of Jacob. Sidon was the parent city of Tyre, and of most of the towns of Phoenicia.
Many manufactories, particularly those of linen and glass, were successfully
carried on here. Notwithstanding the rise and prosperity of Tyre, it remained
a very wealthy and important city to the time of its conquest by Artaxerxes
Ochus, when its fleet amounted to one hundred triremes and quinqueremes.
In Alexander's time it was without any fortifications, and preserved scarcely
any thing but its reputation for fine glass. It is now the small town of Sayda,
and its harbor is nearly choked up with sand. 8. Berytus, the Berotha of Scripture, called also Colonia Felix Julia in the time of Augustus, who made it a Roman colony, and named it thus in honor of his daughter Julia. In the age of
Justinian it became a famous school of law. The modern appellation is Beirout. 9. Byblus, on a height at some distance from the coast. Adonis, or the
sun-god, was worshipped here with peculiar honors, under the niame of Thamnmuz. Just below this place was the River Adonis, now Nahr Ibrahim. At the
anniversary of the death of Adonis, which was in the rainy season, its waters
were tinged red with the ochrous particles from Mount Libanus, and hence were




668                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
fabled to flow with his blood. 10. Tripolis, now Tarabolus. It derived its name
from Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus having established here, in common, a triple town
(rpeic ~roiet'), each with its own walls and colonists, as a place of assembly for
their States-General. Tripolis had a good harbor and extensive commerce.
At the present day the sand has so accumulated that the town is separated
from the sea by a small triangular plain, at the apex of which is a village where
vessels land their goods. 11. Area, called subsequently Casarea, the birth-place
of the Emperor Alexander Severus. 12. Arddus, on a small island near the
shore; now Ruad. It was founded, according to Strabo, by a band of exiles
from Sidon. 13. Antaradus, called also Constantia, after the Emperor Constantius. It is now Tortosa, with a small harbor.
PALE STINA.. Palcestina, or Palestine, derived that name from        the Philistcei, or Philistines, who occupied the southwestern coast, and
belonged to the same stem       with the Phoenicians.      As it was,
however, the promised inheritance of the descendants of Abraham, and the scene of the birth, sufferings, and death of our
Redeemer, we are accustomed to designate it by the more religious appellation of the Holy Land.
II. Palestine was bounded on the north by Cele-Syria, on
the northwest by Phcenicia, on the west by the Mediterranean,
called in the Bible the Great Sea, on the east by Arabia Deserta, and on the south by Arabia Petrcea.
FACE OP THE COUNTRY.
I. PALESTINE is a very mountainous country. The range of Antilibanus, as
we have before remarked, divides into two branches nearly opposite Damascus.
These branches continue their course to the south, nearly parallel to each other,
and inclose between them the valley of the Jordan and its lakes. They afterward diverge from each other at the head of the Elanites Sinus, or Gulf of
Akaba; the one running along the eastern coast of that gulf, and terminating
on the shores of the Red Sea; the other along the western coast of that gulf,
and terminating in the mountains of Sinai. As the range of Antilibanus passes
into Palestine, it diminishes in height, and becomes less rugged and more fit for
tillage; but at the Dead Sea it consists of desolate rocks.
II. Almost all the mountains of Palestine may be regarded as belonging to
the two principal ranges which inclose the basin of the Jordan. The most remarkable are the following: 1. Mons Itabyrius, the Tabor of Scripture, the highest mountain in Lower Galilee, on the northeast of the plain of Esdraelon. It
is entirely detached from the surrounding mountains, and nearly hemispherical
in shape. On its summit is a plain of about half an hour in circuit, inclosed by
an ancient wall. This mountain is said by an old tradition to have been the
scene of our Savior's transfiguration. 2. Hermon Minor, or the Little Hermon,
a range of fertile hills, about five miles S.S.W. of Tabor, and not to be confounded with the great ridge of the same name in Antilibanus. 3. Mons Gilboa, the
Gilboa of Scripture, a sterile range of hills to the south and southeast of Tabor.
They bound the valley of the Jordan on the west for many miles, and are about
one thousand feet above the level of the sea. 4. Mons Carmelus, already men



ASIA.                            66 9
tioned under the head of Phcenicia. 5. Montes Samarice, the Mountains ofSamaria, to the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Of these the highest are those of
Ebal and Gerizim, separated from each other by a valley two or three hundred
paces broad. From these two mountains were delivered the curses and blessings of the Law. The Samaritans had their temple on Mount Gerizim, which
they esteemed the holiest of mountains. 6. In the eastern part of Judaea, on the
borders of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, is a wilderness of mountains, the most
rugged and desolate in all Palestine. This mountainous country, which is the
highest in Judaa, bears the name of Quarantania, from a tradition that this was
the wilderness in which Christ fasted forty days and forty nights. The most
mountainous part of Judaea is the district round Jerusalem.
III. The most important river of Palestine was the Jordanes, or Jordan, now
called by the Arabs Sheriat el-Kebir. Its true source is in the neighborhood of
the modern Hasbeiya, twenty miles above Banias, the ancient Casarea Philippi.
The river, according to Lieutenant Lynch, here gushes forth in a copious stream
from beneath a bold perpendicular rock.  What has been called the second
source of the Jordan is a fountain at Tell el-Kady, sixteen or eighteen miles
south of Hasbeiya, and where stood the city Dan, more anciently Laish. The
Jordan first ran into the Lake Samochonitis, called in Scripture " the waters of
Merom," and now'Bahr el-Huleh. After leaving this lake it flows on for about
twelve miles, and then enters the Sea of Tiberias or Lake of Gennesareth,
through which its course may be distinctly traced in a smooth current. Emerging from this body of water, it pursues a very rapid and winding route to the
Dead Sea, where its course terminates. The depression between the Sea of Tiberias and the Dead Sea is said to be over one thousand feet, and the secret
of this depression is solved, according to Lieutenant Lynch, by the tortuous
course of. the Jordan. In a distance of about sixty miles, from the former to
thelatter sea, this river winds along through a course of about two hundred
miles; and within that distance Lieutenant Lynch and his party plunged down
no less than. twenty-seven threatening rapids, besides many others of less descent. An average fall of only a little more than five feet in each mile will
account for the great difference of level just alluded to. It has been generally
thought that the Jordan continued its course to the Red Sea through the valley
of Mount Seir,.until it was checked by the convulsions attending the overthrow
of Sodaom and Gomorrah. This. opinion, though strenuously opposed by some
modern, travellers, is undoubtedly the true one.
IV. The principal lakes or inland seas in Palestine are the following: 1. Lacus
Samochoaitis,.already alluded to. Its size varies with the season of the year,
but is, on an average, about seven miles in length, and about half that number
in breadth. The reeds which are used for writing grow on its margin. 2. Mare
Tiberiadis, or Sea of Tiberias, called in Scripture the Lake of Gennesareth or
Sea of Galilee. The name Gennesareth is supposed to be a corruption of Cinneroth, which latter was a town lying on its western border. The name Tiberias
comes from that of the city of Tiberias, on the southwestern shore.'This lake
is from twelve to fifteen miles long, and from six to nine miles wide. It is surrounded by mountains, and the scenery is exceedingly beautiful. 3. Lacus Asphallites, called also Mare Mortuum, and commonly, by us, " the Dead Sea." The
name Asphaltites comes from the bitumen (uaoaXTro) occasionally found floating
on its surface,' or picked up on its shores. It is called the Dead Sea from the
desolation prevailing along its shores, as well as from the belief that no living
creature can exist in its waters. In Scripture it is termed "the Sea of the
Plain," and also " the Salt Sea" and'" the East Sea." The Arabs call it Bahr




670                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Lut, or "the Sea of Lot."  This remarkable piece of water occupies the site ol
the plain of Siddim, where stood Sodom and the other cities which God destroyed by fire in the time of Lot. It is of an irregular oblong figure, and, according to modern measurement, about forty miles long and eight miles broad. The
waters and the surrounding soil are so intensely impregnated with salt and sulphur that no trees or plants grow on its banks, and it is said to contain no fish,
though this last has been doubted by some. It is certain, however, that its
waters, when examined by a powerful microscope, have been found to contain
no animalculae or animal matter whatever. The taste of the water is extremely
nauseous, and, in consequence of its saltness, it possesses very buoyant properties. This sea has very recently been explored by Lieutenant Lynch, of the
American navy, and accurate soundings taken throughout. These investigations have led to the conclusion that the bottom of this sea consists of two submerged plains, an elevated and a depressed one, the former averaging thirteen,
the latter thirteen hundred feet below the surface. The shallow portion is to the
south; the deeper, which is also the larger one, to the north. This southern and
shallow portion would appear to have been originally the fertile plain of Siddim,
in which the guilty cities stood.
SITUATION      OF THE    TRIBES WHEN SETTLED             UNDER
JOSHUA.
THE largest portion was that of Judah, along the western side of the Lake Asphaltites; and west of Judah was Simeon, bordering on the Philistines, who occupied the Mediterranean coast. North of Judah was the smaller tribe of Benjamin, in which was Jerusalem; and west of Benjamin the still smaller tribe of
Dan, reaching partly to the coast, having the Philistines partly to the south, and
also on the sea-shore. Above Dan and Benjamin was a considerable district
from the coast to the Jordan, the portion of Ephraim; above Ephraim, extending in a like manner, was half the tribe of Manasseh. The coast then became
that of Phoenicia, along which, but rather inland, lay the tribe of Asher. Above
Manasseh lay the tribe of Issacchar; and above Issacchar, and to the southeast
of Asher, was the tribe of Zabulon. The whole northwestern coast of the Sea
of Tiberias, and the country along the western bank of the Jordan, was occupied
by Naphthali. The whole eastern side of the Jordan, and the country to the east
of the Sea of Tiberias, down to the southern extremity of that sea, belonged to
the other half-tribe of Manasseh; below it was Gad, reaching about half way
between the two lakes; and below it Reuben, reaching to the plains of Moab, at
the northeastern corner of the Lake Asphaltites. These two tribes and a half
were the first settled, though their warriors crossed over Jordan to assist their
brethren in subduing the Canaanites on the western side.
MAIN    DIVISIONS      OF PALESTINE.
IN the time of the New Testament, this country was divided
into Judcea, Samaria, and Galilea or Galilee.             Of these,
Judcea occupied the southern portion, Samaria the central,
and Galilee the northern one.     We shall consider them     in succession, omitting any preliminary remarks on Jewish History,
which ought to be familiar to all.




ASIA.                             671
JUDA A.
JUDEA, the most southern and important province, comprised
the lands of the tribes of Judah, Simeon, Dan, and the territory
of the Philistines.    It was bounded on the west by the Mediterranean, from    Raphia in the south, to Joppa in the north;
on the north by Samaria; on the east by the Jordan and the
Lake Asphaltites; and on the south by a line drawn westward
from  the lower part of that lake to Raphia.        To this territory
was likewise added a part of the south of Samaria, comprising
the three districts of Acrabatene, Gophnitica, and Thamnitica.
PLACES 1N       JUDJEA.
ON the coast, proceeding from north to south, we have, 1. Joppa (in Hebrew
Japho), the only harbor of the Jews, and a place of no great importance. In
heathen mythology, the scene of the fable of Andromeda and Perseus was laid
here. It is now Jaffa. 2. Jamnia (the Jabneh of Scripture), the northernmost
city of the Philistei, taken by King Uzziah. A college of Jews was established
here after the destruction of Jerusalem. 3. Gath, to the southeast, one of the
five principal cities of the Philistai, and supposed to be the native place of Goliath. It must have been possessed of great resources, from its fiequent with
standing of the power of Jerusalem. 4. Ekron, called subsequently Akkaron, the
chief of the five great cities of the Philistaei, and remarkable in connection with
the capture of the ark by the enemies of Israel. It is frequently mentioned, also,
at a later day, in the history of the crusades. The modern village of Akir is
thought to answer to it. 5. Azst2s, in Scripture Aschdod, another of the five
chief cities of the Philistsi, and where the god Dagon was worshipped. It was
not conquered by the Jews till the reign of Solomon. In the time of King Hezekiah it was taken by the Assyrians; and subsequently by Psammitichus, king
of Egypt, after a siege of twenty-nine years. It is now represented by the village of Esdud. 6. Ascalon, another of the five cities where Derceto was worshipped. Herod the Great was born here, and hence received the appellation
of Ascalonites. This city exported great quantities of eschalots to England and
Rome. It is frequently mentioned in the history of the Crusades. The town
of Askalan now represents it. 7. Gaza, a strong border-city, situate some distance inland, but having an excellent port called Majumas. It was the frontier
fortress against Egypt. Alexander took it after a siege of two months, but came
very near losing his life. Constantine subsequently called the port Constantia.
Gaza was famous for its wine, which in the sixth century was exported to Europe. The Arabic name of the place, at the present day, is Ghuzzch. 8. Gerar
or Gerara, to the southeast, the seat of the first Philistine kingdom of which we
read. 9. Raphia, a frontier station, in the desert, to the southwest, where Ptol
emy IV. of Egypt gained a great victory over Antiochus.
Inland, commencing at the north, we have, 1. Antipatris, founded by Herod
the Great, and named in honor of his father Antipater. The site had been previously occupied by a place called Capharsaba. It is not the modern Arsuf,
as has commonly been supposed, but more probably the village Kuffr Suba.
2. Timnalth Serah, to the southeast, selected by Joshua for his place of burial.
3. Shiloh, to the east, where Joshua set up the tabernacle, and made the last




672                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
and general division of the land among the tribes. The ark and tabernacle remained here upward of three hundred years. It is supposed to be identical with
a place now named Seilun. 4. Ephraim, to the southwest, among the mountains of the same name, and to which Jesus withdrew from the persecution
which followed the miracle of raising Lazarus from the dead. 5. Gophna, to
the south, a strong place, and, in Roman times, the capital of a district called
from it Gophnitica. It is now Jifna.  6. Lydda, to the southwest, called in
Scripture Lud, and under the Roman dominion Diospolis. It was the scene of
Peter's miracle in healing zEneas. St. George the martyr was buried here, and
the place is often mentioned likewise in the history of the crusades. It is still
called Lud. 7. Arimathea, to the southwest, the birth-place of the wealthy Joseph, in whose sepulchre our Lord was laid. There is great probability in identifying it with the modern Ramleh. 8. Emmaus, to the southeast, called also
Nicopolis, and now answering to Amwas. This place must not be confounded
with the village of Emmaus, noted for our Lord's interview with two disciples
on the day of his resurrection. The latter was much nearer Jerusalem, and its
site has long been lost. 9. Bethel, originally Luz, to the southeast of Gophna
Here Jacob had his vision, and changed the name of the place accordingly. The
site is now called Beitsin. 10. Michmas, to the southeast, near which was a
pass where an enemy might be impeded or opposed. Here Jonathan, son of
Saul, distinguished himself, and here also, at a later day, Jonathan Maccabmeus
fixed his abode. It still bears the name of Mukhmas. 11. Ramah, to the southwest, and in the vicinity of Gibeah. It is supposed to be identical with the
modern village Er-Ram, two hours' journey north of Jerusalem, and to be the
Rama alluded to by Jeremiah. 12. Hierichus, in Scripture Jericho, situate in the
plain of Jericho, not far from the Jordan, just before its entrance into the Dead
Sea. It was besieged and destroyed by the Israelites immediately after the
passage of the Jordan; but was afterward rebuilt, on or near its former site,
and became a flourishing city, next in size to Jerusalem. It is often called in
Scripture " the city of palm trees," from the numerous trees of this description
which abounded in its vicinity. Its site is now occupied by a wretched village
named Rihah.
13. Hieros6olma, or Jerusalem, a name meaning in Hebrew, "the abode.of
peace," to the southwest of Jericho, and twenty-seven miles west from where
the Jordan enters the Dead Sea. It was the capital city of the Hebrew nation,
and the chief city of their worship; and is thought to have been the Salem of
which Melchisedec was king. When the Israelites entered Canaan, they found
this city in the occupation of the Jebusites, a tribe descended from Jebus, a son
of Canaan, and the place then bore the name of Jebus. The lower city was
taken and burned by the children of Judah, but the Jebusites had so strongly
fortified themselves in the upper city, on Mount Zion, that they maintained possession of it until the time of David. That monarch, after his seven years' rule
over Judah in Hebron, became king of all Israel, on which he expelled the Jebusites from Mount Zion, and made Jerusalem the metropolis of his kingdom.
Jerusalem was built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zion,
which formed the southern part of the city. A valley toward the north separated this from Acra, the second or lower city, on the east of which was Mount
Moriah, the site of the temple of Solomon. Southeast of Mount Moriah was
the Mount of Olives, lying beyond the brook and valley of Kedron, which bordered Jerusalem on the east; on the south was the Valley of Hinnom, and at the
north was Mount Calvary, the scene of the Crucifixion. Jerusalem was taken by
ritus, September 8, A.D. 70, and almost entirely destroyed. It was afterward




ASIA.                            67;3
rebuilt by the Emperor Hadrian, as a fortified place, by which to keep in check
the whole Jewish population. On the ruins of the temple the same emperor
caused a fane to be erected in honor of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gave the new
city the name of XElia Capitolina, the first part of this appellation being derived
from his own praenomen of.Elius, and the latter being in honor of the deity just
mentioned. The ancient name, however, began to come again into use in the
time of Constantine. Jerusalem is now called by the Arabs el-Kuds, or ", the
Holy."
14. Bethlehem, to the southwest of, and about six miles from Jerusalem, and
the birth-place of our Savior. It was generally called Bethlehem Judah, to distinguish it from another Bethlehem in the tribe of Zebulon. It is likewise styled
in Scripture Ephratahk or "( the fruitful." it is now a large village named Beit
Lahm. 15. HerbdZum, to the southeast, a fortress and city erected by Herod
the Great. The site answers now to that of the Frank Mountain. 16. Eleutharopolis, to the southwest, an important episcopal city in the time of Eusebius and
Jerome. It is supposed to have been the same with the Beto-gabra of Ptolemy,
and to be now represented by the village of Beit-Jibrin.  17. Hebron, to the
southeast, and a very ancient city. Its earlier name was Kirjath-Arba, or " the
City of Arba," from Arba, the father of Anak and the Anakim, who dwelt in
and around this city. This was the burial-place of Abraham and his family.
David, on becoming king of Judah, made Hebron his royal residence. Here he
reigned seven years and a half, and here he was anointed king over all Israel.
The Arabs now call it el-Khulil. 18. Engaddi, to the southeast, on the western.
shore of the Dead Sea, and nearly equidistant from both extremities of that lake.
It was famed for its beautiful palm trees, its opobalsum, and vineyards. The
Arabs now call the site Ain-jidy. In its vicinity was the Wilderness of Engaddi,
abounding in caverns. 19. Masada, to the south, on the shore of the same sea, a
celebrated fortress built by Jonathan Maccabaeus, and afterward greatly strengthened by Herod, as a place of refuge for himself. It stood on a lofty rock overhanging the Dead Sea. It was taken by the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem,
the garrison having devoted themselves to self-destruction. The Arabic name
for the ruins is Sebbeh. 20. Beersheba, or " the Well of the Oath," some distance
to the west, so often mentioned in Scripture as the southern limit of the country possessed by the children of Israel. The northern limit was Dan, in Upper
Galilee. This place took its name from the well which was dug there by A braham, and the oath which confirmed his treaty with Abimelech.
S A MA RIA.
I. Samaria was the smallest but most fruitful of the three
divisions of Palestine.   It was bounded on the north by Galilee,
on the south by Judaea, on the east by the Jordan, and on the
west by the Mediterranean.
II. After the kingdom     of Israel had been overthrown. and
the people carried away captive by the Assyrians, the country,
being thus depopulated, was next inhabited by the neighboring
heathen people, and by colonies from other parts of the Assyrian empire.    These, mixing with the scattered remains of the
tribes of Ephraim    and Manasseh, formed the people spoken of
Uu




674                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
in the New Testament as the Samaritans, who were regarded
by the Jews as an impure race, and between whom and the
Jews there always existed a strong mutual hatred.
PLACES IN      SAMARIA.
1. Jezrael, near the northern borders, called also Esdraeltn, and one of the
residences of the kings of Israel. In the days of Eusebius and Jerome it was a
large village called Esdracla, and in the same age it occurs again as Stradela.
In the time of the crusades it was named by the Franks Parvum Gerinum, and
by the Arabs Zerin. This last appellation still remains. 2. Beth-shan, to the
southeast near the Jordan, and called also Scythopolis, because, as is supposed,
some Scythians had settled there in the time of Josiah (B.C. 631) in their passage through Palestine toward Egypt. This place, though commonly ranked
among the Samaritan cities, belonged in reality to what was termed Decapolis,
an association of ten cities, which, not being inhabited by Jews, formed a confederation for mutual protection against the Asmonean princes of Judaea; Scythopolis is now Beisan. 3. Megiddo, to the west of Jezrael, originally one of the
royal cities of the Canaanites, and which the Israelites were for a long time unable to conquer. Josiah was slain in battle near this place by Pharaoh-Necho.
It was afterward called Legio, and is now Lejjun. 4. Ceasarea, to the southwest,
on the coast, originally named Turris Stratonis, and subsequently made a magnificent city and port by Herod, who called it Casarea in honor of Augustus.
Here the Roman governors resided. It was the birth-place of Eusebius. The
modern name is Kaisarieh. 5. Samiira, to the southeast, the capital of the kingdom of Israel, or of the ten tribes, on a mountain or hill of the same name. The
site was extremely well selected both for strength and beauty. It was destroyed
by John Hyrcanus, rebuilt by the Roman governor Gabinius, and beautified and
enlarged by Herod, who called it Sebaste in honor of Augustus. It was also:;'ongly fortified. The modern village of Sebustieh, built out of its ruins, stands
near the site of this once royal city. 6. Sichem, to the southeast, in the narrow
valley between Mognts Ebal and Gerizim, on the latter of which was built the
Samaritan temple, in rivalry of the orthodox temple at Jerusalem. Sichem was
a very ancient city. After the conquest of the country it became one of the
Levitical cities, and during the life-time of Joshua it was a csntel of union for
the tribes. The city was taken and the temple destroyed by John Hyrcanus,
B.C. 129. In the New Testament the place occurs under the name (:f Sychar.
Vespasitt subsequently either restored or rebuilt it, and gave it the name of
Neapolis, which it still retains under the Arabic form of Nabulus.
GALILEA.
I. Galilca or Galileo, lay to the north of Samaria, and waN
divided into UZpper and Lower. Upper Galilee was mountainous, and was called Galilee of the Gentiles, from the heathen
nations established there, who were enabled, by the mountainous nature of the country, to maintain themselves against all
invaders.    Strabo enumerates among its inhabitants Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoenicians. Lower Galilee, on the other




ASIA.                            675
hand, was a populous and fertile country, and contained numerous cities.
II. Galilee was the district which, of all others, was most
honored with the presence of our Saviour. Hence the disciples
were called Galileans.       They were easily recognized, indeed,
as such, since the Galileans spoke a dialect of the vernacular
Syriac, different from that of Judaea, and which was accounted
rude and impure.      The Jews of Judea regarded the Galileans
with much contempt.
PLACES IN      GALILEE.
IN Lower Galilee we may mention, 1. Nazareth, where our Saviour resided until
the commencement of his ministry. It was probably no more than a village.
It is now a small but more than usually well-built place, retaining its ancient
name. 2. Dio Ccesarea, to the northwest, the Sepphoris of Josephus. It was
captured by Herod the Great, and afterward destroyed by Varus. Herod Antipas rebuilt and fortified it, and it became the largest and strongest city of Galilee, taking precedence eventually of Tiberias itself.  The modern Sefurieh.
marks the ancient site. 3. Tiberias, on the western shore of the Lake of Gennesareth, which was called also from this city the Sea of Tiberias. It was founded'by Herod Antipas, and named in honor of the Emperor-Tiberius. After the
fall of Jerusalem this place became one of the chief seats of the Jews, and was
famous during several centuries-for its school of Rabbinical teachers or doctors.
The modern name is Tabaria. 4. Ammaus, a little to the south, famed for its
hot baths, which are still frequented. The name of the place appears to be
formed from the Hebrew Hammath, signifying " warm baths."  5. Tarichaa, at
the southeastern extremity of the lake, and deriving its name from the fishsalteries established there. After the capture of this place by Titus, a great
number of the inhabitants escaped by water in boats and small craft. Vespasian having pursued them on the lake, a conflict ensued, in which a large number of the Jews were slaughtered. 6. Capernaum, on the northwestern side of
the lake, where our Saviour, frequently resided after the commencement of his
mission. Its site is supposed to be marked by a mound of ruins called Khan
Minyeh.
In Upper Galilee we may mention, 1. Dan, the most northern place of the land
of Judeea. Its original name was Laish or Leshem, and it was conquered by a
warlike colony of Danites, who named it after their tribe. It became afterward
a chief seat of Jeroboam's idolatry, and one of the golden calves was set up in it.
The extent of the promised land is expressed in the well-known words " from
Dan to Beersheba."  Dan is supposed to have stood near the present Tell elKady, where the second source of the Jordan rises. 2. Ccesarea Philippi, a little
distance to the northeast. It was originally called Paneas; but, being enlarged
and embellished by the tetrarch Philip, it was named by himoCcesarea, in honor
of Tiberius, to which Philippi was added, in order to distinguish it from Casarea
on the coast. The modern name is Banias. Twenty miles above this place
the Jordan had its main source. 3. Jotapata, to the southeast, where the Jewish
historian Josephus sustained a siege against Vespasian.




676                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PER A A.
THE country on the east of the Jordan, between the two lakes, was called
Perara, a name'derived from irepav " beyond," and extending from the brook
mArnon, which flows into the Dead Sea, to the Hieromax, now Sheriat el-ManThur, or Yarmouk, a tributary of the Jordan. The upper part of this tract was
called Galaaditis, or Gilead, taking its name from the mountains of Gilead. This
chain is connected with'Antilibanus by means of Mount Hermon. It begins not
far from the latter, and extends southward to the sources of the brooks Jabbok
Wnd Arnon, thus forming a kind of eastern boundary for Peraea. To this chain
belongs that of Abarim, in a northeastern direction from Jericho. From one
of the highest mountains of the range of Abarim, namely, Nebo, Moses surveyed the Promised Land before he died. The highest and most commanding peak
of this mountain was, in all probability, the Pisgah of Scripture. In Peraea we
may mention the following places: 1. Gadara, the metropolis, in a district termed Gadarene or Gergesene, below the Hieromax. Its inhabitants were heathens
and Jews intermingled. Here the miracle in the case of the swine was performed. Gadara now answers to the village of Om-Kets. 2. Pella, to the south,
and the southernmost of the cities of Decapolis. To this place many Christians
fled when Jerusalem was getting invested by the Roman armies. It is now
el-Budsche. 3. Amathus, to the south, an important place, made by Gabinius
the seat of one of the five jurisdictions into which he divided the country. Its
Jewish name was Betharamathon. It is now Amatah. To the south of it the
Jabbok, now the Zerka, flowed into the Jordan. 4. Ramoth Galaad, to the southeast, on the Jabbok, and a place of great strength. It was the occasion of several wars between the later kings of Israel and the kings of Damascus, who
long retained possession of it. This was one of the cities of refuge. 5. Machkerus, to the southeast, a fortress on the frontiers of the Nabathaean Arabs,
destroyed by Gabinius. 6. Heshbon, to the southeast, originally a city of the
Moabites, but held by the Amorites when the Israelites arrived from Egypt. It
became eventually a Levitical city. In the time of Eusebius and Jerome it was
called Esbus. It is now Hesbon. 7. Calirrhoe, to the southwest, near the shore
of the Dead Sea, and well known for its medicinal and health-bestowing waters,
whence its Greek name. The Hebrew name was Lasa.
BATANAEA, &c.
Batanita, answering in part tdothe Scripture Bashan, lay to tlhe no[ th of'Pera{;,
and to the east of the Lake of Gennesareth and the upper part of the Jordan.
When the Israelites invaded the Promised Land, Og was king of Bashan, and
the country contained sixty <, fenced cities," besides unwalled towns. Thes?
were all taken, and Og and his people were cut off. After the captivity, the
name Batanea was applied to only a part of the ancient Bashan, the rest being
called Trachonitis, Ituraa, Auranitis, and Gaugonitis. The richness of the pasture
land of Bashan, and the consequent superiority of its breed of cattle, are frequently alluded to in the Scriptures. The oaks, too, of Bashan are mentioned
in connection with the cedars of Lebanon, Modern travellers also speak in high
terms of the fertility of this country.
Trachonitis.-This was the name given in the days of the HIerodian dynasty to
the country situate between the range of Antilibanus and the mountains to the
south of Damascus. The appellation was derived from the rugged nature oi
the region, rpaX6v denoting in Greek " a rugged, stony tract."
Iturcea.-The situation and limits of this region are difficult to determine. It
appears, as far as we can ascertain, to have lain between Trachonitis and Ba.




ASIA.                        677
tanaea, and to have answered to what is now Jedur, in which traces of the ancient name appear. Ituraea formed part of the tetrarchy of Philip.
Auranitis.-This district lay to the south of Trachonitis, and answers in some
degree to the modern Hauran, which is much more extensive.
Gaulonitis.-A district on the eastern shore of the Lake of Gennesareth, an4
taking its name from Gaulon, a Levitical town situate in it. It appears to have
formed part of the more ancient Bashan.
ARABIA.
I. Arabia was bounded on the north by Palestine and the
Desert of Syria; on the northeast by the Sinus Persicus, or
Persian Gulf; on the east and southeast by the Mare Erythl
rceum, or Indian Ocean; on the southwest by the Sinus Arab.
icus, or Red Sea; and on the west by the Isthmus of Suez.
II. The original inhabitants of the country are called by the
present Arabs Bajadites, or " the lost," to whom belonged the
extinct tribes of Ad, Thamud, &c.   The present Arabs derive
their origin in part from Joktan or Kahtan, the son of Eber,
and in part from Ishmael. The descendants of the former call
themselves, emphatically, Arabs; those of the latter, Mostarabs.  The name Arab itself implies "an inhabitant of the
wcst,".that is, one dwelling to the west of the Euphrates, and
of the regions that were probably the earliest seats of the Semitic tribes.
III. Arabia was divided by the Greeks and Romans, from the
time of Ptolemy, who introduced the division, into Arabia De.
serta, Petrea, and Felix, an arrangement which we shall also
follow on the present occasion. The more natural division, however, is that which distinguishes the coast, covered with aloes,
myrrh, frankincense, indigo, nutmegs, &c., from the interior
of the country, consisting for the most part of a desert of moving sand, with thorns and saline herbs.
IV. Arabia Deserta (ir Spr1tog) comprised the interior of the
peninsula, but more particularly the northern part, bordering
on the Syrian Desert.   Arabia Petrcea (rj HIEpaia) was the
northwestern portion, from Palestine to the Sinus Arabicus, ineluding the country around the Sinus'Elanites, or Gulf of
Akaba.   Arabia Felix (j ebafowv) comprised all the rest of
the peninsula, namely, the shores of the Sinus Arabicus below
the Sinus JElanites, of the Mare Erythraeum, and of the Sinus
Persicus. The maps generally, but incorrectly, restrict Arabia
Felix to the southwestern and a part of the southeastern shore




878                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ARABIA DESERTA.
1. THIS portion of Arabia was roamed over by nomadic tribes resembling the
modern Beduins. The Greek writers gave these tribes the general name of
Aribes Scenitca, from the circumstance of their living in tents (Z1K7vITal, roT TO Tv
aft7lv)v). The Greek and Roman Christian writers, at a later day, confounded
all the Arabian tribes, from Mecca to the Euphrates, under the name of Saraceni, a term derived from the Arabic saraka, " to plunder," and referring to their
predatory habits. Ptolemy, however, some time before this, speaks of a tribe
called Saraceni, whom he makes distinct from the Scenitae, and dwelling to the
south of them.
II. Besides the general name of Scenitce, we learn, especially from Ptolemy,
the appellations of many individual tribes, such as, 1. The Catanii, between
Palmyra and the Euphrates. 2. The Cauchabeni, to the southeast, on the confines of Chaldaea. 3. The Ausitae, in the land of Uz. 4. The Cedranitce, deriving their origin from Kedar, son of Ishmael. 5. The Agrai, with the wateringplace of Agra, &c.
ARABIA PETRE A.
I. THIS portion of Arabia was so called from its capital Petra, although the
epithet is also. as Burckhardt remarks, not inappropriate, on account of the rocky
mountains and stony plains which compose its surface.
II. Five powerful tribes dwelt in this country at an early period, namely, 1.
The Amalekites, descended from Amaiek, the grandson of Esau, and occupying
the district between Idumaea and Egypt. They were the first assailants of the
Israelites after the passage of the Red Sea. Their power was subsequently
broken by Saul. 2. The Edomites or Idumcei, occupying the country of Edom,
from the south of the Dead Sea to the Sinus Fan)ites, or Gulf of Akaba. In
the time of our Saviour, Edom or Idumea included a considerable portion of
southern Palestine.. The Edomites claimed descent from Esau, son of Isaac.
They were made tributaries of the Jews duringtthe reign of David; and the
conquest of their country was of great importance to the Jews, since it enabled
Solomon, by obtaining possession of the ports of Elath and Ezion-Geber on the
Red Sea, to participate in the advantages of the trade with India. 3. The Moabites, claiming descent from Moab, son of Lot. They occupied the country on
the east of the Dead Sea, from Zoar to the River Arnon, and were frequently
engaged in hostilities with the Israelites. They were a pastoral people, and
their country was well adapted for rearing cattle, and also produced corn and
wine. Their chief city was Rabbath Moab, called afterward Areopolis. Jerome
says it was destroyed by an earthquake in his youth.' The ruins retain the name
of Rabba. Another place in their country was Zoar, one of the five cities of'he plain of Siddipn, in which Lot took refuge. 4. The Ammonites, descended
from Ben Ammi, the son of Lot. Their country lay between the Arnon and the
Jabbok, above that of the Moabites. Their capital was Rabbath Ammon. It was
dcs'royed by the Assyrians, and rebuilt subsequently by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
who gave it the name of Philadelphia. The ruins are still called Amman. 5. The
Midiamnics, a wide-spread nomadic race, whose earlier seats were to the west
of Sinai, biut who afterward extended themselves on the eastern side of the Red
Sea as far as the.Moabites. They carried on an active overland traffic between
Arabia and'Egypt. The Midianites annoyed the Israelites by constant inroads
until completely subdued by Gideon.
III. All the five tribes just mentioned gradually disappeared from history, and
in their place appeared the Nabathcai, who became the chief people of Arabia




ASIA.                           679
Petraea. At first they led a nomadic life; but when the Ptolemies of Egypt extended their favoring care to the commerce of the Red Sea, the Nabathaei became actively engaged in an overland traffic with the products of eastern Asia.
Their capital was Petra, in Hebrew Sela, both terms signifying "rock." The
situation of the place corresponded well to this name. It lay in a valley surrounded by lofty rocks, with a stream flowing through it, and having an access
on one side only, and that a difficult one. As a commercial city, and a place
of transit for the productions of the East, it was much resorted to by foreigners,
and became a rich and flourishing city, as its magnificent ruin' clearly prove.
The modern name of these ruins is Wady Musa. We may mention in Arabia
Petraea the following additional localities: 1. iElana, in Hebrew Elath, at the
head of the Sinus iElanites, and one of the two ports by which Solomon traded
with Ophir and the remote east. It is now Akaba. 2. Ezion-Geber, a little distance below, subsequently called Berenice.  This was the other one of Solomon's two harbors on the Red Sea. To the west of the Sinus Xlanites was
the Sinus Heroopolites, so called from the Egyptian city of Heroopolis, and now
the Gulf of Suez. In the peninsula between these two gulfs, and toward its
southern extremity, we have Mounts Horeb and Sinai. The former of these
mountains is at the northern end of a ridge, called by the ancient geographers
Melines lMonics (Mfarca -pyj), or " the Black Mountains;" and at its southern
end is Sinai, now Jebel M32sa, or " Moses's Mount."
ARABIA FELIX.
Tins division of Arabia derived its name of Felix, or " the Happy," from the
richness of its products, to which we have already alluded. It answers not only
to the modern Yemen, but also to Hejaz, which lies to the north of it, as well as
to Hadramaut, Oman, the Persian Gulf states, &c. The ancient writers enumerate many communities and places in this region, of which the most important appear to be the following:
Commencing on the side of the Sinus Arabicus, just below the Sinus tElanites, we come to, 1. The Banizomnees, a hunter race, with a temple held sacred
by all the Arab tribes. 2. The Thainydeni, farther on, in whose territory was
Charmuthas, an excellent harbor, capable of holding two thousand sail, now
Scherm Janbo; and Leuce Come, from which Gallus entered Arabia, and where
the Romans had a fortified post. The city of Jathrippa, lying inland, is the modern Medina. 3. The Minei, one of the most powerful tribes of Arabia. Among
these we find Badai Regia, the residence of an Arabian prince, now perhaps
Jidda; and Macoraba, now probably Mecca. 4. The Dosareni, taking their name
from Mount Dusare, on which the god Dusares, answering to the Greek Dionysus, was worshipped. 5. The Sabeai, another of the more powerful tribes of
Arabia. Their country answers to the modern Yemen, and was regarded as the
most productive part of Arabia Felix. It yielded various odoriferous products,
and particularly frankincense, and these formed the basis of a very active traffic
with the nations of the west. They passed with the Greeks and Romans for an
effeminate and luxurious race. Their capital was Saba, called also Mariaba,
and in Scripture Sheba. It was Belkis, queen of Sheba, whom the fame of Solomon attracted to Jerusalem. 6. The Catabdnes, below the Sabaei, and occupying the coast along the strait of Dire or Bab-el-Mandeb..Their dwellings were
constructed after the Egyptian fashion: Frankincense grew in their country
also. Their capital was Tamna, containing within its walls sixty-five temples.
7. The Homeritce, along the southern coast, after leaving the straits. They
were a powerful race. Their capital was Saphar, in which a king resided with




680                ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
the title of Charibael, or "' Sword-prince." The ruins are still called Dhafar.
The most important harbor, however, was called Arabia Felix, a great place for
trade between the Arabians and Egyptians. It was destroyed by Gallus, the
Roman commander, but soon became flourishing again, and is now Aden. 8. The
Adramite, a powerful tribe, farther on along the coast, and carrying on an active
traffic in incense and other aromatics. Their country answers to the modern
Hadramaut. The capital was Sabbatha, situate inland, and containing sixty
temples. It was also called Mariaba, and is now Mareb. 9. The Omanite, to
the northeast, in the angle of the country at the' mouth of the Persian Gulf,
where is now the district of Oman. 10. The Mace, on a peninsula running into
the Persian Gulf. Their city Moscha is the modern Maskat. Beyond this wils
the Ichthyophagorum Sinus, where is now the Great Pearl bank, and, farther o.:,
Gerrha, on the Sinus Gerrhaicus, with towers and houses built of mineral sal:,
now Al Catif. The inhabitants of this district were named Gerrhcei. Theiy
had emigrated from the land of the Chaldees, and with the Mincei and Nabathai
engrossed the whole overland trade with the countries of the Mediterranean.
Here was Ezekiel's Dadan. Opposite the Sinus Gerrhaicus are the Bahrein
islands, anciently Tyrus or Tylus and Aradus, famous for their pearl fisheries.
COUNTRIES BETWEEN THE EUPHRATES AND TI
GRIS, IN UPPER ASIA.
M E S P T A M I A.
I. Mesopotamia (from pieoog and 7Torato6C) is the Greek name
for the country between the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates.        In
Scripture it is called Aram Naharaim, that is, " Aram      (or Syria) between the rivers;" and by the Arabs of the present day
it is denominated Al Jezira, or " the Island." The Romans
always regarded it as a mere division of Syria.
II. Mesopotamia was bounded on the north by the Tigris
and Mons Masius, now Karajeh-Dagh, a branch of Mount
Taurus; and on the south by the Wall of Media, and the canals connecting the Tigris and Euphrates, by which it was
separated from Babylonia.     The name of Mesopotamia, which
weas never employed to designate any political division, did not
come into use until after the Macedonian conquest.      Xenophon
calls the southern part Arabia, and other writers included it,
especially the northern part, under the general name of Syria.
III. The northern part of Mlesopotamia was fertile and well
watered; the southern, from the neighborhood of Circesium, was
flat, and covered merely with low shrubs. Xenophon, in his
Anabasis, compares it to a sea.    The northern portion was di.
vided into two districts by the River Aborras or Chabo? as, now
the Khabour, called by Xenophon the Araxbs, which rose in
Mount Masius, and, after receiving on the east the Mygd6nius,




ASIA.                           681.
now al Huali, flowed into.the Euphrates at Circesium. ()f
these divisions the western was called Osroene, and the eastern
AlIygdonia.    The former of these took its name from       Osroes,
an Arab sheik, who about 120 B.C. wrested a principality in
this quarter from the Seleucide of Syria.
PLACES     IN  MESOPOTAMIA.
IN Mygdonia we may mention, 1. Nisibis, the chief city, at the foot of Mount
Masius, on the River Mygdonius. The name was changed by the Macedonians
to Antiochia Mygdonica, but this appellation lasted only a short time. It was
taken and plundered by Lucullus, and afterward held by the Parthians, from
whom it was wrested by Trajan. It formed a strong bulwark of the Roman
power in this quarter, and repelled three successive attacks of Sapor, in A.D.
338, 346, and 350. It was ceded to him, however, A.D. 363, after the death of
Julian, by his successor Jovian. The modern Nisibin occupies its site. 2. Daras, to the north, a stronghold, fortified by the Emperor Anastasius, to compensate for the loss of Nisibis, and called from him Anastasiopolis. It became an
important city, especially from the time of Justinian, who strengthened it still
more. The site is now called.Dara. 3. Cencs, a large and rich city on the
Tigris, near the junction with that river of the Lycus, or Greater Zab. 4. Singara, to the northwest, a.strongly-fortified Roman colony. Here Constantius
II. was defeated in a nocturnal encounter by Sapor, and the place ever after
was lost to the Romans.
In Osroene we have, 1. Edessa, in the northwestern part of the district, on the
River Scirtus, now the Daisan, rising from a beautiful spring called by the Greeks
Calirrhie, and whence Edessa itself was called by the Macedonians Antiochia ad
Calirrhien. This spring still remains, and the inhabitants have a tradition at
the present day that here was the spot where Abraham offered up his prayer
previous to his intended sacrifice of Isaac. Edessa became a place of great celebrity, and the capital of Osroene. It suffered greatly from an earthquake in
the reign of Justin I., who rebuilt a considerable part of it, and gave it the name
of Justinopolis. It is now Orrhoa or Orfa. 2. Batn&e, one day's journey from
Edessa, and near the Euphrates. Here, at the beginning of September, a grea
fair was held for Indian, Chinese, and other goods. Its Syriac name was Sarug
and it is now a small place named Seronge. 3. Carrce, to the southeast of Edessa,
the Haran of Scripture, where Abraham's family dwelt after they had left Ur
of the Chaldees. It is memorable in Roman history for the defeat of Crassus.
The moon was here worshipped as a male deity. 4. Nicephorium, south of
Canae, a strongly-fortified, and, at the same time, flourishing commercial city
at the confluence of the Bilecha and Euphrates. Alexander the Great selected
the site, and the city was probably completed by Seleucus Nicator, and named
from a victory gained by him here. The Emperor Leo, at a later day, gave it
the name of Leontopolis from himself. It seems also to have had the name of
Callinicus. Its site was near the modern Racca. 5. Circesium, to the southeast, at the junction of the Euphrates ana Aborras or Chaboras. It was a very
ancient place, and the same evidently with the Carchemish of Scripture. It was
strongly fortified by Dioclesian. The site is still called Kirkessieh.
Southern Mesopotamia was, generally speaking, a desert country, traversed
for the most part by nomadic tribes of Arabs. Some few places, however, occur worthy of mention. The settlements were principally on the two rivers,




682                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
and here and there in the interior. We may name, 1. Zaitha, on the Euphrates,
a little below Circesium, near which was the tomb of Gordium. 2. Corsote, at
the junction of the Mascas and Euphrates, mentioned in Xenophon's Anabasis
as a deserted city. It is not noticed by later writers. 3. Anatho, lower down
on the Euphrates, destroyed by Julian. It is now Ana, with a fertile territory:,n both sides of the Euphrates. 4. Atrce or Hatra, called also Hatris, in the interior, toward the Euphrates, the chief city of the Arabian tribe of the Atreni.
it was a place of great strength, on a steep and lofty rock, and was consecrated
to the sun. The Emperors Trajan and Severus besieged it in vain. It was in
ruins, however, in the fourth century.
ARMEN IA.
I. Armenia was divided into Armenia Major and Minor,
separated from    each other by the River Euphrates, and the
latter of which is sometimes, though less correctly, regarded as
forming part of Cappadocia.
II. Armenia Minor was bounded on the east by the Eu.
phrates, on the north by Pontus, and on the west and south
by Cappadocia, the dividing line on the south being formed by
the River Melas, a tributary of the Euphrates.          In the time
of Ptolemy, however, we find Armenia Minor encroaching on
Cappadocia, and including the whole of Melitene and Aravene
on the south.
III. Armenia Major was bounded on the north by Colchis,
Iberia, and Albania; on the northeast and east by Albania;
on the west by Armenia Minor and Pontus; and on the south
by Mesopota:i:::mia, Assyria, and Media.
ARMENIA MINOR.
I. THE inhabitants of this country were doubtless of the same race as the
people of Armenia Major, and spoke the same language; they had also been
governed by the kings of the latter country, but not unfrequently had been
subject to the rule of their own princes. These, however, subsequently yielded
to the ascendency of Mithradates the Great. This monarch, having become
master of the country, perceived the advantage it afforded from the strength of
its positions and the resources it possessed. He is said to have built there no
less than seventy-five fortresses, in which he deposited his treasures and valuable effects. The chain of Mount Paryadres, on the northwest, was particularly
favorable for his views, as it was abundantly supplied with timber forests and
water, and was every where intersected by numerous ravines and rocky precipices.
II. We may mention in this region the following places: 1. Nicpoblis, toward
the northwestern frontier, founded by Pompey in commemoration of a victory
obtained by him here over Mithradates. It is now probably represented by the
Turkish town of Devliki. Of the seventy-five fortresses built by Mithradates,
Strabo has named only three, more important than the rest, namely, Ilydara,
Basgcadariza, and Synoria. The two former are unknown. Synoria was on




ASIA.                            683
the borders of Armenia Major, and appears to be now Senarvir. 2. Satala, to
the northeast, a place of some traffic and consequence, from which numerous
roads branched off to Pontus and Cappadocia. It was the station of the fifteenth
Roman legion. Mannert places it at Sukme; D'Anville, less correctly, at Erzinghan.
ARMENIA MAJOR.
I. Armenia Major, or Armenia Proper, was bounded on the north by Colchis,
Iberia, and part of Albania; on the northeast and east by the remaining part
of Albania; on the west by Armenia Minor; and on the south by Mesopotamia,
Assyria, and Media. It is one of the most lofty countries of Southern Asia, and
its climate in the higher regions is extremely cold, the summits of several of
its mountains being covered with perpetual snow. It possesses, however, severatfruitful valleys, and is a fertile country. Strabo speaks with praise of the
Armenian horses. The country was rich also in precious stones and metals.
Strabo speaks in particular of gold mines at a place called Kambala, probably in
the northern part of the country.
II. Besides the Tigris and Euphrates, we may mention, among the rivers of
this country, the Cyrus, the Araxes, and the Arsanias. 1. The Cyrus, now the
Kur, rose in the mountains of Iberia, and after separating Armenia from Albania,
emptied Into the Caspian Sea. 2. The Araxes, now the Aras, rose in the range
of Antitaurus, near the western confines of Armenia, and after traversing the
country, and in a part of its course separating Armenia from Media, joins the
Cyrus no(t far from the mouths of the latter. On some nrfaps the Araxes and
Cyrus have separate mouths, whereas there should be three for the united
stream. 3. The Arsanias, now the Ardjis or Arsen, rose in the range of Mount
Abus, and flowing for the most part in a southwestern direction, fell into the
Euphrates. It is sometimes mistaken for the Euphrates itself.
III. The principal lakes of Armenia are, 1. Arsissa Palus, now Lake Wan,
having a circumference of two hundred and forty miles. This is the largest
one. The ancient name may still be traced in that of the fortress of Ardsisch,
on the northern side of the lake. 2. Lychnitis Palus, to the northeast of the
former. It is now the Lake of Gonkeka or Eriwan. 3. Thospztis Palus, to the
southwest of Arsissa Palus, now the Lake of Erzen.
IV. The chief mountains are, 1. Montes Moschici, in the west, now MesidjiDagh. 2. Antitaurus, running through the central parts of the country. 3. Mons
Abus, between the Arsissa and Lychnitis Palus, and believed by the natives at
the present day to be the Ararat of Scripture. The Turks call it Aghri-Dagh;
but the Persians, Koh-i-Nuh, or " Mount Noah." 4. Monies Gordysei, along a
portion of the Mesopotamian and Assyrian frontiers, and forming the eastern
part of the range of Masius. Both Mons Masius and the Montes Gordyei correspond to what are now the mountains of Kurdistan. 5. Mons Masius, in the
southwest, separating Armenia from Mesopotamia. It is now Karajeh-Dagh.
6. Niphdtes, so called by the Greeks from the summits being covered with perpetual snow. They lie to the southwest, in the district of Sophene, below the
Arsanias, and, according to St. Martin, now called Mount Nebad or Nebadagan.
V. The early history of Armenia is a confused mass of traditions, and the
Armenians, as a nation, occupy no place in the early history of Asia. They
were subjected in turn by the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Macedonians.
After the death of Alexander, Armenia became part of the kingdom of Syria,
and so remained till the overthrow of Antiochus the Great. The Romans and
Parthians fought a long time for the right of giving a successor to the throne,




684                 ANICIENT GEOGRAPHY.
and it was governed at one time by Parthian princes, at another by those whom
the Romans favored, until Trajan made it a Roman province. It afterward recovered its independence, and was under the rule of its own kings. Sapor in
vain attempted its subjection, and it remained free till A.D. 650, when it was
conquered by the Arabians.
PLACES IN ARMENIA MAJOR.
ARMPNIA was divided into a number of small districts, or strategies, such as
Catarzene, Ossarene, Motene, Colthene, &c. The most important places are the
following: 1. Artaxata (rd'ApTdrara), in Armenian Artaschad, the capital of the
country, on the River Araxes, and a strongly-fortified place. It was built by
Artaxias, the founder of the new Armenian monarchy, after the yoke of Antiochus had been thrown off, and is said to have been erected by the advice of
Hannibal. It was frequently taken and plundered, and on one occasion burned
by the Romans under Corbulo. Tiridates, however, rebuilt it, and called it Neronia, and it continued to exist as late as the fourteenth century. The ruins
are called Ardachat. S. Arxata, to the northwest, also on the Araxes, and probably the earlier capital. On this same site Ptolemy subsequently places the city
of Naxuana, the modern Nackjuvan. 3. Tigranocerta (ra Tlypavo6epra), or " City
of Tigranes," to the southwest of the Arsissa Palus, on the River Centrites or
Nicephorius, a tributary of the Tigris, and situate on a height. It was built by
Tigranes, son of Artaxias, and son-in-law of Mithradates, and became a large:
rich, and powerful city, inhabited not only by Orientals, but also by many Greeks,
and particularly by many Macedonians, who had been carried off from Cappadocia and Cilicia. Lucullus took it during the Mithradatic war, and found in it
immense riches. The Roman commander allowed those of the Greek residents
who had been torn from their homes to return to them; but, though many embraced this offer, the city nevertheless continued to be a large and important
one. Its remains are at Sered, on the Chabur. 4'rsamosata, or Armosata, a
strongly-fortified place in the district of Sophene, not far from the pass over
Mount Taurus called Clisurce. It is now Simsat. 5. Elegia, in an angle of the
Euphrates, and known by Trajan's expedition in this quarter. It is now Ilija.
In the reign of Theodosius the Great, the Romans having by treaty reobtained
possession of the western part of Armenia, where there were mines of the precious metals, erected several fortresses to defend them. Some of these subsequently rose to the rank of cities. Among them we may mention, 1. Arzen, the
modern Erzeroum, the capital now of Turkish Armenia. 2. Kars, now the capital of the pachalic of Kars. 3. Amida, to the west of Tigranocerta, now Diarbekir, or Kara Amid, capital of the pachalic of the same name. Here gold and
silver mines were found.
BABYL ONIA.
I. Babylonia, now Irak Arabi, was bounded on the east by
Susiana and Assyria, on the south by the Sinus Persicus, on
the west by the Arabian Desert, and on the north by Mesopotamia. It was separated from this latter country by what was
termed the IVall of Media, a.wall of baked brick, erected by
Semiramis as a barrier against the incursions of the Medes
and other nations, twenty feet'broad and one hundred f',et high.




ASIA.                           685
II. Babylonia was entirely flat and alluvial land, which, on
account of the want of rain, was watered from canals by means
of hydraulic machines, and was in this way rendered extremely
fertile, producing from two to three hundred fold. The principal.canals were, 1. The Maarsares (more correctly, perhaps,
Xaarsares), now Narsi, drawn from the Euphrates above Babylon, running. parallel to the river, on its western side, and joining it again below Babylon.      2. The Naarmnalcha, or " Royal
River," drawn from the Euphrates in a southeastern direction
to the Tigris, and navigable for ships of considerable burden.
3. The Pallak6pas, drawn from the Euphrates below Babylon,
and extending into the desert country on the west, where it
terminated in some lakes.
III. The only tree that flourished in this soil was the palm,
of which there were great numbers. The want of wood and
stone was supplied by an inexhaustible abundance of clay for
making bricks. These were baked in the sun. Instead of lime
they used naphtha or bitumen, of which there were large fountains here.
DIVISIONS, INHABITANTS, &C.
I. BAsYLOrnSA was anciently divided into two districts, namely, Babylonia
Proper and lChaldcea. The former comprised the country extending southward
from Mesopotamia, and ine-icd between the Euphrates and Tigris. Chaldcea,
on the other'hand, in this its limited sense, meant the country lying along the
right bank of the Euphrates, and extending as far into the desert on the west
as this could be rendered fertile by irrigation. Chaldcea, however, in this use
of the term, must not be confounded with the same appellation when employed
in its more extended sense, for then it denotes the whole country of Babylonia,
and by Chaldaci are then meant the whole race.
II. The mountaineer Chaldcei of the Carduchian chain in Armenia are regarded byGesenius and others as the original stock of'be Chaldeans or Babylonians. Some descendants of these mountaineers, the Chasdim, namely, of
the Old Testament, appear to have settled at a remote period in the plains of
Babylonia, and, after having been subject to the Assyrians, to have there subsequently founded a Chaldseo-Babylonian empire.  The language spoken at
Babylon, and which is always called the Chaldaan language, was of the Shemiitic stock. According to the Old Testament, the foundation of the Chaldaean
empire was laid by Nimrod in the plains of Shinar. This empire flourished most
under Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, the latter of whom carried away the
inhabitants of Jerusalem in captivity to Babylon. The Chaldaean empire ended
with the taking of Babylon by Cyrus, and the reduction of the country to a Persian province, B.C. 538.
III. The favorable position of Babylonia, midway between the Indus and the
Mediterranean, in the neighborhood of the Persian Gulf, and between two naviWable rivers, rendered it, ajid its capital Babylon, the centre of commercial




686                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
communication between Upper and Lower Asia. The land trade was carried
on by means of caravans, eastward with India, from which country they imported precious stones, dyes, pearls, wood for ship-building, and cotton; westward with Asia and Phoenicia, up the Euphrates as far as Thapsacus, and thence
by caravans. Babylon itself was famous for superior linen, woollen and cotton
cloths, and carpets, which formed valuable articles of export. Maritime commerce, on the other hand, was carried on, not so much by the Babylonians themselves, as through the Phoenicians who settled on their coasts.
PLACES IN BABYLONIA PROPER.
1. Babylon, the capital of the empire, situate on both sides of the Euphrates.
Its founder is not known. Herodotus says that the building of Babylon was
the work of several successive sovereigns, but among them he distinguishes
two queens, Semiramis and Nitocris, to whom the city was indebted for numerous improvements. Babylon was built in the form of a square, each side
being one hundred and twenty stadia in length, which makes the circuit four
hundred and eighty stadia, or above fifty miles.  The walls were of brick,
and fifty royal cubits thick and two hundred high, with two hundred and fifty
towers, and one hundred brazen gates. The Euphrates ran through the city,
and divided it into two parts. The city, however, was by no means thickly
inhabited, a great portion of the space within the walls being occupied by
fields and gardens. In one division of the city was the palace, with its hanging gardens, that is, gardens laid out in the form of terraces over arches. In
the other division was the temple of Belus, a building of enormous size, consisting of eight stages, surmounted by a large temple. After the death of Alexander, Babylon, which he had intended for the capital of his empire, fell to the
share of Seleucus, but was neglected by him, and allowed to decline. The
founding of Seleucia in its vicinity completed its downfall. The ruins at the
present day consist of mounds of earth and brick-work intermingled. 2. Seleuca,
on the western bandk of the Tigris, about forty-five miles to the north of Babylon.
It was founded by and called after Seleucus Nicator, and was the capital of the
Macedonian conquests in Upper Asia. Its population is said to have been six
hundred thousand. The rise of Ctesiphon, on the other side of the Tigris, proved
greatly injurious to Seleucia; but it received its death-blow from the Romans,
having been first plundered and partially consumed by them in the reign of
Trajan, and finally destroyed in that of Verus. The ruins of Seleucia and Ctesiphon are now called El-Madain, or "the (two) cities." 3. Cbche (Ki2te), to the
southeast, on the Tigris, and famed for the beauty of the surrounding country.
4. Cunaxa, a few miles below the entrance of the wall of Media, and, according
to Plutarch, five hundred stadia from Babylon. Here the celebrated battle was
fought between Artaxerxes Mnemon and his brother, Cyrus the younger, in
which the latter lost his life.
PLACES IN CHALDXEA.
1. Borsippa, below Babylon, the seat of a college or fraternity of Chaldean
astronomers, called from it Borsippeni. It was famed for its linen manufacture.
Here, too, large bats were smoke-dried and eaten. Reichard makes it answer
to the modern Cufa. D'Anville and Mannert, however, place it near Semaue.
2. Vologesia or Vologesocerta, to the southeast, built by the Parthian Vplogeses,
who was contemporary with Nero and Vespasian, with the view of injuring Seleucia. Mannert makes this place, and not Borsippa, answer to Cufa. 3. )r




ASIA.                        687
cnoe or Urchoa, to the southeast, the seat of another astronomical college. Some
suppose it to be the same with " Ur of the Chaldees," mentioned in Scripture
as the native place of the family of Abraham. 4. Teredon or Diridbtis, west of
the Pasitigris, the stream formed by the union of the Euphrates and Tigris. It
was a depot for frankincense and other Arabian products, and is now, perhaps,
Dorah. 5. Apamea, in the southern extremity of what was called the island ot
Mesene, an insular tract formed by the Tigris and the canal termed Naarmalcha,
or " the Royal River," already mentioned. This Mesene must not be confounded
with the island of the same name at the mouth of the Tigris. Apamea answers
to the modern Come. 6. Charax Spasinu (Xdpa5 2Traoivov), selected by Alexander as a port, and subsequently the residence of an Arabian prince named
Spasines.
COUNTRIES BETWEEN           THE TIGRIS AND INDUS.
ASSYRIA.
I. Assyria, in the limited sense of the term, was a province
of the great Persian satrapy of Babylonia, and answers now to
a part of Kurdistan. It was bounded on the north by Arnmenia, on the'east by Media and Susiana, on the west by lIesopotamia and part of Babylonia, and on the south by the remaining portion of Babylonia.
II. Assyria was mountainous in the north and east. It was
awell-watered country, however, and consequently, for the most
part, productive. Its chief and boundary river was the Tigris,
besides which Ptolemy mentions particularly three rivers, namely, the Lycus, Caprus, and Gorgus.    The Lycus is the same
river which Xenophon calls Zabatus, now the Zab Ala, the
Upper or Greater Zab; while the Caprus is now the Zab Asfal, the Lower or Lesser Zab.   The Gorgus is supposed.to be
identical with the Sillas of Isidorus, and Delas of Stephanus
Byzantinus, and is nowv the Diala.   To these we may add the
Gyndes, now the Kerah; the Physcus, now the Odoan or
Odorneh; and the Bumadus or Bumalus, now the Chasir,
running by Gaugamela.      This last-mentioned river is a trib'
utary of the Greater Zab; all the rest flow into the Tigris.
III. The province of Assyria was subdivided into several districts, of which the principal were, 1. Aturia, to the northwest
of the Greater Zab. The name Aturia appears to be a mere
dialective variety of pronunciation instead of Assyria, and the
district thus designated was probably the central point from
which the power as well as the name of Assyria was subsequently spread.  2. Adiabene, between the Greater and Lesser
Zab. 3. Apoll6niatis, to the south of the Lesser Zab.  4. Cha.




688                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
lonitis, to the east of the preceding.   5. Sittacene, the territory
around the city of Sittace.   6. Satrapene, in the extreme south.
HISTORY OF ASSYRIA.
AssYRIA,, taken in a more extended sense, means the Assyrian Empire, corn
prising not only the province just mentioned, but also Mesopotamia, Babylonia,
Media, Persia, and several countries of Western Asia. The early history of
this empire is involved in great obscurity, our only certain source of information being the Old Testament, and the information which even this affords being
limited and incidental. The legend of Ninus, and his warlike queen Semiramis,
as given by. Diodorus, does not belong to the period of authentic history. The
Hebrew chronicles, on the other hand, leave us in the dark with reference to
the history of Assyria till the earlier part of the eighth century before our era.
From this time downward the names of several Assyrian kings are mentioned,
the earliest of whom is Phul, contemporary with Menahem, king of Israel.
Another of these monarchs, named Salmanassar, contemporary with Hosea,
king of Israel, and Hezekiah, king of Judea, put an end to the kingdom of Israel
(B.C. 722) by what is termed the Assyrian captivity. The last monarch of Assyria was Sardanapalus, in whose reign Nineveh was taken by the Medes and
Babylonians under Arbaces and Belesis. Sardanapalus was the thirtieth in succession from Ninus, according to the common account. The brilliant discoveries which have recently been made by Layard, have thrown much light on various obscure parts of Assyrian history, and if these discoveries be followed up,
as is now extremely probable, by new researches, much of the history of, Assyria, as it is now received, will have to be re-written. Layard thinks there are
sufficient grounds for the conjecture that there were two, if not more, distinct Assyrian dynasties; the first commencing with Ninus, and ending with a Sardanapalus of history; and the second, including the kings mentioned in the Scriptures,
and ending with Saracus, Ninus II., or the king, under whatever name he was
known, in whose reign Nineveh was finally destroyed by the combined armies
of Persia and Babylon.
PLACES IN      ASSYRIA.
1. Ninus (4 Nivor), the Ninive of Scripture, and capital of the Assyrian empire.
It was situate on the eastern bank of the Tigris, above the mouth of the Great(e
Zab, and, according to one account, was founded by Ninus, the early Assyrian
monarch. It is said to have been a still larger city than Babylon, and its walls
to have been one hundred feet high, and broad enough for three chariots to pass.abreast. There were also on the ramparts fifteen hundred towers, each two
hundred feet high. Ninive appears to have been partially destroyed on the
downfall of Sardanapalus, but to have been completely overthrown by Cyaxares.
the father of Astyages, king of the Medes. At a later period, another city of
the name of Ninus appears to have arisen in this quarter, but whether on the
site of the earlier one, or in its vicinity, we have po means of ascertaining.
The opinion advanced by Mannert and others, that there was also a city named
Ninus below Babylon, on the Euphrates, is altogether untenable. The ruins
of Ninive have been generally supposed to be those on the eastern side of the
Tigris, opposite Mosul; but the recent and very remarkable discoveries of Layard, in excavating the-mounds not only at Kouyunjik, opposite Mosul, but also
at Nimroud, lower down the river, together with those made by Botta at Khorsabad, have led to some doubt respecting the particular locality of this once




AsrA.                           689
celebrated capital, though they confirm, however, the opinion that it was situated on the left bank of the Tigris, above the mouth of the Greater Zab.
2. Gaugamela, to the southeast, a village near the River Bumadus, and in
the vicinity of which was fought the final battle between Alexander and Da.
rius. This, however, is called in history the battle of Arbela, from the city of
that name, in which Darius had established his head-quarters, and which hence
gave name to the fight, though five hundred stadia from the battle field. Gaugamela is said to have signified in Persian "the camel's abode," and to have
been so called because Darius Hystaspis placed here the camel on which he
had escaped in his Scythian expedition, having appointed the revenue of certain villages for its maintenance. 3. Arbela, the chief city of eastern Adiabene, and in the district called from it Arbelitis. It is now Arbil. Mention has
been made of it under the head of Gaugamela. 4. Apollonia, the capital of the
district Apolloniatis. 5. Artemita, to the south, called.by the natives Chalasar.
Its site is occupied by the modern Schehrban. 6. Sittice, to the northwest,
near the Tigris, and the capital of the district Sittacene. 7. Ctesiphon, on the
Tigris, opposite Seleucia. It was at first a small village, but the camp of the
Parthian monarchs being frequently pitched here, caused it gradually to become
a large city, and finally the capital of the Parthian empire. It was sacked by
the Saracens in A.D. 637. The ruins of this place and of Seleucia are now
called Al Modain, or " the (two) cities."
SUSIANA.
I. Susiana, also called Susis, was the name given by the
Greek geographers to a tract of country lying between Babylonia and Persis, and bounded on the north by Media, and on
the south by the Persian Gulf.     The northern part was mountainous, and enjoyed a temperate climate; but the southern portion, along the shore of the gulf, was exceedingly hot, being exposed to the west and south winds, while the mountains to the
north and east kept off every cooling breeze. The country was
not thickly settled, and had but few cities. It comprehends
pretty nearly the modern Khuzistan.
II. Among the rivers of Susiana we may mention, 1. The
Choaspes, falling into the united streams of the Euphrates and
Tigris. It is now the Kerkhah or Kerah. This river ran by
Susa, the capital of the country. Its waters were remarkable
for their clearness and purity, and the kings of Persia drank of
no other.   Wherever these monarchs went, they were attended
by a number of four-wheeled carriages, drawn by mules, in
which the waters of this river, being first boiled, were deposited in vessels of silver.    2. The Eulaeus, called in Scripture
Ulai, and regarded by some as the same with the Choaspes.
Others, however, make it answer to the modern Kuran, whici
unites with the Dizful, the ancient Cophrates.        3. The HIeXx




690                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
dyphon, called by Pliny the Hedypnus.      It is supposed by some.
though without any good reason, to be the modern Jerahi.
III. The inhabitants of the country were called Susii or Cissii, and, according to the ancient writers, belonged to the Syrian stock, and spoke the Syrian language. Those who dwelt
in the plains, or level country to the south, were a peaceful
and agricultural race, living for the most part in villages. The
mountaineers, on the other hand, were a warlike and independent people, owing no subjection to the Persians, and oftentimes
even exacting payment from the Persian kings, when these
passed through their mountain defiles from Susa to Persepolis.
PLACES IN      SUSIANA.
1. Susa, in Scripture Susan, the capital, in the district of Cissia, on the east
ern bank of the River Choaspes, built in the form of a rectangle, without walls,
but having a- strongly fortified citadel named Memnonia or Memnoneum. It was
the winrter residence of the kings of Persia, their summers being spent at Ecbatana, in the cool, mountainous country of Media. It was also one of the royal
treasuries, and Alexander found a large amount of wealth here. The name
Susa or Susan is said to mean " a lily," and the city to have derived its name
from the abundance of these flowers which grew in its vicinity. Great difficulty exists with regard to its site at the present day, modern scholars being
divided between Sus and Shuster; the former, however, appears to have the
better claim. The ruins present the appearance of numerous irregular mounds,
with a great tumulus representing probably the site of the citadel. The whole
circuit of these remains is about six or seven miles. 2. Seleucia, in the district
of Elymais, on the Hedyphon, and probably the same with the Sele of Ptolemy.
Its site is to be found in the territory of the modern Sultanabad. 3. Azara, also
in Elymais, a village containing rich and celebrated temples of Venus and Diana.
It was near the modern Djarsun.
PERSIS.
I. Persis or Persia, called in Scripture Paras, and by the
Arabic and Persian writers Fars or Farsistan, is used in two
significations; first, as applying to Persia Proper, or the country originally inhabited by the Persians; and, secondly, as denoting the Persian Empire.
II. Persis, or Persia Proper, was bounded on the north by
Media and Parthia, on the east by Carmania, on the west by
Susiana, and on the southwest and south by the Persian Gulf.
The country included within these limits is as large as modern
France. The southern part, near the coast, is a sandy plain,
almost uninhabitable on account of the heat, and the pestilential winds which blow from    the Desert of Carmania; but at
some distance from the coast the ground rises, and the interior




ASIA.                            691
of the country is intersected by numerous mountain ranges.
This part of Persia was the original seat of the conquerors of
Asia, where they were inured to hardship and privation.
III. The principal rivers were, 1. The Araxes, rising in the
mountains of the Parcetaceni, flowing by Persepolis, where it
receives the Medus, coming from       Media, and emptying into a
salt lake, now the Lake of Bakhtegan, to the southeast of the
city just mentioned. The Araxes is now the Bend-emir; and
the Medus, the Farwzar or Schamior.          2. The Cyrus, flowing
by Pasargadce, and now probably the Khor.
INHABITANTS, HISTORY, &C.
I. THE Persians, on account of the variety of their soil, were partly nomaues,
partly agriculturists. Herodotus enumerates four nomadic or herdsmen castes,
three agricultural, and three warrior castes. These last were called the Pasargadce, Maraphii, and Maspii. Of these, the Pasargadae were the noblest, to
the chief clan of which, called the Achcamenidce, the royal family of Persia belonged.
II. Herodotus says that the Persians were originally called Artcei, which word
probably contains the same root as Arii, the original name of the Medes, and
Arya, the word by which the followers of the Brahmanic religion are designated
in Sanscrit. The same root occurs in Aria and Ariana, from the latter of which
the modern Persian name Iran seems to be derived.
III. At the earliest period of which any trace is preserved, Persis appears to
have formed merely a province of the great Assyrian empire. On the disruption
of this empire it fell under the power of the Medes. The Median yoke was
broken by Cyrus, who laid the foundation of the great Persian empire, which
his successors gradually enlarged, until it embraced the larger portion of Asia,
together with Thrace and Macedonia in Europe, and, in Africa, Egypt, and the
neighboring country of Libya. This empire was overthrown by Alexander, on
whose death Persis fell to the lot of the Seleucidce. It was wrested from them
subsequently by the Parthians, and from these last it afterward passed into the
hands of the Sassanidce, or new Persian dynasty.
PLACES IN       PERSIS.
1. Pasargadae, a very ancient city, and the royal residence previous to the
founding of Persepolis. It is said to have been built by Cyrus after his victory
over Astyages the Mede, which he gained near this place. The kings of Persia,
according to Plutarch, were consecrated here by the Magi, and here also was
the tomb of Cyrus. The position of Pasargadae has been a subject of much dispute. Many modern writers, following Morier and Sir R. K. Porter, have been
disposed to place it in what is now the plain of Murghab, about fifty miles northeast of Persepolis. Lassen, however, thinks that we ought to look for it to the
southeast of Persppolis, in the neighborhood of Darabgherd or Farsa. 2. Persepolis, the capital of Persia, situate in an extensive plain near the junction of the
Araxes and Medus. The Greek writers speak of its citadel, surrounded by a
triple wall, and containing within its inclosure the royal treasury, palace, and
the tombs of the kings. The palace was burned by Alexander in a fit of intox



692                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
ication, and the city was plundered by the Macedonian soldiery. Persepolis was
not, however, laid in ruins on this occasion, as some have supposed, but is mentioned by subsequent writers as still existing; and even in a later age, under
the sway of Mohammedan princes, this city, with its name changed to Istakhar,
was their usual place of residence. Oriental historians say that the Persian
name for Persepolis was likewise Istakhar or Estakhar. The ruins of Persepolis, or, rather, a part of them, are now called Tchil-Minar, that is, " the forty (or
many) pillars," and are described in Sir R. K. Porter's Travels. 3. Gabe,, another royal residence, near Pasargada. 4. Aspadana, probably the modern Ispahan.
C ARMANIA.
I. Carmania was a large province, having Persis on the
west, Gedrosia on the east, the Persian Gulf and Mare Erythrceum to the south, and Parthia on the north.          It answers to
the modern Kerman, together with the easternmost portion of
Laristan and Moghistan.         The country was little known to
the ancient Greeks and Romans, their acquaintance with it
being derived merely from Alexander's march through it to India, and from the circumstance of the Seleucide having held
a part of it subsequently under their sway.
II. The northern part was a desert; the remainder of the
country the ancients represent as extremely productive, especially in grapes, yielding clusters of these more than two feet
long. The other products were, gold in one of the rivers, silver,
copper, cinnabar, arsenic, corn, salt, together with abundance
of asses.
PLACES IN CARMANIA.
AaONG the places in Carmania deserving of mention we may merely particularize here, 1. Carmdna, the chief town, some distance inland, and now Khirman.
2. Harmuza, in the district of Harmozia, on the coast, at the entrance of the
Persian Gulf, near the modern Minau. The promontory of Harmozon, near this
place, is now Cape Kuhestek. The ancient name of Harmuza was corrupted in
time to Ormuz, and became the modern and well-known name of the island anciently called Organa, lying off this coast. 3. Sidedbne, on the coast, toward the
western frontier, the inhabitants of which, as well as their cattle, lived and still
live on fish. It is now Lundje. Among the islands off the coast we may name,
1. Organa, now Ormuz, already mentioned. 2. Catcea, sacred to Neptune and
Venus, and to which the inhabitants of the coast brought yearly offerings; now
Kisch or Kenn. 3. Ooracta, a large and fruitful island, containing the tomb of
King Erythras, who once ruled over all these shores, and after whom the Mare
Erythrceum was named. It is now Dsjisme or Khishme.
GEDROSIA.
I. Gedrbsia lay between Carmania and India, having the
Mlare Erytthreum     on the south, and running back as far as




ASIA.                      693
Aria on the north. The northern part was mountainous, and
tolerably productive; but the southern portion, lying along the
coast, was hardly any thing more than a desert. The whole
country answers to the modern Mekran, one of the provinces
of Beloochistan.
II. According to Strabo, the southern part of Gedrosia
abounded in aromatics, especially nard and myrrh. The coast
was inhabited by the Ichthyophdgi, a name given to these tribes
by the Greeks, from their living entirely on fish. They were
a different race from the inhabitants of the more northern parts,
which would seem to have been of the same stock with the
Arii.
III. The army of Alexander marched through southern Gedrosia on their return from India, and suffered great hardships
from scarcity of water and from the columns of moving sand.
The armies of Semiramis and Cyrus, long before this, are said
to have suffered still more severely from the same causes.
MEDIA.
I. MEDIA was bounded on the north by Armenia, on the south
by Susiana and Persis, on the west by Assyria, and on the
east by Parthia.  It answers now to Azerbijan, Shirvan,
Ghilan, the western half of Mazanderan, and the northern
part of Irak. It was divided into three great districts, namely, Southern or Great Media, Media Atlropatene, or the north.
western part, and Northern Media.
II. The ancient writers with one voice extol the productiveness of Media, especially of the district of Atropatene.  It
yielded grain, honey, oranges, citron, salt, wine, figs, silphium,
excellent horses, &c. Its great productiveness, together with
its excellent and numerous population, and also its being defended on every side by mountain chains, made Media one of
the most important provinces of the Persian empire. On the
northern borders was the chain of Mons Caspius; on the western and southern, that of Jions Parachoathras; on the east,
that of Mons Zagrus; and branching off from this in a northWestern direction was Mons Idsonius. The rivers were unimportant. In the northwestern part of the country was a large
salt lake called Spauta, now the Lake of Urmi.




694                 ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
INHABITANTS, HISTORY, &C.
I. ACCORDING to Herodotus, the Medes were originally called Arii, a word
which contains the same root as Ar-txi, the ancient name of the Persians. Media originally formed part of the Assyrian empire, but its history as an independent kingdom is given so differently by Herodotus and Ctesias as to render
it probable that the latter must refer to a different dynasty in eastern Asia.
II. According to the account of Herodotus, there were four kings of Media,
namely, 1. Deioces, who reigned B.C. 710-657. 2. Phraortes, B.C. 657-635, who
greatly extended the Median empire, subdued the Persians, and many other
nations, and fell in an expedition against the Assyrians of Nineveh. 3. Cyaxares, B.C. 635-595, who completely organized the military force of the empire,
and extended its boundaries as far west as the Halys. He also took Nineveh,
and overthrew the Assyrian empire. 4. Astyages, B.C. 595-560, who was dethroned by his grandson Cyrus, and Media reduced to a Persian province.
PLACES IN GREAT MEDIA.
I. Ecbatana, or, more correctly, Agbatana, the ancient capital of Media, founded by Deioces, and situated in a plain at the foot of a lofty mountain called Orontcs. It was built on a conical kind of hill, and consisted of seven inclosures or
walls, rising one above the other, and each of a different color, the sixth being
silvered and the seventh gilt. Ecbatana, being in a high and mountainous country, was a favorite summer residence of the Persian monarchs, and subsequently
of the Arsacidae or Parthian kings, as well as those of the Sassanian or new
Persian dynasty. It existed as a large and fortified city down even to the close
of the fourth century. Its site is occupied by the modern Hamadan. 2. Rhagae,
to the northeast of Ecbatana, and near the Caspian Gates. It was the largest
city in Media. Seleucus Nicator rebuilt it on its having been destroyed by an
earthquake, and changed the name to Europus. It was again destroyed in the
Parthian wars, and rebuilt by Arsaces, who called it Arsacia. It still existed in
the Middle Ages under the name of Rai, but was subsequently destroyed by the
Tartars. This city is often mentioned in the book of Tobit, as the place where
many of the Jews resided who had been carried away captive by Shalmaneser.
Near Rhagae was the Nisman plain, celebrated for its breed of horses, which
were considered in ancient times the best in Asia. Arrian informs us that there
were fifty thousand horses reared in this plain in the time of Alexander, and that
there were formerly as many as one hundred and fifty thousand. 3. Bagistdna,
to the southwest of Ecbatana, on the great commercial road leading from the
latter city to Ctesiphon. It is now Behistun. The name Bagistana is said to
mean' the place of the Bagas," or deities, and in the vicinity of the place was
Mount Bagistanus, which the Greeks made sacred to Jupiter. This mountain
is now more correctly termed the " sacred rock of Behistun." According to the
ancients, it had the figure of Semiramis cut upon it, with a Syrian inscription.
Major Rawlinson, however, has placed the matter recently in its true light, and
has shown the inscription on the rock, which is in cuneiform characters, to have
been executed by order of Darius Hystaspis, and to be intended to mark not only.he progress, but the permanent establishment of his power. The sculptured
figures represent Ormuzd, the Persian deity, Darius, and his vanquished foes
PLACES IN ATROPATENE.
Atropatene, or the northwestern part of the country, derived its name from
Atropates, a satrap of this province, who, after the death of Alexander, made




ASIA.                           695
himself independent, and took the title of king, which his successors enjoyed
for a long period. We have here, 1. Gaza, the chief city, on the eastern side
of the Lake Spauta, and the summer residence of the kings of Atropatene. It
was destroyed by Shah Abbas. Gaza lay between the present Tabris (or Taubreez) and Miana. 2. Phraata or Praaspa, to the southeast, a fortified place,
situate on a height, and the winter residence of the kings. Its site is a few
miles to the southeast of Ardebil. In the southwestern part of Atropatene was
the district of Matiane, inhabited by the Matiani, with whom the Carduchi and
Caspii were connected. The principal places here were, 1. Nande, now Selmas.
2. Nazada, near the defile now called Derbend-pust; and, 3. Alinza, near the
modern Talvar.
NORTH MEDIA.
OF this district little is known. It was occupied by several warlike and independent tribes, among whom we may name, 1. The Caspii, among the Montes
Caspii, between the rivers Cambyses and Cyrus. 2. The Cadzsii, a powerful
and warlike tribe along the Caspian Sea. On their coast stood Cyropolis, probably the modern Reshd. 3. The Dribyces, below the River Amardus, now the
Sefid-Rud. 4. The Anariacce, to the east, near Hyrcania. They possessed an
oracle, the revelations of which were made to persons in their sleep. 5. The
Mardi or Amardi, a powerful and wide-spread tribe, in the vicinity of the former,
and very annoying to all the tribes around by reason of their predatory habits.
ARIA.
I. THIs extensive province was bounded on the north by Margiana and Bactriana, on the west by Parthia, on the south by
Gedrosia, and on the east by India. Under the name of Aria,
therefore, in this extended sense, are included both the ParoL
pamisade and the province of Arachosia, so that Aria thus answers to part of.Chorasan, nearly all Sedjestan, together with
Afghanistan.
II. The more northern parts of the country were very productive, and yielded in particular a very good kind of wine.
Gold and precious stones, especially sapphires, were also found
here, in the Sariphi Montes, now the Mountains of Sahar, and
in Mons Bagous, a part of the chain of Paropamisus, now the
Mountains of Gaur.
III. Among the rivers of Aria may be mentioned, 1. The
Arius, now Heri-Rud, which loses itself in the sand.        2. The
Erymandrus, now the Hilmend, flowing into the Aria Palus,
now the Lake of Zarrah.        3. The Arachotus, now, according
to Wilson, the Urghundab, a tributary of the Hilmend.
IV. The more ancient capital of Aria was Artacoana, on the
River Arius, and near to, if not identical with, the later capital
Alexandrea Ariana, founded by Alexander, or, more probably,




696                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
named in honor of him. The site of this latter city is near the
modern Herat.      Aria, as here used, must not be confounded
with the later and more extensive Ariana, which comprised the
eastern portion of those countries which form the high land of
Persia.
DIVISIONS, &C., OF ARIA.
1. Drangidna, in the southwestern quarter of the country, and bordering on
Gedrosia, Carmania, and the southeastern portion of Parthia.  Its principal
tribes were the Zarangi or Zarangci, and the Ariaspa. The chief town of the
Zarangi was Prophthasia, on the Erymandrus, or Hilmend, not far from the modern Zarend or Zarang. The Ariaspce lay to the south of the former, and were
also called Euergetae, the Greek translation of the Persian appellation bestowed
upon them for the assistance which they had offered to Cyrus in his march
through the deserts of Carmania. Their chief town was Ariaspe, near the present Pulki, to the south of Dushak.
2. Arachosia, a rich and fruitful land on the frontiers of India, called by the
Parthians "White India" ('IvdKuc. eVK/), on account of the white inhabitants
that migrated hither from Oxus. Some, however, restrict this latter name to
the district of Chorene, which Seleucus had given up to Sandrocottus, and where
white inhabitants therefore were ruled over by an Indian king. The principal
city at first was Arachotus, the proper name of which was Cophen, and which
was built, according to Pliny, by Semiramis. The latter capital was Alexandria
or Alexandreopolis, on the River Arachotus. Its site must have been near Gundava, according to Mannert.
3. Paropamisada, a name given to the tribes inhabiting the highlands of Paropamisus. They were situate to the south of Bactriana. This country was
the key to Persia from India. The cities here were, 1. Ortospana, called also
Carura, probably the modern Cabul. Three roads met here, a northern one
from Bactria, and an eastern and a southern one from India. Hence the spot
was also termed 1 f/c BUKTrpov Trplodo. 2. Alexandrea, a military colony of the
Macedonians. 3. Gauzaca, now Ghazna, on the River Dilen.
PARTHIA.
I. Parthia, called by Strabo and Arrian Parthyee          a (HapOvata), meant originally the tract of country bounded on the
north by Hyrcania, on the west by Media, on the south by
Persis and Carmania, and on the east by Aria.         When taken,
however, in a more extended sense, the term Parthia denotes
all the countries included in the later Parthian empire.
II. Parthia, in its limited sense, was a country partly mountainous and partly a sand-waste, with a few fruitful valleys interspersed.   It never formed, therefore, a separate province under
the Persian dominion, but was attached to Hyrcania; and yet
it is remarkable as the parent country of a race who established
in after days a powerful and extensive Asiatic empire.




ASIA.                            697
DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY, &C.
1. Comisene, a district in the northwest, still called Comis. Its chief town
was Taga, in the range of Mount Labuta, and now the capital Dameghan.
2. Parthyene, more in the centre, and the primitive settlement of the race. Here
was Hecatompylon, the capital of Parthia. Its name, probably a Greek translation of some native term, arose from the circumstance of all the roads from the
northern, eastern, and western provinces of the later Parthian empire meeting
in this place. Through the district of Parthyene flowed the Zioberis or Stibcetes, now Adschi-Su, into which empties the Rhidagus, and then the united
waters took the name of Choatres. 3. Choarene, a fruitful region on the western borders, and the pleasantest portion of Parthia. Its chief town was Apamca
Rhagiana, built by the Greeks. 4. Apavarcticene or Apavortene, in the southeast.
Here was Dareium, a very strong city, founded by Arsaces I., and now probably
Dehi-Muhammed.
PARTHIAN HISTORY.
I. THE Parthians were apparently of Scythian origin. According to Justin,
their name signified, in the Scythian language, " banished" or " exiles." At first
they were subject to the Persian monarchy, afterward to Alexander, on whose
death they espoused the cause of Eumenes, and afterward became subject successively to Antigonus and the Seleucidae, until about B.C. 256, when they threw
off the authority of the Syrian kings, and were formed into an independent kingdom under the rule of Arsaces I., from whom the succeeding kings received the
title of Arsacidae.
II. The reign of Arsaces was the beginning of the great Parthian empire,
which was gradually increased at the expense of the Syrian kingdom in the
west, and the Bactrian in the northeast; and at length extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf. In the time of
Pliny it was divided into eighteen satrapies. This empire lasted from B.C. 256
to A.D. 226, when it yielded to the new Persian empire, or dynasty of the Sassanidae.
HYRCANIA.
1. Hyrcania was bounded on the north by the deserts of
Scythia, on the south by Parthia, on the east by Margiana,
and on the west by the Caspian Sea and part of Media.         It was
surrounded by, and, for the most part, a mountainous country,
except the part along the shore of the Caspian.          This latter
portion of Hyrcania was very fertile, producing grapes, figs, and
corn in abundance.     The mountainous parts were covered with
forests, containing numerous wild animals, especially tigers.
Bees also abounded here, and the wild honey was extremely
plentiful.
II. Strabo says there were several towns in this country,
and names the most important of them, but their position can
not be ascertained.     Arrian mentions Zadracarta as the capital, the same, no doubt, with the Carta of Strabo, and the Sy



698                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
rinx of Polybius, this last being probably the Greek translation
of its name. Some make it answer to the modern Jorjan or
Gurkan, northeast of Asterabad; but this seems doubtful.
MARGIANA.
Margiana was bounded on the north by the Oxus and the
deserts of Scythia, on the west by Hyrcania and Parthia, on
the south by Aria, and on the east by Bactria. It comprised,
therefore, the greater part of the eastern portion of Chorasan.
The Roman prisoners taken by the Parthians at the defeat of
Crassus were transplanted to this province. The country was
partly productive and partly a sterile waste. It was famed for
its wine and its large-sized clusters of grapes.
The chief river, and from which the country derived its name, was the Margus, now the Murghab or Meru-Rud, rising in the Montes Sariphi, and falling
into the Oxus. The capital city was Antiochia Margiana, built by Antiochus
Soter on the site of an earlier city named Alexandrea, which had been founded
by Alexander, but destroyed by the barbarians. It was situated in a pleasing
and fertile district, on the banks of the Margus, and was strongly fortified. Here
the Romans, taken from Crassus's army, were placed. It is now, according to
Mannert and Droysen, Meru-Rud or Mawrutschak; but more probably, according to others, Mawri or Schah Djehan. Besides this place we may mention
Nzlsea, to the west. The adjacent country is supposed to have been the native
district of the famous Niseean horses of Media, to which latter country the breed
would seem to have been transferred by the Median kings.
BACTRIA.
I. Bactria or Bactriana was bounded on the north by Sogdiana, from which it was separated by the River Oxus; on the
west by   Jlargiana, on the south and east by Aria.        This
country was one of considerable extent, partly barren and
waste, but in many parts of great fertility, watered by the
Oxus and its tributaries, and peopled by a brave and hardy
race, who were reckoned among the best soldiers in the service
of Persia after Bactria became a Persian province. It answers
now to the modern Balkh.
II. The principal river was the Oxus, now the Amoo or.Jihon (p. 606), among the tributaries of which may be named,
1. The Dargidus or Bactrus, now the Balkh or Adirsia Dschas,
2. The Artamis, now the Dakash, flowing into, 3. the Zariaspis, now probably the Zuhrab.




ASIA.                            699
PLACES IN BACTRIA.
1. Bactra, the capital city, situate on the River Bactrus, and now Balkh.
Strabo and Pliny make its earlier name to have been Zariaspa, but Arrian and
Ptolemy more correctly distinguish between the two places. 2. Zariaspa, now
probably Hazarasp.  Burnes is in favor of Schehr Subz. 3. Aornus, next fb
Bactra the most important city of the land. It had a strong and lofty citadel.
Mannert errs in making Aornus the citadel of Bactra. Wilson regards the name
Aornus as of Sanscrit origin (Awarana), and meaning "( an inclosure" or "stockade."
HISTORY      OF BACTRIA.
I. OF Bactria little is known prior to its subjugation by the Macedonians under
Alexander. In the reign of Darius Hystaspis the Bactrians paid a tribute to
that monarch of three hundred and sixty talents. In the time of Xerxes there
were Bactrians in the army which he led against Greece. The province continued to be governed by the satraps of Persia down to the time of Darius Codomannus. In the final overthrow of that king by Alexander at the battle of
Arbela, there was a body of Bactrians in his service, who were under the command of Bessus, the satrap of Bactria.
II. After the conquest of Bactria by Alexander, he built a city, which he gave
to his Greek mercenaries, and to such of the Macedonians as were unfit, from
age or wounds, for longer service. Such was the foundation of the Greek colony of Bactria, to which volunteers from the neighboring countries were admitted. This, however, was not the earliest settlement of Greeks in Bactria;
for the first Darius transported thither a number of Greeks from Barce, in Africa; and the Branchidae also, from Ionia, were planted here by Xerxes.
III. From the death of Alexander, 323 B.C., to B.C. 255, Bactria formed part
of the possessions of Seleucus and his successors, and was governed by lieutenants. About the last-mentioned date, Theodotus, in the reign of Antiochus
II. of Syria, assumed the government, and founded an empire which lasted one
hundred and twenty years. A difference of opinion exists as to the names and
numbers of the Greek kings of Bactria during this period. The most correct
list is that which has been given by Bayer, in his " Historia Regni Gracorum
Bactriani," Petropol., 1738.
SOGDIANA.
Sogdiana lay between the upper Oxus and the upper laxartes, by which latter river it was separated from Central Asia.
It was bounded on the west by Scythia and the Oxii Montes,
and on the east by the Montes Comedce.             It comprised the
greater part of the modern Turkestan, and also the kingdom
of Bukhara, the most delightful part of the latter of which is
still called Sogd, and is regarded as one of the three paradises
of the East.
The river laxartes, now the Sir, has already been described (p. 606). Among
its tributaries may be mentioned, 1. The Demus, now Marghinan. 2. The Bascatis, now the Fersan. Among the cities, of which there are many in this country, the following deserve notice: 1. Maracanda, less correctly Paracawda, now




700                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Samarcand, on the River Polytimetus, now the Sogd. 2. Cyreschata, the last
city of Cyrus's dominions in this quarter, situate to the northeast of the former,
in the mountains about the Iaxartes. It was built by Cyrus, and had a strong
citadel. Alexander destroyed the place, but it was afterward rebuilt. 3. Gaza,
between the preceding and Alexandrea Ultima. It was plundered and destroyed
Vy the soldiers of Alexander. 4. Alexandrea Ultima ('ARefdvdpeia EaXTr7), on
the Iaxartes, founded by Alexander as a protection for his dominions in this
quarter against the neighboring barbarians, and peopled with Grecian auxiliaries and worn-out Macedonian veterans. It stood near the modern Khodjend.
5. Alexandrea Oxiana,.to the southwest of the preceding, on the River Oxus,
near the spot where the modern Karschi stands.
The rude and, for the most part, free tribes on the banks of the' axartes and
Oxus, and in the mountains between those streams, were divided into two races.
The Daha! or Dace, on the lower course of the Oxus, and in, the desert toward
the Caspian Sea, were Tartar tribes, Turkomans, &c. The Massagetce and
Saca, in the east, occupied, the former the country of the' Kirgish Tartars, the
latter Little Bukharia, &c. The Sacae were nomads, and the ancestors, probably,
of the modern Afghans. The Persians appear to have given the name of Saces
to all races of Tartar origin, and that of Massaget&e to those of Mongol origin.
(B.) SOUTHEASTERN ASIA.
INDIA.
I. India was bounded on the north by Scythia extra Imaum
and part of Serica, on the east by the country of the Since and
the Eastern Ocean, on the south by the Mare Erythrceum, and
on the west by the Mare Erythrceum         and Aria.    It was divided by Ptolemy the geographer into two great parts, namely,
India intra Gangem, or India west of the Ganges, and India
extra Gangem, or India east of the Ganges.       Under this latter
name was included what answers now not only to the remainifig part of India, but also Thibet, the Birman Empire, Ava,
Sumatra, Java, &c.
II. Among the mountains of India may be mentioned, 1. The
range called Paropamzsus, and now Hindu Cush, coming in
from the northwest, and separating India in that quarter from
Bactria. 2. Emodi Montes, the eastern continuation of the
preceding, and forming a portion of the great chain of Himmaleh.   3. Imaus, running on from     the Emodi Montes into the
remote east, and separating India from Scythia. It is now, in
part, the Himalaya range or Hirzmaleh Mountains.
III. Among the rivers of India may be named, 1, The Indus
(p. 605).   2. The Ganges (p. 605).      3. The Mophis, now the
Mhye or.Jahi, flowing into the Barygazenus Sinus or Gulf
of Cambay.     4. The Namadus, now Nerbuddah, flowing into
the same gulf.    5. The Nanaguna, now the Taptee, flowing




ASIA.                            701
into the same gulf.     6. The Chaberis, now the Cavery, emptying into the Sinius Gangeticus or Bay of Bengal.           7. The
Mcksolus, to the north, now the Krishnah or Kistnah.          8. The
Goaris, now the Godavery.        9. The Mandas, now Mahanuddy. 10. The Doanas, now Ava, on the eastern side of the
Sinus Gangeticus.       11. The Dorius, now       Pegu.     12. The
Serus, now    Menam, emptying into the Sinus Magnus or
Gulf of Siam.
INDIA HO1W FAR KNOWN TO THE WESTERN NATIONS.
I. COMMERCE between India and the western nations of Asia appears to have
been carried on from the earliest historical times. This trade appears to have
been carried on by means of the Arabians, who brought the produce of India
from the Malabar coast to Hadramaut in the southwestern part of Arabia, or to
Gerra on the Persian Gulf, from which places it was carried by means of caravans to Petra, where it was purchased by Phoenician merchants. A great quantity of Indian articles was also brought from the Persian Gulf up the Euphrates
as far as Circesium or Thapsacus, and thence carried across the Syrian desert
into Phoenicia. The conquest of Idumsea by David gave the Jews possession
of the harbors of Elath and Ezion-geber on the Red Sea, from which ships
sailed to Ophir, which was probably an emporium of the African and Indian
trade in Arabia.
II. The knowledge which the Greeks possessed respecting India previous to
the time of Alexander was but scanty, being confined to the parts west of the
Ganges. Herodotus and Ctesias merely relate what they had collected from the
Persians, whose- monarch, Darius Hystaspis, had penetrated into the Panjab;
such are the descriptions of the birds and beasts of that country, its fine wools,
the bold and strong dogs of the Panjab, the crocodiles of the Indus, &c.
III. The expedition of Alexander into India first gave the Greeks a correct
idea of the western parts of that country. Alexander did not advance farther
than the Hyphasis; but he followed the course of the Indus to the ocean, and
afterward sent Nearchus to explore the coast of the Indian Ocean as far as the
Persian Gulf. The Panjab was inhabited, at the time of Alexander's invasion,
by many independent nations, who were as distinguished for their courage as
their descendants the Rajpoots.
IV. After the death of Alexander, Seleucus made war against Sandracottus,
king of the Prasii, a powerful people on the banks of the Ganges, and was the first
Greek who advanced as far as that river. This Sandracottus is probably the
Chandragupta of the Hindus. Megasthenes, and after him Daimachus, embassadors of the Syrian monarchs, resided for many years at Palibothra, the capital
of the Prasii, which stood, probably, near the modern Patna. From the work
which Megasthenes wrote on India, later writers, even in the time of the Roman
empire, such as Strabo and Arrian, appear to have derived their principal know].
edge of the country.
V. The knowledge which the Romans possessed of India beyond Cape Comorin was exceedingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Ganges as
flowing into the sea by one mouth; and though Pliny gives a long list of Indian
nations, which had not previously been mentioned by any Greek or Roman
writer, we have no satisfactory account of any part of India except the descrip



702                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
tion of the western coast by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about one hundred
years later than Pliny, gives us the names of many towns on the Coromandel
coast and the Bay of Bengal, and is the earliest writer who attempts to describe
the countries to the east of the Ganges; but there is great difficulty in determining the position of any of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of
the great error he made in the form of the peninsula, which, according to him,
stretched in its length from west to east instead of from north to south. Ptolemy appears to have derived his information from the Alexandrine merchants,
who only sailed to the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any accu.
rate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and still less of the countries beyond the Ganges.
From what has been remarked, our notice of places in India must of necessity
be a very brief one. In giving them, we shall follow the two main divisions.
PLACES IN INDIA INTRA GANGEM.
1. Nagara, on the northwestern frontier, now Nagar. It was also called by
the Greeks Nysa and Dionysopolis. 2. Taxila, to the northeast, the residence
of King Taxiles when Alexander invaded India. Some make it answer to the
modern Attock, but incorrectly. 3. Caspira, to the northeast, the capital of the
Caspircei, whose country answered to a part of Caschmire. 4. Buclphdla, on the
Hydaspes, founded by Alexander on the spot where his horse Bucephalus died
of old age. Its site is supposed to be at the modern village of Mung. 5. Nicea,
on the same river, and opposite Bucephala. It was founded by Alexander in
commemoration of his victory here over Porus. The ruins are probably those
at Udinagur. 6. Alexandri Are, altars, twelve in number, erected by Alexander on the banks of the Hyphasis, to mark the limit of his progress eastward.
7. Mallorum Metropolis, the capital of the Malli, a people with whom Alexander
came into contact when descending the Indus. It answers probably to the modern Moultan. The.Oxydraccz were lower down the river, at the attack on whose
capital, probably the modern Outch, Alexander endangered his life. 8. Pattdla,
in the island or delta of Pattalene, at the mouth of the Indus. Its site is occupied by the modern Tatta. The country from Pattalene upward, along both
banks of the Indus, was called Indoscythia, from the Scythian tribes which had
settled there after they had overthrown the Bactrian empire. The Sinus Canthi
or Irinus, below the mouth of the Indus, is now the Gulf of Cutch. We'then
come to the peninsula of Larice, now Guzerat, the gulf below which has been
already mentioned. The coast below this was called Dachinabades, fiom da
chanos, "south," the Sanscrit dakschina, whence is derived the modern name
Deccan.
On the eastern side of the peninsula, passing by Taprobane, now Ceylon, which
will be considered along with the other Indian isles, we may name, 1. Colchz,
now Collatoor, with the Cory Promontorizum near it, now Ramanan Khor, and
whence comes the modern name Coromandel given to the whole coast. Inland
was the kingdom of Pandion, famed for its pearl trade. The Sinus Agaricus
is now Palk's Bay. 2. Malanga, now Madras. 3. Maliarpha, now Maliapur.
4. Mcesolia, a district famed for its diamond mines. Above, on the coast, were
the Calingae, whose name is still preserved in that of the modern city of Colingapatam. 5. Gange, the capital of the Gangaridce, on one of the arms of the
Ganges, near its mouth, and a great mart for cotton stuffs, nard, Chinese wares,
&c. Above the Gangaridae were the Prasii, whose capital was Palibothra (in
Sanscrit Pataliputra), the residence of Sandracottus. The position of this city




ASIA.                            703
has been much disputed. Robinson places it at Allahabad, but Rennel, more
correctly, in the neighborhood of Patna, near the confluence of the Ganges and
the Sone, the ancient Sonus or Erannaboas.
PLACES IN INDIA EXTRA GANGEM.
INDIA beyond the Ganges was very little known. What was called the island
of Chryse corresponds to the modern kingdom of Ava; and the Aurea Chersonesus, either to Malacca, as D'Anville, Rennel, and Mannert think, or to the southern part of Pegu, as Gosselin and some others maintain. We may name, besides, 1. Pentapolis, to the south of the modern Candel, 2. Tacosanna, now
Arracen. 3. Tamala, a trading-place on the western coast of Pegu, now Baroban. 4. Berobe, near the modern Tavay, in Siam. 5. Tacola, in the Aurea Chersonesus. 6. Sabanna, a trading-place, near the modern Tantan Velha. 7. Balonga, on the eastern coast, a noted place for pirates. 8. Cortatha, capital of
the Daoni.
ISLANDS OF INDIA.
I. Taprobdne, now Ceylon. Ptolemy says it was also called Saltce, and that
this last was the native denomination of the island. In Sanscrit writings it
is called Lunka, "holy" or "resplendent;" in the Singalese annals, Sinhaladwipa, or "the island of lions."  The Arabs name it Serendib, which is only a
corruption of the genuine name; and the Portuguese, Selan, whence our Ceylon.
II. Jabadii Insula, now Java. The ancient name signified, according to Ptolemy,'" Barley Island," in consequence of its great fertility in this species of
grain. The same writer says that it also yielded gold.
III. Satyrorum Insulce tres, now Borneo, Palawan, and Celebes. Ptolemy says
the inhabitants had the form of Satyrs, whence the name of the islands.
IV. Maniolce Insulae decem, now the Philippine islands, named from their inhabitahts the Maniolce, who were anthropophagous.
SIN E.
THE country of the Sinae, according to Ptolemy, was bounded
on the north by Serica, on the west by India, and on the east
by unknown regions. It answered, therefore, to Cambodia,
Cochin- China, &c.      Even in these early periods, entrance into
the country was forbidden to foreigners, so that Ptolemy only
knew of their chief place, Acadara, probably the modern Lao.
There was also another nation named Since, to the east of
Serica, who were probably settled in Shien-si, the most westerly province of China, immediately adjoining the great wall.
In this province was a kingdom       called Tsin, which probably
gave name to these Since.
2. CENTRAL ASIA.
SARMATIA ASIATICA.
Sarmatia Asiatica was bounded on the west by the Cimmerian Bosporus, the Palus Meotis, and the River Tanais or




704                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Don, which last separated it from     Sarmatia Europea, already
described (p. 235); on the southwest by the Euxine; on the
south by the range of Caucasus, separating it from          Colchis,
Iberia, and Albania; on the west by the Caspian, the lower
part of the Rha or Wolga, and Scythia intra Imaum; and on
the north by a Terra Incognita.         The country was, for the
most part, either mountainous, or else consisted of broad steppelands, over which roamed numerous nomadic tribes. The inhabitants, however, on the eastern shore of the Palus Mceotis
were of more settled habits, and supported themselves by agriculture and fishing.
PRINCIPAL TRIBES.
Basilicaxi Sarmatce (BaaticKalot lapjuira), around the sources of the Rha, anu
the same, probably, with the Royal Scythians of Herodotus. 2. Hippophdgi, or
feeders on horse-flesh, to the east. 3. Phthirophagi, or feeders on fir-cones, to
the east of the upper part of the Rha. 4. Perierbidi, a powerful tribe on the
Tanais, near the upper extremity of the Palus Meotis. 5. Siraceni or Siraci,
another powerful nation, who sent to King Pharnaces twenty thousand horse as
auxiliaries. Their capital was Uspe, and they are probably still represented by
the Circassians, who fled before the Alans and Huns into the fastnesses of Caucasus. 6. Aorsi, a still more important nation, the Adorsi of Tacitus. In Strabo's time they roved in the more northern parts near the Don.. They resided
originally on the northwestern shore of the Caspian, and had in their hands the
whole of the transit trade in Indian and Babylonian wares, which they conveyed
westward on camels to the Palus Mtsotis, after receiving them from the Bactrian
and Indian merchants, who brought them down the Oxus and laxartes. 7. Meotce,
along the eastern shore of the Palus Mceotis. They were subdivided into numerous small tribes. 8. Achtei, on the northeastern coast of the Euxine, fabled
to have been descended from a band of Achcei who settled here after the Trojan
war. 9. Heniochi, to the east of the former, fabled to be the descendants of a
band of Spartans, left behind here by the Argonauts.
PLACES IN      SARMATIA       ASIATICA.
1. Pityus, on the coast of the Euxine, near its northeastern extremity, and
of Grecian origin. It was destroyed by the Heniochi, but afterward rebuilt, and
regarded by the Romans as an important frontier city. 2. Sinda, a commercial
place on the Bosporus, belonging to the Sindi or Sindici. 3. Gorgippia, inland,
the capital of the Sindi. 4. Phanagoria, to the north, on the Bosporus, a flourishing commercial city, founded by the Milesians, and opposite to Panticapaum
in the Tauric Chersonese. It became subsequently the chief city of the kingdom
of Bosporus, and the staple-place of all the wares brought down the Palus Maeotis for the people of Caucasus. It was destroyed in the sixth century by the
Huns. 5. Tanais, a flourishing commercial city, at the southern mouth of the
River Tanais, and at the northeastern extremity of the Palus Mceotis. It was
founded by the Milesians, and became a great mart for all the surrounding tribes,
who here exchanged peltries and slaves for wine, clothing, &c. It fell at last
under the sway of the kings of Bosporus, and on attempting subsequently to




AsIA.                            706
free itself from the yoke, was destroyed by Polemo, the contemporary of Augustus and Tiberius. It was afterward rebuilt, but never attained to its former
prosperity.
COLCHIS.
Colchis was bounded on the north by the range of Caucasus,
on the south by Armenia, on the east by Iberia, and on the
west by the Euxine.      It comprised not only the modern Mingrelia, but also a part of Imireti.        The country was very
fertile, and abounded in timber well adapted for ship building,
in various kinds of fruits, and in flax. The inhabitants were
famed for their linen manufactures, which formed a considerable article of export. The name of Colchis appears in the early
legends of the Greeks as connected with the expedition of the
Argonauts, and the story of Jason and Medea.
INHABITANTS, PLACES, &C.
1. ACCORDING to Herodotus, the Colchi were originally from Egypt, and formed
part of the army with which Sesostris invaded Scythia. The curled hair and
swarthy complexion, however, on which the historian relies principally in support of his position, no longer exist in modern Mingrelia. Ritter, with much
more probability, deduces the origin of the Colchi from India. Numerous petty
tribes are mentioned by the ancient geographers, forming in the aggregate the
Colchian nation. Of these the Lazi may be mentioned here, since their name
was afterward applied by the Romans to the Colchians in general, and from
them are supposed to be descended the modern Lazes, in Lazestan.
2. The chief river of Colchis was the Phdsis, already mentioned (p. 606).
Among the more important cities were, 1. Dioscurias, on the coast, an old Milesian colony, and the centre of traffic with the neighboring tribes. Under the
Romans it took the name of Sebastopolis.  2. Sarapana, to the southeast, a
strong fortress, in a narrow pass on the confines of Iberia, through which flowed
the Phasis. It is now Scharapani. 3. Phdsis, on the southern bank of the River
Phasis, near its mouth, and founded by the Milesians. It was afterward incorporated in Pontus. 4. XEa, inland, the fabled residence of King 2Eetes, father of
Medea. It was said to have been situate on the River Phasis, and was sought
to be identified with the later Male. 5. Archaeopolis, the later capital of the whole
country, in the fertile and very populous district of Muchiresis, on the confines
of Iberia. It was situate on a steep rock, accessible only on one side, on the
banks of the Phasis. 6. Cutatisium, a frontier fortress on the Phasis, now Kchitais, capital of the modern Imireti.
IBERIA.
Iberia was bounded on the north by Caucasus, on the soutb
by Armenia, on the west by Colchis, and on the east by Albania.    It answers nearly to the present Georgia.         The ancient writers describe the country as extremely fertile, weill
peopled, and the inhabitants as having made some progress in
YY




706                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
civilization. The central part was a plain, watered by the
River Cyrus and its branches. Lucullus and Pompey first
carried the Roman arms into Iberia. Eutropius says that the
King of Iberia paid homage to Trajan, who at the same time
gave a king to the neighboring country of Albania.
PLACES IN IBERIA.
I. Harmozica, on the River Cyrus, near the modern Digoli. 2. Seumara, on
the River Aragus, now Samthauro, near Teflis. 3. Juroeipaach ('Iovpoesnrad), a
strong fortress, near the sources of the Aragus, and commanding the pass called
Pylah Caicasiac (less correctly Pyla Caspie) leading through the range of Caucasus from the modern Mosdok to Teflis. It is a narrow valley of four days'
journey. Pliny calls the pass an enormous work of nature, which has cut a long
opening among the rocks, that an iron gate would be almost sufficient to close.
The pass is now called Dariel.
ALBANIA.
Albania was bounded on the north by Caucasus, on the
east by the Caspian, on the west by Iberia, and on the south
by Armenia. It answers now to Daghestan and Lazestan.
The Romans were best acquainted with the southern part,
which Strabo describes as a kind of paradise, and in fertility
and mildness of climate gives it the preference to Egypt. Trajan's expeditions made the northern and mountainous part better known.
INHABITANTS, PLACES, &C.
1. ALBANIA evidently derives its name from its mountainous character in the
northern and central parts, the root of the term being the Celtic Alph or Alb (p.
158). The inhabitants appear to have been of Scythian origin, probably a branch
of the Massageta, and the progenitors of the European Alani.
2. Among the places in Albania we may name, 1. Gatara, on the coast of the
Caspian, to the north of the mouth of the Cyrus, near the naphtha sources of the
modern Baku. 2. Albana, on the coast, north of the River Albanus. 3 Camechia, now Shamachia, in the modern Schirwan. 4. Chabala or Cabalaca, near
the Albanian pass, or Pyla Albanice. This, according to the common opinion, is
now the pass of Derbend, along the shore of the Caspian. It seems more correct, however, to make it a defile passing through the territory of Ooma-Khan,
along the frontier of Daghestan.
SCYTHIA.
I. THE term Scythia was originally given to a part of Europe, and was fou a
long time restricted to that'country. This Scythia was, according to Herodotus,
a square, of which each side measured four thousand stadia, one side being two
thousand stadia from the Ister to the Borysthenes, and two thousand from the
Borysthenes to the Palus Mceotis, both measurements being along the coast;
and another side being four thousand stadia, measured from the Euxine to the
Melanchlani. There is considerable difficulty in determining the boundaries of




ASIA.                           707
the Scythia of Herodotus; but it may be said in general terms to have cornprised the southeastern part of Europe, between the Carpathian Mountains and
the Tanais or Don.
II. Different accounts are given of the origin of these Scythians; but tlze
statement which Herodotus considered the most probable ascribed to them an
Asiatic origin. According to this account, they were driven from their settlements to the north of the Araxes by the Massagete, and, after crossing that
river, descended into Europe, and drove out the Cimmerians from the country
which was afterward called Scythia. The date of their migration into Europe
may be determined with tolerable accuracy, if the irruption of the Cimmerians
into Lydia in the reign of Ardys (about B.C. 640) was the immediate consequence
of their defeat by the Scythians.
III. The Scythians seem to have been a Mongolian people from the description which Hippocrates gives of their appearance, and Herodotus of their customs and habits. Hippocrates speaks of their gross and bloated bodies, their
joints buried in fat, their swollen bellies, and their scanty growth of hair. They
were divided, as the Mongols have always been, into various hordes, which were
all, in the time of Herodotus, dependent on the horde of the Royal Scythians,
who dwelt above the Palus Maeotis. The general and genuine name of the
Scythians is said to have been Scoloti; the name of Scythac (2taci4), or Scythians, was given to them by the Greeks.
IV. The only two important events in the history of Scythia mentioned by
Herodotus are, 1. The invasion of Media by the Scythians in the reign of Cyaxares (B.C. 635-595), and their conquest of Asia as far as the confines of
Egypt, which they held for twenty-eight years; and, 2. The invasion of Scythia
by Darius Hystaspis, in which the Persians were unsuccessful.
V. In subsequent times the Scythians lost all their power. The Getae conquered a great portion of the west of their country; and the Sauromatae pressed
upon them from the east. The latter of these eventually obtained possession
of the greater part of Scythia, and gave the name of Sarmatia to the whole
country. In the time of Pliny the Scythians had become extinct as a people;
their place was occupied by the Germans and Sarmatians, and the Scythian
name was confined to the most remote and unknown tribes of the north.
VI. The name of Scythia began to be applied to the northern parts of Asia in
the Macedonian period. Herodotus distinctly separates from Scythia all na
tions east of the Tanais, such as the Thyssagetce, Issedones, &c., and this fixed
use of the word still subsisted at the time of Alexander's conquest of Asia.
But when the Macedonians found on the Iaxartes nations resembling the Scythians, they gave the name of Scythia to this part of Asia, and thus an Asiatic
Scythia was supposed lying to the east of the true one. This is the Scythia
Proper of Strabo, as the ancient Scythia had in his time become Sarmatia.
VII. In the time of Ptolemy, the n.1;1ii of Scythia was given to the country
between Asiatic Sarmatia and Serica.' It was bounded on the south by Hyrcania, Margiana, Sogdiana, and India. Its limits to the north were undefined.
It was divided into two parts by the Imaus, now Altaz and Challaz, a range of
mountains running in a northeasterly direction from the Himalaya. The western part was called Scythia intra Imaum, and the eastern Scythia extra Irazim.
SERICA.
I. Serica was bounded on the west by Scythia extra Imaum, on the east by
the Since, on the north by a Terra Incognita, and on the south by India extra
Gangrcm. It comprised, therefore, the modern Bucharia, Kotschotei, and a part




708                 AN CIENT GE OGRAPHY.
of northwestern China. It is described by the ancient writers as surrounded
and traversed by mountains, as, for instance, the Mlontes Auxacii, a part of the
chain of Altai, on the north; the Montes Asmircei, the western part of the modern
Da-Uri chain, in the central parts; and the Montes Casii, now a part of the
Khara range, and likewise Mount Ottorocorras, the eastern extremity of the Emodi Montes, in the south. The principal rivers were, 1. The (Echardes, probably
the modern Selenga; and, 2. The Bautes or Bautisus, now the Hoang-Ho.
II. Serica means the land of the Seres; the appellation Seres, however, was
not the native name of the inhabitants of the country, but one given them from
the silk, for the manufacture of which their country was famous among the
western nations, and which formed their great article of export. The root of
the term is the Greek word a'p, " a silk-worm," itself probably of Oriental
origin. The introduction of the culture of silk into Europe did not take place
until the sixth year of the reign of Justinian, when some eggs of the silk-worm
were brought to Constantinople by two monks, who also furnished the requisite
information for the mode of manufacturing silk.
III. The principal nation in Serica was the Issedones, whose capital was
Sera, which Mannert makes identical with Singan, in the Chinese province of
KShen si. Heeren, however, declares in favor of Pekin.
AFRICA.
1. NAME.
I. THE name Africa was first introduced into Europe by the
Romans, who gave this appellation originally to the country
around Carthage, the first part of the continent with which
they be'came acquainted, and the term is said to have been derived from a small Carthaginian district on the northern coast.
Hence, even when the iame had become applied to the whole
continent, there still remained, in Roman geography, the district of Africa Propria, on the Mediterranean coast, corresponding to the modern Tunis and part of Tripoli.
II. The Greek writers, on the other hand, always call the
continent of Africa by the name of Libya (r At6vrl), an appellation often employed in this same sense by the Roman poets;
whereas the Roman prose writers, when they make use of the
term Libya, merely mean by it the region extending along the
cast frc:n the Syrtis Major to Egypt, and stretching inland
to the deeert.
2. PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY.
I. HERODOTUS, the earliest extant Greek author who has transmitted to us
any information about Africa, has given a proof of his limited acquaintance with
it by the very simple division which he makes of its inhabitants. All the native
tribes in the northern part he calls by the general name of Libyans, and those




AFRICA.                           709
in the south iEthiopians. Egypt, according to his system, hardly belongs to
Africa, hat lies like an isolated slip between the two adjacent continents. He
considered Africa as terminating north of the equinoctial line, and asserts that
it is surrounded by water except at the narrow neck now called the Isthmus
of Suez. One reason for this latter belief was apparently the story of the circumnavigation of Africa, by some Phmenicians, in the reign and by the orders of
Necho, king of Egypt, between B.C. 610 and 594. The truth of this story is
now regarded as extremely doubtful.
II. Another. ancient voyage, somewhat better authenticated, is that made by
the Carthaginian Hanno, who is said to have sailed from Carthage through the
Straits of Gibraltar, for the purpose of establishing some colonies along the
Atlantic coast of the present empire of Morocco. From the account of this
voyage which has come down to us, it is very probable that he passed considerably to the south of the Senegal River, but hardly further than the coast of
Sicrra Leone. The.period of this voyage is uncertain; it was probably before
B.C. 500.
III. When the Greeks were settled in Egypt under Ptolemy, son of Lagus
(B.C. 323), they necessarily became better acquainted with the Red Sea and
the course of the Nile; and from this epoch we may date the extension of that
trade with India, by which the products of the great Asiatic peninsula were
more generally diffused over the ancient world. One of the most curious documents with respect to ancient navigation on the eastern coast of Africa is contained in the Periplus of the Erythraan Sea, which goes under the name of
Arrian. This work, which was probably compiled from various log-books and
jou-nals, may be assigned to about the time of Pliny the elder, or perhaps to
an earlier period. The extreme south point mentioned on the African coast is
Rhapta, probably the modern Quiloa.
IV. From the tables of Ptolemy, the Greek geographer, it appears that the
coast of western Africa was known, probably through the navigation of the Carthaginians and Romans, as far as to 11~ north of the line. Whether the ancient geographers were acquainted with the countries south of the Great Desert,
and with the upper part of the River Quorra, commonly called the Niger, can
not be determined positively, although probability is strongly on the side of this
opinion. The story related by. Herodotus concerning the young Nasamonians
is entitled to great respect, because there are real facts corresponding to the
description given by them of the country which they explored. Besides, it can
hardly be imagined that the powerful state of Carthage, which employed so
many elephants in war, and carried on so extensive a commerce, could be altogether ignorant of the countries in question.
V. When the Romans became masters of northern Africa, we might expect
to find them attempting, according to their usual policy, to enlarge their empire
or their influence to the south; and we have, in fact, in Pliny, a distinct account of Suetonius Paullinus (A.D. 41) crossing the great mountains of Atlas, and
going some distance in a southern direction. In Ptolemy, also, we have an acccunt of a Roman officer, named Maternus, who set out from the neighborhood
of Tripoli, and went a four months' march to the south, which must have brought
him into the latitude of Timbuctoo, and into the vicinity of the Lake Tchad. If
the story be true, the great river, called by modern geographers the Niger,
might thus have been known to the Romans.
3. MOUNTAINS.
1. Mons A4tlas, a celebrated range in the northwestern part rf Africa. It is




710                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
divided by modern geographers into two leading chains, the Greater Atlas, running through the kingdom of Morocco as far' south as the desert of Sahara, and
the Lesser Atlas, extending from Morocco toward the northeast to the northern
coast. The native name of these mountains, according to Strabo and Pliny,
was Dyrin, and the chain at the present day bears among the Arabs the name
of Darah or Daran. The Romans probably knew more about the regions of
Atlas than we do, since they colonized many parts of it. As far, however, as
we can collect, it was only the highest and western portion of the range, in the
present kingdom of Morocco, to which they applied the name of Atlas. It was
here that the fables of the Greeks placed the Titan Atlas, the brother of Prometheus, supporting the heavens on his shoulders. A later legend made him to
have been transformed into the mountain itself. 2. Montes Lunea or Mons Luna
(TbO Trj' 2;evqc Opoc), in central Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy as a very lofty
and snow-covered mountain range, at the bottom of which were two large lakes,
from which the Nile took its rise. This locality still remains undiscovered,
and is called at the present day by the familiar appellation of " the Mountains
of the Moon."
4. RIVERS.
1. Nilus, or the Nile, rising, according to the common account, in the Mountains of the Moon, in central Africa. It appears, from the most recent researches,
that the stream is first called Bahr-el-Abiad, or " the White River," and flows
in a northeastern direction to 15~ 34' N. latitude, where it receives, on its right
bank, the Abawi, or Bahr-el-Azrek, or "Blue River," coming from Abyssinia.
The "White River" appears to have been the true Nile of the ancient geographers, but in modern times it is only after its confluence with the Abawi that
the united stream is known as the Nile. The Abawi is the Astapus of the ancient geographers. The principal affluents after this are the Maleg, apparently
unknown to the ancients, and the Tacazze or Atbarrah, the ancient Astaboras,
both on the right from Abyssinia. From its junction with the Tacazze to its
entrance into the Mediterranean, a distance of fifteen hundred miles, the Nile
receives no more tributaries. An account of the mouths of the Nile will be given
under the head of Egypt. 2. Niger (Niyetp), called by the Roman writers Nigris, and by modern geographers Niger, a great river of central Africa, now
ascertained to be the Quorra, and falling into the Atlantic. It is the same with
the -ora.u ost- yac, or " Great River" of Libya mentioned by Herodotus. The
name Niyetp first occurs in Ptolemy, who speaks also of another river which he
calls the reip (Gir), and which appears to be the Om Teymam of Burckhardt.
The other rivers of Africa will be mentioned under their respective countries.
5. PROMONTORtIES.
1. Notium    Promontorium.... Cape Roxo.
2. Hesperium    Promontorium.  Cape Verd.
3. Ryssadium Promontorium.. Cape Blanco.
4. Arsinarium    Promontorium.. Cape Corveiro.
5. Gannaria Promontorium..     Cape Nun.
6. Atlas Major..... Cape Boiador.
7. Cotes Promontoriu.... Cape Spartel.
8. Abyla Promnantorium.... Cape Ximiera.




AFRICA.                     711
9. Russadir Promontorium... Cape de Tres Forcas
10. Metagonium Promontorium.. Cape Honneine (?).
11. Apollinis Promontorium... Cape Mostagan.
12. Tretum Promontorium.... Cape Sebba Rus.
13. Hermceum Promontorium... Cape Bon.
14. Phycus Promontorium... Cape Semn.
15. Aromata Promontorium... Cape Guardafui.
16. Prasum Promontorium... Cape del Gado.
OBS. The Notium Promontorium is Hanno's Norov Kipaf, the southernmost
point of his voyage. D'Anville makes it Cape St. Anna. The Hesperium
Promontorium is Hanno's'Earepov KSpac. The modern name of the Metagonium Promontorium is uncertain, though commonly given as Cape Honneine. The
Cotes Promontorium is called Ampelusia by Mela.
6. MAIN DIVISIONS.
AFRICA will be considered by us under the following main
divisions, beginning from the Atlantic coast on the west: 1.
Mauritania.   2. Numidia.  3. Africa Propria.  4. Regio
Syrtica.  5. Cyrenaica.' 6. Marmarica. 7. 3Egyptus. 8.
/Ethiopia. 9. Libya Interior.
1. MAURITANIA.
I. Mauritania derived its name from its inhabitants, the
Mauri or Maurusii (Mavpovatot), and was bounded on the west
by the Atlantic, on the north by the Mediterranean, on the
south by Gcetulia, and on the east by Nunzidia, from which
it was separated originally by the River Molocath or Mulucha,
the modern Mulwia or Mohalon. In this sense, therefore, the
term nMauritania indicated a country corresponding to the
modern Morocco and Fez.
II. At a subsequent period, however, namely, in the reign
of the Emperor Claudius, A.D. 43, a new arrangement was
made, and all that part of Numidia which lay between the
Lolocath and the Ampsagas, now TVadi-al-Kebir, was added
to Mauritania, which latter country now was divided into two
provinces, Mauritania Tingitana, deriving its name from
Tingis, now Tangier, and answering to Mauritania Proper,
and Mauritania Ccesariensis, being the new portion added at
the expense of Numidia. Mauritania Cesariensis was afterward subdivided into two provinces: the western part, namely, retained the appellation of Cesariensis; but the eastern




712                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
was called M~auritania      Sitifensis, from   Sitifi, now   Setif, a
town on the borders of Numidia.
PLACES     IN MAURITAANIA.
IN Mauritania Tingitana we have, 1. Iussadir, now Melillah, a sea-port and
Roman colony, west of the Molocath; and near the promontory of Russadir. It
was the only mart on the whole coast of the Metagonite. 2. Tingis, to the
west, at the entrance of the straits of Gibraltar, and now Tangier. It received
special marks of favor from Augustus Caesar, and became a Roman colony under Claudius, who made it the capital of the province. 3. Zilis or Zelis, a little below the Cotes Promontorium, and now Arzilla. It was made a Roman
colony by Augustus, under the name of Julia Constantia Zilis, and placed under
the same jurisdiction as the province of Betica in Spain. 4. Linx or Lixus,
thirty-two Roman miles south of Zilis, and now Larache or El Araisch. It was
situate on a river of the same name, which must not, however, be confounded
with the great River Lixus mentioned in tlR account of Hanno's voyage, the
latter being probably the modern St. Cyprian, the former the Luccos. 5. Banasa,
a Roman colony, called Valentia, fifty Roman miles south of Lixus, and situate
on the Subur, now the Scboo. 6. Sala, fifty miles south of the Sucur, and at
the mouth of the River Sala. It was the southernmost of the Roman colonies
in this quarter, and its site, still marked by extensive remains, is near the
modern Salee. The coast below this was a desert waste. Inland we may
name Volubilis, to the east of Sala, a Roman colony, now the deserted city of
WValili.
In Mauritania Ccesariensis we may name, I. Igilgilis, on the coast, near the
c(onfines of Numidia, and in what was subsequently Mauritania Sitifensis. It
was made a Roman colony under Augustus, and was the chief mart for the
neighboring communities. It is now Jigel or Gigeri. 2. Sald&e, to the west, on
the coast, now, according to some, Schurfah; according to others, Boujayah,
It was a Roman colony, after having previously been the eastern frontier fortress of Bocchus and of Juba. On the new arrangement of the provinces, it became the westernmost city on the coast of Sitifensis. Its harbor was a spacious one. -3. Icosium, to the west, on the coast, a Roman colony, and presented by Vespasian with the Jus Latinum. The ruins are now called Shershell.
4. Julia Casarea, to the west, a Roman colony. It. was originally an unimportant Phoenician settlement, named Iol; at a later period the residence of Boc-:hus, and afterward of Juba II., who called it Caesarea in honor of Augustus.
It became a Roman colony under Claudius, and the capital of the province.
AMannert, Shaw, and others make its ruins those at Shershell; they are to be
sought, however, near the modern Tenez. 5. Siga, to the southwest, on the
coast, and near the confines of Tingitana. -It was situate on a river of the same
name, in a spacious bay, which formed its harbor, and was for some time the
royal residence of Syphax, king of the Masscsylii, before he took up his abode
at Cirta. In the interior we may mention Sitifi, southwest of Cirta, an important city, enlarged by the Romans, and made a colony, and the capital of
Mauretania Sitifensis, as already remarked. It is now Setif,
2. NUMIDIA.
Numidia was originally bounded on the east by the dominions of Carte,' on the west by the River Molocath or Muf




AFRICA.                            713
lucla, separating it from   Mauritania,. on the south by Gcetuhia, and on the north by the Mediterranean.           When, however, the new arrangement of Mauritania took place, and the
Roman province of ATumidia was formed, this last, being of
much smaller extent than the original kingdom, reached from
the River Tusca, now the Zain, on the east, to the Ampsagas,
now the Wadi-al-Kebir, on the west.          The kingdom     of Numidia, therefore, answered to the modern Algiers; but the
Roman province of Numidia merely to the eastern part of
Algiers.
INHABITANTS, HISTORY, &C.
I. THE Numidians were originally a nomadic people, their country abounding in good pastures, and hence they were called by the Greeks Nomades
(Nouader), and their land Nomadia (Noyadea), whence by a slight change came
the Latin forms Numide and Numidia. This name of Nomades seems to have
been originally applied not merely to the inhabitants of the country to which
the appellation of Numidia wasafterward restricted, but to all the nomade
tribes of northern Africa. When, however, the Greek and Roman writers
speak of the Numidians, the term is usually limited to the two great tribes of
the Masscesylii and Massylii, the former of whom extended along the northern
part of Africa, from the Molocath on the west to the Ampsagas on the east,
and the latter from the Ampsagas to the territories of Carthage.
II. When the Romans first became acquainted with the Numidians, which was
during the course of the second Punic war, Syphax was king of the Massasylii,
and Gala king of the Massylii. Gala had a son named Masinissa, who possessed
extraordinary powers both of mind and body. He was brought up at Carthage,
and, in the contest with the Romans in Spain, served with great credit against
them, but having been subsequently wronged by the Carthaginians, and deprived
by them of his dominions, he joifned himself to Scipio on the arrival of the latter
in Africa, and proved of essential service to the Romans. At the conclusion
of the second Punic war, therefore, he obtained as a recompense all the dominions of Syphax, in which his own hereditary ones were included, together with
a considerable part of the Carthaginian territory. Masinissa laid the foundation
of a great and powerful state in Numidia. He introduced the arts of agriculture
and civilized life, amassed considerable wealth, and supported a well-appointed
army. He died at the age of ninety, B.C. 149.
IlI. Masinissa was succeeded by Micipsa, his eldest son, who lled to B.C.
118, and bequeathed his kingdom to his two sons Adherbal'and Hiempsal, and
his nephew Jugurtha. Jugurtha, however, not content with a divided sovereig:ity, murdered Hiempsal, and compelled Adherbal to flee to Rome, where he
appealed to the senate against the usurpation of his cousin. A war on the part
of the Romans against Jugurtha finally ensued, which terminated, after various
success, in the capture and death of that prince, B.C. 106. After the death of
Jugurtha the kingdom of Numidia appears to have been given to Hiempsal II.,
who was succeeded, about B.C. 50, by his son Juba I., who took an active part in
the civil wars against Caesar. On the death of Juba I., B.C. 46, Numidia was
reduced to the form of a Roman province by Casar, who intrusted the government of it to the historian Sallust.




714                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PLACES IN NUMIDIA.
1. Thabrdca or Tabraca, at the mouth of the River Tusca, and the frontier town
on the side of Zeugitana. According to Ptolemy, it was a Roman colony, and
here the tyrant Gildo put an end to his life in A.D. 398. In the vicinity were
forests thickly inhabited by apes, a circumstance to which Juvenal alludes. The
ancient name may still be traced in that of the island of Tabarkah, at the mouth
of the river. 2. Hippo Regius, to the west, near the mouth of the Ubus, now
the Zenati. It was founded by the Phoenicians, and became subsequently a
Roman colony, and a place of great importance. It was destroyed by the Vandals in A.D. 430. Hippo is well known as the see of St. Augustine. It was
called Hippo Regius to distinguish it from Hippo Zarytus, in Africa Propria, and
from its being a favorite place of residence with the Numidian kings. The ruins
of Hippo are near the modern Bona. 3. Rusicada, to the west, on the Sinus 01cachites, or Gulf of Stora, and regarded as the port of Cirta. 4. Cullu, to the
northwest, famed for its purple dye, and therefore, probably, of Phoenician origin.
The ruins are at a place called Collo. 5. Vacca or Vaga, a large and important
place, south of Tabraca, and described by Sallust as the chief commercial town
in Numidia. It was destroyed by Metellus in the Jugurthine war, but afterward
rebuilt and inhabited by Romans. Justinian fortified the place, and called it
Theodorias, in honor of his wife. It coincides, probably, with the modern Beja
or Bedsja. 6. Sicca Veneria, to the south, on the Bagradas. It was of Phoenician origin, and the appellation Veneria had reference to its containing a temple
of Venus, who was worshipped here with Phoenician rites. Its site corresponds
with the modern Keff. 7. Cirta, the chief town in Numidia toward the western
frontier, situate on a high rocky peninsula, about forty-eight miles from the sea,
and on a branch of the Ampsagas, now called the Rummel. It was a strong
place, and the royal residence, having been occupied in succession by Syphax,
Masinissa, and the other rulers of the land. Julius Caesar subsequently bestowed it on Sittius, a partisan of his, and, a Roman colony being established
here, the city now received the appellation of Colonia Julia, or Sittianorum Colonia. At a later day, in the time of the Emperor Constantine, having suffered
much on account of its fidelity to that prince, it was repaired dnd embellished
by him, and changed its name, in consequence, to Constantina, which it retains
to the present day. 8. Zama, situate, according to the best opinion, to the southeast of Sitifi, and answering to the modern Zainah. Some, less correctly, seek
to identify it with the modern Zoharin. Near Zama was fought the memorable
battle between Scipio and Hannibal, which put an end to the second Punic war.
Zama was a strongly fortified place, and was occasionally the residence of the
monarchs ofNumidia; hence it was also called Zama Regia. 9. Tagaste, sou: hwest of Vacca, and the birth-place of St. Augustine.
3. AFRICA PROPRIA.
I. BY Africa Propria, called also Africa          Vetus, is here
meant the immediate and earlier territory of Carthage, before
that state had wrested the Regio Syrtica from Cyrene. It
extended from the River Tusca on the west, to the Palns Tri
tonis and the Syrtis Minor on the south and southeast, and
corresponded, therefore, to the modern Tunis,        On the other




AFRICA.                           715
hand, the Roman Province of Africa extended from the Rivei
Ampsagas on the west, to the Arco Philenorum, or " Altars
of the Phileni," on the east, and embraced, therefore, not only
Africa Propria, but also Numidia and the Regio Syrtica.
II. Africa Propria was divided into two districts, namely,
Byzacium and Zeugitana, the former in the south, the latter
in the north. The whole country was a fertile one, but Byzacium remarkably so, and of Byzacium itself the most productive part was a region called Emporice, forming its southernmost portion, and lying around the Palus Tritonis and Sy?
tis Minor.    This last-mentioned region of Emporice was peculiarly regarded as the granary of Carthage, and is often mentioned as a separate district by the ancient writers. It appears
to have derived its name from the numerous trading places
(eynopsZa) contained in it, and which were probably the stapletowns for the trade with the interior of Africa.     Byzacium is
said to have been so called from the Byzantes, a numerous
tribe of Libyans who dwelt in it.
III. The Carthaginian dominions reached on the south as far
as the land was fertile, that is, to the Palus Tritonis, beyond
which the agricultural tribes ceased and the nomade races began. The interior of the country was every where filled with
Carthaginian colonies, which, intermingling with the native
tribes, gave rise to a mixed but civilized race called Libyphwenices.
PLACES IN BYZACIUM.
1. Byzacia or Byzacina, the capital of the district, on the Syrtis Minor, and
the same, probably, with the city named Mamma, which is mentioned by Procopius. It appears to correspond to the modern Beghui. The Palus Tritinis lay
to the southwest of this place. It is now called Shibkah-el-Lowdiah. In the
time of Scylax this lake communicated with the Syrtis Minor by a small entrance called the River Triton. In its immediate vicinity was a smaller lake
named Libya Palus. The appellation Tritonia, given in mythology to Minerva,
is erroneously connected by some with the name of the Palus Tritonis. 2. Capsa, to the north, and inland, situate in a fruitful region, but surrounded by deserts. It was a strong place, and was said to have been founded by the Libyan
Hercules. Jugurtha kept his treasures here. It is now Cafsa. 3. Thence, on
the coast, to the northeast, with the island of Cercina, now Chercara, lying opposite. It subsequently became a Roman colony, with the name of XIlia Augusta Mercurialis. It is now Taineh. 4. Acholla, to the northeast, on the coast,
and near the modern Elalia. 5. Thapsus, to the north, on a promontory, and
near a salt lake. It was a strong place, and became known from Caesar's victory here over Scipio and Juba. The ruins are at Demass. 6. Turris Hanni



716                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
balis, close by, the spot whence Hanfibal set sail when fleeing from Africa
7. Leptis Parva or Minor, on the coast, to the northwest, a Phoenician settlement, and now Lemta. It was called Parva for distinction' sake from Leptis
Magna in the Regio. Syrtica. 8. Hadrumetum or Adrumetum, on the coast, to
the northwest, a Phoenician settlement, and a flourishing commercial'city. It
was made a Roman colony under Trajan. Its walls were subsequently demolished by the Vandals, but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave the city the name of
Justiniana. At a still later day it took the name of Heraclea, from the EmperorHeraclius, and is, therefore, probably now represented by the modern Hercla,
and not, as some suppose, by Hamamet, which lies more to the north. 9. Sufetula, in the interior, to the northeast of Capsa, a place of considerable importance, and the central point of all the trading routes running into the more inland
parts, now Sfaitla.
PLACES IN      ZEUGITANA.
1. Neapolis, on the coast, to the north of Hadrumetum, and an old Phoenician
settlement. It became subsequently a Roman colony. The modern Nabal represents only a small portion of the ancient city, the greater part having been
swallowed up by the sea. The bay in front was called Sinus Neapolitanus, now
the Gulf of Hamamet. 2. Aspis, or, in the Latin translation of the name, Clypea,
to the north, just below the Promontory of Hermacum, a strong place, with a
small harbor, now Clybea. 3. Hippo Zarytus, more correctly written so than in
the Greek form Hippo Diarrhytus (AtUdivror), which seems to be merely an imitative translation of the native name. It was situate on the northern coast, toward the west, called Zarytus on account, it is said, of the frequent inundations
to which it was exposed. It must not be confounded with Hippo Regius in Numidia. It is now Benizert or Bizerta. 4. Utica, to the east of Hippo, and west
of the mouth of the Bagradas. It was the earliest, or one of the earliest colonies planted by Tyre on the African coast, and, according to some authorities,
was more ancient than Carthage. It was for a long period an ally rather of this
latter city than really subject to it. In the third Punic war, however, it sided
with the Romans, and after the issue of that conflict received from the latter
as a recompense a large portion of the immediate territory of Carthage. Utica
was subsequently the chief place of arms, and the last refuge of the republican
party in the war with Caesar, and here the younger Cato put an end to his existence. It was, next to Carthage, the most important city in Africa, and, after
the fall of that city, held the first rank. The ruins at Bu-Shatter are very probably those of Utica. 5. Castra Cornelia, a short distance to the east of Utica,
and the spot where the elder Scipio landed in the second Punic war, and pitched
his first camp, whence the name of the place. According to Mannert, it was at
the present Porto Farina. 6. Tunes, to the south, and, according to Polybius,
only one hundred and twenty stadia from Carthage. It first rose into notice on
the fall of the latter city, and answers to the modern Tunis.
7. Carthago, a celebrated commercial city, situate on the northern coast, upon
a peninsula, in the recess of a spacious bay, formed by the Hermeum Promontorium, or Cape Bon, on the east, and the Apollinis Promontorium, or Cape Zebib,
on the west. Between it and Utica flowed the River Megerdas, now the Medsjerda. Carthage was founded by a colony from Tyre, but the true date of its
origin is uncertain. There would seem to have been, in fact, two successive
Phoenician settlements on the spot, an earlier one, preceding, according to tradition, the siege of Troy, and a later one, headed by Elissa or Dido. These later
colonists are said to have purchased or agreed to pay rent for a piece of ground




AFRICA.                           717
on which to build a town, and to have called this town Betzura or Bosra, "the
castle," a name which the Greeks subsequently altered into Byrsa, and invented
in connection with it the well-known fable of the hide. As the town increased,
the inhabitants excavated a port, which was called Cothon, and eventually a
great maritime and commercial emporium arose. The Pheenician name of this
city was Karth-hadtha," the New City," in contradistinction to the old or parent
city of Tyre, and out of this name the*Greeks formed their Kapxn6dSv, and the
Romans Carthago. Carthage carried on a most extensive commerce both by
land and sea. Her inland traffic reached, by means of caravans, into probably
the very centre of Africa. Her settlements were spread along the whole northern coast; while her foreign commerce reached not only over the entire Mediterranean, but even into the Atlantic. Among her foreign possessions nay be
mentioned Sardinia, Corsica, a portion of Sicily, the Baleares, and a large part
of Spain. The government of Carthage was municipal; and the city ruled over
all the rest of the country. The constitution was a mixed aristocracy. The
chief authority was vested in the senate, which appears to have been a numerous body, composed of the principal citizens.. It was not an exclusive aristocracy, nor essentially hereditary, but was recruited out of the class of the more
wealthy citizens, or those who had rendered great service to the state. The senators appear to have been elected for life.. The senate contained within itself a
select body, or council of state, which the Greek writers call Gerusia, and which
consisted of one hundred members. Two suffetes, probably shophetim or judges,
like those of the Hebrews, and whom the Greek and Roman writers call kings,
appear to have been-at the head of the executive; they presided in the senate,
and laid before that assembly their reports on public affairs. The Carthaginians employed chiefly mercenary soldiers, though always commanded by Carthaginian officers. This formed one of the main evils of their system, as they
could never rely fully on the attachment of these troops. Carthage was the
great rival of Rome, and the collisions between these two great powers are
known in history by the name of the Punic Wars. The first Punic war lasted
twenty-three years, and was brought to a close by the naval battle fought off
the AEgdtes Insult, to the west of Sicily. By this war Carthage lost Sicily and
the Lipari islands. The second Punic war began B.C. 218, and was ended by
the battle of Zama and the defeat of Hannibal, in B.C. 201. During sixteen
years of this period Hannibal maintained the war in Italy. The third Punic
war lasted only three years, and ended with the destruction of Carthage by the
younger Scipio Africanus. About thirty years after this the Gracchi attempted
to establish a colony on the ruins of Carthage, but the settlement made little
progress until Julius Caesar, and Augustus after him, sent colonies to build a
new city, which was called Colonia Carthago. It stood on the southeast part of
the peninsula, and occupied only a small part of the ancient site. Subsequently,
however, it rose to considerable splendor, and became the first city of Roman
Africa. In Christian history it is known for its councils, and for the spiritual
labors of St. Augustine. In A.D. 439 it was taken by the Vandals; in 533 it
was retaken by Belisarius.. In A.D. 698 it was destroyed by the Saracens.
The ruins seen at the present day belong to Roman Carthage. There are no
remains of the Tyrian city, except the large cisterns, and perhaps the ruins of
the great aqueduct. The alluvia of the Bagradas, and the sands raised up by
the northwest winds which prevail on this coast, have produced great changes
and the shape of the peninsula of Carthage in particular is completely altered.




718                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
4. REGIO SYRTICA.
I. THE Regio Syrtica was the tract of country lying along
the coast between the Syrtis Minor and the Syrtis Major, and
extending from the River Triton on the west, to the Arae PhiIenorum and Cyrenaica on the east.         At a subsequent period,
probably about the third century of our era, it took the name
of Regio Tripolitana or Tripolis, from its three cities of Leptis
Magna, (Ea, and Sabrata; and it now answers to the district
of Tripoli.
II. This tract of country is described by the ancients as sandy,
and but little cultivated; at the present day, however, the coast
lands, except at the bottom of the Syrtis Major, where the
desert and sea are conterminous, are extremely fertile. The
Syrtic region originally belonged to Cyrenaica, but fell subsequently into the hands of the Carthaginians, through the stratagem of the Phileani, whose patriotism was commemorated by
the altars erected over their graves. It afterward formed part
of the Roman province of Africa.
THE SYRTES.
I. Syrtes (ai ZVpree) was the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the
two gulfs on the northern coast of Africa, one of which they called Syrtis Major
(j iUeyd6r XSvprtn), or the Greater Syrtis, and the other Syrtis Minor (!JlKpa ZvpTrt), or the Lesser Syrtis. Both Syrtes were the terror of the ancient mariners.
The name is said by some to be derived from the Greek verb a'p, " to drag,"
in allusion to the agitation of the sand by the force of the tides. Another derivation, however, is from the term sert, which still exists in Arabic as the name
for a desert tract or region; for the term Syrtis does not appear to have been
confined to the gulfs themselves, but to have been extended also to the desert
country adjacent, which is still at the present day called Sert.
II. The Syrtis Major is now called the Gulf of Sidra, and lay between the
Boreum Promontorium, now Cape Tejuni, on the east, and the Cephalae Promontorium, now Cape Mesurata, on the west, the distance between which is two
hundred and thirty geographical miles. The Sahara, or Great Desert, here
comes down almost to the sea, leaving here and there only a narrow strip of
land inhabitable. The gulf is very shallow and full of quicksands, and the coast
is covered by a chain of little islands. On this dangerous shore it was difficult
to prevent ships from being driven by the north winds, to which the gulf is completely exposed, while the effect of such winds on the water made the soundings very uncertain.
III. The Syrtis Minor is now called the Gulf of Khabs or Cabes, and lay to
the west of the former, between the island Meninx, now Jerbah, on the south,
and the Brachodes Promontorium, or Cape Capoudiah, on the north. Its width,
reckoned from the island of Meninx to that of Cercina, was sixty geographical
miles. This gulf is said by Scylax to have been even more dangerous than the
Greater Syrtis. Its dangers arise, however, not so much fromp quicksands as




AFRICA.                           719
trom the variations and uncertainty of the tides on a flat shelvy coast. These
variations are occasioned by the east winds to which it lies open.
TRIBES     IN  THE   REGIO     SYRTICA.
THE Tribes of the Regio Syrtica were, 1. The Lotophagi, or "lotus-eaters,"
around the Syrtis Minor, and extending also some distance along the coast to
the southeast. They received their name from their employing the fruit of the
lotus as their chief article of food. The lotus here meant is supposed to have
been a species of ziziphus, or jujube, growing very abundantly in this quarter
even at the present day, and described by travellers as a prickly, branching
shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild plum, and of a sweetish taste and saffron
color. According to Homer, the fruit of the lotus was so delicious that whoever ate of it lost all desire of returning to their native country. Ulysses was
fabled to have visited the land of the Lotophagi in the course of his wanderings. 2. The Gindanes, to the west of the former. 3. Various tribes mentioned by Ptolemy, but of whom nothing is known, such as the Nigitimi, Samamycii,
Damensii, Nygbeni, &c. 4. The Psylli, toward the frontiers of Cyrenaica.
They were said to be very expert in taming serpents, and also in curing their
bite by sucking out the venom from the wound. Some ancient geographers
assign them to Cyrenaica. They were almost entirely destroyed by the Nasamones.
PLACES IN      THE    REGIO    SYRTICA.
THE most important places were the three cities already mentioned, and
which gave to this region subsequently the name of Tripolis, or Regio Tripolitana; namely, 1. Leptis Magna, on the east, to the west of the mouth of.the
River Cinyps, and founded by a colony of Sidonian fugitives. The country
around was very fertile, and, though the city had no harbor, it was nevertheless enriched by inland traffic, more particularly under the Romans, who established a colony here. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Septimius Severus,
who greatly favored the place, so that, as late as the fourth century of our era, it
was a strong and populous city. The ruins are now to be seen at Lebida, which
occupies a part of its site. The River Cinyps (Kivvb) or Cinyphus (Kivvooc) is
the only stream of any consequence in this tract of country, and rose in what
was called the "Hill of the Graces" (Xapirov t6lboo), about two hundred stadia
from the coast. The modern name of this river is Wady Quaham. 2. (Ea, called by Pliny Civitas (Eensis, and by Ptolemy'Esa, on the coast, to the northwest,
and with a good harbor. It first grew up under the Roman sway, and is said
to have been founded by a mixed colony of natives and Sicilians.'It became
at a later day a Roman colony, with the name of XElia Augusta Felix. The ruins
lie four geographical miles to the east of the modern city of Tripoli. 3. Sabrata,
not far to the west, originally a Phoenician settlement, and subsequently a Roman colony. It was the native city of Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespasian, and
mother of Titus and Domitian. Mannert makes it the same with the Phoenician
Abrotonum, but Pliny distinguishes between the two places. The site of Sabrata
is now called Sabart, or Tripoli Vecchio. To these three places we may add,
4. Tacape, on the Syrtis Minor, and a little below the mouth of the River Triton. In its vicinity were warm baths, called Aquas Tacapitance. Tacape is now
Gabes. 5. Meninx, the chief town in the island Meninx, in the Syrtis Minor.
This island was likewise called Lotophagitis Insula. It contained another town
named Gerra, the native place of the Emperors Vibius Gallus and Volusianus.
From it comes the modern name Girba given to the island.




720                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
5. CYRENAICA.
I. Cyrenaica was bounded on the west by the Regio Tripolitana, on the east by Mlarmarica, on the north by the          lediterranean, and on the south by the African desert.        It derived
its name from its capital city Cyrene. At a subsequent period,
about the time of the Egyptian Ptolemies, it took also the appellation of Pentapolis, from    its five principal cities.   It corresponds in a great measure to the modern Barca.
II. Cyrenaica was regarded by the Greeks as a kind of terrestrial paradise. It was extremely well watered, and the inhabitants, according to Herodotus, employed eight months in
collecting the productions of the land; the maritime places
first yielded their fruits, then the second region, which they
called the hills, and, lastly, the highest parts inland. One of
the chief natural productions was an herb called silphium, to
the resinous juice of which great virtues were ascribed, and
which therefore formed a valuable article of trade.         A representation of the.silphium     always appears upon the coins of
Cyrene.
INHABITANTS AND HISTORY.
I. TIE inhabitants in the interior were Libyan nomades, those on the coast
were Greek colonists. About B.C. 631, a colony of Greeks, in obedience to
the suggestion of the Delphic oracle, and under the guidance of a leader named
Battus, migrated from the island of Thera, a Lacedaemonian settlement, and
established themselves on this part of the African coast, where they founded
the city of Cyrene. The constitution of the colony was at first monarchical.
Under Battus II. the settlement was greatly increased by the arrival of new
Greek colonists. Under Battus III. the regal power was much curtailed by
Blemonax of Mantinea, who introduced several laws to that effect.
IT. About B.C. 450 the government appears to have changed to a republic.
After the time of Alexander the country became subject to Ptolemy the First
of Egypt, and continued under the dominion of his successors until the death
of Ptolemy Physcon, who left it by will as an independent kingdom to his natural son Ptolemy Apion. This monarch, at his death in B.C. 96, bequeathed
his kingdom by will to the Roman people. The senate, however, refused to
accept the legacy, and declared the cities of Cyrenaica free. They were not
reduced to the condition of a province till near thirty years afterward.
PLACES     iN  CYRENAICA.
1. Apollonia, on the coast, and at first merely the harbor of Cyrene, which
lay inland; afterward, however, a large and independent city. In the Middle
Ages it took the name of Sozusa (Z;6ovra), and the site is now called Marza
Susa. 2. Ptolemais, on the coast, to the southwest, and at first merely the harbor of Barce, which lay one hundred stadia inland; afterward, however, it was
enlarged by the Ptolemies, called Ptolemans, having been previously known, ac



AFRICA.                           721
cording to Pliny, by the same name (Barce) as the city whose harbor it then
was, and became a very flourishing place, while Barce itself declined. At a
subsequent period we find Ptolemais suffering greatly from a scarcity of water,
in consequence of which many of its inhabitants left it, and although the Emperor Justinian tried every expedient to remedy this evil by means of aqueducts,
the city gradually fell to ruins. The remains are called at the present day
Tolometa. 3. Taucheira or Teucheira, on the coast, a short distance to the southwest. The goddess Cybele was worshipped here with peculiar honors. Under
the Ptolemies the name of the place was changed to Arsinoi. It became at a
later period a Roman colony. Its remains are now called Tochira or Teukira.
4. Berenice, on the coast, to the southwest. Its earlier name was Hesperis or
Hesperides, changed to Berenice in honor of the queen of Ptolemy Euergetes.
It is now Benagaye or Benegasi. Berenice was the westernmost city of the
Pentapolis, and not far from the mouth of the River Lathon. Some of the ancient writers placed the far-famed gardens of the Hesperides near Berenice.
In the neighborhood of Benagaye, at the present day, are some curious chasms or
pits sunk in the rock, sixty or seventy feet below the plain, with excellent soil
at the bottom, covered with trees and rich vegetation, and which seem to answer to the description given by Scylax of those celebrated gardens.
5. Cyrene, the capital of the Pentapolis, and from which it derived its name
of Cyrenaica. It was founded in B.C. 631 by a colony from the island of Thera,
led by Battus, as we have already remarked. The colony first settled in an
island named Platea, where they remained two years; after this they removed
to Aziris, where they remained six years, and at length settled in the place
which they called Cyrene, a term said to be derived from a fountain named
Cyre, flowing near. This city soon became, from its advantageous situation
for commerce, a rich and powerful one, and, next to Carthage, the most important place in northern Africa. In the time of Aristotle its government was republican. It subsequently fell, as already stated, under the power of the Ptolemies, and was finally bequeathed by Apion, together with the rest of the Pentapolis, to the Romans. The country around Cyrene must have been in ancient
times a complete garden, and is still remarkable for its beauty. Cyrene was
the native place of many distinguished persons, among whom may be here mentioned Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic sect, Carneades, the head of the
New Academy, the poet Callimachus, and the geographer Eratosthenes. This
city, after suffering much from the oppression of its Byzantine governors, was
destroyed in the fourth centcry by an irruption of some barbarous tribe from
the interior of Libya. The ruins are now called Grenneh or Curin. 6. Barce,
to the southwest of Cyrene, and lying inland from Ptolemais. It was originally the capital of a Libyan tribe named Barccei, but received in B.C. 560 a large
accession of Greek settlers from Cyrene, of which city it soon became thereupon a powerful and bitter rival. This state of feud lasted for some time, until
Cyrene called in to her aid the Persian satrap of. Egypt, when Barce was overcome, and a large number of her Grecian inhabitants were sent away captive
into Upper Asia, to the court of Darius Hystaspis, who assigned them lands in
Bactria. A much more severe blow was struck, however, at a later day, when
the Ptolemies enlarged the port of Barce, and made it a separate city under the
name of Ptolemais. The rapid increase of this latter place soon caused Barce
to decline. It did not, however, become wholly deserted, and the Arabs subsequently gave its name to the whole country of Cyrenaica; but at last the
town sank into total oblivion, and even its site can not now be ascertained,
though probability is in favor of the modern Merdsjeh.
Zz




722                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
6. MARMARICA.
I. Marmarica     lay between Cyrenaica      on  the west and.Egypt on the east, while to the south it extended a considerable distance, so as to include the Oasis of Ammon; and it
corresponds, therefore, to what is now the easternmost part of
Barca, and the northwesternmost portion of Egypt.
II. Prior, however, to the Roman dominion, and under the
sway of the Ptolemies, Marmarica extended merely, on the
east, as far as the Catabathmus Magnus, a long valley or descent running inland from the coast, and now the vale of Akabah el-Soloum; and hence the ancient geographers, up to that
time regarding 2Egypt as a part of Asia, and extending its
limits as far as the Catabathmus Magnus on the west, made
this last the boundary between Africa and Asia.
III. Under the Romans, however, a new arrangement was
made, Marmarica being extended on the east as far as the
Sinus Plinthinetes, or Arabs' Gulf, and the whole country being divided into two parts, namely, Marmarica Proper, reaching from   Cyrena'ica to the Catabathmus ]Magnus, and the
Nome of Libya (At6vr/q Noi'oc), extending from      the Catabathmus to the Sinus Plinthinetes, and which the Ptolemies had
made a part of 2Egypt. It is in this enlarged sense that we
are now to consider Marmarica.
FACE OF THE COUNTRY, TRIBES, &C.
I. MARMARICA was for the most part a sandy waste, containing no rivers and
but few cities. It had also but few mountains, the principal of which were,
1. Mons Aspis, along the coast of the Libyan Nome. 2. Mons Asyphus, further
to the west. 3. Mons Ogdamus, to the southeast of the range of Aspis. 4.
Montes Anagombri, to the west of the Oasis of Ammon. 5. Montes Bascici, to
the northwest. The Catabathmus Magnus, already mentioned, was formed by a
continuation of these latter mountains. The epithet Magnus was given to the
valley in question, in contradistinction to the Catabathmus Parvus, near the confines of.Egypt.
II. Marmarica, with the exception of the coast, was roamed over by various
nomadic tribes, the most powerful of whom were the Marmaridc, from whom
the country derived its name. The Adyrmachide, in the Libyan Nome, are said
in some respects to have resembled the LEgyptians. The Nasamones, who, in
earlier geography, are assigned to Cyrenaica, are placed by Ptolemy in Marmarica, having been driven into this country by the Roman arms.
PLACES IN MARMARICA.
1. Taposiris or Taphosiris, near the Egyptian frontier, on the coast, and cele
brated as the burial-place of Osiris, whence its Greek name. The ruins are




AFRICA.                           723
now called Abusir, and lie near what is termed the Arab's Tower, prolably an
ancient Pharos. This place must not be confounded with Taposiris Parva,
which lay much nearer to Alexandrea. 2. Antiphrce, some distance inland, noted
for its wretched wine. The Libyan wine in general was very poor, and drunk
only by the lowest classes in Alexandrea. 3. Parcetonium, on the coast, to the
west, a strongly fortified city, and prior to Roman times the frontier town of
/Egypt in this quarter. It was repaired and strengthened by Justinian. The
modern name of the site is Al-Baretoun. 4. Apis, about one hundred stadia to
the west of Pareetonium, and celebrated as one of the places where the deity
Apis was particularly worshipped. Scylax makes this, and not Paraetonium,
the western limit of,Egypt. 5. Catabathmus, a castle and harbor in the vicinity of, and taking its name from the Catabathmus Parvus. 6. Menelai Portus,
to the west, deriving' its name, according to the legend, from Menelaus, who
landed here in the course of his wanderings. Here also Agesilaus, the celebrated Spartan cominander, ended his existence. It is now, probably, the harbor of Toubrouk. 7. Chersonesus Magna, a city with a good harbor, on a promontory of the same name, near the confines of Cyrenaica. It is now, perhaps,
Rasatin.
The only remarkable spot in the interior of Marmarica is the Oasis of Ammon,
which we will now proceed briefly to describe, merely premising that by some
of the ancient geographers it is assigned, not to Marmarica, but to Libya Interior.
AMMONIUM OR OASIS OF AMMON.
I. By the term Ammonium (Tb'Apyz6vtov) the Greeks and Romans meant
what is now called the Oasis of Siwah, a fertile spot in the Great Desert of Sahara, about fifteen geographical miles in length and twelve in breadth. It lies
about one hundred and sixty English miles from the sea-coast. The ancient
name was derived from the celebrated temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon that
were here, and which appear to have been of very early origin. The origin of
the Ammonian people inhabiting this Oasis, and who would seem to have been
quite numerous, is a matter of uncertainty. The ancients make them to have
been a mixed colony of.Egyptians and.-Ethiopians, and the traditions represent
a close connection as existing between this spot and.Egypt.
II. The god called by the Greeks Jupitei Ammon was worshipped here under
a Krioprosopic form, that is, his statue was represented with a ram's head, a
manifest -LEgyptian type; although this does not appear to have been his earliest form. The oracle connected with the sanctuary was a very famous one,
and is well known to have been consulted by Alexander the Great in relation
to his divine origin. The temple of Ammon, like that of Delphi, was celebrated
for its treasures, and these, in the time of the Persian invasion of Egypt, excited
so far the cupidity of Cambyses as to induce him to send a large body of forces
across the desert to seize upon the place. They all, however, perished in the
desert, either from want of water, or from having been.misled purposely by
their guides.
III. Here also was the famous Fons Solis', or " Fountain of the Sun," which,
according to Herodotus, was tepid at dawn, cool as the day advanced, very cool
at noon, diminishing in coolness as the day declined, warm at sunset, and boiling hot at midnight. It would seem from the accounts of modern travellers, and
especially of St. John, the latest of them, that it is a hot spring, and probably very
hot at night, and comparatively cool in the daytime. The traveller last men
tined, who has recently given a very interesting account of the remains and




724                ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
antiquities at Ammonium, describes the present inhabitants as a mixed race of
Berbers and negroes, extremely bigoted, and, consequently, very inhospitable.
His visit was paid in 1847.
IV. The true character of the African Oases has been greatly misunderstood.
They are not, as the common account makes them, fertile spots "in the midst
of a sandy plain," but depressions in the lofty table-land of Africa, where, in the
absence of the superincumbent limestone strata, the water has the power of
rising to the surface. In other words, the Oases are valleys sunk in the elevated plain that forms the desert; and when you descend to one of them, you
find the level space or plain of the Oasis similar to a portion of the valley of
~Egypt, surrounded by steep hills of limestone at some distance from the cultivated land.
7. E GYPTUS.
1. NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. JEgypt is called in Hebrew lMitsraim; in Arabic, Mesr.
The Copts, or descendants of the ancient Egyptians, term it
Chami or Chemi, "the dark land," in allusion to its dark,
rich soil. The appellation by which this country is known to
Europeans comes from      the Greek (Ayvrrrof,.iEgyptus), and
appears to contain a root resembling the word Copt, so that
JEgypt may perhaps mean "the land of the Copts" (from          ala
for yaia, and KVtrrr-og).  The ancient ZEgyptian name is said to
have resembled the modern Coptic one.
II..Egypt was bounded on the south by ~Ethiopia, on the
north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Arabia Petrea
and Palcestina, and on the west by the Libyan Desert.         The
extent along the Mediterranean coast was computed from Rhinocorura, now El-Arish, on.the east, to the Sinus Plinthinetes, now Arabs' Gulf, on the west, in which latter direction the
city of Paraetonium, subsequently assigned to Marmarica, was
commonly regarded as the frontier station.
III. Before the limits of Asia and Africa were correctly established, some of the early geographers made LEgypt a part
of Asia, while others regarded the Nile as the dividing limit,
and assigned the portion of JEgypt lying east of that river to
Asia, and the remainder to Africa.
2. DIVISIONS.
I. IN the time of the Pharaohs,./Egypt was divided into the Thebais, Middle,
and Lower.Egypt. The Thebais extended from the confines of.Ethiopia as far
as the city of Abydos, to the north, and contained ten districts, jurisdictions, or,
as the Greeks called them, nomes (vo6iot). The Coptic word is Pthosch. To
these succeeded the sixteen nomes of Middle Egypt, reaching to Cercasorum,




AFRICA.                           725
where the Nile began to branch off, and form the Delta. Then came the ten
nomes of Lower.Egypt, or the Delta, extending to the sea. The whole number
of nomes, then, at this period, was thirty-six, corresponding to the number of halls
in the Labyrinth.
II. Under the dynasty of the Ptolemies the number of nomes became enlarged
partly by reason of the new and improved state of things in that quarter of.Egypt where Alexandrea was situated, partly by the addition of the Greater or
Lesser Oasis to Egyjpt, and partly, also, by the alterations which an active commerce had produced along the borders of the Sinus Arabicus. A change also
took place about this same period in the three main divisions of the country.
Lower.Egypt now no longer confined itself to the limits of the Delta, but had
its extent enlarged by the addition of some of the neighboring nomes. In like
manner, Upper 2Egypt, or the Thebais, received a portion of what had formerly
been included within the limits of Middle.Egypt, so that eventually but seven
nomes remained to this last-mentioned section of the country, which therefore
received the name of Heplanimis.
III. The number of nomes became still farther increased, at a subsequent period, by various subdivisions of the older ones. At a still later period we hear
little more of the nomes. A new division of the country took place under the
Eastern Empire. An imperial prefect exercised sway not only over AEgypt,
but also over Libya as far as Cyrene, while a Comes Militaris had charge of the
forces. From this time, the whole of Middle 2Egypt, previously named Heptanomis, bore the name of Arcadia, in honor of Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius.
A new province had also arisen, a considerable time before this, called Augustamnica, from its lying chiefly along the Nile. It comprised the eastern half of
the Delta, together with a portion of Arabia, as far as the Arabian Gulf, and also
the cities on the Mediterranean as far as the frontiers of Syria. Its capital was
Pelusium. Other changes took place about the time of Justinian, in the sixth
century, in connection with the position of the various archbishoprics and bishoprics, which it is unnecessary here to enumerate.
3. SOIL, CLIMLATE, &C.
1. THE valley of the Nile is inclosed by the Libyan and Arabian mountain
chains, both of which are pierced with a number of valleys, crossing them obliquely, and leading on the one side to the Arabian Gulf, and on the other to the
Greater and Lesser Oasis of the Libyan Desert. The western chain forms a
monotonous barren dam, by which the valley of the Nile is protected from the
sand-waves of the Libyan Desert; the eastern, which fills the whole country
as far as the Arabian Gulf, has in Upper AEgypt three distinct formations, namely, in the south, rose-colored granite, the material of which the obelisks, entire
temples, and colossal statues were formed; in the centre, sandstone of various
colors, gradually merging in the limestone formation of the mountains in the
north, the material of the pyramids.
II. Of this region, the only fertile portion is the valley which is inclosed between these chains, and watered by the Nile. This valley becomes wider as
it approaches the north, and with the Delta, excepting the sandy and marshy
ground on the coast, forms a tract of rich alluvial soil, which is manured every
year by the overflowings of the Nile. Ancient.Egypt depends, in fact, entirely
on the Nile, not merely for its fertility, but its very existence, since rain never
falls in this country except in the Delta, and even here chiefly in places near
the sea. To its singularly constituted atmosphere, however, and to the regular




726                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
inundations of the Nile, zEgypt owes the advantage of containing within its
limits almost all the cultivated vegetables of the Old World. Even in the days
of Abraham and Joseph, this country was a place of refuge for the neighboring
nations in seasons of scarcity, and at a later period it became the granary of
Rome and Constantinople. Its most celebrated vegetable production, however,
was the papyrus, out of which paper was made, and which still grows here.
III., The average breadth of the valley of the Nile between Cairo and Edfou
is only about seven miles, and that of the cultivated land, whose limits depend
on the inundation, scarcely exceeds five and a half, being in the widest part ten
and three quarters, and in the narrowest two miles, including the river. The
extent of the Delta may be estimated at one thousand nine hundred and seventysix square miles. That the irrigated part of the valley was formerly much less
extensive than it is at present, at least wherever the plain stretches to any distance east and west, or to the right and left of the river, is evident from the fact
of the alluvial deposit constantly encroaching in a horizontal direction upon the
gradual slope of the desert. The plain of Thebes, in the time of Amenouf III.,
or about 1430 B.C., was not more than two thirds of its present breadth; and
the statues of that monarch, round which the alluvial mud has accumulated to
the height of nearly seven feet, are founded on the sand which once extended
to some distance in front of them.
4. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE.EGYPTIANS.
I. RECENT investigations have shown very conclusively that the ancient
Egyptians were a Caucasian race, and that the civilization of -Egypt proceeded, not from AEthiopia, down the valley of the Nile, as has generally been supposed, but in an opposite direction, from north to south. The government of.Egypt appears to have been at first a hierarchy, successively composed of the
priest of one or other of the principal deities, but its duration is uncertain. We
then come to the kings, the first of whom, by universal consent, was Menes.
The records of the,Egyptian priests, as handed down to us by Herodotus,
Manetho, Eratosthenes, and others, place the era of this monarch about 2320
B.C., in which year he is supposed to have ascended the throne.
II. The immediate successors of Menes are unknown till we come to Suphis,
and his brother or brothers, to whom the great pyramid is attributed by some,
and who are supposed to be the same as the Cheops and Cephren of Herodotus,
although that historian has placed them much later, after Sesostris and Mceris
Abraham visited.Egypt about 1920 B.C., and we have the testimony of Scripture as to the high and flourishing state of the country at that early period.
The Sacred Writings call the kings of,Egypt indiscriminately Pharaohs, which
is now ascertained to be, not the proper name of the individual monarchs, but
a prefix, like that of Ccesar and Augustus given to the Roman emperors.
III. Little or nothing is known of several successive dynasties, which were
probably merely contemporaneous ones, reigning over various parts of the country, until we come to Osirtasen I. of the sixteenth dynasty, who began to reign
about 1740 B.C. Very few monuments remain of a date prior to his reign.
The obelisk of Heliopolis bears the name of Osirtasen. Under the sixteenth
dynasty, about 1706 B.C., Joseph, and afterward Jacob and his family, came to
zEgypt, where their descendants settled and multiplied in the land of Goshen in
Lower _Egypt. Joseph died very old, under the seventeenth dynasty, which
reigned from 1651 to 1575 B.C.
IV. About 1575 B.C. " there arose a new king, who knew not Joseph." This
was the head of the eighteenth dynasty, from Diospolis or Thebes, which dy



AFRICA.                           727
nasty reigned 340 years, according to Eusebius and other chroniclers, and
which contains the names of the most illustrious sovereigns of ancient /Egypt.
It appears probable that this dynasty was the continuation of the line of the old
Diospolitan kings, who are mentioned as having reigned before Osirtasen I.,
which line may have been dispossessed, by some revolution, of the throne, or,
at least, of the greater part of the country, which was occupied by a new race
from Lower /Egypt during the sixteenth and seventeenth dynasties.
V. The irruption of the Hyksos, or shepherds, is supposed by some to have
occurred during this period. Manetho's seventeenth dynasty consists of shepherd kings, who are said to have reigned at Memphis. These shepherds, who
are represented as people with red hair and blue eyes, came from the northeast,
perhaps from the mountains of Assyria. They conquered or overran the whole
country, committing the greatest ravages, and at last settled in Lower -Egypt,
where they had kings of their own race. They were finally expelled by Tuthmosis or Thothmes I. of the eighteenth dynasty. The flight of Moses falls under the reign of this king, 1531 B.C.; and the Exodus of the Israelites, B.C.
1491, under that of Thothmes III., about four hundred and thirty years after the
visit of Abraham to jEgypt. The Scripture says that Pharaoh perished in the
pursuit of the Israelites, and it is remarkable that Amunoph II., the son and successor of Thothmes, is represented in a drawing at Thebes as having come to
the throne very young, and under the tutelage of his mother.
VI. Remeses II., or the Great, son of Osirei I., ascended the throne about
1350 B.C., and reigned above forty years. This is supposed to be the Sesostris
or Sesoosis of the Greek historians. The monuments prove him to have been
one of the most warlike kings of ancient,Egypt, and it is probable from these
that his campaigns extended to Asia, perhaps against the monarchs of Assyria.
The nineteenth dynasty, also of Dipspolitans, began about 1270 B.C., and reigned till 1170. During this period the war of Troy took place, in the reign of a
Remeses, supposed to be the fifth of that name, according to Pliny. Herodotus
and Diodorus give King Proteus as contemporary with the war of Troy. It is
curious, that from the Exodus till Solomon's time, a period of nearly five centuries, no mention is made in the Scriptures of.Egypt, which proves that the
storm of war, if such there was, passed off either to the east of Palestine, or
that the /Egyptian conquerors followed the maritime road by Gaza and the Ph-enician coast, leaving the high land of Judaea to their right.
VII. The twenty-second dynasty, beginning with Sesopchis or Sheshonk, commences about 978 B.C. This monarch is the Shishak of Scripture, at whose
court Jeroboam took refuge, and whose daughter he married; and who, after
Solomon's death, plundered the Temple of Jerusalem. The twenty-third dynasty, called Diospolitan, like the preceding, began about 908 B.C. with Osorkon
II. Homer is believed to have flourished about this time, and he speaks of.Egypt under its Greek name. The twenty-fourth dynasty, which is called
SLite, from Sais in Lower.Egypt, begins with the Bocchoris of Manetho, about
812 B.C. His phonetic name is Bakhor or Pehor. A monarch named Sabacos,
in phonetic Sabakoph, begins the twenty-fifth dynasty of,Ethiopians, who about
this time invaded /Egypt, or at least Upper /Egypt. Tehrak or Tirhakah, one
of his successors, attacked Sennacherib 710 B.C. Sethos, a priest of Vulcan.
Decame king, and ruled at Memphis contemporary with Tirhakah.
VIII. After the death of Sethos, a great confusion or anarchy took place. At
last twelve chiefs or monarchs assembled at Memphis, and took the direction
of affairs, which they retained for fifteen years, when Psamatik I., or Psammitichus, the son of Nechao or Necos, who had been put to death by Sabacos, be



728                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
came, by the aid of Greek mercenaries, king of all.Egypt, about 650 B.C. His
son Necos II. is the Pharaoh Necho of Scripture, who defeated and slew Josiah,
king of Judah, 610 B.C. He also began the canal that joined the eastern branch
of the Nile with the Arabian Gulf. His successor, Psamatik II., was followed
by Psamatik III., supposed by some to be the Apries of Manetho, and the Pharaoh
Hophra of Scripture, who defeated the Phcenicians, took Sidon, and invaded
Cyprus, which was finally subjected by Amasis, who succeeded him on the
throne.
IX. The reign of Amdsis lasted forty-four years, according to a date on the
monuments. His successor Psamenitus reigned only six months, when _Egypt
was invaded by Cambyses, 525 B.C., who overran and ravaged the country,
but lost the greater part of his army in the neighboring deserts, when seeking,
for the purposes of plunder, the Temple of Jupiter Ammon. The twenty-sevent.h
dynasty includes the Persian kings, from Cambyses to Darius Nothus, during
which time.Egypt was a province, though a very unruly one, of the Persian
monarchy. It was during this period that Herodotus visited.Egypt.
X. After several revolts, the -Egyptians succeeded in placing Amyrtseus, or
Aomahorte, a Saite, on the throne, about 414 B.C. This king alone constitutes
the twenty-eighth dynasty. He was succeeded by the twenty-ninth dynasty of
Mendesians, who defended.Egypt against the repeated attacks of the Persians,
with the aid of Greek auxiliaries under Agesilaus and others. At last, Nectanebus, being defeated by Ochus, fled into -,Ethiopia 340 B.C., and.Egypt fell again
under the yoke of the Persians. The Persians were succeeded by the Mace-!donians, who, after the death of Alexander, founded the dynasty of the Ptole71ies, or Lagidce, who ruled over 2Egypt for nearly three hundred years, and restored it to a considerable degree of prosperity. At the death of Cleopatra, 30
B.C., _Egypt was reduced to a Roman province by Augustus.
THE NILE AND THE           DELTA.
I. THE Nile has already been alluded to somewhat in detail. To this river.Egypt owes, in fact, not only all its fertility, but even its very existence as a
habitable country, since without the rich and fertilizing mud deposited by the
stream in its annual inundations, the land would be a sandy desert. The rise
of the Nile, occasioned by the periodical rains of Central Africa, begins in June,
about the summer solstice, and it continues to increase till September, overflowing the lowlands along its course. The Delta then looks like an immense marsh,
interspersed with numerous islands, with villages, towns, and plantations of
trees just above the water. The inundation, after having remained stationary
for a few days, begins to subside, and about the end of November most of the
fields are left dry, and covered with a layer of rich brown slime: this is the
time when the lands are put under culture.
II. The point of the Delta in ancient times was much more to the south than
at present. The Nile then branched off at Cercasorum, whereas now the apex is
a few miles north of Cairo. At Cercasorum the river put forth two branches, one
called the Pelusiac branch, ending in the Ostium Pelusiacum, and the other the
Canopic branch, ending in the Ostium Canopicum. The former took its name
from the city of Pelusium, lying at its termination on the coast; the latter from
the city of Canopus, similarly situated. The country inclosed between these
two arms the Greeks called the Delta, from its triangular form, and its resemblance to the letter A. Between these two main branches there were five other
intervening ones, each having its termination on the coast. The five mouths




AFRICA.                           729
thus formed were, 1. Ostium Bolbitinum, so called from the city of Bolbitine, in
its vicinity. 2. Ostium Scbennyticum, from the city of Sebennytus. 3. Ostium
Phatniticum or Pathmeticum; called also, by Herodotus, the Bucolic mouth.
4. Ostium Mendesium, from the city of Mendes. 5. Ostium Taniticur, from the
city of Tanis; called also Saiticum, from the city of Sais. The mouths of the
Nile, then, were anciently seven in number. The Canopic mouth was also
called Ostium Heracleoticum and NVaucraticum, and sometimes, also, Agathodcemon. This arm and the Canopic were always regarded by the ancients as the
chief branches, although, in reality, the Bolbitine and the Phatnitic were the
largest ones.
III. The state of things at the present day is greatly altered. The apex of
the Delta is much less obtuse than in ancient times, and its triangular figure
is now determined by the Rosetta branch, the old Canopic, and the Damiatta
branch, or old Phatnitic, although the cultivated plain known by the name of
Delta extends considerably beyond to the east and west, as far as the sandy
desert on either side. The Pelusiac branch is now in a great measure choked
up, though it still serves partially for purposes of irrigation. The Tanitic or
Saitic branch now corresponds to the Moes Canal, and the Mendesian branch
with the Menzaleh Canal. Both these canals now enter Lake Menzaleh, a vast
salt marsh forty miles long, which communicates with the sea by several outlets. Between the Damiatta and Rosetta branch are numerous canals, large and
small, intersecting the country in every direction. The Sebennytic mouth is
probably now the outlet by which the salt marsh or lake called Bourlos communicates with the sea. The only two entrances at the present day from the sea
into the Nile are the Rosetta and Damiatta branches, and even these are accessible only to small vessels. West of Rosetta, a salt marsh, called Lake Etko,
corresponds to the old Canopic' mouth. The greatest breadth of the Delta, or
cultivated plain of Lower.Egypt, is about eighty miles from east to west; its
length, from the bifurcation of the river to the sea, is about ninety miles.
IV. The formation of.Egypt and its extensive Delta are beyond the reach of
inquiry, and of a date long anterior to the period at which that country or,Ethiopia was inhabited. In the times of the earliest Pharaohs of whom any records
now remain, the whole of Lower.Egypt seems to have been densely inhabited,
and positive facts contradict the assumption that the Delta has been protruded
into the sea, to any great extent, within the age of history. If it had ancient
cities, which were upon the sea-coast three thousand or four thousand years
ago, they ought, on this supposition, as Wilkinson remarks, to have been by
this time far inland.
5. MOUNTAINS.
I. Mons Casius, on the Mediterranean coast, to the east of Pelusium, and near
the Palus Sirbonis. It is now El Kas or El Katieh. Here Jupiter Casius had
a temple; and on this mountain also was the tomb of Pompey. It must not be
confounded with the Syrian Mons Casius, below Antiochia.
It. Montes Arabici, the long chain of mountains forming the eastern side of
the valley of the Nile, and called at the present day Djebel Mokkatam. The ancient geographers mention five principal portions of this range, namely, 1. Mons
Alabastrites or Alabastrinus, to the east of Oxyrynchus, and southeast of Alabastropolis. Here were alabaster quarries, whence the locality derived its name.
Traces of these still exist. 2. Mons Porphyrites or Porphyriticus, to the east of
Lycopolis. Here were porphyry quarries, held in high repute, and supplying




730                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
materials not only to the -,Egyptians, but to the Romans also, for columns and
many ornamental purposes. The spot is now called Djebel e' Dokhan, or "( the
mountain of smoke. 3. Mons Aias or lEas, in the parallel of Thebes. 4. Mon'.
Smaragdus, to the northwest of Berenice, and named from its emerald mines.
The modern name is Djebel Zabarah. These mines have been successively
worked by the ancient ZEgyptians, and Romans, and by the califs and mamelukes; but they are now abandoned. They lie in a micaceous schist, and numerous shafts of considerable depth have been excavated at the foot of the
mountain.  5. Mons Basanites, between Syene and Berenice, taking its name
from the quarries of basanite or touchstone (piaavoc, Lapis Lydius) that were
worked here. This stone was wrought into various ornaments by the ancient
Egyptians, as it still is at the present day. The modern name of this mountain
is, according to Wilkinson, Om Kerrebeh.  Considerable quarry-workings are
visible here.
6. LAKES AND CANALS.
1. Lacus Mareotis, in the immediate vicinity of Alexandrea. Its earlier name
was Marea (?I Mapeia iwzvj). The later Greeks gave it the name of Mareotis.
According to Scylax, canals were cut in very early times, connecting this lake
with the Nile, and thus furnishing it with a constant supply of fresh water. The
Lake Mareotis first rose into importance after the founding of Alexandrea. Strabo describes it as being more than one Hundred and fifty stadia in breadth, and
not quite three hundred in length, and as containing eight islands. The country
around this lake was remarkable for its fertility. The principal product was a
light, sweetish white wine. For many centuries after the Greek and Roman
dominion in.Egypt, this lake was dried up; but in 1801, the English troops, during the siege of Alexandrea, let in the sea by cutting a passage through the
narrow neck of land that separated the ancient bed of the Lake Mareotis from
Lake Aboukir or Madieh. This modern Lakef Mareotis, now called Birkct Ma
riut, is much more extensive than the ancient one, occupying probably four
times the space.
2. Lacus Moeris, in the district of Heptanomis, west of the Nile, and south of
Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis. This lake was believed by the ancients to have been
entirely artificial, and to have been dug by King Meeris for the double purpose
of preventing the low country from being damaged by the superabundant overflowing of the Nile, and of serving as a reservoir to supply water during the low
season. Herodotus accordingly reports that during one half of the year the
Nile flowed into the lake, while during the other six months a stream flowed
out of it. Of the latter, however, there is no remaining trace; and the great
works contrived by Mceris to regulate the water have disappeared. The lake
has at present every appearance of occupying a natural basin, though certainly
its only apparent feeders are derived from the Nile.  Wilkinson insists that
Herodotus's account of the water returning from the lake to the Nile is totally
inapplicable to the Lake Mceris, the level of its surface being about one hundred
or one hundred and twenty feet lower than the bank of the Nile at Benisouef,
which, making every allowance for the rise of the bed of the river, and the
elevation of its banks, could never have been on a level, even in the time of
Herodotus, with the Lake Mceris. It is the Canal of Joussef to which, he says,
the account of Herodotus is alone applicable, as being the work of human hands,
and returning its water to the river. Near Lake Mceris was the celebrated
Labyrinth. The modern name of the Lake is Birket el Korn, or " the Lake of the
Horn," from its form, which is broad at the eastern end, and curves to a point




AFRICA.                           731
at its opposite extremity. It is about thirty miles in length, with a breadth
varying from eight miles to less than one.
3. Nitrariee (fodine) in the Nitriotic Nome, to the southeast of Alexandrea,
now the basin of the Natron Lakes, containing a series of six lakes, the banks
and waters of which are covered with crystals of chloride of sodium or sea-salt,
and carbonate of soda or natron.
4. Tanis Lacus, between the Tanitic and Phatnetic mouths of the Nile, now
the Lake of Menzaleh or Baheire, already mentioned in our remarks on the Delta.
5 Palus Sirbonis, near Mount Casius, and communicating with the MediterranItan by an opening, which was filled up in the time of Strabo. The lake graduilly diminished in size after this, and has now almost disappeared. The modern name is Sebaket Bardoil. 6. Lacus Amari, near Arsinoi or Cleopatris. They
derived their name from their bitter, brackish taste, a defect which was subsequently obviated by the Canal of Ptolemy, which let in the water of the Nile,
and rendered them perfectly sweet. The modern name is Scheib.
The only ancient canals deserving of particular mention, among the large
number by which 2Egypt, and especially the Delta, was intersected, are the following: 1. The Canal of Moeris, now Bahr Joussef, connecting the Lake Mceris
(Birket el Korn) with the Nile, and of which we have already made mention.
2. The Canal of Sesostris or Ptolemy, called also the Canal of Hero, cut from the
Pelusiac branch of the Nile to the Sinus Arabicus, which it entered near Arsinoe.
It was commenced, according to some, by Sesostris; but, according to others,
by Necho, or rather Psammiticus II., who desisted from the undertaking on being
warned by an oracle that he was laboring for the barbarians. Darius Hystaspis
continued it, but left it unfinished.  Ptolemy Philadelphus completed it, and
made sluices to regulate the quantity of water, while they permitted the passage of vessels. They had also for their object the exclusion of the salt water;
and so effectually was this done, that the bitter lakes, which lay in the line of
the canal, were rendered perfectly sweet, and abounded with Nile fish, and the
usual water-fowl of -Egypt. It was also called Trajan's Canal (Fluvius Traiani), from its having been repaired in later days by that emperor.
7. ANTIQUITIES OF.ZEGYPT.
UNDER this head we will briefly notice merely a few of the more prominent
objects of interest in this remarkable country.
Pyramids.-The Pyramids of LEgypt, especially the two largest of the pyramids at Geezeh, are the most stupendous masses of building in stone that human
labor has ever been known to accomplish; and we have records of their having
been objects of wonder and curiosity from the age of Herodotus, who was born
484 B.C., to the present time. The &Egyptian pyramids, of which, large and
small, and in different states of preservation, the number is very considerable,
are all situated on the west side of the Nile, and extend in an irregular line, and
in groups at some distance from each other, from the neighborhood of Geezeh,
a village opposite to Cairo, as far south as twenty-nine degrees north latitude,
a length of between sixty and seventy miles. The three principal pyramids are
those of Geezeh. They stand on a plateau or terrace of limestone, which is a
projection from the Libyan mountain chain, and is more than one hundred feet
above the level of the,Egyptian plain. The largest, called the pyramid of Cheops, occupies a base of seven hundred and sixty-seven feet square, and rises to
the height of four hundred and eighty feet nine inches, being, therefore, fortythree feet nine inches higher than St. Peter's at Rome, and one hundred and




732                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
thirty-six feet nine inches higher than St. Paul's in-London. It is built, like the
others, of large blocks of stone, which form so many gigantic steps (two hundred in number), to the top, where there is a small platform. This pyramid has
long been open, and contains a small chamber, with a hollow sarcophagus.
Several other apartments and winding passages have lately been discovered in
its recesses by persevering travellers, particularly by Col. Vyse, who has succeeded in revealing its whole internal structure. The next adjoining pyramid
is that of Cephren, the brother and successor of Cheops. It was opened by Belzoni, who discovered that he had been anticipated by Arab investigators several
centuries earlier, but he still found in a sarcophagus some bones, which are
believed to be those of a cow or ox. The third pyramid is that of Mycerinus,
the son of Cheops. The pyramids were undoubtedly sepulchral monuments.
According to Lepsius, the mode of constructing them was as follows. When
a king commenced his reign, the first thing done, after levelling the surface of
the rock for the pyramid's base, was to excavate a chamber intended for his
tomb, under ground, with a passage communicating with the surface, and to
erect a course of masonry above, which served for the nucleus of the pyramid.
If the king died during the year, the masonry was immediately cased over, and
a small pyramid was formed. If he continued to live, another course of stone
was added in height, and the length of the lower stage increased. During subsequent years the same process was repeated, and the pyramid thus continued
to be increased every year until the death of the king in whose. reign it was
erected, fresh courses being added each year of his life. When the king died,
the work of enlargement ceased, and a casing was put on the whole structure.
Sphinx.-The.Egyptian sphinxes are lions, but without wings, in which latter
respect they differ from those of Greece. They are represented in the same
recumbent posture as the Grecian ones, lying, namely, upon the front part of
the body, with the paws stretched forward. The upper part of the body is either
human, and mostly female, or they have the head of a ram. In some cases the
head is covered with a kind of cap,-which also covers part of the neck. These
sphinxes were generally placed at the entrance of temples, where they often
formed a long avenue leading to the sacred edifice. The largest of the existing
sphinxes is that of Geezeh, which is hewn out of the rock, and is of the enormous dimensions of one hundred and forty-three feet in length, and sixty-two
feet in height in front. It was formerly covered to the neck with sand, which
was cleared away by Signor Caviglia. The greater part, however, is now covered up again, leaving little more than the head and shoulders visible.
Vocal Memnon.-There are many colossal statues in.Egypt which have been
called Memnonian, of which the most celebrated is the vocal statue described by
Strabo and Pausanias. At sunrise a sound was said to proceed from this statue
which Pausanias compares to the snapping of a harp or lute string. Strabo
states that he heard the sound himself in company with 2Elius Gallus; and
Tacitus relates that Germanicus also heard it. This statue is identified, by
the descriptions of Strabo and Pausanias, with the northernmost of the two colossal statues in the Theban plain, on the west bank of the Nile. Its height,
according to modern travellers, is about fifty feet; and its legs contain numerous inscriptions in Latin and Greek, commemorating the names of those who
had heard the sound. Most of these inscriptions belong to the period of the
early Roman emperors. This statue is now ascertained to be that of Amenophis II., the son of Thutmosis, and who is said to have driven the shepherds out
of /Egypt. There is some difficulty, however, notwithstanding the inscriptions
upon it, in identifying this statue with the one described by Strabo and Pausa



AFRICA.                           733
nias. These writers say that the upper part had in their time fallen down;
according to one account, in consequence of an earthquake; while another ascribed it to Cambyses, who, it is said, suspecting some imposture, caused the
statue to be broken off in the middle. At the present day, however, the upper
part exists in its proper position, though not in a single piece. Heeren conjectures that the broken statue might have been repaired after the time of Strabo.
The sound produced by the statue is now supposed to have proceeded from a
stone in the lap of the statue, which was struck by a person concealed in a recess behind it, and which emitted, as it still does, when struck, a metallic sound.
The head of the colossal Memnon in the British Museum has no claim to be
considered the vocal statue.
Among other remains of.Egyptian greatness we may name, 1. The Memnonium at Thebes, on the western side of the river, a splendid structure originally,
and probably the same with the tomb of Osymandias, described by Diodorus
Siculus. The more correct name of the edifice, however, would be Remeseum,
since it is now ascertained to have been the palace-temple of Remeses II., one
of whose titles, Miamun, was corrupted by the Greeks into Memnon. 2. The
great temple at Medcenet Haboo, or the palace-temple of Remeses III. 3. The
tombs of the kings, to the west of this latter place, cut in the calcareous rock,
at different levels. They are all of extraordinary splendor, the largest and most
magnificent being that of Remeses Miamun, which is adorned with sculptures
of the highest interest.
PLACES IN LEGYPT.
DELTA.
1. Alexandsra, founded by Alexander the Great, who, during his visit to.Egypt, B.C. 332, gave orders to erect this city between the sea and the Mareotic Lake. The architect was Dinocrates, a Macedonian. A large part, but
not the whole of it, was contained within the present walls, which are chiefly
the work of the Arabs. One main long street, about three miles in length, ran
through the city, from the eastern extremity to the necropolis or cemetery of
Alexandrea, at the western; and this was intersected by another main street,
running nearly north, more than a mile in length, in a direction from the Mareotic Lake. The object of this arrangement was to give the city the benefit of
ventilation fim the north winds. The main land and the island of Pharos were
connected by a dike, called the Heptastadium, in which, at each end, there was a
passage for vessels from one port to the other. Over these passages there were
also bridges. On the rocks now occupied by the present Pharos, a magnificent
light-house was constructed by Sostratus of Cnidus, in the reign of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, B.C. 283. The port bounded by the two promontories, the Pharos
and Lochias, by the northeast part of the city and the Heptastadium, was called
the Great Port. The other port was called Eunostus, or " safe return."  The
city was divided into several quarters: the court end, otherwise called Bruchion,
contained the famous library, consisting, it is said, of seven hundred thousand
volumes, and, connected with it, the Museum, a college or retreat for learned men,
where they were retained at the public expense. A place called Soma, "the
body," in the quarter of the palaces, contained the tomb of Alexander the Great
From B.C. 323 to B.C. 30, Alexandrea was the residence of the Greek kings of
LEgypt, the Ptolemies, distinguished for commerce, and the resort of many foreign nations, especially Jews; and also the centre of the scientific knowledge
of that day. In the Alexandrine war, with Julius Caesar, B.C. 48, the city sus



734                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
tained much damage, and a large part of the library was burned; but this latter
loss was afterward, in some degree, remedied by the addition of the library of
Pergamus, which Antony presented to Cleopatra.  Alexandrea fell into the
hands of the Romans B.C. 30, and continued a flourishing commercial city under
the Roman emperors, and afterward under the eastern empire. In A.D. 640 it
was taken by the Arabs under Omar, on which occasion the splendid library is
said, though erroneously, to have been destroyed by the conquerors. On the
founding of New Cairo, in A.D. 969, Alexandrea gradually sank to the condition
of a second-rate city; and the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497,
tended still farther to diminish its commerce; but it is again becoming an important position, in consequence of its lying on the over-land route to India.
2. Canobus or Canopus, about twelve miles to the northeast of Alexandrea,
and a short distance to the west of the Ostium Canopicum, to which it gave
name. It was a very ancient city, and a place of considerable commerce prior
to the founding of Alexandrea. It was also the capital of the Menelaitic Nome.
According to the Greek fable, with which the appellation of the nome is connected, this city took its name from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who was said
to have been buried here. Canopus was famed for its temple and oracle of Serapis, and the festivals celebrated at this temple made the morals of the people
extremely dissolute. Some traces of the ancient city exist a short distance to
the west of Aboukir. 3. Hermopolis Parva, southeast of Alexandrea. It is now
Damanhour.  4. Andropolis, to the southeast, the capital of the Andropolitic
Nome, and subsequently the head quarters of a Roman legion. It is now Chabur. 5. Butos or Buto, on the southern shore of the Lake Butos, now Lake
Bourlos, the outlet from which formed the Ostium Sebennyticum. It was famed
for its temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona, that is, of. Egyptian deities supposed to coincide with these. The temple of Latona had a celebrated oracle
connected with it. Butos answers probably to Kom Kasir. 6. Naucratis, to the
southwest, on the right bank of the Canopic arm of the Nile, in the Saitic Nome.
It was said to have been founded by a Milesian colony, but was probably of
much earlier date. It was for a long time the only place in 2Egypt where the
Greeks were allowed to settle and carry on traffic. Naucratis was the native
city of Atheneus and Julius Pollux. Its remains are to be sought near the
modern Salhadschar.
7. Sais, to the southeast, and the capital of the Saitic Nome. It lay on the
left bank of the Sebennytic branch of the Nile, and was one of the most important cities of the Delta, partly on account of the annual festival celebrated
here in honor of the goddess Neith, regarded as identical with Minerva, and
which drew a large concourse of visitors to the place; and partly because the
Saitic, or twenty-sixth dynasty of the Pharaohs, acknowledged it as their native
city, and were interred here. When, however, the Persian power was established in.Egypt, and Memphis again became the capital, Sais declined in importance. The site, now called Sa, is marked merely by ruins. At a little distance south of this place was a celebrated temple of Osiris, where that deity
was said to have been interred; an honor claimed by many other.Egyptian
sites. 8. Busiris, to the southeast, on the Phatnetic branch, and the capital
of the Busiritic Nome. Here was a very sacred temple of Isis, to which pilgrimages were made, and where a solemn annual festival was celebrated. The
site of this city is now called Aboussir. 9. Sebennytus, to the east of Sais, and
giving name to the Sebennytic branch of the Nile. It was the capital of the Sebennytic Nome, and its site is occupied by the modern Semmenud. 10. Thmruis,
to the east of the preceding, and the capital of the Thmuitic Nome. The goat




AFRICA.                           735
was worshipped here with peculiar honors, and the name of the city, according
to St. Jerome, signified "a goat." In the time of Ammianus Marcellinus,
Thmuis was one of the largest cities in.Egypt. The modern name of the site
is Tel et-Mai. 11. Mendes, to tle northeast of Sebennytus, and giving name
to the Mendesian branch of the Nile, on which it lay. Here also the goat was
held in great religious reverence, and, according to Herodotus, the name of the
city meant "a goat," what St. Jerome asserts of Thmuis. The site is now
called Achmoun. 12. Tanis, to the east of the preceding, the capital of the
Tanitic Nome, and on the Tanitic branch of the Nile. It was an important city
at an early period, and the residence of one of Manetho's dynasties of Pharaohs.
It is the same with the Zoan of Scripture, and is stated by the Psalmist to be
the spot where Moses performed those miracles that ended in the liberation of
the Israelites. The site is now called San, and is remarkable for the height
and extent of its mounds of ruins.
13. Bubastus, to the southwest, the capital of the Bubastite Nome, with a celebrated temple of Bubastis (Pasht), or Diana. The festival of the goddess was
remarkable, not only for its splendor, but also for the large numbers that attended; as many as seventy thousand persons, exclusive of children, being drawn
hither on this occasion. The Scripture name of this place is Phi Beseth. Here
also the sacred cats were interred. The modern name is Tel-Basta. 14..Athribis, to the southwest, the capital of the Athribitic Nome. It is now Atryb or
Trieb, with some striking remains. 15. Cercasorum or Cercasora, at the apex of
the Delta, where the Nile branches off. It is now ElArkas. 16. Babytlon, to the
southeast of the preceding, and on the opposite bank of the Nile, just where the
great canal commenced that led off to the Sinus Arabicus, and not far from the
pyramids and Memphis. According to the best authorities, it does not appear
to have existed in the'time of the Pharaohs, but to have come into being under
the Persians, who settled here a number of refractory Babylonians from Upper
Asia. Under the Romans it became important as a military post, since here
the valley of the Nile begins to contract as you advance into Upper 2Egypt. A
castle accordingly was erected in this quarter, and a Roman legion was stationed here. At a later day, this place took the name of Fost&t, from the "leather
tent" (fostat) which Amru, the general of Omar, pitched here for himself during the siege of the Roman fortress. Fostat continued to be the royal residence,
as well as the capital of Egypt, until Goher el Kaed, having been sent by Moez
to conquer.Egypt, founded a new city called Musr el K&herah (Cairo), which
four years after (in A.D. 974) became the capital of the country, and Fostat received the new appellation of Musr el Ateekeh, or ( Old Musr," corrupted by
Europeans into Old Cairo.
17. Heliopolis, a short distance to the northeast of Babylon, and more celebrated in a religious than a political point of view. As its name indicates, it
was the sacred city of Osiris, or the Sun, and contained one of the three chief
sacerdotal colleges of Egypt, the stations of the other two being respectively at
Memphis and Thebes. Herodotus is the earliest one of the Greek writers that
makes mention of this city, and he speaks of the priests of Heliopolis as being
the best acquainted with the history of their country. Other authorities also
describe them as famed for their wisdom. According to Berosus, this was the
city where Moses was educated. It was also a place of resort for all the Greeks
who visited _Egypt for instruction, among whom may be mentioned Herodotus,
Pythagoras, Plato, and Eudoxus. The city was built, according to Strabo, on a
large mound or raised site, before which were lakes that received the water of
the neighboring canals. It had a celebrated temple and oracle of the Sun, oi




736                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Osiris, and in this temple the sacred ox Mnevis was fed and adored, as A pis was
at Memphis. Heliopolis suffered severely by the invasion of Cambyses. Many
of its obelisks, and probably other monuments, were afterward taken away to
Alexandrea and Rome, and when Strabo sawthe place it had the character of
a deserted city. Its college of priests no longer existed, and those only who
had charge of the temple, and who explained the sacred rites to strangers, remained there. The ancient 2Egyptian name of this city was, in hieroglyphics,
Re-Ei or Ei-Re, " the House" or "Abode of the Sun," corresponding to the title
Beth- Shemesh, of the same import, which was applied to it by the Jews, while
in Scripture and in Coptic it is called On. The remains of Heliopolis are near
the modern Matareh, and consist of several mounds. A solitary obelisk alone
remains erect, bearing on it the name of Osirtasen I., who laid the foundations
of the temple here. This monarch ascended the throne about 1740 B.C.
18. Arsinoe, at the head of the Sinus Heroopolites, or Gulf of Suez, and not far
from the spot where the modern town of Suez stands. Ptolemy Philadelphus
constructed the harbor, and called the place after his queen Arsinoe. It was
connected with the Nile by means of the Canal of Ptolemy, and for a long period
was the very life of the navigation on the Sinus Arabicus, forming the connecting
link between the traffic of Egypt and that of the east. Subsequently, however,
the dangerous navigation of the upper part of the gulf induced the Ptolemies to
construct harbors lower down, and Arsinoe from this time declined. Its remains are at Adscherud.
19. Cleopatris, in the immediate vicinity of the preceding. It was of later
origin than Arsinoe, but so near to it that both are commonly regarded as forming one place. 20. Herobpolis, to the northeast of Heliopolis, and northwest of
Arsino6, and situate on the Canal of Ptolemy, near the upper part of the Lacus
Amari. Some make it the same with the Avaris of Ma'netho; more probably,
however, it was a place of comparatively recent origin, founded by the Greeks
for commercial purposes. It remained a place of importance as long as the
Canal of Ptolemy formed one of the channels of communication in this quarter.
It sunk, however, when the canal was neglected, and its remains are supposed
to be buried beneath the sand. Strabo and Pliny err in placing it on the gulf.
21. Pelusium, to the northeast, at the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile, to which it
gave name. It was surrounded by marshes, and was regarded as the key of
2Egypt in this quarter. Its Scripture name is Sin, and its old.Egyptian one is
thought to have been similar to the Peremoun or Pheromi of the Copts. The
Greek name Pelusium is derived from nrv7.L6, "l mire," in allusion to the peculiar situation of the place. The Hebrew name has the same meaning, as has
also the modern appellation Tineh given to the site. This city fell in importance after the Persians had diverted the arm of the Nile on which it stood, and
had taken it and destroyed its fortifications. 22. Rhinocorura or Rhinocolura, to
the east, on the immediate confines of Syria, and sometimes, though erroneously, regarded as belonging to that country. The modern El Areesh occupies its
site. It derived its name, according to Strabo, from the circumstance of malefactors having been sent thither by one of the,Ethiopian invaders of,Egypt,
as to a place of exile, after having been first deprived of their noses (tiv, the
nose, and KOXoxVo, to mutilate). The story is evidently untrue, and the name is
probably of AEgyptian, not of Grecian origin. This city was an important commercial place, and a great mart for the Arabian trade. Quails were very
abundant in its vicinity. The Wady cl Areesh is the ancient Torrens XEgypti, o0
River of iEgypt. 23. Tamiathis, some distance to the northwest of Pelusiuim,
and on the Phatnetic arm of the Nile, near its mouth. It is now Damietta.




AFRICA.                           737
HIE 1TANOMIS.
1. Mlemphis, a celebratedl city on the left side of the Nile, and about sixteen
mrles south of the apex of the Delta. It was said to have been founded by
Menes, the first king of 2Egypt, who changed, by means of a large embankment:,
the course of the Nile, which until then had run nearer the Libyan mountains,
and built Memphis within the ancient bed of the stream. According to Herodotus, the river was turned off one hundred stadia above Memphis, and the
dike constructed to prevent its returning to its original channel was kept up
with great care by the successors of Menes even to the,ime of the Persians.
Menes also erected here a magnificent temple to Phtha or Vulcan. The city
contained likewise other splendid temples, and was, moreover, the residence
of one of the three sacerdotal colleges of the land, the other two being respectively at Heliopolis and Thebes. The sacred Apis was also fed and worshipped
here, his temple being close to that of Phtha. Memphis appears to have been
the capital of Lower lEgypt, as Thebes was of Upper XEgypt, in those early
times when the land was ruled by contemporaneous dynasties; and afterward,
when all AEgypt became united under the sway of one ruler, this city was made
the capital of the country in preference to Thebes. It continued to be the capital under the Persian sway also, but declined after Alexandrea became the seat
of government, although Strabo subsequently, in Roman times, describes it as
still large and populous, next to Alexandrea in size, and, like that city, filled
with foreign residents. The palaces, however, he speaks of as being ruined
and deserted. The wealth, as well as the inhabitants of Memphis; passed at a
later day to the new Arab capital of Fostat, and the ancient city in a few years
ceased to exist. Its site, which has been difficult to ascertain, in consequence
of the old material being taken to build modern edifices, is now indicated by a
large colossus of Remeses II., a few fragments of granite, and some substructions. Memphis is called in Scripture Moph or Noph. In Coptic it is styled
Mefi, Maomf, and Menf. A little to the north of Memphis the pyramids began.
2. Acanthus, to the south, and the southernmost city of the Memphitic Nome.
It is now Dashur. 3. Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis, on the west of the Nile, and southwest of Memphis. It was called Arsinoc in honor of the queen of Ptolemy
Philadelphus. The earlier appellation was expressed in Greek by Crocodilopolis, the crocodile being here an object of religious worship, and a tamed representative of this fearful class of creatures was carefully nurtured and attended
to in an adjacent pond or tank. Strabo gives an account, as an eye-witness,
of this curious custom. The bodies of the sacred crocodiles were deposited
after death in the cells of the Labyrinth, which stood near this city. Arsinoc
is now a pile of ruins, a little distance to the north of Medinet el Faioum. In
the vicinity of this city was the celebrated Lake Mceris, already described. 4.
Aphroditopolis, or " City of Venus," to the east, on the right bank of the Nile,
and where, according to Strabo, a white heifer was worshipped. The ruins of
the place are at Atfyh.
5. Ancyron Polis ('AyxvpCov rtic), (,. t ity of Anchors," to the south, and
so named because the inhabitants wrought anchors from the stone hewn out
of the neighboring quarries. 6. Hcracleopolis Magna, or "Great City of Hercules," southeast of Arsinoe, in one of the largest islands of the Nile, and the
capital of the Heracleotic Nome, which was entirely comprised in this island.
The ichneumon was worshipped here, on account of its utility in destroying
asps and the eggs of crocodiles. There were bitter feuds, therefore, between
the inhabitants of this place and those of Crocodilopolis. This city was termed
AA A




738                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
Magna for distinction' sake from Heracleopolis Parva, in the Delta, southwest
of Pelusium. Its site is marked by the modern village of Ahnas. 7. Oxyrynchus, to the southwest, on the left bank of the Nile, and the capital of the Oxyrynchite Nome. It received its name from the circumstance of a fish with -
sharp snout (6bdc, P6yXor), a species of sturgeon, being worshipped here. Its
site is marked by the modern Behnese. 8. Cyn6polis, to the east, on an island
in the Nile. Here the dog was worshipped as the symbol of Anubis; whence
the Greek name of the place, Kv'vJv ir6ti, or Kvv67roa't. D'Anville places its
site at Samallut.
9. Alabastron or Alabastropolis. to the northeast, in the Arabian mountain chain,
and famed for its artists, who, from the alabaster dug in Mons Alabastrinus,
carved all kinds of vases and ornaments. 10. Speos Artemidos, or', Cave of
Diana," a large grotto to the south of Cynovolis, sacred to the goddess Pasht,
the.Egyptian Diana. It is wholly excavated in the rock, and was begun by
Thothinmes II., who adorned it with sculptures. Other sculptures were added by
Osirci, father of Remeses III.; but the excavation was never completed. About
one mile to the northwest of this spot are the more celebrated grottoes or catacombs of Beni Hassan. 11. Hermiiplis Magna, southeast of Oxyrynchus, on the
left bank of the Nile, and so called for distinction' sake from Hermopolis Parva,
near Alexandrea. It was a city of great antiquity, and derived its name from
the worship of Thoth, the.Egyptian Hermes or Mercury. Its ruins are at Achmunein. To the south of this place was a fortified post called Hermopolitana
Phylace, marking the southern limit of Heptanomis. 12. Antinoopolis, to the
east, opposite to Hermopolis, and on the right bank of the Nile. Its earlier
name was Besa, from an _Egyptian deity who had an oracle here. The'name,
however, was subsequently changed to Antinoiipolis, "the City of Antinous,"'
from the circumstance of Antinous, the favorite of Hadrian, having drowned
himself here. It was greatly embellished by that emperor, and became a magnificent place. The ruins are at Shekh Abadeh.
THEBAYS OR UPPER EGYPT.
1. Lycpo'lis, on the left bank, and the capital of the Lycopolitic Nome. Its
Greek name means " the City of Wolves," from the circumstance of the wolf
being worshipped here, on account of an invading army of.Ethiopians having
been put to flight here by a large pack of these animals. The site is now called
Syouth. There are some remarkable rock-tombs in the vicinity. 2. Antaeopblis,
or " City of Antaeus," to the southeast, on the right bank. It derived its name
from Antaeus, whom Osiris made governor of his Libyan and -Ethiopian possessions, and whom Hercules destroyed. Antaus had a temple here. The
modern village Quaou or Kau stands near the ruins of the place. 3. Aphroditopolis, or "City of Venus," to the southwest, now Tachta. 4. Pdnop6lis, o"City of Pan," to the southeast, on the right bapk, ard capital of the Panopolitic Nome. Its -,Egyptian name was Chemmis. The ruins are at Akhenyn.
According to Strabo, it was principally occupied by linen-weavers and stonec-ttcrs. Herodotus speaks of a temple of Perseus here, and says that the
C;!ecnraites claimed him as a native of their city. 5. Ptolemais Hermii, to the
aOuth, on the opposite side of the stream. It appears from its name (Uro:A al-' Ep/IEtElv) to have been originally an.LEgyptian city, consecrated to Thoth or
Iie:mcs, but rebuilt or re-established by one of the Ptolemies. It rose in importance when Abydus, its neighbor, declined, and eventually rivalled Memphis
in size. It received a severe blow, however, to its prosperity, by its resistance
to the Emperor Probus. Its ruins are near the village of Mensieh.




AFRICA.                           739
6. Abydus, to the southeast, on the same side of the stream. Strabo describes it as once next to Thebes in size, though reduced in his days to a smalf
place. The same writer mentions the palace of Memnon in this city, built on
the plan of the Labyrinth, though less intricate. This structure is now ascertained to have been commenced by Osirei, and completed by his son Remeses
II. Osiris had here a splendid temple, and Plutarch makes this city to have
been the true burial-place of that deity, an honor to which so many cities of
jSgypt aspired. He also informs us that the more distinguished Egyptians
frequently selected Abydus for a place of sepulture. The god Besa had an oracle at this place, as at Antinoopolis. Abydus is now a heap of ruins, as its name
El Mlatfoon,; the Buried," plainly implies. One of the walls of the famous
temple of Osiris in this place had a list of the Egyptian kings sculptured on it.
This important record, commonly called the "Tablet of Abydus," is now in the
British Museum. It contains a series of kings' names, the predecessors of
Remeses II., but unfortunately the commencement has been broken away, so
that the order of succession of the earliest Pharaohs is still a desideratum.
7. This (9Oi), a small but very ancient city, to the east of and near Abydus.
The inhabitants are called by Stephanus Thinitce (OivLrat), a name derived from
the genitive Owtvr. This place gave its appellation to the Thinitic Nome. 8.
Diospolis Parva, to the east of the preceding, and on the same side of the
stream. It was called Parva, for distinction' sake from Diospolis Magna, or
Thebes. The site is marked by the modern village of Hou. 9. Tentyri (r&
TEvTvpa), and also Tentyris, to the east, on the same side of the Nile, and the
capital of the Tentyritic Nome. This city contained temples of Isis, Typhon,
and Athor or Venus, the last-mentioned deity being particularly worshipped
here, and the name Tentyra being probably taken from the _Egyptian Tei-n-Athor,
" the Abode of Athor." The people of this city were at bitter enmity with
those of Ombos, higher up the Nile, the Tentyrites hunting and killing the crocodile, and the Ombites worshipping it; and a horrible instance of religious fury,
which occurred in consequence of this state of feeling, forms the subject of the
fifteenth satire of Juvenal. About half a league from the ruins of Tentyra stands
the modern village of Denderah. From the temple of Isis at Tentyra was obtained the famous zodiac, about the antiquity of which such extravagant notions
were at first formed, but which has now been proved to be not much more than
eighteen hundred years old, since the name of the Emperor Nero appears, among
others, on the portico of the structure.
10. Coptos, to the southeast, on the right side of the stream, and the capital
of the Coptite Nome. Its earlier name appears to have been Chemmis. It became a place of great commercial importance under the Ptolemies, and a depot for Indian and Arabian wares, brought by caravans from Berenice and Myos
Hormos, on the Sinus Arabicus, and then sent from Coptos down the Nile to
Alexandrea. It was, in fact, well situated for this communication with the
countries of the more remote east, since the Arabian mountain chain, which
elsewhere forms a complete barrier along the coast, has here an opening, that,
after various windings, conducts to the shore of the Sinus Arabicus. Along
this route the caravans proceeded. The road from Coptos to Berenice was
the work of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was two hundred and fifty-eight miles
in length. There were watering stations, called Hydrea ('Tdpela), along its
whole extent. The ruins of Coptos are now called Keft.
UI. Thebra, to the south, on both sides of the Nile, a celebrated city, and the
capital of lpper.Egypt, or the Theba's. The name Theba is supposed to be
corrupted from the AXgyptian Tape, which in the Memphitic dialect of the Coptio




7 40                ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.
is pronounce d Theba. In hieroglyphics it is written Ap, Ape, or, with the feminine articic, Tap', meaning "head," Thebes being the head or capital of the
country. In Scripture it is called No Ammon. The Greeks styled it also Diospolis lagna, the first part of which answers to the AEgyptian Amunei, "the
abode of Arnun," or the >Egyptian Jupiter. The period of its foundation is unknown. It must, however, from its very situation, have been at a very early
period the middle point for the caravan trade to the south, and through it passed very probably all the productions and wares of Asia. Its most flourishing
period appears to have been under the successive dynasties of the Diospolitan
kings, from B.C. 1578 to B.C. 820, when it was the capital of all 2Egypt, and
the residence of the kings, whose tombs are still extant in the rocks on the
western side of the city, and extend even to the borders of the desert. Homer
speaks of the splendor, greatness, and wealth of Thebes, and calls it " the city
with an hundred gates," each of which sent out two hundred men with horses
and chariots. Thebes, however, never had any walls, and therefore Homer
was either misled by the Phoenician traders from whom he in all probability received his account, or else the gates referred to are those of the propylea of
the temples. Thebes stood partly on the east, and partly on the west of the
Nile. The western division had the distinctive appellation of Pathyris, or, as
Ptolemy writes it, Tathyris, being under the peculiar protection of Athor. Here
stood in particular the celebrated Mcmnonium, to which allusion has already
been made, and on this side, moreover, was the extensive Necropolis. The
principal part of -the city, however, lay on the eastern bank of the stream.
Thebes sank in importance when the seat of government was transferred to
Memphis, but still contained one of the three chief sacerdotal colleges of AEgypt,
and could boast of a numerous population, until it felt the fury of Cambyses
during the Persian invasion, when its private dwellings were for the most part
destroyed, and its great architectural works more or less injured. After this
its decline became more rapid. During the sway of the Ptolemies, when rthe
capital was in the northern extremity of the country, Thebes appears to have
been neglected by the monarchs of the land. In the reign of Ptolemy Lathyrus, about B.C. 86, it revolted, and after a siege of three years was taken
and plundered by the Greeks. As early as the time of Strabo, the place consisted of a number of villages, and what remained of the ancient city was composed chiefly of temples. Under the Roman dominion, something appears to
have been done to restore or preserve the venerable city; but new calamities
broke in upon it when Christianity was introduced into Upper tEgypt, and the
Christians, in their religious zeal, destroyed as much as they could of the works
of the ancient idolaters. At present the site of the ancient city is occupied by
four principal villages, Luxor and Carnac on the eastern, and Gournou and Medeenet-Haboo on the western side of the river. The ruins are numerous and
splendid, but the most imposing of all are those of the great temple at Carnac.
12. Hermonthis, a short distance to the southwest, on the left bank, and the
capital of the Hermonthitic Nome. It contained temples of Osiris and Itorus.
Strabo says that Apollo and Jupiter were also worshipped here, meaning, probably, the,Egyptian Mandoo and Amun. The sacred bull Basis was also worshipped at this place. The remains of Hermonthis are at Erment. 13. Latopolis, to the south, taking its name from the worship of the Latus fish, which,
according to Strabo, shared with the goddess Neith, of which it was the symbol,
the honors of the sanctuary. The ruins of this place are at Esne, and are said
to be very imposing and elegant. 14. Apollinopolis Magna, or (' Great City of
Apollo," to the southeast, on the same bank, and the capital of the Apollinitic




AFRICA.                           741
Nome. The god 1lor-Hat, the same as Agathodaemon, was worshipped here.
The people of this city hunted and destroyed the crocodile. The modern Edfoo
occupies its site. We have here the ruins of two temples one of them on a
grand scale. 15. Ombos or Ombz, to the southeast, on the right bank, and the
capital of the Ombitic Nome. Between the inhabitants of this place and those
of Tentyra a bitter feud prevailed, to which we have already alluded, the latter
destroying the crocodile, and the Ombites worshipping it. The ruins of Ombos
are at Kom Ombu. 16. Syene, to the south, now Assouan, a frontier place, and
the seat of a garrison. Juvenal is said to have been banished to this spot, under
the pretence of being sent to command the legion stationed here. Near Syene
is the lesser cataract of the Nile, where the terraces of red granite cross the bed
of the Nile. Here were the quarries from which the obelisks and colossal statues of the -/Egyptians were wrought. At the time of the summer solstice, all
bodies, it was said, appeared shadowless in Syene, and a well at this place was
at such times illuminated to the bottom. As this place lies in latitude 24~ 5', a
fact known even to Eratosthenes, and as the most northern vertical point of the
sun in summer is at latitude 23~ 28', it was impossible that at Syene, which lies
37' north of that point, objects should be completely without shadow; but the
difference certainly is too small to be taken into account.
17. Elephantine or Elephantis, an island in the Nile, to the south of Syene,
about the distance of a semi-stadium, and containing a city of the same name.
It was remarkable for its fertility. The lesser cataract is not far distant, and
hence Elephantine became the depot for ail the goods that were destined for
the countries to the south, and that required land-carriage in this quarter, in
order to avoid the falls in the river. In the time of the Pharaohs a garrison
was stationed here against the 2Ethiopians, and the post was also subsequently
occupied by the Persians and the Romans. In the Roman times, however, the
frontiers were pushed farther to the south. The modern name of Elephantine
is Djesiret Assouan, or " Island of Assuan." 18. Phild, an island to the south of
Elephantine, and the southernmost point of Egypt, with a city of the same name.
The frontier of./Egypt was properly at Philae, and the _Egyptian appellation of
the island, from which the Greek 2.aif was formed, appears to have been Phi
lakh, " the extremity."  The modern name of Philae is Djesiret el Birbe, or
"Temple-island," in allusion to the remains of antiquity on it.  Near Phile
was a small rocky island called Abatos ('A6aroq) by the Greeks, from its being
permitted the priests alone to set foot on it, and the island's being inaccessible to
all other persons. In this place was the tomb of Osiris, his remains having been
here deposited by Isis. The modern name of the island is Biggeh.
19. Myos Hormos, a sea-port on the Sinus Arabicus, chosen by Ptolemy Philadelphus, for the convenience of commerce, in preference to Arsinoi, on account
of the difficulty of navigating the western head of the gulf. It was afterward
called Aphrodites Portus, or "the Harbor of Venus." The entrance was crooked
and winding, on account of islands lying in front, and hence, perhaps, may have
arisen the earlier appellation Mvob "Op/oc, "Mouse's Harbor," the port being
compared to a mouse's hole. Some modern scholars less correctly suppose the
name to mean " Muscle harbor," from the great number of muscle-shells fQnnd
here; thI tarr pVir meaning in Greek both "a mouse" and " a muscle." T'h
modern name is said to he Szvffange el Bahri. Forbiger is wrong in. making.,
Myos lIorl:nos answer to Cstcir, which lies much farther sonth. 20. Berenice.
a considerable distance to the southeast, also on the Sinus Arabicus, and a port
of great celebrity, from which traffic was carried on with Arabia Felix and India.
There was a commercial road across the country from this port to Coptos on




742                  ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
the Nile, two hundred and fifty-eight miles in length, constructed by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and to which allusion has already been made. The city of Berenice itself was founded by this same monarch, and named after his mother.
The modern namd is Sakayl cl Kublee, or the " Southern Sakayt."
O  SES.
OuR description of 2Egypt will end with a brief account of the Oases. One
of these, the Oasis of Ammon, assigned to Marmarica, has already been described
in our account of that country. Two remain to be mentioned, namely, the Oasis
Major and Oasis Minor. The Greek term'Oaat~, sometimes, and more correctly, written Avaati, contains the same root with the Coptic Ouahe, and is derived, in common with the latter, from the iEgyptian Aua. The Arabic name
is Wah.
I. Odsis Major ('Oaoat Meya~R/), or Greater Oasis, the more southern of the
two, and called by the Arabs Wah el Khargeh. The capital of this Oasis was
Ibis, or, in.Egyptian, Hebi, " the Plough," under which character it is frequently
designated in the hieroglyphics. Near this city stood a temple of Amun, the
ruins of which still remain. The army of Cambyses is said to have passed
through this Oasis when going to attack the Ammonians, and it was in the
desert, about half way between this and Siwah, that they are supposed to have
perished. The Oases are little noticed by the ancient writers except as places
of exile. One of the most remarkable persons banished to the Greater Oasis
was Nestorius, in A.D. 435.
II. Odsis Minor ('Oaatf MtKpd(), or Lesser Oasis, now called Wah el Behnessa.
This Oasis was assigned to Heptanomis, and lay to the north of the preceding.
It contained one fortified post or city, named Trinythis, the ruins of which ai
still visible. Belzoni found in this Oasis a fountain, the waters of which reembled, in their changes of temperature at different times the famous Fons
-olis in the Oasis of Ammon.
8.,ETHIOPIA.
1. NAME AND BOUNDARIES.
I. THE ancients had a very vague and indefinite notion respecting.Ethiopia. In general, however, they regarded it as
bounded on the north by CErypt, on the east by the Sinus
Arabicus and Mare Erythreumn, on the west by Libya Interior, and on the south by a Terra Incognita.             It included,
therefore, in this sense, those regions which we now call Nubia
and Sennaar, together with a part of Abyssinia.
II. The southern part of this region was a table land, traversed in all directions by chains of mountains. Farther northward, toward the middle of the Nile's course, it was an undulating country, interspersed with rocks, over which the river
forms cataracts.     The principal streams are the Astapus and
Astaboras, the two tributaries of the Nile, to which we have
already alluded.
Os.. 1..Ethiops (AWiob) was the expression employed by the Greeks to de
note a person of a dark, sun-burned color (from alOw, "to burn," and ip,'" the




AFRICA.                           743
visage"), and they named all of such a color Ethiopes (AiOioire), and their country lEthiopia (AOto7ria), wherever situated. Homer makes express mention
of the AEthiopians in many parts of his poems, and speaks of two divisions of
them, the eastern and western. By the former he probably means the embrowned natives of Southern Arabia and India, who brought their wares to Sidon, and
who were believed to dwell in the immediate vicinity of the rising sun. The
Western -Ethiopians of Homer are those of Africa.
2. Herodotus speaks of the 2Ethiopians as inhabiting the whole of Southern
Libya (Libya with him is synonymous with our Africa), as distinguisled from
the Libyans who inhabited the Mediterranean coast, and the interior adjoining
it. He also speaks of the tEthiopian Troglddytes, who lived to the south of the
Garamantes, and tells strange stories of them; but these particular -Ethiopians
must be considered as included under the general name.
3. Strabo places the Hesperian /Ethiopians near the Atlantic Sea, and south
of the Pharusii and Negretes, who were themselves south of the Mauri. Herodotus also speaks of Asiatic,Ethiopians, who formed part of the great army
of Xerxes; but their locality is not easily determined. The historian, however,
observes, that the Asiatic.Ethiopians were black, like those of Libya, but differed from them in language, and had straight hair; whereas those of Libya had
very curly hair, by which term some modern writers have too hastily conclmded
that the woolly hair of the negro is intended.
2. IETHIOPIAN      TRIBES.
I. HERODOTUS distinguishes the JEthiopians into the inhabitants of Meroe, and
the Macrobii or ( Long-lived." In Strabo and Pliny we find other tribes referred
to; but the most careful division is that by Agatharchides, who divides them
according to their mode of life. Some carried on agriculture, cultivating the
millet; others were herdsmen; while some lived by the chase, and on vegetables; and others, again, along the sea-shore, on fish and marine animals.
These last he calls Ichthyophagi.
II. Besides these inhabitants of the plains, Ethiopia was peopled by a more
powerful and somewhat more civilized shepherd-nation, who dwelt in the caves
of the neighboring mountains, namely, the Troglodjtas. A chain of high mountdins runs along the African shore of the Sinus Arabicus. At the foot of the
gulf they turn inward, and bound the southern portion of Abyssinia. This chain
was, in the most ancient times, inhabited by these Troglodyte, in the holes and
grottoes formed by nature, but enlarged by human labor. These people were
not hunters; they were herdsmen, and had their chiefs or princes of the race.
A still more celebrated nation, and one which has been particularly described to
us by Herodotus, were the Macrobii, who, he says, were reported to surpass all
men in beauty and large proportion of frame. These lived very far to the south,
and, according to Heeren, very probably in what is now the country of the Soinanlies, between the Straits of Bab el-Mandeb and Cape Gardafui; and the Somanlies may perhaps be their descendants.
III. The most remarkable people, however, were the inhabitants of the state
and city of Meroe, a country which is commonly, though incorrectly, supposed
to have been the parent source of AEgyptian civilization. A more particular account of this people will be given farther on.
3. AETHIOPIAN      HISTORY.
I. THE AEthiopians, according to an early and curious belief among the Greeks,
stood highest of all nations in the favor of the gods, who at stated seasons left




744                 ANCIENT GEOG RAPHIIY.
Olympus to banquet among them. Their piety and lectitude are frequently
mentioned. The 2Ethiopians, moreover, appear to have been intimately connected with the AEgyptians in the earlier ages of their monarchy, and an /Ethiopian dynasty, as we have already seen, occupied at one time the throne of the
Pharaohs. The people of Meroe seem also to have had the same religion, the
same sacerdotal order, the same hieroglyphic writing, and the same rites of
sepulture as the.Egyptians. Induced by these and other considerations, some
of the ablest scholars of modern times have been led to regard Meroe as the
parent of 2Egyptian civilization, and to make this civilization to have proceeded
from south to north. More recent investigations, however, seem to favor the
idea that the AEgyptians were a Caicasian race, and that civilization proceeded
from north to south; not down, but up the Nile; in which case Meroe will have
to be regarded as colonized from.Egypt.
II. Among the early Pharaohs who carried their arms into.Ethiopia was
Thothmes I., who extended his power as far as the island of Argo, where he left
a monument, now known by the name of I.,'aar e' d&hab, "the golden stone."
Thothmes II. penetrated to Napata, now El Berkel, the capital of Lower /Ethiopia; and the third of that name appears to have extended his dominions still
farther. Under the Ptolemies, there is evidence to show that Graeco-AEgyptian
colonies found their way into the regions of the Upper Nile, and along the shores
of the Red Sea, and even as far as Axumc and Adule in Abyssinia. These movements may account for the various styles of building and sculpture found along
the banks of the Upper Nile, and may serve also to throw some light upon the
question respecting Meroe. We know, from a passage in Diodorus, that after
the Ptolemies came to reign in LEgypt, a great change took place in -Ethiopian
politics. In the time of the second Ptolemy, the.Ethiopians had a king named
lYrgamenes, who had a knowledge of Greek manners and philosophy. Being
weary of the yoke of priesthood, he went with a band of soldiers to " the inaccessible place" which contained the golden temple of the iEthiopians, and massacred all the priests.
III. After the Romans became possessed of _Egypt, we read of several expeditions into AEthiopia, but of no permanent impression made by them upon
that region. Caius Petronius, prefect of. Egypt under Augustus, is said to have
advanced as far as Napata, called Tanape by Dion, the first town of.Ethiopia
after Meroe. He defeated Queen Candace, who was obliged to sue for peace.
But the Romans ultimately kept none of their conquests in that quarter. In
subsequent times, it appears that they conquered again, and retained a strip of
territory along the banks of the Nile, seven days' march above the first cataract;
but this was given up by Dioclesian to the NAubT or Nabatci, on condition that
they should prevent the.Ethiopians and the Blemmyes from attacking /Egypt.
Of the vicissitudes and ultimate dismemberment of the ancient kingdom of Meroe we have no information. The early Christian historians seem to restrict
the name of LEthiopians to a people occupying part of the country now called
Al/yssinia.  Procopius and Cedrenus call the Axumites.Ethiopians.  From
those times the name of _Ethiopia has been given more particularly to Abyssinia, and the Geez, or sacred language of that country, has been called Athwpiain.
KINGDOM OF MEROE.
I. Meroe, according to the ancient writers, was an island of ~Ethiopia, con-.aining a city of the same name, and formed by the Nile, the Astapus, and the
Astaboras. It could not, indeed, be called an island in the strictest sense of the
term, since it was not completely inclosed by these rivers, but only very nearly




AFRICA.                           745
so. In the rainy season, however, it became an actual'island by reason of the
inundation of the rivers just mentioned. Its superficial contents exceeded those
of Sicily rather more than one half
II. To'the west Meroe was bounded by sandy deserts, separating it from
Dabfur, which remained unknown in ancient times; to the east were the wild
Shangallas and the Troglodytes. To the south dwelt a numerous tribe of. Egyptian origin, descended, it is said, frbm the soldier caste of that country, who,
dissatisfied with the new order of things at the commencement of the reign of
Psammitichus, had migrated, to the number of two hundred and forty thousand,
into -Ethiopia, where lands were assigned them by the monarch of that country in what is now the province of Gojam, and where they formed a state dependent upon that of Meroe.
III. The government of Meroe was in the hands of a sacerdotal caste, who
chose a king from their own number, in accordance with the oracular decree of
their chief divinity, the god Ammon, and again commanded him to die whenever they thought proper, stating to him that such was the will of their god.
The trade of the country was entirely under their control, and they sent out
numerous commercial colonies in various directions. They are said to have
founded Ammonium in the Desert of Marmarica, and to have made the first
settlement also at Thebes in Upper./Egypt. In other words, Merot has been
commonly regarded, in consequence of the ancient accounts respecting it, as
the parent source of the civilization of AEgypt. This opinion, however, though
ably advocated by Ieeren and others, is, as we have already remarked, beginning to be now regarded as quite untenable. The oldest monuments of Egypt
are in the northern, not the southern part of that country, and craniological investigations prove the./Egyptians to have been a Caucasian race, and to have
come into the country, therefore, from Upper Asia by the Isthmus of Suez.
Meroe is more likely, therefore, to have received its civilization from zEgypt.
IV. The government of Meroe continued hieratic until the period of the second Ptolemy, when Ergamenes, at that time King of Meroe, tired of being priest
ridden, fell upon the members of the sacerdotal order in their sanctuary, as already stated, and put them all to the sword. The power of Meroe, however,
soon after declined.
V. MeroB was the first fertile country after crossing the Libyan Desert, and
formed a natural resting-place for the northern caravans. It was likewise the
natural mart for the productions of Inner Africa, which were brought for the
use of the northern portion, and was reckoned the outermost of the countries
which produced gold, while by the navigable rivers surrounding it on all sides,
it had a ready communication with the more southern countries. As easy,
owing to the moderate distance, was its connection with Arabia Felix, and so
long as Yemen remained in possession of the Arabian and Indian trade, Meroe
was the natural market for the Arabian and Indian wares in Africa.
VI. The city of Meroe was situated in the upper part of the island, on the
bank of the Nile, and must have been a large and flourishing place. Its ruins
are a little distance to the north of the modern Shendy, and have been well described by Caillaud and Hoskins, especially the latter. Mr. Hoskins is in favor
of the commonly received theory respecting the origin of lEgyptian civilization,
and consequently of assigning a very remote antiquity to Meroe, but the architectural remains of the place would seem by no means to countenance the supposition. These remains consist of pyramids, temples, and other structures of
sandstone, more or less ruined. The site itself has no particular name, but a
large village nearer Shendy bears the appellation of Meroueer.




746                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
PLACES BETWEEN MEROE AND.EGYPT.
1. Primis or Premnis Magna, immediately north of the island of Meroe, and
the junction of the two rivers, and probably not far from the modern El Makkarif. Wilkinson thinks that the name may perhaps be connected with that
of Papremis, the ZEgyptian Mars. This place was called Magna for distinction'
sake from Primis Parva, farther down the Nile. 2. Napata, the capital of Queen
Candace, taken and destroyed by the Roman commander Petronius, prefect of
AEgypt ih the time of Augustus. This was done in retaliation for an incursion
of the.-Ethiopians, who had penetrated to Syene, and overwhelmed the garrison
stationed there to protect the _7Egyptian frontier. Pliny makes Napata to have
been eight hundred and seventy Roman miles, or about eight hundred English
miles above Syene, and three hundred and sixty Roman miles from the island
of Mero6. The extensive ruins at Gibel el Birkel are supposed to correspond
to it; but Hoskins is in favor of the modern Dongolah, one hundred miles lower
down the Nile. 3. Phthuris, on the western bank, now probably Faras or Farras,
with ruins.
4. Aboccis, now Aboo Simbel, on the western bank, with very remarkable ruins,
among which are two temples justly regarded as the most interesting remains
met with in Nubia, and, e.xepting Thebes, throughput the whole valley of the
Nile. The smaller one of these temples appears to have been dedicated to Athor,
the -Egyptian Venus, by the queen of Remeses II., and the larger to have been
the work of Remeses himself. 5. Primis or Premnis Parva, now Ibreem, with.Egyptian and Roman remains. It is probable that the Romans, finding the position here so well adapted for the defence of their territories, stationed a garrison
in this quarter as an advanced post. 6. Pselcis, called by Strabo Pselche, and now
Dakkeh. Here Petronius defeated the generals of Candace. 7. Tutzis, in Coptic
Thosh, and in ancient LEgyptian Pthah-Ei, or " the abode of Pthah," from its being under the special protection of that deity. The resemblance of the Coptic
name Thosh with Ethaush, signifying, in the same dialect, "3Ethiopia," is rendered peculiarly striking from the word " Cush," in the old 1Egyptian language
"i(thiopia," being retained in the Nubian modern name of this place, " Kish."
The tract of country from the island of Tachompso, opposite to Pselcis, down
to Syene, was called from its extent Dodecaschoenus, and under the Roman sway
was reckoned as part of Egypt, under the appellation of.Egyptian ZEthiopia.
The Romans constructed here, on both sides of the Nile, under Pioclesian's
reign, military roads and forts. Tachompso is thought to signify "the Island
of Crocodiles."
KINGDOM OF AXUME.
I. THE kingdom of Axiume lay to the southeast of Meroe, and, as appears from
a Greek inscription which has come down to us, was not only coextensive v.ith
the present kingdom of Tigre and part of Abyssinia, but even extended into
Arabia. It is first noticed by the author of the " Periplus of the Erythrwan
Sea," a document written probably about the close of the second century; but
how long this Axumite kingdom had existed before we are unable to say.
II. The two principal places were Axume and Addle, the latter a port on the
Sinus Arabicus, through which the Axumites maintained a commercial intercourse with Arabia and India. It was probably for some advantage to be secured to Greek raerchants from iEgypt in the Indian trade that the Byzantine
emperors paid a yearly tax to the Axumrite king until the commencement of the
Arab conquest.




AFRICA.                           747
PLACES IN AXUMEE.
A. Axarnm or Auxime, now Axum, about one hundred and twenty miles south
af the modern Arkeeko, which last is on the immediate shore of the Red Sea.'ile present town consists of only six hundred houses, but the earlier city appears to have been large and flourishing, and was the great emporium for ivory,
xwhich was exported through Adale. One of the most remarkable objects at
Axurn, at the present day, is a large obelisk, sixty feet high, made of a single
block of granite. The engravings on it are not hieroglyphics, like those of
A.-gypt, nor does it exactly agree with them in shape. Though it is quadrilateral, one of the sides has a hollow space running up the centre from the
base to the summit, which, instead of terminating in a pyramid, like the regular
obelisks, is crowned with a kind of patera. The obelisks of Axum were originally fifty-five in number, and four of them, it is said, were as large as that now
standing. Besides this last, another, but a small and plain one, also remains
erect, with the fragments of many others lying near it. Among the other antiquities of Axum is a stone containing two inscriptions, one in rude Greek
characters, the other supposed to be in AEthiopian. The Greek inscription
shows the extent of the Axumite kingdom.
2. Adele or Adulis, on the Sinus Arabicus, the port of Axime, and eight days'
journey from it. It is supposed to correspond to the modern Zulla. Cosmas,
a merchant of the sixth century of the Christian aera, has preserved in his
work, entitled " Christian Topography," a copy of a Greek inscription which
lie found here. Adule at this period was the port of Axume, where merchants
Laded for ivory and slaves, just as they now do at Massowa, on the same coast.
D'Anville incorrectly places Adulis at Arkeeko, about 22' farther north than
Zulla.
THE EASTERN COAST OF AFRICA TO THE UNKNOWN
REGIONS.
LEAVING Berenice we come to, 1. Chersonesus, now Port Comol. 2. Mons
Isius, so called from its temple of Isis, now Ras el-Dwaer. 3. Bathys Portus,
now Arecca. 4. Dioscbrum Portus, now the Bay of Fushaa. 5. Gypsztis Insula,
near the modern harbor of Suacim. 6. Gomadceorum Insulce, now Daradata and
Dolcofallar. 7. Monodactylus Mons, now Cape Assoy. 8. Ptolemais, with the
cognomen Theron or Epitheras, near the modern port of Mirza Mlombaltic,
which supplies good fresh water. This place was founded by Eumedes, under
Ptolemy Philadelphus, on account of the ship-timber found here, and the abundance of elephants in its vicinity. The traders to Arabia, Abyssinia, and the Indies touched here to take in refreshments and to refit. This place is famous
in the astronomical calculations for the geographies of Eratosthenes, Marinus,
and Ptolemy, founded on the observation that forty-five days before and fortyfive days after the summer solstice the sun was vertical at Ptolema's.
9. Sebasticum Stoma, near the Bay of Massua. 10. Suche, a small town in
the interior, belonging to a prince of the Arabians. 11. Daphnitis Insula, now
Dollaca. 12. Colob6n Promontorium, in the territory of the Colobi, a Troglodyte
race. 13. Saba, a seat of the Sabaean Arabs, famed for its harbor and the hunting of elephants. It was in what is now the province of Gojam in Abyssinia.
14. Tenesis, in the interior, the country occupied by the -LEgyptian military
caste, who had migrated from.Egypt in the time of Psammitichus. 15. Adule,
now Zulla, already mentioned. 16. Diodori Insula, now Parim, a depot of
Greek traders. 17. Arsinoe, a Greek city and harbor, now the trading place




748                 ANCIENT GEORAPHY.
called Assab. 18. Berenice Epi Dires, a Greek city on the strait termed Dire
or Dcre, now the strait of Bab el-Mandeb.
The coast of Ethiopia, from the straits to the eastern headland, or Aromata
Promontorium, was much better known after the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus
than it is now to Europeans. It was called Cinnamomophoros or Aromatophoros
Regio, from its abounding in spices and perfumes. Here we find, 1. Pythangelus, a harbor, famous for the elephant-hunts in its vicinity. 2, Avalites Emporium, a celebrated mart, now Zeyla. The Sinus Avalites is now the Bay of
Zeyla. 3. Pitholaus Promontorium, the country adjacent to which was particularly famed for myrrh and incense. 4. Mundi (Moivdov) Emporium, another
mart, now Mete. 5. Cobe Emporium, probably the modern watering-place Chaji.
6. Elephas Mons, now Mount Felles or Baba Felek. 7. Aromata Promontorium,
now Cape Guardafui. Off this headland lay Dioscoridis Insula, now Socotora,
famed for its aloes.
In the first century of our era, the navigators to India discovered, south of
the Aromata Promontorium, a rocky coast, inclosing a well-cultivated country
in the interior, inhabited by negroes under the rule of Arabians from Yemen,
who carried on trade there. This extensive coast is called in the Periplus
Azania, a term comprehending not only the modern Ajan, but also the coast of
Zangueba:r, as far as Quiloa, provided this place be the Rhapta of the Periplus.
Ptolemy gives this same tract of country the name of Barbaria, in which appellation we see lurking the term Berber, the name of the great aboriginal white
race of northern Africa. Ptolemy's Sinus Barbaricus, therefore, will answer to
the modern Gulf of Zanguebar. The author of the Periplus, however, makes
the coast of Barbaria lie to the north, and extend from the straits of Dire to
Aromata Promontorium, which is much more likely to be correct.
On the coast of Azania we notice, 1. Zingis Promontorium, commanded by
the three-topped mountain Phalangis, now Cape Delgada. To the south came
the Noti Keras, or Southern Horn, a name first given to the Aromata Promontorium, but afterward, with the advance of geographical knowledge, extended
farther south. 2. Parvum et Magnum Littus, extending from Cape Baras to the
promontory above Brava. 3. Then followed the seven Journeys, or dp6ouot, or
seven harbors and marts, about a day's journey apart: that of Serapis, near the
mouth of the River Dos Fugos, and under the line; the station of Nici or Niconis
Dromos, northward of the modern island of Pate, &c. 4. We next find the
Paralaai islands, or the modern islands of Lamo, &c., on what was called the,New Canal" (Kaiv7y;eyotievri ALupv.). 5. Two days' sail farther on brings
us to Rhapta. the most distant trading-place of the Greeks, and the capital of
Azania. The Rhaptum Promontorium is commonly supposed to be Cape Formosa. The articles of trade were Indian lances, knives, glass-ware, wine, corn,
exchanged for ivory, rhinoceros horns, &c. Rhapta, therefore, was the farthest
point to which Grecian commerce extended; yet the opinion still existed that
the ocean to the south swept round to the west, and, stretching round,Ethiopia
and Libya, joined the Atlantic. There is no doubt that the Arabian possessions
must have extended still farther south, perhaps to Madagascar; but they concealed their knowledge from the Greeks. Nevertheless, Ptolemy had heart of
a Promontorium Prasum, 7~ farther south, of the Mare Asperum, and of. Ethio)ian Anthropophagi, which were about Cape Gado on the Mozambique Channel. He had likewise heard of the island of Menuthias, probably the present
Peruba, on the coast of Zarnguebar.




AFRICA.                           749
9. LIBYA INTERIOR.
THIS country, in the time of Ptolemy, was considered to be
bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by
Maunritania, NLumidia, Africa Propria, the Regio Syrtica,
Cyrenaica, and    lIcarmarica, on the east by XEgypt and ~Ethiopia, and on the south by a Terra Incognila.
TRIBES OF       LIBYA    INTERIOR.
1. Jaitfli, a powerful tribe to the south of Mauritania and Numidia, whose
country answered to the southernmost part of Morocco, the region of Biledulgerid, and the more western portion of the Sahara, with its Oases. The princlpal branches of the race were, 1.'The Autololes, lying to the south of the Atlas
range, along the western coast. They had a city named Autolola, which
Reichard supposes to be the same with the modern Agulon or Aquilon. 2. The
Pharusii, immediately to the east of the former. These at one time destroyed
several of the Carthaginian settlements on the coast of Mauritania, and in the
course of traffic came as far even as Cirta in Numidia. They must not, however, be confounded with the Phraurusii of Ptolemy, who lived much farther
inland, and appear to have occupied an Oasis in the vicinity of the Hesperii
jEthiopes. 3. The Dares, whose name still remains in that of the modern Darah.
4. The Melanogcetuli, in the more southern regions, a mixed race of Gettuli and
Nigritc.
II. The Garamantes, to the east of the Gatuli, a powerful nation, occupying
not only the Oasis of Phazania, or the modern Fezzan, but also a wide tract of
country tr the south, answering to the modern Tuarick and Tibboo regions, together with a part of Soudan and Bornon, as far east as Darfur. They carried
on an active traffic with the Carthaginians, especially in slaves. Their chief
city was Garama, now Gherma or Yerma, in Fezzan. Ptolemy mentions an.
other city of theirs named Gira, on the River Gir, and which Mannert supposes
to be the modern Kaschna.
III. The Nigrztee, to the south of the Gae'hli, on the banks of the Nigir, and
in a part of what is now Soudan. Their capital was called Nigira, which Mannert makes the Gana of Edrisi and of later times.  Another of their cities,
named by Ptolemy Peside, Would seem to have stood near the modern Timbuctoo.
IV. The Daradse, on the coast, around the mouth of the River Daradus or
Senegal, and answering, therefore, to the modern Foulahs.
V. The Hesperii iEthiopcs, or Western.Elthiopians, farther to the south, along
the western coast, and extending also into the interior of the country. Their
territory corresponded, therefore, to the modern Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast,
Gold Coast, Ashantec, Dahomey, &c. The whole of Central Africa, under the
equator, Ptolemy calls by the general name of Agisymba ('Ayiav,u6a). It formed
a country entirely unknown, and was peopled by the ancient poets with various
monsters.
ISLANDS OFF       THE II   WTlESTE1  N COAST     OF AFRICA.
I. Cerne, art island on the western coast of Africa, mentioned in the Periplus,
or Voyage of the Carthaginian Hanno. Here he established a colony, and it
always formed, after this, the depot of the Carthaginians on the Atlantic coast
of Africa. Hanno, in his account of the voyage, says that it was the same dis



750                 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
tance from the Columns of Hercules that Carthage was. D'Anville, Rennell,
and many others make it the modern Arguin. Gossellin, however, is in favor
of the modern Fedala. Heeren, Mannert, and Gail place it farther north, in the
present gulf of Agadir or Santa Cruz.
II. InsulcE Fortunatce, now the Canary Islands. They derived their ancient
name from the accounts given of their remarkable beauty, and of the abundance
of all things desirable which they were said to contain. Their climate was one
continued spring, their soil was covered with eternal verdure, and bloomed with
the richest flowers, while the productions of earth were poured forth spontaneously and in the utmost profusion. Some miodern writers suppose that the
Fortunate Islands of the ancients refer to Madeira; but the Canaries have decidedly the better claim, if we follow the description of Pliny, which is taken
from Juba, the Mauritanian prince. Juba calls one Nivaria, or (" Snow Island,"
which is probably Teneriffe: another island he calls Canaria, from the number
of dogs of a large size that were found there: Juba had two of these dogs. The
Canary Islands, being situated within the general limits of the trade-wind, enjoy
a fine climate, and are very healthy.
III. Insule Purpurarie, to the north of the preceding, and so called from King
Juba's having established in them a manufactory of purple. They are supposed
to answer to Madeira and the adjacent islands.
Before concluding, we may make a brief mention of the celebrated island of
Atlantis, which is said to have existed at a very early period in the Atlantic
Ocean, and to have been eventually sunk beneath its waves. Plato is the first
writer that gives an account of it, and he obtained his information, as he informs
us, from the priests of Xgypt. The statement which he furnishes is as follows:
In the Atlantic Ocean, over against the Columns of Hercules, lay an island, larger
than Asia and Africa taken together, and in its vicinity were other islands, from
which there was a passage to a large continent lying beyond. The Mediterranean, compared with the ocean in which these islands were situated, resembled
a mere harbor with a narrow entrance. Nine thousand years before the time
of Plato, this island of Atlantis was both thickly settled and very powerful. Its
sway extended over Africa as far as,Egypt, and over Europe as far as the
Tyrrhenian Sea. The farther progress of its conquests, however, was checked
by the Athenians, who, partly with the aid of the other Greeks, partly by themselves, succeeded in defeating these powerful invaders, the natives of Atlantis.
After this, a violent earthquake, which lasted for the space of a day and a night,
and was accompanied by inundations of the sea, caused the islands to sink, and
for a long period subsequent to this, the sea in this quarter was impassable, by
reason of the slime and shoals. (Plat., Timxus, p. 24, seqq., ed. Bip., vol. ix., p.
296, seqq.-Id., Critias, p. 108, scqq., ed. Bip., vol. x., p. 39, seq.). Various theories have been founded on this narrative, one of which seeks to identify the Atlantis of Plato with America. But the whole subject is too fanciful to afford a
basis for any serious reasoning.




GENERAL INDEX.
A.         Page                            PagePae
Abao.................... 529   Ad Durium............. 191      Esyme................. 4'
Abatos................. -741   Adeba.................. 65    AEthalia................. 297
Abdera................. 430  Ad Horrea..........   110   ~Ethiopes Hesperii....... 749
A   (Hispana)........ 47   Adiabene............... 687    tlthiopia............... 742
Abella............ 347  Adorsi.................. 704   AEtna (Mons)........... 388
Abellaba................ 207   Ad Pontem............. 200'      "...................  398
Abellinum.............. 353   Adramitea............... 680    Etolia.                  513
"     (Marsicum)... 374   Adramyttenus Sinus. 604, 629   AExone................. 554
Abiia.................. 579   Adramyttium........... 630     Africa................. 708
Abnoba Mons.......... 218     Adranum............... 398        Propria........... 714
Abona AEstuarium...... 174  Adrius Mons......... 12,407    Aganippe............... 533
Aboccis................. 746   Adrumetum............. 716      Agarus................. 234
Abona.................. 190  Ad Sabrinam....... 190     Agasus Portus........... 357
Abone................. 190    Ad Taum............... 194     Agatha................. 104
Abonitichos............. 636  Aduatica............... 143    Agathyrna.............. 398
Aborigines.......... 249, 319  Aduatici................ 139  Agbatana............... 694
Aborras................. 680   Adule................. 747     Agendicum............. 134
Abravannus Sinus....... 175   Ad Vigesimum.......... 198     Agesinates...............121
Abrincatui.............. 128.Ea..................... 705    Aginnum............... 120
Abrotonum............. 719     Eantium............... 486    Agisymba............. 749
Absorus................ 288   AEbura................. 58    Agri c.                   508
Absyrtides Insulae... 288, 411  Eclanum............... 353    Agrianes (fluvius)........ 424
Abucini Portus.......... 155   Edepsus............... 5C0        "............... 464
Abus................... 173    Edui................... 126   Agrigentum............. 395; Mons.............. 683 AEge................... 454  Agyrium................ 399
Abydos................. 627................... 5 0  Aias.................... 730
Abydus................. 739      "................... 569  Alaband........      618
Abyla............... 46, 710"................... 631        Alabastrites Mons........ 70;9
Acamas Promontorium.. 658       Egaaum Mare......... 9,489    Alabastrun.............. 738
Acanthus (Macedonica).. 462.Egaleus................ 553     Alabus.................. 369
"  (Egyptia)..... 737  AEgates Insulea......... 396  Alaenus................. 176
Acarnania.............. 506    Egesta.............. 397      Alsasus............       390
Acci.................... 50   AEgida.................. 288    Alalcomenme............ 536
Ace............. 667   Egiddis............... 288    Alalia.................. 402
Acerrae.................. 279  Egilon................. 298    Alani Scythes........... 235'................. 346  Agina................. 590    Alatrium............. 328
Acesines................ 605      " (urbs)........... 591   Alauni.................. 235
Achai.................. 704  Aginium.............. 493  Alaunus............. 174
Achaia.................. 567    Egira.................. 569    Alba.................... 57
Acharnse............... 556    Egiroessa........ 632      "   (fluvius)........... 31
Achates................. 390    Egirus................. 653    "   (Mons)............. 218
Achelous............... 474    Egissus................ 246  Alba Augusta............ 105
Acheron................ 477    Egm................. 570               "........... 110
" (Bruttius)....... 383     Egospotamos........... 433      "  Fucentia........... 309
"   (Epiroticus)..... 414  Egosthenae............. 542    "  Helviorum........ 105
Acherontia.............. 359 EAgEyptus............... 724         Pompeia........... 273
Acherusia Palus......... 414  Elana.................. 679    Albana................. 706
Acholla............... 715   EAlanites Sinus.......... 679  Albani.................. 410
Acincum............... 244  Embdea Insule.......... 212   Albania................. 706
Aciris.............. 368      An)e................... 446   Albaniwe Pyla....... 608, 706
Acis.................... 389    Enaria............ 348  Albanopolis.......... 410
Acragas................. 390    Enea................. 458    Albanus Lacus.... 266, 324
Acra Leuce............. 63     Eneum Promontorium.. 458      Albiga.................. 123
Acraephia............... 538.Enia.................. 511     Albioeci................ 102
Acritas Promontorium... 483     Erfianes............... 506   Albion.................. 162
Acroathon............. 446     Enos................... 431   Albis................... 221
Acroceraunii Montes..... 413   Enyra.................. 434    Albium Ingaunum.......   272
Acrothoon.............. 446    Eoliae Insulea........... 400  "   Intemelium...... 272
Acrothoos.............. 461    Eolis.................. 630   Albius Mons........ 243,407
Acte.................. 461      Epea................. 578    Albucella............... 58
Actium................. 508  Equi or 2Equicoli....... 308  Albula.................. 260
"   Promontorium... 402      Equus Tuticus.......... 353   Alburnus Mons....... 374
Acumincum............ 244       Eculanum..............353    Albus Portus............ 46
Adana.............. 611   Esernia................ 351   Alcathous............... 542
Ad Aquas............... 190   Esica (fluvius).......... 174  Alemanni............... 228
Adata................... 66'2             "................ 207  Alemannus.......... 221
Addua.................. 259    Estreaus................ 453  Alerea............... 122




753                             GENERAL INDEX.
PMge                           Page                            Page
A'eria.................. 40;  Amphaxitis............. 456   Antitaurus.......... C07, 683
Alusia.................. 133  Amphiale............... 484    Antium.................   38
At!tum................. 128       "     Promontorium. 553    Antivestmaum PromontoriAlexandrea (AEgyptia)... 733  Amphilochi............. 508      um................... 171
is    (Ariana)..... 695   Amphimalla............. 601  Antona................. 176
-      (ad Issum)... 612  Amphipagus............ 421     Antros.................. 89
(Oxiana).... 700   Amphipolis............. 427   Antunacum............. 143,'    (Parthia).... 696  Amphissa............... 519    Anxanum............... 354
(Troas)...... 629   Amphrysus............. 499    Anxur................ 330
(Ultima)...-. 700   Ampsagas............... 713    Aornus............ 699
Alexandreopolis......... 696  Amsancti Lacus......... 267    Aorsi................... 704
Alexandri Ara.......... 702   Amyclwe (Italae)......... 332  Apamea (Syris).......... 661
Algidum................ 325       "    (Lacedsemoniw). 585       "    (Chaldaea)....... 687
Algidus Mons........... 325   Amyrus................ 502       -',    Cibotus........ 643
Aliphera................ 594   Anactorium............. 508,'     Rhagiana...... 697
Alinza.................. 695  Anagnia............... 327     Apamene............... 661
Allia.................... 261  Anagombri Montes...... 722     Apavarcticene........... 697
Allieni Forum........... 284   Anamani................ 276     Apenninus Mons........ 253
Allifa................... 351  Anaphlystus............ 554   Aperopia.............. 589
Allobroges.............. 101  Anapus (Acarnanius)..... 475    Aphaca................. 665
Almana................. 464            (Siculus)........ 389   Apheta................. 499
Almo................... 261   Anariacas............... 695   Aphrodisias............. 618
Almope................. 464    Anas............. 28    Aphrodisium PromontoriAloae (Blritarnb:a)....... 202  Anatho................. 662    urnm................... 88
"' (Hispana).........  6.3  Anaurus............... 502  Aphroditopolis...... 737, 738
Alope................... 520  Anazarba............... 611   Aphytis................ 459
Alopece................ 556   Ancalites................ 179   Apia................... 466
Alopeconnesus.......... 433   Anchiale................ 611    Apidanus............... 482
Alorus.................. 453  Anchialus............... 440    Apis.................... 723
Alos.................... 499  Ancho.................. 538   Apocremnus PromontoriAlpeni................. 520   Ancona................. 303      um................... 623
Alpes........... 85, 251    Ancyra................. 645  Apollinarium........ 105
"   Bastarnicw,........ 12   Ancyron Polis........... 737   Apollinis Pomontorium -. 711
"   Carnica.......... 252   Andecamulumrn.......... 122   Apollinopolis Magna..... 740
" Cotti............ 251     Andecavi............... 125   Apollonia (lllyrica)...... 410
"   Gra........... 251    Anderida...............188              (Thracia)...... 440
Grai3 et Penninw. 82    Anderitum.............. 123         "    (Macedonica).. 462
"   Lepontim......... 251   Andes.................. 125             (Assyria).... 689
"   Maritim......... 251        (urbs)............ 281            (Cyrenaica)... 720',' 6      (Provincia) 82   Andomatunum.......... 134     Apolloniatis............. 687
"'  Noricm........... 252   Andrapa................ 637    Apollonis............. 620'   Penninte.......    251  Andriace................ 615   Aprusa............ 299
"   REetice........... 251  Andropolis.............. 734  Apsinthii.............. 426
Ajpheus............ 476  Andros................. 598    Apsus................. 410
Alsa.................... 287  Andusia................ 105   Apta Julia............. 111
Althaea................. 59   Anemo................. 283    Apulia................ 354
Altinum................ 286   Anemurium............. 611     Apulum...........'....   234
Aluta............... 234                  Promontorium 605    Apus................... 234
Alyssus................. 594  Angli................... 225  Aqus Cseretana........   294
Amalchium Mare........      9  Angrivarii............... 230    "    Calida........... 123
Amalekita.............. 678   Angfulus................ 311    "    Convenarum...... 1R20
Amallobriga............. 58    Anigrus................. 477     "    Flavias.......... 55
Amantia................ 410   Anio........... 261                  Mattiaca......... 228
Amardi................. 695   Anistorgis.............. 38          Onesiorum....... 120
Amardus............... 695    Anopea................ 505           Sextim......... 109
Amari Lacus......-..      731  Antaeopolis.............. 738   "    Solis............. 190
Amasia................ 640    Antandrus......... 630       "   Statiella......... 273
Amathus (Cypria)....... 659   Antaradus............. 668       "   Tarbellicas........ 119
"    (Palestina)..... 676  Anteas................111     Aquileia................ 287
Ambarri............... 127   Antemnas............... 306   Aquilonia............... 350
Ambiani................ 138   Antesiodurum........... 134    Aquincum.............. 244
Ambiliati............... 139  Anthedon............... 539   Aquinum............... 283
Ambitarinus Vicus...... 144   Anthela................. 505             (Volscium).... 332
Amboglanna............ 207    Anthemus.............. 457    Aquitania............ 81, 115
Amobracia............... 418   Anticragus.............. 614       "    Prima...   3
Ambracius Sinus........ 486   Anticyra (Thessalia)..... 504      "    Secunda....... 83
Ambronicus Pagus...... 152             (Phocaica)..... 525  Aquitani................. 74
Ambrysus.............. 526    Antigonea............ 415     Arabia............. 677
Ameria................. 302       "     Psaphara...... 457     "  Deserta........... 677
Amida.................. 684    Antilibanus............. 664     "  Felix..........     679
Amninei................. 345  AntinoSpolis............ 738    "   Petrwa........... 678
Amisia.................. 221  Antiochia............... 661  Arabici Montes.......... 729
Amisus................ 639         "    ad Taurum.... 662   Arabicus Sinus.......... 604
Amiternum............. 308         "    ad Masandrum. 618    Arachnseus Mons........ 586
Ammaus................ 675          "    Margiana...... 698   Arachosia............... 696
Ammonium............. 723           "    Pisidia........ 647  Arachotus.............. 695
Ammonitae.............. 678   Antipatris.............. 671  Arachthus............. 414
Amnins................. 635    Antipolis................ 110  Aracynthus............. 471
Amorgos............... 599     Antiphre.........          723  Aradus................. 668
Amrpelos................446  Antirrhium......... 483, 517  Arasgenus.............. 129
Amnpelus Mons.......... 655   Antissa................. 654  Aragus................. 70;




GENERAL INDEX.                                        753
Page                           Page                           Page
Aranni.................    38  Artemisium (Euboic.) 485, 559  Aufidena......            35G
Arar.................... 92        "   (urbs)........... 63   Aufidus.......... 26
Arauris.........-:..... 104' (insula)......... 298  Aufina...........I..... 312
Arausio................ 112   Artemita................ 689   Aufona................. 173
Araxes........... 606, 683    Artiscus................ 424  Augusta Nemetum....... 150
"  (Pers.)......... 691   Arupenum.............. 408              Praetoria........ 277
Araxus Promontorium... 483     Arunda................. 49       Rauracorum.... 151
Arbela.................. 689   Arverni............ 118         "    Suessionum.... 142
Area................... 668   Arxata.................. 684       "    Taurinorum.... 274
Arcadia................. 591   Arx Herculis Monceci...-  272      "    Trevirorum.... 144
Archaeopolis........... 705   Arzen................. 684             Vagiennorum... 273
Arcidava................ 234   Ascalon............... 671             Veromanduorum 142
Arctous Occanus........     9  Asciburgium.......... 148       "    Vindelicorum... 241
Ardea................ 322     Asciburgius Mons........ 218    Augusti Lucus.......... 55
Ardobrica............... 55    Ascra................. 533            Portus.....  2.. 294
Arduenna......... 87          Asculum Apulum....... 359   Augustobona............ 135
Arelate............. 105, 106       "    Picenum..... 304      Augustobriga............ 40
Arenta Montes.......... 43    Ascuris Lacus........... 495          "     (Tarrac.)... 61
Arenacum.............. 148    Asia.................... 601  Augustonometum....... 123
Areopolis (Arab.)........ 678   " Minor.............. 609  Augustoritum........... 122
Arethon......... 414   Asinaeus Sinus.......... 487  Aulaei Tichos........... 440
Arethusa............... 462   Asinarus............... 390    Aulerci............... 124
Areva.................    31  Asmiraei Montes......... 708     "    Cenomani........ 126
Argantomagus........... 122    Asopia................ 476         "   Diablintes........ 126
Argennum Promontorium 623      Asopus (Bceot.)......      480Aulis....5........ 539
Argentoratum......... 150             (Sicyon.)........ 475  Aulon (Ital.)............ 367
Argenus.............. 125        "    (Thessal.)..... 481      "   (Messen.)....... 580
Argilus................. 463  Aspadana............... 692  Aunios................. 70
Argita.......... 210          Aspalathos............ 408     Auranitis................ 677
Argolicus Sinus........ 487   Aspendus......... 613  Aurea Chersonesus...... 703
Argolis................. 585  Asphaltites Lacus........ 669   Aureliani............... 130
Argos................... 588   Aspis (Hisp.)...........  63         (urbs)......... 126
"  Amphilochicum.... 509          (Afric.)........... 716  Aureoli Pons............ 279
Argous Portus.......... S298    "     Mons......... 722       Aureus Mons (Mces.)..... 245
Argyripa................ 358   Assus.................. 629                 (Cors.) -..-. 401
Aria.................. 695     Assyria................. 687   Aurunca................ 344
Ariani Montes.......... 23     Asta................... 273    Aurunci................ 344
Ariaspe................ 696     "Regia................ 44     Ausa................... 67
Ariaspe................ 696   Astaboras......... 710   Ausar.................. 260
Aricia.................. 323  Astacenus Sinus......... 604    Auscii................. 117
Ariconium.............. 197   Astacus (Acarn.)......... 510   Ausetani................ 54
Arimathea.......... 672           (Bithyn.)........ 633  Ausoba................. 210
Ariminum.............. 299    Astapus................. 710  Austeravia......-....... 225
Ariminus.............. 299    Astigi................. 49      Autariatee............-. 409
Ariolica................. 155  Astura.................. 31     Autiri.................. 210
Arisbe................... 627  Astures................. 51     Autolola................ 749
Aristonaute........ 569       Asturica................ 55    Autololes.............. 749
Arius................. 695    Asturum Lucus......... -56     Autricum............... 129
Armenia................   682  Astypaloaa Promontori-          Autura................. 90
"    Major.......... 682     um.............. 485, 554  Auxacii Montes......... 708
"    Minor.......... 682   Astypalea............ 599  Auximum............... 304
Armorica............... 116   Atabyris Mons........... 657    Avalites Emporium...... 748
Armoricae Civitates...... 125  Atalanta............... 521            Sinus....... 604, 748
Armorium.............. 645    Atalante............. 553    Avalonia................ 190
Arnissa................. 450  Atarneus................ 631    Avara.................. 122
Arnon.................. 676   Atax............. 103   Avaricum............... 122
Arnus..................  260  Atella................... 346  Avenio................. 111
Aroanius............... 477   Aternumn............ 312     Aventicum............. 156
Arocha.............      378  Ateste................. 287    Avernus Lacus.......... 266
Aromata Promontorium.. 711     Ath Liagia............. 61     Avo.................... 31
Arpi.................... 358  Ath   a..-................ 546  Axellodunum... 0.....  208
Arpinum............... 331         Diades........ 560      Axiopolis............ — 246
Arrabo................. 244   Atl   is................ 262  Axius (Maced.).......... 446
Arretium............... 294   AtU    Mons............. 444      "   (Syr.)............ 660
"    Fidens......... 295   At' bis................. 735   Axona.................. 90
"    Julium........ 295   At..................... 331    Axuenna............... 143
Arrosius................ 132  Atlanticum 5Mare....       8   Axume................. 746
Arsamosata............. 684   Atlantis............... 750            (urbs)........... 747
Arsanias............ 606. 683  Atlas Mons.............. 709   Azani.................. 642
Arsia......... 2..... 286, 407  "  Major........... 710  Azania.................. 748
Arsinarium   Promontori-       Atre...................... 682  Azara.................. 690
umn............... 710       Atrax................... 496    Azetium................ 361
Arsino8 (,Egypt.)........ 737  Atrebates.............. 139   Azorus................. 495
4    (2Ethiop.)...... 747  Atrebatii...............  181  Azotus................. 671
Arsissa Palus............ 683  Atropateneo............. 694  Azyphus................ 722
Artabri................. 51   Attacotti............... 185
Artabrum   Promontorium    25  Attala................. 613
Artacoana........ 695         Attalia................. 620    Babylon................ 6886
Artamis................ 698   Attica................. 542   (iEgypt.).........735<
Artaxata................ 684  Atura.............. 119    Babylonia............... 684
Xrtemisium   Promontori-       Aturia................. 687   Bacenis Silva............ 219
uin................. 25    Atnris............... 89  Bactra................. 699
BBB




754                            GENERAL INDEX.
Page                          Page                           Peae
Bactria................. 698  Berenice.............721,741   Brattia.................. 4
Bactrus................. 698           epi Dires....... 748  Bratuspantium.......... 142
Badwi Regia'............  679  Bergidium.............. 56   Brauron................ 555
Badia..................   33   Bergium............... 228   Bregetium............. 244
mBaesippo...........     45   Bergoum.........         Bremenium...........  20
Beterrae (Septimanorum) 103    Bermius Mons.......... 455   Bremetonacee........... 202
Btetica............... 21, 41  Bernus Mons.......... 464    Brenni or Breuni....... 240
Bwetis...2............... 27   Berobe................. 703  Brige........ —......... 189
Batulo................. 66    Beroea (Maced.)......... 455  Brigwecium.56
Baeturia................ 41         (Syr.)............ 662  Brigantes (Brit.)......  179
Bagacum.............. 141  Berrhoea................ 455             (Hibern.)-... —. 210
Baggistana............... 694  Bertiscus Mons...... 12, 407  Brigantia............... 242
Bagistanus Mons........ 694  Berubium Promontorium 172      Brigantii............... 241
Bagous Mons........... 695    Berytus........... 667  Brigantinus Lacus..... 222
Baiwi................... 338  Besbicus................ 626  Brigantium (Hisp.).... 55
Baleares -............... 67  Bessi.................. 426              (Pannon.).... 244
Balonga.............. 703     Bethel..................  672  Brigus................. 210
Balsa................... 37  Bethlehem............. 673    Brilessus............... 556
Balyra.................. 579   Beth-shan.............. 674  Britannia............... 162
RBambyce............... 662   Beve................... 447     4     Barbara.... 186, 208
Banasa................. 712   Bevus.................. 447     "     Prima.... —... 169
Banizomenesa............ 679  Bibrac~e (Gall.).......... 132          Romana...... 185
Bantia.................. 359      "    (Brit.).......... 192          Secunda....... 169
Baphyrus............... 452  Bifractqs Mons.......... 132  Britannicus Oceanus.....   8
Barbalissus............. 663  Bigerrones.............. 118  Brivas................ 123
Barbaria................ 748  Bilbilis (fluvius).........  31  Brivates Portus......... 129
farbaricus Sinus........ 748     "    (urbs)........... 60  Brixellum........... 283
Barbarium Promontorium    25   Bingium................ 150  Brixentes................ 240
Barbesula.............. 31   Biora or Biotha.......... 405  Brixia.................. 279
Barce.................. 721  Bisaltia................. 462  Brocavum......... —-.. 202
Barcino................. 66    Bisanthe................ 435  Bromiscus.............. 462
Barcylia................ 618  Bistones................ 426  Brovonacws............. 202
Barium-................ 361    Bistonis Lacus.......... 430  Bructeri................ 227
larnus................ 450   Bithynia............... 632   Brundisii Promontorium. 257
Jasanites Mons.......... 730  Bithynium.............. 635   Brundisium............. 362
Bascatis............... 699   Bituriges Cubi.......... 118  Bruttium............... 375
Bascici..'............. 722      "    Vibisci......... 117  Bubastus.............. 735
Basilea................. 151  Blanda (Hisp.).......... 67  Bubinda.......2........ 210
Hasilippo............... 49               " (Ital.)............ 373  Buca................... 354
Basta................... 364  Blascon.............. 88, 114  Bucephala............. 702
Bastia............;.......50  Blavia.................. 128  Buchaetium....... 1..-. 418
Bastitani................ 42   Blendium............... 56    Bumadus........... 687, 689
Bastuli............... 42     Blestium............... 197  Burrium................ 197
Batanea................ 676   Boas................... 411  Buphagus............... 47Y
Batava Castra........ 242      Bocchorum............. 69    Buporthmus............ 484
Batavi............. 145, 146  Boderia Estuarium...... 174  Buprasium............. 572
Batavodurum........... 148    Boes.................. 584   Bura................... 569
Batavorum Insulae....... 146   Boaticus Sinus...... 487     Burchana.............     225
Oppidum.... 148    Boeotia............. 530     Burdigala.............. 119
Bathys........          390   Baum.................. 522    Burgundiones........... 231
(Boeot.)........... 539  Boii....... 117,126, 229, 276  Busiris........7....... 734
Portus........... 747    " (urbs).............. 119  Buthrotum.......         41....  416
Batiana................ 105   Boiocasses.............. 125  Butos................... 734
Batnas............... 681      Boiodunum............. 242   Butua................. 408
Bauli............... 338      Boiodurum............. 229   Butuntum.............. 361
Bautisus................ 708  Bolbe Palus............. 457  Buxentum............. 373
Bavo................... 411   Bolbitinum Ostium...... 729   Byblus................. 667
Bebii Montes......... 12, 407  Bolerium Promontorium. 171    Bylasora................ 464
Bebroci................. 179   Bolissus................ 654  Byllis.................. 410
Bebryces............... 101   Bomium................ 197    Byzacia................. 715
Bedesis.....2........... 284   Bonna................. 149    Byzacium............... 71
Redriacum............   280   Bononia (Gall.).......... 140  Byzantium............. 4^6
Beersheba.............. 673       "   (Ital.)........... 283  Byzeres................ 640
Belbina................. 555  Borbetomagus.......... 50                 C.
Belea................... 61   Borcovicus.............. 207
Belgse............... 74, 137  Borealis Oceanus........  9  Cabellio................ —  111
B (Brit.)......... 181   Boreum Prom. (Hibern.). 210  Cabillonum............. 132
Belgica................ 137       "    (Afric.).......  718  Cabira................ 640
s"   Prima........... 84   Borsippa............... 686   Cachales.............. 528
"   Secunda......... 84     Borysthenes......... 10, 236  Cacyparis............... 389
Belgovitia.............. 201  Borysthenis............. 237  Cadi............. —   642
Beia................... 57    Bosporus............... 239  Cadmea........-..-..     535
Belisama Estuarium..... 175       "     Cimmerius....    9  Cadurci................ 119
Bellocasses............. 127.          Thracius......   9  Cadusii.........6........ 6
Bellovaci............... 137  Bottiaea................. 453  Cwscubus Ager...        33.. 332
Belon (fluvius).......... 31  Bovianum......... —..   351  Ctenyra............4..  434
"   (urbs)............ 45   Boville................. 324  Caenys..................  255
Belus.................. 667   Bovium.............. 197  Caepionis Turris...... 28, 43
Benacus Lacus.......... 263   Bracara Augusta........ 55   Cwere................    294
Beneharnum........... 119      Brachodes Promontorium 718    CEssaraugusta........... 64
Beneventum............ 352    Branodunum............ 194    Caesarea (insula)........ 17
Beregra................. 305   Branogenium........... 196   Caesarea (Palest.)....... 674




GENERAL INDEX.                                       M5
Page                          Page                           Pge
Caesarea ad Argmum.... 648    Capua................... 345  Catsea.................. 692
Cawsarea Philippi........ 675  Caraca-................. 59    Catalauni...............
Caesarodunum.......... 130    Caralia................. 651  Catana.................:Caesaromagus (Gall.)..... 142  Caralis.................. 405  Catarrhactes......... 6.
i       (Brit.)..... 193  Caralitanum Prom....... 405  Catorissium............. 1
Ciesena................. 283  Caralitanus Sinus........ 405  Catti....................23
Caesia Silva.21.........  219  Carambacis........... 10    Caturactonium....... 20.
Caicus................. 620  Carambis........... 636, 605  Caturiges.............  1  
Caieta..................'332  Carasa............. 119   Catyeuchlani............ 18
Caietanus Sinus......... 267   Carbantorigum.......... 208  Cauca..................
Calabri.............. 362     Carbonaria.............. 258  Caucasias Pylae...... 608, 70
Calacta................. 398  Carbula................. 49   Caucasus............... 60
Calagum................ 135    Carcaso................. 104  Cauci.............. S21, 
Calagurris.............. 57  Carcine................. 237  Caudinse Furce......... 3
Calamae................ 579   Carcinites............... 236  Caudium...............35
Calarna................ 462'    Sinus.......... 236  Caulon................. 37*
Calbis.................. 617  Cardia.................. 432  Caunus................ 617
Calcaria................ 107  Carene................ 6:30  Cavaies................ 101
Calchedon......... 634   Careni.................. 184  Cayster................. 620
Cale....................  55   Caria................... 615  Ceba...... 273
Caledonii.............. 184   Caris............... 90      Cebenna Mons..........     5
Calela................ 355    Caristi.................. 52  Celaene................ 643
Cales................... 345   Carmana.............. 692    Celadus............. 31
Caletes................. 127  Carmania............... 692  Celenderis............. 611
Callaecia................ 22  Carmelum Prom..... 605, 667   Celetrum............... 449
Callaici.............. 32, 50  Carmelus Mons.......... 668  Cellao................... 443
Calleva Atrebatum...... 191   Carminianum....... 364    Celnius................. 174
Callidromus............ 505   Carni................... 285  Celsa................... 61
Callipolis (Ital.).......... 365  Carnion................. 477  Celtse (Hisp.)........... 51
"    (Thrac.)....... 434  Carnonacae............ 184         (Gll.)............ 74
Callirrhoe (Attic.)....... 549  Carnuntum............. 244  Celtiberi................ 53
"     (Palest.)....... 676  Carnutes................ 124  Celtici................ 36, 42
Calpe Mons.......... 25, 46   Carpates Mons.... 11, 12, 234  Celticum Promontorium. 25
" Portus............ 634    Carpathus............... 599  Celydnus............... 414
<' Promontorium. 605, 634  Carpentoracte........... 111  Cempsi................. 15
Calycadnus............. 610   Carpessus..............  47  Censeum Promontorium. 485
Calymna (insula)......... 656  Carpetani............... 52  Cenchre.s............. 564
Calynda.............. 617     Carras.................. 681  Cenimagni.............. 170
Camaracum............. 141     Carseoli................. 308  Cenionis Ostia.......... 17S
Camarina............... 39q    Carsinomagus........... 122  Cenomani.............. 276
Camboricum............ 195    Carsulse................ 301  Centrones.............. 102
Cambunii Montes........ 445    Carta............... 697     Centronum Civitas...... 114
Cambretonium.......... 194    Carteia............... 44. 46  Centum Cellse.......... 2c3
Camerinum............ 301     Carthago................ 716  Centumrn Putea........... 234
Camers............. 295     "    Vetus-.......... 65   Centurinum............. 402
Camerte................ 302     "    Nova........... 62    Centuripa.............. 398
Camicus................ 390   Caryanda............... 618  Ceos.................. 597
Camirus................ 657   Carystus................ 561  Cephalat Prom........... 715
Camulodunum.......... 193     Cascantum..............   57  Cephallenia......... 512
Campania............... 336    Casii.................... 708  Cephaloedium........... 391
Campi Lapidei.......... 106   Casilinum.............. 345  Cephisus (Attic.).... 479, 547
Campi Veteres.......... 374   Casinum................ 332      "    (Eleus.)... 479, 547
Campodunum n........... 242    Casius Mons........ 661, 729     "    (Boeot.)........ 481
Campsa................. 458   Caspii.................. 695  Cepresicum Prom....... 25
Campylus............... 475    Caspira................. 702  Ceramicus Sinus........ 604
Caea................... 631   Caspium Mare.......... 604   Ceramus................ 617
Cannria................. 750  Caspius Mons.......... 693   Cerasus................ 63
Canastreun Pl'rom....... 446  Cassandria........... 459  Cercasorum............. 7
Cancanoiuru  Prom....... 171  Cassi................... 179  Cercidius............   40A
Caudavii Montes......... 444   Cassiope............... 421  Cercetius Mons......... 655
Candiarius.............. 284     "    Portus.......... 415  Cercina................. 715
Cmiincfiates............. 146  Cassiotis................ 661  Cerdonia............... 3
Cannmw.................. 360   Cassiteride,............. 213  Cerilla................. 3
Canobus................ 734   Castabala............... 649  Cerne.................. 74l
Canoiumn.............. 193    Castalius Fons........... 528  CerintLus............... 56*
Canusium............... 359   Castamon............... 637   Cerones............... 183
Cautabri.............. 32, 51  CastellUm Caracenorum. 350    Cerretani............... 54
Cantabricus Oceanus....   8'     Menapiorum.. 143    Cerynea.............    507
Cantae.................. 184            Morinorum... 141   Cerynites..........      571
Cautii................... 181  Casthanea........... 502  Cestrus................. 61l
Cantium................ 172   Castra Cafcilia.......... 39  Cetius Mons............ 24:
Capara.................. 40     "   Cornelia......... 716  Cetobriga...............3
Capena................ 297     "   Julia.............  39  Chabala................ 
Capernaum......... 675     Castrum Truentinum.... 304    Chaberis................ 701
Caphareus............ 485              Inui........... 323  Chaboras............... ('S
Cappadocia............. 647   Castulo................ 48   Chaeronea.............. 53
Capraria............. 68, 298  Castulonensis Saltus.. 24, 267  Chalseon............... 53 14
Caprasia3 Ostium........ 258  Catabanes.............. 679  Chalastra............... 4
Capre.................. 348  Catabathmus Magius.... 722  Chalcedon..............
Capr3os.................. 462       "       Parvus.... 723   Chalcidice............. 45!
Caprnus.................. 687  Catabothra.............. 482      "      (Syr.)........ 
Capsa................... 715   Catacecaumene......... 621   Chalcis................. 56




756                                 rI NERAE L INDEX.
Page                           Page                          Page
Chalcis (Syr.)........... 662  Clitor.................. 593  Corcyra (urbs).......... 420
Chaldda............. 685      Clitumnus —............ —..  260    Nigra......... 412
Chalonitis.............. 687  Clodianus.............. 67   Corda.................. 08
Chalybes............... 639   Clunia................. 61    Corduba................ 48
Chalybonitis............. 663  Clunium................ 402  Corense Litus......     45
Chalus.................. 662  Clusium............... 295  Coifinium............. 310
Chamavi................ 227   Clylipenus Sinus........ 236  Coriallum.............. 129
Chaonia................ 415   Cnacion................ 478   Coria Damniorum....... 208
Charax Spasinu......... 687   Cnemides............. 520  Corinium Dobunorum... 196
Charidemum Prom..... 47       Cnidus.............. 617   Corinthia............... 563
Charmuthas............ 679    Cnosus................. 601  Corinthiacus Sinus...... 487
Charybdis........... 382  Cobe................. 748    Corinthi Isthmus........ 566
Chiasuari -.............  230  Cobrys.............. 432  Corinthus............... 564
Chelonites Prom......... 483   Coccium............... 202   Corioli................. 328
Cherusci............... 230   Coche.............. 686      Coriosopiti......... 125, 128
Chersonesus Heracleotica 239   Cochlearia.............. 405  Coriondi................ 210
"5 Magna..... 723        Cocintum  Promontorium 256     Coritani................ 180
"      Prom...... 485  Cocossates......        118   Cornavii...1... 180, 184
"4     Taurica.... 237   Codanus Sinus.........    8   Corniculum........ 307
"      Thracias... 431  Ccelesyria.............. 663  Corobilium............. 135
Climaira (Epirot.)..... 415    Ccenaes............... 681    Coronea................ 536
"     Mons (Lyc.).. 615   Coenon Chorion......... 640  Corone................. 578
Chios (insula)........... 654  Colanica................ 208  Corsica................. 401
"   (urbs)....... 654  Colapis................. 85  Corsote-................ 682
Chisala................. 216  Colchi................. 702  Corstopitum............ 200
Choaspes.............. 689     Colchis................. 704  Cortatha................ 703
Choerades (insulwa)...... 367  Colentum.............. 411  Cortona................ 295
Choarene............... 697   Colias Promontorium.... 554   Cory Promontorium..... 702
Choatres.............. 697    Collatia...............  325  Coryceum Promontorium 605
Chronus................ 236   Colobon Promontorium.. 747    Corycum Promontorium. 599
Chrysa................. 629   Colonia Agrippina....... 149  Corydallus.............. 543
Chrysas................ 389      "   Trajana......... 148  Coryne................. 573
Cbryse................. 703   Colonides............... 578  Coryphas............... 630
Chrysoceras............ 436   Colossea............. 643  Cos (insula)............. 656
" Prom....... 423        Colophon............... 623  Cos (urbs)............ 656
Chrysopolis (Thracise)... 427  Columbarium Prom...... 405    Cosa.................. 98
" (Bithyn.).... 634       Comana................ 649    Cosilynum.............. 374
Chrysorrhoas........... 664     "    Pontica......... 640  Cossanum Promontorium     254
Chytus................. 626   Comaria Prom........... 605  Cotes Promontorium.... 710
Cianus Sinus............ 604   Combrea............... 458    Cotinusa................ 70
Cibala................. 244  Cominium Ceritum...... 352     Cotyasum..............  642
icae.................. 70     Comisene.............. 697   Cotyora................ 639
Cichyrus............... 416   Commagene............ 662     Cragus Mons............ 614
Cicones............... 426     Commoni............... 102     Crana...................:3
Cilicia.................. 610  Complutum.........        59   Cranii.................. 513
lilla.................... 630  Compsa................ 354  Crannon................ 496
Cilurnum.....2...... 207      Comum................ 279    Crassurn................ 405
Cinbri................. 226   Comus (Sard.)...... 405       Crates (insula )........ 411
Cimiata................ 637    Concana................ 56   Crater Sinus............ 267
Cimmerium............. 239     Concani................ 32    Crathis (Ital.)........... 369
Cimolus................ 597   Concordia.............. 287          (Gr.)........... 476
Cinga.................. 30    Condate................ 199   Cratia................. 635
Cingilia............. 311   Condivicnum........... 129   Cremna............... 646
Cingulum.............. 304    Condurcum.............. 207   Cremni................. 237
Cinium................. 69    Confluentes............. 144  Cremera..2........... 261
Cinyps................. 719   Congavala.............. 207   Cremona............... 279
Circtei................. 329  Conimbriga........... 40     Crenides................ 429
Circsum Promontorium. 254      Conistorgis............. 38   Crestonia.............. 457
Circesium.............. 681   Conope................. 515    Creta................... 599
Cirrha.................. 524   Conovium.............. 175   Creticum Mare.......... 489
Cirta................... 714  ".............. 198   Cretopolis.............. 646
Cisthene................ 630   Consabrum............. 59    Crimisa Promontorium.. 257
Cithasron............... 534  Consentia............... 383   "      (fluv.)....2..... 257
Citharistes.............. 88  Constantina............. 714      "    (urbs).......... 376
Citium................. 659  Constantinopolis........ 438  Crimissus............... 390
Civitao Rhedonum....... 128    Contadesdus............ 424   Crissa....-...-..-... —......  525
Cius:................... 633  Contestani.............. 54  Crithote................ 483
Clampetia............. 381  Contrebia............ 58, 61  Crif Metopon... 171, 237, 599
Clanis............... 261  Convenas............... 117  Crobyzi................ 42;
Clanius................. 337   Copes.................. 538  Crocodilopolis.......... 7:17
Clarus........... 624         Copais Lacus....... 482, 538  Crodunum..1.......... 120
Clastidium.............. 273  Cophos................. 461  Crommyon............. 565
Claudiopolis............ 611  Copia.341                    Cronium Mare..........     8
Claudius Mons......... 243    Coptos................. 739  Crotalus................ 378
Clausentum............. 189    Cora.................. 330   Croto................... 376
Clausula ~............... 407  Coracesium............ 610   Crotona................:376
Clazomense............. 623   Corax Promontorium... 237    Crustumerium   0.......... 6,OG
(]eonae............... 590     Corax................. 471   Cruptoricis Villa —... —.  225
Cleopatris.............. 736  Corbeus........ 645  Ctesiphon............... (;
Climax................. 615   Corbilo................. 1"29  Ctimene................ Of)
Climberris............ 120     Corbulonis Monumenturn 22-    Cucusus.............. (1;0
Clitcrnia.................:355  Corcyra (insul')......... 419 C(uda................... 10




GENERAL INDEX.                                        751
Page                           Page                            Page
Cullu.................. 714  Daphnus............  520  Drepanum Promontorium 57
Cumae................ 338     Daradw................ 749                      (Cypr.) 658
Cumasus Sinus.......... 267    Daradus................ 749    Dribyces............... 695
Cumerium.............. 258     Darse.......... 749          Drilae................... 640
Cuminarius Vicus....... 59    Daras.................. 681     Drilo................... 407
Cunarus Mons.......... 312    Dardani............. 408       Drinus........... 245
Cunaxa................ 686     Dardanus............... 628    Drium Mons............ 357
Cunetio................. 192   Dareium................ 697     Drubetis............... 235
Cuneus.............. 18, 36   Dargidus................ 698    Dulgibini............... 227
1   Promontorium. 25, 37    Darini................ 210    Dulichium.............. 511
Cunici................. 69     Dascylitis Palus......... 633  Dumna................ 213
Cunicularium........... 405   Dascylium.......... 633        Dur.................... 210
Cupra............. 304   Dassaretii............... 411   Duria...................,'  Montana.......... 304   Datos............... 428       Durius (Hisp.).......... 29
Cures.................. 307   Daulis.................. 529     "    (Brit.)........... 191
Curia............. 208         Daunia................. 357    Durnovaria............. 190
Curiacte................ 411   Decapolis............... 674   Durocornovium......... 196
Curianum Promontorium      87  Decelea................ 556    Durolipons.........      195
Curias Promontorium... 659    Decennovium........... 330     Durolitum.............. 193
Curiosolites......... 125, 128  Decumates Agri......... 231    Dyme.................. 571
Curium................ 658  Delium................. 539    Dyrrhachium.......   409
Curius Mons............ 471    Delminium............. 408     Dystus................. 561
Cusus -................. 221   Delos................... 596
Cutatissium............. 705  Delphi.................. 527                 E.
Cutili................... 307  Delphini Portus.....:... 272  Eblana................. 211
Cutina..................... 311  Delphinium............. 540  Eblani................... 21
Cyamosorus............ 389    Delta..........   7.....   728 Ebora............. 39
Cyanewa (insulas)........ 439  Demetrias.............. 503  Eboracum............. 200
Cybistra............. 649     Demetrium........ 498   Ebudae............. 212
Cyclades............... 595   Demus................. 699     Ebudum Promontorium. 172
Cydnus............ 607, 610    Deobriga................ 57     Eburodunum........ 113
Cydonia................ 600   Derbe.................. 650    Eburones............... 139
Cyllene................ 573    Dere................ 604   Ebusus................. 69
"     Mons............ 593  Deris................... 432   Ecbatana........... 694
Cyme............... 631       Derrhis................. 446      "     (Phoen.)........ 666'
Cynsetha......... 593    Dertona................ 273    Echedorus........... 457
Cynesii................ 15    Derventio........... 200,201   Echinades.............. 511
Cynopolis.............. 738   Deva................... 198    Echinus................ 509
Cynoscephalse.......... 497   Dianium................ 298    Ectini.................. 111
Cynossema (Chers.).... 433        "    Promontorium.. 25      Edessa (Maced.)........ 454
(Attic,)...... 543Dicaea.................. 430    "      (Mesop.)......... 681
Cynosura Promontorium 553      Dicsearchia............ 339    Edeta..................64
Cynthus................ 596   Dicte Mons............ 601     Edetani................. 54
Cynuria................ 587   Didymi................. 625    Edlandunium........... I
Cynus................  520  Didymotichos....... 441    Edomitas............... 678
Cyparissia.......... 577, 584  Digentia................ 307  Edones................. 426
Cyparisseis............. 478  Dii..................... 426   Egnatia................. 361
Cyparissium Prom... 483, 578   Dimallum.............. 410     Eion................. 428
Cyparissius Sinus....... 487  Dindymus Mlons........ 645     Ekron.................. 671
Cyprus................. 657   Dio Cawsarca............ 675   Elaea............. 631
Cyrenaica.............. 719   Diodori (insula)......... 747  Elaeus................ 433
Cyrene................. 720   Dionysopolis.......... 702      Elatea.......... 528
Cyreschata.............. 700   Dioscoridis (insula)...... 748  Elatia............ 496
Cyropolis............... 695  Dioscorilm Portus....... 747   Elath............   679
Cyrrhestice............. 662  Dioscurias.............. 705   Elatus.................. 513
Cyrrhus................ 662   Diospolis............... 672   Elaver................... 90
Cyrus.............. 606, 683      "     Parva.......... 739   Elea.................... 372
Cythera................ 584   Dirce................... 536   Elees............    372
Cythnus............... 597    Dire........684.........  604Elegia................. 684
Cytorus................ 636   Dirphossus       s....... 558  Elephantine............ 741
Cyzicus................ 626Dirphys                            Elephas Mons........... 748
Dium.............. 451, 461   Eleusa.................. 554
Doanas................. 701    Eleusis................. 5
Dabrona............... 210    Docimia................ 642   Eleutherae.............. 557
Dachinabades......... 702     Dodecaschcaenus......... 746    Eleutheropolis......... 673
Dacia............. 233        Dodona................. 416     Eleutherus............. 390
(' Alpensis........... 234   Do'iche................. 495   Eliberri.............    103
"  Mediterranea....... 234   Dolonci................. 426    Elimea.......449
"  Riparia............ 234  Dolopia................. 500    Elimeum............ 449
Dacora................ 649    Dora............. 666   Elis.................... 571
Dadastana.............. 635   Doridis Sinus........... 604      (urbs).............. 573
Dsedala................. 617   Doris................... 521    Elison.................. 223
Dalmatae................ 407   Dorius.................. 701    Elleporus............... 378
Damascus.............. 664     Dorostorum............ 246     Elmantica.............. 40
Damastium...........     410  Dorvatius............... 191   Elui.................... 101
Dan.................... 675   Dorylaeum............. 642      Elusa................. 120
Dana................... 649   Dosareni................ 679   Elusates................ 118
Danaperis.............. 236   Dracanum Promontorium 655       Emathia................ 454
Danap!ris............... 10   Drangiana............. 696     Emerita Augusta.......,9
Danaster............... 236   Dravus................. 244    Emesa.................. 661
Danubius............... 219   Drepane............... 419     Emmaus............... 672
Daphnitis (insula........ 747  Drepanum.............. 396    Emodi Montes.......... 700




GENERAL INDEX.
Page                           Page                            Page
rmnporite (Hisp.)........ 67                                  Gadeni................ 183
(Aric.)........ 715                 F.               Gades.................. i4
Engaddi................ 673   Fabrateria.............. 331   Gtitara................. 706
Enipuus (Elidis)......... 477  Fkasula.............. 290   Gtetuli............. 749
"  (Maccd.)........ 451  Faltrium............... 296  Galacum............... 202
(Thess.)........ 482  Falernus Ager........... 345    Galiesus.......... 366
Enna................... 399    Fanurn Voltumnae....... 296    Galatia................644
Ennea                     47odoi......... 427  Faustianus Ager......... 345  Galava................. 202
Corda a................. 449   Faustinopolis........... 649   Galepsus............... 460
Epacria................ 543  Favtntia................ 283    Galileea............... 674
Epamanduodurum...... 155      Felsina.................. 283  Gallweci............... 32, 50
I;petium............... 408   Ferentinum............. 327    Gallia..................  71
Ephesus................ 624   Feronia.............      3.;0    "  Belgica............  81
Ephyra................. 564       "    (Sard.).......... 405       Cisalpina.......... 274
Ephyre.............. 416   Feronie0 Lucus......... 290      "  Cispadana......... 275
Ephraim.............. 672     Ferraria Promontorium.. 25        "  Lugdunensis...... 81
Epiacum............... 200  Fescennium............. 296          Narbonensis.... 81, 100
Epidamnnus........ 409  Fibrenus................ 331         Transalpina........ 71
fEpidaurus (Argol.)...... 590  Fidena................. 306        Transpadana...... 275
(Illyr.)....... 408  Fidentia (Hisp.)......... 50  Gallicum............... 62
" Limera...... 584                (Ital.).......... 281  Gallicus................ 30
IEpidelium.............. 584  Fines............... 142       Gallorum Forum........ 62
Epidii............ 183   Firmum............... 304     Gangani................ 210
Epidium Promontorium. 171     Flanaticus Sinus......... 269   Gange.................. 702
Epiphania.............. 661   Flavia Cewsariensis...... 169   Ganges................. 605
Epirus................. 412    Flaviobriga............. 57    Gangeticus Sinus........ 604
Epopeus Mons........... 348    Flevo Lacus............ 222    Gangra.................. 637
tporedia............... 277   Flevum................. 20      Gannaria............... 710
$Equabona............... 38   Florentia (Gall. Cisp.).... 281  Garama............... 749
Equotuticus............ 353       "     (Etrus.)....... 291  Garamantes'............. 749
Erana.................. 578   Fons Solis.7........     723   Garganum Promontorium 257
Jrasinus................ 479     "  Tungrorum........ 143     Gargara................ 630
frcobriga.............. 40    Forentum............... 359    Gargettus............... 556
Erdini.................. 210  Formia................. 333    Gariannonum........... 194
Vrebantium Prom........ 405     Formio................. 288   Gartia.................. 279
lEressus.................654   Fortunataes Insule....... 750  Garumna............... 89
Eretenus..............-. 287  Forum Appii............ 329   Garyenus............... 173
tretria (Eub.)........... 561    "    Cornelii.. 2..... 283  Gath................... 671
"   (Thess.)......... 498     "   Dian........... 195  Gathelin Street.......... 203
tretum................. 307      "    Gallorum (Hisp.).  62   Gaugamela.............. 689
*trgavica............... 60      "        "    (Ital.).-283  Gaulonitis............... 677
f rincus................ 390           Gigurrorum...... 56     Gaulus.400:rineus................ 522       "    Hadriani......... 148   Gauzaca................ 696
Crmin Street............ 204     "   Julii (Gall.)...... 109  Gaza................... 671
Eryces................. 389      "     "  (Ital.)....... 287   "  (Med.)............. 695
Erymandrus........... 695       "     Lepidi.......... 282     "(Sogd.)........... 700
Erymnanthus............ 594      "    Limicorum..... 55    Gedrosia................ 692
Erythia.............. 44, 45     "    Novum.......... 283     Gela (fluvius)........... 390
ErythrmB (Bceot.)........ 534        Segusianorum.... ]30      "   (urbs)............. 394'"   (Ion.).......... 623     "   Sempronii....... 300   Gelduba............... 149
Erythraeum Mare........ 603            Tiberii.......... 156  Genabum............... 130
Eryx................... 396          Trajani.......... 406   Genauni................ 240
"5 Mons.............. 388       "   Vulcani.......... 339   Geneva................. 114
Escamus........... 245  Foss Way.............. 204    Gennesareth (Lacus).... 669
Esldrailon............   674  Fossa Drusiana.......... 146   Genua............. 272
Esopis.................. 379      "  Philistina..... 258, 259  Genusus................ 410
Essui................... 126  Fregellae................ 331  Gersastus............... 485
Estia Lacus............. 222   Frentani.                 354   Gerar.................. (l
Etobema................ 64     Fretum Gaditanum...... 46       Gerenia................ 579
Etocetum............... 199            Gallicum........    8   Gergis.................. 628
Etruria................. 288     "    Herculeum..... 8, 46    Gergovia.............. 123
Etrusci................. 249     "    Siculum........ 389       "    Boiorum....... 126
Etruscum Mare......... 269    Frisiabones............. 224   Germa................. 645
IEuboea...b......... 557  Frisii.....-..........    215   Germania............... 214
Eudierum.............. 495         Majores........... 224              Prima....... 81, 84
{Euganei................ 276     "  Minores........... 224        "    Secunda...-. 81, 84
IEulheus................ 689  Frusino............... 331      Germanicea........... 662
Eumenia............... 643    Fucinus Lacus.......... 265   Germanicopolis......... 637
Eumolpias.............. 441   Fulsinium.............. 411   Germanicum Mare......      8
E-upatoria............... 239  Fundanus Lacus........ 332    Gerra.................. 719
"     (Pont.)........ 640  Fundi.................. 332   Gerrha................. 680
Euphrates.............. 606   Furce Caudine......... 352    Gerunda............... 67
Euripus................ 561                                  Gerunium.............. 355
Euromus............... 618                                   Gessoriacum............   ] 40
Europa.................    1  Gabs................. 692     Gigonus................ 458
Eurota................. 478  Gabala................ 661    Gilboa Mons............ 668'Eurymedon............ 613    Gabali.................. 119   Gindanes........... 719
Euryrnena.............. 501    Gabellus................ 260  Gira.........7.......... 740
Entresis................ 533  Gabii................... 325   Glanaventa............. 20-2
Euxinus Pontus....... 9, 10    Gabreta Silva........... 219  Glandomirum........... 55
Evenus................. 475   Gabrosentum........... 208    Glannativa.............. I1I
Ezion-Geber............ 679   Gadara................. 676   Glessaria............... 225




GENERAL INDEX.                                        759
Page                           Page                           Page
Glevum................ 196     Hecatonnesi......... 630      Hipponium............ 381.
Glota 2Estuarium.....  175   Hedyphon...-....... 690  Hirminius............... 390
"  (insula).......... 175  Hegonium Promontorium 458      Hirpini.........3...... 35.2
Gnosus............... 601     Helellum............... 151   Hispalis................. 49
Goaris.................. 701  Helena................. 143  Hispania...............  13
Gobaeum Promontorium. 87       Heles................... 372            Citerior....20..   210, 2
Gobannium............. 197    Helice.................. 569      "    Ulterior..... 20, 21
Gobannius............. 197    Helicon (fluvius)........ 390  Histiaea................. 559
Gomadaeorum (insule).. 747            (Mons)......... 532   Histonium.............. 354
Gomphi................ 494  Heliopolis.............. 735  Histria................. 285
Gonnus............. 495            (Syr.)......... 664  Homeritae.............. 679
Gophna.. —-----—....... —--- 672  Helisson................ 477  Homole Mons.......... 5031
Gorditanum Prom...... 405  Helium................. 220   Homolium.............. 501
Gordium................ 635       "   Ostium......... 91    Homonada.............. 611
Gordyiei Montes........ 683   Hellas.................. 465  Horeb Mons............ 679
Gorgippia............... 704   Hellenis Promontorium.. 171    Horestii................ 184
Gorgus................. 687   Hellespontus...... 9, 425, 626  Hunnum................ 207
Gortyna................ 601    Helorum................ 394    Hyampolis.............. 529
Gortynia................ 455   Helorus................. 390   Hybla Herea........... 398,
Gortynius............. 477  Helos................... 583      "   Major............ 398
Gortys................. 601   Helvetii................. 152     "   Parva............ 392
Gothini................. 230  Helvii................  101  Hydaspes.............. 605
Gotones................ 231  Heniochi................ 704  Hydraotes.............. 605
Graccurris.............. 57   Heptanomis............. 725    Hydrea................. 589
Grsecia................ 465   Heraclea (Lucan.)....... 368  Hydruntum or Hydrus... 363
"     Magna........... 250          (Lyncest.).....  448  Hyele.................. 372
Grammos Mons......... 448        "      (Maced.)....... 451  Hygris.................. 23T
Grampius Mons...... 11,170               Minoa........ 395   Hylas................ 633
Granua............ 221        "     Pontica...... 634   Hyle................... 539
Gratianopolis.......... 113            (Thrac0....... 435   Hylice (Lacus)......... 531
Graviscse............... 293           (Trachin.)..... 504  Hyllaicus............... 420
Griselum................111  Heracleopolis Magna.... 737  Hyllus.................. 620
Grudii................ 141  Heracleum.............. 639   Hymettus............... 556
Grumentum.......... 374   Herea.................. 594   Hypacaris.............. 236
Grumum............... 361     Hersei Montes........... 388  Hypea.............1....15
Gryneum............... 631  Herculaneum.......... 341  Hypsepa................ 621
Gugerni................ 147  Herculis Prom. (Brit.)... 171  Hypanis (Europ.)....... 236
Guntia................. 241       "      "   (Ital.) 255, 380    "    (Asiat.).........06
(urbs)..2........ 242   Hercynia Silva.......... 218   Hypata................. 506
Guttalus................ 236  Herdonia................ 358  Hyperborei Montes...... 11
Gyarus................. 598  Herius..................   129  Hyperesa................497
Gygsea Palus..........- 620   Hermasum Prom. (Afric4. 711    Hyperesia.............. 569
Gyndes............... 687         d            (Sard.>. 405  Hyphasis............... 605
Gypsitis (insula)......... 747  Hermantica...........-. 40   Hypsas................. 390
Gyrton............. 496  Hermin Street.......... 204   Hyrcania............... 697
Gythium...............   583  Herminius Mons........ 24     Hyria (or Uria)......... 364
Hermione............... 589   Hyrmine............... 483
H.                Hermon (Mons)......... 676
Hadria (Venet.)......... 286            Minor......... 668IL
" (Praetut.)....... 305    Hermonthis............. 740     Jadera....4.............. 408
Hadriani —-............... 633  Hermopolis Magna...... 738   lalysus................. 657
Hadiianopolis (Epir.).... 416             Parva....... 734   Iantrus................. 245
(Maced.).. 441   Hermunduri........... 228      apydes................. 407
(Bithyn.).. 635  Hermus................ 607    Iapygia............ 355, 361
Hadriaticum Mare....... 269    Hernici................. 327  Iapygium Promontorium. 257
Hadriaticus Sinus.....   8  Herodium.............. 673    lapygum Tria Prom....    256
Hadrumetum........... 716  Heroopolis.............. 736  Iassius Sinus............ 604
Haemus Mons........... 422    Herobpolites Sinus...... 679  lasonium Promontorium. 605
Hales............... 624      Heshbon.............. 676     Iasonius Mons........... 693
Halesium..........        629  Hesperia................ 14 Ilassus.................. 618
Haliacmon............. 445  Hesperium Prom........710  Iatinum................. 135
Haliartus............... 536  Hestiteotis.............. 493  Iatrus.................. 245
Halicarnassus........... 617  Hestias................. 423  laxartes................60
Halmydessus......... 440 IHexamilion............. 433       Iazyges Metanastas.. 233, 235
Ilalone............ 652     Hibernia................ 208  Ibera.................. 65
lialos (Phthiot.)........ 499  Hibernicus Oceanus......170  Iberi................... 31
Halycus................ 390  Hierapolis (Phryg.)..... 643  Iberia (Hispania)...... 13, 14
Halys.............. 607, 635      "      (Syr.)...... 662   Iberia (Asiat.)........... 705
Hamaxia............... 610    Hierapytna.............601    Ibernium............ 191
Ttamaxobii.............. 235   Hiericus............... 672   Iberus................ 26
Hannibalis Portus....... 37   Hierne................. 208  Icaria or Icarus......... 655
Harma................. 539  Hiero-Cassarea.......... 620  Icauna.................. 90
Harmozica.............   706  Hieromax...............'676   Iccius Portus............ 140
Harmozon Promontorium 692      Hierosolyma............ 672   Iceni....................94
Harmuza....... 692    Hiileviones.......2...... 232  Ichnsa..........         453
Harpagium............ 626     Himera................. 397    Iehnusa................. 403
Harpessus.............. 424      "    (fluvius)......... 390  chthyophagorum Sinus.. 680
Hatra................. 682    Hipparis............ 390      Ichthys................ 483
Hebrides............... 212   Hippo Regius........... 714   Iciani.................. 194
Hebron................. 673       "   Zarytus.......... 716  Iconium................ 650
Hebrus................. 424 IHippociene............. 533    Icosium................ 712
Hecatompylon.......... 697    Hippcniates Sinus....... 268   Ida Mons............... 539




760                            GENERAL INDEX.
Page                          Page                           Page
Idalium................. 659  Issus................... 612  Lambrus............... 259
rdomene................ 455  Ister...................... 219  Lameticus Sinus........ 268
IdubedaMons........... 23    Isthmus (Corinth.)....... 566  Lamia................. 504
Idumai................. 678   Istropolis............... 246  Laminium............. 59
Idumania............... 173  Isirium................. 200  Lampetia.............. 381
lerne................... 208  Itabyrius Mons.......... 668  Lampsacus............. 627
Iernis................... 211  Italica(Hisp.)........ 48   Lamus.................. 610
Igiedita................. 40     "   (Pelig.)......... 310  Lance.................. 56
iilgilis................. 712  Italia.................. 246  Lancia Oppidana........ 40
Igilium................. 298  Ithaca.................. 512' Transcudana..... 40
Iguvium................ 301  Ithoria................. 516  Landobris.............. 70
Ikenild Street........... 203  Itium.................... 87  Langobardi............. 230
Ila..................... 174  Itius Portus............. 140  Langobriga (Celt.)....... 39
Ilargus................ 241  Iton.................... 499             (Lusit.)......  40
Ilercaones.............. 54  Ituna lEstuarium........ 175  Lanuvium.............. 3:23
Ilerda.................. 61  Ituraea................. 676  Laodicea Combusta..... 64:3
Ilergetes................ 54  Ituria.................. 175       "     ad Libanum... 66(5
Ilicis................. 63   Iulis................... 597             ad Lycum..... 644
Iicitanus Sinus......... 63  Ivernus................. 210      "     ad Mare....... 6f;6
Ilipa or Ilipula........... 47              J                Lapurdum.............. 119
Magna..... 48                                  Laranda................ 65 L
Ilipula Mons......... 12, 23  Jabadii Montes......... 703  Larinum................ 35.5
Ilissus.............. 480, 547  Jabbok................. 676  Larissa................ 49;i
Ilium Novum........... 629  Jacca................... 57    "   (Phriconis)....... 631
Illiberis (Hisp.).......... 50  Jacetani................ 53  Larissus............ 476, 571
is   (Gallic.)......... 103  Jammona........... 69   Larius Lacus........... 264
Illiturgis................ 48  Jamnia................. 671  Larymna............... 538
Illyria Barbara or Romana 54  Jamno................. 68     Latium Novum.......... 318
h   Grseca............ 54   Jasonium Prom...... 605, 639.     Vetus..... 318
illyricum.............. 406  Jasonius Mons.......... 693  Latmicus Sinus......... 624
Ilorci................... 62  Jathrippa.........       679  Latmus................. 6:5
Iluro................... 66  Jena YEstuarium........ 175  Latopolis............... 740
Ilva.................... 297  Jericho................ 672  Laumellum.......... 277
h:naus Mons............. 700  Jerusalem............. 672  Laurentum......... 322
hnbros................. 652  Jezrael................. 674  Lauriacum............. 242
inma.................. 662   Joppa —................  671  Laurium................ 554
laachus (Acarn.)........ 475  Jordanes................ 669  Lauron...............  63
t' (Argol.)........ 479  Jotapata................ 675  Lads....3..........  373
Inarime............ 348  Juda.................. 671      "  (fluvius)....... 268, 373
Inldia................... 700  Julia Ctesarea.......... 712   "   Sinus......... 268, 373
Indigetes............. 54     "     Gordus........... 620  Laus Pompeia........... 279
li:dus................... 605  Juliacam............... 149  Lausanna............... 156
laierum Mare........... 269   Juliobriga............... 56   Lavara................. 40
ingena................. 128  Juliomagus............. 129   Lavinium............... 322
Insani Molates.......... 404  Juliopolis............. 635  Lebadea............. 537
Insubres................ 276  Julium Carnicum........ 287  Lebedus................ 623
Insula Sacra........... 322  Julius Portus........ 267, 339  Leborini Campi......... 340
Insulae Choerads........ 367        Vicus;-.........-. 150  Lechaeum............... 564
Diomedese....... 356   Junonis (insula)......... 45  Lectum Promontorium.. 605
Interamna.............. 302     "     Prom........... 25    Ledus.................. 104
"     (Frentana).... 354  Jura Mons....... 11, 85      Legio Septima Gemina... 56
"     (Praetutiana).. 305  Juroeipaach............. 706  Lelaanonius Sinus....... 175
Interamnium Flavium.. 56   Justinopolis............. 288  Lemanianus or Lemanus
Internum Mare.........    8  Juvavia............. 242         Portus............ 176, 187
lolcos.................. 502  Juverna............ 208      Lemanus Lacus......... 154
lonia............... 619, 621  Juverni................. 210  Lemnos............... 652
lonium Mare........... 488   Juvernis................ 211  Lemovices.............. 118
Ionopolis............... 636               K.               Lentia.................. 242
Ipni.................... 486                                Leontes................. 667
I)sus................... 642  Kars................ 684     Leontini.............. 392
Ira............... 580  Kerata.................. 540   Lepinus Mons........... 330
Iria Flavia.............. 55  Kison.................. 667  Lepontii........... 240
Irinus Sinus............. 702  Knakion................ 584  Lepraeum............... 576
Iris..................... 637                       Leptis Magna........... 719
Isaca................... 176                                       Parva............ 716
Isala................... 220  Labeates............ 407     Lerna................... 587
Isamnium.........2. 210  Labicum............... 327  Leron.............. 115
Isara................. 90, 92  Labranda............... 618  Leros.................. 656
Isargus................ 241  Lacerea................ 502   Lesa.................. 406
Isarii............... 241    Lacetani................ 54    Lesbos.................. 653
Isarus.................. 241  Lacinium Promontorium. 256    Lessa................... 590
Isaura.................. 651  Lacobriga (Lusit.)....... 37  Lethaeus................ 621
Isauria.............     651       "    (Vaccaeorum).. 57    Letrini.................. 575
Isca Damnoniorum...... 191    Laconia................ 580   Leuca.................. 364
"< Silurum............ 197   Laconicus Sinus......... 487   Leucadia                501
Ischalis................. 189  Lactoduumn........... 195   Leucas..............
Isius Mons.............. 74Z  Ladon............... 477  Leucate Prom....... 483, 510
Ismarum Promontorium. 423     Laspa................... 43 *Leuce Acte............. 435
Ismenus.......    480, 5:35  Lmvi............... 276     ("    Come............ 679
Issa.................... 411  Lagaria................. 369  Leuci..................  139
Issedones............... 708  Laius Portus............ 654        Montes.......... 600
issicus Sinus............ 604  Laletani................ 54  Leucolla............. 659




GENERAL INDEX.                                        761
Pgge                                                          Page
Leucopetra............. 255   Lugdunensis Tertia.....    83   Malea................. 484
Leucopibia.......... 208         "      Quarta..... 83    Maleas (insula).......... 175
Leuctra................ 533   Lugdunum............. 130       Maleventum............ 352
Leuctrum............... 579      "    Batavorum 146, 148    Maliacus Sinus.......... 488
Leuphana............... 225         "     Convenarum.. 120     Maliarpha.-.......7.. 702
Lexovii................. 125   Lu<-uvallum............ 201   Malienses............... 503
Libanus Mons........... 664     Luna.................. 290    Mallorum Metropolis.... 702
Libethra................ 452   Lunes Montes........... 710   Mallus.................. 611
Libethrius.............. 536     "   Silva............. 219      "   (fluvius).......... 477
Libethrus............... 452   Luppia................. 222    Mamertiun............. 384
Libicii.............. 276      Luquido................ 405    Mamma............... 715
Libinius................ 210  Lusitani.............. 32, 35  Mancunium............. 202
Libisosia................ 59    Lusitania............ 21, 35  Mandela................ 307
Libora.................. 58     Lusius.................. 477   Mandas................ 701
Liburni................ 407    Lutia............... 61   Manduessedum.......... 199
Liburnides Insulas....... 411  Lutetia Parisiorum...... 136   Manduria.............. 365
Libya.................. 708    Lutosa................ 133     Maniolsi (insulae)........ 703
" Interior........... 749   Lutudarum........... 202       Mantinea............... 592
Libycum Mare.......... 488    Luxia.................. 31     Mantinorum Oppidum.-. 402
Libyssa................ 634   Luxovium.............. 155      Mantua (Hisp.).......... 59
Licates................. 241  Lycabettus.............. 547       "    (Ital.)........... 280
Lichades (insula)........ 520  Lycaonia............... 650   Maracanda.............. 699
Licus.................. 241   Lychnidus............ 411      Marathon............... 555
Liger.................... 90  Lychnitis Palus..... 411, 683  Marciana Silva.......... 219
Ligures................. 249   Lycia................ 613      Marcianopolis........... 246
Liguria................ 270   Lycopolis.......... 738   Marciliana.............. 374
Ligusticus Sinus......... 267  Lycorea................ 526    Marcina................ 347
Lilaea........... 528     Lycormas............ 475       Marcomagus............ 143
Lilybaeum.............. 396  Lycosura.............. 594  Marcomanni............ 229
i     Promontorium. 389    Lyctus.................. 601    Margiana.............. 698
Limagus................ 156    Lycus (Assyr.).......... 687   Margus (fluv. As.)...... 698
Limanus................ 176      "    (Pont.)........... 606          (',   Moes.)...2. 245
Limax.................. 478      "   (Sarmat.)......... 236     "    (urbs)......... 245
Limia.................. 31    Lydda................. 672  Mareotis Lacus.......... 7:30
Limns................. 579| Lydia.................. 618      Mariaba................ 679
Limonum............... 120    Lydias.................446  Mariana................ 402
Lindum................ 200    Lyncestis............... 447   Marianus Mons......... 23,' Damniorum..... 208      Lyncus................. 447    Marinum Promontorium. 402
Lindus................ 657    Lystra................. 651    Marisus.....2........... 234
Lingon Mons............ 471                                   Maritima Aduaticorum... 107
Lingones........... 127,276                 M.                 Marmarica............. 722
Linum................ 627     Maci............. 680   Maronea (Ital.).......... 351
Lipara.................. 400   Macedonia.............. 441         "    (Thrac.)....... 430
Lipareas (insulae)........ 400  Macestus............ 626   Marpessa Mons.......... 598
Liria.................... 64  Machaerus.............. 676    Marrucini............... 312
Liris................. 261    Macistus................ 576   Marruvium............. 309
Lissius................. 389  Macoraba............... 679    Marsi.............. 227, 309
Lissus................. 4008I Macra.................. 272    Marus.......... 221, 230
Litana Silva............. 283! Macris................. 555    Masada................. 673
Literna Palus........... 338  Macrobii................ 743    Masius Mons............ 680
Liternum............... 337   Macrones............... 640    Mastusia Mons....... 621
Liternus................ 337  Madytus................. 433        "    Promontorium. 4423
Lixus................... 712 i Mseata................ 185     Matinum.............-. 357
Locras.................. 401   Maeander........... 607, 620   Matrona................ 90
Locri.................... 379  Msnalus Mons.......... 595     Mattiaci................. 228
" Epicnemidii....... 519    Maenaria................ 297  Mattium............... 228
" Opuntii........... 520     Maenoba............ 47    Mauritania.............. 711
Ozolas............ 518       "   (fluvius)........ 31  Maxima Caesariensis..... 169
Locris................. 518  Mseotis Palus............   9       "    Sequanorum. -.. 84
I,ogana................. 222  Miesolia............... 702    Maximianopolis........ 441
Logi.................... 184  Maesolus................ 701   Mazaca................. 648
[.ogia................... 210  Magetobriga........ 155   Mazarus................ 390
Londinium............. 192  Magiovinium........ 195        Medeon........ 408, 511
Longanus............... 390    Magna.................. 207     Media.................. 693
Longus ]Estuarium...... 175   Magna Graecia.......... 250    Mediolanium.-a......... 227
Lopo'agium............ 155    Magn................ 197    Mediolanum (Aulerc.)..- 129
Lotophagi.............. 719   Magnatae........... 210, 211        "      (Britt.)..39
Loxa................... 174    Magnesia............. 501           "      (Gugern.)... 148
Luca................... 290        "    ad Meaandrum. 621       "       (Ital.)....... 278
Lucania................ 367             ad Sipylum.... 620               (Santon.)... 121
Lucentum............. 63           "    Promontorium. 486     Meduacus Major........ 262
Luceria................. 358   Magnesium Prom........ 486          "    Minor........ 262
Lucretilis Mons....... 307    Magnum Prom. (Hisp.).. 25      Mediomatrici............ 139
Lucrinus Lacus......... 266       "       "   (Ind.).... 605  Meduana................ 90
Lucus.................. 310   Magnus Portus........ 176      Medubrica............. 39
" Angitiae.......... 310       "     Sinus........... 604   Medullus Mons.......... 24
"   Asturum......... 56     Mago.................. 68     Mcduma................ 381
"   Feroniae......... 290'Magontiacum........... 150    Medus................. 691
"   Semnonum...... 219     Magrada.............. 31       Megalopolis............. 94
Lugdunensis (Gallia). 81, 123  Majorca................ 68    Megara................. 541
Prima..... 83     Malaca............... 31, 47  Megara Hyblaea......... 392
Secunda.. 83     Malanga................ 702   M6garis................. 540




76~                             GENERAL INDEX.
Page                           Page                            Page
Meierdas............... 706   Minturnw.t............. 333
MZ-iddo.. ——... 674    Misenum............... 338N
Melwna Prom...... 605, 623  Misenum Promontorium. 254     Naamalcha............. 685
Melanes Montes......... 679   Mirobriga............... 48     Naarsares.............. 685
Mclaunogtuli............ 749  Moabitse................ 678  Nabseus................. 175
Melas (As.)............. 613  Mocissus............... 648    Nabathei............... 678
"k (Gr.)............. 538  Modonus........ —..... 210    Nablis.................. 221
Meldi............. 127, 135   Mcnus............. 222   Nacolea................ 642
Meles..................  623  Mcris Lacus........... 730    Nwbis.................. 31
Melibocus Mons.........  218  Moesia.................. 245   Nagara................. 702
Meliboea................ 502  Moguntiacum........... 150     Naissus................. 245
Melisse................ 643 lMolossis................ 415    Namadus.............. 700
Melita.s........... 400, 412  Molycria............... 517    Namnetes........ 124
Melittaa (As.)............ 643  Mona (Cwesaris)......... 212  Nande.................. 695
"    (Thess.)........ 499    "   (Taciti)......... 212   Nantuates............... 102
Melitene................ 649  Monalus............... 390     Naparis................. 234
Mellaria................ 46   Monapia................ 212     Napata................. 746
Melodunum............. 135     Mons Albanus........... 324    Napetinus Sinus.......... 268
Melos.................. 597     "   Alburnus.......... 374    Nar................... 260
Melsus................ 31' Lepinus........... 330     Narbo Martius........... 103
Memini................. 102     "   Massicus.......... 344   Narbonensis......... 81, 100
Memnonis Tumulus..... 626        "  Taburnus......... 352         "      Prima...... 8
Memphis............... 737      "   Tifata............ 346         "      Secunda.... F-2
Menapia (Britt.)......... 198   "   Tifernus.......... 351   Narisci................ 228
"    (Hibern.)....... 211   "   Vesuvius.......... 341    Narnia.................. 302
Menapii (Gall.)......... 137    "   Vultur........... 359    Naro............... 407'    (Hibern.)....... 211  Mophis................. 700    Narona................ 408
Mende.................. 459!Mopsucrene............. 611      Narthacium............. 498
tMendes................. 735  Moricambe iEstuarium.. 175   Narycium............... 521
Mend(esium Ostium...... 729    Moridunum............. 191 iNasium................. 145
Menebria............... 440 |Morimarusa.............     9   Nastus................. 445
Menlai Portus.......... 723  Morini.................. 139   Natiso................... 27
Menevia................ 198   Moron.................. 39     Nanaguna............... 700
Meninx (insula)......... 718  Morosgi................ 57     Naucratis.............. 734
"<   (urbs).......... 719   Mortuum Mare.......... 669     Naulochus.............. 398
Menosca................ 57    Mosa................... 91     Naupactus.............. 518
Menuthias........ 748    Moscha................. 680    Nauplia................. 587
Merinum............... 357    Moschici Montes......... 683    Navilubio......... 31
Merobriga.............. 37    Moschius.............. 245     Naxos (urbs)............ 392
Meroe.................. 744   Mostevia................ 191     "   (insula).......... 598
Mese................... 115   Mosynceci.............. 639    Nazada................. 695
Mesambria.............. 440   Mosychlus.............. 652    Nazareth............... 675
Mesene................. 687   Motya................. 396     Neaithus................ 376
Mesma................. 381    Motycanus.............. 390     Neapolis....,........ 340
Mesopotamia............ 680'Munda (fluvius)......... 29         "    (Afric.)......... 716
Messa.................. 583;    "    (urbs)......... 49        "    (Sard.)......... 405
Messana................ 391   Mundi Emporium....... 748      Nebo Mons............. 076
Messapia....... 355, 361, 364  Munychia............... 552   Nebrissa................ 49
Messeis................ 497   Mulucha................ 711    Nebrodes Montes........ 388
Messene................ 579  Murgis................. 47  Neda................... 478
Messenia................ 576   Mursia.................. 44     Nelon................... 512
Messeniacus Sinus....... 487   Mutina................. 282    Nemausus............. 104
Messogis................ 619   Murus................ 59       Nemea................. 590
Messua Collis........... 88   Mycale Mons............ 624 |         (fluvius).......... 475
Metagonium Prom....... 711     Mycalessus.............. 539    Nemetacum.;........... 142
Metalliferi Montes....... 12  Mycenae................ 588    Nemetobriga............ 56
Metapontum............ 368    Mychus................ 526      Neo Csesarea............ 640
Metaris lEstuarium...... 173  Myconos............. 598       Neoclaudiopolis......... 0(37
Methone (Argol.)........ 589  Mygdonia............. 456      Neon................... 5'28
"    (Maced.)....... 452   Mygdonius............. 680      Neon Tichos............ 6;31
"    (Messen.)...... 578  Mylse.................. 398     Nericum.............. 510
Metbymna............ 653   Mylas.................. 398    Neritis.............. 510
Metina.............. 92, 114  Mylasa............... 618      Neritos................. 512
Metropolis (Germ.)... 237  Myndus............... 618      Nerium Promontorium.. 25
"      (Ttess.).. 494, 501  Myos Hormos-.......... 741     Neroassus.............. c49
Mettis................. 145   Myonesus............... 499    Net-ulum................:74
Mctulum................ 408    Myra................... 618    Nervii.................. 138
Mevania................ 301   Myrae.................. 501    Nesis...................:348
Michlmas................ 672   Myrcinus..........  426  Nestus................. 424
Midrfium................ 642  Myrina................. 631    Niea.a......... 110, 271
Midianitae..............  678  Myriandrus............ 612        "  (Bithyn.)......... 633
Mieza................... 455   Myrlea................. 633          (Indica).......... 702
Milatae.................. 244  Myrrhinus.......... 555         (Locr.)........... 520
Miletopolis............. 237  Myrsinus............... 573    Nicephorium............ 681
Miletus................. 624  Myrtilis................ 38     Nicer................. 222
Minwsi.......... 679     Myrtoum Mare....... 489    Nici Dromos.......... 748
Mincius................. 259   Myrtuntium......... 509     Nicia................... 260
Minervye Promontorium. 254    Mysia.................. 625    Nicomedia.............. 633
Mniius.................. 29   Mytilene............... 653    Nicopolis (Armen.)...... 682
Minoa (Cret.)........... 601  Myus............  5.....    625    "    (Epir.).... 448i, 508
"     (Megar.).......... 542                                    "    ad Istrum...... 24(
IMinorca................'69                                      a    ad Nestum..... 430




GENERAL INDEX.                                       763
Page                           Page                           Page
Nidum................. 197     Oceanus ESus........... 603  Orestia................. 448
Nidus.................. 197       "    Germanicus....    8   Orestis................ 448
Niger................... 710          Hibernicus..... 170   Oretani................ 53
Nigira................. 749      "    Indicus....602, 603   Orethus................ 390
Nigrite................. 749     "    Sarmaticus.... 236    Oretum............  59
Nilus............... 710, 728    "    Septentrionalis..  9   Organa.............. 692
Ninive )                          "     Verginicus...... 170  Orgus.................. 270
Ninus.. —" —---—. — 688     Ocellum................ 172   Oricus.................. 410
Niphates Mons..........'683   Ocetis.................. 213  Oriuns-................. 407
Nismca (Marg.).......... 698   Ocha................... 558   Ormenium.............. 502
"   (Megar.).......... 542   Ocra Mons.............. 243   Orobise................. 560
Nisibis.................. 681  Ocriculum.............. 302  Orontes............ 607, 660
Nisyrus................ 599    Ocrinum................ 171    Oropus................. 540
Nitiobriges..........  117,119  Octapetarum Prom...... 171  Orospeda Mons......... 23
Nitrariwa Fodina.........731  Octodurus............. 114    Orra................ 380
Nivaria................. 750      "     (Veragr.)...... 102  Orsera................. 133
Niveris................. 134  Oculisma............... 121   Ortona................. 354
Nivernum.............. 134    Odessus................ 246   Ortospana.............. 696
Noa.................... 398   Odomanti.............. 426     Ortygia................. 393
Noega............ 56      Odrysat................. 426   Osca................... 61
Nceomagus............. 112     CEa.....................  719  Osci....2............... 250
Noes.................. 245    (Eanthe................. 519  Osismii.................. 125
Noiodunum............. 156     (Easo...................   58  Osroene.......... 681
Nola.................... 346     "   Promontoriumn..... 25    Ossa.................. 501
Nornentum............. 306    (Echardes............... 708   Ossonoba..............   37
Nonacris............... 593   (Eneon................. 519   Ostia............ 321
Nora (Cappad.)......... 649   (Eni Pons............: 242     Ostime Lacus............ 321
"  (Sardin.).......... 405  CEniada................ 510   Otadeni............... 183
Norba.................. 331   (Enoe.................. 639   Othrys Mons........  471, 497
" Cmsarea.......... 39      CEuotri................. 250 iOvilia........... 242
Noreia.................. 242  CEnus.................. 219  Oxthracae............. 39
Noricum........-.....   242  (.lscus.................. 245  Oxus............... 606, 698
Nostrum Mare.........      8  CEsyme................ 428     Oxybii...................102
Notium................. 654   (Eta.................... 505  Oxyrynchus............ 738
"   Prom. (Hibern.).. 210  (Etylus................. 583
(Afric.).... 710  Ogdamus Mons.......... 722                 P.
Nova.................. 150    Ogia.........156               Pachynum Prom......... 389
Novanta...............   182  Olbia (Cilic.)............ 611  Pactye.................. 434
Novantum Portus....... 208          (Gallic.)........... 109  Pactolus............... 620'     Prom.... 171, 175    "   (Pamphyl.)........ 613   Padus.................. 258
Novanus................ 312         (Sardin.).......... 405  Padusa................. 258
Novaria................ 277      "   (Sarmat.)......... 237  Psanium............... 516
Novem Populana....... 82      Olcachites Sinus....... 714  Pae5nia................ 463:'   Vim............ 427   Olierus................. 597  Psstanus Sinus......... 268
Novesium....1......... 149    Olenus.................. 571   Pestum................ 371
Noviodunum....... 122, 134  Olintigi.................  43  Paeti.................... 426
Noviomagus (Batav.)..... 148   Olisipo..................  38  Pag.................... 542
(Bitur.)..... 120  Olisiponense Prom....... 25    PagassB................ 502
(Britann.)... 188  Ollius..................- 259  Pagasweus Sinus......... 4R8
" (Lexob.).... 129        Olmius................. 533   Pagre................. 662
"      (Nemet.).... 150   Olp s.....-............. 509   Palmapaphos............. 658
(Trevir.)... 144  Oltis...............    89   Palepolis.............. 340
Novioregum............ 121    Olympia............... 574     Paleerus................ 510
Novum Ilium........... 629    Olympus............... 615    Palmescepsis............. 628
Novus Portus......... 176              (Cypr.)........ 658  Palsaste................ 415
Nuceria (Cis. Gall.)...... 283           Mons......... 445   Palestina............... 668
"    (Campan.)...... 347   Olynthus............... 459   Palatyrus.............. 667
"    (Umbra)........ 301   Omanito............... 680    Palanta................. 402
Numana................ 303    Ombos................. 741  Palantia (Asturum)...... 56
Numantia............... 60     Onchesmus............. 415        I    (Vaccasor.).... 52
Numicius............... 322   Onchestus.............. 536   Palibothra.............. 702
Numidia................ 712  Onoba.................. 43    Palica.................. 399
Numistro............. 374     Onobhalus............... 389  Palinurum Promontorium 255
Nursia.................. 308  Onobrisates............. 118  Palla................... 402
Nymphmaum............ 621     Onugnathos Prom........ 484    Pallakopas............. 685
" Prom...... 446         Ooracta................ 692   Pallantia................ 58
Nymphsus............. 335     Ophis................... 592   Pallantias............... 64
Nysa (Iydia)............ 621 i Ophiusa................ 69  Palle.............. 512
(Indica)........... 702   Ophiussa............... 652   Pallene................. 458
Nyssa...............     648  Opici.....2...........    250  Palma.................. 69
Oppidum Ubiorum...... 149     Palmaria................ 334
0.                Opsikella............... 57   Palmyra................ 663
Oasis (Ammon.)........ 723    Opuntius Sinus..... 488, 521  Palmyrene.............. 663
"    Major............ 742  Opus................... 521   Paludes Po;ntinm........ 335
"<  Minor............ 742   Orbelus................ 444    Palus Acherusia......... 414
Oboca.................. 210   Orcades................ 213         Lerna............. 587
Obris.................. 104   Orcas................. 172      "   Literna........... 338
Oceanus Arctous........    9  Orchoe................. 687     "   Maeotis......... 9, 237
" Britannicus.....      8  Orchomenus (Arcad.).... 537      d   Pambotis.......... 418
"    Borealis........   9       "       (Boeot.).... 593   "   Salapina........... 358
"    Cantabricus.....    8  Ordessus............... 234     "   Tritonis........... 715
"     Duecaledonius.. 170   Ordovices............. 180    Pambotis Palus......... 418




764                            GENERAL INDEX.
Page                           Page                          Page
Pamisus................ 478  Persaa Rhodiorum..... 616   Picentia................ 347
Pamphylia.............. 612   Perce.................. 421   Picentini................. 347
Pandataria.............. 348  Percote................ 627    Picenum............... 302
Pandosia (Brutt.)....... 383  Pergamus.............. 631    Pictones................ 118
(Lucan.)....... 368     "     (Thrac.)....... 428  Pictonum Promcntorium. 87
(Moloss.)....... 418  Perge............... 613  Pieres.................. 428
Pangaeus................ 423  Perinthus.............. 4:35  Pieria................. 450
Panionium.............. 622   Perisadii............... 410    "   (Syr.)............ 662
Pannonia............... 243  Permessus......... 480, 533  Piericus Sinus.......... 428
Pannonii............... 408   Persepolis.............. 691  Pigrum Mare...........   8
Panopolis............... 738  Persicus Sinus....... 604 I Pinara................ 614
Panormus (Attic.)....... 555  Persia.................. 690 I Pindenissus............. 612
"     (Cyzic.)...... 626  Perusia................. 295  Pindus................. 522
"     (Epir.)....... 415  Peside.................. 749 ",  Mons........ 413, 471
"     (81cuL)..... 397   Pessinus................ 645    "     /fluvius).......... 522
Pantagias.............. 389   Petalia............... 485    Pinna................... 311
Pantanus Lacus......... 356   Petilia (Brutt.)........... 376  Pintia.................. 58
Panticapeum........... 239   "I     (Lucan.)......... 372  Piraeus................. 532
Paphlagonia............ 635  Petra................. 679    Pirus................. 476
Paphos................ 658    Petriana............... 207  Pisa.................... 574
Parachoathras Mons..... 693   Petrocorii.............. 118  Pisae................... 290
Paretonium............ 723   Peucetia................ 360 i Pisatis.................. 574
Paraxia................ 457   Peucini................ 235  Pisaurum............... 299
Parentium.............. 288  Phabiranum............. 225   Pisaurus................ 300
Parisii................ 127  Phagres................ 428   Pisidia................ 646
Parium................. 627   Phalachthia............. 500  Pistoria................. 290
Parma.................. 282    Phalacrum Prom......... 421   Pist.rus................ 430
(fluvius).......... 260  Phalanna............... 496  Pitane.................. 631
Parnassus............... 648   Phalasarna.............. 600  Pithecusa............... 348
"     Mons......... 527   Phalasia............ 485  Pitinum................ 312
(" Cappad.)...... 648      Phaleria................ 493  "  *   (Pisaurense)..... 300
Paropamisadw.......... 696    Phalerum............... 552   Pitonius................ 265
Paropamisus Mons...... 700    Phane............ 654  Pityea.................. 627
Paros.................. 597     "      Promontorium 605, 654  Pityu.s.-............. 704
Parthenium Prom....... 238   Phanagoria.............. 704  Pityusae Insulte....... 68, 69
Parthenius.............. 632  Phanote................ 415  Placentia............... 281
Parthenope............. 340   Pharnacia-.............. 639  Placia................. 626
Parthia................. 696 I Pharos................. 411  Planasia............... 115
Parthini............... 410   Pharsalus.............. 498................. 298
Parthissus............. 2.34  Pharusii................ 749  Plataeas................. 534
Parthus............. 410      Pharygium Prom........ 526   Plavis.............. 263
Parthyene.............. 697   Phaselis................ 615  Plemmyrium Prom...... 393
Pasargadae.............. 691   Phasis............ 2, 606,705 i Pleuron............. 516
Pasitigris............... 606  Phatniticum Ostium..... 729     "    Nova............ 516
Passaron................ 418  Phaura............ 554      Plinthinetes Sinus....... 722
Patara............... 614      Phazania................ 749  Plistus................. 475
Patraa.................. 570  Pheia................... 483  Plotinopolis........... 441
Patavium............ 286      Pheneus............. 593     Plumbarii............... 39
Patmos................. 655   PherEs.................... 497  Podandus............... 649
Pattala................. 702   Phigalea............... 595  Posdiculi................ 360
Patycus.............. 380     Phila............. 450       Pogon.................. 589
Parisi.............. 179   Philadelphia............ 621  Pola.................... 288
Pausilypus.............. 340  Philae.................. 741  Polaticum Promontorium 258
Pax Julia............... 38   Phileae................. 440  Polaticus Sinus.......... 269
Paxos................. 421    Philia Promontorium.... 423  Polemonium............  639
Pedum................. 327    Philippi................. 429  Pollentia (Balear.)....... 69
Pelagones............... 463  Philippopolis............ 440      "    (Ital.).......... 273
Pelagonia............... 464  Philomelium............ 643   Poltyobria............. 431
Pelasgiotis.............. 494  Phinea................. 439  Polybotus............... 643
Peligni.................. 310  Phlius.................. 590 | Polytimetus............. 700
Pelion................. 411   Phocaea................. 622  Pompeii........... 342
Pelion Monas............ 501  Phocis.................. 523  Pompeiopolis (Cilic.).... 611
Pella (Maced.)........... 453  Phoenice.............. 415          "      (Paphlag.). 637
"( (Palest.).......... 676  Phoanicia............... 665  Pompelo................ 57
Pellene................. 568  Phoenix (Achaic.)........ 570  Pomponiana............ 115
Pellitreus Mons......... 654     "    (Thessal.)....... 481  Pomtinte paludcs........ 335
Pelodes Portus.......... 416    "     Mons..........617    Pons dElii.............. 207
Peloponnesus....... 466, 562     "    Portus......... 601  Pons Dubis............. 155
Pelorum Promontorium. 389     Pholegandros........... 599  Pons CEni.............. 242
Peltae................... 643  Phorcys............. 512  Pontes.39..2........    192
Pelusium............... 736  Phraata................. 695  Ponti.a............. 334
Penestse................ 411  Phryia................. 641  Pontus (Mces.).......... 246
Peneus (Elidis)....... 476  Phthiotis................ 497     "   (Asiat.).......... 637
"    (Thess.)......... 481  Phthuris................ 746  Pontus Euxinus......... 236
Pennocrucium.......... 199   Phycus Promontorium... 711     Populonium........... 291
Penoxullum......... 172   Phylace............... 499          "     Prom....... 254
Pentapolis.............. 703  Phyle................ 557    Porphyrites Mons....... 729
Pentapotamia....... 605  Pfiyscus................ 687  Porthmus............... 561
Pentelicus Mons......... 556    "    Portus.......... 617   Portus Augusti.......... 321
Pephnus................ 583   Phytia.................. 511     "   Cale............. 55
Peparene............... 630  Pialia................... 493     "   Ctenus.......... 239
Perea.................. 676  Picentes................ 302     "   Dubris........... 177




GENERAL INDEX.                                        765
Page                           Page                            Page
Portus Faronius......... 402   Pythium................ 495    Roboretum.............55
Herculis Liburni.. 291  Pytho................... 527    Roma................. 312
"   Julius........... 339  Pyxus............. 373   Rosei Campi........... 307
Lemanianus..... 176                                    Rotomagus............. 136
(   Lemanus........ 187                  Q.                Rubi................... 361
"  Magnus........... 176  Quadi................. 229  Rubicon................ 262
"   Mulierum........ 439   Quarantania............. 669   Rubricatus............ 31, 66
Roscia....... 376                                      Rudie.................. 363
"   Ritupis.......... 177                R.                      (Peucet.)......... 361
Senum......... 439     Rabbath Ammon........ 678      Ruscino................ 103
"   Symbolorum..... 239              Moab.......... 678    Rusellae............ 292
Syracusanus..... 402   Radis or Ratis........... 156  Rusicada............... 714
"   Telano.......... 292    Rtetia................... 239   Russadir............... 712
"   Titianus........ 402   Ramah................. 672             Promontorium. - 711
Trajani..........  293   Ramoth Galaad.......... 676    Rusticiana.........  40
"   Ulterior.......... 141  Raphia.................. 671    Ruteni................. 119
Veneris.......... 67    Rarapia................. 38     Rutonium...............   199
Victoriae......... 56   Rate............... 199     Rutuba................. 272
Posidium Prom. (Epirot.). 416  Ratiaria................. 245  Rutuli.................. 322
(Lucan.). 255   Ratiatum............    121  Rutupie................ 187
(Maced.). 446   Ratis.............. 156  Ryssadium Prom........ 710
(Thess.). 486   Raudii Campi.......... 278
"i  "   "      (. 499  Rauraci................. 148                  S.
Posidonia............... 371  Rauranum........... 121     Saba (Arab.)............ 679
Potentia (Lucan.)........ 374  Ravenna................ 284         (Afric.)......... 747; (Picen.)........ 304     Ravius............... 210I Sabaei.................. 679
Potidwa................ 458   Reate............... 307   Sabanna................ 703
Potnime................. 534  Redones................ 124  Sabata.................. 272
Praeneste............... 326  Refugium Gela.......... 394     Sabate................. 265
Proetorium.........        66  Reganum............... 221     Sabatinus Lacus......... 265
"     Agrippinea.... 148   Regia................... 211  Sabatra................. 650
Protutii................ 305  Regillum............... 307  Sabatus (Samnit.)....... 352
Prasiae.................. 555  Regillus Lacus.......... 266    "     (Bruttius)...... 381
Prasum................. 711   Reginum............ 241    Sabbatha............... 680
Prasus................. 601   Regni............... 181  Sabelli.............      30. 6
Prepesinthus............ 597   Regnum................ 188  Sabini.....3............. 305
Priapus.............. 626     Reii Apollinares......... 111  Sabinus Lacus.......... 263
Priene.................. 624  Remi................... 143  Sabis................... 91
Prilis Lacus............. 264  Rerigonium............. 208  Sabrata................. 719
Primis Magna...........   746  Resapha................ 663    Sabrina iEstuarium..... 176
Parva............ 746      Rha................. 10, 606  Sacer (Sard.)............ 405
Privernum......... 331         Rhabon................. 234      "   (Cors.)........... 401
Procolitia............... 207  Rhagas................. 694,Sacri Portus............ 327
Proconnesus............ 652   Rhamnus............... 553     Sacrum Prom. (Sard.)... 402
Proni................... 513  Rhapta................. 748       "      " (Hibern.).... 210
Prophtbasia............. 696  Rhaptum Promontorium. 748                 " (Lycium) 605,615
Propontis...............   9  Rhedones......... 124            " (Hispan.).... 25
Prote................... 115   Rhegium............   382   Sefes................... 14
Prusa ad Hypium....... 634    Rheithron............... 512    Saprus............... 405
" ad Olympum...... 633      Rhenus................. 219  Saetabis................. 31
Pselcis................. 746      "   (Ital.)............ 260  Sagalassus.............. 646
Psophis (Arcad.)..... 594     Rherigonius Sinus....... 175   Sagis Ostium............ 258
"    (Zacynth.)...... 513  Rhetico Mons........... 218    Sagras............... 379
Psylli................... 719  Rhidagus............ 697    Sagrus.................. 350
Psyttalea............... 553  Rhizon................. 408  Saguntia................ 61
Ptolemais................ 667  Rhizus................. 501   Saguntum.............. 64
"    (Cyren.)....... 720  Rhinocorura............ 736    Sais.................... 734
" Hermii....... 738       Rhipoei Montes.......... 11    Sala.................... 7.12:     Theron....... 747   Rhium Promontorium              Salacia................. 38
Ptoiis Mons............. 538     "   (Achaic.)..... 483, 570  Salamis (Graec.)......... 554
Pupluna................ 292      "   (YEtolic.)..... 483, 517         (Cypr.)......... 659
Purpuraries Insule...... 750     "   (Corsic~......... 402   Salapia................. 358
Puteolanus Sinus........ 267      "   (Molycr.)......... 517  Salassi.................. 275
Puteoli................. 339  Rhobogdii....... 210           Saldae................. 712
Pydna.................. 452, Rhobogdium.......... 210    Salduba (urbs).......... 64
Pylwe Albania....... 608, 706  Rhoda.................. 67       "    (fluvius)........ 31
Amanicae.......... 612,Rhodani Ostia........... 92       Salernum............... 347
"   Caucasie...... 608,706  Rhodanus............... 91      Salganeus............... 539
Cilicias............ 612  Rhodope Mons....... 12, 423  Salia................... 31
"  Syris............. 612   Rhodus-................ 656  Salinee.................. 11
Pylos (Elidis)........... 573    "    (urbs)........... 657   Sallentini............... 364
(Messen.)......... 578   Rhoeteum.............. 628    Sallentinum Prom....... 257
"   (Triphyl.)......... 575      "     Promontorium. 605     Salmantica............. 40
Pyramus.............. 610     Rhcetius Mons.......... 401    Salmone................ 575
P'yrasus................ 498  Rhosus................. 662  Salmonium Prom........ 599
Pyrenwe Promontorium   25, 88  Rhotanus............... 401    Salo.................... 31
Pyrensei Montes... 12, 22, 85  Rhubon................ 236    Salodurum.............. 156
Pyrenasum Prom..... 25, 88     Rhyndacus......... 626, 632    Salona............ 408
Pyrgi................. 294    Rhype................. 570     Salopia................. 199
Pyrgos............-. 576      Riduna................. 158  Saltus Teutobergiensis... 219
1Pyrrha................. 654  Rigodunum....2....... 202      Salyes.................. 102
Pythangela............. 748   Ritupa................. 187 1 Samaria................ 673




766                           GENERAL INDEX.
Page                          Page                          Pag<
amaria (urbs).......... 674   Scutis................f..23  Sidicini..           344
Same.............. 513  Scylla................. 382  Sidodone............... 69
Samia.................. 575  Scyllacium............ 484  Sidon................... 66
Samarobriva........... 139    Scyllacius Sinus......... 268  Siga............ 712
Samniurn............... 349  Scythia................ 706  Sigesum Promontorium.. 605'    (urbs)......... 350  Scythopolis............. 674    "    (urbs).......... 629
Samochonitis........... 669  Sebaste................. 674  Sigambria........... 228
Samos (insula).......... 654  Sebasticum Stoma....... 747  Signia................. 330
(urbs)........ 655    Sebastopolis............ 705  Sigum................. 222
Samosata............... 662  Sebennytus............. 734  Silandus................ 620
Samothrace..'........ 434     Sebennyticum Ostium... 729   Silarus................. 371
Sancona................ 92   Segeste................. 397  Sila Silva............... 383
Sandaliotis.......... 403    Segobriga............ 59, 64  Silures.................. 180
Sandaracurgium........ 637   Segobudium............ 155   Silviurn............. 361
Sane.................. 461   Segodunum......... 123, 228   Simbrivii Lacus......... 309
Sangarius.............. 607  Segontia................ 61  Simbruina Stagna....... 309
Sanisera............. 69   Segontiaci.............. 179  Simeni................  1F0
Sanitium............... 111  Segontium.............. 198  Simois.607, 629
Santones........... 118    Segusiani............... 128  Sina..703
Santonum Portus........ 121   Segusio................ 274   Sinai Mons.............. 679
" Promontorium        87  Seleucia (Babylonias).... 686  Sinda................. 704
Saoce.............. 435      "   (Susianae)...... 690  Sindus................. 456
Sapsei................. 426          (ad Belum)..... 661   Singara................. 681
Saphar............... 679        "   (Syrime)....... 662  Singidunum............ 245
Sapis.................. 283      "   (Trachea)...... 611   Singilis............ 49
Saralapis............... 405  Seleucis................ 662  Singiticus Sinus......... 446
Sarapana............... 705  Seleucus Mons.......... 112  Sinnus.2............... 283
Sardene................ 619  Selgovwe............... 183  Sinonia............... 334
Sardes.................. 621  Selinus (fluv. Cilic.)...... 610  Sinope................ 636
Sardica................. 245    "   (urbs Cilic.)..... 610  Sinuessa................ 333
Sardinia................ 402    "   (urbs Sicil.)...... 395  Siphab................  532
Sardones............... 101  Sellasia................. 585  Siphnos...............  97
Sarepta................ 667  Selybria................ 435  Sipontum............... 358
Sariphi Montes......... 695   Semnones............. 229    Sipus.................. 358
Sarmatia Asiatica........ 703  Sena Gallica............ 300  Sipylus................ 620'<   Europmea..... 236   Sena Julia.............. 290  Sirbonis Palus.......... 731
Sarmaticus Oceanus..... 235   Senones................ 127  Sirenuses (insulam)....... 347
Sarmia................. 157  "   (urbs).......... 134  Sirenusarum Prom...... 255
Sarmizegethusa......... 234  Senonia...........       83  Siris............. 368, 369
Saronicus Sinus......... 488  Senonum Montes........ 234   Sirmnio...........     263
Sarpedonium Prom...... 423    Sentinum............... 301  Sirmium................ 244
Sarra................... 667  Sepinum................ 351   Sirus Mons............. 425
Sarraca................. 263  Sepphoris.............. 675   Sisapo Nova..........   48
Sarsina......           300  Septentrionalis Oceanus.  9  Sisapo Vetus.........     48
Sarus.................. 610  Septimania............ 82     Siscia............... 244
Saso................... 412  Sequana................ 90    Sithonia................ 460
Satala....... 683' Sequani.............. 151     Sitifi................... 712
Saticula.......... 352     Serapis................. 748  Sitomagus.............. 194
Satrae.................. 426  Serimum.............. 237  Sitones................. 232
Satrapene.......... 688    Serio.................. 120  Sittace................. 689
Satricum.............. 328   Seriphus................ 597  Sittacene............. 688
Saturium............... 367  Sera.................... 708  Smaragdus Mons.........730
Saturni Promontorium... 25    Serica.................. 707  Smila........;...       458
Satyrorum (insula)..... 703  Serrheum.............. 430   Smyrna................ 623
" Prom........ 605      Serus.................. 701   Smyrnaeus Sinus....... 604
Samnium............... 31     Sesamus................ 636   Soatra.................. 650
Savus.......... 219, 244, 245  Sesarethi............... 410  Sogdiana............... 699
Saixetanum............ 47  Sesarethus.............. 410  Soli (Cypr.)............. 659
Saxones...... 226   Sessites................. 259  " (Cilic.)............. 611
Scalabis.................9  Sestos.................. 433  Sollium.....5....... 510
Scaldis................. 91  Sesuvii................. 121  Solorius Mons........... 24
Scamander......... 607, 629  Seteia.Estuarium....... 175  Soluntum............ 397
Scandea.......... 584!Setantiorum Portus...... 175  Sonus................. 703
Scandinavia........... 232   Setia................. 331   Sora.................. 331
Scapte Hyle.......... 428    Setinum................ 88   Sorbiodunum........... 189
Scarcapos......... 405       Setinus Sinus........... 333  Sossius................. 390
Scardona........... 408, 411  Seumara................ 706  Sosthenis................ 501
Scardus........ 12, 407, 444  Sevo Mons.............. 11  Sozopolis.............. 646
Scarphe.............    520  Shiloh.................. 671  Sparta.................. 584
Scepsis................. 628  Siatutanda............. 225  Spartarius Campus...... 34
Scheria........... 416     Sibusates............... 119  Spauta Lacus........... 693
Schaenus.......       564  Sicania................. 384  Speos Artemidos........ 738
Scillus.................. 575  Sicca Veneria........... 714  Sperchia............... 506
Scione................ 459  Sichem................. 674  Sperchius............... 481
Scirtus........... 681    Sicilia.................. 384  Spina................... 284
Scodra................. 407  Sicinos................. 599  Spinw.................. 192
Sicombraria (insula)..... 63  Sicoris.................. 50  Spineticum Ostium...... 258
Scomius Mons....... 12, 444  Siculi............. 249       Spirwum Prom.......... 484
Scordisci.......... 408    Siculum Mare.......... 488   Sphacteria.............. 578
Scoti................... 209  Sicyon................. 568  Spoletium.............. 320
Scotussa.  496   Sicyonia................ 568  Sporades (insulae)....... 598
Scultenna.......        260  Side.................... 613  Stabiae................. 343




GENERAL INDEX.                                        767
Page                           Page                           Page
Stagira.................. 462Taizelum Promontorium. 172        Tedanius.............. 407
Stentoris Palus.......... 424  Talabriga............... 40    Tegea.................. 595
Stenyclerus............. 579  Talcinum............... 402    Telavemptus........ 285, 287
Stereontium............ 227   Tamala................. 703    Teleboae (insulae)........ 513
Stiboetes............... 697  Tamara................. 191     Telesia.................  351
Stobi................... 464  Tamari Ostia............ 176    Telethrius.............. 558
Stoechades........ 115,109    Tamarus................ 176     Telmessus.............. 614
Stratonicea............. 618  Tamasus............... 659     Telo Martius.......... 109
Stratus................ 511   Tamesis................ 172    Telos.................. 599
Strongyle.............. 400   Tamiathis............... 736    Temesa............. 381
Struthnus.............. 484   Tamna................. 679     Temnus................ 631
Strymon................ 424    Tamnum.............. 121"           Mons....... 625
Strymonicus Sinus...425, 446  Tamyne................ 561     Tempe................ 495
Stucia.................. 175  Tanagra............... 539     Tempsa............... 381
Stura................... 259  Tanais (fluvius)..... 236, 606  Tencteri............... 228
Sturius................. 173     "   (urbs)....... 237, 704  Tenea.................. 566
Sturnium............... 364    Tanarus................ 259    Tenedos.......... 653
Stymphalia............. 448   Tanatis................ 211    Tenesis................. 747
Stymphalus............. 593    Tancheira.............. 721    Tenos.................. 598
Styra................... 561   Tanetos............... 211     Tentyra............. 739
Styx................... 593   Tanetum............... 282     Teos.................. 623
Sublaqueum............ 309  Tanis................. 735  Teredon............... 687
Subur.................. 712       " Lacus............ 731     Tergeste................ 287
Suche.................. 747   Taniticum Ostium....... 729    Tergestinus Sinus....... 269
Sucro (fluvius).......... 27  Tanus.................. 479  Terias................. 389
"   (urbs)........... 63    Taphiae (insule)......... 513  Terina................. 381
Sucronensis Sinus.._..... 27   Taphiassus.............. 471  Terinmeus Sinus......... 268
Sudeti Montes........... 218   Taphiussa............. 513     Termes................. 61
Suel.......... 47   Taphos................. 513     Termolus............... 191
Suessa Auruncorum..... 344     Taphrae................. 239    Termessus.............. 646
Suessiones.............. 139  Taphros............ 238, 239   Termus................. 405
Suelteri................. 102  Taposiris............... 722   Testrina............... 308
Suevi.............. 216, 229  Taprobana.............. 703     Teuderium............. 225
Suevicum Mare.........     8  Tarabenorum Vicus..... 402     Teutones......... 227
Sufetula................ 716  Taras................... 367    Teutria............... 356
Suiones................. 232   Tarasco................. 105    Texali.................. 185
Sulcense................ 405   Tarbelli.............. 117     Thabraca....... 714
Sulci................... 405  Tarentinus Sinus...... 268     Thalamie............... 583
Sulloniacae............. 193  Tarentum............... 365    Thamydeni............. 679
Sulmo.................. 311    Targines................ 378    Thapsacus.............. 663
Summum Pyrenaeum.... 58        Tarichaea.............. 675    Thapsus................ 715
Sunium Promontoriun.. 485     Tarnaja................ 114 i          (Sicil.)......... 392
" (urbs).......... 555    Tarnis................ 89       Thasos.........    434
Super Equum........... 311     Tarquiniensis Lacus..... 265      "    (urbs)........... 434
Superum Mare......... 269     Tarquinii............... 293   Thaumaci............... 500
Surrentum Prom........ 255  Tarracina............... 330  Thaumacia............. 502
" (urbs)........ 343      Tarraco................ 65     Thebie................. 535
Sus..................... 452   Tarraconensis......... 21, 50          (Egypt.)......... 739
Susa................... 690   Tarshish................ 44       "   (Phthiot.)........ 498
Susiana................. 689   Tarsus................. 611    Thebais................. 725
Syagros................ 605   Tartarus................ 258    Thebe.............. 630
Sybaris........... 369       Tartessii................ 15    Themiscyra............. 639
Sybota................. 416   Tartessis................ 41    Thene................. 715
Sycfe................... 439  Tartessius Sinus........ 45    Theodosia............ 239
Sycaminon............. 666    Tartessus............. 13, 43  Theopolis............... 662
Syene.................. 741   Taruenna............... 140     Thera................ 599
Symaethus.............. 389  Tarus............... 260, 276  Therapne............. 585
Symplegades............ 419    Tarvidium.............. 172    Thermae Himerenses.... 397
Synnada.......... 642   Tatta................. 641     Thermaicus Sinus....... 446
Synoria................. 682    "   Palus.............. 650   Thermnodon....... 637, 639
Syracusae............... 393   Taum ~Estuarium....... 174     Thermus............... 517
Syria................... 659   Taurasia................ 274   Thermopyla..... 505
Syrinx................. 697   Taurasini Campi........ 353    Thespi................. 533
Syros................... 598   Taurasium.............. 353  Thesprotia.............. 415
Syrtes..-...............   718  Tauresium.............. 246  Thessalia............... 490
Syrtica Regio........... 718  Taurini................. 273    Thessalonica........... 456
Syrtis Major............ 718  Tauris............... 412      This............. 739
"   Minor............ 718  Tauroentum............ 109     Thisbe............. 532
Sythas.................. 568  Tauromenium.......... 392      Thius.................. 477
Taurominius............ 389    Thmuis................. 734
T.                Taurunum............. 244     Thoricus............. 555
Tablae................. 148   Taurus Mons....... 218, 607    Thospitis Palus......... 683
Tacape................. 719   Tava................... 174    Thracia............. 421
Tghcompso............ 746     Tavium................ 646      Thriasius Campus....... 544
Tacola................. 703   Tavola.................. 401   Thronium.............. 520
Tacosanna.............. 703   Taxila.................. 702    Thule.................. 212
Tader.................. 31    Teanum (Apulum)'...... 356      Thuria.................. 579
Taenarum.............. 583      "    (Campan.)...... 344    Thurii.................. 370
" Promontorium. 483       Tearus................. 424   Thyamis................ 414
Tanm.................. 697  Teate (Apulum)......... 356    Thyatira................ 620
Tgigaste................. 714    "   (Marruc.)......... 312  Thynias................ 634
Tagus.................. 28    Tectosages.............. 645       "    Promontorium.. 423




768                             GENERAL INDEX.
Page                           Page                            Page
Thyrea................. 587    Tricornium............. 245   Umbria............. 29.
Thyreates Sinus......... 587   Tricus.................. 113  Umbro................ 292
Thyrides Promontorium. 483     Tridentini.............. 240  Unelli................. 125
Thyrsus................ 405   Tridentum............. 240     Unsingis..............  221
Tiberiadis Mare......... 669  Trileucum Promontorium     25   Uranopolis.............. 461
Tiberias................ 675  Trimontium.......... 208  Urbigenus Pagus....... 152
Tiberis................. 260  Trinacria............... 384   Urbinum (Hortense)..... 300
Tibisca........... 246  Trinius...........!.... 351        "    (Metaurense).. 300
Tibiscum................ 234Trinoantes,,     Urchoa................. 687
Tibiscus.............. 234    Trinobantes               180  Urchoaum.............. 40
Tibfla.................. 406   Trinythis............... 742  Ureium.................:356
Tillur............... 326  Triobris................  89  Urgaon................. 50
Ticarius.................401  Triocala.............. 399    Urgos................ 297
Ticinum................ 277   Triopium Promontorium. 605      Uria (Apul.)..........  356
Ticinus................. 259  Triphylia............... 575    "  (Brutt.).....       30..... 380
Tifenum............... 351    Tripodiscus........... 542      "     (Messap.).......... 364
"    Tiberinum..... 301    Tripolis................ 718  Urias Sinus............. 268
Tifernus................ 351          (Phoenic.)....... 668  Uriconium.............. 195
Tigranocerta............ 684   Tripontium............. 199    Urium.................. 31
Tigurinus Pagus......... 152   Tritaea.................. 571   Urso............ 32, 49
Tigris................ 606    Tritium Metallum....... 61     Urus................... 173
Tilataei................. 426  Tritonis Palus........... 715  Uscana................ 411
Tilphusius............. 536   Trivona............. 173   Usdiee.................. 210
Tilphussa............... 536  Troas................. 627    Usipetes................ 227
Timachus............... 245    Trocmi................. 646     Usipii.................. 227
Timaethus............... 390   Trcezene............ 589       Uspe................. 704
Timavus................ 263    Trogilium.............. 605    Usuerva..............   104
Timnath Serah.......... 671    Troja.................. 629    Utica................... 716
Tina.................... 173   Tropsea Augusti......... 272   Uxama............... 61
Tingis.................. 712  Trosmis................ 246    Uxantis................. 157
Tingitana............... 22   Trossulum.............. 296    Uxellodunum........ 121
Tinia.............. 260  Tuasis ]Estuar........ 174     Uxellum................ 208
Tiparenus............ 589     Tubantes..2.......       227   Uxembarca............. 56
Tiphe.................. 532   Tuder................. 302                  V.
Tiryns.................. 588   Tueda................... 174                V.
Tissa............... 398      Tuerobis............... 176    Vacca................. 714
Titaresius............... 481  Tugenus Pagus.......... 152    Vaccsei............... 32, 52
Tithorea................. 528  Tugia.................. 49  Vacomagi............... 184
Titius................. 407  Tulcis................. 31     Vacua................ 31
Tlos.................... 615   Tuliphurdum........... 225      Vada................... 148
Tmarus Mons.......... 414     Tullum Leucorum....... 145       "   Sabatorum........ 272
Tmolus............. 619   Tunes.................. 716      "  Volaterrana...... 291
Toisobius........... 175, 198  Tungri................... 143  Vadimonis Lacus........ 265
Toletum................ 58     Tunnocelum........ 238         Vadum Arundinis....... 189
Tolistoboii.............. 645  Turba................. 120     Vaga.................... 714
Tolosa.................. 104   Turdetani........ 32, 36, 42   Vahalis.............. 91, 220
Tomarus Mons.......... 414     Turdetania........  41   Valentia................ 169
Tomi................... 246   Turduli........ 32, 36, 41, 42    "    (Gallic.)........ 112
Toronaicus Sinus........ 446   Turia................... 31         i    (Hispan.)....... 63
Torone................. 461   Turiaso............  60   Valeria................. 243
"   (Thesprot.)...... 416  Turicum................ 156   Vallum Agricolae........ 205
Toxiandri............... 139   Turnacum.............. 141        "   Antonini....... 206
Trachis................. 504   Turris Hannibalis....... 715  "       Hadriani........ 205
Trachonitis............. 676         Libyssonis....... 405      "   Severi.......... 206
Traducta........... 46           "   Stratonis......... 674   Vandalii Montes......... 12
Traens................ 374    Turones................ 126    Vandogara.............. 208
Tragurium.............. 408   Turuntus............... 236    Vangiones.............. 148
Trajani Portus.......... 293  Tusca................ 713      Vara AEstuarium........ 174
Trajectum.............. 148   Tusculum............... 324    Varadetum.............. 120
Trajanopolis............ 441  Tutzis.................. 746       "............ 122
Tralles.............. 621  Tyana.................. 649    Varee.............. 198
Trapezus............. 639     Tyde...................   55  Vardanus.............. 606
Trasimenus Lacus....... 264    Tymphrestus........... 506     Vardo.................. 93
Trausi................. 426   Tyndarus............... 398    Varduli.................. 52
Treba.................. 309   Typaeum..............  575   Varia (Hispan.)......... 61
Trebia.................. 259  Tyras.............. 236          "  (Ital.)............. 308
Tremitus............... 356   TyriFeum............... 647    Varus.................. 93
Treres......... 426  Tyrrhenum Mare........ 269      Varusates.............. 118
Tres Taberne........... 329                                    Vasatwe................. 120
Tretum Promontorium.. 711                   U.                Vasates............. 117, 118
Treventum........... 351      Ubii................... 147    Vascones............... 52
Treviri................. 138  Ubus............. 714   Vasio................... 112
(urbs)........... 144  Ucense Castrum......... 113    Vectis (insula).......... 21.
Tria Capita............. 65   Uduba..................    31   Vedra............... 173
Triballi................. 426  Ufens................... 335   Veil.................... 297
Tribocci................ 148  Ugernum............... 105     Veleia.................. 281
Tricasses............... 127  Ulia.................... 49   Velia................... 372
Tricca................. 494   Uliarus....:............ 156   Velibori............... 210
Tricesima.............. 148   Ulpianum.............. 245   Velinus............... 261
Trichonis Lacus......... 482   Ulterior Portus.......... 141     "   Lacus........... 261
Trichonium............. 517    Ulubrae................ 328   Velitrw................ 328
Tricorii................ 102  Umbri.................. 249   Vellauni................ 119




GENERAL INDEX.                                          769
Page                             Page                            Page
Vellaunodunum......... 135     Via Lavicana............ 335     Volsiniensis Lacus...... 264
Vellavi................ 119      " Ostiensis........... 334     Volinii..........     296
Vellica................. 56      " Pranestina.......... 335     Voluce................. 61
Vemania.............. 242      Viadrus................. 221     Voluntii................ 210
Venafrum............. 345    Vianiomina............. 244     Volustana.............. 445
Venasa................. 648    Vibo Valentia........... 381    Vomanus...... 305
Vendum............ 408  Vicentia.......   287   Voreda............ 202
Venede or Venedi....... 23      Victoria...............    208   Vorganium.......... 10f8
Venedicus Sinus......... 236    Vicus Tarabenorum..... 402      Vosegus Mons......... 85, 86
Veneli............... 125  Vidrus.................. 220     Vulcaniee............... 400
Veneti or Venetes....... 124    Vidaia.................. 210   Vulceiun.......... 374
Venetia............... 285     Viducasses......... 125   Vulgientes........ 102
Veniatia............... 55     Vienna............ 101,113      Vulturnum............. 337
Venicnii............. 210      Viennensis.............. 82     Vulturnus......... 262
Venicnium Prom....... 210      Vigenna................ 90
Venicontes.............. 184    Viminiacum........... 245                      W.
Vennones............ 240  Vindelia................ 191  *Watling Street....
Venon................ 199            Promontorium.. 171      Wintonia.189
Venta Belgarum........ 188   Vindelici............... 241
"     Icenorum........ 194   Vindelicia.............. 241                  X.
"     Silurum........ 196    Vinderius............... 210     Xanthus....      615
Venusia........ 59  Vindilis.........          157            (fuvis Lye.)... 607
Ver.....          195  Vindius................ 24         "        "     (Troj.)... 629
Veragri................. 102     Vindo............. 241       Xeradrus............... 605
Verbanus Lacus......... 264      Vindobala............... 207
Verbigenus Pagus....... 152    Vindobona............. 244                    Z.
Verbinum............... 142      Vindocladia............. 190    Zabatus................. 687
Vercelle................ 277   Vindolana.............. 207     Zacynthus.............. 513
Vereasueca............. 56      Vindomagus............ 105'     (urbs)........ 513
Verginicus Oceanus..... 170    Vindomara.......... 200  Zadracarta.............. 697
Vergunni............... 111     Vindomis............... 191Zagrus Moas............ 693
Verlucio................ 192    Vindonissa..,.......... 155    Zaitha................ 682
Veromandui............ 139       Vinnius............... 24   Zama................... 714
Verometum............. 200      Vinovia................. 200    Zancle.................. 391
Verona............... 281       Viriballum............. 402    Zao Ptomontorium...... 88
Verteree............... 202     Virodunum............ 145      Zariaspa............... 699
Verulamium........... 195       Virovesca.............. 57      Zariaspis............... 698
Vesontio.....5........ 155   Virvedrum Prom....         172  Zela.................... 640
Vespasia.............. 308      Vistula................. 221   Zelea................ 626
Vespasiana............. 169     Visurgis................ 221   Zephyrium Prom.... 255, 380
Vestini................. 311    Vocontii................ 102    Zerna.................. S34
Vesunna................ 121      Vodie                     21...0............ 210  Zeugitana............... 715
Vesuvius Mon.......... 341       Vogesus Mons......... 11, 86    Zeugma.......... 662
Vettones................ 36     Volana Ostium.......... 258     Zilis............... 712
Vetulonii.............. 291     Volaterre............ 291      Zingis Promontorium.... 748
Vexalla iEstuarium...... 176     Volcoe.1............ 101  Zioberis............... 697
Via Appia............... 334    Voci................... 296     Zoar................... 678' Ardeatina........... 334    Vologesia............... 686     Zoelsi..............   56
" Latina                 33.........   335 Volsas Sinus............ 175  Zone............ 430
" Laurentina......... 334     Volsci..........    328  Zoster Promontorium.... 485
Ccc
THIE END.