EXPOSITION OF TIE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF TIIE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BEING AN' ATTEMPT TO FUIRNMSI AN IMPROVED METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. BY JOHN MULLIGAN, A.M. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 & 551 BROADWAY 1874. ENTERED, according to Act of Congrcss, in the year 1858, by JOHN MULLIGAN, A.M, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States tor th e Southern District of New-York, PREFACE. IN the following treatise, we have adopted a plan of arrangement entirely different from that of preceding grammarians; and we trust that, to all judicious teachers, this innovation will appear an improvement. We commence by calling the attention of the student to the purposes served by language, the facts which render grammatical contrivances necessary in language, to the formation of propositions to convey our thoughts;-all subjects useful and important, independent of the design with which we introduce them. Our statements in reference to these points can be readily comprehended by every student, of average capacity and average application. Having thus established a mutual understanding with the student, as regards the nature of our subject and the purposes which we have in view, we endeavor to maintain this common understanding, and a rational acquiescence in the correctness of our deductions unimpaired through the whole treatise, by carefully guarding against taking any step in advance which he cannot readily follow. We thus hope to secure through the whole course, a clear perception of the practical utility of what is already explained, and adequate preparation (if not awakened desire) for the further prosecution of the inquiry. By pursuing this method, the student will feel conscious at every step that he has made sensible progress in the acquisition of a knowledge iv PREFACE. of the structure of language, and that even if he were to suspend his studies at this step, his labor in attempting to learn grammar would not be entirely lost. We need not advert to the manifest defects of the old methods of grammatical instruction in these respects. WTe shall not dwell in this place on the other peculiarities which distinguish the following treatise. These peculiarities cannot be advantageously described or defended in a preface. They can be best seen and best appreciated in the regular perusal of the work. We may possibly, hereafter, find an opportunity of examining the defects of the old systems of grammatical instruction, and of explaining and defending our -twn'views, more fully than we have been able to do in the notes interspersed through this volume. Manifest proofs are exhibited, in-the complaints -of teachers and grammarians, that the friends of education are sensible of the- defects of our old'systems, and ardently desire a reformation. And, in this connection, we feel pleasure in acknowledging that much. has' been done by-the efforts of our immediate predecessors to introduce, and to prepare the way for the -reception of an improved method of grammatical instruction. The importance of a- thorough reformation of the method of teaching grammar to the general intellectual progress of the age, can scarcely be over-estimated. We may form some notion of this importance, if: we reflect that this science not only lays (or, at least, should lay) the foundation of all sound logic and all true eloquence-has the closest connection with correct thinking, as well as with the correct' transmission of the products of thought from mind to mind-but serves as a natural and indispensable introduction to our courses of intellectual training, and the first step in a philosophical education. (How much may the future success of the young student depend, on the manner in which this first step is taken?) Besides this, a thorough knowledge of gram;,mar is the great preparation for the- easy and correct acquisition of PREFACE. V ancient -and modern languages,:enabling us with- greatly diminished labor to comprehend clearly the laws of their structure, and fix these laws indelibly in our memory for ready recollection. After what we have already said, we need not assure the intelligent reader, who may do us the favor, of perusing our treatise regularly from the commencement? that he canll find no difficulty: in following our steps.:But, looking to the nature of the subject, -and to the method of treating: it which we have adopted, and to some necessary innovation (we havec studiously avoided all unntecessary innovation) in the use;of terms, &c., we deprecate all attempts to take up our treatise in the middle, or to pronounce judgment on a par-t without a complete knowledge of our whole system. We have expended much: labor in adapting this book:to the purpose of giving instruction to classes. With this end in view, we have prepared a course of questions, placed for the greater conveniences of the teacher and student at the foot of the page; and we have: secured a-: ready reference, by numbers, to the part of the text- in which the a.nsvwers are found. For the same'-purpose -a series of exercises is prescribed, consisting chiefly of written- examples (to be: furnished,by the;student) of the fortms of construction treated in each section. We think this kind of exercise better suited than'any other to secure:the rapid progress of pupils in acquiring a knowledge of the principles of grammar, and at the same time (what is one of: the most valuable literary accomplishments) experience in the- correct' construction of sentences. We trust that -the pains taken to accommodate the book to the practical purposes of instruction will be appreciated by intelligent teachers. It will be observed that the arrangement is such that, by omitting the parts included in brackets, and generally indicated by smaller type, a first course in the most essential (and, at the same time, most easily comprehended) principles V' PREFACE. of grammar can be given in a rapid manner. We recommend a first course of this kind, exhibiting a general outline of the Structure of the English Language, in all cases where the student is not already familiar with the subject of grammar. When in such a course the student comes to the chapter on Compound Propositions, he may return to the beginning, and in a second course be required to answer all the questions. Satisfactory answers to these will generally include all that the young student is expected to learn. The notes are designed chiefly for the satisfaction of teachers and inquisitive adepts in the science of grammar. If the method of teaching grammar here proposed should be received with a share of public approbation; we shall soon furnish an abridgment suited for the use of those who are only commencing their grammatical studies. The book now presented might, we think, be profitably employed, in the manner above recommended, with the youngest classes in grammar. But the details necessary to explain and justify our method, and our views, when they differ from those commonly received, have swelled the book to a degree which may seem to render it unfit, both as to size and price, for the use of beginners. These details will be interesting and serviceable to more advanced students, who may wish to perfect their knowledge of grammar,-the class for whose special use we design the present treatise. We hope that the work in its present shape will also prove acceptable to teachers of youth, and to such gentlemen as take interest in the progress of education, and in this class of literary subjects. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. 3ir. PAret 1. Natural signs of feeling, thought, &c.,.. i 2. Artificial or Articulate signs,.... 2 8, 4. Comparative advantages of Natural and of Artificial language, ib. 5. Combination of Natural with Artificial language,.. o.6. Province of the Grammarian,.. b. 7,- Spoken Language and Written Language,. 4 8. Combination of words employed to express single thoughts,. ib. Hence the origin of the laws of grammar,.... 5 9. Enumeration of subjects treated in this book, ib. APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION.-Theories of the Origin of Language, 6 CHAPTER I. OF PROPOSITIONS. 10. Purposes for which language is employed,.... 9 11. Definition and Classification of Propositions,.... sb. Analysis of Propositions the chief business of the grammarian,. 10 Assertive Proposition,... 12. The parts of an Assertive Proposition,.... ib. 18. Manner in which the parts of Propositions-Subject, Predicate, and Copula, are expressed r indicated in language,... 11 Occasional suppression of Subject and Predicate,... 12 14. Analysis of Propositions consisting of two words,... 13 15. The Assertive word claims the attention first in analysis,. 14 Exercises in Analysis,....... ib. 111i CONTENTS. SECT. PAGE, 16. Division of words into classes, according to their functions,.. 16 17. Words which express the subjects of Propositions are called Nouns. Origin and meaning of this name,... 17 18. Words which indicate assertion are called verbs. Origin and meaning of this name,....... 18 Directions as to the manner of exercising the pupil in analysis,. ib. 19. Importance of the functions performed by Nouns and Verbs,. 19 CHAPTER IL OF IOUNS. 20. Definition of Nouns, ~.... 21 21, 22. Illustration of the definition, &c.,... 22 28. Classification of Nouns,...... 25 24. Concrete Nouns,..... b. 25. Collective Nouns,.... 26 26. Abstract Nouns,.... b. 27. Verbal Nouns,....... 27 28. Pronouns,...... 33 29. Personal Pronouns,..,.. 386 80. Use of the different Persons,..... 38 Genders of Pronouns,. 9.... 39 81. Proper and Common Nouns,.... - 41 32. Use of Common Nouns,.... 33. Singular and Plural forms of Nouns, 84. Modifications of words in general,. 50 35. ld6dification of the form of words,... 52 86. Digression on the Elementary sounds of Language and on Letters, 53 87. Vowels,........ 54 38. Diphthongs,..... 56 389. Consonants. Classification of Consonants,... 57 40. Sharp and Flat, or Hard and Smooth Consonants,.. 59 41. Appendix on Sounds and Letters,..... 61 42. Formation of Plurals,..62 48. Additional Remarks on the Formation of Plurals,. - 65 CHAPTER III. OF VERBS. 44. Preliminary' Remark. Classification of Verbs in reference to meaninig,.. CONTENTS.. i BIWT. le.AGA 45. Neuter and Active, or Intransitive and Transitive Verbs,.. 2I 46. Remarks on the verb TO BE,.. 9 47. The Passive Voice,.... 83 48. Tenses of Verbs,.... 86 49. Simple Tenses. Indefinite Tense,..... 90 50. Past Tense,........ 92 51. Formation of the Past Tense,...... 96 52. Personal Terminations,..... 99 53. Formation of Participles,.... 105 54. Modes,........ 107 55. Modes of English verbs,. 109 56. Conjugation. Paradigms,....... 112 57. Compound Tenses,....... 119 58. Future Tense,...... 122 59. Compound Tenses formed with the verb Have,... 127 Observations on the Perfect Tense,.... 130 60. Compound Forms made with the verb Do,.... 133 61. Compound Forms made with May, Can, Mig/ht, CouM, &c.,. 137 62. Compound Forms made with the verb To Be,... 139 Passive and Progressive Forms,..... 140 63. Remarks on the Auxiliaries Will, Shall, Would, Should, &c.,. 143 Past Tense employed hypothetically,.. 146 64. Remarks on the Synoptical Table of Tense Forms,.. 150 Synoptical Table,....... 152 65. Defective Verbs,...... 156 66. Impersonal Verbs,... 157 6C. List of Verbs of the Ancient Conjugation and of Contracted Verbs of the Modern Conjugation,. 160 Notes and Remarks on the List,..:. 164 CHAPTER IV. MODIFICATION OF TIlE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE BY NOUNS. 68. Remarks on Modification by complementary words,. 169 69. Noun in Apposition Modification,..... 170 70. Noun Adjectively employed,.... 175 71. Infinitive used to modify a noun,...... 177 72. Noun Complementary of Neuter Verbs,.... 178 73. Cases of Nouns,..... 180 74. Declension of Nouns and Pronouns,.... 188 75. Genitive Case Modification,...... 187 76. Objective Modification,...... 195 77. Infinitives used to modify verbs,.... 205 78. Infinitive Complementary of Active Verbs,... 210 CONTENTS. BECaT. PAGE, 78. Construction with Ax3 and TEACH,... 212 79. Dative Modification, or Personal Object of the Verb,.. 216 80. Order of Sequence of Modifications,..... 2 CHAPTER V. OF PREPOSITIONS. 81. Prepositions in general,...... 283 Prepositions in composition. Prepositions used Adverbially,. 235 Noun and Preposition Modification,..... 236 82. Additional Remarks on the Prepositions,.... 242 83. Modification of the whole Assertion,.... 245 84. Accusative of Time, Value, Measure, Weight, &... 247 CHAPTER VI. OF ADJECTIVES. 85. Adjectives. GeneralRemarks,..... 254 Descriptive Adjectives,.... 255 86. Uses of Descriptive Adjectives. Descriptive Adjective Modification,....... 259 87.. Adjectives employed substantively,.... 263 88. Adjective Complementary of Verbs,.... 266 Adjective Complementary of Neuter Verbs,... 268 89. Adjective Complementary of Active Verbs,.. 271 90. Remarks on the Noun and the Adjective Complementary,. 275 91. Determinative Adjectives,..... 279 CHAPTER VII. OF ADVERBS. 92. General Remarks on Adverbs,.... 282 Functions of Adverbs,...283 Circumstantial A iverbs,. 287 Arrangement of Adverbs,.. 289 Classification of Circumstantial Adverbs,.... 290 93. Derivation and Formation of Adverbs,... 292 CONTENTS. Xi AuRM PAGE 93. Adjectives used Adverbially. Adverbial Phrases,... 295 The Negative Not,.. 296 The words Yes and No,.. 298 Two Negatives,........ 299 94. Modification of Adjectives. Comparison,.... 800 Irregular Comparison,.. 805 95. Comparison of Adverbs,...... 07 96. Modification of Adjectives and Adverbs by distinct words,. 810 Dative Modification of Adjectives..... ib. Accusative Modification of Adjectives,.... 3811 Infinitive Modification of Adjectives,.... 813 Noun and Preposition Modification of Adjectives and Adverbs,. 814 CHAPTER VIII. OF INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 97. Interrogative Propositions,......a6 98. Remarks on Interrogative Words,... 320' 99. Imperative Propositions,...... 322 100. Synoptical Table of the various forms of Modification of Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs,.. 325 Summary description of the purposes served by the several kinds of Modification,..... 328 Rules of Concord, &c.,.. 830 Order to be followed in the Analysis of Propositions,. ib. CHAPTER IX. OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS. 101. Definition of Compound propositions, and general remarks,. 883 102. Accessory Proposition. Classification of Accessory Propositions,. 385 Conjunctions and Conjunctive Words,. 3386 103. Substantive Accessory Propositions,..... $37 Substantive Accessory as Subject of the Compound Proposition,. i It employed as Substitute Subject before the verb, which is followed by the Accessory expressing the real subject,. 33j 104 Accessories used for the purpose of Modification,... 841 105. Substantive Accessory employed in Apposition,... 842 X11 iCONTENTS. BEOT..PXGE, 106. Accessory Complementary ofthe verb: ToBe,.. 843 107. Accessory used as Objective Modification,.. 345!108. Substantive Accessory expressive of Purpose,... 847 109. Substantive Accessory Modifying Adjectives,.. 848 110. Adjective Accessory Propositions,..... 850 Conjunctive, or Relative Pronouns,... b. 1A1. Functions of Adjective Accessories,.... 353 112,%Accessories in which the Conjunctive Pronoun performs a modifying function as objective to the verb, &c.,. 356 113. Explicative, or Epithetic Adjective Accessory Propositions,. 359 114. The word What employed as a Relative,..:. 864 115. Compound Relatives and Accessories formed by their help,. 366 116. Idiomatic use of the word Thzere,..... 369 117. Arrangement of the Adjective Accessory in the Compound Proposition,..... 38783 Arrangement of the Conjunctive Pronoun in the Accessory Proposition,....... 874 118. Rule for the Number and Person of the Conjunctive Pronoun,. 376 Antecedents of different Persons,..... 377 Promiscuous Examples of Adjective Accessory Propositions,. 378 119. Adverbial Accessory Propositions. General Remarks,.. 880 120. Adverbial Accessories which modify Adjectives,... 888 121. Accessory of Greater or Lesser Intensity,... 386 Accessory of Equally Varying Intensities,... 3888 Accessory indicating Intensity by Example or Effect,.. 889 122. Accessory of Similar Intensity,.... 8 390 123. Adverbial Accessories which modify Verbs,.... 892 Accessory denoting Manner by Comparison,... 393 Accessory denoting Manner by Effect,... 894 124. Adverbial Accessories of Place,.. -.. 895 Accessory of Locality. Place where,..... 396 Accessory of Direction towards a Place,.... 397 Accessory of Direction from a Place,.... 398 125. Adverbial Accessories of Time,..... 400 Accessory of Coincident Time,.... i... b. 126. Accessory of Coincident Duration,..... 404 127. Accessory indicating Precedence in Time,.... 406 128. Accessory indicating Subsequence in Time,.... 407 129. Accessory limiting by reference to an Anticipated event,.. 40S General Remarks on Accessories of Time,.... 409 180. Accessory of Causality,...... 410 131. Argumentative Accessory,.... 412 132. Accessory of Effect,....... 417 133. Accessory of Inference,..... 419 134. Accessory of Purpose,....... 4:23 185. Accessory of Purpose Preventive,..... ib. 136. Exceptive Accessory Proposition,.... 424 C ONTENTS. Xiii mrsT. PAGO 137. Conditional and Hypothetical Propositions,. -. 425 138. Concessive Propositions,..... 430 139. Compound Proposition with Accessory of Reference,. 435 140. Contracted Accessories,...... 436 141. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Verbal Nouns ending in ing,......... 488 142. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Infinitives,.. 442 Infinitive Absolute,....... 446 Infinitive with Accusative before it,..... 447 148. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Participles,.. 451 Noun and Participle Absolute,.. 454 CHAPTER X. COMBINATION OF INDEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS. 144. General Remarks on the Combination of Independent Propositions, 458 145. Copulative Co-ordination, or Simple Connection,... 460 146. The employment of Co-ordinate for Compound Construction,. 467 147. Adversative and Exceptive Connection,....470 148. Connection of Alternatives,....., 475 149. Additional Rules of Concord, having reference to Connected Coordinate Propositions,. 481 150. Observations on But equivalent to only,.... 485 151. Attempt to trace the Transitions of the word BUT,.,. 487 152. Remarks on the Distinction between Prepositions and Conjunctions,....... 492 CHAPTER XI. OF INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATORI WORDS AND PHRASES. 153. Interjections,........ 495 154. Exclamatory Words and Phrases,..... 497 155. Additional Observations on the Personal Pronouns,.. 500 156. Additional Observations on the Possessives,.. 508 157. Remarks on the Genders,...... 511 158. Additional Observations on the Determinatives. Articles,. 514 The Determinative An or A,..... 517 The Determinative The,...... 520 Cases in which The is used,..... 522 Cases in which it is not used,.. 525 ziV CONTENTS. 6ECT. PAG.I 158. The Determinatives TAs and That,.... 529 Order of Arrangement of the Determinatives,.. 530 159. Additional Observations Oll the Conjunctive Pronouns Who, Which, That,..... 581 160. APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION,...37 1 61. APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION,.. STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE, INTRODUCTION. ~ 1. The signs employed in making known to others our feel. ings, emotions, and thoughts, may be divided into two distinct classes, (1) NATURAL SIGNS and ARTIFICIAL SIGNS. (2) In the class of natural signs we include, 1st, signs addressed to the ear-the various souncs indicative of the emotions of our minds; as, sighs, groans, cries. 2d, Signs addressed to the eyethe various indications of emotion by the expression of the countenance, by smiles, frowns, &c., or by various gestures of the head, arms, and other members of the body. And, 3d, a more limited number of signs addressed to the sense of touch; as the grasp and pressure of the hand, &c. (3) Between this class of signs and the feelings or emotions which they indicate there exists a natural bond of association. They do not, like the class of artificial signs, owe their origin in any degree to human contrivance, to the consent of men, to an arbitrary agreement that they shall be used to express exclusively certain feelings, or certain emotions. On the contrary, they flow spontaneously from nature, are not acquired by human industry, and are intelligible alike to men of every nation. (4) The signs of this class constitute what has been called natural lanytcayge. (5) It may be remarked, in pass~ 1. (1) What two distinct classes of Signis are employed in conveying our thoughts and feelings to others? (2) Enumerate sonle of the IV(rttmboal Sigrs employed for this purpose. (3) What distinguishes these signs from those of the second class? (4) What do these signs constitute? (5) What are they best fitted to express?' 2 2 INTRODUCTION. ing, that this species of language is much better adapted to express feeling, or emotion, than to express thought; and that it is possessed, in a greater or lesser degree, by the lower animals. ~ 2. In the class of artificial signs we include (1) those (in some sense, at least) arbitrary, acquired signs, which constitute the endless variety of dialects employed for the interchange of thought amongst men. (2) These signs, unlike those of natural language, have no necessary connection with the ideas which they represent, but owe their significance to the contrivance, or to the consent of the distinct races of men who employ them. This class of signs for the communication of thought is distinguished (3) by the name of artificial or articulate language (a). ~ 3. The signs of natural language have (1) the advantage of being universally understood by all mankind. They serve as the only means of communication between those who have not a common dialect. They also express the stronger emotions in the most vivid and impressive manner. (2) But, on the other hand, only a limited portion of our feelings, and few of our thoughts, can be clearly conveyed to the minds of others by these signs. (3) We must have recourse to articulate-artificial language, for the purpose of communicating to others the nicer shades of feeling, and the various products of our thinking powers with a satisfactory degree of perspicuity and fulness. ~ 4. (1) Such a means of communication as articulate language affords, is indispensable both to the complete development and to the proper use of man's rational powers. (2) It is an instrument necessary for the improvement and advancement of reason, for giving precision and fixity to human thought, and securing its retention in the memory of the inquirer, as well as for the mutual interchange of the products of thought among men. (3) Our gracious (a) See Appendix to this Introduction. ~ 2. (1) What are Art.flcial Signs? (2) What is the distinguishing characteristic of tois class of signs? (3) By what name are they called? 83. (1) Point out the advantages of natural language. (2) Point out its defects. (3) tention some purposes which cannot be effected without recourse to artificial language. ~4. (1) To vwhat particular purpose is articulate language indispensable? (2) Repeat what is said in illustration. (3) How has our Creator displayed his bounty to-wards man in regard of this matter? INTRODUCTION. 3 Creator has, accordingly, to complete his bounty to his rational offspring' on earth, added to the gift of reason the gift of organs adapted to enunciate distinctly the truths which reason discovers. -~. It is proper here to observe, that (1) the combination of natural with artificial language is requisite to the most effective communication of our thoughts. (2) Emphasis, inflexions of the voice, tones, expiession of the countenance (especially of the eyes), gestures, &c. (all borrowed from natural language), when: united with artificial langyuage, contribute much to render it perspicuous, as well as impressive. Hence, chiefly, the superior charms, and the greater power of sjloken compared with wvritten discourse. (3) The accomplished and skilful orator combines with the arbitrary signs of artificial language other signs from, language guage whih addresses every class of minds. Even when, on account of the ignorance of'his hearers, artificial signs are imperfectly comprehended, natural signs, which are universally intelligible, serve to interpret their meaning. They infuse spirit an d life into the dry bones of articulate speech, and may be said to endow it with a living soul. ~ 6. (1) The grammarian's researches are exclusively directed to artificial or articulate language.. (2) Some few signs, belonging properly to natural language, are found mixed with the signs of artificial language. (3) But these signs-commonly called, in our grammars, interjections-dco not come under the laws of grammar. The grammarian has only to distinguish them from other signs, give them a name, and pass them by. (4) To explain the lacs of artificial language is the particular province of hi-m who proposes to teach the science of grammar. (5) To guide to the proper use of the signs of artificial language, and to the correct interpretation of the, thouglhts of others embodied in ~ 5. (1) What is requisite to. the most effective communication of human thought (2) Illustrate this assertion. To what are the superior charms and the greater poswer of &pokeRi discourse attributable? Answer. Chiefly, if not exclusively, to thE cmbl;ination of natural with artificial language. (3) Illustrate this assertion. ~ 6. (1) To which of these languages are the grammarian's researches directed? (2.) Are the signs of natural language ever found mixed with those of artificial language? (3) If so, what are they called-do they come under the laws of grammar, and what has the grammarian to do with them? (4) What is the province (or peculiar business) of him who teaches the science of gramitar? (5) Of the teacher of grammar as an art? (6) What is the course pursued in 4~ INTRODUCTION. language, so far as this can be effected by reference to the laws and usages of language, is the province of him who proposes to teach grammar as an art. (6) In practical treatises for the instruction of the young, the science and the art are usually taught together. The laws of language, to some extent, are -explained in connection with their practical application to a particular language. (7) It seems the most judicious course to teach the elementary principles of universal grammar (the science of grammar) in connection with the particular grammar of our mother tongue, and with the aid of illustrations drawn, as much as possible, from that language of which the forms, usages, and significance are most familial to us. ~ 7. (1) Artificial language is presented to us in two distinct forms, viz., spoken language and written language. It is often necessary, in grammatical researches, to keep steadily in view the distinction between these two forms of language. (2) A neglect of this precaution has frequently led to confusion of thought and inaccuracy of expression. (3) Spoken language consists of signs of thought, expressed by the organs of speech, and addressed to the ears. These signs are called words. (4) Written language, on the other hand, consists of signs of these signs; that is, of signs of words. (5) We call both classes of signs words; and hence frequent confu sion. (6) It is to be wished that we had a special name for a written word, to distinguish it, where necessary, from a spoken word, and also a name for a written letter, to distinguish it from a spoken soznnd. ~ 8. (1) It is not by the use of separate unconnected words, repeated in succession without rule or law, but by the properly regulated combination of words, that we, in almost every case, communicate our thoughts to one another. Though it is not to be denied that every word has significance of some sort (2), a single word is seldom in our language the sign of a complete thought. (3) We cannot grammars intended for the instruction of the young? (7) What method is recommended ss judicious? ~ 7. (1) In what two distinct forms is artificial language presented to us? (2) Why is It necessary to keep this distinction in view? Ans. Because " a neglect," &c. (3) Of what does spoken language consist? (4) Of what written language? (5) By what common iname are the signs of spoken and written language designated? (6) What is to be wished In order to avoid the danger of confounding spoken signs and written signs I ~ 8. (1) Do we generally express our thoughts by unconnected words, or by combina. tions of wards? (2) Are single words often in our language the signs of complete INTRODUCTION. 6 announce clearly in the English language even the simple fact that we are cold, without the use of more than one word. The shortest form of expressing this simple thought requires the use of three words, I am cold. Each of these words is, no doubt, a significant sign, but, at the same time, incapable alone of communicating a clear declaration of thought to those around us. (4) Again, every combination of words will not express thought. A combination made at random generally expresses nothing but nonsense. (5) Hence the necessity of paying attention to the principles which regulate, in each particular language, the combination of words, in order to express thought clearly and forcibly. The investigation of these principles is the purpose proposed in a treatise on grammar. (6) It is to the fact that the artificial signs, which unite to express our thoughts, are complicated, and require skilful combination, that the Laws of Grammar owe their origin. (7) If every word served as the sign of a complete thought, whilst the number of words requisite for the purpose of communicating our thoughts (contrary to what might, at first sight, be expected) would be greatly increased, Grammar would either be altogether useless, or its province would be greatly limited, and entirely changed. This may be illustrated by referring to some few words in'our language which express a complete thought: (8) for example, Yes and No. Such words fall not within the ordinary rules, nor even within the ordinary classifications and nomenclature of grammar. All complexity is here excluded, since a single sign expresses a complete thought; consequently, the application of all laws of combination is excluded. Grammatical science and art, as now understood, are null and useless, so far as concerns such signs. ~ 9. After these preliminary remarks, the reader will be prepared to find that (1) WORDS-r-TIE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS, THE MIODIFIcATION OR CHANGES OF FORM which woRDs undergo in order thoughlts? (3) Repeat the illustration. (4) Do all combinations of words, orconmbinatio;ns mnade at random, express thonught? (5) VWhat is the inference drawn from these facts? (6) To what do the laws of grammar owe their origin? (7) If every word were to serve as the sign of a complete thought what consequences would follow in reference to the number of words necessary to form a copious language, and in reference to systems of grammar? (S) Illustrate this position. ~ 9. (1) Enumerate the subjects which are to engage our attention in the tollowing pages. 6 APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION'. to express a MODIFIED MEANING,' and, especially, THE LAWS or PRINX CIPLES wiich regulate THE COMBINATION OF WORDS for the purpose of expressing' THOUGHT, form the subject matter of the following pages. APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION. Till recently, two opinions, in reference to the origin of language, have divided the learned. According to the one, the original Zanyvuage was the direct gift of God to our first parents. According to the other, language is the invention of man himself-the work of his conscious reason. According to the first opinion, man must have been taught the words of language, as a scholar is taught a foreign language at the present day. Such instruction presupposes a knowledge of what is to be expressed by language. If this opinion is correct, all man's first know.I ledge, as well as the language in which to express it, must have been a direct revelation. It may be objected that all this is inconsistent with the mode in which God has treated man in other things. He has bestowed on man powers of research and invention, and generally left these to find their natural development, under the circumstances in which he has placed himn. The opinion now stated seems also inconsistent with the language employed in Genesis 2: 19, where we are informed that God brought the aninmals "unto Adam, to see what he would call them; and whatsoever Adanm called every living creature, that was the name thereof." In accordance with the opinion we are considering, we should expect rather to have been told that-God gave the names and taught them to Adam, and that whatsoever God called every living creature, that was the name thereof. On the contrary, Adam is represented as already possessed of the power of speeclh, and as spontane~ usly inventing names for the objects around him. According to the second opinion, man is the inventor of language, in the same sense in which he is the inventor of the various contrivances which distinguish civilization; and it is consistent with this' opinion, as held by the ancients, to suppose that man may have remained for a long time after his appearance on earth without the! advantage of language, as we know that he did in fact remain destitute of many of the most valuable inventions which he now possesses. The poet, in accordance with this view, describes men, when they first crawled from the earth, as devoid of articulate speech:'ilftugn et tuype pecus." This theory gives to man the glory of contriving!an APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION. 7 guage, in the same sense as he claims the glory of other human inventions. It is objected to this view of the origin of language, that it is inconceivable how men, without some considerable advance in civilization, without some progress towards social order, could invent and agree upon a language, and equally inconceivable how they could have made any advance towards social order without the help of language. It might, indeed, be answered that the invention of language and the progress of civilization advanced simultaneously-pari passu. But another and more serious objection is, that this theory, at least in its boldest form, is inconsistent with what is recorded in the Scriptures in regard of the primitive condition of man; and perhaps it is equally inconsistent with all that we can discover of the history of our race from other resources, and with the conjectures of a sound and enlightened philosophy. Another theory of the origin of language has been more recently proposed; first, we believe, by the philosophical grammarians of Germany, viz., that language is a spoontaneous grototh-the result of that' organization bestowed by our Creator on his rational offspring on earth. This theory, subjected to proper modifications, we think less objectionable than either of the preceding. It is more reconcileable, both with what is said in reference to this matter in Genesis, and with all the historical facts which bear upon this subject. It is more conformable, also, with what we see every day subjected to our observation in the progressive growth of language. According to this theory, language is a growth-an organized growth, because the product of an organization-just as the intellectual improvement of our race is a growth-a development of powers lodged in man at his creation-a growth, progressive according to our wants. As our knowledge is enlarged, the vehicle of communication is simultaneously enlarged. According to this theory, every thought of a being organized as man is, naturally labors to find utterance, and calls into exercise his powers of articulation. This theory accounts for the conformity discovered in the general laws of structure in all languages, and for the resemblance of many of the original words in these languages to the things which they represent. This is especially exemplified in words which express sounds, and in thle names given to animals and to actions distinguished by some peculiarity of sound. (See Introduction to Becker's Aufibhrliche Deutsche Grammactik.) Viewed according to this theory, articulate language is natural, as 8'rAPPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION. well as what has been distinguished fromu it by the name of,natural Ian. quage. Still, it is in some sense arbitrary and artificial. It is subjected, as regards its external form, to human volition, to human choice, to human caprice if you will, as is manifest from the manner in whichl we see languages daily grow under our eyes, as well as from the vast variety and diversity of the languages which we find in the world. No such diversity is found in those natural signs which constitute what has been called natural language. These are invariably always the same in the same race of animals, and instantly alike intelligble to each individual of thie race. CHAPTER I. OF PROPOSITIONS. ~ 10. (1) WE employ artificial language, 1st. To assert (that is, to say or speak) our opinions, or declare' our thoughlts, feelings, emotions, &c. 2nd. To question, or interrogate others in order to obtain information. 3rd. To express commands, entreaties, exhortations, &c. (2) Distinct forms of expression are employed in discourse for these three several purposes; and, though, by supplying what is suppressed in the form of the expression (because manifestly implied in the sense), we might readily reduce all questions and commands to the form of assertions, still it is convenient to consider these forms separately. ~ 11. (1) Any combination of words which expresses an assertion, a question, a command, &c., or, more generally, any combination of words which expresses comnplete sense is called a PROPosITION. (2) Those combinations by which an assertion, a question, a command (including entreaty, request, &c.), are expressed, may be called respectively assertive or declarative, interrogative or questioning, and imperative or commanding propositions. These three are usually recognized as distinct forms of propositions (a). NOTE (a).-This classification includes all independent propositions. Dependent propositions (that is, propositions employed to modify or complete other propositions) sometimes express neither assertion, interrogation, nor command. As, for example, If the men, come, I will let you know. Here the proposition, if the men come, asserts nothing. It expresses merely the condition on which the assertion, "I will let you know" rests; it is simply here a modification of this latter proposition. But it differs no way inform from an assertive proposition, ~ 10. (1) Enumerate the purposes for which language is employed. (2) Why is a classification of the purposes for which language is employed important in a grammatical point of view? Ans. Because distinct fornts of edpresslon are employed for these several purposes. ~ 11. (1) What is a proposition? (2) Enumerate the different kinds of propositions 10 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 12. and therefore requires no separate place in a classification of propositions having reference to their grammaticalforms. In fact, when you withdraw the word " If " (which is no part of the proposition, but serves merely to indicate its connection, and the purpose of this connection with another proposition), the proposition becomes at once assertive. Or, perhaps, rather, if is the verb of an imperative pro. position, and " the men come" is the objective to it. Since interchange of thought is effected through the medium of propositions, and discourse consists almost wholly of propositions of one or other of the kinds above mentioned, it follows (3) that the chief business of the grammarian is the analysis of propositions, and the explanation of the manner in which words are combined to form them. (4) The assertive or declarative proposition claims our first and chief attention. (5) It is the most simple; it is complete, containing all the parts essential to every form of proposition fully expressed; it recurs most frequently in discourse; and even were interrogative and imperative propositions, not reducible (as'hey seem to us to be) to the assertive form, they differ from it only in the arrangement, or in the suppression of some of their constituent parts. After the assertive form is explained, the few points in which the others differ from it will be easily explained and readily understood. ~ 12. (1) It is manifestly essential to an assertion that some. thing should be asserted —that is, said or spoken-of some person, om some thing, and as an assertive proposition is an assertion clothed in language, the three following parts may be distinguished in every suchl proposition when fully expressed. (2) First, some means of indicatinzy the person or thing of which we speak, or make the as seltion. This is called the SUBJECT of the proposition. (3) Second, a means of expressing what is intended to be said or asserted of the subject. This is called the PREDICATE of the proposition. (4) (3) What is the chief business of the grammarian? (4) Which kind of Iropositions.claims.ourfirst and chief attention? (5) Enumerate tha reasons assigned for considering this form first. ~ 12. (1) HIow many parts may be distinguished in every completely expressed propo-. sition? (2) What is the sub7ject of a proposition? Ans. That about which the assertion. contained in the proposition is mnade. (3) What is the 2.)redicate of a proposition 9 An& ~ 13.] -OF PROPOSITIONS. I1 The word predicate means what is, said or asserted. [(5) The subject and predicate are called by logicians the two terms of -the proposition.] And, third (6), a means of indicating that the predicate is intended to be asserted of the subject. This is what the logicians call the CoPULA-that is to say, what couples, connects, or unites the subject and predicate. ~ 13. [(1) In some languages (the Latin and Greek, for example) all the parts of a proposition, subject, predicate, and copula, are sometimes expressed by a single qword; but a word including a combination of significant signs.] (2) In our language, the subject, however simple and unmodified, is usually expressed by at least one separate word in assertive propositions. (3) The copula is never (as we view the matter, see ~ 46, and note) expressed in the English language, nor in any language, which we know, by a separate word. (4) The copula and predicate (or the leading part of the predicate) are united in the same word. Otherwise, the word which expresses the predicate, or leading part of the predicate, is so modified-assumes such a form, or receives such place in the arrangement of the proposition, as, in accordance with the usages of language, to indicate assertion in assertive propositions,, einterrogation in interrogative propositions, &c. NOTE.-There are a few, very few exceptions; and even these occur in forms of expression now rarely employed-such as, for example, methinkrs, mneseers, nzelisteth. These we intend to consider in their proper place. (See ~~ 66: 8; and 79: 18.) On the contrary, in imperative propositions (if the analysis commonly given of them is to be followed) the subject is usually suppressed; for example, Go to the door; Bring mne a book, &c. In such propositions as these, no mistake can arise from the suppression of the subject, since the party addressed-the person or persons spoken to-is in our language almost always the subject. The subject of an imperative proposition must be exThat which is asserted of the subject. (4) What does the word predicate mean? [(5) What are the subjects and predicates of propositions called by logicians?] (6) What ii meant by the copula- of a proposition? Ans. That which indicates that the predicate ia: assertee of the subject. [ 138. (1) I"ow are the three parts of a proposition sometimes expressed in certain lan guages?] (2) HIow is the subject of an assesrtive proposition usually expressed in our langusage? (3) Is the o.pula expressed by a separate word? (4) I-Iow the is it indicated Ans. "The predicate is so modified," &c.-repeating as above. 12 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 13. pressed, when it does not coincide with the party we address. This happens rarely in modern speech. (5) The predicate and copula united, since they are essential constituents of the proposition, must. always be fully expressed in every complete independent proposition by a'word of that class which the usage of language has assigned~ for that purpose. (6) Two words, then, are necessary, in our language, to the full expression of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition-one to express the subject, and another to express the united predicate and copula. [(7) When two or more propositions, having the.ame common subject, or the same predicate, are united together, the common subject or predicate is very generally suppressed in one or more of them. (8) For example, John reads and writes=to John reads, and John writes. Here the subject of the latter proposition is suppressed by the usage of language, and left to be supplied from the preceding one. John and James write —to John writes, and James writes. Here the predicate and copula are only once expressed, but in such a form as to indicate that the assertion reaches both subjects. Sometimes, in a proposition connected with a preceding proposition, only the modifying words are repeated, and both subject and predicate with copula, are to be supplied fiom the other propositions. For example: " Tihey (power and riches) keep off the summer shower not the winter storm"-to They keep off the summer shower, they keep not off the winter storm. (9) But this forms no real exception to what we have asserted above. The subject or predicate, in such cases, is simply suppressed, left to be supplied by the understanding of the hearer. It is not indicated or contained under the form of the part of the proposition expressed. They are not, therefore, complete independent propositions. (10) When, in certain languages, a whole proposition is expressed by a single word, the (5) Are the united predicate and copula always expressed in an independent propo-:ftion? (6) How many words are necessary in our language to the full expression of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition? (7) What sometimes happens when two or more propositions having the same subjeel or the same predicate are united together? (8) Give examples. (9) Show that this a not a real exception to what is said above. (10) When a whole proposition, as in soma lan guages, is expressed by a single word, how is the subject indicated? ~ 14.] OF PROPOSITIONS. 13 subject of the proposition is indicated by the form and inflexion of the word which expresses the united predicate and copula.] ~ 14. We are now prepared to commence the analysis of the most simple form of propositions; namely, those which consist of two words, one representing the subject, and the other the united copula and predicate of the proposition. [(1) By the analysis of a proposition we mean the separation of its parts for the purpose of distinct examination.] Let us take, as an example for analysis, the expression, Snow melts. (2) These two words form a proposition, because they express a complete assertion. (3) The word " snow," in this proposition, represents the subject, because it expresses the thing concerning which the assertion is made. (4) The word "' melts" includes both the predicate and copula, because it both expresses what is asserted of the subject, and indicates that it is intended to be asserted. [We may carry our analysis still farther, and separate the predicate from the copula. For, though we have no means in language of expressing the copula alone (5), we can express the predicate separately by a word that gives no indication of assertion. In the proposition "snow melts," the word melting exactly expresses the predicate; for the action expressed by the woid melting is manifestly what is asserted of the "snow." (6,) It may be remarked here, that the predicate-word melting, preceded or followed by the subject-word snow, asserts nothing — that is, these two words cannot constitute a proposition. Snow melting and melting snow, though significant phrases-that is, words properly arranged to enter into discourse, and form pcart of a proposition-are neither of them complete propositions, because they do not express an assertion. (7) But, on the other hand, the word melts-at once, in accordance with the usage of our language, indicating assertion and expressing the action of melting-joined to the ~ 14. (1) What is meant by the analysis of a proposition? (2) Why are the words " s.eoz melts" said to form a proposition? (3) In the proposition " snow melts " point out the word which represents the subject, and give the reason for so considering it. (4) Which word represents predicate and copula, and why is it said to represent these? [(5) Can the predicate of a proposition be exhibited separately? What is the pradicato of the proposition "sszow melts " disconnected from the copula? (6) Show that this prodicate-word or sign joined to a subject will not formn a proposition. (7) Repeat what is said above of the word smelts.] 14 STRUCTURE OF LASGUAGE. [~ 15. subject snow, constitutes a proposition; that is, expresses all assertion, or, what is the same thing, a complete thought.] (8) In the arrangement of an assertive proposition, the subject is generally placed before the assertive word. This may be considered the natural order (9), though it is often inverted by poets to suit their measure, and by orators for rhetorical effect. (10) The contrary arrangement also prevails in some few forms of expression in ordinary use; as, " says I," "' said he," and the now obsolete form of expression, " quoth he," and perhaps a few other forms of'assertion. ~ 15. (1) In the analysis of proposition, the learner should always direct his attention first to the assertive word. (2) This we recommend, first, because this is the most important part of every proposition; and, secondly, because it is the part most easily recognised. This results from the fact, that the assertive word is always employed for one and the: same purpose (except it should be a word of double meaning-see ~ 16, below), whereas the class of words employed to represent the subjects of propositions (without any change of meaning) perform other functions, serve other purposes besides expressing the subjects of propositions. (3) The answer to the question, formed by the assertive word preceded by what, gives the subject. For example, Beauty fades. WThat fades? Ans., Beauty, the subject. It is now time to exercise the pupil in pointing out the words which express the subjects, and the words which express the combined predicates and copulas, or'what, for the salke of brevity, we may call the assertive words, in the following and similar propositions. ExERCISE I..-Beauty fades. Virtue flourishes. Memory decays. Time fleets. Day dawns. Corn grows. Rain falls. Water freezes. (S) What is the usual or natural order of arrangement of the subject, and the assertive word (or combined predicate and copula) in an assertive proposition? (9) Mention classes of writers that sometimes invert the usual order, and the purposes for which-they take this liberty with the arrangement in common use. (10) Mention some of the inverted expressions in ordinary use. ~ 15. (1) To which part of a proposition should the learner first direct Mis attention in attempting an analysis? (2) State the reasons assigned for recommending this course. (8) Tell how to form a question to which the answer is the subject of a given propositioi Illustrate by an examplo. ~ 15.] OF PROPOSITIONS. 15;Gunpowder explodes. Men walk.. Reptiles aweep. Birds fly. Fishes swim. Boys play. Children talk. Laborers work, &c. &c. The pupil may be questioned on these examples according to the following model. Example: "-Beauty fades." Do these two words form a proposition? Ans. Yes. Why? Ans. Because they express an assertion. What is the assertive word in this proposition, and why is it so called? Ans. "Fades" is the assertive word, bey cause it expresses the predicate, and indicates assertion. Point out the subject-word of the proposition, and tell why you call it the subject. Ans. "Beauty" expresses the subject, because it is in regard of beauty (about beauty) that the assertion expressed by the word "fades" is made. Can the predicate of this proposition be expressed alone-separate from the copula? Ans. Yes, it may be expressed by the, word fading. Fading is exactly what is here asserted of beauty. Can the copula be expressed separately Ans. No; the copula is never expressed by a separate word, but is always combined with the predicate, or the leading part of the predicate, to form the assertive word. The teacher can add more examples, if he pleases. But it is better, we think, to encourage the pupil to form examples for himself, in tile manner prescribed in the following exercises. A good exercise may also be given by selecting a passage from any book or taking one of the exercises in the more advanced part of this work, and requiring the learner to point out, the subject and assertive word of each proposition. EXERCISE II.-Form propositions, by uniting such other assertive words as will make sense with the subjects in Exercise I. Under this, and some of the following exercises, the pupil may be required to construct a given number of propositions for a lesson; and he may continue the exercise so long as he finds he can supply appropriate assertive words to unite with the given subjects. EXERCISE III. —Form a given number of propositions by uniting other subjects with the assertive words in Exercise I. EXERCISES IV., V., &c.-Let the pupil now form two-worded propositions from his own resources, without having either subject or assertive word suggested to him. 16 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [L 10 In a class, let each pupil try who can construct the greatest number of appropriate propositions consisting of two words. NoTE. —These exercises must be continued till the learner clearly comprehends what constitutes a proposition, and can readily distinguish the terms which form its essential parts. Here let a sure foundation for the work of grammatical analysis be laid. This being done, we trust the learner will be able, on the plan we propose, to pursue this study with ease, satisfaction, and rapid improvement. In performing these exercises, and all the exercises prescribed hereafter, let the pupil be strictly enjoined to offer no proposition that is not consistent with truth, and which does not express an appropriate thought-in other words, good sense. If this suggestion is duly regarded, the performance of these tasks will lead to the easy developnent and improvement of the rational powers of younger pupils; it will help them to acquire facility in that difficult and most valuable accomplishment-the correct and clear expression of their thoughts in writing, whilst they are pursuing, at the same time, what we believe to be the most effective and systematic course of training in the grammatical knowledge of their own language. 1~ 6. (1) The use or purpose which a wor.d (or a class of words) serves in discourse, that is, in forming propositions, we shall hereafter, for the sake of greater precision and brevity, call the FUNCTION of the word, or class of words. (2) Words are divided into several classes, in reference to the distinct functions which they perform. (3) These classes are commonly called "THE PARTS OF SPEECH." (4) In our survey of the essential parts of an assertive proposition in its most simple form, two of these classes of words (and these the two most important) have been brought under our view; namely, those which perform the function of subjects of propositions, and those which perform the double function of indicating assertion and expressing (in whole or in part) the predicate or thing asserted. (5) These two classes of words are essentially distinct, and never interchange functions with each other. The words which express subjects cannot be employed, at least in the same sense, to express i 16. (1) What is meant by the function of a word? (2) On what principle, or in reference to what fact, are words classed by grammarians? (3) What are these classes of words usually called? (4) TeU how many kinds, or classes of words are used in the most simple proposition, and the functions which-they perform. (5) Can these classes of words exchange places! ~: 17.'] OF PROPOSITIONS. 17 assertion, nor those which express assertion to express the subjects of propositions. The learner will find no difficulty ill distinguishing these two kinds of words when presented together. (6) There are, indeed, many words in our language which, having a double wyeaning, are employed for both purposes. (7) For example, cook, the La]ne applied to the person who prepares food by fire, and cook, (lm)loyed to assert the act of cooking, or preparing food by fire, as in the assertion, Men cook their food; work, the name applied to that which is the effect or result of working, and worlk, employed to assert the act of working, as, for instance, in the proposition, These honest men work faithfully. (8) The marked difference offunction, and the position in the arrangement of the parts of the proposition, prevent all danger of being deceived by these signs of double meaning. ~ 17. [(1) The names subject, predicate, and coypula, which we have used above to indicate the parts of propositions, refer properly to the things signified by the words employed to express these parts -not to the words, or signs themselves. (2) Sometimes, indeed, they are employed to indicate the word or sign, as well as that which it expresses. Or rather the terms subject and predicate are employed in an ambiguous manner to express both at once, neglecting the discrimination between the sign and the thing signified. Such employment of these terms naturally leads to confusion of thought. We require for the purposes of grammatical analysis such names for the classes of worcls, as shall indicate with precision that we intend to refer to the signs or words themselves, and( not to the things signified by these words.] (3) Grammarians have called that class of words which expresses the slubjects of propositions, NouiNs-that is, NAMES. [(4) NVoun (nom), is a term borrowed from the French language, in which it means simply name. The gramnmars of many languages Answer. No; they "are essentially distinct," &c. (6) Do words the same, as -to sounid, sometimes perform both fw.ctions? (7) Illustrate by examples. (8) What prevents th~ danger of being deceived by these signs of double meaning? ~ 17. [(1) To what do the names Subject, Predicate, and Copula properly refer? (2) Why are other names necessary for the classes of words which express the several parts of Propositions?] (8) What name have grammarians given to the class of words whichllexpresses the su)b-,ects of Propositions? [(4) Tell the origin and explain the meaning of the term N-ou.)j 3 18 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 18, indicate this class of words by the termn which in those languages signifies name. It would perhaps conduce to perspicuity, if we also called this class of words by our own plain English term NAMES. But long usage has given a kind of prescriptive right to the term noun.] (5) Sometimes the Grammarians call them SUBSTANTIVE NOUNS, to distinguish them from another class of nouns, which is not used to express the subjects of propositions. We shall call them simply nouns, and sometimes substantives, employing these terms (perhaps improperly), like most of the Grammarians of the present day, as of equivalent meaning. ~ 18. (1) Those words which are used to express assertion, or to represent the copula and the predicate, in whole or in part, are called by the Grammarians VERBS. (2) VERB is a term derived, like most of our grammatical terms, from the Latin language, and means wORD. This name is intended to indicate that the kind of sign to which it is applied is pre-eminently THE WORD (a). As verbs are employed always in assertive propositions only for the purpose of expressing the assertive part, we may in our analysis of propositions designate them simply by their name-verbs. But as nouns perform a variety of functions in the construction of propositions (3), whenever a noun is employed as subject, or leading part (nucleus) of the, subject of a proposition, we shall call it the SUBJECT NOUN, to distinguish it from nouns employed for other purposes. (4)' In writing the analysis of a proposition, it will be convenient to express the word subject by the abbreviation or symbol AS.; subject noun by the abbreviation S. N., verb by V., and predicate and copqla, when we hlave occasion to use them in written exercises, by P. and C. The pupil should now learn to point out the subject noun and the verb in the assertive propositions contained in any of the exercises given in the subsequent pages, or in his reading book. Let this exercise be continued with pupils beginning the study of grammar, till NOTE (a). The old grammarians gave the name verb to this class of words, because the force and energy of every assertion —of all discourse-is ro:ntained in the assertive word. " Videlicet quod in vERBIS vim sermonis * * * * ** * **- essejudicaverunt." —Quintilian, I: 4: 18. (5) By what other name are nouns sometimes called? ~ 1S. (1) What name is given to the class of words which expresses assertion? (2) What does the term VERB mean, and what does it indicate in reference to the elam of signs to which it has been applied by the ancient grammarians? ~ 19.] OF PROPOSITIONS. 19 they can, without hesitation, indicate.the subject noun and the verb in each proposition. WhLen these parts of a proposition can be promptly discovered, the first step (and the most important step of all) in grammar is fairly accomplished-a step essential to all satisfactory progress, and which prepares the way for every step that follows. After having spent months-sometimes, after having spent years-in attempting to learn grammar, young pupils do not succeed in accomplishing so much as this. Yet we hope that every intelligent pupil will be surprised to find this important step so easily ma(le by the method here recommended, and under the guidance of a skilful and persevering instructor. ~ 19. (1).Nouns and verbs are, in all respects, by far the most important classes of words in every language. (2) As we have already seen, they serve to constitute a considerable number of complete propositions, without the assistance of any other kind of words. But this is not all. They enter as the essential parts into every proposition, which we use in discourse. They form, as it were, the framework on which all propositions are built. No proposition can be formed without a subject noun (or what for the time performs the function of a subject noun), and a verb expressed or implied. (3) The first things, therefore, to be sought in the analysis of every proposition aie the verb and the subject noun. (4) In fact, all the words employed in constructing even the most complicated propositions, are either 1st, Tie subject noun, or the verb; or, 2nd, Words designed to mzodify, limit, explain either the -subject noun or the verb-that is, to complete the subject and predicate respectively; or, 3d, Words employed to connect propositions with one another; and this also, most frequently, for the same purpose of completing the subject or the predicate of the proposition, with which the attached proposition is united by these connective words. More briefly, if we except connectives employed to unite independent propositions, all discourse, so far as it consists of propositions, is made up of nouns and verbs, and the words which are employed to (8) lIow is a noun distinguished when employed as subject or leading part of the subjeet of a- proposition? (4) By what abbreviations are smubject, subject szoln, v:erb, pred.icate and copollcc to be represented respectively in written analyses? 19. (1) What is said of the importance of nouns and verbs compared with other classes of words P? (2) Tell what is said to illustrate the importance of owi2 es and verbs. (3) What are the first things to be sought in the analysis of a proposition? (4) For what purposes 20 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L[ 19 modify nouns and verbs. (5) It will be found presently that nouns not only perform the function of expressing the subjects, or leading part of the subjects of propositions, but are also largely employed for the purpose of modifying or completing the subjects and the predicates of propositions. (6) When, in adclition to this, we consider that the verb is the predicate with an assumed assertive form, and that the predicate itself is a noun of a particular kind (see ~ 27), we may judge how largely nouns figure in the formation of propositions, and (what is nearly the same thing) in constituting discourse. To present the names and definitions of all the parts of speech to the young learner at this stage of his progress, appears to us injudicious, and is inconsistent with our plan. These strange names and definitions cannot but appear unmeaning and repulsive till the want of them is felt, till the pupil has occasion to employ them to facilitate his progress. To burden the memory with -nknown terms, and definitions as yet incomprehensible, is needlessly to render the study of grammar disgusting to the youthful mind. In conformity with these views, we'shall confine our attention, for somne time to come,' exclusively to the two important classes of words already presented-the nounls and the verbs. The noun we proceed to consider first, and for the present, only in its main function of subject noun. The manner of distinguishing nouns fronm other words; the classification of nouns so far as it appears important for grammatical purposes; and the modifications of form, to vwhich they are subjected, whilst employed as subject nouns, must come briefly under our notice. Our attention must also be incidentally directed to another class of words serving to modify nouns, namely, determinative adjectives, as without reference to these, some of the peculiar uses of nouns cannot be fully explained. For more extended discussion' of these points, we must refer the reader to ~ 91; and Additianal Observations on Determinative Adjectives, ~ 158. are other words, besides the subjedct nou and verb, employed in propositions? (5) What other functions do voslms perform in the construction of propositions besides that of sub. ject eout9? (6) Is the norm, besides this, a constituent part of' erbs? Yes; all verbs may be considered as nouns (of a particular class) with an assertive form.] CHAPTER II. OF N O U N S. DEFINITION OF NOUNS.-CLASSIFICATION OF:NOUNS.-MODIFICATION OF THlE FORMI OF THE SUBJECT NOUN TO rEXPRESS PLURALITY. ~ 20. [(1) A complete definition of nouns ought to embrace all the functions which they perform in discourse. (2) But as a full definition of this sort would be unmanageable in practice on account of its lengtb, we substitute for the present one embracing only the great distinguishing function of nouns. This definition follows naturally, and will be easily understood from what we have said in the preceding chapter.] (3) Xo1us are words which express the subjects of propositions. Any single word which, without another sign impliedi, customarily serves to represent the subject, or the leading part of the subject of a proposition, is to be classed as a noun. (4) This definition will include all zames of persons, places, things, notions or conceptions of the human mind, of which we ever have occasion to make an assertion-to say any thing. (5) When words, not commonly used or recognized as nouns, serve to express the subjects of propositions, they are said to be employed substantively; they perform on such occasions the functions of nouns. Whatever may be their more common use, and their generally received name and classification, they are, for the tigme, nouns, and, in the analysis of lan guage, must be considered and treated as nouns. (6) A phrase or an entire proposition sometimes serves as the subject of another proposition, and is then said to be used substantively-that is, ernS 20. [(1) What should a complete definition of nouns embrace? (2) State the objetion to a complete dcfinition.] (3) Give a definition embracing the main fanction of nouns. (4) What will this def&. tion include? (5) What is meant by words ezmployecl sbstainti vely? (6) What is meant by a phrase, or a proposition being used substantively? 2'2 STRUCTURE OF LANGLUAGE. [~ 21 ployed as a noun.. (7) For example, To SEE THE SUN is pleasant. The subject of this proposition is the phrase, " To see the sun." Being? pleasant is asserted of that which this phrase expresses. Again, in the proposition, That vanity is ridiculoeus is generally admitted, the subject of the main proposition is, " Vanity is ridiculous," which words themselves form a complete proposition, because they contain ant assertion. (8) It will be observed that we have here used the term phrase, to designate a regularly arranged combination of words, which does not constitute a complete proposition, or express an assertion. We may sometimes find occasion to use this term again, in the same sense. ~ 21. In making the assertion that all words, which, singly employed, express the subject of an a ssertion, are nouns, we contemplate words only, as used for the proper purpose which they are designed to serve in language, namely, as signs of thought. Every word whatever, or even any syllable or letter of a word, when employed merely to indicate the spoken or written sign itself, and not that which it usually signifies, may serve as the subject of a proposition. Thus we may say of the verb thinTz considered merely as a vocable or word, Think is a v:erb; think is a word of one syllable; think is a woird ex2pressed inz writing byfive letters, &c. But the word think, employed alone, and as significant of wohat it usually indicates, cannot be made the subject noun of any proposition. We can neither say that think (with its proper significance) is, or that think does any thing.* When a word is used in grammatical and philological discussions, W* e have used the limitation, "employed alone," because, if wcl place the little particle to before think, it becomes what we shall call a verbal n9oun, and may be used as the subject, or leading part of the subject, of an assertive proposition; as, Tob think correctly is a rare accomplishment. Hlere, To think correctly is the subject of the proposition, and To think the leading part of the subject, to whichl "correctly" is superadded as a modification. Again, a proposition, of which think is the verb, miglht be employed as subject of another proposition; as, That 1W1illiam thinks his brother to be vwrong, is well known to his intimate fiiends. IIere the proposition, "tVilliam thinks his brother to be werong," is used substantively, and, as subject of the assertion, " is well lknown to his intinmate friends." (7) Gi've examples. (8) Wlhat is the difference between a phrase and a proposition? ~22.] OF NOUNS. 23 not as the sign of the conception wliich it usually indicates, but, as above, to represent the sign or word itself, it is said to be taken or emlployed mnatelrialiter or technically. Employed in this way, every word becomes for the time a noun, that is, the name of itself, the name of the uttered or written sign, not of that which it has been invented to represent. We are not to be understood as asserting universally that every single word, entitled to the name of noun, is capable of serving as the subject noun of a proposition. A word which performs any of the functions-(to be enumerated hereafter) peculiar to nouns, must be classed among nouns. For example, we would class the word while among nouns (though in modern English it is never used, and could not now with propriety be used, as the subject noun of a proposition), because it manifestly performs the function of a noun in completing the predicates of certain propositions: as, lie remained a while, I will come after a while, &c. When a subject noun, of the same meaning with while, is wanted, we employ the word time. That while serves not as a subject?oun, is to be attributed to a rare accident in language. A full definition of nouns, as we have already said, ought to embrace all the functions which they perform in discourse. The defini tion above given we do not offer as complete, but as sfficient for the learner's guidance in distinguishing nouns. There are very few nouns, indeed, which cannot be readily ascertained to be such by the test we have adopted; and if they cannot, it is only because, like the word while, they have fallen into disuse in their prominent function of serving as subjects of propositions, and, in this respect, have given place to some more modern ternm. ~ 22. When the learner meets a, word manifestly intended to express the subject of an assertion, or the leading part of the subjectthat part which all the words making up the complete subject regard, modify, limit or describe —he can have no room to doubt what he should call it. It is a noun, or a word or combination of words, for the time used as a noun. -VWhether a word, employed for a different purpose from that of subject noun, is a noun, may be readily ascertained, in nearly all cases, by trying whether it can serve as the subject noun of a proposition, or, in other words, by trying whether an assertion can be made in regard to that which it expresses —whether it can be said of it, that it is, or is not something, or that it does, or does naot do something.* * A practical rule. commonly given for the purpose of distinguishing 24 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 22. The rule to determine whether a word is to be classed among nouns may be given in the following brief form: (1) Every word which, alone and without any word implied, expresses what can b6 rmade the subject or leading part of the subject of a proposition or assertion, is a NXOUN.*' EXERCISE.-Let the learner point out the nouns in the following passage, and show that the test given in the above rule applies to each of them: - "' Columbus was not ignorant of the mutinous disposition of his crew, but he still maintained a serene and steady countenance; soothing some with gentle words; endeavoring to stimulate the pride or avarice of others, and openly menacing the refractory with signal punishment, should they do any thing to impede the voyage." MODEL OF EXAMINATION.-Point out the first noun in this passage. Ans. Columbus.-How do you ascertain that Columbus is a noun? Ans. From the fact that it expresses the subject of the proposition, "U Colmnbus was not ignorant," &c.-Point out the next noun in the passage. Ans. "Disposition."-Why class this as a noun? Ans. Because it will serve to express the leading part of the subject, or, in other words, serves as subject noun, for example, in the following proposition, The disposition of his crew was imutinous. " Crew" is a noun; we can say, The crew was mutinouts, &c. In the next proposition, Iie nouns, is, to try whether they will make sense when united with a determinative or descriptive adjective-classes of words which we shall come to consider hereafter-in other words, to try whether they admit of being modified by these classes of words. This rule, besides the objection that it is indirect and mechanical, fails in regard of at least one large class of words now recognized by the best grammarians as nouns, viz., those words which have usually been called the iiflnitives of verbs; and it applies very clumsily to many proper names of persons, places, &c. It will exercise the rational powers of the learner to much better purpose to apply the test, Is this word the subject nozun of the proposition which I amn analyzing, or, if not, can i, (stripped, if necessary, of case ending or inflexion) be made thesubject noun. of sosme other proposition-that is, can any thing be asserted of it? * The learlner will find afterward that for some purposes nouns take.cer tain inflexions, of which they must be stripped before they can serve as su11 ject N.ouns. This fact will, in the end, present little difficulty, and it is unto cessry, at this point of our progress, to perplex the pupil by embracing it ii our rule. i 22 (1) Repeat the rule to determline whether agiven word is a swut, 24.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 25 is a noun, according to our definition (and may be so called till the learner finds a special name for it), because it expresses the subject of the proposition, " IIe still maintained a serene and steady countenance." The word " his." in the preceding proposition may be passed over.for the present, though, if an inflected form of 7he, it has claims to be classed as a noun. ~ 23. CLASSIFICATrON OF NOUNS.-Some knowledge of the classi. fecation of nouns is necessary in order to comprehend certain modifications, of which they are susceptible, by a change of form, or by the addition of other words, to fit them to express the various subjects of human thought. But it may be useful, thus early, to dwell longer on the classflcation of nouns, than would be absolutely necessary for the purpose mentioned, because, next to a careful application of the test already given, a review of the several kinds of nouns will, more than anly thing else, assist the young learner in distinguishing readily this important class of words. Besides, it is requisite for other reasons connected with our method of treating grammar to give in this place more extended notice to some of the classes which we shall designate. ~ 24. FIRsT CLASS: CONCRETE NOUNS, on NAMES OF SUBSTANCES.-(1) The names of substances, material and immaterial, constitute the most prominent class of nouns. (2) We use the word substance here in the philosophical sense to indicate what subsists by itself-what has, or is conceived to have, an independent existence. (3) This class includes the names of. all persons, animals, places, of all the objects around us in the universe, whether formed by our Creator, or by the skill, industry, and contrivance of man-in a word, every thing which appears to our senses as a separate independent object of contemplation, or which is conceived by the mind as such, as God, angels, souls of men, &c. (4) These are called concrete nouns, or names of substances. EXERCISE I.-Let the pupil point out the concrete nouns, or names of substances in the following extract:" On the right, amid a profusion of thickets, knolls, and crags, lay the bed of a broad mountain lake, lightly curled into tiny waves by the breath of the morning breeze, each glittering in its course under 24. (1) What words constitute the most prominent class of nouns? (2) In what sense is the word sutbstance here used, and what does it mean or indicate? (3) Enumerate some vf the kinds of names which belong to this class. (4) What is the name given to this clas of nouns? 26 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 26. the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and banks waving with natural forests of birch and oak. formed the borders of this enchanting sheet of water; and, as their leaves rustled in the wind, and twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of life and vivacity." EXERcISE II. —Let the pupil write a given number of examples of concrete nouns. This exercise, in the case of young pupils, may, with advantage,, be often repeated. Each time it may be prescribed to give a number of examples from one subdivision of these names. 1st, names of persons; 2d, names of animals; 3d, names of places; 4th, names of things of natural production, as minerals, plants, &c.; 5th, names of things of artificial production; 6th, names of spiritual, or immaterial substances. 8 25. COLLECTIVE NouNS. —What are called collective nouens may be regarded (1) as a peculiar subdivision of the names of substances. (2) The collectives claim our notice, because some of them are occasionally so employed as to give rise to certain peculiarities of construction, as we shall find hereafter; (~ 56, rule II.) (3) They are called collectives, because they express an assemblage of objects contemplated by the mind as forming a single conception, and capable of being embraced collectively under the same assertion. The individual objects which form such assemblages are contemplated as united together by some common bond, or for some coinmon purpose, and we appropriate to them, as thus united, a collective name. (4) We have examples in the words, army, meaning an organized collection of soldiers; navy, a collection of ships and seamen; society, party, parliament, congress, council, mob, grozp, crowd, horde, host, &c. ExsEcIsE.-Let the pupil give a written list of collective nouns. ~ 26. (1) SECOND CLASS: ABSTRACT NouNS.-The names given to qualities, plroperties, or attributes, ABSTRACTLY considered; that is, considered separately from the substances, or objects in which they are found, constitute a second class of nouns very distinct from the former. (2) Some of these qualities, or properties, are perceived by the 25. (1) IIow may collective nouns be regarded? (2) Why does this subdivision of nouns claim a share of our notice? (3) Why are these nouns called collectives? (4) Giva examples of collective nouns. j 26. (1) What words constitute the second class cf nouns? (2) Recite the illustra ~ 27.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 27 senses, as, for example, the properties of external bodies-hardness, softness, the various colors, &c. Others are made known to us by the help of an intellectual process, as, for example, the various properties or attributes of human minds-emotions, passions, feelings, affections, virtues, vices, &c. These attributes or properties, whether of matter or of mind, have obviously no independent existence. They all subsist only in connection with ~ubstances, and, apart from these, they have no real being. (3) But we often find it convenient to contemplate these properties separately, or abstracted from the substances in which they exist, and to discourse of them as thus viewed. Hence we give them names, and express our thoughts of them in propositions, in the same manner as we do of substances. (4) To distinguish this class of names from the names of substances, they are commonly called ABSTRACT NOUNS. Or they may be called NAMES OF ATTRIBUTES:; that is, of those, qualities or properties which we attribute to substances. ExErcPISE I.-Point out the nouns in t..e following sentences, and distinguish the abstract names from the names of substances:" Whatever promotes and strengthens virtue, whatever calms and regulates the temper, is a source of happiness. Devotion produces these effects in a remarkable degree. It inspires composure of spirit, mildness and benignity; weakens the painful, and cherishes the pleasing emotions; and, by these means, carries on the life of a pious man in a smooth and placid tenor " The pupil will call " whatever" a noun, since it expresses the subject of several propositions in the beginning of this passage, but he need not give himself any trouble for the present to determine to what class of nouns it belongs. ExERtcISES II. III., &c.-Write out a given number of abstract nouns. 1st. Names of sensible or external attributes. 2d. Names of spiritual or mental attributes, or such as are perceived by the help of an intellectual process. ~ 27. (1) VERBAL NouNs. —What are called verbal nouns may be considered as a peculiar subdivision of abstract nouns, or names tlons and examplles given above and suggest others. (8) Account for the formation of tht. class of nouns. (4) By what names are they called? j 27. (:1) How may,rerbal zouns be considered? 28 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ A of attributes subjectively employed.* (2) These are called verbals, because they express substantively, or subjectively, that which is expressed assertively by their kindred verbs. The name verbal seems intended to imply that these nouns are derived from verbs. But, on the contrary, verbs themselves may, with more propriety, be considered as these (so called) verbal nouns with an assumed assertive form. "' A verb is a noun and something more." It is a noun with an indication of assertion superadded. This indication is usually expressed by theform of the verb in most languages; but in English for want of verbal terminations, or, rather, through disuse of those formerly employed, we are often left to determine fiom the construction whether a word is assertively used or not —that is, lwhether it is a verb or not. It is easy, however, to distinguish the verbal nouns we are now considering from the verb. The one is generally marked by its prefixed particle to, and when this is omitted, as after certain verbs (chiefly those called auxiliary), its relation to these verbs prevents all mistake; the other verbal is distinguished by its invariable termination ing from the verb, though not from the verbal adjective or participle. (3) We have in the English language two of these verbals for every verb, with the' exception of four or five very peculiar verbs of the class called auxiliary verbs-may, can, shall, must. These and will in its auxiliary sense have no correspondent verbals. (4) One of these verbals consists of what is called the root, or radical form of the verb, generally, with the particle to prefixed. The other consists of the radical form with the termination ing affixed. For example, from the root read we have the two verbals, to read and reading7; from p9rint, to p'rint and rinting. (5) When' That is, if being and acting are to be admitted among properties or attributes of thiings substantial. If not, tile verbals are entitled to be admitted as a separate class. But whether we regard them as a subdivision of abstract nouns, or as a distinct class, they claim the particular attention of the learner on account of the peculiar modes of expression and forms of construction which arise from their use in language. (2) Why is this class of words called verbals? (8) How many verbal noulns. are connected with each verb? (4) Describe these veo'aln and give examples. (5) Notice the exception in forming the zwritte verbal in ing. ~ 27.] CLASSIFICATION OF YOUNS. 29 the written radical form of the verb ends in an e mute (that is, not sounded), this e is omitted before the termination ing. -(6) The form consisting of the root with the particle to prefixed, is commonly called the infinitive mode of the verb. (7) But it cannot be classed as a verb, consistently with the definition already given, since it does not express assertion. (8) On the contrary, it is always employed to perform the function of a noun-sometimes that of a subject noun, most frequently that of modifying or completing a verb. (9) In performing this latter function after some few veibs (mostly auxiliaries), the particle to is omitted, and the bare root employed; as, he can READ=-he is able To READ. He mnust go; mnen dare UNDERTAKE, &c.,=2nen dare TO UNDERTAKE. (10) As this class of words has been so long known by the name of infinitives of verbs, we shall continue to call them infinitives, whenever we have occasion to distinguish them fiom other nouns; but by so doing we must not be understood as admitting them to be verbs. (11) The verbal in ING (as we have remarked in ~ 14: B),* very exactly expresses in English that which is predicated —that part of the predicate, which is contained in the kindred verb. (12) For example, John writes. WVhat is asserted of John in this proposition, is precisely that action, which is expressed by the noun writing. In other words, writing expresses a well-known act substantively, or subjectively —that is, in the form to be employed as the subject of an assertion. Writes expresses the same act assertively. (13) In many languages the infinitives express precisely in a substantive, or subjective form, that which is expressed assertively * The first number,; when we use two nufnbers in a reference, is the number of the section, and the second is the number intended to direct the learner to the answers of the subjoined questions. We may find it convenient to use these numbers, sometimes, to refer more exactly to the part of the section whicl explains any point under consideration. (6) By whatname is the first of these two verbals called? (7) State the objection to classing it as a verb. (8) What functions does it perform? (9) Is it always preceded by the particle to? Mention exceptions. Give examples. (10) When we call this class of verbals i4tinitives, do we admit them to be verbs? (11) What does the vertbal in ING Express? (12) Give example and illustrate. (13) What do the Infinitives of many languages 30 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 27. by the verb. (14) The verbal in ING, employed as subject noun of a proposition, sometimes admits of being interchanged with the infinitive; as, SEEING the sun is pleasant, or To SEE the sun is pleasant. (15) With this exception, these verbals generally perform distinct functions (as we shall see hereafter), and the one cannot (with propriety) be substituted for the other. (16) The verbal in iny is sometimes called the gerund. This is the name given to a form of like use and signification in the Latin language, and it may sometimes be conveniently employed to distinguish this class of verbals, as the term infinitives is used to distinguish the other. (1 7) These verbals differ from other nouns, in being capable of taking the same forms of complements, or the same kinds of words to modify them as their kindred verbs. This fact will be considered and accounted for in treating of complements or modifications, (See ~ 76: 32, et seq.) (18) There are sometimes other nouns formed from the verbs, or perhaps we should rather say in most cases from these verbals, which might from their connection with verbs be also called verbal nouns. Both verbs and verbals sometimes originate from a noun that- has nothing to do in its proper sense with the expression of action; as from the noun eye, we have the verb to eye, from hand to hands, &c. But such nouns are in no sense verbals. We only call those verbals which express in some form the action of their kindred verbs. For example, act, actor, action, agent, all connected with the verbal to act in form, and borrowing an essential part of their significance from it; and command, commandment, commander, connected with the verbal to command. It is not, however, necessary to form verbals of this kind into a distinct class, or to give them any special notice, as there is nothing peculiar in their grammatical functions, and as all grammarians agree in arranging them among the noufis. (19) It may also be observed, to guard against mistakes, that express? (14) Can verbals in IxoG and infinitives be interchanged, or substituted for eaeh ether, and, if so, under what circumstances? (15) Can the one verbal be generally substi tuted for the other? (16) By what name is the verbal in ing sometimes called? (17) What peculiarity distinguishes these versbals from other nouns? (1S) Are there other verbals besides the in fnitives and fermnds? Tell what is said of them, and give examples. (19) Are all nouns formed by the union of the roots of verbs with the termination ing to ~ 27.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 81 all nouns made by the union of the roots of verbs and the termination inq, do not belong to the class of verbals in ing or gerunds, though exactly agreeing with them in form. Concrete nouns are sometimes formed by adding ing to the root of the verb, as building, a something built; altogether distinct in meaning from the gerund building, the act asserted by the verb build; in the same manner many of these words in ing are used both as verbals and in another and often a concrete sense; for example, lodging, beginning, painting, &c. Let it be remembered that the verbals, which alone merit special attention on account of their peculiar relation to the verbs in meaning and in the modifications which they admit in common, are those which express that substantively which the verbs express assertively. (20) Care must also be taken to distinguish these verbal nouns in ing from the verbal adjectives or participles which in modern English agree with them in form. NoTE.-The forms were originally distinct in our language, as the corresponding forms are still in the sister dialects. The verbal is not the participle usurped substantively, as most grammarians have incorrectly asserted. The verbal nouns had a place in the language in their present form-ending in ING or UNxa centuries before verbal adjectives or participles had assumed or borrowed this ending. The present, or rather imperfect participle, in Anglo-Saxon terminates in ende, and the termination ends or end, more frequently written ande or and, was retained in old English, and consequently the distinction in form between these participles and the verbal nouns in ing till near the times of Wiclif and Chaucer. Participles in and occur in authors who wrote in the northern parts of Britain till a much later period. We subjoin examples from an old gloss which we find quoted in Bagster's 1Hexapla, p. 7: " And he prechyde sayande, a stalworther thane I schal come efter me, of whom I am not worthi downfallande or kneelande," &c. " And pleside to HIarowde, and also to the sittancde at mete," &c. Observe that in the last quotation the participle sittande is employed substantively to mean the persons sitting at meat. If our nouns in ing had been, as supposed by the grambe classed as qerznzds P Tell what is said of other nouns so formed, and how the gerund may be distinguished from them. (20) What other class of words has assumed the same form with the gerunds, and how are the Cor",usd e t he dlistinguishedl from these? 8-2 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L~ 2 marians, participles used substantively, this, of which we have here an example, must have been their use, viz., to indicate, not the abstract action of the verb, as they in fact do, but, as here, the agent or actor. This is invariably the use of the corresponding participle, employed substantively in all other languages. We select from Mr. R. Taylor, to whom we are indebted for a complete elucidation of this matter, a few examples in which the verbal noun and the participle botih ceeur in their distinct forms::- - Such thyngis that are likand Tyll mannys heryng are plesand." —Barb. Bruce (1857), b. 1, 1. 9. "Hors, or hund, or othir thing, That war plesand to thar liking." —Barb. Bruce, I. 207. " Full low inclinaeid to their queen full clear, Whom for their noble nourishing they thank."-Dunbar. See more examples, and a full and (to me) satisfactory exposition of this matter in Mr. Taylor's valuable additional notes to the Diversions of Purley.-T. Tegg, Loend. 1840. The learner will distinguish the verbal noun from the verbal adjective, by thie test given above (~ 20: 3), and from the other nouns in ing, by attending to the remarks we have just been making on these nouns. ExEnrcIsE I. —Let the learner distinguish the gerunds from the other nouns in ing, and from the verbal adjectives in the following sentences. To assist in distinguishing the nouns from the verbal adjectives, we use the former only in their function of subject nouns. If, therefore, the word in inzg is subject or main part of the subject of the proposition, it is a noun (whether gerund or not remains for the pupil to determine); if, on the contrary, some other word is the main part of the subject, the word in ing is a verbal adjective. When the word in ing can take an infnitive as a substitute, it is a gerund. This writing is blotted. The boy writing to his father told him, &c. writing is a fatiguing employment. The beginning of the exercise is better than the end. Beginning a good course requires effort. Telling falsehoods is mean. Speaking the truth is commendable. The man saying this departs. Saying and doing are very different things. This saying is hard. Loving our enemies is a difficult duty. Read. ing is less laborious than writing. Wasting time is as bad as wasting money. Giving is sometimes easier than forgiving; and forgiving is easier than forgetting. In going through the preceding exercise, it will be proper ~ 28.] CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 33 to point out the verb first in each proposition, and next the subject noun. Next show to which class the word ending in ing belongs. MODEL.-" This writing is blotted." Which is the verb, or assertive word? Ans. Is. Which is the subject noun? Ans. " iriting," because it is about zoriting that the assertion in the proposition is made. Is writing here the gerund? Ans. No; because it does not mean the action writing', but something that is written. It is here a concrete noun or name of a substance. Observe that several of thl propositions at the end are double propositions, one of the verbs being suppressed. "Reading is less laborious than writing." Supply is after woriting; and so of the rest. ExERCISE II.-Point out;, or rather write out all the infinitives: and gerunds in a given portion of any book used by the pupil or by a class of pupils. EXERcISE III. —Form a given number of propositions with infinitives or geruncls for their subjects. Let the learner continue these exercises till he becomes perfectly falmiliar with this class of words. ~ 28. THIIRD CLASS: PRONOUNS. (1) Another class of words comes under our definition of nouns (that is, of words which serve to express the subjects or leading parts of the subjects of propositions), which, because of their peculiar function in language, have been generally treated as a distinct part of speech. Some have called them, very appropriately, nouns of the second order; but they are commonly known by the niame of PRONOUNS. (2) This class of words, as the name indicates (pro-noun=to the English for-noun), is employed for nouns; that is, to represent nouns, or names. [(3) Let it be remembered that all the nouns, hitherto noticed, are the representatives, or signs of things existing in nature, or conceived by the mind as existing in nature. (4) These nouns, or names, are so associated with the things, classes of things, substances, attributes, existences, &c., which they represent, that, when uttered, they serve to recall them to the minds of those who understand the particular language to which these names belong. (5) The pronouns, on tm 5 28. (1) Wlhat is saidof a third class of words, which come under our definition Uc nouns; and what have they been commonly called? (2) Tell what the name Jvronozts signifies, and the purpose for which this class of words is employed? [(3) Of what are the notns hitherto noticed the signs? (4) What is said in illustration. of the connection bl tween tl-ase izousns and what they represent? (5) Of wvhat aro pronouns the represents. 4 34 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. F{ 28 contrary, are only the representatives of nouns, not the direct signs of thingzs. (6) As the same pronoun may be used to represent an unlimited number of nouns, that is, the names of an unlimited variety of things, the pronouns are not associated in the memory, by the use of language, with any objects or classes of objects exclusively, but are used to represent the names, now of one, now of another object, or class of objects. (7) Thus every man employs the pronoun I to represent his own name-to indicate himself, when he has occasion to express any assertion of which he is the subject. We use thou or you to represent any individual whom we address. Thus I is employed to represent the unlimited number of individuals who may have occasion to speak of themselves; and thou or you to represent the unlimited number of persons, to whom others may have occasion to address any assertion having the person or persons addressed for its subject. He, again, represents tha names of all beings in the universe recognised as males, when (not addressed, but) spoken of individually to others; she the names of all thefemales; and it all objects that are not recognised -as either male or fenmale. So that these three little words, he, she, it, together, represent the names of all persons and things in the universe singly or individually considered; and the single pronoun they represents them all, when assertions are to be made in regard to a number of them taken together. (8) It follows from this account of the functions of pronouns, that the mind must always refer back from the pronoun which represents the person spoken of, to the noun which it represents, in order to know what is intended to be designated. (9) When language is skilfully employed, this reference can always be readily made by proper attention to the connection and arrangement of the words in discourse, and to the recognised usages of speech. (10) If on any occasion we cannot determine to what particular noun a pronoun has reference, we fail completely of catching the meaning of the speaker or writer. tives? (6) What farther is said of the pronouns? (7) Illustrate;'and tell what the pronouns 1, tho2u or dyou, he, she, it, and they, may severally represent. Divide the rluestion. What does I represent? &c. (8) I-ow do we ascertain what is designated by a pronoun? (9) In what case is the reference of a pronoun readily made, and how is it made? (10) If we fail altogether in dis M 28.1 CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 35 (11) If we cannot determine this reference with certainty and with promptitude, we complain justly of obscurity. Our mind, in this case, is diverted from the subject matter of the discourse to the irksome occupation of unravelling the perplexities of the construction-a result fatal to the success of either orator or author, except his matter is possessed of more than common interest, and the hearer or reader possessed of more than common patience. Even then, such obscurity occasions annoyance and waste of time, and sometimes greatly diminishes the effect of sound argument and profound research. (12) Let us here add, that there is nothing in which inexperienced writers more frequently fail, than in securing by a lucid arrangement the certain and easy reference of pronoulns of the third person, as they are called, to the nouns which they are intended to represent. (13) If a writer wishes to be easily and clearly understood, let him take care never to employ a pronoun in such a way, that an intelligent reader can hesitate to decide to what it refers. (14) It is particularly in the use of the pronouns, he, she, it, and they, that this precaution is necessary. The other pronouns can scarcely be so employed as to occasion obscurity.] NOTE.-Much of what is said about the pronouns seems to apply more strictly to what are called the pronouns of the third person —he, she, it, and they-than to those of the first and second persons, those which represent the speaker and the party addressed, I,'we, thoul, you. It may even be questioned whether the name _pronoun (relpresentative of noun) can with strict propriety be given to these last. They can scarcely be said either to stand for nouns or to refer to nouns. They are signs as directly indicating the parties engaged in discourse, as the names of these parties would be: they indicate them more clefaly, more explicitly, than their proper names in the circumstances would do. There is no need of a reference to tlhe nzames of the parties in order to understand who is designated. Nay, the names may be unknown, and yet no want of perspicuity be. occasioned; as when persons enter into conversation on the road, who do not know each sovering the reference of a pronoun, what is the consequence? (11) What is the conne. quence if we cannot discover it promptly? (12) In what is it alfleged that inexperienced writers often fail? (13) Mention the precaution to be observed by a writer, that he may be easily and clearly understood. (14) In reference to what pronouns is this precaution par. ticularly required?] 36 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 29. other's names, nor perhaps wish to know them, or when the author oz orator addresses unknown readers or hearers, or, as often happens in our periodicals, when the name of the author and the names of those whom he addresses are mutually unknown. There is then a marked distinction in some respects between these two classes of pronouns-those of the first and second persons, as they are called, and those of the third person. But in this they agree, and in this they are both unlike nouns, that they are not appropriated exclusively to express one object or one class of objects. The pronouns of the first and second persons are made to designate all persons who are for the time speakers or parties addressed, as those of the third. designate all persons and things spoken of, exclusive of the speaker and the party addressed. Those of the first and second persons especially, besides expressing the subject, indicate the part which the subject performs in the discourse-a service which could not be performed so readily by the use of the nouns which these pronouns are said to represent; but which they certainly do more than mnerely relpresezt. (15) The pronouns employed as subject nozens of propositions, are of two distinct classes, called personal pronouns, and relative pronouns. Some grammarians have given to this latter class the more appropriate because more characteristic name of conjunctive pronouns. We confine our attention for the present to the personal pron.cuns. The conjunctive pronouns will come under our notice in a more suitable place, when we shall have occasion to show their use in the construction of compound propositions. ~ 29. THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.-(1) This class of pronouns is called personal because, besides performing the functions of nouns in the subjects of propositions, they indicate the PERSON or part which what they represent sustains in discourse.* * The ancient grammarians seem to have borrowed the term per son: from the language of the stage, in which the players were called the dramnatis personce, persons of the drama. (Originally persona meant the mask through which the actor spoke, afterwards it was employed also as a name for a player, for him who wore the mask and sustained the character of a party in the drama.) Among the actors a first, second, &c., persona, (15) How many kinds of pronouns are employed as subjects, and by what names bre they called? ~ 29. (1) Why are the personal pronouns called by this name? ~ 29.] OF PRONOUNS. 37 (2)* These performers enacting distinct parts in discourse ire, first, the speaker —in his own name alone, or in his own name, and that of others for whom he undertakes to speak-who is called the FIRST PERSON, as sustaining thefirst, or chief part in discourse; second, the party (or parties when more than one) addressed, called the SECOND PERSON, as sustaining the second part, or part of hearers in discourse; and, third, theparty, or parties spoken of in discourse, when distinct from the speaker and the party addressed, called the THIRD PERSON. [(3) Under the first and second persons are included only what are called persons in the common modern sense of the word person, or what, for the time, are conceived as performing the functions of persons, that is, the functions of rational beings using or at least understanding speech; that is, such as alone can sustain a part in discourse. (4) When ve speak to animals, they are recognised as sustaining the part of a second person, as listening to human discourse, and are, in such cases, addressed by the pronoun of the second person; as, "Sing'st thou, sweet Philomnel, to me?" (5) The same happens in the use of tile figure called personification, when we conceive, or represent insensible objects, as if they possessed reason, and could listen to our discourse. Sometimes suich mute objects are represented as performing the part of speaker cr first person. (6) Under the third person the grammarians comprehend every class of beings that can become the subject of thought-both persons (properly so called) and things.] The extension of the term person, in treating of the pronouns of the third 2person, so as to comprehend beings which not only are not by common usage called persons, but excluded from the class of persons, has led/ to an ambiguous and inconsistent employment of this word by the grammarians. In speaking of nouns, and especially of the personal pronouns, we are told that all animals and things, as well as perperson or actor, was recognised; and this fact also seems to have been present to the thoughts of the gramnmarian who first adopted the terms first person, second person, third person, in treating of these pronouns. (2) What is the part sustained in discourse by what is called in granrnmar the FIRST PERaSON? What by the EcoIND PERSON? What by the THIRD PERSON? [(a) What class of beings alone is generally included under the first and secozn persons? (4) Mention an exception. (5) Mention a second apparent exception. (6) What classes of beings are comprehended under the thirbac persoz?] PI STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 30 o01ls, are of the third person, when merely spoken of; manifestly including animals and things in the class of pFersons, as comprehended with them under the third person. Again, when it becomes necessaty to distinguish the conjunctive pronouns, qwho and which, we are told that who applies to persons, and which to cnimcals or inanimate tfhings, manifestly excluding animals and inanimnate thlings (in accordance with the commonly received usage of the term) from the class of Persons, In these two cases the word person is cmployed in two senses not only different, but strikingly inconsistent. We cannot free ourselves effectually from this inconsistent employment of the term person, without a considerable change in the language employed in treating of the persons of nouns, pronouns, and verbs; or, in other words, of the parts which subjects sustain in discourse. A reformed nomenclature is perhaps needed in this, as in some other departments of grammar. Let fis, in the mean time, mark and admit the extension beyond its usual and proper sense given to the term person, when we speak of the third person of nouns or pronouns, and guard against any confusion of thought which might arise from the ambiguous or inconsistent employment of this term. ~ 30. (1) The first person, or speaker (when the subject of a proposition) is expressed by the pronoun I; or, if he speaks in the name of others, as well as in his own name, by the pronoun WE. I serves instead of the speaker's own proper name, and WE instead of the speaker's name and the names of those whom he represents. (2) The second person, or the party addressed (when the subject of a proposition), is represented by the pronoun THOU, or YOU, if a single individual; if a number of individuals, by You, or YE. (3) THOU, except in addresses to the Deity, and in the solemn style, is almost out of use in the English of the present day. The same may be said of YE. (4) The form YOU has come to be universally elmployed in ordinary discourse, both in addressing an individual and X number of persons, except among the Friends. (5) The pronoun }f the THIRD PERSON (or party spoken of, exclusive of speaker and hearers), representing a single individual, has three distinct forms, according as the party spoken of is recognised as being of the mnale ~ 30. (1) What pronoun represents the speaker as subject of a proposition? What pronreun is used when the speaker speaks for others with himself? (2) What are the pronouns of the secoelndpersosz? (5) What is said of the use of THOUn? (4) What of the employ. mnent of You? (5) What is said of the pronoun of the tiirlVd operson f ~ 30.] OF PRONOUNS. 3$ sex, or of the female sex, or as belonging to the class of things without sex, or in which sex is not recognised in the ordinary use of language. (6) HEi is employed in speaking of an individuat mnale, StE of an individual female, and IT in speaking of things without life, and of animals when we do not know or do not choose to nark the sex. (7) When we speak of more than one individual TH3EY is employed, as subject noun, to represent all classes of be ings-persons, anlnals, and things, without distinction. (8) We may notice here the classification of nouns on the basis of the distinction of the two sexes, and of the absence or non-recognition of sex, commonly called by grammarians the GENDERS of NOUNS. (9) The word gender (genus) means, simply, kind or class. (10) In English we have three genders, that is, three kinds of nouns in reference to sex: 1st, all males recognised as such in ordinary discourse (as God, angels, men, the male heathen deities, and the males of the nobler, and of the more conspicuous and best known animals), are arranged in the MASCULINE GENDER, or class of mnales; 2d, all females (as women, goddesses, and the more conspicuous female animals), are, in like manner, arranged in the FEMININE GENDER, or class of females; and, 3d, all things without animal life, or in which sex, in the ordinary usage of language is not recognised, are arranged under the NEUTER (or neither) gender, that is, the class which is neither male nor female. (11) This classification is of little use in English, save in reference to the employment of the pronouns of the third person, IHE, SEIE, and IT, and some words of their family. (12) He, as will be seen from what is said above, represents nouns of the masculine gender, and may be called the masculinze pronoun; she, in like manner, represents nouns of the fenminine gender, and may be called the femininepronoun; and it represents neuter nouns, and may be called the neuzter pronoun. (See ~ 157.) (6) What pronoun represents an individual male in the third 2ersosn? What represents a female in like manner? What represents individually or singly things without life, and animals in which the sex is not known or not regarded in language? (0) For what pur. pose is the pronoun TIIEY employed? (8) What is said of the classification of nouns called the GErNDERS? (9) What does the term gelnder mean? (10) Describe this classification, as regards our language. (11) Is this classification of much importance in English? (12) Tell what gevnder or class Ca.2h (o the pronouns she, he, it, represents. to flSTRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 30 (13) The learner will please remember that in tll propositions, I and we alone are used to represent the first person or speaker, singular and plural. Thou or you, alone to represent thesecond person or party addressed, singular or plural. (14) Nouns are never used to express the subjects of assertions in reference to these parties. (15) But in making assertions of parties distinct from the speaker and the party addressed, we use either the noun-the name of the person or persons, the thing or things spoken of-or we can use their representatives, the pronouns he, she, it, and they (when no obscurity is occasioned), as subject nouns of propositions. (16) From this it follows that all nouns employed as the subjects of propositions are to be classed under the third person; they are only used to express parties merely spoken of. (17) There is another pronoun of the third person which we must notice here; namely, the word one. This word seems to be the French on, borrowed, likely, from the Nlormans. It is used to represent an indefinite third person, and can scarcely be said to be the representative of a name, but rather of that which is nameless. ONE thinks=any person thinks. (See ~ 155: 25.) EXERCISES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOouNs.-I. Analyze the following propositions: I think. We live. Thou standest. You run. He sleeps. She learns. It decays. They wbrk. We prosper. He plays. I study. It snows. Man toils, he suffers, &c. MODEL OF ANALYSIs.-Exanmple: " We live." Point out the verb in this proposition. Ans. The word l" live." Why do you call "live" a verb? Ans. Because it is the assertive word of the proposition. What is the subject of this proposition? Ans. The word "we." TWhat do you mean by the subject of a proposition? Ans. The subject is that of which the assertion contained in the proposition is made. What kind of word is " we"? Ans. A noun of the second order, or a personal pronoun of the first person. What is meant by a pronoun or noun of the second order? Ans. A word (18) What words are always used in propositions to represent the speaker and the party or parties addressed? (14) Are nouns ever employed for this purpose? (15) What subject nomuzs are employed in propositions having reference to parties distinct fromn speaker and hearer? (16) Under what person then are all nouns em3loyed as subjects of PIopositscnm to be classed? (7IT) Repeat lwhat is said of the indefinite pronoun oh. ~31] PROPER AND COMMON NO()UNS. 41 which stands instead of a noun, or which represents a noun, without being the definite or fixed name of any -particular object or class of objects. What does the pronoun "we" here represent? Ans. The names of the person who speaks (who utters the proposition), and of those for whom, in connection with himself, he speaks. These questions may be increased or diminished, according to the capacity and the progress of the learner. It will generally be best to analyze a few examples very fully, and afterwards abbreviate the process, as in the model which follows: MODEL SECOND.-Example: "She learns." The verb is " learns," for "learns" expresses the assertion contained in the proposition. The subject is the pronoun sHE. This pronoun is of the third person and feminine gender; for it represents an individual merely spoken of, and that individual afemnale. Or, more briefly still, the subject is the feminine pronoun SHE of the third person. Example: Mala toils, he suffers, &c. The subject of the second proposition is HE, the masculine pronoun of the third person. This pronoun represents the noun "m an" -the subject of the preceding proposition. In written analyses, the following abbreviations may be adopted: pron. for pronoun, persl. for personal, pers. for person, the numerals 1, 2, 3 to express the number of the person, mas. for masculine, fen. for feminine, neut. for neuter. It may be useful, in writing, to draw a line under all the gaammatical terms and abbreviations employed to indicate the analysis, in order to distinguish them more clearly from the words of the example analyzed. In the printed book we exhibit the words employed to express the analysis in Italics, to distinguish them from the words analyzed, which are exhibited in Roman type. MODEL OF A WRITTEN ExERCISE.-Examlple: lie sleeps (He, mas. pron. 3 pers.) s. sleeps, v. That is, He, the masculine pronoun of the third person, is the subject, sleeps is the verb. ExERcIsEs II. III., &c.-Let the pupil form a given number cf written propositions having personal pronouns for their subjects. ~ 31. PROPER NouNS AND COMMON NouNS.-We must now attend to another classification of nouns, founded on a different principle —a classification of considerable importance in a grammaticrd3 t2 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 31. point of view, as many of the contrivances of language have refer ence to the fact or principle on which it rests. The fact to which we allude is the extent of the signification of nouns. (1) In reference to this, Grammarians have divided them into two classes, called by them proper nouns and common nouns. (2) Some nouns are names appropriated to certain persons or things, as the names of men and women, names given to some of the domestic animals, as dogs, horses, &Ic., by which we recognise only a single individual. To this class belong also the names of countries, regions, cities, towns, mountains, rivers, states, nations, or races of men, languages, days, months, festivals, great events, ships, &c., &c. (3) These are called prop2er nouns, because they are names proper — that is, peculiar or a2ppropriated to individual persons, places, &c., of which they are the spoken signs. Pro2per has, in this use, the sense it retains in the word property. These names are, as it were, the property of the individuals they represent. Examples: George Washington, Maria Edgeworth, Europe, the Canadas, London, New-Yorlk, the Alps, the Potomac, Pennsylvania, the Germans, the Celts, French, English, Monday, May, Christmas, Easter, the Revolution, &c. (4) There are other names which are used to designate, not a single individual, but a whole class of objects: as, animal, man, tree. These are sometimes employed to designate the whole class taken together, sometimes to designate any individual or any number of individuals of the class. (5) Without the help of some other sign, they never indicate any determinate individual or determinate individuals of the class. (6) They are sometimes called general terms, because some of them serve to indicate a whole genus or class. In grammar, they are generally and more properly called COMMON NOUNS; because they are names common to a whole class of objects. The following description of the manner in which men may have i 31. (1) Name the two classes into which nouns are divided in reference to the extent of their signification. (2) What nouns, or names are included in the first class, or class of proper aw.s I (8) Why are they called 2pro2epether verbs above mnumerated? Repeat the substance of the illustration. ~ 89.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE AUTIVE VERB. 271 [ (20) We must be careful to distinguish this species of modification from the adverbial modification to be considered presently. The adjective in the case before us expresses an attribute pertaining to the subject in connection with the predicate, or together with the verb expresses the condition of the subject; the adverb expresses only the manner of the action of the verb, or some circumstance affecting the assertion in general, as of time, place, &c. Or, in other words, an attribute of the action asserted, not of the subject itself of which it is asserted. A few examples will render this more clear: John feels warm, and Johln feels warmnly. In the first proposition the adjective warm2, expresses an attribute of John in connection with the predicate feeling; or, perhaps, rather we should say, woarm with the predicate feeling expresses a condition here asserted of John.'/7w wind blows soft; The wind blows softly. The same remark will apply here. A wind that is not soft may blow sOFTLY-that is, gently; but none, except a wind, possessing the attribute expressed by soft, can truly be said to blow SOFT. We may subjoin a few more examples: WVilliamn looks p?'oud, and William leooks proudly on the result of his persevering efforts. That lady looks cold; and That lady looks coldly on the gentleman by her side. In all these cases, the difference between the adjective and adverb is plain enough.] ExEncISE.-After the analysis of the above examples, the learner may construct a given number of propositions with the verbs enumerated above, containing examples of the adjective complementary appropriately employed with these verbs. We may remark that sometimes active verbs seem to take an adjective complementary, having reference like the adjective complementary of the neuter verb to the subject noun. Examples of what we mean may be found in such expressions as, John spends his time thoughtless of the purposes of existence. There are three ways in which thoughtless and its modifications might here be regarded; 1st, as a descriptive adjective, modifying John the subject noun; 2d, as an adjective adverbially used, expressing manner and modifying the predicate; or, 3d, as an adjective complementary, expressing an attribute applicable to John in the mode of spending his time. This last we think the most accurate mode of analysis. Constructions of this kind are seldom used. This is altogether unlike the adjective complementary of "ile active verb, which affects not the subject but the objective. ~ 89. THE ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF TIIE ACTIVE VERB. [(20) Repeat the substance of the remarks in reference to the distinction between an ad jective comnplementary modification and an adverbial modification.] 272 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 89 — VTe now pass on to consider the adjective complementary of the ACTIVE verb. (1) This complement;s very similar to the NOUN colmplementar4 of the active velrb. (2) The difference is this: when the noun complementary is used, we intimate that the passive object becomes something substantive by the action expressed by the verb; on the contrary, when the adjective complementary is used, we intimate that the passive object becomes possessed of some property or attribute, by the action expressed by the verb. (3) When allowance is made for this difference, nearly all that we have said in reference to the noun comgplementary will apply to the adjective complementary of the active verb. (4) It will be observed that here the adjective does not as when employed with the neuter verb express the condition of the SUBJECT as affected by the action indicated by the verb, but the condition of the passive object under the influence of the action indicated bythe active verb. (5) It expresses the complement of the action which affects the passive object. For example, Virtue renders life HAPPY. Here happy expresses the condition of life, as influenced by the action of virtue, or a property of which life becomes possessed through the action asserted of virtue. Happy thus completes renders. (6) The complete action asserted here of virtue is rendering happy, and this action has for its objective modification lifethe word expressing that to which the complete action, "rendering happy," is in this assertion limited or directed. We submit a number of examples of the adjective complementary of the active verb, in order that this construction may be more perfectly understood. " We ccll the proud IIAPPY." ANALYSIS. After going through the analysis in the usual manner till we come to the modifications attached to the verb, we say the verb call is here modified by the complementary adjective happy, and the predicate (thus completed) calling happy ~ 89. (1) To what othier form o~ complement is the cdjective com2plemenztary of the aeo tire verb said to be similar? (2) What is the only difference between these two modifications? (3) Will what has been said of the one apply to the other? (4) Repeat what is said of the distinction between the adjective used with the neuter and with the active verb. (5) What d(es the adjective used with the active verb express? Illustrate by an example. (6) Continue the illustration. ~ 89.] ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY OF THE ACTIVE VERB. 273 is further modified by the objective modification proud, which is an adjective substantively used. REMAnR.-The learner may follow this model as regards the construction we are considering, giving the full analysis of all the propositions, which we are about to adduce as examples. "All nations shall call him BLESSED.' "Make uts GLAD." " Op pression mnaketh a woise man MAD."' " rHope deferred maketh the heart sicm."' "Tlou makest the earth SOFT With shozwers." 2en call the prosperous HAPPY; Oh, when woill they learn to think the virtuous alone HAPPY? The true philosopher accounts the good man HAPPY. " Leave the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue." This struck me dumb. (7) The usual place of the adjective complementary of the active verb is, like the noun complementary, after the objective modification, as in the examples now given. (8) But it is sometimes placed between the verb and the objective modification, especially when the objective is accompanied by modifications. (9) This will be seen in the following example. " The stsreams whereof shall make GLAD the city of God." Here, because the noun "city" is modified by the noun and preposition " of God," which a regard to perspicuity forbids to be separated fiom it, the complementary adjective "'cglad" is more conveniently placed first. (10) A complementary adjective is sometimes employed with the verb make, and the expression so formed employed in a general sense-without the limitation of an objective modification. For -example: "Imake alive." —Deut. 32: 39. Compare 2 Kings, 5: 7. — "The hand of the diligent maketh rich." (11) The force of the complevmentary adjective is perhaps better seen in such examples. (12) It is manifestly here a complement of the verb, and not a mere modification of the objective of the verb, as grammarians have very generally considered it, when in company with an objective. (13) We might multiply at pleasure examples of the use of complementary adjectives with the verb make. Such as, 1" rtake thee fruitful." "icMake thee plenteous." "'M:Zake thy way prosperous." " Make themselves clean."'" God made Iman utpright." "Make nanifest the counsel of the heart." Here the complementary adjective comes before the objective noun, and for the same reason,'as was mentioned above, viz., because the (7) What is the usual place of the adjective comnplenentary of the active verb in the arrangement of a proposition? (8) Where is it sometimes placed, and for what reason? (9) Illustrate by an example.: (10) Repeat what is said in reference to a complementary adlective employed with the verb make; and give examples. (11) Repeat the remark on these examples. (12) What is the adjective manifestly in such examples? (13) Addnce more exewnples of the verb make thus completed. 19 2'4 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 89. objective " counsel" is accompanied by the modifying words " of the heart." (14) As in the case of the noun complementary of the active serb, so in the case of an adjective used after an active verb, the infinitive TO BE seems often to be imp2lied in the construction. (15) Thus, We thought him WISE. We considered him PRUDENT. They found himn INCAPABLE, or IGNORANT, or FOOLISH, or nONEST, &c. (16) These expressions may be considered, and may be treated in analysis, as abbreviated for, We thought him TO BE wise, &c. And then the pronoun him with the verb TO BE, having wise for its conyplementary adjective, will be nZoun and infinitive contracted accessory complementary of the verbs, to think, &c. (See ~ 142: 28.) (17) As in the case of the noun complementary of the active erlb, these adjectives complementary of the active verb are retained when the passive form of expression is employed. (18) They may then be called adjectives complementary of the passive verb. (19) Thus, The LAthenians called Aristides JUST, becomes in the passive form, Aristides was called JUST by the Athenians. (20) The remarks made already in regard to the noun co7mplementary employed with passive serbs, will apply, without much change, to the adjective thus employed. (See ~ 78.)* It will be proper to bring all these kindred forms of the noun and the adjective comnplementary together, that their close similarity of character may be exhibited more clearly to the learner. The arrange-' ment of these complements, which we are about to present, will also serve the purpose of fixing them more strongly in the memory of the young grammarian. (21) We have, then, The nouns complementary of * There is a manner of employing adjectives after verbs, especially prevalent in poetry, which perhaps has originated in an insensible extension of the construction we are now considering; and which we may call for the sake of distinction, the adjective adverbially employed. This use (or abuse) of adjectives we shall be able to explain with less trouble after we have considered the adverbs. We also reserve, till we come to the adverbs, the remarks which we have to make on the distinction between adjectives and adverbs. (14) What word seems to be.often implied in these constructions? (15) Illustrate by examples. (16) How may the expressions given as examples be treated in analysis? (17) What happens when the passive form of expressing such assertions is used? (iS) How may the adjective be called, when the passive form is used? (19) Illustrate by ex. amples. (20) What remarks apply in this case? (21) Enumerate the various species of the noun complementary and of the adject4se complementvary, and give an example of each from the table. ~ 90.J NOUN AND ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY. REMARKS. 275 the NEUTER verb, the noun complementary of the ACTIVE verb, and the noun complementary of the PASSIVE verb. We have, in like manner, the adjective complementary of the neuter aerb, the adjective complementary of the active verb, and the adjective complementary of the passive verb. We exhibit these symmetrically in the following table, with an example of each form of complement annexed: Noon Comptlenentary. Adjective Comwplementa-y. Nuest. V. The boy becomes a man. The boy becomes manly. Act. V; "Thou hast made thy servant king." "They made the king glad." Pass. V. "The Word was madefesh." "The simple is made wise." ~ 90. GENEZRAL OBSERVATIONS ON THESE FORMS OF MODIFICATION.These forms of modification have been, as we have already observed, first treated with that attention which their importance demands by the German grammarians. We exclude, of course, from this assertion the particular case of adjectives used with the verb TO BE, since much has been said of the construction of this verb with adjectives by grammarians and logicians in all ages. But from the view commonly taken of this construction, we have felt obliged by our convictions to record our dissent; the reasons for this dissent we have stated fully in another place. (See ~ 46, and note.) The Germans, too, so far as we know, have treated the adjectives after the verb to be, like all other grammarians, as forming the predicate of the propositions in which they are found, and the verb itself as being the simple copula, including no part of the predicate. But all these constructions exhibited in the above table, viz., the noun and the adjective com2lementary with all neuter verbs, except the verb to be, and the noun and the adjective with active and with passive verbs, the German grammarians have called the construction of the FACTITIVE OBJECT, dividing thisfactitive object, into the factitive noun, thefactitive infinitive, the factitive adjective, and thefactitive noun and preposition. This last we have not thought it necessary to notice, or to distinguish among the noun and preposition complements, as in form it differs nothing from the others. It is only distinguished by the mneaning which it conveys-a distinction, as the logicians would call it, of matter not of,form, and therefore not essential to language. We have an example of what the Germans mean by thefactitive object expressed by a noun and a preposition in the assertion, water was changed INTO WINE. Here " into wine" expresses the factitive object —that into which the water was changed. The name FAOTITIVE OBJECT has been given to this species of corm 276 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 90 plements by the German grammarians firom the circumstance that they often express that which in the neuter and passive construction the subject is represented to be made or constituted, and in the active construction, that which the passive object is represented to be made or constituted, or represented to be thought or imagined to be made or constituted. The name seems to have been adopted fiom regarding as peculiarly conspicuous, among such constructions, examples like those given above, formed with the verb MAXE. To us the name appears to be not sufficiently comprehensive to embrace all the constructions which the Germans themselves have classed under it. This objection becomes still stronger when we bring into the same class of constructions (as we have done) the nouns and the very numerous adjectives which complete the verb to be. We regard the nouns and adjectives attached to the verb to be, as performing precisely the same kind of function, which nouns and adjectives attached to other neuter verbs perform. We cannot, therefore, consistently with these views follow the German grammarians in the employment of the name factitive object, as applicable to this whole class of complements. First, this term. is not sufficiently comprehensive; and to use it might, on this account, only mislead the student. He might suppose that the term expresses a leading peculiarity common to this whole class of constructions-the factitive object implying some effect produced- in which he would find himself mistaken. Secondly, the terim refers not to the for~m of language, but to the matter expressed. Nowv all grammatical divisions and terms should, as far as possible, refer to the proper subject of grammar. viz.: theformn of expression, and not to the matter expressed. We de not deny that the grammarian may often profitably have recourse in his inquiries to the matter of expression-to thought. But his classifications and terms ought to have their foundation as much as possible in the peculiar properties of language-that is, in the peculiar properties of theform of expression. We have not been able to find a term that suits us to replace the German term. Such a term we want, as will adequately express the common properties, or some leading common property, of this whole class of complements. Till such term can be found, the kindred nature of these modifications may be indicated by the term complementary, common to the names which we have given to them severally, and which we have purposely confined exclusively to this particular class. We may remark here the difficulties which grammarians have to encounter (experto credite), who have unthinkingly admitted that the distinction between adjectives and adverbs is, that adjectives modify or quaiify nouns, ~ 90.] REMARKS ON NOUN AND ADJECTIVE' COMPLEAIENTARY- 271 and adverbs, on the contrary, modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They may call the adjective after the verb to be, the predicate, and say (without being able to allege a good reason, and in contradiction to all seeming likelihood) that a noun is always implied with such adjectives; that, for example, in the proposition, The man is virtuous, the noun man is implied in the predicate=- The ma%. is a virtuous MrAN. This supposition appears to us wholly gratuitous, implying the actual existence at a remote period of an awkward form of expression in all languages, which we could not, perhaps, satisfactorily prove to have ever had customary place, at any period, in any language. Still, this manner of treating the adjective after the verb to be is incomparably better than to confound it, as some loose thinkers (perhaps we should not call them grammarians) have done, with the ordinary adjective modification, and make it agree with and belong to the subject noun. The same persons treat the adjective complementary of the active verb as a mere modifying adjective attached to the objective noun. According to the grammatical teachings of such persons, we could establish no distinction in analysis between propositions so diverse as, IVe call the boy GooD, and WYe call the good boy. But, to return to the more consistent grammarians and logicians, who, to establish the assertion that adjectives never complete verbs, hold that a noun is always implied with every adjective in forming the predicate in propositions made with the verb to be, what will they say of the adjective in such examples as, Hloney tastes swEET, The weather feels COLD, The fields look' GREEN What noun can be supplied in these and in numerous similar examples? The fact appears to us incontestable-though a fact too long and too generally overlooked by grammarians-that adjectives are very extensively employed in all languages to complete verbs, and, consequently, that the true distinction between them and adverbs is to be sought in something else, than the untenable assumption that adjectives modify nounMs and adverbs modify verbs, &c. How much confusion and. waste of thought has been occasioned by yielding inconsiderately to the authority of the colmmonly received definitions of these two classes of modifying words! Te might, indeed, with more consistency assert that adjectives modify nouns exclusively; since eve hold that the predicate included in every verb is a noun, and that it is the prediecate-the noun part of the verb — not the copula or assertive force that is completed by the complementary adjective, as well as by every other form of modification. It may then be asked, Why not say at once, in accordance with our views, that the complementary adjective here, as elsewhere, modifies a noun-namely, the noun expressive of the predicate contained in the verb? We answer, because it would serve no useful purpose, and might mislead the learner. The only purpose which it could be expected to serve would be that of sim1plfication; and this purpose, in our opinion, it could not serve, since, as will be seen from all that we have said, we look on the adjective thus employed as performing a function in reference to the predicate entirely different fiom 278 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. ~ 90. that which it performs as the descriptive modification of an ordinary noun (To retain a distinction where there is no difference is unphilosophical, ano often leads to important errors. But to get rid of a distinction where there is a real difference is equally unphilosophical, and equally calculated to mislead.) We should, therefore, be obliged to resort to some means of discriminating between this species of modification and the ordinary descriptive adjective modification; and none is more convenient than that presented to us by the usual distinction of the classes of words to which they are applied. The descriptive adjective mnodification, to ordinary nouns, the adjective complementary to verbs and to verbal words. It must not, however, be forgotten that it is not as verbs (in the sense in which we use this term), that is, as assertive words, that verbs are susceptible of this species of modification, but in consequence of the nature of the matter which they express, altogether independent of the fact that it is expressed in the assertive form. Hence, like other modifications applicable to verbs, these are applicable to verbal nouns, and verbal adjectives. We say, for example, To make a man glad, and mnaking glad, as well as, makes glad, &c. The difference between the descriptive adjective modifcation and the complementary adjective modification, may, perhaps, be briefly stated thus. The descriptive adjective mnodification expresses a quality or property contemplated, as inherent in the object expressed by the noun to which it is applied; the complementary adjective does not express a quality inherent in the conception expressed by the verb or predicate which it completes. On the contrary, when used with a neuter verb, it expresses an attribute asserted to pertain to the subject in the mode signified by the predicate in the neuter verb; and when used with an active verb, it expresses an attribute asserted to become the property of the passive object, in the mode or manner signified by the predicate contained in the active verb. To illustrate our meaning by examples: The weather is cold, The weather grows cold, The weather reels cold. Here the attribute cold is asserted to pertain to the eeatther, in the first proposition in the mode or manner expressed by being; in the second in the mode expressed by growing; and in the third in the mode expressed byfeeling. Again, A oise son, makes his father's hea'rt GLAD; The world calls the successful GREAT. I-Iere the quality expressed by glad is asserted to become the property of afather's heart in the mode signified by making, and the quality great is asserted to become the property of the successful in the mode signified by calling. We have now finished what we have to say at present of the descriptive adjectives. We reserve what we have to say of the modifications which adjectives undergo, whether effected by infiexion or by the use of other words till we have considered the adverbs. ~ 91.] OF DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 2079 ~ 91. THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES.-(1) We now proceed to make some remarks on the determinative adjectives. (2) We commence by enumerating the principal words of this kind in our language, since they are not, like the descriptive adjectives, a very numerous class. We shall enumerate them in groups, mentioning the names which grammarians have commonly given to these groups. We mentior (3) 1st. An, which becomes a before a consonantal sound, and the. These two words have commonly been erected into a distinct part of speech by the grammarians, and called the articles-an or a being styled the indefinite, and the the definite article. (4) 2d. The second group in our enumeration consists of the words called by the grammarians, the demonstrative pronouns, viz., this and that with their plural forms these and those, and the words yon and yonder. (5) 3d. We may count what the grammarians have called indefinite pronouns as a third group. Among these are enumerated all, any, both, few, many, much, no, none, other, another, several, some, such, whole, and perhaps some other words. (6) 4th. What are called distributive pronouns may be given as a fourth group. These are each, every, either, neither. (7) 5th. The possessive pronouns form a fifth class. These are my, thy, his, her, its, referring to a single person or thing, and our, your, their, to a plurality of persons or things. For more minute information in regard to some of these groups of determinatives, see additional observations on the determinatives and the pronouns. (See ~~ 156, 158.) (8) 6th. We enumerate as the sixth and last group the numerals, both the cardinal numbers one, two, three, four, &c., and the ordinal numbers first, second, third, fourth, &c. (9) When a noun is accompanied both by a descriptive adjec~ 91. (1) What name do we give to the second class of adjectives? (2) Are the adjectives of this class numerous? (8) Enumerate the first group of these adjectives and tell what is said of them. (4) Enumerate group second. (5) Group third. (6) Group fourth. (7) Group fifth. (8) Group sixth. (9) Repeat the substance of what is said about the arrangement of the determinative and illustrate by examples. 280 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 91 tive and a determinative, the determinative is placed first, since i applies to the noun as described or modified by the other adjective, or in other words completes the phrase made up of the noun and descriptive adjective together. Examples: A virtuous man is esteemed; THE good man is loved; TiXi upright man is prosperous; THAT innocent man was acquitted; EVERY vicious man is contemptible, &c. Here the determinatives a, the, this, that, every, affect not the noun man alone, but man as already modified by the descriptive words virtuous, good, upright, &c. Hence, according to the usual mode of arrangement already described (see ~~ 80 and 86: 17-19), it is placed before all that it affects-before both the descriptive adjective and the noun. EXERCISES I., II., III., &c.-Let the learner form for himself a given number of propositions containing examples both of determinative and descriptive adjectives. When a determinative affects a united descriptive adjective and noun, let this be indicated by inclosing all that the determinative affects within parenthetic marks; thus, A (spreading oak.) (10) In analysis it will be sufficient to say in reference to a determinative adjective, that the noun which it affects is modified by the determinative adjective, or simply by the determinative, repeating the particular determinative. [(11) Words of this class do not, like the descriptive adjectives, express a quality or property inherent in the things represented by the nouns to which they are attached. They only assist in giving a decterminate meaning to the noun, or rather, in many cases, they merely indicate that the noun is employed determinately; the determining influence arising from some other accompanying modification, or something implied by the matter-the nature of the thought. (See additional observations on dete'rminatives, ~ 158.) (12) In other words, deternminative adjectives indicate the manner in which the mind of the speaker views an object, and intends to present it, not any property or attribute inherent-in the object itself. (13) It follows from the fact that the determinatives do not express properties which pertain to objects, that they are not employed in completing the predicate-that is, as adjectives complementary of (10) In analysis what is to be said in reference to determinatives? [(11) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to the distinction between descriptive and determinative adjectives. (12) What do determinatives indicate? (13) Are determinatives employed in completing the predicate? (14) Illustrate by exnmples.] ~ 91.] OF DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 281 verbs-excel t when a noun suppressed by ellipsis is manifestly implied in them, on which the mind rests as the real complementary word. (14) For example, we cannot say that any thing is, or becomes, or grows, or feels, &c., a or the, or any, all, every, some, or even this or that, without something beyond implied, on which the mind rests, as the real complement of the predicate.] NOTE.-The word TirIS apparently serves as complement of the predicate mn such expressions as, The truth is THIS, he cannot succeed, because he is not industrious. Here either we rest on the word truth implied again after this; The truth is THIS TRUTH, &c.; or,; rather, the determinative this in such cases is employed exactly in its usual function in reference, not to a single word, indeed, but to the following compound proposition, Ele cannot succeed, &c., which here performs the grammatical function of a noun complementary of the predicate in the proposition having truth for subject, and is for verb. In corroboration of this latter view of the construction, it may be remarked that we can suppress the word this in the case before us, without altering, or indeed affecting the sense, save in a very slight degree, The truth is, he cannot succeed, &c. The only difference between the two forms of expression is, that in the first mentioned the predicated assertion is indicated as determinate-to that extent of determinateness which the sign this marks-that is, it is indicated as an assertion pointed out, as it were, to the eyes of the hearer. (See additional observations onrb deterinatives, ~ 158.) There are a few words which seem to perform sometimes the part of determinative, and sometimes of descriptive adjectives, and there are perhaps words in regard of which it is not easy to decide exactly under which class they should be ranged. ~Many men were present. Here many is obviously determinative. It indicates nothing inherent in the men, but simply the manner in which the mind of the speaker regards them. In other words, the modification which the determinative many gives to the subject, is not essential to the truth of the proposition. The same assertion could be made of the men, whether regarded separately or collectively or in whatever way; They were present. But when I say, M/~any hands make light work, the modification given by many is essential to the truth of the assertion..iany thus employed, ranks amongst the descriptive adjectives, and it can be employed:n the same descriptive sense (as equivalent to numerous): as a complement of the predicate. For example, The spectators were many. The determinative few is used in the same way in the proposition, " The laborers arefew." This has been al:-eady noticed. CHAPTER VII. OF AD-VE RBS. ~ 92. GENERAL REMARKS. (1) VWe now proceed tX treat of another class of words, employed exclusively like the adjectives, for the purpose of modification. (2) This class of words has been called ADVERBS words attached to verbs-because grammarians have generally entertained the notion that they perform a function in reference to verbs, similar to that which adjectives perform in reference to nouns. They have been considered, as it were, the adjectives of the verb. We shall have more to say presently of the characteristic marks of adverbs. (3) In the mean time, one fact will enable the young grammarian:to distinguish them from adjectives; they are never employed alone to modify or complete a noun (except verbal nouns,) though the adjective is, as we have seen, often employed in completing verbs. (4) The adverbs are easily distinguished from all other classes of words, except the prepositions adverbially employed; and these are all included in the list given. ~ 81. (5) The adverbs may be regarded as the most recently formed class of words in all languages. (6) WVe could, in expressing our thoughts, dispense with the use of them more easily than we could dispense with the use of any other class of words. All we express by them, can generally be expressed with equal clearness by means of other forms of modification. (7) They may be regarded as ~ 92. (1) For what general purpose are the adverbs exclusively employed? (2) What ts said in reference to the name adverb t (3) By what fact may they be always distinguished from adjectives? (4) Repeat what is said about distinguishing adverbs from prepositions in one of their uses. (5) How may the adverbs be regarded in reference to their antiquity? (6) What is said In reference to dispensing with the use of adverbs? (7) To what form of expression may they be regarded as equivalent? (8) Illustrate by examples. ~ 92.] GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ADVERBS. 283 abbreviated forms of expression, equivalent to a modification, consisting of two, more frequently of three or four, distinct words-a preposition, and a noun generally preceded by a descriptive adjective, often by both a descriptive and a determinative adjective. (8) We subjoin a few examples, for the purpose of illustration: Wisely. —- In a wise manner; or in a wise way. Moderately = In a moderate manner. Now -- At the present time. Where - In what place? Why i For what reason? &c., &c. (9) The learner will readily discover that we could dispense with the use of the above and all similar adverbs, without any injury to the perspicuity of language; but he will, at the same time, see that they contribute greatly to compactness and brevity of expression. (10) The use of this class of words has thus an important influence on the strength of language, enabling us to avoid a multiplication of words, which, especially in the case of small words like prepositions and determinatives, tends greatly to enfeeble the expression of thought. (11) There are a few words classed with the adverbs, to which some of these remarks do not strictly apply, such as the negative particle not, &c. But of this in another place. REMARKS IN REFERENCE TO THE FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS. (12) Adverbs are employed either to modify verbs, or to modify adjectives or other adverbs. (13) The great majority of this class of words is employed exclusively to modify verbs. (14) A few are employed exclusively to modify adjectives and adverbs, and very few to modify both verbs and adjectives. (15) Regarded in this point of view, the adverbs may be divided into three classes (9) What may be discovered from these examples? (10) On what has the use of adverbs an important influence? (11) Are there some words classed as adverbs to which these remarks do not strictly apply? (12) What classes of words are adverbs employed to modify? (13) What class do the great majority of adverbs modify? (14) State the manner in which a few of them are employed. (15) Enumerate the three classes into which adverbs may be divided in reference to the kind of words which they modify. 284 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 92. -lst, moaifiers of verbs; 2d, modifiers of adjectives; 3d, modi fiers both of verbs and adjectives. [ (16)'We do not make a separate class of those adverbs which are employed to modify other adverbs, because the words employed for this purpose are the same which are employed to modify adjectives, and because the adverb employed to modify another adverb, virtually modifies an adjective, viz., the adjective involved in the modified adverb. In other words, it is because of the adjective contained in the modified adverb, that it admits of being affected by another adverb. For example, That tman acted VERY WISELY. Here the adverb wisely is affected by another adverb, very. The true nature of this modification, or that which is really affected by it, will be clearly seen when we expand wisely into the phrase of which it is an abbreviated expression. That man acted IN A VERY WISE MANNER. Here we see that very modifies the adjective wise; and as the two propositions are exactly equivalent, it is manifest that, in the first proposition, what it really modifies is the same adjective involved in wisely. (17) The fact, therefore, that an adverb modifies another adverb, resolves itself into the fact, that an adverb modifies an adjective. This simplifies our division of the uses or functions of adverbs. In the enumeration of these functions, we may safely overlook the fact, that they modify other adverbs (as this is included in the function of modifying adjectives), and say that they modify either verbs, including verbal words, or adjectives including those contained in adverbs. The grammarians, we think, have not sufficiently attended to the fact, that the adverbs generally employed to modify adjectives, are altogether distinct from those which modify verbs, and incapable of being applied to verbs; and the great mass of those applicable to verbs and verbal words are, on the other hand, incapable of being applied to adjectives.] (18) The adverbs employed exclusively with adjectives, are chiefly those which indicate intensity, or the degree, in which the same quality or attribute is found to exist, or conceived to exist. (19) We may enumerate as examples, the words very, too, much, extremely, exceedingly, supremely, &c. And. the words used to express [(16) Repeat with illustration by examples the reason assigned for incliading adverbs which modify other adverbs within the class which modify adjectives. (17) Into what, in conclusion, does the fact that an adverb modifies an adverb resolve itself?] (18) What kind of adverbs are emplcyed exclusively with adjectives? (!9) Enumerate ~ 92.] ADVERBS WHICH MODIFY ADJECTIVES. 285 comparison equally, more, most, less, least, &c. (20) Some of these are found after verbs, but then they have the force of adjectives employed substantively, and should be treated as such in analysis. (21) Even the few adverbs which admit of being employed both with verbs and adjectives, seem generally to express a different sense with verbs from that which they express with adjectives. (22) We may illustrate this by the words as and so. These are used to modify both adjectives and verbs. He thinks AS I think. Ile is AS wise As learned. He thinks so. He is so prudent. In these examples it is obvious that these words as and so, employed with the verb think, express a manner of thinking; but employed with the adjectives wise and prudent, express the degree of intensity of these qualities. (23) We do not maintain that as and so, themselves, have, as here employed, two different senses, but that the word implied with these abbreviations is different, according as they are employed to modify a verb or an adjective. (24) ixanner or way is implied when they are used with a verb, and some such meaning as that expressed by degree when they are used with adjectives. (25) In a word, the adverb modifying the adjective, and the adverb modifying the verb, may be regarded as having some claim to be considered as distinct parts of speech, or classes of words. ExERcIsEs.-Form propositions containing adjectives modified by adverbs. [(26) We may recognise a distinction among adverbs similar to that which we have recognised among adjectives-a distinction which might be expected since adverbs are formed from adjectives, or imply the sense of adjectives of both classes. (27) As we have descriptive adjectives expressing inherent qualities or attributes of objects, and determinative adjectives expressing, not qualities of objects, but some relation to other objects, or some circumstance of place, number, &c., or, in other words, the form, or relation, in which the speaker chooses a few examples. (20) What is said of some of these when found after verbs? (21) What Is said of the few adverbs which are used both with verbs and adjectives? (22) Illustrate by the uses of the words as and so. (23) Do we maintain that as and so have each two different senses? (24) What word is implied when they are used with a verb, and what when used with an adjective? (25) Repeat what is said of the difference between these two classes of adverbs. [(26) What distinction may be recognised among adverbs? (27) Illustrate further the nature of this distinction.] 286 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 92 to present oDjects; so we have q2ualifying adverbs, and adverbs ex pressive of circumstances of time, place, order, &c. This distinction may, perhaps, be traced in the adverbs employed to modify adjectives, but it can be much more clearly traced, and it is of more importance to mark it, in reference to those adverbs which are employed to modify verbs.] (28) In reference to meaning, we may distinguish two grand classes of the adverbs which modify verbs. Those of the first class express the manner of the action indicated by the verb, and are generally known by the name of adverbs of manner those of the second class express some circumstance, generally of time, place, or order, in reference to the assertion in the proposition in which they are found. This class we may venture to distinguish by the name of adverbs of circumstance, or circumstantial adverbs. (29) The grammarians usually distinguish them by the names of adverbs of time, of place, of order, &c.-names which we shall apply, as others have done, to the sub-classes, whilst we give the name circumstantial adverbs to them all in common. We give this common name to mark that they possess common properties, as distinguished from the adverbs of manner. (30) Now the adverbs of manner nearly: all involve in their meaning the sense of a descriptive adjective, and like descriptive adjecti res, express an inherent qualification of the action denoted by the predicate which they complete. (31) Forexample, That boy acts PRUDENTLY. Hereprudently involves the sense of the descriptive adjective prudent, from which it is formed, being, in fact, equivalent to the phrase, in a prudent manner, and it serves as a descriptive inherent qualification of acting, as here predicated of the boy.*' ExERcIsEs.-Form propositions having verbs modified by adverbs of manner. * There are a few adverbs of manner which involve the sense of a de terminative, not of a descriptive adjective. We may take as examples, as (28) Describe the two classes into which adverbs which modify verbs are divided, and mention the names by which we distinguish them. (29) By what names do grammarians usually distinguish circumstantial adverbs, and how do we apply these names? (30) What is always involved in the meaning of adverbs of manlzner? And in what do Whey consequently resemble descriptive adjectives? (31) Illustrate this by an example. ~ 92.] CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS. 287 (32) CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS, on the contrary, do not express a qualification descriptive of the action denoted by the verb, but express a circumstance which rather modifies the whole assertion than completes the part of the predicate contained in the verb; and and so, when employed to modify verbs. As, then, means in the manner, or in the same, or a similar manner, and so, in such manner. But these words, whether employed with adjectives or verbs, do not express a complete modification, but serve as conjunctive words of reference to introduce (or direct to) the real modification, the essential part of which is expressed by the subjoined proposition, or abbreviated proposition,or sometimes, in the case of so, by a preceding proposition referred to. For illustration let us take the example, He thinks as Ithink. Here, Ithink, is the essential, the really descrip. tive part of the modification-what describes the manner in which He thlinksand as performs a function similar to what we shall find presently the conjunctive pronouns perform in connecting modifying propositions. The assertion in the example may be expanded into He thinks IN THIE MANNER IN WHICH I think, or He thinks IN wmIrc MANNER I think. The conjunctive word which, together with in the manner, we here see, are necessary to form a complete equivalent for what is indicated by the (so called) adverb as. We may subjoin examples of the use of so. This young man conducts himseyf so, that all his companions esteem him —IN SUCH A MANNER, that all his companions esteem him. T1hat all his companions esteem him, describes the manner in which the young man conducts himself, and so refers us to this description. Even after we have ex. panded the assertion in the example as above, there is, perhaps, still an ellipsis of another proposition. But the full expansion of such assertions is not necessary to our present purpose. We may give as a second example, The man acted so, as to deserve much, praise, equivalent to The man acted in Such a manner, viz., the manner to deserve much praise. To deserve much praise, is here the real description of the manner in which the man acted; and the predicate acting is really completed by manner with this description attached. This infinitive form of modification is that which most commonly follows the word so. But so is also employed to refer to a modification expressed in the preceding part of a discourse; as, But this man could not treat his friends so; referring to some manner of treating friends already described. What we have said of as and so employed with verbs will equally apply to them when employed with adjectives, since, in both uses, they indicate comparison, and refer for the development of the sense, which they for a moment represent, to another proposition, or phrase occupying the place of a proposition. (32) What is here said of the circumstantial adverbs? 288 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 92. the adjective implied in these circumstantial, adverbs, when one is implied, is often a determinative.* [(33) Let as illustrate this by a few examples: The boy Now writes to hisfather; The house stood HERE. FIRST, ourfriend is industrious; SECONDLY, he wrongs no man; THIRDLY, he is kind to every body. In these examples, it will be seen that the adverbs now, here, first, secondly, thirdly, do not qualify the predicate or complete its sense, but modify the whole assertion. Now in the first does not express a quality of writing, as beautifully does, when we say, The boy writes beautifully, but a modification of the whole assertion, The boy writes to his father. Here does not express a quality of standing, as gracefully, for example, does, when we say, The man stands gracefully; but modifies the whole assertion, subject and predicate taken together, The house stood. In other words, it modifies not standing alone, but the asserted standing of the house. (34) Though adverbs of this description have not a connection so intimate and exclusive with the verbal predicate, as the adverbs of manner (or what we may call descriptive adverbs), still they have a close connection with it, since they modify the whole assertion, and the force of every assertion is concentred in the predicate. Hence, both classes of adverbs are considered by the grammarians as words modifying the verb. Still the distinction which we are tracing between adverbs modifying the verbal predicate directly, and those which affect the assertion generally, is of some importance when we come to a strict analysis of language as a vehicle of thought. We shall also find presently that adverbs of the latter kind-circumstantial adverbs-admit of an arrangement in reference to the verb different from that which descriptive adverbs admit. (35) We must not omit X We say often, because we have not examined these adverbs so completely as to venture to assert in an unqualified manner, that all which imply an adjective, imply a determinative, and not a descriptive adjective. Some words usually reckoned as adverbs, and which, if so considered, must be classed among the circumstantial adverbs, imply no adjective, but simply a noun and preposition. Such are, perhaps, perchance, peradventure, and likely, some others. [(33) Illustrate by examples what is said of the circumstantial adverbs modifying the wvhole assertion, and not the verb merely. (34) What farther is admitted in reference to the circumstantial adverbs? State the reasons for which the grammarians consider them as modifying the verb of the proposition in which they occur. (85) What fact is noticed in reference to the circumstantial adverbs given in the exam. ples above? (36) Illustrate.] ~ 92.] ARRANGEMENT OF ADVERBS. 289 the fact that all the above circumstantial adverbs either imply or contain in them a determinative, not a descriptive word. (36) Thuas now and here imply the determinative this. Now. = at this time, Here = in this place. First is a determinative adjective —an ordinal inumleralused adverbially, and secondly, thirdly each contain a determinative, namely, the ordinal numerals, second and third.] ARRANGEMENT OF ADVERBs.-(37) The adverb which modifies an adjective or another adverb is generally placed before the word which it modifies. The adverb enough is an exception; it follows the adjective which it modifies; as, HIe is wise enough, He is rich enough. (38) The descriptive adverb is most generally placed after the verb which it modifies I as, This man acted wisely. (39) But the circumstantial adverb admits of much greater fireedom of arrangement. [ (40) This was to be expected from what we have said of the function of this species of adverb. Since it modifies the whole assertion and not the predicate in particular, it is not necessary that it should accompany the verb so closely as the adverb' of manner, which has for its function to describe the action expressed by the verb. Example: Now, the boy studies; The boy sow studies; The boy studies Now in earnest, or studies in earnest Now. HIere the adverb now is arranged in three different manners. But the writer of delicate taste will not employ these three forms of expression indifferently. In the first, the adverb occupying the more emphatic place has peculiar force. It implies a contrast in reference to the occupation of the boy. _Now he studies, though formerly he did not. In the second, it implies his present occupation to the exclusion for the time of other pursuits. In the third form a contrast is implied between his present and his former manner of studying. The force of now applies to the assertion as modified by the words in earnest. (41) Circumstantial adverbs often take the first place in the proposition, especially adverbs of time, as always, sometimes, oftern, never; and adverbs of order, as, first, secondly, &c. (37) Where is the adverb which modifies an adjective or an adverb placed? Mention the exception. (38) What is said of tt.e arrangement of the descriptive adverb, or adverb of manner? (38) What is said of the arrangement of the circumstantial adverb? [(40) What reason for expecting greater freedom in the arrangement of this species of modification? Illustrate by an example. Show how the sense is affected by a change of the arrangement. (41) What place do circunstantial adverbs often take in the proposition? 20 290 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 92. The same is true of the equivalent noun and prepositicn modifications at all times, at no time, in the first place, in the second place, &c. (42) When never is placed first, the subject and verb are generally transposed; as, " Never tvas a man so used." The circumstantial adverb, especially when thus placed before the verb, is also, like the noun and preposition so placed, often separated by interpunction from. the other parts of the proposition, by a comma after, if it comes first in order, by a comma both before and after, when part of the proposition precedes and part follows it. (See appendix on punctuation.) (43) As a general rule in reference to the arrangement of adverbs, those adverbs which modify a particular word in a proposition must be so placed, in order to secure perspicuity, that the reader cannot mistake the word which they are intended to modify. (44) The word only is peculiarly subject to be misplaced, as, for instance, in the oftquoted and oft censured passage in one of the papers of Addison: " By greatness I do not only.mean the bulk of any single olbject, but the largeness of a whole view, considered as one entire piece." I-Iere "only," to avoid obscurity, should have followed " object." (45) Adverbs, when employed to connect propositions, are neees, sarily placed in the beginning of the modifying proposition which they unite to the principal proposition. Such adverbs we shall notice hereafter under the name of conjunctive Adverbs, when we come to treat of conjunctions. Adverbs used in interrogation are alb o placed first in the interrogative proposition. We may here enumerate and classify some of the principal circumstantial adverbs. It would be useless to attempt to enumerate the adverbs of manner, or descriptive adverbs, such is their multitude; and they seem to need no classification. Among the circumstantial adverbs we enumerate (46) I. ADVERBS OF PLACE. 1. ir. a place. Here, there, where. 2. To a place. IHither, thither, whither.* * See Note at the end of this section. (42) What inversion usually happens ihen a proposition commences with the adverb never What is said of interpunction? (43) Repeat the general rule in reference to the arrangement of adverbs. (44) What adverb is peculiarly subject to be misplaced, and therefore claims peculiar care? (45) What is said of the place of conjunctive adverbs, and interrogative adverbs? (46) Repeat the enumeration of the adverbs of place. ~ 92.] CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS. 291 3. Towards a place. Hitherward,,thitherward, whitherward. 4. From a place. Hence, thence, whence. (47) II. ADVERBS OF TIME. 1. Present tinze. Now, instantly, &c. 2. Past time. Heretofore, already, hitherto, lately, &c. 8. Euture tine. Afterwards, hereafter, presently, ever, never, 4. )efinite'epetition. Once, twice, thrice, again, &c. 5. Indefinite repetition. Often, seldom, frequently. (48) III. ApDVERBS O OF ODR. First, secondly, thirdly, &c. (49) We might add interrogative adverbs as a class. Some, of these are circumstantial, as, TVhy, wherefore, whezen, where; some express manner interrogatively as how-in w'hat manner. (50) We may here remark that the verb to be, and some other neuter verbs expressive of posture or a state of bein, such as stand, sit, lie, &c., are rarely modified by adverbs of manner. These same verbs are most frequently modified by adjectives; they freely admit the modification of circumstantial adverbs, and all, except to be, take the modification of some few adverbs of manner. Thus we say, to stand or to sit gracefully; but when we wish to say that a man, for instance, stands or sits in an erect or upright manner, we have recourse to the adjective modification, and say, The man stands ERECT, The man sits erect. (51) The verb to be, scarcely, so far as we recollect, admits the modification of an adverb of manner, or descriptive adverb. The expression, formed by this verb with the word well, in such propositions as He is well, may seem an exception. But well here, we think, is plainly an adjective; just as zunwell and sick are in the propositions, He is unwell, He is sick.] ExER:cISEs I., II., &c.-Form propositions containing examples, 1st of adverbs of place; 2d, adverbs of time; 3d, adverbs of order, &c. NOTE.-It has become so common to employ here, there, where, instead of hither thither, whither, when we express motion to a place, that it would scarcely be safe to call such expressions as Corse here, Go there, Where arc (47) The adverbs of time. (48) The adverbs of order. (49) Repeat the remark about the interrogative adverbs. (50) Repeat the remark about the verb to be and some other neuter verbs in reference to the adverbial modification. (51) Does the verb to be take adverbs of manner as modfi-e cation.] 292 STRU-CTURE OF LANGUAGE. -[~ 93 you goin#g? ungrammatical. The proper old forms of expression, Conme hither, Go tlhither, V/hither are you goin g? seem likely to become altogether obsolete, especially in colloquial discourse. It is a misfortune to lose the usc, ful distinction which the employment of hither, thither, &c., affords us; but in matters of language mankind in our day seem to regard their ears more than their intellect-sound more than sense; and the ears decide the question against these rough northern terminations in ther. Hence, means from this place; Thence, from that place, &c., without the employment of a preposition. Most grammarians declare against From hence, Fromn whence, &c., as improper forms of expression. Yet these forms are found in our best authors, and even ipg the pages of those who denounce.hem as ungrammatical. In colloquial discourse, they are constantly used. There is not the same apology for this abuse as for that mentioned above. From hence is no improvement as regards sound, compared with hence. And the expression introduces a grammatical anomaly-an adverb preceded by a preposition. The abuse has arisen from regarding hence as a noun meaning this place. Perhaps it really is a noun with something like a case ending, imr plying the same sense as the preposition from, and which, like other cases, has been unable to maintain itself in the conflict with the noun and preposition form of modification. HIence we come to employ from before hence, as before other nouns, not regarding the fact that its form already implies the force offrom. The resistance to this abuse has not yet been relinquished by those who aim at correctness in writing and speaking, and we think should not be relinquished. The reader will please observe the analogical iormation of the above adverbs of place-a beauty not often met in the English of the present day. This uniformity will be more clearly seen under the following arrangement. This place. That.place. TV/hat place? In. Here, There, Where? Fromn. Hence, Thence, Whence? To. Hither, Thither, Whither? Towards. Hitherward, Thitherward, Whitherward? ~ 99. DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF ADVERBS.-(1) Some of the adverbs may be regarded as primitive words, since they are always employed in the present use of the language as adverbs, and are not derived from any other known word. These, however, form but a small proportion of this very extensive class of words, and even these were probably at an earlier date nouns or adjectives. WVe give as examples, Here, there, then, now. ~ 93. (1) What is said of primitive adverbs? Give examples. 93.] FORMATION O(F ADVERBS. 293 (2) A large proportion of our' adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives, by adding the termination ly; as, from virtuous is formed the adverb virtuously; from wise, wisely, &c. (3) An adverb of this sort may be accounted an abbreviated method of expressing the adjective which it involves, together with the word manner, preceded by the preposition in. Thus, Virtuously=In a virtuous manner, Wisely= -IS a wise manner, &c. (4) Thle adverbs of order are also formed by adding ly to the several ordinal numbers, second, third, fourth, &c. Adverbs, secondly, thirdly,fourthly, &c. Firstly has also been sometimes used, but instead of this form we now employ first, both as ordinal adjective and adverb of order. Secondly, thirdly, &c., are equivalent to In the second place, In the third place, &c. [(5) The termination ly has come to us from the Anglo-Saxon lice, from which has descended our word like. (6) It may be observed here that the Anglo-Saxons formed many of their adjectives by adding the termination lic to nouns; and adverbs by adding lice to adjectives. (7) In our language the distinction between lic and lice has been lost, and both are represented by ly. (8) For example, from the nouns God, mnan, ghost, kiing, world, &c., we form the adjectives godly, manly, ghostly, kingly, woorldly, &c. And from the adjectives just, gracious, generous, &c., the adverbs justly, graciously, generously, &c.; completely confounding the terminations expressive of the adjective and the adverbial meanings. We find, however, little difficulty in distinguishing these classes of words by their functions. (9) We may also generally distinguish the adverb by the fact that it is formed from an adjective; though a few words formed from nouns by the addition of ly, are employed both as adjectives and adverbs; as daily, woeekly, mzonthly, yearly, &c. These may be classed with adjectives adverbially employed. (10) From the adjective good we have formed goodly emlployed as an adjective, and not as an adverb.] (11) There are some irregularities in the formation of these adverbs (2) How are many of the adverbs of manner formed? Examples. (3) HI-ow may scilc adverbs be considered? Example. (4) What is said. of the formation of adverbs of order? Examples. [(5) Repeat what is said of the origin of tle termination ly. (6) What is saidl of tlle lanner in which some adjectives and adverbs were formed in Anglo-Saxon? (7) Has thle distinction observed in Anglo-Saxon been retained in English? (8) Illustrate by examples. (9) How can we usually distinguish an adjective ending in ly fi'om an adverb having the same termination? (10) Mention an exception.] (11) Repeat what is said of tile irregularity in the formation of adverbs from adjectives 294 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 93, in ly. From adjectives ending in le, adverbs are formed by omitting the final e and adding y. Thus from able, is formed ably, from simnple, simply, &c. These may be regarded as contracted and softened formns, for the more uncouth words, ablely, simplely, &c. (12) When the adjective ends in e, the e is often omitted; as, due, duly, true, truly. Here the e is preceded by a vowel. When it is preceded by a consonant, it is generally retained; as, sole, solely, servile, servilely, &c., but whole, makes wholly. When the adjective ends in 11, one I is omitted in the adverb; as, full, fully, &c. But these are matters of spelling rather than of grammar. EXERcIsEs. —Give examples of adverbs formed from adjectives. Adjectives from nouns. (13) We may here notice that many words recognised as adverbs, are compounded of two or more words, which, separately taken, form some one of the species of modifications already treated. We have examples in Therefore -for this; Where-with -with which; In-deed, Nlever-the-less- never in the less degree, degree or some such word being i2plied. In therefore and wherefore, THING, or some such noun is also implied. (14) Many words compounded with the abbreviated preposition a have been classed by the grammarians among the adverbs; such as, abed, aloft, ashore, aground, &c. These words, we think, are seldom, if ever, used as adverbs. If we do not analyze them as noun and, preposition modifications, but treat them as single words, they are not adverbs, but adjectives employed, generally, as complementary of neuter verbs.* (15) We may illustrate this by the example, He lies abed. * All words like these which modify verbs have been thrown by the grammarians into the class of adverbs, because they have not adverted to the fact that many verbs are modified by adjectives, but consider all single words with the exception of objective nouns as adverbs when they are employed to modify verbs. It will be seen from what we have already said that this view cannot be maintained; that on the contrary there are several verbs which rarely admit an adverbial modification, but freely take a conmplementary adjective. The verb to be is an example, and most verbs which express the state or posture of the subject; as, to stand, to lie, to sit, &c. in le, and give examples. (12) Repeat remarks as to those formed from adjectives ending in e preceded by a vowel, and in e preceded by a consonant. Give the examples. (13) Repeat what is said of adverbs formed of words which separately taken constitute one of the modifications already considered. Illustrate by examples. (14) What is said of certain words formed witll the preposition a? Give examples (15) Illustrate the, assertion that these compounds are not adverbs, using for this purpose 8E an example, ile lies abed. ~ 93.] ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 295 Here we must either say that abed is equivalent to on0 bed —noun aznd preposication-atio or that it is an adjective compounded of these words. Surely abed, taken as a single word, is as much an adjective, when we say, He lies abed, or He is abed, as fiat is an adjective, when we say, He lies flat, or Thle roof is flat. The same reasoning will apply to asleep, aloft, ashore, &c., in the propositions He is asleep, or He lies asleep; The ship is ashore, or lies ashore; The bird rises aloft, or sings aloft, &c. (16) Many adjectives are employed in our language adverbiallygenerally as adverbs of mnanner-some noun being suppressed which the mind of the hearer is expected to supply. We may give as examples of adjectives often so employed the words better, best, worse, worst; as, jHe acted better, best, woorse, worst-expressions equivalent to He acted in a better manner, in the best manner, &c. (17) The enployment of adjectives as adverbs is more common in some languages than it is in ours. In German, for instance, "all adjectives are emp.oyed as adverbs of manner, without assuming any distinctive termination like the English ly." (Becker's Germ. Gram. for the English, p. 162, Frank. 1845.) (18) It often happens that an adjective preceded by a preposition is used adverbially. Examples: In vain=-In a vain manner; 92i short In aC short siay, or manner; In general=In a general way, or mnanner. In some cases the ellipsis cannot be so easily supplied. For example, at least, at most, at all, &c. In such expressions a whole proposition is sometimes left to be supplied by the hearer or reader; and what proposition, or what words, we must ascertain in each particular case from the connection of the discourse. The easiest (though certainly not the most satisfactory) way of treating such abbreviated expressions is to call them, as the grammarians generally have done, adverbial phrases. ExmEcIsEs.-Propositions containing what are called adverbial phrases; always supply the noun in analysis. (19) It may be observed, once for all, that it is a lazy and unphilosophical practice to treat every word, which expresses a circumstance modifying the predicate of a proposition, and which happens to be somewhat difficult to analyze fully and correctly, as an adverb, or, if more than one word, as an adverbial phrase. (20) The proper, the only (16) What is said of adjectives employed in our language as adverbs of manner? Illastrate by examples. (17) What is said of the practice in other languages of employing tha unchanged adjective as an adverb? (18) Repeat what is said of (the so-called) adverbiacl phrases, illustrating by examples. (19) Describe a practice characterized as lazy and unphilosophical (20) What is relrre 296 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 93 rational method of analysis, is to treat as an adverb no expression which can be readily brought under any of the other classes of modi.. fications. (21) Adverbs are only contracted or abbreviated forms equivalent to other modifications, and every one, in order to show' that he thoroughly understands the analysis of language, must be able to exhibit in every case the expression to which the adverb is equivalent, or which it represents. (22) To call any expression an adverb, or anll adverbial phrase, which admits of being directly brought under one of the other forms of modification, is therefore wholly unwarrantable and improper. (23) In consistency with these remlarks we cannot admit that such words as yesterday, to-day, to-night, to-morrow, belong to the class of adverbs. Yesterday is a compound noun formed by the union of an adjective, now obsolete (save in composition), with the noun day. The same observation applies to the expressions to-day, to-night, tomorrow. Whatever may have given origin to the use of the particle to in this manner before the words day, night, &c., this particle, as here used, is now manifestly equivalent to the determinative this. Compare, I will go to-day, and I will go this week. Such expressions we analyze as nouns-nouns performing the function of the accusative of time. (See ~ 84.) (24) Tbere. are several words commonly classed among the adverbs which do not come, as it seems to us, within any definition which has been given of this species of words. One of these is the negative particle NOT. This can scarcely, with propriety, be called a modif,]ying word. Whether we consider it as affecting, exclusively, the assertive force of the verb, or as affecting the predicate (including the panrt of the predicate contained in the verb), it cannot, in strict propriety of language, be said to modify that which it serves rather completely to reverse or exclude. We prefer to call it by a name peculiar to itself, the negative particle. ROTE.-It is a question among logicians, whether the negative particle in all cases affects the copula? whether, consequently, we are to admit two forms of the copula, viz., the ciqrmative form, employed in what are called affirmative propositions, and the,negative form in negative propositions? or, tented as the proper and rational method of analysis? (21) What are adverbs here said to be, and what should we be able to exhibit in analysis when an adverb occurs? (22) What,lode of analysis is said to be unwarrantable and improper? (20) Enumerate some fornls of expression commonly called adverbs of time, and give the reasons for excludin themrn from this class. (24) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to the word NOT. ~ 93.~ THE NEGATIVE PARTICLE, NOT. 297 whether the negative particle may not, at least in some cases, be considered as affecting the predicate? Now, if we refer to what most of the followers of Aristotle (though not Aristotle himself) have considered as the primary form of propositions, and to which they attempt to reduce all propositions, that is, those which have some tense of the verb to be, for their assertive word, accompanied by a complementary adjective, we agree with those who maintain that the negqative always affects the verb is, which the logicians have hitherto regarded (we think, improperly) as the naked copula, and that it never affects the adjective alone which they have recognised as forming the complete predicate. But when we distinguish (as we have felt compelled by the results of the investigation described in another part of this treatise to do) in the verb to be, as in other verbs, the predicate part of the word from the indication of assertion, it may probably lead to an important modification of the manner in which logicians commonly present this subject. Though In such a proposition as The steward is NOT faithfutl, the negative not cannot be regarded with propriety, we believe, as affecting only the adjective faithful, yet it may be that it affects, not the assertive force of the verb is, but that part of the predicate contained in this verb. We are inclined to think, that it is exactly this which the negative in all cases affects; and if it affects what we have recognised as the leading part of the predicate, it really, through this, affects the entire predicate, though not directly or exclusively that which logicians have generally regarded as the predicate of propositions of this form. Thus, in the proposition, The steward is not faithful, though we agree with those who deny that it is logically correct to say, that NOTfaithful is asserted of the steward, yet we think it may not be incorrect to say, that NOT BEING faithful is asserted of him. It will be seen that we suspect both parties to this question-those who regard the negative as affecting what they call the predicate, and those who regard it as affecting the copula alone-to be in error; and that they have been led into error by adopting what we cannot but consider an incorrect analysis of propositions. In opposition to both, we expect that it will be found that the negative affects the real predicate-the whole predicate, according to our analysis, which finds in propositions of the above form the leading part of the predicate in what has been hitherto considered the mere copula. We do not, however, feel prepared to assert any thing very positively on this point. Our examination of the bearing of the views we have adopted in reference to the copula, on the distinction between the affirmative and negative proposition, has not been sufficiently extensive and exact to satisfy our own mind completely, or entitle us to speak more decidedly on this subject. We leave the matter to the care of the logicians. If our analysis of propositions shall be found correct, and should be adopted, we think it must lead to some modification-we hope to a simplification-of the treatment of negative propositions. 298 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 93, (25) The words YES and NO are commonly, but we think very improperly, classed with the adverbs. These words are not modifying words; they are never applied either to verb or adjective for this purpose. Neither do they belong to any class of words hitherto examined by us. (26) Each of them is, in fact, equivalent to a whole proposition. YES, employed in answer to an interrogative proposition, is equivalent to that proposition asserted calirmatively; and No employed in the same way is equivalent to the interrogative proposition asserted )negatively. For example, Is your brother at home? Ans. YES, equivalent to ify brother is at home; Ans. No, equivalent to My brother is NOT at home. We may distinguish these two words by calling them THE RESPONSIVE PARTICLES.* (27) Surely, certainly, assuredly, &c., are sometimes employed in answer to a question. These may be regarded as elliptical expressions, standing for propositions of which the suppressed parts are to be supplied from the preceding discourse. For example, Will you oblige me by asking that favor fr me from yourfriendZ? Answer, Certainly, equivalent to I will certainly oblige you by doing so, or I will ceirtainly do so. (28) When certainly, slurely, &c., occur as answers to a question, in attempting an analysis, we must first supply the words suppressed, and then their function in the completed proposition will appear manifest. (29) But when we meet with yes and no, we have simply to call them responsive particles, or signs of assent and denial. Since they are equivalent to whole propositions, they do not come within the range of grammatical analysis. Whenever a judgment of the mind is expressed by a single simple sign, as in this case, there is no room for the introduction of analysis. The grammarian's business is primarily with the proposition (which has been very properly called the "unit of speech," as judgment is the unit of thought; see N. Brit. Rev., No. 27, art. 2), and with this only when it consists of separable parts. If propositions were not made up of separable signs, grammar, as we have already said, would be a very different thing from what it is. - These remarks do not apply to the acljective No. (25) Is it proper to class YEs and No with the adverbs? Are they modifying words? (26) What is each of these words in fact equivalent to? Illustrate this fact by examples. (27) Repeat what is said in reference to the words surely, certainly, etc. (28) EIow are we to act when these words occur in analysis? (29) How when yes and nRo occur? ~93.] DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 299 (30). In reference to the use of the negative NOT, the learner wiL remember that in what is now recognised as the correct usage of our language, this word always reverses the sense of the proposition in which it is employed; or, in other words, a proposition where the negative is added is always contrary to the same proposition without the negative. (31) This fact is to be carefully regarded in those cases in which the negative is employed in a proposition having negative words (especially words compounded with the negative -no, or the negative particles un and ini) among the modifications of its predicate. (32) Thus: This man is NOT INfallible, is the reverse of This nman is INfallible; This man is NOT uvlearned, is the reverse of This mnan is vtiearned. (33) The rule commonly given in reference to two negatives occurring in the same proposition is perhaps expressed with too little precision. It is this: "' Two negatives destroy one another," or, " Two negatives make an affirmative." This would imply that such propositions as The steward is not unfcaithful, and The stezoard is faithful; The manc is not unwise, and The nman is wise, &c., are completely equivalent, which we think is not the case. In the first forms there is simply a nzegation of utnfaitful and unawise, not an cafirmation of facithful and wise. (34) We have violations of this rule in the following expressions, common among the uneducated: I haven't got nothing, I haven't done nothing, I haven't seen nobody, &c.* (35) We have already, in treating of compound tenses, indicated the place which the negative usually takes when employed with verbs, E In some languages two negatives are employed to strengthen negation. Double negatives often occur in the Greek language to express negation more emphatically. They were also used in Anglo-Saxon, and in old English by the most respectable authors, as late even as the times of Shakspeare. Hence the origin of the usage of the uneducated above noticed, which, though now called vulgar, is merely an adherence to the ancient idiom, whilst the educated have adopted the Latin usage. In this case certainly the usage borrowed from the Latin appears to us a decided improvement. It is at once more favorable to perspicuity, and more accordant with the. general analogies of language. (80) State the remark in reference to the use of the negative not. (31) In what cases is the fact mentioned about the negative to be especially regarded? (32) Give examples. (33) Repeat the rule commonly given about double negatives, and the remarks in reference to it. (34) Mention the cases in which this rule is chiefly violated. (35) What is said of the arrangement of the negative when used with vei bs? When used with infinitives and nouns? 300 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 94. viz.: after the verb; i. e. after the auxiliary, for it is chiefly used with, compound tenses; when used with simple tenses the order is the same: NOT followVs the verb. On the contrary, NOT, when employed as it sometimes is, with infinitives or other nouns, takes precedence. For example: "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note," &c. (Here observe not takes precedence of the noun and its complements.) NOT to discountenance vice is to favor it. ~ 94. We next proceed to consider the modifications which are applied to adjectives and to adverbs. For these modifying words are themselves affected by modifications in orcler to express the products of thought with greater accuracy and nicer discrimination. (1) We have thought it best to consider these two classes of words together in reference to the modifications by which they are affected, because the few modifications of which the adverbs are susceptible are also common to adjectives, and, especially, because the adverbs are susceptible of these modifications in consequence of their near relation to adjectives-in fact, as a consequence either of their possessing a common form with the adjective, being adjectives used adverbially, as the grammarians say, or of their involving an adjective in their meaning, and generally also as the radical constituent of their form. (2) As regards form, the modifications applied to adjectives, like those applied to nouns and verbs, are of two kinds; those which are effected by inflections, that is, by a termination added to the adjective, and those which are effected by the employment of separate words. (3) The only inflection of which English adjectives are susceptible is that employed where we have occasion to express that a quality exists in one object compared with another object or objects in a higher degree of intensity.* (4) Grammarians have called this, English adjectives, unlike those of many other languages, have no variation to indicate number, case, or gender, with the exception of the two,; 1. (1) What reason is given for considering the modifications of adjectives and adverbs together? (2) IHow many kinds of modifications are applied to adjectives? (3) Describe the only purpose for which an iielectionc is attached to English adjectives. (4) What nane have grammarians given to this change of the adjective? (5) What kind of Idjectives are susceptible of coneparison F (6) Illustrate by an example. ~ 94.3 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 301 inflection comparison of adjectives, because when the inflected forms are used there is generally a comparison expressed or implied between the objects to which the qualities indicated by the adjectives are attributed. (5) It is only such adjectives as express qualities manifested in different degrees of intensity-generally descriptive adjectives-which are susceptible of com2parison. (6) For example, the quality expressed by the adjective cold is manifested in different determinative adjectives, this and that, which have for plural forms, these and those. The worI one has sometimes a plural form, and even a possessive case; as, "I have commanded my sanctified ones, I have also called my mnighty ones." (Is. xiii. 3.) "The great ones of the earth;" one's country and one's friends are dear to every one. This word, however, is not properly an adjective. It has all the characteristics of a noun, or pronoun, like on in French, and snan in German and Anglo-Saxon, with which it has affinity in derivation, as well as in meaning, rather than with the numeral The word other when used with a noun has no plural form; for example: OTHER Men have made the same mistake. But, when employed alone substantively, it has a regular plural form; as, OTHERS have made the same mistake. The singular form of this word is, we believe, never used substantively, but its compound another serves as a singular substantive form, and has a regular possessive case; example, "The tender for another's pain." Others plural has a possessive, viz.: others'. These words used substantively may be thus arranged as a single declension: Singular. Plural. Nlominative, Another, Others. Genitive, Another's, Others'. The young student can scarcely conceive the amount of labor saved to him by the absence of all inflection in the adjectives of our language. In learning other languages, he must be able to determine the number, case, gender, of the noun, in order to ascertain the form of the adjective which he is to employ with it. To ascertain in most languages the gender to which every noun belongs is a long and laborious task. Yet it must not be supposed that the inflection of adjectives, to make them correspond to the number, case, gender of the noun which they modify, is a mere useless incumbrance, occasioning toil to no purpose to those who use languages possessing this peculiarity. On thile contrary, it affords many facilities for abbreviating speech, without prejudice to perspicuity, and in the ancient languages, where this kind of inflection is carried to the greatest extent, it affords such liberty of arrangement as enables an ingenious writer to secure more easily both force and harmony in the expression of his 302 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 9~ degrees of intensity; one cold day is more intensely cold thaL another. This higher intensity we express briefly by adding to the adjective the termination ER. This day, we say, is COLDER than yesterday. Again, we may wish to assert of a number of days (more than two) that some one was the most intensely cold. This we do by applying to the adjective cold the termination EST, and using it with this inflection to complete the noun day. Thus, This is the COLDEST day of the week; The day before yesterday was COLD, yesterday was COLDER, but this day is the COLDEST Of the three. Here we have the quality cold expressed in three different degrees of intensity, each distinguished by a different form of the adjective, Cold, colder, coldest. (7) These forms, including the original adjective, are called the three degrees of comparison. Grammarians have given each a distinct name. (8) The original adjective they have named the positive degree, the form in ER the comparative, and the form in EST the superlative degree. (9) These modifications of the form of the adjective are gene rally, as in the case of the word cold, effected by adding the syllable ER to the positive (or original form of the adjective) for the comparative degree, and the syllable EST for the superlative. (10) When in the written language the adjective happens to end in e mute, r alone is added to form the comparative and st to form the superlative; as, sure, surer, surest. (11) In the spoken language, the sounds represented by ER and EST are always added to the original adjective as it is at present pronounced. In other words, a syllable is always added to the adjective to form the comparative and superlative degrees.: thoughts. Still we cannot hope to attain these advantages, and to use with correctness the languages which possess them, without submitting to much repulsive labor. (7) What name have grammarians given to these forms intended to express qualities in different degrees of intensity? (8) What names have been given to each of these distinct forms of the adjective? (9) I-ow are the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives formed? (10) How are they obrmed in the written language when the adjective ends in e mute? (11) What sounds or syllables are always added in the spoken language? ~ 94.] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 303 (12) We may observe here that we have another way in English of expressing comparison, namely, employing the adverbs more and most before the adjective to express the comparative and superlative degrees respectively; as, amiable, more amiable, most amiable. This comes under the adverbial mnodification of the adjective atready considered. (13) Words consisting of one syllable are usually compared (as the grammarians call it) by adding to them the syllables er and est, by which they become words of two syllables. (14) A few words of two syllables-especially those which end in an accented syllable-are sometimes compared in the same way; as, severe, severer, severest; divine, diviner, divinest. (15) With all adjectives of more than two syllables, and with most adjectives containing two syllables, we employ more and most for the purpose of expressing a higher degree of intensity. (16) l11ore and most may be employed for this purpose with all adjectives which admit of comparison, and are to be employed whenever the use of the inflected form would produce any harshness of sound. (17) But except where harshness is to be avoided or some rhetorical purpose to be served, the inflected form of monosyllables is generally preferred as more brief and more forcible. (18) When we wish to express the existence of a quality in an object in a high degree without comparison —without reference to the degree in which other objects possess the same quality-we generally employ the adverb very or more than usually, &c.; as, A very high mountain. (19) Sometimes we express the same thing, or nearly the same thing, by the superlative form; as, The GREATEST difficulties are overcome by perseverance. This differs little from VERY GREAT difficulties are overcome, &c. It is more spirited, but (12) Describe another way of expressing comparison in English. (13) How are words of one syllable nsually compared t (14) Are any words of two syllables compared in the same way? If any, what kind of words? (15) With what classes of adjectives are snore and most always employed for the purpose of expressing increased intensity? (16) When are these words to be employed with adjectives even of one syllable for the same purpose? (17) In what sort of words, and with what exceptions, is the inflected form preferred? (18) How do we express intensity without direct comparison? (19) Is the same thing Aometimes done by means of the superlative inflection P? Illustrate by an example. 304 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 94, still implies little, if any comparison.* (20) Grammarians have called such expressions as, A very high mountain the superlative absolute, while the form employed when reference is expressed or implied to other objects possessing the same quality, is called the superlative relative. (21) Descending compnamson, or diminution of the intensity of a quality expressed by an adjective is denoted by the adverbs less and least; as, less studious, least studious; or sometimes by adding to the adjective the termination is; as, whitish, blackish, &c. (22) The comparison of equality is always expressed by means of additional words; as, That man is as learned as his brother. (23) In this, and, indeed, in every case of comparison formally stated, there is a nodifying proposition employed-a species of complement or modification which remains to be treated hereafter. * Perhaps the use of the superlative in this way in our language may be considered as merely exaggeration, or a rhetorical contrivance adopted for the purpose of imparting force and sprightliness to style. To represent any object as possessing an attribute in the highest degree of all the objects of its class is more forcible than to represent it as simply possessing it in a very high degree. The stuperlative absolute is tame when compared with the other form. It is only however when the adjective is used attributively, or as the complement of a noun, that the superlative comrnarative can be thus substituted in English for the superlative absolute. We do not, as far as we know, employ the superlative comparative, (that is, the form made with st or its equivalent-the adjective modified by the adverb most,) as complementary of the verb except when we intend comparison. In some languages the same form is very frequently used to express both the superlative comparative and the superlative absolute; and that when the adjective serves to complete a verb as well as when it completes a noun. Thus in Latin, mons altissimus means, when reference is made to other mountains, the highest mountain; or, when no such reference is intended, a very high mountain..lons est altissimus may also be used to assert that a mountain is very high. Even the comparative form is used, though less frequently, in the same way; as, " Si tibi quegdam videbuntutr obscuriora." "Obscuriora" here means obscure beyond the ordinary degree-more than commonly obscure. (20) By what name have grammarians distinguished this from direct comparison? (21) IIow is descezlding conelcarison, or diminution of intensity expressed? Give ex.,.mples. (22) What is said of the comparison of eq-allty? (23) What is necessary in all casbe. ehen a comparison is formally stated? ~ 94.] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 305 (24) A few cases occur in which the different degrees of the same quality are represented by-words entirely distinct in form; and a few other cases occur in which there is some irregularity in the formnatior. of the comparative and superlative. The chief irregularities of both Kinds are exhibited in the following table. (25) TABLE OF IRREGULAR COMPARISON. Positive. C-omparative. Superlative. Good Better Best. Bad, evil, or ill Worse Worst. Little Less Least. Mnuch y More Most. Many Near Neari NNear est. JIate i Later Latest. Latter Last. Old i Older Oldest. Elder Eldest. Far $ Farther Farthest. Further Furthest. (26) ExPLANATION.-J/utCh is used in speaking of quantity, many, in speaking of number; nea'rest is used in reference to place, next, in reference to time; the forms later and latest are used in speaking of time, latter and last, in speaking of order; older and oldest are the forms generally employed at present, elder and eldest are more ancient forms, and are now less frequently employed. Purtker and faurthest are perhaps formed from fore, which we have in the word foremost, and not from far. The meanings, as well as the derivation, of these forms were likely once differente-further meaning more in front; fcarthzer, more distant. But in modern usage, farther, on account of its softer sound, has nearly superseded the harsher word, further, the difference of their signification not being so great as to preclude this substitution.*: It is a curious fact that in the best known ancient and modern languages the adjectives irregular in comparison are usually words of similar signification. Thus the words which denote the same qualities with our (24) Repeat the remark in reference to irregular comparison. (26) Repeat the table of irregular forms. (26) Repeat the remarks in explanation of the use of the irregular forma. 21 306 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L[~ 94, [ (27) There is a class of superlatives ending in most; as, for example, foiremost, mentioned above, hincdmost, topmost, utmost, &c., about the formation of which the grammarians are not yet agreed. The most words good and bad are irregularly compared in Greek, Latin and all its modern progeny, Italian, Spanish, French, &c., and also in Anglo-Saxon, German (as regards gut, good,) and other Teutonic dialects. These irregularities have generally come down from the remotest periods to which languages can be traced, and have been transmitted from the ancient languages to the dialects derived from them. Thus, from the comparative melior (better) in Latin are derived the words of similar signification in all the modern languages descended from the Latin, in Italian, French, &c. The irregularity of good, better, best comes to us firom the Anglo-Saxon, and to this and the other Teutonic dialects, likely, from some remote common parent-language. That the adjectives expressive of these particular qualities are irregular in so many apparently independent languages, is, perhaps, to be accounted for from the fact that these are the very words of the class of comparatives and superlatives which must have been earliest employed and most frequently employed in the dialects to which they respectively belong. Words to express the qualities good and bad in different degrees of intensity becoming very early necessary in the everyday intercourse of life, may have been received into current use and have obtained fixed and immovable possession as articulate signs, long before any general'law for the formation of comparatives and superlatives came to be recognised in language. In other words, terms expressive of the meaning of better and worse may have been established immovably in many languages aniterior to the use of inflection to express complarison. Again, words very frequently used in the intercourse of life, especially words used much by the illiterate, (and all men were illiterate when their languages were yet in the early period of their formation,) suffer greater wear and tear,'than words more rarely employed and current chiefly among the learned. In the progress of a laniguage such words undergo greater and more rapid changes. These considerations may account for the anomalies and contractions which occur in some of the forms enumerated in the above table of irregular comparison, and in the adjectives of similar meaning in other languages. It will be seen that these remarks are not restricted in their application to adjectives, but may be employed to explain the general fact that the chiei irregularities of inflection fall in all languages upon words which express similar meaning and perform similar functions. The verbs, for instance, Ohich express a meaning equivalent to our verb to be are irregularly inflect. [(27) Repeat the substance of what is said of a class of superlatives ending in most. 95.] COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. s30 common opinion is, that these and similar words are compounds of fore, upp2er, out, &c., with the adverb most. This view is adopted by Rask. (See Rask's Ang. Sax. Gram. ~ 133.) Grimm, on the contrary, thinks the st in these words to be the superlative termination, added by excess of expression to the. Anglo-Saxon superlatives, formac, first, Ztfema, upmost, temacc, outmost, &c., as if from woorst, forgetting that it is already a superlative, we should form worstest, or as fiom chief, which is a word superlative in meaning, we sometimes find the form chiefest. (See Latham's Gram. p. 79, and, Eng. Lang. 2 ed. p. 270.) Dr. Lathlam seems inclined to adopt the views of Grimm. (28) There is another small class of superlatives in which the word mnost is added to comparative forms. We may enumerate those of most common occurrence. iiznd-er-most, inn-er-most, neth-er-most, out-ermzost, 2upp-er-most, utt-er-most. We have so divided these words by hyp1hezs as to exhibit their composition to the eye. We might, like Dr. Latham, have divided most in each case into its constituents m-ost, (or perhaps mo-st, for more and most are formed from the old English 9no or moe,) and have written hind-er-m-ost, inn-er-m-ost, as he has done, or, perhaps still more correctly, we might have represented their elements thus: hind-er-mno-st, inn-er-mo-st, &c.] ~ 95. COMPARISON OF ADvERBS.-(1) Some adverbs admit of inflectional comparison like adjectives; as, soon, sooner, soonest; oft or often, oftener, oftenest. (2) Such adverbs, however, are very few in number.' We know of none besides soon and often, except those which are originally adjectives, and come under the class of adjectives adverbially employed. (3) The comparatives and superlatives of some adljecdtves are used adverbially, though the positive form of these adjectives is not so employed. (4) For example, better and best are ed in all the languages enumerated above; and in how many more we know not. The assertion of being or existence is often expressed in the different tenses and even in the different persons and numbers by words entirely distinct. The reasoning above used applies, if possible, with greater force to this verb than to the irregular adjectives. The forms employed in the most ancient languages to express its different tenses were, likely, immovably fixed in common use, long before any regular law of tense-formation was recognised in those languages. (28) PIspas.t what is said of another class ending also in most.] ~ 95. (1) Do any adverbs admit of inflectional comparison? Give examples. (2) What is said of the number of such adverbs? (3) What is said of the adverbial use of the comparatives and superlatives of some adjectives? (4) Ilustrate by examples. 308 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 95. used adverbially, and when so used, serve as the comparative ant superlative of the adverb well; but good is never used adverbially by those who speak correctly.*:In the same manner, worse and worst are employed adverbially, but not the adjective bad. Badly or ill may be considered the positive form of worse and worst, when used adverbially. The comparatives and superlatives more and most and: less and least are, as we have already seen, employed to modify adjectives.- The positive much sometimes modifies comparatives, as, mtuch wiser, &c. Little rarely -modifies other adjectives. (6);Adverbs of manner very often admit of comparison, because the quality denoted by the adjective involved in the meaning, and generally in the form of these- adverbs has different degrees of intensity. Thus, wisely admits of comparison for the same reason that the adjective wise involved in it admits of comparison. (7) But these adverbs, when regularly formed from adjectives (except the adjective itself, as in the case of better and best, is usurped as an adverb) have a form too unwieldy to admit of inflectional comparison. (8) They are, therefore, compared by using the modifying words more and most; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; justly, more justly, mnostjustly. (9) In the analysis of such adverbs, we lmay as well take the two words separately, and consider mnore and mnost as adverbial modifica tions of other adverbs. (10) The comparative and superlative of adjectives when formed by the help of more and 9most may as well be treated in the same way in ~ (5) The adjective good is often used (by careless speakers in the United States and perhaps in some other places) instead of the adverb well. For example, we.may hear persons who have received an imperfect education ay: TDhe boy writes good, the fire burns good, Idid that good, &c. Such expressions are grossly ungrammatical and vulgar, and when children catch them from uneducated persons around them, it requires much labor and watchfulness to unlearn them.:This may be regarded as an improper extension of the adjective complementary'modification. (5) Repeat the substance of tne note. (6) What remarks are made in reference to adverbs of manner.? (7) Are adverbs of manner infiected? (8): How are they compared? Illustrate by examples. (9) How may we proceed in the analysis of adverbs accompanied by more and most? (1 0) How in the analysis of the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives made by mora ~ 95.] COAMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 309 analysis; the words more and most being regarded simply like othet adverbial modifications of adjectives. (11) They differ in no respect, als regards grammatical form or grammlatical function, from other adverbial modifications. There is no necessity for mentioning the names comparative and superlative degree, except when these degrees are formed by inflection. (12) Then it-will be necessary, when the comparative or superlative form occurs, to say that the adjective is an adjective in the comparative or superlative degree, or that it is an adjective with the comparative or superlative inflectional modification. In writing we may express this by the abbreviations,p Des. A. Comp. and Des. A. Sup. —Descriptive adjective of the comparative degree, and descriptive adjective of the superlative degree. (13) We may notice, before we leave this subject, that a superlative adverb is sometimes accompanied by the determinative the; as, This boy writes THE BEST; John cacted the MOST PRUDENTLY. Some seem to treat the determinative in this case as belonging to the form of the superlative, and attempt no further analysis. We think it belongs to the noun (generally the noun manner) implied in the adverb. For example, the expressions above may be resolved thus: This boy vrites in the best manner; John acted in the most prudent mcanner. IHere it is obvious that the determinative affects manner. (14) Sometimes, especially in colloquial usage, a descriptive adjective as well as a determinative, is used in connection with a superlative adverb, and this too must be regarded as modifying the noun implied in the adverb; as, The boy behaved the best possible under the circumstances; equivalent to, The boy behcaved in the best MAN1NER possible, &c. This use of a descriptive adjective with an adverb is not, in our opinion, an elegant form of expression, but rather one to be avoided. It is much better in such cases to employ the full form with the word manner expressed, than to resort to the abbreviated a Iverbial form. [ (15) The same may be said of such expressions as, This boy behalves the best of all. The analysis of this form of expression presents a difficulty. What word does the noun and preposition modificction or ALL affect? (For all is here evidently an adjective employed as a noun, or implying a noun.) What does it modify? Does it affect the aud most. (11) Assign the reasons for pursuing th.s course. (12) In what manner do weo treat the inflectional forms in analysis? (13) What is said of a superlative adverb accompanied by the determinative tie? Give example and explanation. (14) What is said in reference to the use of a descriptive adjIective with such superlatives? [(15) Repeat the substance of what is said about such forms of expression as, 7his boy be hare thle l est of all. 310 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 96 subject noun boy, and are we consequently to supply with it the worc boys? The expression will then be equivalent to rhis boy of all the boys behaved in the best mzanner. We incline to adopt this as the best mode of analyzing this class of expressions, and to think that there is here an awkward separation of the complement of call: from the word which it modifies, or that of, all is introduced, as it were, by after thought. Other modes of analysis of such expressions might be suggested, such as considering of all, like the determinative the, and the descriptive adjective in the forms above considered, as modifying the word manner implied in best; but all these modes seem to us to present greater difficulties, and to involve longer and more awkward suppressions. We think that it is better in all such cases to forego the use of the adverb, and adopt the circuitous mode of expression.] We give no exercises for the present on the above modifications of adjectives and adverbs, because an accessory proposition is necessary to make full sense. ~ 96. Having considered the modification of adjectives by inflection, we proceed'to consider the various ways in which they are modified by separate words. (1) We shall not need to spend much time on this subject, since all the modifications of this kind applied to adjectives correspond exactly either to those which are applied to nouns, or to those which are applied to verbs, and these we have already explained. We shall give notice as we pass along, when any of these modifications are applicable to adverbs. MODIFICATIONS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CONSISTING OF SEPARATE WOnRD.-(2) 1st. Some adjectives admit of a dative modification, like verbs. (3) The adjectives most frequently so modified are like, near, nearer, nearest, next. We subjoin a number of examples which may be used as an exercise in analysis. (4) " He cometh forth like a flower." "Who teacheth like him?" "He shall be like cc tree," &c. "Lest I become like them," &c. "The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree, he shall grow like the cedar in Lebanon." "There was none like thee before thee." ~ 96. (1) CWhat remark is made in reference to the modifications consisting of separate words applied to adjectives and adverbs? (2) What is the first modification of this kind here mentioned? (8) Encrnerate the adjec ives most frequently modified by a dative. (4) Repeat some of the examples, and point out the adjective and the modifying datl,/t all the examples. ~ 96.J ACCUSATIVE MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 311 "The men near Micah's house." "They knew not that evil was near them." The mouth of the foolish is near destruction." John sat near his brother. His sister sits next him. [ (5) All these adjectives instead of the dative are frequently followed by -a noun cand preposition modification, the preposition to or often unto being interposed between them and the completing noun. (6) Hence most grammarians in the analysis of the above examples would supply the preposition to before the nouns which follow likc, near, &c., and say that these nouns are in the accusative or objective case after to. (7) We think that there is really no ellipsis in these examples, but that they exhibit another remnant of the ancient dative, not yet altogether superseded by the noun and preposition, but employed interchangeably with it. (8) We are obliged to recognise a dative in English (see ~ 79,) in order to explain satisfactorily several forms of expression still used in our language. We may therefore, as well recognise the dative in cases like those before us, and in all similar cases, where we have a manifest remnant of the old dative usage. (9) Some grammarians have ventured to call near a preposition whenever it is followed by a noun or pronoun, without the intervention of a preposition. The noun, according to their analysis, is in the objective case after the preposition near. This mode of analysis is altogether unwarrantable, and no recent grammarian of acknowledged high standing, we believe, has adopted it. To supply the preposition to is far preferable to this, though we think the recognition of a dative use of the noun in such expressions is the proper course to adopt.] ExERcIsE.-To form propositions containing examples of adjectives modified by a dative. (10) 2d. Some adjectives are modified by an accusative or objective of price, time, measure or dimension, like verbs. (See ~ 84.) We subjoin examples, which may serve, like those in the last paragraph, for an exercise in analysis. [(5) By what kind of modification are these adjectives often accompanied instead of a dative? (6) HIow do grammarians generally explain the dative in the above kind of propositions? (7) Is there really an ellipsis or suppression of a preposition in the above examples? (8) Repeat the remark about the English dative. / (9) What have some grammarians considered sseaor when followed by a noun, and what Is said of their mode of analysis?] (10) What is the second form of modification of adjectives by separate *w^ords? ~12 STRUCTURE - OF LANGUAGE. [~ 96 [ (11) This house is worth four thousand pounds. - The book is worth ten shillings. That work is worth all the Zabor' expended upon it. It is worth while to consider a subject, &c. (while is here a noun illtheaccusative). William departed this life, aged thirty-five years. That man is sixty years old. This table is five feet long and three feei wide. The house is four, stories high. The wall is eighteen inche. thick, ten feet high, and two hundred feet long. The river, in this place, is fifteen feet deep. (12) It will be noticed that the adjective old and the adjectives of dimension take the accusative of time and- measure before them.] ExEncISE. —Form a given number of propositions containing ex amples of adjectives modified by an accusative of time, sneasure, &c. NOTE.-Those who class the word ago among the adverbs, must assign it a place with those which take an accusative of time before them. For example, That event happened TWEENTY YEARS ago. We cannot admit this explanation of the modification of the word ago, and consequently, must decline classing it among the adverbs. Ago or agcone, or agon (for so the word was often spelled in our old authors-we have an instance in 1 Sam. 30: 13, "Three days agone I fell sick;" and in Archbishop Tillotson, as quoted by II. Tooke, "Thirty years agone") was once in common use as the perfect participle of the verb go. See H. Tooke, pp. 254-257, Mr. R. Taylor's edi. tion, 1840. We select a few of the examples adduced by BMr. Tocke, enough, we think, to settle this matter beyond the reach of all cavil. "H er love is after soone AGO."-Gower. "The remenant was all AGo." —Idem. "For after that he was AGO."-Idem. " God wotte, worldely joye is soone AGo."-Chaucer. " AGO was every sorowe and every fere." —Idem. " Of any thinge of suche a time AGoNE.-Idem. "lMay sigh, that thei were AGONE."-Gower. " Whan that the mysty vapoure was AGcoNE."-Chaucer. "For I loved one, ful longe sythe AGcoNE."-Idem. "But sothe is said, GONE sithen many a day."-Idem. It is, we think, perfectly manifest from these examples, that our old authors used AGO interchangeably with GONE, as the participle of Go. This fact affords us the best guidance to the true analysis of the' forms of:expression in which AGO occurs. In the proposition, IHe lived thirty years AGO, [(11) Repeat some of the examples, and in all the propositions given point out the adjec. tive and the accusative of price, time, &c. (12) Repeat the remark in reference to the adjective el.l and the adjectives of dimension., ~ 96.] INFINITIVE MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 313 we might consider the noun years as -the accusative of time to the verb lived and itself modified by the participle AGo. Or,. what we think better, we may consider years as subject noun to the verb are suppressed and modified by the participle AGO. In accordance with thisl view the above expression may be completed thus, He lived thirty years ARE (since) ago or gone. That this is the true way of supplying the ellipsis, we are the more confirmed in thinking, by such examples as the last two given above: "Ful longe sythe (.since) agone;" "Gone sithen (=since) many a day." Mr. Tyrwhitt, Moxon's edition, 1843, gives this line, we know not on what authority, "Gone sithen is many a day." This would be more to our purpose, if we could confide in Mr. Tyrwhitt's readings. But we cannot. Another mode of analysis, not essentially different from the last, is to treat the noun of time as in the case absolute with the participle AGO. (13) 3d. Many adjectives are modified or completed by infinitives in the same manner as verbs. We subjoin a few examples for exercise in analysis. [(14) Your friend is very ambitious to excel his neighbors. The young man is desirous to learn. He is anxious to succeed in his enterprise. That action is worthy to be imitated. This boy is prone to do mischief. That boy is prompt to perform his duty. John is now ready to go home.* (15) Participles or adjectives formed from verbs which take an * The following examples may be regarded as somewhat different in char. acter. He is too lazy to learn. He is wise enough to take care of himself. Such infinitives assist, together with the adverbs enough and too, in indicating the degree of intensity which the adjective is made to express in these particular cases. They serve a purpose similar to that served by accessory propositions which indicate degrees of intensity.- (See ~~ 120-122.) Some adverbs take also a modifying infinitive; as, He does not kesow now TO ACT; He does not unzderstand WHEN TO rE,SIENT, when to speak. " The Son oI 5Man hath not where to lay his head." When we resolve the adverbs, these become identical with the infinitive which modifies a noun. Hlow = in what manner; when = at what time, and where -- at what place. The nouns mnanner, time, place, are what the infinitives above really modify.These infinitives, with their accompaniments, may be considered.as contracted accessory propositions (see ~ 142). (18) What is the third modification of adjectives? [(14) Repeat some examples, and point out the adjective and infinitive modification in all the examples. (15) Repeat the remark abouttparticiples.] 514 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 96 infinitive modification of course take the same modification. Such adjectives, for example, as accustomed, habituated, inclined, addicted, disposed, &c., come within this description.] Ex:ErcmsE.- Form a number'of propdsitions containing examples ol this construction. (16) 4th. Many adjectives are modified by a noun with a prep)osition, like nouns and verbs. (17) A few of the adverbs, formed fiom adjectives which take this modification, are sometimes completed in the same way. (18) We have examples in the following propositions: The marn. acted conformably TO your ORDERS; John acted consistently WITH his CHARACTER. When we resolve the adverbs conformably and consistently, as in the equivalent propositions, The man acted IN A MANNER CONFORMABLE to your orders, John acted IN A MANNER CONSISTENT with his character, we shall see that they are modified by a noun and preeposition, because the adjective involved in them is so modified.. [(19) Different adjectives take after them different prepositions with a modifying noun, and the same adjective always takes the same preposition, or the same set of prepositions after it. Most adjectives taking after them a preposition are confined exclusively to a single preposition; a few take two or more, but generally with some change of meaning. It may be useful to enumerate the prepositions which are most frequently employed in modifying adjectives. (20) The greatest number of adjectives susceptible of this form of modification take the preposition to exclusively; as, adequate to, agreeable to, convenient to, &c. (21) Many adjectives take the preposition of exclusively; as, desirous of, capable of, full of, worthy or unworthy of, ccareful of, &c. The (f before the noun is sometimes omitted after worthy and unworthy. Careyftd sometimes takes after it the preposition in, but with a different sense. (22) Some adjectives take the prepositionfor; as, fitfor, usefd for, than2ful for, &c. (16) Mention the fourth form of modification applied to adjectives. (17) Are adverbs ever modified in the same way? (1S) Illustrate by example, and explain why the adverb is susceptible of this modification. [(19) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to different adjectives taking'lit: foreut prepositions after them. (20) What preposition do the greatest number of adjectives take after them? (21) Mention some that take after them of: (22) Some that takefor; somefionm. (23. ~ 96.] NIOUN AND PREPOSITION MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 315 Some takefrom; as, distant from, remote from, far from, &c. (23) Some take the preposition with; as, replete with, level with, &c. (24) Some take the preposition in; as, fruitfal in, abundant in, Tich in, poor in, &c. (25) Some few take on or vupon; as, intent on or epon, dependent on or up)on. (26) A few take the preposition at; as, ex2pert at, or expert in. Some few adjectives perhaps take other prepositions. (27) Adjectives, especially those derived from verbs, are sometimes modified (like verbs) by a preposition alone without a noun. (See ~81: 28.) (28) We have already had occasion to notice that adjectives are often modified by adverbs, and sometimes adverbs by other adverbs. (See ~ 92.) It seems unnecessary here to add any thing more on this subject. (29) We have now finished the course of instruction which we deem necessary for the analysis of simple assertive propositions. We shall follow this up in the next chapter by a brief account of the construction of Interrogative and Imperative propositions.] EXAMPLES FOR ANALYsIs.-Virtuous actions are agreeable to the will of our Creator. That boy's capacity is fully equal to the task imposed upon him. This unfortunate man is bereft of all his property. That man is careful of his money. The member is absentJfrom his place. His life is conformable to his principles. That man's life is not consistent with his professions. Men are generally too fond of pleasure. Fear is inseparable from the consciousness of guilt. I am thankful for your kind advice. That physician is very successful in his practice. All men do not live conformably to their resolutions. Many act inconsistently with their professions. To live a virtuous life is to live agreeably to reason. That stranger is farfron his own country. EXERCIsEx.-Formn a given number of propositions containing examples of adjectives accompanied with this species of modification. Some that take zoitL. (24) Some that take in. (25) Some that take on or upon. (26) Some that take at. (27) In what way are adjectives, especially verbals sometimes modified? (28) Repeat remark about adjectives modified by adverbs. (29) What have we now finished, and what do we next proceed to consider?] CHAPTER VI1I. OF IlNTERROGATIVE AND IMIPEPATIVE PROPOSITIONS.. 97. INTERROGATIVE PnoPosTImoNs.-(1) As regards nzatter, the interrogative proposition is that employed in asking a question. (2) As to its form, the interrogative proposition differs from the asser. tive proposition only in the arrangement of the subject noun and the verb, and not always even in this. (3) Some interrogative propositions commence with an interrogative word which serves to mark their character. (4) When the interrogative word is the subject of the proposition, or a modification of the subject, the order of arrangement is exactly the same as in the assertive- proposition. That is to say, the subject noun precedes, the verb follows. (5) But when the interrogative word is not the subject of the proposition, nor a modification of the subject;* or when an interrogative proposition is formed without an interrogative word, the order of arrangement is reversed, and the verb precedes the subject noun. (6) It: will here be remembered that in the compound tenses, it is the auxiliary which is the verb-which possesses the assertive force-and that it is this V We have no word in our language to indicate interrogation exclusively. All our interrogative words perform another function in the proposition besides indicating that it is interrogative. In other languages there are words which perhaps indicate interrogation exclusively. The Latin ne enclilic may be given as an example. ~ 97. (1) What is said in reference to the matter of the interrogative proposition? (2) In what does its form differ from the form of the assertive proposition? (8) How is the character of some interrogative propositions marked? (4) What is the order of arrangement in the proposition, when the interrogative word is the stubject noun, or completes the subject? (5) What is the general order when the interrogative word is not the subject noun, or when there is no interrogative word used in forming an interrogative proposition. (6) Repeat the remark about the compound tenses. 97.] OF INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 317 alone which in interrogative propositions comes before the subject noun. (7) It must also be noticed, that in all interrogative propositions which require the subject noun to be placed after the verb, we use the tenses formed by combining the verb do with the infinitive of the several verbs (i. e., the progressive forms), instead of using the simple indefinite and simple past tenses of those verbs. (8) The verbs to be and to have are exceptions, since they have no tenses formed by the verb do. (See ~ 60.) (9) In our older authors, and in poetry, the simple tenses are often employed in interrogations, when the order of subject and verb is inverted, but scarcely ever in prose composition or in conversation, as the language is now ased. (10) We may express the rule at present followed in our language in the arrangement of interrogative propositions briefly thus: When an interrogative proposition has an interrogative word for its subject noun, or accompanying and completing its subject, it is arranged in the same order as the assertive proposition; but when it has not an interrogative word for subject noun, or complement of its subject, the order of arrangement is inverted, and the subject noun placed after the verb. (11) The learner will observe that in the written language all interrogative propositions are indicated by the interrogative mark (?). (12) In the spoken language, all interrogations-all questions-which do not commence with an interrogative word are distinguished, by good speakers, from assertive propositions, by a strongly marked rising inflection of the voice at their close. We give examples of the different forms of the interrogative proposition, and, to render the distinction between it and the assertive proposition more clear, when this distinction is effected by arrangement and without an interrogative word, we shall place the assertive opposite to the.interrogative form. (7) What else is to be noticed in regard of the formation: of interrogative propositions? (8) Repeat the remark in reference to the verbs to be and to have.: (9) What is said of the practice of our older authors, and of the poets? (10) Repeat the rule for the arrangement of interrogative propositions. (11) How are interrogative propositions indicated in the written lan guage? (12)- How are those which do not commence with an interrogative word distinguished in speaking? 318 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 97 (13) 1st. Interrogative propositions having the interrogative word for their subject noun, or to complete the subject. These do not differ in arrangement from assertive propositions. The interrogative word alone distinguishes them. Examples: Who is at the door? Who went to the post-office? Who has read that poem? Who will lend me a knife? Which boy is the best scholar? What lies on the table? What broke the glass? What has happened? &c. (14) 2d. Interrogative propositions in which the interrogative word is not the subject noun, but completes the predicate. HIere the order of the subject noun and verb are inverted. Examples: Whom do you see? What have you done? Where have you been? Why (do you complain? When did he arrive? Whither (where) will he go? How does he succeed? &c. (15) It will be observed that in all cases the interrogative word begins the proposition. (16) 3d. Interrogative propositions (or questions) formed without an interrogative word, contrasted with the corresponding assertive proposition. Assertive Form. Interrogative Fortes I am right. Am I right? I have time. Have I time? We were right. Were we right? They had horses. Had they horses? He goes to town. Does he go to town? He went to town. Did he go to town? You gave him money. Did you give him money? I have seen. Have I seen? IHel had arrived. Had he arrived? They will come. Will they come? (17) Here the sub;ect noun is invariably placed after the verb; when a compound tense is, used, after the auxiliary verb, as it is called. It will be noticed that with all verbs, except TO BE and TO IAVE, the emphatic indefinite and past tense made with the verb TO Do, is employed in the interrogative form, in all cases where the subject noun (13) Give examples of the first class of interrogative propositions, viz.: those which hava an interrogative word for their subject noun. (14) Of the second class. (15) Where does the interrogative word always stand? (16) Give examples of the third class, contrasting the assertive with the interrogative form. (17) Repeat over again the observations about the place of the subject noun when a comgound tense is used, and about the use of the esmphatic tenses. ~ 97.] OF INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 319 and verb are inverted, or when the subject is not an interrogative word, or completed by an interrogative word. (18) We may give some examples from the antiquated and poetical.anguage of the simple indefinite and past tenses employed interrogatively, when the order of arrangement is inverted': "' ]espisest thou the riches of his goodness?" "K now ye what I have done to you?" "}Having eyes, see ye not?"' Through breaking the law, dishonorest thou God?" " Thinkest thou this right, &c.?" "Believest thou this?" "Believest thou the prophets?." "But what mzeant you of fugitives herein?"-Spencer's State of Ireland. "How commeth it then to passe?"-Idem. " What hear I?"-Idem. We subjoin some examples from the poets: "Whatfear we then?"-Milton. " What now avails that noble thirst of fame?"-Thomson. "gNow blame we most the nurslings or the nurse?"-Cowper. "Wherefinds philosophy her eagle eye?" —Idem. " And chase toe still the phantom through the fire?" "And toil we still for sublunary pay?"'Young. " Seest thou thy lover lowly laid? Hearest thou the groans that pierce his breast?"-Burns. "Breathes there the mzan with soul so dead?"-Scott.' And said Ithat my blood was cold?"-Idem. The reader will find on examination that in all these propositions, if expressed in the current prose of the present day, we would introduce the tenses formed with the auxiliary Do instead of the simple tenses. There is a rule in reference to the answer made to an interrogative proposition, which we may give in this place. It is an important rule, and one often violated by uneducated and careless persons in conversation. (19) RULE.-The pronoun in the answer must be in the same case with the interrogative word in the question. EXAMPLES.- Wio'is in the room? Ans. I- I am in the room. To such questions the uneducated often answer me. The impropriety of this answer is manifest when we supply the words suppressed and exhibit the complete proposition implied; thus, ME is in the room. Even (18) IRepeat a number cf the antiquated and poetical examples which differ from the pre. vent order of English prose composition. (19) Repeat the rule and illustrate by examples. 320 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 98. the least educated person perceives the impropriety of this. Whom do they blame? Ans. Himm They blame him. TYhose hat is this? Ans. John's or mine - This hat is John's, or mine. ~ 98. REMARKS ON THE INTERROGATIVE WonDS.-(1) The interrogative words used as subjects of interrogative propositions are who, what, which, and formerly whether=which of the two. (2) These are commonly called the interrogative pronouns. (3) The word who has an undoubted claim to this appellation. It always performs alone the function of a noun. It cannot take a noun with it; we cannot, for example, say who man did so? It cannot, therefore, be alleged that a noun is understood with it or implied in it. Who is used exclusively to represent persons, and not the lower animals or inanimate things. (4). What interrogative, when used alone, always represents a thing. It appears in Anglo-Saxon grammars as the neuter form of who, which is masculine and feminine. In the language as now used what differs from who in this, that it is employed as an adjective, and thus employed, sometimes accompanies nouns which denote persons. For example, "What man is there of you 2" Matt. 7: 9. "What man knoweth the things of a man?" 1 Cor. 2: 11. This is more emphatic than to say, Who is there of you? and Who knoweth the things of a man? (5) Which is perhaps to be considered an adjective, and, when used alone, as having a noun implied, like any other adjective employed substantively. (6) Used interrogatively, this word may accompany nouns significant either of persons or the lower animals and things, and when used substantively, may represent objects, of both these classes. Thus we say, which boy did that? which is to blame? speaking of persons-as well as, which road leads to the village? and which is the best bound? speaking of books. (7) Which has been improperly represented as the neuter of who. Instead of ~ 98. (1) Enumerate the interrogative words used as subjects of propositions. (2) WVat are these words commonly called? (3) Repeat what is said of the word who. (4) Repeat the remarks in reference to chat; and give examples of what employed as an adjective. (5.) How nmay whichf be considered? (6) What kind of nouns does it accompany when used as an interrogative? Give examples. (7) How has which been improperly representsd? And in what light is it considered by the most recent grammarians? ~ 98.] OF INTERROGATIVE WORDS. 321 this the modern grammarians have, assigned plausible reasons for considering it a compound of the interrogative root wh and lic, the Scotch whilk being a step in its progress to its present English form. (See Latham, Eng. Lang. p. 253, 2d Ed. and Grimm Deutsche Gram. vol. iii. pp. 47, 48.) (8) Whether appears, also, to be a compound of wh and ecitlee. It is now scarcely in use as an interrogative. Instead of it we use which of the two. We have examples of the ancient usage in the questions, " Whether of them did the will of his father? T" WYhether is greater, the gold or the temple?" (9) The interrogative who may be employed plurally as well as singularly. For example, " Who are these that fly as a cloud l" &c. " Who are happiest among men?" This word has also a possessive or genitive form, whose, and another form, whzom which was anciently used as a dative, but now is employed as an accusative. (10) What and which have no possessive form, and are indifferently employed as nominatives or accusatives; that is, as subject nouns or objectives, or noun with p2reposition modifications. (10) Some of the other interrogatives, which serve only as modifying words and not as subject nouns, and are therefore called adverbs, seem to have been originally cases or derivatives of who. At least, they generally contain what may be considered the interrogative sign in our language, viz.: the consonantal sound wh. (11) Where - in what place seems to have been an old feminine dative with a noun implied, ohy -for what cacuse, an ablative, ohen =-at ovhat time, an accusative. WVhither towarcds wohat place, is manifestly a derivative or compound from the same root. (12) Hioo = in whcat mnanner, is supposed to come firom the satme source, the wv of the wo having been suppressed, possibly because the combination of woh with the vowel sound represented by ozo was unpleasant to pronounce and disagreeable to the ear. (8) Repeat the remarks in reference to zhether; and give examples of it used interrogatively. (9) Is who ever used plurally? And what cases has it? (10) Repeat the remarks in re ference to case forms of ehat and which. (10) What do some of the interrogative words not used as subject nouns seem to havo been originally? (11) Tell what is said of svhe'e, achy, when, and wohither. (12) What tN said of how? 22 322 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 99. We shall have more to say of these forms elsewhere, especially when we come to treat of the r iltive or cornjjtwtive pronouns, and in additional remarks on the determinatives and the pronouns, ~~ 158, 159. ExErIsErz I.-Form a given number of interrogative propositions with interrogative words for their subject nouns. EXERCISE II.-A given number commencing with an interrogative pronoun which does not serve as subject noun. EXERcISE IIT.-A given number commencing with an interrogative adverb. ExERCISES IV., V., &c.- A given number of interrogative propositions formed without interrogative words. ~ 99. OF ITMPERATIVE PROPOSITIOnS.-(1)As regards matter, the imperative proposition is distinguished by the fact that it is employed in expressing commands, requests, entreaties, &c. (2) As regards form, it is distinguished by the following peculiarities-lst. The imperative form, or mode of the verb, consisting in our language of the root without inflection, is employed in this class of propositions. 2d. The subject of such propositions in the prose language of the present day, is always of the second person; that is, always a party or parties addressed. 3d. The subject noun, being always the pronoun of the second person singular or the second person plural, and capable of being readily supplied, is most commonly suppressed. 4th. When the pronoun is expressed, it is placed after the verb. (3) The suppression in the one case, and the arrangement after the verb in the other case, equally serve to distinguish the imnperative from the assertive form. (4) When the pronoun is placed after the verb the plural inmperative proposition does not differ in form from the plural interroygative proposition in the indefinite tense, so far as the words and arrangement are concerned. Thus, resist you, or ye, evil, mnay form either a question' or a command —an interrogative or an imperative proposition. (5) In speaking, the tone of. command or entreaty is clearly distinct from the tone or inflection of inquiry. This fact prevents all mistake of the one form for the other in ~ 99. (1) What is said of the matter of the -imperative proposition? (2) Repeat sepsrately the four peculiarities which distinguish the inzperative proposition, (3) What two circumstances distinguish the imperative from the assertive proposition? (4) With what other kind of proposition does the plural Imperative sometimes agree in form, and in what case? Give an examnple. (5) In this case how are these two kinds of proposition; distin guished in spoken discourse? Htow in written discourse? ~ 99.] IMPERATIVE PROPOSITIONS. VOCATIVES. 323 spoken discourse. The mark of interrogation serves to distinguish the interrogative form in written discourse. (6) Some imperative propositions, having a subject of the third person, occur in our older writers and in the poets. In these the subject noun is expressed, and generally placed after the verb. For examples of these antiquated and poetical imperative propositions, see ~ 55, p. 112. We subjoin a few examples of imperative propositions for an exercise in analysis. (7) " Fret not thyself because of evil men." "Honor thy father and thy mother." " Hear the instruction of thy father." " Forsake not the law of thy mother." "' Drink waters out of thine own cistern." "Buy the truth; sell it not."'"Get wisdom, get understanding." Show me your exercise. Be courteous to all. " Reveal none of the secrets of thy friend. Be faithful to his interests. Forsake him not in danger. Abhor the thought of acquiring any advantage by his prejudice." (8) EXAMPLES WITH TIIE PRONOUN EXPRESSED. —" Despise not thou the chastening of the Almighty." " Blessed be thou," &c. " Be thou an example," &c. " Be not thou ashamed of the testimony," &c.'" Go ye therefore," &c. EXERISE. —Form a given number of imperative propositions. (9) We may here remark that the qvocative, or notun of address, is very often used in connection with this form of proposition. For examples of the vocative in this connection, we may take the following propositions:; Go to the ant, thouz sluggaCrd; consider her ways." " My son, forget not my law." "Daughter of Faith, awake! arise! illume The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb."-Campbell. (10) These VOoATIVEs, or nouns, employed in addressing or calling on the party to which our discourse is directed, do not form any part of a proposition, though they stand alongside, or sometimes in the middle of it, and therefore they admit of no grammatical analysis. It is the mere utterance of a name for the sake of indicating the party whom we address, or for the purpose of arresting his attention. It is often (6) Repeat the remark about imperatives having a subject of the third person. (7) Give examples of imperative propositions in which the subject pronoun is suppressed (8) Give a few examples having the pronoun expressed. (9) Repeat what is said of the use of the ~-ocative or case Qf address; and give examples, (10) Repeat the remarks in reference to the fumction which vocatives serve in discourse 3'24 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 99. used, as in the quotation from Campbell, in solemn and emphatic invocation. (11) The noun or pronoun thus employed is often accompanied, as in the examples above, by the usual modifications of nouns, by adjectives, by nouns in apposition, by noun and preposition modlications. (12) In the example above, "Thou sluggard," and in similar cases, it may be doubted whether sluggard is to be considered a noun apposed to thou, or thou as a sort of determinative giving greater emphatic force to sluggard. (13) The vocative-is also often used before interrogative propositions to arrest the attention of the party whom we interrogate. For example: " Vain man! is grandeur given to gay attire?"-Beattie. It is also employed for the same purpose before assertive propositions. For example: " Son, thou art ever with me," &c. (14) The vocative, having no grammatical dependence on the accompanying proposition, is usually in printed books separated from the rest of the discourse by commas. (1-5) In analysis all that the grammarian has to do with these vocatives is to assign them their name, keeping them separate from the proposition, and to describe the manner in which they happen to be modified. We have now finished what we have to say on the construction and analysis of propositions, whose subject noun and verb are only modified by single words-not by other propositions. It is possible that the learner may meet with forms of expression in simple propositions which the preceding pages will not enable him to analyze satisfactorily. Such expressions, we think, will rarely occur in pure and dignified composition. Hie who has made himself completely master of the system of analysis here taught, will generally be able to discover for himself a method of explaining any construction which we may have overlooked. We believe that by the help of this method of analysis the learner may explain, in a rational manner, all the constructions accounted for in the syntax of other grammars (except those involving relative pronouns), and a number of constructions besides which these grammarians do not satisfactorily explain. The student of grammar should bear in mind that the first-the most important-step in attempting the analysis of difficult constructions, is to supply correctly all words omitted by ellipsis, and complete the structure (11) What is said of the modificatfons of which vocatives are susceptible? Illustrate this by the examples above. (12) What remark is made in reference to the example, " Thou sluggard?" (13) Is the vocative introduced before other kinds of propositions, and if so, for what purpose? (14) What is the rule of punctuation in reference to vocatives? Tell the reason of the rtle. (15) What is to be done when we meet with vocatives in analysis? ~ 100.] SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF: MODIFICATIONS. REMARKS. 325 of the proposition. The whole difficulty in analysis often arises from abbreviated forms of expression. In such cases, when the construction is filled up, the difficulty vanishes. Another class of difficulties may be traced to what we have called the insensible extension of a usage in construction. This often gives rise to idiomatic expressions which cannot be satisfactorily explained without reference to the history of the language. Cases of this kind do not come within the scope of an elementary treatise on grammar. It is well to advert to the most important and the: most current of these idiomatic expressions; but as the grammarian cannot reach them by laying down general principles, he must discuss each separately, and since they are numerous, he cannot hope to explain them all. Much here, as well as in the case of abbreviated expressions, must be left to the ingenuity of the learner. Good sense and a careful study of the grammatical contrivances of language, will enable him to surmount most difficulties. Continual practice in analysis will secure facility and readiness in supplying ellipses and developing abbreviated expressions. It must not be thought that by this species of exercise the student is merely learning words, as is vulgarly supposed; he is, on the contrary, learning the art of interpreting and expressing thought. He is learning to think accurately, whilst he is learning to express thought accurately. It is not with that part of grammar which relates to the construction of language to serve as a convenient vehicle of thought, as with the learning of the mere forms and inflections of words. This latter is commonly thought a very barren and unprofitable study; and so it is, if we confine our grammatical learning to mere forms and inflections. But the construction of language, to which these forms and inflections are subservient, is one of the noblest arts of which we are possessed, and, if the work of man's intellect, one of its greatest, if not its very greatest achievement. It claims the highest admiration as a display of human ingenuity, and the highest estimation as the most valuable of all contrivances. It is worthy of the most careful study, as connected with all the operations of thought-with the acquisition, the retention, and the communication of all the varied products of man's intellectual energies. ~ 100. In closing what wehave to say upon modifications consisting of single words, it may be useful to present a synoptical table of all the forms of modification, which we have separately considered, classing them in reference to the kind of words they are used to co:,rplete. The several kinds of words susceptible of modification are: 1st, nouns, including pronouns and verbal nouns; 2d, verbs; 3d, adjectives, including verbal adjectives or participles; and 4th, adverbs. In regard to verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, it has been already 326 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 100. observed that they are susceptible of some of the peculiar modifications both of nouns and of verbs. To avoid unnecessary repetition, we form our table irrespective of this peculiarity of the verbals. We exclude them from our consideration in the mean time, that we may not be compelled to repeat (to the confusion of the learner) nearly all the peculiar com2lpements of the verbs under the head of nouns; and at the close the student may be reminded that these verbal words, because of their serving the function of nouns on the one hand, and expressing a common mneaning with predicates on the other, take part at least of the modifications of both classes of words. In the following table, it will be observed that we pursue a different order of arrangement, from that adopted in the preceding pages. We now present the several modifications in the order of their importance, determined chiefly by the comparative frequency of their recurrence in discourse. We do not however pledge ourselves to any very scrupulous examination of the question of relative importance where there might be a doubt which of two modifications has the preponderance, since such nice discrimination is altogether unnecessary to our purposes. Our only aim is to give precedence to those forms of modification which recur so often, and are so indispensable to complete certain kinds of words, that they claim the special regard of the learner. We prefix a number to each modification of each class, which, together with the letters, N., V., A., and Adv. for noun, verb, adjective, and adverb, may serve to denote them in written analyses, or references for any other purpose. We also annex to each modification the number of the section in which it is explained. This tabular view, it will be observed, is intended to exhibit those modifications only which consist of separate words, and not those which are effected by means of a change of the form of the modified word, such as p?)lural forms, case forms, tense forms, and comparison expressed by iiflection, &c. I. FoRMs OF AMODIFICATION OF NOUNS. 1. Determinative Adjective, ~ 91. 2. Descriptive Adjective, ~ 86. 3. Genitive Case, ~ 75. 4. Noun and Preposition, ~ 81. 5. Noun in Apposition, ~ 69. 6. Infinitive, ~ 71. 7. Notin Adjectively employed, ~'0. ~ 100.] SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF MODIFICATIONS. 327 II. FOrIS OF MODIFICATION OF VERBns. 1. Adjective Complementary of Neuter Verbs, ~ 88. 2. Adverb, ~ 92. 3. Objective after Act. and sometimes Pass. V. ~ 76. 4. Objective Infinitive, ~ 77. 5. Noun and Preposition, ~ 81. 6. Accusative of Time, &c. ~ 84:. 7. Dative, ~ 79. 8. Infinitive of Purpose, ~ 77. 9. Noun Complementary of Act. and Pass. Verb, ~ 78, 10. Infinitive Complementary of do. ~ 78. 11. Noun Complementary of Neuter Verbs, ~ 72. 12. Adj. Complementary of Act. and Pass. Verb, ~ 89. 13. Preposition without Noun, ~ 81: 28. III. FoRms OF MBODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 1. Adverb, ~ 92. 2. Noun and Preposition, ~ 96. 3. Infinitive, ~ 96. 4. Dative, ~ 96. 5. Accusative of time, value, &c. ~ 96. 6. Preposition without Noun, ~ 96: 27. IV. FORMS OF MODIFICATION OF ADVERBs. 1. Adverbial, ~ 92. 2. Noun and Preposition, ~ 96. REMAlrK.-We might, perhaps, present a fifth class of modifications affecting the assertion generctlly both subject and predicate. (See ~ 83.) These would consist of noun and preposition modifications, accusatives of time, and circumstantial adverbial modifications. But it is perhaps unnecessary to make a distinct class of this kind, since it might, after all, be questioned whether it is not equally correct in analysis, for example of such a proposition as, "In the beginning God created the heaven," to say that what is asserted of the subject " God" is, that he "created the heaven" " in the beginning," as it is to say that the whole assertion is modified by the circaumstance "Irn the beginning." S28 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 100o SUMnMARY DESCRIPTION OF THE, PURPOSES SERVED BY THE SEVERAl. ~MODIrICATIONS EXErBITED ABOVE. — It may be serviceable to the learner to present a summary description of the chief uses of the forms of modificatiorn treated in detail in the preceding pages. In describing these uses, we must express their character in the fewest words possible. Cases will, no doubt, occur in which our description will not apply to every particular use of a modification. For minute information, reference must be had to the formal explanation of each modification in the section indicated in the table. It cannot be expected that in this summary we shall mention any but the most prominent use. I. MODIFICATIONS oF NouNs. —(1) The determinative adjective either indicates that the noun is employed in a sense determined by other means, or serves itself to determine the extent in which the noun or name is employed. (See ~ 158.) (2) The descriptive adjective limits a noun or name by a description -by expressing some quality or property of the object which the noun represents. (3) The genitire case limits a noun by expressing the person or thing to which it (in some sense) belongs. (4) The noun and preposition mnodfication (attached to a noun) most generally expresses the same modification as the genitive case. Sometimes it indicates other relations besides that of possession. (5) The noun in apposition limits the principal noun to an object to which both may serve in common as names. (6) The ifinitive limits a noun by expressingsome purpose to which it has relation. (7) A noun adjectively employed, as the name indicates, limits the noun nearly in the same manner as a descriptive adjective. IT. MODIFICATIONS OF TIlE VERB.-(1) The adjective complementary of the neuter serb, as the name indicates, completes the signification of the verb by adljoining a quality or property pertaining to the subject of the proposition in the mode asserted by the verb. The same may be said of the adjective complementary of the passive verb. (2) The adverb limits the verb by a description of the manner of the action, or by a circumstance cf place, time, &c., attendant on the action which it expresses. (3) The objective limits the action of the verb to some object which it directly regards. (4) The objective infinitive limniLs in the same manner the action of the verb to some other action which it directly regards. (5) The noun and prepositions modiflcation limits the action of the ~ 100. SUIMMIARY DESCRIPTION OF MODIFICATIONS. 329 verb, usually, by giving it a particular direction in reference to some person or object. (6) Accusatives of time, value, mneasure, &c., express a limitation to a precise time, value, &c. (7) The dative limits or modifies the verb by expressing the person in reference to whom or for whom the action is performed, or what is called the personal object. (8) The infinitive ofpurpose limits by expressing theapurpose or design of the action of the verb. (9) The nocn complementa/ry of the active andpcassive verb limits or completes it by expressing what the passive or direct object (in the active form of assertion) is made or becomes, or is conceived to be made or become, through-the action of the verb. (10) The infinitive complementary of the active and passive verb expresses what the passive or direct object (in the active form of assertion) is made to do through the action of the verb. (11) The noun complementary of the neuter verb expresses what the subject of the proposition is, becomes, &c., in the manner expressed by the verb.* (12) The adjective conmplementary of active and passive verbs expresses a quality or property of which the passive object becomes possessed in the manner expressed by the verb. (13) The preposition (used alone without a noun) gives some direction to the action of the verb, generally in reference to place. III. MODIFICATIONS OF THIE ADJECTIVES.-(1) The acdverb limits the meaning of the adjective usually by indicating the degree of intensity of the quality expressed. (2) The noun andpreposition modification, as in the case of verbs, usually gives a particular direction of the quality expressed by the adjective in reference to the person or object indicated by the noun accompanying the preposition. * This might also stand for a summary description of the noun complementary of the passive verb, which we have included with the noun complementary of the active verb. We have done the same with the adjective complementary of the passive verb. These modifications of the passive verb may be brought within the description of the modification of the active verb by adverting to the fact that the passive object becomes the subject of the passive form. They come within the description of the modifications of the neuter verb by simply treating the passive as a compound form of the verb, without any further accommodation 330 STRUCTURE OF LANG'UAGE. [100o. (3) The ininitive limits the adjective by expressing some action to which it has reference. (4) The dcative limits the meaning of the adjective by expressing the person or object to which in the particular case it has reference. (5) The accusative of time, value, &c., limits a few adjectives, which express time, value, dimension, &c., by indicating the precise time, value, measure, &c. (6) The preposition (without a noun) is employed, especially with verbal adjectives, to give a particular direction to their meaning, as in the case of verbs. MODIFICATIONS OF ADVEnBS.-(1) The adverb usually modifies adverbs, as it modifies adjectives, by indicating the degree of intensity of the quality which they express in common with the adjective from which they are formed. (2) The nounr and preposition rnodjfication, as in the case of adjectives, gives a particular direction of what the adverb expresses in reference to the person or object expressed by the noun. That the learner may have the whole apparatus necessary for the analysis of propositions (such as we have hitherto considered, involving only modifications consisting of simple words without accessory propositions), presented in a summary and connected manner, we subjoin the following rules already presented in the preceding pages. RULES I. AND II.-We may call the first and second, Rules of Concord. We shall add others, when we come to treat of the connection of propositions. RULE I. —The verb in a proposition must always agree in number and person with the subject noun. RuLrE II.-Collective nouns, when the collection of individuals which they represent is regarded simply as a collective unity —" as a whole" -have verbs of the singular form; but when reference is made in the assertion to plurality in the subject - " when the collective expresses many as individuals" —the verb is generally of the plural form. This may be regarded as an exception to Rule I. For examples, &c. see ~ 56: (7 a). RULE.-In the noun and 1)reposition snodijfication, the noun or pronoun is in the accusative case. See ~ 81: 32. We here subjoin a statement of the order which we recommend to be pursued in the analysis of propositions. ORDER OF ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITIONS. —1. Point out the verb- the assertive word —telling of ulhat kind it is, whether neutter or active, ~ 100.] ORDER OF ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITIONS. 331 and if active, whether of the active or.passive form; then mode, tense; rnumber, person. 2. Point out the subject noun telling of what kind it is, and its number, gender, persoln; and repeat the rule of concord between verb and subject noun. These form the foundation or basis of the proposition. 8. We turn next to the modifications; and first to those of the subject noun, if it has any. Designate each by name in the order of their connection in thought, telling to how much of the subject they apply, whether to the bare subject noun alone, or to the subject noun accompanied by more intimate modifications. The determinactives often apply to the subject noun as already modified by a descriptive adjective, a genitive case, a noun and preposition or an infinitive. Care must be taken throughout to distinguish between modifications which apply directly to the principal word (which in this case is the subject noun) either alone or after being partially modified, and those which apply directly to other modifying words, and only indirectly (through their influence on them) to the principal word. 4. Having shown how the subject is completed, turn lastly to the modifications of that part of the predicate expressed by the verb. These are to be designated in the same manner in the order of their connection with the verb, and with the same discrimination between those which directly modify the verb, and those which apply to another modification; and those which apply to the verb alone, and those which apply to it as already affected by other more intimate modifications. The learner will remember that the adjective complementary and the noun complementary both of verbs neuter and active (and passive too, if we consider the auxiliary and participle together as a compound form) have (when they occur) the precedence, on account of their close connection, of all other complements. The preposition used alone has also the nearest connection with the verbs which admit it. Next come objective modifications (whether common names or infinitives), and next datives, when the verb has such; next adverbs of manner. Nouns with prepositions and accusatives of time, &c. come last. These give little trouble, as in our language they are generally arranged when they come after the verb, in the order of their connection, and usually apply to so much of the predicate as precedes them. Sometimes, as we have seen, circumstantial modifications are placed in the beginning of the proposition before both subject noun and verb. Such modifications may usually be treated last, as most remote in order of sense from the verb, and generally applying to all 332 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L 00oo. the predicate (exclusive of themselves), if not to the whole proposition. All this will be best understood by attention to the models already presented. There is not much to be said in reference to the punctuation of single propositions having only one subject noun and one verb. Since the great purpose of punctuation (or interpunction) is to separate propositions from one another for the purpose of securing greater perspicuity, a point is seldom employed within such propositions, and what point shall come at the close of a proposition depends on its connection with the rest of the discourse, and cannot with propriety be settled at this stage of our inquiries. The only instance in which commas are introduced in the course of a simple proposition has been already considered (see ~ 92: 42), viz.: that in which an adverb, or a noun and preposition expressing a circumstance, that might be separated from the proposition without destroying its general sense, is distinguished by interpunction. The circumstantial expression thus separated from the proposition by punctuation (or rather in this case interpunction), is to be regarded as p2arenthetic-as thrown into the proposition to express something additional to that which is absolutely essential to the communication of the thought. Commas, here and on many other occasions, serve nearly the same purpose as parenthetic marks. (See Appendix on Punctuation.) The pupil can now be exercised in analyzing the propositions in any piece of discourse, omitting, in all compound and connected propositions, the conjunctive and connecting words. The teacher may ask the pupil to tell the principal use of each modification in order, to repeat the rules, and then to describe fully the order of analysis. This description ought to be given after some practice on the examples. CHAPTER IX. OF C0OIPOUND PROPOSITIONS. g 101. (1) We pas now from propositions of which all the larts and all the modifications consist of words, not of propositions -as regards matter, consist of the names of conceptions, not of assertions-to those which involve in their structure a proposition, either as subject of the principal proposition, or as a modification of one of its members. (2) To express this distinction among propositions with greater brevity, we may call that species which we have hitherto considered, having words only for their members and modifications, simqple propositions, and those which we are now about to consider, involving a proposition as a member of the main assertion, or one or more propositions as modifications of subject or predicate, compound propositions. NoTr. —We use the term comepound here as it is used by the grammarians in speaking of words. A compound word means a word formed of two or more words united to constitute a single sign; so a compound proposition, as we use the expression, means two or more propositions united to express a single assertion. When two or more propositions which express assertions independent of each other are connected together, we do not consider such connected propositions as compound propositions. We may, for distinction's ke, call these when we afterwards come to consider them connected or conbined propositions. By using the term simple, we do not mean to imply that the forms oj modificationz in simple propositions are more simple than those in compound propositions. We do not mean to say that the use of single words to modify nouns, verbs, &c. is more ancient than the use of propositions for the same purpose; nor that modification by means of propositions is an extension and ~ 101. (1) To what subject do we next pass? (2) State the distinction between simple and compound propositions. 334 STRUCTURE OF.ANGUAGE. [~ 101. refinement of grammatical constructsion. On the contrary, we believe that some, at least, of the modifications of simple propositions already considered are a refinement on the employment of propositions for the same purpose, This will be seen when we come to treat of certain kinds of accessory propositions, especially of thie adjective accessory proposition. Again, we do not consider that these two classes of propositions are separated by any -very exact line of demarcation. By abbreviating the accessory proposition, a compound proposition often assumes the form of a simple proposition, so that tile two forms pass into one another by an easy transition. As regards sense, it is often optional with the writer or speaker to employ either a simrnple proposition with modifications, such as we have treated in the preceding pages, or a compound proposition involving an accessory proposition as its subject or as a modification. The use of the compound proposition having an accessory for modification, may sometimes be more consistent with simplicity of expression than the more abbreviated and often more artificial mode of adopting single-word complements. The distinction then between ni.mple and compound propositions regards chiefly the forms of modification employed in each respectively. When all the complements consist of single words or phrases, we call the proposition simple; when some of the comnplements are accessory propositions, we call the whole proposition compound, as consisting of more than one proposition and more than one verb, though expressing only one direct assertion of the speaker. (3) II the analysis of compound propositions, we shall, in conformity with the mode of expression employed in treating of the complements in simple propositions, call the proposition whichl contains the direct assertion of the speaker, the principal pro2position, and that which performs a subordinate part (constituting the subject of the princi2pal, or a complement of some part of it), we shall call the accessory or subordinate proposition. (4) REMNARK-The learner will please bear in mind that, when we speak of a principal and a subordinate or accessory proposition, we refer to the form of language-to the grammatical arrangement of propositions-not to the relative logical importance of the zmatter which they express. The proposition, which, grammatically considered, holds the rank of subordinate or accessory (as we shall generally hereafter call it), may be, and often really is, the most important part of the compound proposition, as regards matter. To illustrate by /() State the distinction between a principal and an accessory proposition. (4) Repeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate it by an example. ~ 102.] ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS. 33. examples: They say our foes are comingy.; The servant announced that the house woas on Afire. In'both these compound propositions the first proposition is grammatically considered the principal containing the direct assertion of the speaker, but the latter proposition in both cases undoubtedly contains the most important part of the matter, and is therefore, logically considered, the most important. ~ 102. AccEssoRY PoPosITIONs. — (1) A knowledge of the several kinds of accessory propositions and of their functions is indispensable to the satisfactory analysis of compound propositions. To aid the learner in acquiring this important knowledge is the task which we now propose. NoTE.-If we should perform it imperfectly, we might plead as our apology the intrinsic difficulty of the undertaking, and the small degree of assistance which we can derive from the labors of our predecessors, especially from those who have written on English grammar. We do not mean to say that all parts of the subject before us have been entirely neglected by writers on universal grammar; but so little has been done by our more philosophical grammarians to simplify and to give systematic arrangement to the doctrine of the connection of propositions in discourse, so little to render it readily intelligible and capable of being used in popular elementary education, that the authors of our English school grammars, left without authoritative guidance, have evaded all regular discussion of this subject, and contented themselves with giving instruction, which, with the exception of a few particulars, applies exclusively to simple propositions. It would be much easier for us to follow their example, if we could do so in consistency with our plan of analysis. But if we were, in pursuing our method, to neglect altogether the consideration, especially of accessory propositions and their functions in language, the deficiency would be so conspicuous as to awaken the attention of even the least observant inquirer. We are in treating this subject much more indebted to the German than to our own grammarians, as regards mnatter. Our method is essentially different from theirs. CLASSIFICATION OF AccEssoRY PROPOSITIONS.-(2) Some of the German grammarians have arranged accessory propositions under three classes, viz.: substantive accessoryp2ropositions, adjective accessory propositions, and adverbial accessory propositions, because they perform functions in discourse resembling one or other of these ~ 102. (1) What is indispensable to the analysis of compound propositions? ('2) Name the three classes in -which the German grammariails have arranged accessory propositions; and tell the reason of this arrangement, 336 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [l 102 three classes of words, substantives, adjectives, or adverbs. In our treatment of accessory propositions, we shall find it convenient to follow the order of this ingenious classification. We shall have abundant opportunity as we proceed, of perceiving that it is a well-founded and natural (not a mere capricious) classification. (3) We may here remark that there is also a striking resemblance between the functions performed by those words which connect accessorywith principal propositions and the prepositions which serve as intermediacry words between a completing and a principal word. Indeed several of the prepositions in our list, ~ 81: 7, are used before accessory propositions, as well as before nouns, and with exactly the same significance, and to perform the same function; the difference being that in the one case they give what is expressed by the principal word a direction, &c., in reference to what is expressed by a single word (a noun), in the other, in reference to what is expressed by an accessory proposition. For example, in the assertions, James arrived BEFORE me, and James arrived BEFORE I returned, the word before has obviously the same meaning and performs the same function, only in the first example it is the intermediate of arrived and the pronoun ~me, in the last, it is the intermediate of arrived and the accessory proposition I returned. OF CONJUNCTIONS. —(4) The words employed to connect subordinate with principal propositions, and also those employed for the purpose of connecting co-ordinate or independent propositions (afterwards to be considered) are called, from the function which they perform, conjunctions. They conjoin or connect propositions. (5) Of the words employed to connect propositions, some are used exclusively for this purpose; some, on the contrary, like before used in the example above, are employed for other purposes, and only occasionally as conjunctions. (6) The first class, for the sake of distinction, we may call conjunctions, the latter, conjunctive words, or we may connect the term conjunctive with the original class name of these latter words, and call them conjunctive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and conjunctive prepositions: for conjunctive (3) Repeat the substance of the remark about the words used in connecting accessory propositions; and illustrate by examples. (4) What name is given to the class of words employed in connecting propositions? State the reason for giving them this name. (5) Show how words used for this purpose of connection differ. (6) Mention tl.e means by which this difference may be marked. (7) ~ 103.] SUBSTANTIVE ACCESSORY USED AS SUBJECT. 337' words of all these kinds occur. (7) Again, besides this, there is a difference in the functions which these words perform when con'junctively used. Some serve exclusively a conjunctive purpose, that is, to connect propositions and to indicate some relation subsisting between them. Others, besides this conjunctive function, perform, at the same time, the usual function of the class of words to- which they properly belong, generally in the accessory proposition, sometimes both in the accessory and principal proposition. Of these facts we shall find abundant examples as the different forms of accessory propositions come tinder review. What we have now said may suffice to bring the CoNJUNCTIoNS-(8) one of the great classes into which grammarians divide words- directly under the student's notice. (9) Along with the forma of each accessory, we shall consider the conjunction or conjunctive word, or the class. of these words which serve to connect it with the principal proposition. (Sometimes we shall find that no conjunctive sign is needed.) In the same way we shall present the different classes of conjunctions which connect co-ordinate propositions, when we come to. consider the different. purposes for which such propositions are connected. This we think the most useful mode of treating this class of words. ~ 103. SUBSTANTIVE ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS. —(1) We now return to the accessory propositions, and direct our attention first to the class which we have designated as substantive accessory propositions, because they perform some of the peculiar functions of substantives. ACCESSORY PROPOSITION USED AS SUBJECT.-(2) The purpose first in importance for which a substantive accessory proposition is employed, is one to which we have already adverted in the preceding pages (see ~ 20: 6-7), namely, to serve as SUBJECT of the principal propositiol:. (3) This species of accessory proposition is very generally preceded by the determinative word that. (4) That, when thus emDescribe a further difference in their functions when conjunctively used. (S) Whabst do the conjunctions form? (9) In what mode do we propose to treat conjunctions and conjunetive words? ~ 109. (1) What is the name of the class of accessories which we first proceed to consider? And why is this name given to them? (2) What purpose does the first mentioned species of substantive accessory proposition serve? (3) By what word is this species of accessory generally preceded? (4) What is 338 STRUCTURE OF LANGUIAGE. [~ 103. ployed, is called by grammarians a conjunction, though in fact it performs precisely the same function as when they call it a demonstrative pronoun (determinative adjective according to our no. menclature); only it is placed in the one case before a noun, and in the other (which we are now considering) before a proposition performing for the time the function usually performed by a noun. (5) We subjoin examples for the purpose of illustration. That the government qf our desires is essential to the enjoyment of true liberty, is a truth never to be forgotten by the citzens of free states. Here if we put the question (as suggested in ~ 15: 3) what "is a truth never to be forgotten 2" the answer will exhibit the true subject of the propositionl; namely, "The government of our desires is essential to the enjoyment of true liberty." Second example, That industrious habits are essential to success in life, oucght to be continually inculcated on the young. TWhat "ought to be continually inculcated on the young?" Answer, the proposition, the judgment of the mind, the truth:-" Industrious habits are essential to success in -life." This truth, for the sake of greater emphasis, is marked by the determinative that. Third example, That Julius Ccesar invaded Britain, is a qwell known historical fact. [(6) In the analysis of any piece of discourse consisting (as almost always happens) of an intermixture of simple, compound, and colllbined propositions, the first question for the learner to settle is, how many distinct propositions are contained in the portion proposed at one time for consideration. (This portion should alxways contain at least one complete assertion. Usually, it consists of what is called a sentence.) If the portion proposed contains more than one proposition, the next question is, are the propositions combined co-ordinate, or are they compound propositions? If they are only combined propositions, they are to be treated, and the nature of their connection explained, according to the instructions to be given hereafter for the analysis of such propositions. (See ~ 145: 25; ~ 147: 12.) If the sentence contains one or more compound propositions, the next step in analysis is to point out the verb, or assertive word in the principal proposition, mid in reference to that thus employed? (5) Illustrate the use of the accessory employed as subject of the principal proposition by examples. [(6) Repeat the substance of the directions given how to conduct the analysis of a piecA at discoars.] ~ 103.] SUBSTANTIVE ACCESSORY AS SUBJECT. 339 and then the subject, as in treating a simple proposition. In the present instance this subject is the accessory proposition; and irt this case we proceed next to the separate analysis of the subject proposition, treating the word that as a determinative applied to the whole proposition considered as a single compound subject. Or, if we please, we mray call it here a conjunctive determinative, since it (as now understood). indicates the conjunction of the propositions, at the same time that it exercises its usual determinative force. Then weve proceed to the analysis of the verb and other parts of the predicate of the principal proposition. When the accessory proposition serves as a modification of the subject or predicate of the principal proposition, or of one of the complements of the subject or predicate, it is to be treated, like the modifications already described in the order which it occupies in the sense, and it may itself either be analyzed in its place, or its function and class only may be mentioned, and the analysis postponed till the principal proposition is finished. If, like a circumstantial modification, it seems to affect rather the whole principal proposition, than any one of its meinlbers in particular, it may be considered last, after the analysis of the principal proposition is completed.] (7) Compound propositions of this kind are often expressed in our language in a somewhat different form. ]For examrple, the compound propositions above introduced may be presented in the following form: IT is a truth never to be.forgottem by the citizens of/free states, that the government of our desires: &c. IT ought to be constanitly inculcacted on the young, thaet industrious habits care essential to success in life. IT is a woell known historical fact, that Julius 6Cesar invaded Britain. In the compound propositions thus presented, the real subjects are still, as before, the accessory propositions commencing with'.TIAT. (8) The word IT serves as a substitute subject to the principal proposition, till the real subject is developed in the accessory proposition. (9) This contrivance enables us to arrange the predicate-the important partof the principal proposition first, and thus give emphasis to the assertion by presenting it before we exhibit the subject to which it applies. (10) This arrangement serves to draw the hearer's attention more powerfully to what we assert, by keeping him in suspense as to the subject to which it applies. (11) The latter form of this class of corn(7) What flact is stated in No. 7? Illustrate by examples. (S) What is said of the function performed by it in the compound proposition when arranged as in these examples? (9) What are we enabled to effect by this substitution of it for the real subject? (10) What effect has this arrangement on the hearer? (11) Which form of the compound proposition Is usually preferred by writers? 340 STRU',fURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 103 pound propositions-we mean the form commencing with it for sub. stitutte subject of the principal proposition —is generally preferred by writers, and occurs much more frequently than the other form in our language. NOTE.-The word it is often employed in the same representative manner when the subject of the main proposition is an infinitive serving as a contracted. accessory. (See ~ 142.) We subjoin a few examples of this construction, which, like the preceding, very often occurs in our language. "It is good for us to think, that this man too was our brother." What is good for us.? Answer, "To think that this man too was our brothel;,"= That we should think, that this man too was our brother, is good for us. "It is for you to decide, whether this freedom shall yet survive, or be covered with a funeral pall," &c. "To decide," &c. "is for you" = That you should decide, is for you - is your part or province. " It is not necessary to await your determination." To await your determination is not necessary = That we should await your determination is not necessary. In all such constructions it serves to represent for the moment the infinitive with its accompaniments, which is the real subject. We subjoin the following examples for exercise in analysis. "' It is through inward health that we enjoy all outward things." "It was an especial precaution that none but sweet-scented evergreens and flowers should be employed." " It is greatly to be regretted that a custom so truly elegant and touching has disappeared from general use." (12) In the analysis of compound propositions of this forlll, the principal proposition may be first analyzed, and, when we come to mention the representative or substitute subject rr, we must tell what purpose it serves, and refer to the accessory which it represents. (13) Some regard th. accessory proposition in compounds of this form as a proposition in apposition with the pronoun it. But this method does not lead to an explanation of the construction so fill and clear; besides, it is not, as we think, perfectly correct to say that either a proposition or a word is in apposition with that which really serves as its representative. Such extension of the term apposition is not to be defenaed. (14) It is only as subject —never as predicate-that a proposition can become a constituent member of another proposition. (15) We (12) Repeat what is said of the analysis of this form of compound proposition? (13) HIow do some grammarians regard the accessory in this form of proposition? State objections. (14) Is an accessory ever employed as predicate of a proposition? (15) Assign the relson 104.] ACCESSORY MODIFICATIONS. 341 see the reason that an accessory cannot serve as predicate in the fact, that it cannot represent the assertive word, which always, according to our views, forms an essential, indeed, the leading part of everly predicate. (See ~~ 13, 46.) A verb alone, not any other word, or combination of words, can perform the peculiar function of expressing the leading part of the predicate assertively. The verb of the accessory proposition, having its own subject, cannot serve at the same time as verb of the principal proposition. (16) PUNOTVATION.-In this construction, the principal and accessory are usually separated by a comma. EIxEr CISES I., II., &c.-A given number of compound propositions of the first of the above described forms. A given number of the second form. ~ 104. (1) We next come to treat of substantive accessory propositions employed for the purpose of modification. (2) We thus pass again to the subject of modification; for all the accessories which we have now to consider-the adcjective and adverbial, as well as the substantive, serve to modify either the subject or predicate, or a modification of the subject or predicate of the prinwipal proposition, or, like circumstantial adverbs, and circumstantial nouns with prepositions, to mlodify the whole principal proposition. (3) These modifying accessories constitute an important part of the structure of language; and yet, with the exception of what regards the adjective accessory, they have received very little attention, so far as we know, from our English grammarians. (4) In treating this part of our subject, we derive great advantage (and the student will participate largely with us in this advantage) from the method pursued in the treatment of the complements or modifications of simple propositions; for the complements or modifications which consist of accessory propositions have generally a close analogy to those which consist of separate words. (5) In passing under review these modifying accessory propositions we shall pursue an order suggested by the classification ofc (16) What is said of punctuation in reference to this kind of compound propositions? ~ 104. (1) Mention the subject to be next considered. (2) Repeat the remnalk in refet.. enee to all the accessory propositions which remain to be treated. (8) What are the raodifying accessories said to constitute, and how liave they been re. garded by English grammnarians? (4) From what do we derive advanttage irn treating these modifying accessories? (5) What is said of the order to be punrsuetd in treatilTg the rnodlifying accessories? 842 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 105 accessories alru may be regarded as standing related both to the class we have been considering and to the class to which we are presently to direct our attention. (2) We shall first present examples, and (18) What name is given to this form of accessory? (19) Repeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate by examples. (20) What form of accessory is next noticed? (21) What conjunctive' word is emn ployed to introduce it? (22) Illustrate the use of this accessory by an example. (23) To what other accessory is this exactly similar? (24) Repeat the substance of the remark. ~ 122. (1) What is said of ths compound proposition about to be noticed? (2) Give ex. amples. ~ 122.] ACCESSORY OF SIMILAR INTENSIBIY. 391 then proceed to examine them. As Aristides was conspicuous amzong the Athenians for integrity, so Themistocles was conspicuous for political sagacity and adroit management. As John is loved for his benevolence, so Peter is despised on accozunt of his unfeeling self 3shness. As his elevation was great, so his fall is humiliating. (3) These propositions somewhat resemble the compound prop,ositions which express the comparison of equality. (4) In some cases of this construction it may not be clear, at first sight, which is the accessory proposition, or whether the two propositions are not to be regarded as co-ordinate, the writer designing to express two distinct assertions, and to add to the effect of both by placing them together. (5) Upon changing slightly the construction, we shall, in most cases, readily discover which is, at least in form, the accessory, and which the principal proposition. (6) For illustration let us tale the second example above, As John is loved for his benevolence, so Peter is despised on account of his selfishness. This is equivalent to, Peter is despised on account of his selfishness IN so GREAT DEGREE as John is loved, &c. (7) It is evident that the proposition which comes last in the original example and first in the substituted construction, " Peter is despised, &c. is the principal proposition. (8) We can even omit the adverb so in the principal proposition, and by placing it first express the same meaning, though perhaps not so forcibly; thus, Peter is despised for his selfishness, as John is loved for his benevolence. (9) It is really so (=in so great degree) in the principal proposition which is modified by the accessory. When not expressed, so or its equivalent in such or so great degree is implied, and modified by the accessory. (10) The accessory is connected by the conjunctive adverb as. This word as may also serve to indicate to the learner which is really the accessory proposition. (11) This construction differs in two things from that into which the (3) What other class of compound propositions do these resemble? (4) Tell what it may be sometimes difficult to determine in constructions of this kind. (5) Describe a mode of discovering which is the principal and which the accessory proposition. (6) Illustrate by an example. (7) Which in the example is evidently the principal proposition? (8) What is said of the suppression of the word so? (9) Which is the word really modified by the accessory? (10) By what word is the accessory in this construction connected? And what may the connecting word serve to indicate to the learner? (11) Mention the two things in which this construction differs from that with an acces. 392 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 123 accessory! of equal intensity enters. It does not express strictly equal intensity, but rather similarity of intensity, and even that in a loose way. And, in the second place, this kind of accessory does not affect exclusively (as the one referred to does) the adjective in the principal proposition, but the whole predicate. ((12) Of this predicate, it generally happens, that the adjective is the most prominent part; and therefore the adjective appears as if it were peculiarly affected by the accessory.) (13) Thus, when I say, using the accessory of equal intensity, Your brother is as cold as you asre, I indicate simply the equal intensity of the quality cold in the case of your brother and you. But when I say, As John is loved for his bene;volence, so Peter, &c. I indicate some sort of equality in a loose manner, or rather of similarity, between Peter's being despIiedfor his sefishness and John's being loved for his benevislence. (14) This accessory may perhaps be considered as expressing the manner of Peter's being despised rather than the degree of intensity of the despite. If so, it approaches in character (if it belongs not entirely) to the class of accessories which we are next about to consider, and thus affords a natural transition from the one class to the other. (15) We may designate this by the name of Thle Accessory indicating Similar Intensity-more briefly, ThLe Accessory of Similar Intensity. It stands, as we have just intimated, between two classes of accessories-those which modify adjectives and those which modify verbs, but has stronger claims to be arranged with the latter class. ExEcrsis. —Furnish examples of this construction. ~ 123. (1) We next proceed to consider those adverbial accessory propositions which manifestly modify the verbs or predicates of the principal propositions, or sometimes the whole principal assertion. (2) Here we shall first direct our attention to that class of accessories in which the mnanner of the action predicated by the verb is expressed. sory of equal intensity. (12) Mention the remark about the adjective in the predicate of this accessory. (13) Illustrate by examples. (14) Mention the remark about'the class to which this accessory belongs. (15) How may this accessory be designated? And where is it represented as standing? i 12:3. (t) Describe the kind of accessories next to be considered. ~ 123.] ACCESSORY OF MANNER BY COMPARISON. 393 These are exactly analogous to the adverbs of manner already considered. (See ~ 92.) (3) There are different forms of this species of adverbial accessory. One form describes the manner of the action predicated in the principal proposition by comnparison-by reference to another action of the same subject, or to the same or sometimes to a different action of another subject. This accessory follows the principal proposition, and is connected with it by the conjunctive adverb as. (4) For example, That man died AS he lived. ie acts in this affair AS he has acted on other occasions. William thinks as I think. That man grozws in the esteem of his fiiends, AS his neighbor sinks into vifamy. Here the man's manner of living is employed to indicate his manner of clying. His manner of acting on other occasions to indicate his manner of acting in this affair, &c. (5) We can invert the order of these propositions, and place the accessory first; but then we must supply the word so before the principal proposition. Thus, As that man lived, so he died; As I khink, so William thinks. (6) In this form of compound propositions the word as, like whlat in adjective accessories, performs the function of an adverb both in the principal and accessory proposition, at the same tine serving to indicate their connection. (7) As regards the thought, the real bond of connection is sameness or identity of manner. (8) That as performs the double function which we have ascribed to it, is obvious when we invert the compound proposition and are obliged to call in the services of so. (9) We may call this The Adverbial Accessory denoting Mcanner by comlparison; or, more briefly, TheAccessory of Manner by Comparison. (10) In such expressions as, Le acted as chairman of the mneeting, we have perhaps an elliptical construction —He acted to the meeting AS (2) Which class of these do we first notice? (3) Describe one of the different forms of this species of accessories. (4) Illustrate by examples. (5) What is said of inverting the order of these propositions? Illustrate by examples. (6) What is said of the functions of as in such compound propositions? (7) What is said of the bond of connection in thought? () H-ow is it shown that as performs the double function attributed to it? (9) How may we name this accessory? (10) What is said of an elliptical construction? Example for illustration. 394 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. r[_ 123 a chairman of a meeting acts. Some call as chairmvan, &c. In such con structions, a nou0n in apposition; but improperly, as we think. We may here notice that there is an extension of this kind of construction to express sameness of time. This will be considered when we come to treat adverbial accessories of time. (11) REMArr.-This form of accessory, like most of the adverbial accessories, may be replaced, when the construction is fully expanded by an adjective accessory. In order to this we must supply in the principal proposition that for which as may be regarded as a substitute, namely, the noun and preposition modification in the manner, or in the same mannzer, and then add an adjective accessory. Thus, That mnz died IN THE SAME MANNER IN wIICH he lived, &c.* (12) Another form of this species of accessory describes the manner of the action (like the similar accessory which is applied to adjectives) by its effect. Thus, This man acts so, that all his friends are proud of him. Here we use so in the principal proposition, and that conjunctive to connect the accessory. (13) This form, when expanded, becomes identical with one of the forms of the accessories which modify adjectives. So expanded-=in such manner. Then the above example runs thus, T/his man acts IN SUCH MANNER, that all his friends are proud * Sometimes an accessory denoting manner by comparison is apparently connected by two conjunctive words, as and if. For example, That boy acts AS IF he were insanze. -Te moaned AS IF he were ins great pain. In constructions of this kind there is a suppression of a proposition between as and if. When we supply this suppression, the whole construction is clear. Thus, Th.at boy acts as IIE WOULD ACT, or AS ONE WOULD ACT, if he were insane. fle moaned as IIE wOULD MOAN if he were in great pain. The accessory proposition here connected by as, when thus fully developed, is itself a compo'und proposition of the hypothetical form (see ~ 137), and the connection between the principal proposition and this compound accessory is exactly the same which we have been describing. In such cases, AS may be considered as representing the accessory proposition which is itself modified by the hypothetical accessory commencing with the conditional conjunction if. Instead of as if, as though is sometimes employed in the same manner, and with the same force. Examples, "He made as though he would have gone further." "It was as though it budded." "I will shoot three arrows on the side thereof, as thozugh I shot at a mark." This form of expression may perhaps be regarded as antiquated. (11) Repeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate by examples. (12) Describe another form of the accessory of manner. Give example. (13) With what other form of accessory does this become identified when expanded? Illustrate by an eaample. ~ 124.j ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES OF PLACE. 395 of him. Or, This mnan acts IN A MAnR SUCHr, that all his friends art proud of him. Here, that all his friends are proud of him is obviously an adverbial accessory modifying the deterninative SUeC. (14) We may distinguish this form by calling it the accessory denoting the manner of action by its effect or consequence; or more briefly, The Alccessory describing an Action by its Effect. (15) REMARK.-When we employ the infinitive abbreviation for an accessory proposition of this kind, we use (as in the accessory of like form which modifies adjectives) AS instead of THAT for coinjunctive word; thus, This man behaved so, AS to gain. the appvlause, or, so As to be applauded by all his friends. ExERCIsE.-Furnish examples of these constructions. ~ 124. ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES EMPLOYED TO INDICATE THEr CIRCUMSTANCE OF PLACE. (1) This class of accessories is usually connected with the principal proposition by the adverbs of place, where, whence, whither, and their compounds formed with ever and so, wherever, wheresoever, whencesoever, whithersoever. (2) When so employed we call these words conjunctive adverbs. (3) They are all of the family of the conjunctive (originally interrogative) pronouns who and what. (4) Used to introduce accessory propositions, they are all equivalent to a conjunctive pronoun and the noun place preceded by a preposition. In this respect they resemble the other adverbs. (5) Like what, they generally, though not always, perform the function of adverb, or of noun and preposition modification both for the principal and the accessory proposition, besides serving to indicate the relation between the two propositions. The conjunctive adverb marks as the accessory that proposition to which it is attached and which it introduces. We next proceed to class the accessory propositions of place, and to show briefly the purposes which they serve in discourse. (14) By what name may we distinguish this accessory? (1.5) Repeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate by an example. ~ 124. (1) By what words are adverbial accessories of place connected with the principal proposition? (2) What do we call these words when so used? (5) What is said of the family and origin of these words? (4) To what are they in this use of them equivalent. (5) Mention the several functions which they serve in compound propositions. 396 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 124, (G) 1st. We give as a first class of the adverbial accessories of place, those which serve to determine the place in which or at which what is predicated in the principal proposition exists; in other words, its local position; or, to use a colloquial expression, the whereabouts of the main assertion. (7) We may call this Thie Adverbial.Accessory of Locality. (8) The conjunctive word employed to connect these accessories is WHERE, when a definite place is indicated, WHEREVER and WHERESOEVERG when whatever place is designated. (9) Example, I live WHIERE your fi'iend lives. Here where your friiend lives determines the place where I live=I live IN TEE PLACE IN WHICH your friend lives. (10) It is obvious from inspecting the expanded form of the construction here presented, that WHERE represents and performs the functions of the noun and preposition complement in the place in the principal, and of the conjunctive pronoun and preposition in which in the accessory proposition. (11) When the construction is thus expanded, the accessory becomes an adjective accessory proposition, modifying the word place in the principal proposition. (12) WHERE here performs functions precisely similar to those performed by WHAT (of which it is in fact merely the dative form); namely, those of a complement both in the principal and in the accessory, besides serving to indicate the connection and relation of the two propositions. (13) We give examples of the less definite form of this class of accessories. Iwill lodge WHEEREYE my friend determines to lodge. Hle will abide WHERESOEVEIE you m~ay choose to command. Here the particular place is not absolutely specified, but it is, as in the preceding case, determined so far as the description in the accessory can limit it. (14) The place described in the accessory in the first case is supposed to be fixed, and known to the speaker; but the place described in the indefinite accessory is supposed to be yet unsettled, or, at least, yet unknown to the speaker. The accessory determines it to the extent of his ability. (6) Describe the first class of accessories of place. (7) What name is given to this class I (8) What conjunctive words serve to connect accessories of locality? (9) Illustrate by an example. (10) Show what functions wiErEa performs in such constructions. (11) What ldoes this accessory become when the construction is expanded? (12) With what are the ulections performed by WHIERE compared? (13) Furnish examples of the indefinite form of this class of accessories, and tell what is ~ 124.] ACCESSORY OF DIRECTION TOWARDS PLACE. 397 iEMlcIxr,. —(15) In all classes of these adverbial accessories of place, those which are to follow, as well as that which we have consideredIDENTITY OF PLACE, is the real bond of connection (in thought) between the principal and the accessory proposition. It is this identity which adapts the accessory to modify or complete the principal in reference to the circumstance of locality —local position-or of direction towards, or direction from a place. (1 6) Sometimes where is employed in an accessory proposition to represent a noun of place expressed in the principal proposition. (17) In such cases where performs precisely the function of the pronoun conjunctive and preposition in twhic7h; and the accessory might with propriety be classed with the adjective accessory, since it simply serves to modify or determnine the noun of place in the principal proposition. Example: He lives in, the same place WHERE his brother livestHe lives in the place IN wnII-Ic his brother lives. Here where his brother lives may be considered, and may be treated if we please, as an adjective accessory proposition. (18) That these two kinds of accessories-the adjective and the adverbial-are sometimes (or perhaps we should say very generally) resolvable into one another, or blended together, is not surprising, when we remember the intimate relation subsisting between the functions of adverbs and adjectives,-all adverbs involving, as part of their function, thefcnction, and often, as part of their form, theform of an adjective. (19) When the principal proposition is placed after the accessory, which often happens, the adverb there is sometimes employed in the principal proposition to represent the place determined by the accessory. " That where I am, there ye may be also." The other accessories of place do not express local p2ositionx but local direction, either towards, or from a place. We include in our (20) 2d class those which describe the place towards which the action predicated in the principal proposition is directed. (21) The conjunctive adverb distinctly appropriated to connect this class of accessories, when a definite known place is to be indicated, is said of the effect of the accessories in the examples. (14) State the difference between the two forms of accessory. (15) Repeat the substance of the remark. (16) Hlow is qw7ere sometines employed in accessories? (17) What function does wohere thus used perform? And how might the accessory be treated? (18) What is said in re[erence to the fact that these two kinds of accessory are resolvable into one another? (19) What word is introduced in the principal proposition, when it follows the accessory? (90) Describe the second class of accessories of place. (21) By what conjunctive word 398 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 124, WHITHER. (22) WVe have said in. speaking of where and whither in their original function of interrogatives (see ~ 92, note p. 291), that where has usurped the function of whither in addition to its own peculiar function. The same remark applies to where conjunctively used. It is now almost universally employed in this as well as in the preceding form of accessory, and whither, which our forefathers employed exclusively to express to or towards a place, is nearly obsolete. (23) The same remark applies to the compound word whithersoever, Which was formerly used to express direction towards whatever place; as, " I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest." We would now say, WHEREVER thou goest. Wheresoever is also rarely used in the current language of the present times. (24) 3d. We introduce, as a third class of the accessories of place, those which describe the place fr'om which the action predicated in the principal proposition is directed. (25) These accessories, like those just considered, refer sometimes to a determinate known place, sometimes to one determined only by the accessory, but otherwise unlimited. (26) The conjunctive word employed for the first purpose (when a fixed locality is to be designated) is wHENCE. Example: " This deliverance comes WHENCE every blessing flows." Here the accessory, whence every blessing flows, determines the place from which the deliverance comes. (27) The remarks which we made (see ~ 92, note p. 291) in reference to the use of the prepositionfrom before whence interrogative apply also to wToence used as a conjunctive adverb. Fromis very gene. rally employed superfluously before the conjunctive whence. (28) The same objections apply to the use of the preposition before this word in both cases. (29) In the authorized version of the Bible, there are abundant examples of whence conjunctive preceded by from, and a considerable number in which the more correct construction, without a preposition, is employed. were these accessories originally preceded? (22) What is said of another word havig usurped the place of whither? (23) To what other word does the same remark apply? f24) Describe a third class of accessories of place. (25) What division of this class? (26) What conjunctive word is employed with the first division? Example. (2T) What is said of remarks which apply to wehesce e (28) What is said of objectinna to the expressionfisomn wohene? (29) Where may examples of this usage be found? ~ 124.] ACCESSORIES OF PLACE. 399 (30) To indicate any place you plense from which we would now employ the words from whatever place. Example: ile will come fro5am WHIATEVEI place his fr'iend comes. Whencever and,whencesoever may be regarded as obsolete. They may be found in our more ancient authors, and, perhaps, sometimes employed in accessories of this description. (31) We have already said that where is used as equivalent to ia vwhich to represent an antecedent noun. Whence equivalent to from which is employed for the same purpose. Examples: " Look to the rock whence ye are hewn." " I will return to my house whence I came." (32) The accessory propositions commencing with where and whither are often placed before the principal proposition. In the older authors, we think, the accessory is most frequently placed first. Examples: "Whither I go, ye cannot come." "W Vhither I go, tl-ou canst not follow me now."'" Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge."?' " Where-thou diest, will I die." REEMARK.-The observations malde in reference to accessories commencing with what conjunctive (see ~ 114: 6, et seq.) apply to many of the accessories of place of the first and second classes. (33) When these accessories come after certain transitive verbs, which take an accessory proposition for their objective modification, they might be treated as substantive accessories serving as objectives of these verbs, and analyzed in the manner recommended in treating the accessories connected by what. (34) We present examples: I know where you have been. " Let n: man know wohere ye be." " Whither I go ye know." "W e know not whitfher thou goest." In all these compound propositions the accessory may be regarded as a substantive accessory serving as objective modification of the verb in the principal proposition. (35) If we choose to supply the ellipsis it becomes an adjective accessory modification of the noun place-the implied objective modification of the verb in the principal proposition. (36) As this mode of analysis will not suit when the verb in the, principal proposition is (80) How do we describe an indefinite placeffrom whleh? Example. (31) What is said of wlhece.=fron? v7ohich? Examples. (32) Repeat the remark about the accessories commencing with w;here and Whither, Examples. (33) HIow milit the accessories of place of the first and second classes be treated, when they follow transitive verbs? (34) Give examples, and apply the remark to them. (85) What other form do these assume when the ellipses are supplied? (36) State the reason for treating them as adverbial accessories. I:00 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 125 neuter or intransitive (as it is in -most of the examples given above), it will be more convenient to treat all these accessories of Ilace as ad. verbial, though it may be good to know the other forms into which some of them may be readily resolved. (37) PUNCTUATION.-As may be seen from some of the examples introduced above, in which we have followed the original punctuation, accessories of locality are sometimes separated by interpunction from the principal proposition, and sometimes not. The accessory, when it precedes the principal proposition, is perhaps generally followed by a comma; as, "Whither I go, ye cannot come." When the accessory follows the principal proposition, we believe the comma is seldom inserted. Here, as in other instances, the punctuation is not settled on fixed and consistent principles. If we would maintain consistency, we ought either to insert a comma always between the principal and the accessory, or we should never insert it. See Appendix on Punctuation. ExERcISE s I., II. III., &c.-Form compound propositions with accessories expressing the place where, the place whither, the place whence; also with the conjunctive words wherever, whithersoever, &c. ~ 125. ADVERBIAL AccEssonRY PROPOSITIONS INDICATING THE CIRCUMSTANCE OF TIME. —-(1) We next proceed to consider that class of compound propositions in which the circumstance of time is the real bond of connection between the principal and its accessory. (2) Some of the accessories employed in this class of propositions have a close analogy with those in which the circumstance of place is the bond of connection. We proceed to classify the accessories used to express the circumstance of time. 1st. (3) We shall consider first those accessories which limit or modify the principal proposition, by the predication of some occurrence falling within the same point of time with the matter of the principal assertion. (4) Examples: I will go with you to the exhibition WHIEN I shall have finished my work. "Thou shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house," &c. "They linger about it (37) State the substance of the remarks in reference to the punctuation of this descriplion of compound propositions. ~ 125. (1) What class of propositions is now to be considered? ('2) To what other class are these analogous? (3) Describe the first class of these accessories. (4) Furnish examples. (5) What ~ 125.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. COINCIDENT TIME. 401 on the Sabbath, when the mind is disengaged fiom wolIdly cares." (5) The conjunctive adverb WHEN is usedC to introduce such accessories. (6) It indicates coincidence of time-the point in which the principal and accessory agree. This point of time, assumed as fixed in the accessory, serves to determine the time of what is asselted in thle principal proposition. Thus, in the examples, when 1 shall have finished my work, determines the time when I will go to the exhibition; and -" when thou sittest in the house," determines a time when the Israelites were to talk of those things which God had commanded through Moses. (7) We mnay call this the AccEssoRY OF COINCIDENT TIME. (8) WnEN, like where, is of the family of qwho, neuter what. It seems to us to be merely an inflection of who. The Anglo-Saxon accusative of h1wa (who) is /hwone or hwamene; and. hwvaene is enmployed adverbially, like when in modern English. It may, perhaps, be regarded as originally an accusative of time, the word time being suppressed, but at first clearly implied - in or at what (time). In modern use it has come by irnsensible extension2, to be considered as directly expressing time. (9) TYhen, like lyhere, usually perfo-rms an adverbial function both in the principal and in the accessory propositions, besides serving as a conjunctive word to indicate their connection and relation. Because it performs this last function, we call it a conjunctive adverb, as we have, for the same reason, named where, whither, &c., corjunctive adverbs. (10) When is therefore equivalent to the words in or at t/he time in or at tohich (time), as may be found by expanding the above compound propositions; thus,- will go with, you at the time, at which (time) I shall have finished my wor'k. "Thou shalt talk of them " at or i7n the time in wohich " thou sittest," &c. (11) As in assertions modified by an accessorij ofgplace, the place is sometimes expressed in the principal proposition (see ~ 124: 16, 18), so in the compound propositions under consideration, the word of time is often in the principal proposition, and wohen retained as the conjunctive word and adverbial modification of the'accessory. Example': This event halpened AT A TIME when men least expected it. W7hen is here equiconjunctive word is employed? (6) Describe its function in such cases, and illustrate by examples. (7) What name may be given to this accessory? (8) Repeat what is said of the derivation of witrN. (9) Describe the functions wTNhich it perfo7ms; and tell the name given to it in consequence of tlese ftunctions. (10) To what kI It said to be equivalent? Illustrate by example. (11) What is said about a word of time being introduced? Illustrate by e;xamiple. 27 0O2 b'RUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. C~ 125. valent to in which, and when thus expanded, the accessory coincides with the adjective accessory.* (12) This kind of accessory also often takes precedence, in order of arrangement, of the principal proposition, so that here, as in the case of the accessories of place, the speaker or writer is at liberty to choose the most striking or the most harmonious arrangement, as his own taste may direct. Example:" IWhen the morning calls again to toil, begin' anew thy journey and, thy life." Here, too, when the principal proposition comes after the accessory, the word then is sometimes employed in the principal to represent the time determined bythe accessory. Thus, "When my father and my mother forsake me, then the LOuD will take me up." (13) In this form of compound proposition, that takes place which occurs sometimes in other forms of compound propositions; namely, the thought which logically is the principal, is expressed under the accessory form, and that which is logically subordinate usurps the form of principal proposition. This is a matter which properly lies within the sphere of the logician and the rhetorician, rather than within the province of the grammarian, whose business is with theform not the matter of discourse. Whatever lhas the form of an accessory, is to be considered an accessory with the grammarian, without' weighing nicely the comparative importance of the thought whicli it expresses, or the purpose for which -a writer or speaker may on occasion choose to employ it. (14) Still, it may prevent misconception to advert to this fact in reference to the use of accessories, and to present examples. " He was one evening sitting thus at his supper, when~ the landlord of a little inn. in the village came into the parlor," &c. ==When "he was one evening," &c., for "the'landlod, " &c., is logically the principal proposition, and the first proposition serves only to determine the X As we use wherever to introduce an accessory indicating an unsettled place —whatever place-so we employ whenever, when we intend to express coincidence with whatever time; as, WHENEVER yosU choose to walk in the park I will accompany you. The coincident time in such cases is contingent or unsettled as regards the speaker, except so far forth as the accessory proposition limits it. VWhensoever wa's sometimes used for the same purpose by our old authors. Simple when is now often employed in expressing coinci deuce with whatever time. (12) What is said in reference to the arrangement of this form of compound propose. 1ons? (18) Repeat the remark in reference to the logical importance of the principal anti acce: wory in this form of compound proposition. (14) Illustrate what has been said by example8 ~ 125.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. COINCIDENT TI~ME. 403 time of the landlord's coming into the parlor. " I was hearing this account," continued the corporal,' "'when the youth came into the kitchen,"? &c. = When " I was hearing this account,'? &c. (15) Before leaving this particular form of accessory, we must observe that it has by insensible extension (as we suppose) come to be used when there'is either none or only a very slight reference to time.. For example: " When we contemplate the close of life, --— who can avoid being touched with sensations at once awful and tender?" - the assertion, nobody can avoid. being touched, &c. — We can express nearly the same sense by substituting for wohen the conjunctive word if, which has no reference whatever to time; thus, if we contemplate the close of life, &c., or we might express'tbe same sentiment, perhaps somewhat awkwardly, by saying simply, contemplating the- close of life, &c. The meaning obviously is, that what is asserted' in the principal proposition is a consequence of what is asserted in the accessory. The consequence, or result of contemplating the close of life is, that we cannot avoid, &c. (16) This:kind of accessory might, perhaps, with propriety be classed with the accessories-of causality which we are soon to consider. Still it has evidently; arisen.fiom an insensible extension of the accessory expressive of coincident time,, and may be considered as indicating the connection of a cause and its effect by declaring their co-existence in time. (17) In'such examples as, When the sun, rises, da~;kness:vanishes, we may possibly discover the origin of this insensible extension. The rising' of the sun, whlich is coincident in time with the vanishing of da'rkness, is also the cause of its vanishing. So in other cases the, cause of; am effect:is coincident in point of' time with the appearance of the effect, and, perhaps from this circumstance the relation of coincidence of time is used to indicate the, relation of causality, which is found to accompany it. (18) We sometimes employ the conjunctive word As when we intend to express a still closer coincidence or limitation to a point of time. For example, Joh]n criarive'd As his brother de2patecl. (19) Sometimes We'empld y tile word just With"s to' express more markedly limitation to the same point of time, as John arri ed JusT AS' his brother departed. (20) That this form expresses closer limitation to the same (15) Repeat the substance of what is said about the extension of this form of accessory to other purposes, and illustrate by an example. (1.6) What farther is said of the classification of the accessory thus used? (17) Repeat the substance of the explanation given of the probable origin of this esCtennsie,o:.-. (IS) What other word is sometimes employed to connect this kind of accessory? Give example. (19) What word is added to express more close Coincidence? (20) Illustrate the fact that as expresses closer coincidence than Iwhen. tO4 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 126. moment than the form with the conjunctive wchen will appear, if we substitute when for as i'n the above example. Thus John aarr ived when his brether departecd, might mean that John arrived about the time of his brother's departure-perhaps a little after, perhaps a little before; but the form with as expresses the exact coincidence of the arrival and departure, and that with jqust as the same thing still more emphatically. (21) Another forml of accessory, -related to this as expressing coincidence of time, is that used to indicate that an event succeeded iumediately on the completion of another. The conjunctive words used for this purpose are, as soon as; thus, Hee came to see Me, As soON AS he arrived.: This is more properly classed with the accessory expressive of equal intensity employed: with adverbsl is well as adjectives. Thus, we say, as q~uickly as, as rcpidly as, as suddenly as, &c., (see i120.) (22) The accessory of coincident time is often separated from the principal by a comma, but the punctuation is unsettled. ExsErcIsE.-Furnish examples of compound propositions having accessories expressing the limitation of coincident time. ~ 126. 2d. (1) We give, as a seconid class of accessories of time, those which limit or modify the principal proposition, by predicating something falling within the samne period of time-a period regarded as having duration in opposition to a point or moment oftime. (2) We may call this the accessory of coincident duration. (3) The conjunctive words employed f6or this purpose are'while and whilst. (4) While -was originally a noun and meant much the same as the word time; but never being employed as subject noun in the language of the present day, it has come to be classed with the adverbs. This word is really, however, the case of a noun, and is still often employed to express the accusative of time; as, We remained A WIIILE with. them,, or,, We remained A LLONG WHILE with them. Here the determinative and descriptive adjectives applied to this word indicate plainly to what class it belongs. The genitive of this word whiles was formerly used as we now use while, and whilst to express durlation of time. (21) MWat is said of another form of accessory used for nearly the same purpose? (22) Punctuatiom? ~ 126. (1) Describe the second class of accessories of time. (2) By what name may weeallthem? (8) What conjuncti!ve words are employed in this case? (4) Give the substance,f what is said of while. ~ 126.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. COINCIDENT DURATION. 405 (5) TYhilst (or wllilest as it is often found written in old authors) appears to be a corruption of thle old genfitive wohiles. Whfiles is stil. found in the language down till the seventeenth century. It is now obsolete, and even whilst is seldom used in modern wvritings. (6) We'subjoin examples of compound propositions involving:this species of accessoly. "Seek ye the LoRD wvhile Ibe He may be found." "Agree with thine adversary quickly whiles thou art in the way with him." " While his humble grave is preparing, * * ** * it is good for ns to think that this man too was our brother." "Whilst all the stars that round her burn, And all the planets, in their turn, Confirm the tidings as they roll," c&c. (7) In ancient times the determinative TEE was occasionally prefixed to whilst. " The whilst in ocean Picebus dips his wain." (8) While, like what, performs a function both for the principal and the accessory in a conimpound proposition. (9) A word of time, which is sometimes employed in the priincipal proposition of the preceding class, and referred to by wohenz, is rarely, if ever, introduced in this class of compound propositions. (10) The reason of this difference perlaps is that wlhen is originally only an adjective having the word time implied, but wohile (itself a substantive) originally meant time. Were we to say, as in the case of iohen, -at or inb the time, ohile, there would be an awkward repetition of a word of equivalent meaning. And let us remember that to our forefathers this awkwardness would have appeared much greater than to us, since the original meaning of wvhile was more familiar to them. (11) Dluring the time is an equivalent expression for while. Example: He was writing DURING THE TIMaE his brothler was reading. During the time, we consider here an instance of the case absolute-a form of contracted accessory to come under our notice below. In the example we have really three propositions. Hle- was writinyg while the time duredl (lasted) that his ho.ther.- was readincg. (12) The word while may also be expanded into the phrase, and (5) Repeat what is said of whilst and wchiles. (6) Furnish examples of compound propositions lhaving this kind of accessories. (7) Describe an ancient usage in regard of whilst. (S) What functions does wchile plerform? (9) Is a word of time used along with it as wifth cshes.? (10) Exp'ain the reason for not using a wvord of tine with vtloile. (11) ~Mention an equivalent expression for mohile, and give an example, tlnd explain the tonstruction. (12) What other phrase may be substituted for while? t06 S'TRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L 127 at the samce time. Thus, "He can, live to God and his own sou,.asd at the same time attend to all the lawful interests of the present world." Here a co-ordinate proposition. serves the purpose of an. accessory. (See ~ 146: 5, et seq.) (13) We believe that this form. of accessory.is so metimes. extended to express, like the preceding, class, the relation of ca usality; but after what we have said already.of such insensible extension, this need not perplex the learner. (14) The punctuation here again is unsettled. ExERtcIsrEs I., II., &c.-Furnish examplesof this kind of compound propositions. ~ 127. 3d. (1) We may rank as a third class of the accessories of time those which determine the time of the action or event expressed in the principal proposition by reference to something which Rucceeded it, or, in other words, by some action or event which that asserted in the principal proposition preceded. (2) This kind of accessory is united to the principal proposition by the preposition EFonE.. (3) Some call bfore, when thus employed, an adverb; but it is used in this case with exactly the same force, as when the grammarians agree in calling it a preposition. (4) The only difference is that in the one case it is followed by a noun, inl the other by a proposition, which (when considered apart from the preposition) is substantively used. (5) Hence this, andclsome Of:the accessories of time which follow, might with propriety be treated as substantive accessory propositions twith a preposition, in a manner analogous to the noun and 2reposition 2modification. (6) WTe shall call before, and other prepositions below, when they precede an accessory, prepositions conjunctively einployed. (7) We propose the following: as examples of compound propositions involving this species of accessory. Thley set out on their jour'ney BEFORE the sun r'ose. I must, fiish my woork BEFORE I,,an go.' Doth our law judge anyman' before it hear him'" Sometimes the accessory, as in many other forms-of compound propositions, precedes the (13) Repeat the remark about the extension of this form of accessory. (14) What is said of punctuation? ~ 12T. (1) Describe a third class of accessories of time. (2) what word- is employed to connect these? (8) What is said of calling before in such cases an adverb? (4) What is the difference between before thus employed and before preposition? (5) How might this k:cessory be treated? (6) What shall we. call BEFORE thus used? ~ 128.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. SUBSEQUENCE. 407 principal; as, "a Before I was afflicted I went astray." (8) These compound propositions are equivalent to, They set out on their journey before THE TIME IN WINCH the sun rose. "!Before THE TIME IN WHICH I wtas aaficted I went astray," &c. Here we find the original accessory resclved into the noun time, modified by an adjective accessory proposition, and preceded by the preposition before. (9) The words, Before the sun r ose are thus grammatically considered a contracted form for a preposition and a noun modified by an adjective (in this case an adjective accessory); and this is precisely what most adverbs are equivalent to. (See ~ 92: 7.) Hence: we have classed this and other forms similarly resolvable as adverbial accessories. (10) The connection of these forms of construction, with the noun and preposition nodification, or, rather, the fact that the word before is in such constructions really a preposition, may be illustrated by introducing a slight change in the formof the first example, without affecting the sense; thus, They set out on their journey BE, FORE TE RISING of the sun. Here we express. the same thing by a, noun and preposition modification, which is expressed above by an accessory proposition. Now we ask what is the difference between the use of the word before here and in the example first given? Does it belong to a distinct class of words in the one use from that to which it belongs in the other? (11) We may call the accessory now considered, Thle adverbial accessory, indicating the precedence in time of the fact asserted in the principal proposition. More briefly, THaE AccEssoRY OF PRECEDENCE IN TIME. (12) This accessory is not generally separated by a comma from the principal. ~ExEncisE.-Furnish compound propositions of this form. ~ 128. 4th. (1) There is a fourth class of these accessories of time exactly similar in form to the preceding class, but indicating subsequence or posteriority in point of time. (2) In these accessories the prepositions after and since serve conjunctively. (3) Examples: John arrived AFTER his brother departed. John arrived SINCE his brother departed. Both accessories express the subsequence of the fact asserted in the principal proposition. (4) When we use after (7) Produce the examples. (S) Illustrate the manner of resolving these compound pro. positions into compounds of another form. (9) What is shown by this resolution? (10) Illustrate the fact that the word before performs the same function befcre accet dories as it does before nouns. (11),'Give a name to this accessory. (12) Punctuation? ~ 128. (1) What is said of the fourth class of accessories of time? (2) What conjunctive words are used to connect them? (3) Furnish examples. (4) State the distinction drawn btween the accessory connected by cafer, and the accessory connected by sizce.? 108 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 1291 we indicate subsequence to another event near in point of time (sub. sequence to a proximate event) predicated by the accessory. When, on the contrary, we use since, we have reference to the portion of time which has elapsed from the event predicated by the accessory; and we assert that at any point in this period, near to or distant from the time indicated by the accessory, the principal event may have happened. (5) Sometimes the accessory with since seems to indicate a reference, not to a point in the period elapsed as above, but to the whole continuous period fiom the moment of the event indicated by the accessory till that of rnaking the principal assertion. (This seeming reference to the whole intervening time depends, perhaps, rather on the nature of the principal proposition than on the form of the accessory.) Thus, John, has been successful sINcE he commenced businessfor himself. That man has been fctithful SINCE he has been in my service. (6) Since is sometimes employed in a way in which it is apparently equivalent to the word ago; thus, It is five years SINCE I saw that man. This is nearly, but not precisely equivalent to, I saw that man five years AGO. In the form given in the example, we dwell on the consideration of the length of time passed from the period at which we saw the man. In the other this is not brought under consideration. The example first given is equivalent to, Five whole years have passed fr'om the time in which Isaw that man. (7).After is sometimes followed by that; as, " After that I have spok7en, mock on." This form of expression is now antiquated. The words the time are perhaps here suppressed between after and that. (8) PUNCTUATION. —The same as in the preceding construction. [n neither completely settled. In both, when the accessory precedes, a comma is usually inserted. ExERCISE.-Furnish compound propositions constructed according to the model presented in the examples. ~ 129. 5th. (1) There is a fifth form of these accessories of time which litnits the principal assertion by expressing an anticipated (5) What further is said of the use of sintce? (6) What is said of since used nearly in the sense of agoo? (7) By what word is cflte' sometimes followed? And what is said of this constraction! (S) Punctuation? ~ 129. (1) Describe a fifth class of accessories of tinme. (2) What words connect these, ~ 129.] ACCESSORIES OF TIME. GENERAL REMARKS. 409 event to which it has reference and in which it terminates. (2) The words used to connect and indicate this species of accessory are the prepositions till and until. When thus used, we may call them prepositions conjunctively employed. (3) Examples: You will remain here TILL, Or UNTIL I return. fH must not depart TILL the courier arrives, "All the days of my appointed time will I wait, till my change come." " Go thou thy way till the end be." "'The people will not eat until he come." (4) Here the anticipated event (expressed in the accessory) which the principal assertion regards, and in which it terminates, is future at the time of speaking, because the main assertion itself has reference to the future. (5) But when the main assertion has reference to the past, the anticipated event expressed in the accessory, though future at the time to which the assertion refers, may be past when the assertion is uttered. Example: ".1 was wandering in a beautiful and romantic country, till curiosity began to give way to weariness," &c. (6) We may call this The accessory limiting by an event in anticipation; or, for the sake of brevity, THE ACCESSORY OFr ANTICIPATION. (7) PuNcTUATIoN.-When the accessory is strictly liniting, a comma is not inserted; when, as in the last example and the third above, it does not limit strictly, a comma is used. (8) We need not repeat the observations made in reference to the accessory indicating precedence of time. The observations were intended to apply to all those accessories which are connected with the principal assertion by means of prepositions. ExEnrcrsE.-Furnish examples of this form of compound propositions. REMARKS. — (9) Before passing fromz the consideration of the adverbial accessories of time, we may no'tice that co-existence and immediate subsequence in point of time are sometimes indicated by the co-ordinate construction of propositions. Example: " Up rose the sonne, and up rose Emilie." —Chauc. This is equivalent to Emily rose, when the sun'rose, or as the sun rose, or immediately after the sun rose. But more of this hereafter when we come to treat of co-ordinate construction. (See ~ 146.) and what is said of these words? (3) Give examples. (4) Repeat the remark in reference to these examples. (5) What is said of the case when the main assertion refers to the past? Illustrate by an example. (6) What may we call this class of accessories? (T) Punctuation? (8) What observations apply to this class of accessories, and others preceded by preps 6itions? w' what is said of another way of expressing coincidence of time. t10 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 130. (10) We may also. notice here, what wei shall have occasion to notice at more length presently, that accessories of timue are sometimes apparently introduced by two separate conjunctive words. We have an example in the following lines of Milton; As when Alcides from CEchalia crowned With conquest, felt the envenomed robe," &c. (11) The two conjunctive words ~as:and when here perform separate and distinct functions, that is they connect, not the same, but different pairs of propositions. As indicates a comparison with the preceding facts, and connects a compound accessory of manner, of which the principal proposition being clearly implied is suppressed, and only the accessory part of this compound accessory proposition of manner is expressed. If we supply the words it happened or some similar proposition after as,. we shall see clearly the nature of the construction and the distinct functions of the conjunctive words; thus, AS it hcapened, or, as happened, wnEx Alcides, &c. ~ 130. ((1) We next proceed to consider a, numerous class of accessory propositions which have been called by some of the German grammarians accessories of causality. (2) The leading accessories of this general. class assign a cause or reason for the assertion in the principal proposition; and hence the name given to them., Some of the accessories thus classed come properly within this designation, others we think it better to arrange under more distinctive names.* ~ This class -of accessories, and all the classes generally which follow, affect the whole proposition to which they are attached, not the subject or predicate separately, or any single word in them.:In this they are distinct from the preceding classes, which usually modify some word either expressed or implied in the principal proposition. We shall find too that their grammatical connection with the principal proposition is, at Jleast in some cases, much more loose. Some of them as we shall presently. see, though, perhaps, entitled to the name of accessory propositions, are scarcely to be considered. as ldependent, subordinate, or modifying propositions. They are, indeed, subjoined to other propositions, and imay on this account be called accessolles. but they express an independent thought. They may be considered perhaps as forming an intermediate class between subordinate and co-ordinate, or modifying and completely independent. propositions. (10) What other remark is made about accessories of time? Illustrate by example. 1l) Explain the distinct uses of the two conjunctive words. ~ 130. (1) What general name is given to the class of accessories next to be consideredt (2) What remarks are niade in reference to this general class? ~ 130.] X.ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES OF CAUSALITY. 411 Ist. (3) We shall consider first- those which are more strictly accessories of causality, which express literally a cause for what is asserted in the principal proposition. (4) These we shall distinguish.:y the name of CAUSAL ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES, or ADVERBIAL ACCESSORIES OF CAUSALITY. (5) The conjunctive word most generally employed in introducing these and expressing their peculiar relation to the principal proposition is BECAUSE. (6) We proceed to illustrate the form and use of this accessory by examples. I cannot go- ith you, BECAUSE I have fnot time. The accessory izhave not time is here evidently introduced'for the purpose of expressing the cause for which I cannot go v'with you. (7) This kind of accessory is often arranged by our more ancient authors before the principal proposition which it completes. Examples:: "' Because thou hast done this, thou art cursed," &c.- "Because I live, ye shall live also.' It is most usual in modern English to place the accessory after the principal in such compound propositions. (8) The word because may be regarded as a noun and preposition (I by cause) modifying the verb in the principal proposition. (9) When because is thus regarded, the accessory which follows it is properly speaking an apposition complement to the noun cautse. We may illustrate this by reference to the first example; thus, I cannot go BY (a or the), CAUSE expressed in the accessory; namely, I have not time -= 1 cannot go, I have nrot time is the cause. (10) That is sometimes (though rarely, we think, by correct speakers or writers) introduced after because; thus, I cannot go, BEOAUSE THAT I have not time. (11) When this rather clumsy form of expression occurs, that is to be regarded as a determinative placed before the accessory used substantively in apposition with cause. (12) For because we can substitute for the or this reason that; thus, I eannot go with you., Fon THIS REASONxr THAT I have not time. Here the accessory preceded by the determinative is to- be regarded as an. apposition modification to the noun reason. (13) Other words besides because are sometimes used to introduce (3) Describe the subdivision first to be considered. (4) By what name do we distinguihq them? (5) What is the conjunctive word most frequently employed? (6) Give.examples. (7) What is said of arrangement?:Example. (s) What is said of the word because? (9) What does the accessory become, when be. cause Is thus regarded? Illustrate. (10) What word is sometimes introduced after be. cause? (11) Iow is that, when thus introduced, to be regarded? (12) Wbhat phrase can be substituted for because? (18) What othor words, besides because, are used to indicate cauasctlity f Illustrate 412 -STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 131 a causal accessory. Among these we may enumerate since, seeing that, as, ohereas. We might substitute any of these conjunctive expressions for because in the above examples without much change of the sense, though some of them would give an antiquated appearance to the form of the language. Thus, I cannot go, SINCE I have not time. I cannot go, SEEING O2' SEEING THAT I have not time.* (14) These conjunctive words differ from' because in this, that they intimate that the cause assigned in the accessory is manifest-apparent to the party addressed. (15) Thus, I cannot go, SINCE orf SEEING THAT I have not time, is equivalent to I cannot go, the r'eason is aclpcrent to yourself, viz.; I have not tine, or I cannot go, you see I have not time. Using as we say, I cannot go, AS I have not time. (1G) This may be regarded as a less formal, less forcible way of alleging a cause for not going. (17) With the conjunctive qwhereas, we say WHEREAS I have ot time, I Ccannot go. When this word is used, the accessory comes first. But whereas is now seldom employed except in contracts and formal papers. (18) PUNCTUATION. —llere a comma;s inserted between principal and accessory. EsEncIsEs. —Furnish examples of this construction. ~ 131. 2d. (1) There is a species of accessory very similar to the last, sometimes interchanging place with it, in which the preposition FOR serves chiefly as the conjunctive word. (2) The proper use of this species of accessory seems to be to express a reason.-an argument to enforce the assertion in the principal proposition; in other words, to express a logical cause. (3) We do not think that for conjunctive (that is employed before an accessory) is entirely restricted to cases in which the cause is of a logical nature, * Since in this sense and seeing may be regarded as different forms of *the same word. It is not so certain that since, which we have had occasion to notice in treating of accessories of time, and which means from a definite time onward or dowel is exactly the same word, though agreeing now in form. (See Diversions of Purley on these words. R. Taylor's Ed. p. 144.) (14) How do these conjunctive words differ from beccause? (15) Illustrate by examples, (16) Itow may this mode of expression be regarded? (17) What is said of the use of the word wohereas? (18) What is the usage as to punctuation? ~ 131. (1) Describe another form of accessory similar to the preceding, and tell the conjunctive word. (2) What is the proper use of this accessory? (3) What is said in reference to its restriction to this use? g 131.] ARGUMENTATIVE ACCESSORIES. 413 or what is properly called a reason. Our older authors, we think, sometimes use it where mnodern usage would demand because.* (4) Upon the whole, we think that FOR conjunctive is now seldom employed for any other purpose except that of assigning a reason. We select a few examples for the purpose of illustration. (5) We can find the most abundant examples of this use of Jbr in the writings of the apostle Paul as rendered in our authorized translation~ (6) In the translation, we find conjunctive for used only, as far as we recollect, to introduce an argument-a reason for some preceding assertion, or statement of doctrine embracing perhaps numerous propositions. (7) It is often used in the commencement of a new sentence to indicate the connection between it and the preceding discourse. (8)' In all these things, we are more than conquerors, through him that loved us. FoR I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, &c., shall be able to separate us from the love of God." Here ron introduces the apostle's reason, or argument to corroborate the assertion, "In all these things we are more than conquerors." (9) We extract another short passage from the Epistle to the Romans, in which there are five examples of this species of accessory. "' For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. For there is no difference between the Jew and the Greek; for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that call upon him. Tohr whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved." (10) The first for indicates the purpose of the first proposition quoted; namely, that of an accessory to corroborate the sentiments uttered in the preceding verses. The purpose served by Fior is sometimes employed as a simple preposition (that is, before a single noun as opposed to an accessory proposition), in assigning a physical cause, though this is orly one purpose for which it is employed, and perhaps the purpose for which it is now most rarely employed. Thus, He acts so r.fear; HIe cannot do so FOI shame, Fro pride, &c. It is now more common to use another form of expression in such cases; thus, He acts so BECAUSE of fear, TnROuGl fear, or, On account of fear, according to the particular manner in which the wordfear may be modified. (4) Repeat the opinion given in reference to the use of FOR conjunctive. (5) Where m.ay we find abundant examples of this use of FOr. to connect an accessory? (6) What is said of the use of Fro in the authorized translation? (7) For what purpose is it said to be often employed? (8) Adduce examples for illustration. (9) Present a written copy of the passage from Romans in which For. occurs five times. (1O) Show the use of each of these 414 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 131 for in other parts of the extract can be discovered without reference to any thing beyond what it contains. (11) "For, for this cause pay ye tribute also." Here the firstfor is conjunctive, the second apreposition. When the passage is arranged in a different order, the construction is perfectly clear. - r ye pay tribute for this cause. (12) Though the word cause occurs in this accessory, the proposition as a whole expresses a reason, not a cause as distinguished from a reason. (13) For is ofteni followed by other conjunctive words. When this occurs, the student will take notice that the two conjunctive words introduce (except they formn a compound conjunction) two distinct accessories. (14) We often find Aor followed by ifi sometimes by whien. Examples, " For, if Abraham were justified by works, he hath whereof to glory." Let us change the arrangement, and it will become manifest that the -two conjunctive words belong to, and introduce distinct propositions. Thus, FoB Abraham hath wAhereof to glory, IF hle were (was) j e byo. o yeere re the servants of sin, ye were firee from righteousness,' Fo ye were free from rigiteou8snzess, wnEN ye Were the sereants of sin. (15) We find sometimes three conjunctive words together,'each introducing a distinct accessory. Example: "'For, if, whe we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the deatlh of his Son; mluch more, being reconciled, we. shall be sAved by his life." Here for introduces the whole compound accessory, having connection especially'with the' main or leading proposition in this comupound accessory, " iuch more, being reco'nciled, we shall be saved by his life." If inti'oduces the proposition "we were reconciled by the death of his Son "-an acdessory'to the:main proposition just menr tioned; and olhen' introduces the prdp6sition'befozre which it immediately stands, "we were enemies," which is an accessory to " if we were reconciled to God," &c. So that this last is the accessory of a compound accessol'y of a main compound accessory. If we arrange the passage in the following order, the student wilsl readily see the functions which the several conjunctive words perform. Fox, being reconciled to God, we, shalll muoch more be, saved by the life of. his Son, IF we were reconciled by his death, wNvHE:x we were enemies. (16) The oonjUlctive FORS, viZ., the propositions which they connect. (11) Give an example with twvo consecutive FORS. Explain it. (12) Repeat the remark about the word cause. (183) What is said of cases in'which FOR is followed by other conjunctions? (14) By what conjuz.nctions is for often followed? Write the two -examples, and, with them before you, explain the connection. (15N) Write out the. example commencing with'three conjunctions, and explain the connection of the passage. (16) Repeat the-substance of the remarks which follow ~ 131.] ARGUMENTATIVE ACCESSORIES. 416 reader will observe how vastly inferior this arrangement is to that of the translators in energy, and even in perspicuity. This may teach us to appreciate the skill of the translators (Wiclif is the leader, followed by Tyndale, Cranmer, &c.), and the importance and difficulty of the art, of arranging language, so as to express our thoughts with clearness and with force. It will be seen that it was not without reason that three conjunctive.words are huddled together in this construction. Still this huddling together of conjunctive words, though here employed for good purpose, is not to. be imitated, without the most urgent reasons.*.; (17) We may call this species of accessory, THIE ARGUMENTATIVE AccEssoRY. By.argumentativein this case we mean that which assigns a reason or argument. (18) PUNCTUATIoN.-Such accessories are usually separated fromn their principal by a commn, if not, as in many of the above examples, by a greater point.. We may notice some- compounds of;for, which are used, especially in older writers, to serve nearly similar purposes withfor conjunctive. (19) We may enumerate forasmuch as, for: that, fo ohy, among these. (20) The accessory which originally followed forasmuch as, was, no doubt, a sort of Accessory of the i:Comparison;of Equality, indicating thati the principal assertion had an equal extent with the assertion in the accessory. But this form of expression;has now come insensibly to indicate a reason, perhaps sometimes a cause,, in the same way as the accessory with since or seeing that has come to do the same thing. This accessory, with forasmuch as, has the same form witli the- Accessory of Equal 2intensity (mnuch. being the adjective compared), only that for is introduced.before the! as: which: precedes the: adjective.t * It would form a useful grammatical exercise to select a number of passages similar to those above,, and then ascertain which proposition each conjunctive word serves to introduce. Abundant examples can be found in the same treasury from which we have selected the above specimens. t If we admit that much is here substantively employed (that is, has a noun implied, which it certainly has), the form exactly coincides with the following, in whichthe accessory. is evidently of the class to which we have (1') By what name may we call this accessory? (18) Remark on punctuation. (la) Enumerate some compounds of FOR used by old writers for similar purposes. (20) Repeat the substance of what is said about the accessory which follows fcrasmnucs a4c Illustrating by examples. Write the examples. 416 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 131. Examples: " lForasmuch as I know that thou hast been of many years a judge unto this nation, I do the more cheerfully answer for myself," Sicnce, or seeing that I know, &c. The accessory, " Forasmuch as I know," &c., expresses the apostle's reason for more cheerfully answering for himself; or, if you please, the cause that he more cheerfully answered for himself, but a logical, not a physical cause. "; Be ye steadfast, unmovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, fbrasmuch as ye know that your labor is not in vain in the Lord,". Since" ye know, &c., in the Greek simply kcnowing that. Here the accessory follows the principal proposition; in the former example it preceded it. (21) We also meet with Porasmuch then as - therefore since, or therefore if. For example, " P'orasmuch then as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold,s" &c. - THEREFORE SINCE we are the ofqspring, &c. Both then in the example and therefore in our substitute belong to, and connect the second proposition, or rather the whole compound proposition," we ought not," &c., with the preceding discourse. " Forasmuch as we are: the offspring of God" is the accessory in this compound proposition. (22) These accessories which commence with forasmuch as, are represented in some of the other versions by accessories commencing with because, since, and in Wiclif (Luke xix. 9), by for that. (23) Inasmuch as is also employed nearly in the same way, but retaining more similarity to the accessory of Equal Intensity. (See Ex. Ileb. vii. 20.) (24) In Wiclif's translation, as above noticed, we have for that since or because, and in James iv. 15, our translators have employed fr' that as equivalent to therefore. "F Por that ye ought to say," &c. - THEREFORE ye ought to say. The word therefore in fact isfor that inverted; since there is simply the dative feminine corresponding to that, now used as of all genders. The dative there is used because given the name of accessories of equal intensity. It is outrageous FOR As RICH A MAN AS you. are to oppress the poor; or, for a man as rich, &c. We believe this is English, though so would be more proper before the adjective than as; at all events, the example will serve the purpose of illustration. (21) Repeat in substance what is said of foracsmuch the as. Illustrate by examples. (22) Repeat the remark about accessories withforotsmtuch as. (23) Remark in reference to inasmuch as? (24) Repeat. the remarks in reference to for that, and therefore, and show the relatbon between these expressions. ~ 132.] ACCESSORY OF EFFECT. 417 in the Anglo-Saxon, the preposition for takes a dative or accusative with it. Therefore, more properly written therefor =for there modern for that. (25) In that is used to connect accessories of sililar import. Examrples: " Thou hast shamed this day the faces of all thy servants ** * in that thou lovest thine enemies," &c. = E BECAUsE thou lovest thine enemies, &c. "And was heard in that he feared." This is intended, we presume, to mean because he feaed. (Marginal reading "For his pietie;" Wiclif, " and was herd for his reverence;" Tyndale, " rwas also hearde because of his godliness.") (26) For that and in that may be considered obsolete as conjunctions. The accessories in which they occur may be treated as substantive accessories preceded by that determinative, having the prepositionsfor and in prefixed with the same force as when they are prefixed to nouns. (27) This is the ultimate result of a thorough analysis of this sort of accessories, and it is best and perhaps easiest to come to this at once, especially in cases which are rare of occurrence or not to be found except in ancient authors. Accessories which are of firequent recurrence we may class, and bring under a formula and a denomination, to which we may refer without the trouble of having recourse in every case to complete analysis. ExAMPLE.-Furnish examples of compound propositions with argumentative accessories. ~ 132. There is a kind of accessories which it may be useful to consider in connection with the causal and argumentative accessories, because by contrast they may serve to illustrate each other. (1) Instead of expressing a cause or a reason, the class we are about to consider express an effect or a consequence. (2) Like the causfal, they are of two species. (3) One species exhibits the effects which proceed from physical causes, the other the conclusions or inferences deduced from arguments or reasonings. (4) The word therefore is much used in introducing both these species of accessories. (5) We may call the first The Accessor qf Effect, the second The Accessory of Inference. (~.5) What is said of the use of in that? Illustrate by example. (26) How may)for that and in that be considered? How may the accessories which they connect be treated when they occur? (27) Repeat the remark. ~ 182. (1) Describe, generally, another class of accessories. (2) IIow many species oi these? (3) Distinguish these two species. (4) What word is employed to connect them. (5) By whallt names may we call them? 28 418 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 132. (6) We submit examples of the accessory of effect. 17is farm is carefully cultivated, THEREFOrE it is productive. The soil in this place is good, therefore the trees grow large. (7) The first proposition in both examples expresses a physical cause to which that expressed in the subjoined propositions (which for the time we call accessories) is ascribed. Cause-the soil is good; effect-the trees grow large. " I believed, therefore have I spoken." Here again is a physical though immaterial cause-a cause acting through the medium of the human mind. (8) We can in all such cases employ the causal form of accessory to express nearly the same meaning, by making what we have here regarded for the time being as the accessory the principal in a new compound proposition, and giving the principal, or what we have been above regarding as principal, the form and accompaniment of an accessory of cause. Thus, This farmv is productive, BECAUSE it is carefully cultivated. The trees grow large in t7is place, BECAUSE the soil is good. I have spoken, BECAUSE I believed. (9) Again, we have many examples in which the one proposition assumes the form of the accessory of cause, and the other the form o, what we have been calling the accessory of effect. (10) Thus, "Because sentence against an evil work is not executed speedily, thlerefore the heart of the sons of men is fully set in them to do evil." The question here presents itself, which of these propositions shall we consider accessory? Both have accessory forms, or, at least, the form which a proposition assumes when it is to be connected with another. We think that the proposition which expresses the effect is to be considered the principal one. It is so logically, and grammar and logic should be exhibited as accordant, when it is possible to do so, without straining the construction of language or the laws of thought. (11) It seems to follow from what we have now said, that what we call the accessory of effect is not properly a subordinate or merely modifying proposition; but either, as in the last example, the principal proposition, or a second independent proposition referring back by the medium of the word therefore to the preceding proposition as expressing something which stands to what it expresses in the relation of cause to efect. The relation in which the two propositions, in such (6) Give examples. (7) Repeat the substance of the illustration. (S) What form of expression can be substituted for that above? Describe the rubstitution, and illustrate by examples. (9) Describe another form in which such compound propositions are presented. (10) Write the example, and holding this, answer the question discussed; namely, which proposition shall we in such cases consider as the accessory? (11) Repeat the substance of what is said in reference to the accessory of effect. ~ 133.1 ACCESSORY OF INFERENCE. 419 compound propositions as we have given above as examples, stand, may be regarded as intermediate between the relation of principal and subordinate, and of co-oirdinate propositions united in the manner which we shall consider presently. That their relation is very nearly the same as that of co-ordinate propositions, is rendered evident by the fact, that we can unite them by the copulative and' without injury to their relation to one another or any change of the sense which they convey. Thus, Tlhisfa:rm is carefully cultivated, AND therefore it is produlctive. These remarks apply with equal force to the accessory of inference, which we are about to consider. (12) We have more formal methods of introducing an accessory of effect — such as, for this cause, or, for that cause, because of this, on this account. (13) We would treat propositions commencing in this way as independent, save that by these forms of expression they refer back to a cause involved in the preceding discourse. (14) Therefore, when employed in what we call the accessory of effect, may be regarded as an abbreviated method of expressing for this or that cause. There, as we have already had occasion to remark, is equivalent to that in the dative case, and joined with for (in the inverted order common in the earlier stages of our language) forms therefore=for that or this, and when it precedes the accessory of effect=for this or that cause, the word cause being implied. (15) PUNCTUATION. —A comma is always inserted between the propositions in this kind of construction. ExERCISE.-Produce examples of the form of construction described. ~ 133. AccEssoRY OF INFERENCE.-(1) The conjunctive adverb therefore is also employed to connect the accessory of inference, which is a proposition expressing a conclusion or inference drawn from an argument contained in the preceding proposition, or, as often happens, in a larger portion of the preceding discourse. (2) Examples: This far m is productive, THEREFORE it is carefully cultivated. That is, for the reason that the farm is productive I conclude, or iilfer that it is carefully cultivated. Thle trees in this place are large, THEREFORE the soil must be good. That is, from the fact that (12) Mention more formal methods of introducing an accessory of effect. (13) HIow may propositions commencing in this way be treated? (14) Repeat remarks on therefore. 15) Punctuation? ~ 133. (1) Describe the accessory of iference, and tell the word which connects t. (2) Illustrate by examples. 420 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 133, the trees are large, stated in the first proposition, I conclude that the soil must be good. (3) This accessory must be carefully distinguished from that which expresses a physical effect. The meanings expressed by these two accessories, though apparently so like in form, are altogether dissimilar. It is by no means intended to assert above that the goodness of the soil is the effect of the largeness of the trees, or that the careful cultivation is the effect of the productiveness of the farm. It may perhaps be regarded as a defect in our language that the same word THEREFORE,j employed for these two purposes so dissimilar, and, in many cases, so apparently inconsistent. We must guard agfainst being misled by this double use of therefore. We might distinguish these uses by naming therefore employed for the first purpose therefore causal, that is, tlherefore introducinig an effect and referring back to its cause, and naming therefore employed for the second purpose, as it has been named by the logicians already, therefore illative, that is, therefore introducing an inf.erence or conclusion of the understanding from a preceding argument. (4) The learner will perhaps understand the matter better, if we tell him plainly that the difference of meaning arises from the different words implied with the determinative part of therefore in the two cases. These words we have already seen are cause and'reason. In the first use therefore is equivalent to for this or that cAUSE, as we have shown above; in the second it is equivalent to for this or that REASON. (5) We have already taken occasion to say that the remarks in reference to the relation between the accessory of effect and the principal proposition, apply to the relation of the accessory of inference to the principal proposition. The accessory of inference, like the accessory of effect, is not properly an accessory in the sense which implies subordination, or subservience to the mere completion.of a principal proposition. IIere, too, we can introduce the copulative conjunction before the accessory-indicating co-ordination or: independence to a certain extent. Thus, The trees inr this place are large, AND therefore the soil must be good. (6) This kind of connection of the inference with the argumzent is often more formally indicated by such expressions as from this I infer, (3) Repeat the caution against confounding the accessory of effect and the accessory of Inference. Illustrate the difference. (4) Give an explanation that will appear mere clear %o those not conversant with logical distinctions. (5) Repeat substance of remark as to the true nature of this so-called accessory. (6) Mention more formal methods of indicating the connection of i2?frrence with argu. Vneto. ~ 133.] ACCESSORY OF INFERENCE. 421 or concldcle that, for this reason I ihivfe; that, hence I conclude that, &e. Here we see that therefore, like many other conjuvctive words, serves the purpose of a distinct proposition to assert the relation between two other propositions. (7) Then and nowt, both originally adverbs of time, are frequently employed between propositions with a slightly illative or inferential force, sometimes with a merely continuative force. In other words, they are sometimes employed to introduce less formally-less emphatically, a proposition which expresses an inference or conclusion, and sometimes one which is only a continuation of the same train of thought, -a continuation of the same argument. (8) We illustrate by examples: "We then that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak." This is obviously an inference drawn from the preceding reasoning, and we might substitute therefore for thesn without any other effect, save giving stronger indication of inference. " Tell me now what thou hast done." " 2Now, as soon as it was day, there was no small stir among the soldiers," &c. " Now that which decayeth and waxeth old is ready to vanish away." In these examples now is slightly illative. Sometimes the translators of the Bible employ both then and now together; as, I" Now then, it is no more I that do it," &c. (9) So expressive of manner often precedes both thcn and now conjunctively employed. In the same way it sometimes, but perhaps more rarely, precedes because and since. So in such cases is to be treated as an adverb of manner-in such mnanncr, referring to a manner already expressed-a mnanner common to the proposition or some part of the discourse which precedes and the proposition which follows. (10) The employment of both then and now for the purpose described above, has, no doubt, arisen from an insensible extension of their proper adverbial use. A transition has been (naturally enough) made from using then to indicate a definite, distinct time to indicate a definite, distinct juncture of circumstances; from using now to indicate a present time to indicate a present junctulre of circumstances, described in the preceding discourse. (11) Then is a formation from the or that, an accusative most likely, and still means that with the word time implied=at or in that time. Now the transition from i~n that time to in, that case or in that juncture of circutmvstances, is both natural and easy. The same has happened to when, perhaps (as we nhave (7) State the substance of what is saidl of the conjunctive use of tht.ese and neeow. (S) Iilustrate this use of these -words by examples. (9) State the substance of what is said of the use of so in connection with then and Insow. (10) What explanation is given of the inferential use of thenz and now r? (11) IlRepeat 122 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 133. already observed) originally like, then an accusative of timze, the word time being in both cases imp2ied. (12) We illustrate this by examples, in some of which we may find these words in the state of transition from the expression of time to the expression of a case or conjuncture of circumstances. "1 Then shall I not be ashamed, owhen I have respect unto all thy commandments." Then —when might here be taken in their original sense —at that time —in'which time, and give some sort >f approximation to the sense; but it is evident that they rather indicate the same case, the same conjuncture of circumstacnces, than the same timne. 1"If our youngest brother be with us, then will we go down." " For now should I have lain still and been quiet, I should have slept: then had I been at rest with kings and counsellors of the earth."' I-Ie seeth wickedness also; will he not then consider?" In these examples, if we substitute the words in that case for then, we shall express the sense intended. (13) In the same manner we might illustrate the use of now-in this case by examples. We shall content ourselves with one as a sample. "There is therefore now no condemnation," &c.=There is therefore in this case - in the conjuncture described in the preceding discourse, no condemnation, &c. * (14) We shall presently notice that then is employed in the principal proposition of hypotheticals in the same way-as equivalent to in this case. (15) PUNCTUATION.-A comma is inserted between the principal and accessory. ExERcIsE. —Furnish examples of compound propositions containing Accessories of Inference. * It is worthy of remark that in translating the passage partially quoted above (Rom. viii. 1), Wiclif, the Rheims, and the authorized version, employ now; Tyndale, Cranmer, and the Geneva version, then; all evidently intending to express the same sense. This shows that there is little difference between then and now in this use. It proves also that they have, when thus employed, been diverted from their more common acceptation; for, where time is distinctly implied, it is impossible to make such an interchange between these words, without a marked change of the sense. They refer to opposed points of time. " Then I was happy, but now I am miserable." %-`hat is said of the origin of the word then. (12) Illustrate the transition in the case of then and w,7Le7n from their original to this secondary use. Write out examples. (13) Illustrate the illative use of now by an example. (14) Repeat the remark about t7/ess used in hypotheticals. (15) Punctuation? ~ 134, 135.] ACCESSORY OF PURPOSE PREVENTIVE. 423 ~ 134. (1) The next kind of accessory which we shall consider is that which expresses the purpose of what is asserted in the principal proposition. (2) This we may call THE ACCESSORY OF PURPOSE. (3) This accessory is generally introduced by THAT conjunctive. (4) Example: I have come that I may assist you)' have come TO assist you, or, I have come TO your assistance. (5) This accessory nmay perhaps fairly be regarded as a substantive accessory in the dative case. This appears plainly enough when, as in the example above, we can substitute a noun for the proposition. 1 have come TO your assistance. Here to your assistance —a dative, since the preposition to expresses the dative relation. (6) This accessory is very often contracted into the corresponding infinitive or verbal noun, and then becomes what we have already, in treating of the complements in simple propositions, called the infinitive of purpose.* (7) That serves, as we have seen, to introduce several kinds of accessory propositions. We may easily ascertain whether the accessory is an accessory of purpose by trying to substitute in order that for simple that. If we can do so without injury to the sense, we have the accessory of purpose. (8) PUNcTUATION. —A comma generally separates the principal and. accessory propositions. ExEmCIsE. — Furnish examples of compound propositions containing an accessory of purpose. ~ 135. There is another form of proposition which may be brought within the class of accessories of purpose. (1) The purpose in the form to which we refer is negative, or, perhaps, we should rather say, preventive. (2) This accessory is introduced and connected with the principal proposition by the conjunctive word lest, * Those acquainted with Anglo-Saxon will observe that all these forms of expression commence with prepositions which, in that language, take after them a dative. This justifies the assertion that this species of accessory may be considered as a substantive accessory in the dative relation. ~ 184. (1) Describe the accessory next to be considered. (2) Name? (3) Conjunctive word P (4) Illustrate by example. (5) How may this accessory be regarded? (6) Into what is it frequently contracted? (7) What is remarked of that, and how may we distingulish that thus employed? (8) l'Pnctuation? ~ 185. (1) Describe another species of accessory of purpose. (2) Co'njunctive wiord I 424 STRUCTUFRE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 136. whicll is nearly equivalent to thfat not. (3) We may call this, foi distinction's sake, the accessory of purpose preven tive. (4) Example: I make my visit short, LEST I may interfeare with your occupations I- I sake my visit short, TIIAT I may NOT interfere, or IN ORDER THArT I may NOT interfere, &c. (5) We sometimes employ the hypothetical form of the verb instead of the conditional in this kind of accessories; thus, I make my visit short, LEST ISIIOULD inlterfere, &c. The conditional form is proper, when we know that the party addressed has definite business on hand, which we do not wish to interrupt; the hypothetical when we know nothing definite, but wish to intimate our desire not to interfere with occupations which the party addressed may possibly have on hand. (6) This form of accessory is very common in our language. Exalmples: "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." " Make no fiiendship with an angry man, and with a furious man thou shalt not go; lest thou learn his ways," &c. " Give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me with food convenient for me; lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord? or lest I be poor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain." (7) PUNCTU-ATION.-Separate by a point. EXERCISE.-Furnish examples involving the accessory of purpose preventive. ~ 136. EXCOEPTIVE ACCESSORY PROPOSITION.-(1) We may next mention what we shall call the exceptive accessory, which is generally introduced by the exceptive conjunction UNLESS. (2) Example: I cannot succeed, UTNLESS my friends assist me. (3) We supply an example from I-looker, " Seeing then no man can plead eloquently unless lie be able first to speak; it followeth, that ability of speech is in this case a thing most necessary." —Hooker, B. I. cll. 14. This affords a good example for practice in analysis. The whole compound proposition expresses a conclusion or inference introduced by the illative or continuative conjunctive word then, which neither claims precedence, as would be natural, nor is united to its own proposition, "it followetb," which is the leading one of the whole (3) Name? (4) Example? (5) What form of the verb is sometimes employed instead cf the conitional? When is the one fiorm proper, and when the other? (6) What is said of theo freqluency with which this k'ind of accessory recurs in language? Give more examples. (7) Punctuation? ~ 1386. (1) Wlhat accessory is next considered, and what is the conjunctive word? (2) Example? (3) Bring a written copy of the example from IIooker. and, with this before the eyes, repeat the analysis given above. ~ 137.] CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 425 passage. If therefore had been used, it would have claimed the first place, but the slightly illative then is often thus thrust out of its regular place into a secondary position. Seeing introduces " No man can plead eloquently;" unless introduces the proposition before which it stands, " he be able," &c. And the last proposition, " That ability of speech is in this case," &c. is a substantive accessory and the real subject of the leading proposition, the verb "followeth" taking it as a representative and temporary subject till the reccal one is developed. (4) The accessory of this kind often precedes the pr'incipal. " Unless the LORD had been my help, my soul had almost dwelt in silence." (5) Except, and except that, and sometimes save are used for the salne purpose. (6) These are all imperatives, and the proposition following them is really a substantive accessory used as objective complement to these imperatives. Horne Tooke maintains that unless is also an imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb onlesan, which means to u0lease or unloose. (7) PuNCTUATIo N. — Separate by a comma. ExERCISE.-Furnish. compound propositions involving exmnples of the exceptive accessory. ~ 137.-(1) Those accessories which follow may perhaps be regarded as a fourth class having no analogy with the modifications of simple propositions. CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. - (2) AVe come now to consider a very peculiar and important class of compound propositions-we mean important in a grammatical point of view-namely, conditional propositions.* (3) These and hypothetical propositions (which it will be convenient to consider in connection with them) differ from other forms * The learner will please study carefully, in connection with what we say upon conditional and hypothetical propositions, the remarks on the use of the auxiliaries will, slhall, may, can, and their past forms would, s0tould, &c., and on the past tense employed hypothetically. (See ~ 6~.) (4) Repeat remark, and give example. (5) Enumerate other words used to introduce this kind of accessory. (6) Repe: wrhat is said in reference to these words. (7) Punctuation? ~ 187. (1) What is said in reference to the accessories which follow? ('2) What is said of the class next considered, and what is the name given to them! t8) In what do conditional and hypothetical propositions differ from other forms of com. 426 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L~ 131 of compound propositions in this respect,- that they convey no absolute assertion. (4) In the conditional proposition the assertion depends upon the condition (hence the name conditional) expressed in the accessory. If this condition is granted the assertion holds, but if not it is void. (5) In the hypothetical proposition the assertion is based upon a mere hypothesis (hence the name hypothetical), upon a supposed case, which (it is generally implied by the nature of the expression) has no real existence, but on the supposition that this case had existed in the past, the assertion (now admitted void) would have been valid. Hence the past tense is employed, as we shall see, both in the principal and in the accessory of the hypothetical compound proposition. (See ~ 63.) (6) The word employed both in the conditional and in the hypothetical proposition to connect the accessory is generally IF. This word is commonly supposed to be the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. (7) The form gif for if is found in older writers, and in the Scottish dialect of the last century. " Gif I could fancy aught's sae sweet or fair." "Gif I cou'd find blae-berries ripe for thee."-Ramsay. (8) In the conditional the verb of the principal proposition Is either of the future form or of the conditional form made with the help of the auxiliaries can and mnay. (9) When thefutuzre form is employed, the futurity of the event expressed in the principal proposition is asserted, subject to the condition or contingency expressed in the accessory. When the conditional form with canz or may is employed, only the power or liberty to do the action-in other words, only the possibility of the event-expressed in the principal proposition is asserted, subject, as before, to the condition or contingency expressed in the accessory. (10) Examples: " I shall go, Iv circumstances compel~ me. He will pound propositions? (4) On what does the assertion in conditionals depend? (5) Describe the hypothetical proposition. (6) What word is employed to connect conditional and hypothetical accessories? (7) lExamples of gif for if. (S) What is said of the form of the verb in the pricipal of conditionals? (9) What is ssserted when the fetttre tense is employed in the principal proposition? What when the conditional with can or mnay is employed? (10) Illustrate by examples. (11) What is said about the arrangement? ~ 137.] CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 427 go, IF you are willing to go with him. I can go, IF mny frjiends permnit me. I may go, IF the weather shall prove favorable. (11) Here we have arranged the principal propositions first; but the accessory in all these examples may be arranged first without any impropriety as regards order, or any change of sense. In all cases we are at liberty in using conditional propositions to place that first to which we wish to secure the greatest emphasis, or to accommodate the arrangement to our notions of harmony. The same remark applies equally to hypothetical propositions. (12) There are other words besides if sometimes employed to connect conditional accessories. Such are, provided or providing that, suppose that or supposing that, in case that, put case t7hat, set case that, &c. Examples of all these may be found in our older writers, but they are now seldom used, with the exception of provided or providing that, and in case that. (13) We give examples of the propositions connected by provided that, providing that, and in case that. I qwill remien PnoVIDED THAT yoU remain w'ith me. (14) Here we may regard the accessory proposition as a substantive accessory preceded, as usual, by that determinative, and as forming with the participle, provided, the construction called a substantive twith a participle in the case absolute. (See ~ 143: 13, et seq.) (15) PROVIDING THAT I have your' assistance. I will attempt the business. IH-ere I have your assistance may also be regarded as a substantive accessory preceded by that, and forming the objective modification of the participle providing; the whole being a participial construction used instead of the compound accessory proposition, If you, or somebody provide, or, if it be provided that I have your assistance. IN CASE —or, IN CASE THAT-yOU cannot go, I Twill not go, = IF you cannot go, I iwill not go. (16) An inmperative proposition is sometimes employed with the same force as a conditional accessory. Examples: Be good, and you shall be happy. Be industrious, frugal, and honest, and you cannot fail of success. These are manifestly equivalent to, IF you are good, you shall be happy. IF you will be industrious,frugal, and honest, you cannot fail of success. In some cases, by using the imperative proposition, we render the expression more animated. (12) Mention other words employed to connect conditionals; and repeat the remark in reference to their use. (13) Give examples of the use of such of these connecting words as occur in modern writers. (14) HIow may such accessories be regarded? (15) Transcribe the example, "providing that," &c., and explain it, with the copy in hand. (16) Repeat the remark about the use of imperative propositions; and illustrate by examples. 128 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 131 (17) It will be observed that in such constructions the imperative proposition and the principal proposition are simply united as co-ordinate propositions by the copulative and. The real relation of the propositions here, as in many other cases, is left to be discovered from the mnatter, rather than the form of the expression. (See ~ 146.) ExEncIssr.-Furnish examples of conditional propositions. We next give examples of hypotheticalpropositions. (18) These differ in form from conditional propositions only in one circumstance, that either the hypothetical or a past tense is employed in them. Indeed, both as to formn and purpose, the hypothetical may be regarded as a subdivision of conditional propositions; namely, that class of conditionals in which the condition is not contingent or doubtful, but imagined to exist that we may have the opportunity of asserting hypothetically what we would assert absolutely, on the supposition that this condition really existed. (19) Hypothetical propositions are generally, like conditional propositions, constructed with IF preceding and introducing the hypothetical accessory. (20) Examples: I would go, ir I could; implying that I cannot now go, but that it is supposable that I had the power at a past time, and if so, that I had the will to go. He could write morefre feuently IF he had the inclination to write; implying that he has not the inclination, but that it is supposable that he possessed it. IF I had the book I would give it to yotr friend. More examples may be found in the remarks on the Conditional and IHypothetical Forms of the verb. (See ~ 63.) (21) IHiypothetical accessories can be introduced by means of the other words or phrases which introduce conditional accessories. Thus, I would certainly go, PROVIDED THAT or IN CASE THAT, &C., Icould leave my business. (22) In hypothetical accessories, the conjunctive word is often omitted, especially when in the arrangement the accessory takes precedence of the principal proposition. Thus, IHad I the book, I would give it to you, - If I had the book, I would give it to you. (See ~ 68.) (23) In the hypothetical accessory the conjunctive past tense of the verb to be is employed, and not, as in other verbs, the indicative (17) Repeat the observation about these constructions with imperatives. (1S) Explain the difference between hypothetical and conditional propositions. (19) What connective word is chiefly employed in hypotheticals? (20) Illustrate by examples. (21) What is said of introducing hypotheticals by other words and phrases? Examples I (22) Repsat what is said of the omission of the conjunzctive word. Give example. (23) What form of the verb to be is employed in hypotheticals? Exanple. (24) When afds suppressed, what arrangement is preferable? ~ 137.] CONDITIONAL AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS. 429 past. Example: I would do that for you, IF I were able, or, were a able. (24) When we suppress if, it is best to place the accessory first. Were I able, I would do that for you. (25) Conditional and hypothetical propositions are used in the Interrogative form; as, WVill he not assist me, IF he can? Would Izot assist you, IF I could? (26) Then illative (indicating a consequence or in?ference), is sometimes employed to introduce the principal proposition in conditionals and hypothteicals. In this case the principal proposition comes after the accessory. Examples: If Iean help you, ralEN I will. If Icould help you, THEN I ould. "- If I knew, then would not I tell?" Theen used in this manner appears rather stiff, and is, we believe, seldom introduced in the modern written language. (27) It has been noticed already, in the remarks on the hypothetical form of the verbs, that the negative hypothetical accessory, exactly the reverse of all other negative propositions, implies that the supposed condition actually exists. This might have been anticipated from the fact already known, that the accessory of the affirmative form implies the present non-existence of what it expresses. The negative being the counterpart in formr of the affirmative accessory, should also be its counterpart in sense. Examples: IF that manC could NOT pay his debts, he would not be so blame-worthy. This implies that the man is actually able to pay his debts, and therefore worthy of greater blame. IF he were NOT a wcorthy man, we would not defend him so zealously. This implies that we take hinm for a worthy man. (28) We must observe here that the hypothetical form of compound proposition is sometimes used, when we do not intend to express a foregone conclusion; in other words, when it is not implied that the condition expressed in the accessory no longer exists. Such cases may, perhaps, be regarded as an extension of the use of this form to express an assertion in a softened manner under the cloak of a hypothesis. Example: If your friend would come to me to-morrow, I could, or might, or would explain to hin the difficulty which perplexes him. This is a promise less absolute than when I say, If your friend WILL come, I CAN, or mAwY, or WILL, &c. In the latter case my ability, power, will to explain the difficulty is absolutely asserted, but in the former case it is (25) Repeat the remark about the interrogative form. Give examples. (26) What is said of the use of them illative in conditionals and hypothceticals? Illustrate by examples. (27) Repeat in substance what is said of the negative hypothetical proposition; and ilh-itrate the statement by examples. (28) Repeat the substance of the observation, and illustrate by examples. 430 STRUCTURE OF L.ANGUAGE. L[ 138 only asserted as dependent, at least, on your friend's will to come, and perhaps on other casualties. (29) PUNCTruATION.-In conditionals and hypotheticals a comma separates the principal and accessory. ExEcIsmiE. Furnish examlples of hypothetical propositions. ~ 138. (1) In the conditional and hypothetical proposition the accessory might be represented as expressing a concession asked by the speaker, on which concession the validity of the main assertion depends. (2) There is another kind of compound proposition, in which the accessory also expresses a concession, but a concession granted or admitted by the speaker, and, notwithstanding which, the assertion is made, and made absolutely, not conditionally. (3) This kind of accessory has been called by some of the Germans the concessive accessory; and this name we adopt for want of a better, though not perfectly satisfied of its appropriateness.* (4) In this class of propositions, the accessory is most generally introduced in the English of the present day by the words THOUGH andc ALTHOUGH, sometimes in ancient writers and in imitations of the antiquated style by ALBEIT. (5) The force of the conjunctive though is often supported by the introduction of the adverb YET in the principal proposition; perhaps sometimes by STILL. Yet is only introduced when the principal proposition follows the accessory. T'he yet thus introduced may be regarded as equivalent to after all, notwithstanding the objection. (6) We present examples both with and without yet. " Though thou detain me, I will not eat of thy bread." "Though hand join in * We- are not sure that this name sufficiently distinguishes this accessory from the conditional accessory. Nor do we think that it exactly expresses the purpose of the accessory. The name applies, perhaps, better to the compound proposition taken as a whole, which expresses an assertion, and, connected with it, a concession of something apparently adverse to it, but held not to invalidate it. (29) Punctnation? ~ 138. (1) Remark about the conditional and hypothetical proposition. (2) Describe snother kind of compound proposition. (8) What has the accessory in this kind of proposi. tion been called? (4) What words are most generally employed to introduce the accessory in these com pound propositions? (5) What is said of the use of yet in concessive propositions? (6) Adduce examples for illustration. (7) What is said of the verbs in these examples? ~ 138.] CONCESSIVE PROPOSITIONS. 431 hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished." " Though he slay me, yet,will I trust in him." " Though the Lord be high, yet hath he respect unto the lowly." That is to say, admitting-conceding —-that the Lord is high, and that this admitted fact might appear an objection to his acting in the manner to be asserted, still, setting this aside, this notwithstanding, it is asserted, that "He e hath reslpect unto the lowly." It may here be observed that our translators generally employ the conjunctive form of the verb To Be after though, even when a matter of fact, as in the last example, is expressed by the proposition. (7) The verbs in the other examples, and in that which we are about to give, may be regarded as contracted future conditional, or hypothetical forms. (See ~ 55, p. 111.) "Yet, though destruction sweep those lovely plains, Rise, fellow-men! your country yet remains." The first yet is here to suit the versification, separated from its proposition. Its proper place is before the verb "r 2ise." (8) We give examples of Although, the first two as found in Richardson's Dictionary. "ALT, T1HOUG1H a man be wise hymn selve, YET is the wisdom more of twelve."-Gower. "In which ALTHIOrUGH good fortune me befall, YET shall it not by none be testifyde."-Spencer. "ALTHOrJUGHi all should be offended, YET will not I." (9) We give the following as examples of the now antiquated ALBEIT: "( Who are you, tell inc for more certainty. ALBEIT I'll swear that I do know your tongue." "~ One whose subdued eyes, ALBEIT unused to the melting mood, Drop tears," &c.-Shak. " ALBEIT betwixt them roared the ocean grim, YET SO the sage had hight to play his part."-Scott. This example from Scott is an imitation of the antiquated style. (10) It will be seen from these examples that although and albeit are employed exactly like though, and for the same purpose. The composition of these two words is obvious. All-though; All-be-it. m Give examples with althoubg7 for conjunction. (9) Examples of albeit? (10) Rlepeat remark about altJoug7t atd albeit. 432. STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 13b til) The words NOTWITHSTANDING and NEVERnTHELESS are used in a principal proposition to set aside an objection, which might be drawn from the preceding part of a discourse. They may be regarded as equivalent to though this is so, yet. (12) The use of notwithstanding may be thus explained: The preceding proposition, or a portion of the preceding discourse is taken with the participle vwith7standing and the negative, in the manner of the case absolute. T~his (what precedes) Psot standing against, the assertion owhich followvs holds true. (13) ATevertheless, when resolved into the words which constitute it, explains itself. lVever the less on account of what precedes, the assertion still holds truie. (14) Examples: "Notwithstanding I have a few things against thee." That is the character given in the context, neot woithstanding —not opposing-not forming a valid though apparent objection. (15) The word notwithstanding refers thus to an objection arising from the concessions in the preceding discourse, which objection it serves to set aside.* Examples of the use of nevertheless. (16) He acted imprudently on that occasion; NEVERTHELESS he is not a Jbol = never the less, or not the less (anciently natfheless) on this account, he is not a fool. "Wisdom is better than strength; nevertheless the poor man's wisdom is despised." * The determinatives this or that (referring to the apparent objection contained in the preceding discourse), may be regarded as implied after notwithstanding. That is often in fact expressed after it; and sometimes even the objection in the preceding passage is summed up, in a word or phrase, and placed alongside the participle notwithstanding. We quote the two following apposite examples from Dr. Webster's Dictionary, together with a part of his illustration. "'It is a rainy day, but notwithstanding that, the troops must be reviewed;' that is, the rainy day not opposing or preventing. Th/at, in this case, is a substitute for the whole first clause of the sentence. It is to that clause what a relative is to an antecedent noun, and which may be used in the place of it; notwoithstanding which, that is, the rainy day. "' Christ enjoined on his followers not to publish the cures he wrought; but notwithstanding his'ijunctions, they proclaimed them.' Here, notwithstanding his injunctions, is the case independent or absolute; the injunctions of Christ not opposing or preventing. This word answers precisely to the Latin non obstante," &c. (11) Repeat whllat is said of notvithstanding and nevertheless. (12) Explain the use d notwithstanding. (13) Repeat the remark about nevertheless. (14) Illustrate by exam ples. (15) To what does the word notwithstanding refer? (16) I'ustrate the use of nevertzheless by examples. ~ 13$] CONCESSIVE WI'ITH ALTERNATIVE ACCESSORY. 433 (17) The word howbeit is employed in older writers for much the same purpose. We have an example in the book of Ruth. "I am thy near kinsman; howbeit there is a kinsman nearer than I." This is nearly equivalent to notwithstanding, or nevertheless "'there is a einsman nearer than I." (18) Still is also sometimes used for a similar purpose. Example'" Still, as you rise, the state, exalted too, Finds no distemper while'tis changed by you."-Waller. -ExxEnacis.-Furnish examples of concessive propositions. (19) There is a kind of concessive proposition, in which an objection proposed in the form of an alternative is set aside. The accessory in this kind of proposition is introduced by the word whoether which of two, and the alternative by or. (20) We give examples: WITETHER _you go, or do not go, I sfhall certainly go. Or, with the principal propositionfirst in order, I shall certainly go, WnETHERn yo go or do not go; (more commonly expressed in an abbreviated form, Whether you go, or not, I shall certainly go.) Here it is implied, that there is something adverse;, something opposed to my going either in your goiny, or not going (most generally in the last alternative but this would be manifest in an actual conversation fromn the connection of the discourse), and this something is set aside by this form of expression as unavailing in reference to what is asserted in the main proposition. Your going or not going cannot avail to prevent my going. In other words, after conceding the alternative that you go, or do not go, the assertion: stands, that I go. - "Every man who had to live by his wit wrote plays, whether head any internal vocation to write plays or not." (21) This form:of compound proposition is equivalent to a conditional proposition with an alternative accessory; If you go, or if you do not go, still I shall go. Or (what is the same thing) it is equivalent to two conditional propositions having the same main assertion, I sh7all go, if you..go; and I scallz go, if you do not go. (22) It may admit a doubt whether this form should be classed under the concessive or the conditional. As it contains an absolute assertion, notwithstanding the conceded objection, we have classed it with concessive propo(17) What is said of the employment of 7Lowbeit? Illustrate by examples. (18) Give an example of still employed for a similar purpose. (19) Describe another species of concessive proposition; and tell the word by whlich; It is Introduced. (20) Illustrate by examples. (21) To wvhat is this kind of compound proposition equivalent? (22) What doubt Ie suggested about classifying it? 29 134. STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 138, sitions. (23) We venture to call'it The Concessive Com7pound Propo. sition with Alternative Accessory. (24) PUNCTUATION OF CONCESSIVES.-A comma between the principal and the accessory. ExErcIsSES.-F- urnlish examples of this form of compound proposi tion. (25) There is still another form of concessive proposition, in which the objection conceded and set aside is of an indefinite, unlimited, all comprehensive description. (26) We may call this The Concessive with Indefinite Accessory. (27) These concessives have for their conjunctive words the compound conjunctive pronoun whoever serving as the subject of the accessory, or the conjunctive whatever, serving as subject, or as objective mnodification of the predicate, or the adverb however, performing its adverbial function, besides that of conjunctive word.* (28) Examples: WI-OEVER may oppose that mnan, hIe will succeed, or that mnan will succeed, WHOEVERP mnay oppose him - IThough any or all men should oppose him, that manc will:succeed. WHATEVER obstacles lie in his way, he readily surmounts -= Though obstacles of any or all descriptions lie in his way, or though he neets any or all descriptions of obstacles, 7he readily surmounts them. Hfowever he is bqffled, he always persists in wohat he unlndertakces- Though he is baffled in any, or all ways, he always persists, &c. (29) PUNCTUATION the sama as in the last case. * It is to be noticed that hlowever is often used in such a manner as to represent itself alone a sort of concessive proposition. It is then equivalent to however this may be, referring to the preceding discourse for the matter conceded. We give an example, and, in order to render it satisfactory, we are obliged to quote a portion of the preceding sentence. "I served three campaigns with him in Flanders, and remember him; but'tis most likely, as I had not the honor of any acquaintance with him, that he knows nothing of me. You will tell him, hotwever, that the person his good nature has laid under obligations to him, is one Le Fevre," &c. "You will tell him, IomwEVER'" tlhis may be, (that is, conceding the likelihood that he knows nothing of me, or, in other words, setting aside the objection that lie may know notiing of me), "that the person," &c. (See ~ 121: 20-24.) (23) What name is given to it-? (24) Punctuation? (25) Describe another form of concessive propositions. (26) By what name may we call this form? (27) B13y what conjunctive words is the accessory in these introduced? (28) Illustrate by examples. (29) Punctuation? ~ 139.] COMPOUND'WITH ACCESSORY OF REFERENCE. 435 ExmEICIsE.-Furnish examples of this kind of concessive ploposition. ~ 139. (1) There is a form of accessory, which we may call T~he Accessory of Reference, commencing with the conjunctive what preceded by the words as to, or as for, to indicate its connection and show its relation to the principal proposition. (2) Examples: As TO WHAT we have been talkizng of, my opinion is already.fixed. As rOR WrAT that man says, Ihave no confidence in it. More tersely, I hare no confidence in what that nccn says. (3) In these examples as is equivalent to the words in reference, and is manifestly an acdverbial modification of the principal proposition. (4) We shall see the nature of the construction more clearly by substituting for what the equivalent words that which. (5) In reference to THAT WHICH you say, my opinion is fixed, or my opinion is fixed in reference to that which you say. What you say, may be regarded as a substarntive accessory with to forming a noun and preposition modification of the adverb as, or what is implied in it, namely, the conception expressed by the word'reference. (6) As, we may here observe, is sometimes modified in the same manner by a noun as well as by substantive accessories; thus, As TO THE QUESTION in hand, my opinion is fired. (7) Though this form of construction admits, as we have seen, of being reduced by analysis under the class of substantive, or ultimately of adjective accessories, still it is convenient to treat it as a separate form, if it were only for the purpose of explaining the method of effecting this analysis. (8) PUNCTUAtTIoN.-Comma between the principal and accessory. We may have omitted some forms of accessory propositions; and several compound constructions may possibly be found, of which no description is given in the preceding observations. But after studying carefully what we have set forth in the above pages, the learner will, we hope, be able himself to devise means of analyzing any ordinary construction of this kind, which we may have overlooked. Those who are best qualified to form an opinion of the subject now ~ 189. (1) Describe the accessory of reference. (2) Illustrate the use of this by examrIes. (3) Repeat the remark in reference to the word as in these examples. (4) By what sunbstitution shall we be enabled to see the nature of the construction more clearly? (5) Illustrate by example. (6) Repeat the remark about: the manner in which as may be moudified. (7) Repeat remark about the grammatical treatment of this construction. (8) Punctuation? 436 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 1 40. treated, and who know how little assistance we have been able to draw from the works of our predecessors, will be most ready to excuse any omis sion which may be discovered. We hope that nothing important to a general knowledge of the structure of our language has been altogether overlooked. ~ 140. CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. GENERAL REMIARES.-One subject still remains to be treated in order to complete our account of the construction of compound propositions; (1) namely, certain forms of expression, which, though devoid of the grand characteristic of propositions, since they have in them no assertive word, yet perform functions equivalent to those of accessories. (2) These we may call contracted accessory ptropositions. (3) We do not include in this class those propositions in which some important part, though suppressed, is plainly implied. (4) Such cases come under the head of Ellipsis, and the first thing to be done, as we have already said, in attempting. to analyze such elliptical propositions, is to supply the suppressed part, or parts, and then proceed as in treating complete propositions. (5) But what we here intend to treat under the name of contracted or transformed accessories, differ from all propositions in having the word which serves as predicate in the substantive or adjective, not in the assertive form. (6) These forms of expression are constructed by the help of the verbal nouns and the verbal adjectives. (7) Some of them serve the purposes of substantive, some of adjective, and some of adverbial accessories. (8) Consequently we might treat them in the same order, in which we have treated the accessories; but it will be more conducive both to brevity and to perspicuity to consider together the chief contracted accessories formed by the help of each of the verbal nouns and the verbal adjectives or participles. NOTE.-It is not our intention here to introduce all the modifying forms of expression which might legitimately be considered contracted accessory propositions. A large proportion of those which we have treated as complements of the subjects and predicates of simple propositions may, as we ~ 140. (1) Describe certain forms of expression yet to be treated under the head of compound propositions. (2) How may we name these forms? (3) What do we exclude from this class of forms? (4) How are these excluded forms of expression to be treated? (5) In what do contracted accessories differ from propositions? (6) By the help of what words are these contracted accessories formed? (7) What pur. poses do contracted accessories serve? (8) What is said of the order in which they might be treated, and the order in which we actually treat them? ~ 140.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS. 437 have had frequent occasion to hint, be regarded as abbreviations of what wa's perhaps first expressed by an accessory proposition, and of what can still be expressed in the same manner. Perhaps all the modifications of nouns and adjectives, and many of the modifications of verbs are abbreviations of what can be (though less conveniently) expressed by predication, and what was once so expressed. Even the descriptive adjective modification may perhaps be regarded as originally a contracted accessory, or an abbreviated way of expressing a modifying predication. We have already said that we suspect that the modification by a proposition is of older date than that by a descriptive adjective, and that every descriptive adjective modification may be regarded as implying a suppressed predication. (See ~ 88, note p. 266.) We think, for example, that. The river which is swift is a more simple, less artificial, and likely more primitive form of expression than The sivnft river, and that this last form of expression is a refinement of language. Some grammarians, on the contrary, seem to regard the accessory:as an cxpansion of the participial and verbal-noun forms, which we call contracted accessories; and this, because these latter forms are found to abound most in the earliest stages of the languages with which we are best acquainted. The persons to whom we allude conceive that as refinement advances these forms are expanded into accessory propositions. We do not think that there is any sufficient reason alleged.to support this opinion.' We admit that in the progress of modern languages a very general tendency has been displayed to abandon all complicated constructions, such as the case absolute, &c., as well as case terminations and tense terminations. But this does not prove that these latter are not more artificial forms of expression than those which have superseded them, nor that they are not the fruit of long cultivation and of a progressive development of language. Some of the modes of expression used inl common by the Greeks and Romans, and our own remote Northern ancestors, may have been more refined, more artificial than ours, though our less remote ancestors may have abandoned them. This admission is not inconsistent even with the opinion that our modern languages have been improved by laying aside altogether, or only sparingly employing, refinements which were the fruit of long and slow development. Butl however this may be, we believe that the disuse of the ingenious contrivances of our earlier ancestors, is attributable to the advent of times more barbarous than those in which these contrivances originated, and to the confusion arising from the mingling of dialects-Norman with Anglo-Saxon-ratlher than to any design entertained of improving and simplifying language. Tile present English was formed and the chief of the ir novations to whiil we have alluded introduced in an age,.perhaps, muchi ruder anld less learned than that of Alfred, when the Anglo-Saxon reached its full development and is found in greatest purity. 438 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 1 el ~ 141. CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES FORMED BY THE HELP OF THE VERBAL NOUNS IN ING.-(1) Contracted accessory propositions are sometimes formed with the verbal nouns in ing, either alone, or accompanied by verbal adjectives (participles) forming what are usually (but improperly) considered compound participles substantively employed. (a) (2) Contracted accessories of this kind are employed instead of substantive accessory propositions, serving as subject noun, or as objective modification, or as noun and preposition, or adverbial modification to the verb of the principal proposition. REMARK.-(3) Every verbal noun which has a subject expressed or plainly implied in the construction-that is, what would be the subject noun, when the assertive form of expression is used-may be considered as a contracted accessory. This remark may be extended to the other verbals; viz.: the infinitives and participles. (4) We subjoin a few examples of this class of contracted accessories.'" Their neglecting this was ruinous"-That they neglected this was ruinous. In this last the learner will recognise a substantive accessory employed as subject of the verb mwas. The word their expresses or includes what becomes the subject of the complete accessory. Tliey will call before LEAVING the city-They will call before they leave the city. Here the subject of the action is plainly implied, since it is manifestly their leaving the city which is indicated. The accessory here is adverbial, expressing time, or equivalent to a noun and preposition modification. The word before performs the function both of preposition and conjunction. " Your having been so humble as to take notice of the epistles of other animals, emboldens me," &c. —That you have been so humble, &c. emboldens me. (Substantive ace. subject of the principal verb.) "t is being smitten with the love of Orestilla was the cause," &c. (The same analysis applies to this example.) "' He recollected his being undressed" -= He recollected that he was undressed. (Objective accessory proposition.) " After turning from the main; road —we came in sight of the cottage " - After wve turned from the main road, &c. (Adverbial accessory of time, - noun and preposition modification.) SINCE WRITING that tet~ 141. (1) Describe the class of contracted accessories first considered. (2) Mention tha various purposes for which this class of contracted accessories is employed. (3) Repeat the substance of the remark. To what may the remark be extended? (4) Illustrate by examples. The best mode is, perhaps, for the learner to provide a writ. ten copy of the examples, makle himself master of the explanations, and repeat them with the help of his copy. ~ 141. CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. VERBAL NOUNS 1NT ING. 439 ter, he hacs changed, his mzind = Since he wrote that letter, he has changed his mind. (Analysis the same as of the last example.) (5) The verbal in ing is very often accompanied by a preposition. When it follows those prepositions which are used before accessories, such as the words before, after, since, it is always very easy to exchange the conttracted form of accessory for the comploete accessory, as may be.sen in the examples above in which these words are employed before the verbal. But when the verbcd noun is preceded by prepositions which are not used to connect accessories, it is not always easy, per haps not always possible, to make this kind of exchange. Sometimes it can be readily done. For example[: That man told mze the newas Is IfIDIN~G out of town That?nan told zete te ews cas woe were riding out of town. It is not, however, absolutely necessary in analysis to chlange these abbreviated forms into complete accessories. They may be regarded as a distinct method of expressing what can in many cases be more filly expressed by accessories, and what in some cases cannot now be so conveniently, if at all, expressed in this way; and they ni:fy always be treated simply as nouns (but nouns susceptible of peculiar modifications in common with verbs), used as the subjects of i)ropositions, or performing some other fnnction of nouns. We do not, therefore, prescribe any new mode of analysis for these forms of exspression. We have brought the consideration of them befbre the reader, because it is often useful in writing to be able readily to substitute an accessory for these forms when the employment of theml would involve, as it sometimes does, some awkwardness or ambiguity.(b) (6) PuNcTUATIoN.-The same as in simple propositions. NOT~E (a). —The ultimate analysis of these verbal nouns in ing, accompanied by participles, is exactly similar to that of the compound tenses of their kindred verbs. In the case of the verbal being, as in the passive tenses, the accompanying participle is really an adjective complementary. In the example, " His being smitten," &c., the word smitten is really anl adjective complcmentary; of which form of modification the verbal being, like its kindred verb, is susceptible. The same remark applies to all those combinations called passive participles, as well as to all the compound passive tenses, ex. cept those into which the verb have enters as a component part. The three kinds of words, verbs, verbal nouns, and verbal adjectives, as we have already said, take modifications in common. This arises from their common nature as words expressing predicates, and not mlerely in the case of the verbal nouns and adjectives, fiom their connection with verbs. The susceptibility (5) Repeat thle substance of the remarks about verc'bal CunbS used after certain prapoes tlons, arnd the mode of treating this class of verbals. (6) Punctuation? 440 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 14i of (what we may call) verbal complements has no connection with the as sertive function. It is the cmatter of the expression, not the form, derivation, or grammatical functions of verbal words (whether verbs, nouns, or participles), which renders them susceptible of certain modifications in common. The explanation, which we have given of the use of have, with perfect participles in forming compound tenses, applies to the verbal nounl having modified by participles, and also to the compound participles formed by the help of this word. There is no difficulty in resorting in every case, if we please, to the ultimate analysis of the verbal nouns and adjectives formed with the word being. The participle attached to them may always be considered as an adjective complementary of the verbal. But it is more difficult to resort to the ultimate analysis of verbal nouns and adjectives formed with the word having, especially when the participle which follows is of a neuter signification. The difficulty, as we have already said, seems to have been caused by an insensible extension of a usage appropriate only to active predicates to neuter predicates. Owing to this difficulty, it will be convenient tc treat verbals, whether nouns or adjectives, accompanied by participles as compound verbals, in the same manner as we treat verbs, with exactly similar participial modifications as compound forms, or tenses. NOTE (b).-There has arisen much controversy among the grammarians about some of the constructions formed with verbal nouns in ing. Many are disposed to reject forms which are sanctioned by reputable and very general usage, because they do not conform with their notions of what is, or rather what ought to be, pure grammatical English. We have, with the valuable assistance of Mr. It. Taylor, attempted to establish two points which will enable us to reconcile most of these rejected or suspected forms with the general laws of language. These are, that the verbal noun in ing is distinct in origin from the participle-that is, it is not the participle substantively employed; and that this verbal, as well as the participle, from its own nature-owing to the matter which it expresses, as described in the preceding note-is susceptible of the modifications which belong to verbs, as well as of those which belong to nouns. The full admission of these two points, which are settled, at least to our satisfaction, will set aside the objections to many of the constructions referred to. Mr. Grant seems to us to have laid down the correct view of this matter in the passage which we subjoin, though he was not, so far as we can see, acquainted with the fact that the verbal noun in ilng had an origin independent of the participle. His remarks are not the less valuable on this account. "Notwithstanding the objections of Lowth, L. Murray, &e., it may be safely affirmed that the several phraseologies,'by sending them,''by sending of them,''by the sending tl:em,''by the sending of them,' in all which' the word in ing is evidently aothing but a verbal noun, are sanctioned by the usage of our best lwriterl anrd are perfectly accordant with the genius of the language."-Gralit's Eng Jish Grammar, p. 196 Lond. 1813. ~ 141.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. VERBAL NOUNS IN ING. 441 Mr. Grant adds in a note, "I certainly prefer, as forms,'by sending them,' and'by the sending of them;' and allow that, when the verbal is preceded by the article, the of is very rarely omitted." With this, too, we agree; but we would rather say that when of is placed before the noun which modifies the verbal, the article is always properly employed; but omitted when the verbal is followed by an objective modification. The presence of the preposition and noun renders the article necessary, not the reverse. When a noun is rendered determinate by a noun and preposition modification, the article, or some other determinative, is used to indicate its determinateness. But the article is not used before a verbal modified by an adjective (since the two words together express a conception which may be regarded as single-see note in next section); except when the verbal and its objective modification are farther modified by another complement; as, for example, The sending such a message AT THAT PARTICULAR CRISIS, was improper. The article in such forms of expression, should, no doubt, be employed, in conformity with the laws of language, to indicate that sending su/ch a message is rendered determinate by the words at that particular crisis. (See Acldditional Observations on Determinatives, ~ 158.) "But there is a manifest difference," says Mr. Grant in the same note,' iz senise, between'hearing the philosopher,' or'the hearing the philosopher,' and'the hearing of the philosopher;' between'preaching Christ,' or'the preaching Christ,' and'the preaching of Christ.' In the forms which do not contain of, the nouns philosopher and Christ are passive; in the forms containing of, these words would generally be considered as active. Still, however, in this sense, the substitution of the Saxon for the Norman genitive would render the meaning clearer; thus,'the philosopher's hearing,'' Christ's preacllhing.' In the course of a trial, Lord Ellenborough used the following words;'I think the plea does not justify the killing of the gamekeeper.' Now, I do allow that here the gamekeeper may be siupposed to be either active or passive. According to the meaning intended, he was active, the trial being for'a gamekeeper's killing a gentleman's dog;' which last phraseology evidently removes tile ambiguity." The ambiguity in such expressions does not arise from the verbal, but firom the double use of what Mr. Grant calls the "Norman genitive." This is employed both subjectively and objectively. Thus, The love of God, may mean either the love of which God is the subject, or that of which God is the object-God's love towards us, or our love towards God. It would be good perhaps always, when there is danger of ambiguity, to employ the English or Saxon genitive subjectively; and the Norman genitive, or modification with of, objectively. We have given place to these observations, because some of the grammarians have mixed up these ambiguities with the consideration of the verbal noun or gerunld, which in most of its uses they treat as a participle, and have thus increased the confusion in which they have involved themselves and their readlers. 442 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 142. Confusion arises we believe in some instances from the fact that nouns in ing are often used with meanings distinct from their gerundive and proper verbal meaning. We have already noticed that some words in ilng, agreeing exactly in form with the gerunds, have become concrete nouns. Thus, writing is used to signify a somnething written, as well as the act of writing. There is little danger of confounding meanings so distinct as these. But there are other variations more sligut than this, which overlooked might lead to error-to the attributing of that which arises from a variation of the meaning of a word to a distinct grammatical function. Thus when I say, Your son's writing is admirable, I mean by writing either Rmanner of writing, or some definite specimen of your son's writing, not the action of writing, or that which the gernmd strictly taken indicates. "Your horse's running," may mean either the manner of his ruenning, or his act of running. Dr. Priestley, in a much vexed passage, having confounded these two senses of running (which are both in common every -day use, the first especially in speaking of the performance of horses), has fallen into the error of either making a distinction where there is no difference, or of stating the difference incorrectly, and has hence been led, with some who have followed him, to contradict his own carefully established principles. We would caution the young student in English composition to guard against employing verbals in any way which might occasion awkwardness or ambiguity. Better in all such cases to resort to the use of the complete accessory. TMany even of our good writers might have improved their style, by attention to such counsel. We might here notice that the participle or verbal adjective is some. times used for the verbal noun-the participial for the gerund form. For example, Catiline BEING SMITTEN wvith the love of Orestilla was the cause, instead of Catiline's being smitten, &c. This is a Latin rather than an English idiom, and an idiom scarcely worth the trouble of transplanting. The English expression is more logical. Catiline, however modified, is not logically the subject of the main verb was, but the FACT of &is being smitten qwith the love of Orestilla. This participial Latin form has, however, been used by reputable authors; and though we would not like, by precept or example, to encourage the employment of it to supersede the genuine English idiom, we must be contented to restrict ourselves to the proper function of the grammarian-viz., to exhibit the usages of the language, and account for them so far as he is able, without denouncing such of them as have obtained a reception among good society. ~142. CONTRACTED ACCESSORlIES FORMED WITH INFINITIVES. —(1) Nearly all the constructions into which the infinitive enters, except when it is employed as the objective modification of an active ~ 142. (1) What is said of constructions into which infinitives enter? Note the excp. ~ 142.] CO'NTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 443 verb,* may be more formally expressed by accessory propositions. (2)We have already had occasion, in treating of the various forms of infinitive modification, and in examining the various kinds of accessory propositions, to notice several of these contracted modes of expression, in which the infinitive alone or with accompanying complements fills tile place of a regular proposition. We may here recapitulate a few of these forms. (3) Infinitives sometimes serve instead of accessories as the subjects of propositions. Thus, " To obey is better than sacrifice" - That men should obey is better than sacrifice.'" To do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice" - That men, or that we should do justice, &c. We have noticed already that infinitives thus employed instead of accessories are sometimes placed after the verb and represented by the pronoun it. (See ~ 103.) (4) The infinitive of purpose is a contracted form of the accessory of purpose. (See ~~ 77, 108.) (5) The infinitives which modify nouns and adjectives may also generally be regarded as contracted accessories. Thus, The boy has a desire TO LEARNx The boy has a desire THAT HE MAY LEARN. Thgat - The objective modification, whether it consists of an infinitive or of a noun of some other kind, is of all modifications that which is least capable of being resolved or expanded into an accessory. There is scarcely any modification of nouns which cannot be expanded into an accessory, as we have already had occasion to notice. A descriptive adjective may be so expanded, a genitive case, a no?'tn in apposition, a Cnoun and preposition. But many of the modifications of the predicate are less capable of this kind of resolution-above all, the objective modification, whether infinitive or other kind of noun, admits not of this expansion or substitution of an accessory. The verb and this modification, as we have already remarked, form only one complete conception. The relation between them is more close and inseparable, than that between any bther principal word and its modification, excepting perhaps that between the verb and the noun complementary. In fact, the active verb, without this kind of complement ex.pressed or implied, is incomplete or imperfect; it conveys only part of a conception, or, at most, a very indefinite conception. flon. (2) Repeat the substance of the remark about the notice given already to such conLtructions. (3) Glve examples of infinitives used, instead of accessories, as subjects of propositic ns; and suggest the equivalent accessory. (4) What infinitive is next mentioned, and for what accessory is it used? (5) Mention the next class of infinitives; and illustrate by examples, substituting the eonstrlction v-ith an accesory. 144 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [1~ 429 he may learn is here an accessory in apposition. (See ~ 105.) The boy is desirous THAT IrE MAT LEARN.- Here, Th'lat he may learn is a substantive accessory modifying an adjective. (See~:109.) (6) In the same manner those infinitives which are attached to adverbs (see ~ 96, foot note) may be regarded as contracted accessories. Example: I1e does not know How TO ACT in this case = Iie does not know IN WHAT MANNER TO ACT in this case — He does not know now HE SIHOULD ACT in this case; or IN WHAT MANNER he should act; or'rmE MANNER IN wuICE HE SHOULD ACT, &c. In the first and second forms of the accessory, we may consider ozow:te should act, or In wohat manner he shouldt act, or is to act, as substantive accessoriesobjectives to the verb know; in the third and more fully developed form, In2 which he should act is an adjective accessory modifying the noun mzanner. In a similar way, the expressions, Ile does noot understand WHEN TO BE silent, He cannot find WHERE TO REST, may be resolved into Ile does not understand WHEN or AT WHIAT TIME HE- SHOULD BE SILENT, HeI caZnotfind WHERE lIE MAY REST, or A PLACE IN WHICII HE MAY OR CAN REST. (7) All the preceding forms of construction may be treated in analysis as Infinitives, either the subjects of propositions, like other nouns, or as Inzinitive modifications of the several words to which they are attached, agreeably to the instructions given in treating simple propositions, not forgetting the. fact that they may be expanded into complete accessories. (8) But in the analysis of the contracted accessories which follow it will be expedient to treat them always as the representatives of accessories, and the proposition with which they are connected as a compound proposition. (9) We have already noticed (~ 121: 19) that the accessory indicating Equal Intensity by Example, or by the effect produced, is often contracted into an infinitive form. Example: The weather iS SO WARMI AS TO DISSOLVE the snow on the mountains The weather is so WARM, THAT IT DISSOLVES the snow on the mountains. This must be analyzed by reference to the accessory which it represents. (10) We may call it the Contracted Accessory indicatinq Equal Intensity by Effect. (6) What is said of infinitives attached to adverbs? Illustrate fully by examples, making ile required substitution of accessories for infinitives. (T) What is said in reference to the treatment of the preceding forms of construction? (8) What remarkl is made about the contracted accessories which follow? (9) Mention an accessory which is often changed into an infinitive, and illustrate by an example. (10) How may this contracted accessory be named? ~ 142.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 445 (11) PUNcTUATIoN.-Unsettled. Best perhaps to insert a comma. ExERcIsE.-The learner may furnish a few examples of this construction. (12) There is another of these infinitives used to modify adjectives, which it is the more necessary to notice here, because there is no corresponding complete accessory in common use;. and because, on the other hand, it is manifestly a contracted form of accessory, and cannot well be explained as a simple infinitive modification. We have examples of the construction to which we allude in the following propositions. ]Henry was WISER THIAN TO ACT in that way. That man is MORE BRAVE TI-IAN TO DO such a cowardly action. He is MORE LEARNED THAN TO COMMIT such a blunder, &c. The conjunctive word than indicates clearly that this form of expression is to be regarded as a contracted, or, perhaps, rather an elliptical accessory.* (13) This infinitive may be regarded as representing an accessory indicating greater intensity by example. (14) This kind of modification is rarely made in our language by a complete accessory; but we may suppose the construction when fully developed to be something like the following: This man is tviser than to act in this manner is wise, or would be wise; or ThAis man is wiser thcan that he should act int this manner. This last is similar to the Latin construction, though in our language itseemsn a little awkward. We might expand the construction into He is wiser than it would be wise to act in this manner. We might expand it perhaps in other ways; but none of them appears exactly agreeable to our, idiom. When the learner meets with such constructions, it will be necessary to refer to this account of them. (15) They can be called CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES INDICATING GREATER INTENSITY BY: ExAMPLE. (16) PuNCaTUTIoN.-Unsettled. Comma not generally inserted. * Owing to the presence of than, we cannot treat this as a simple infinitive modification of an adjective, or an infinitive of purpose, as we can treat the infinitive in such expressions as, He is WISE ENOUGH, or TOO WIME TO LEARN. (II) Punctuation? (12) Repeat the substance of what is said of another contracted accessory formed by an infinitive. Adduce examples for illustration. (13) How may this contlacted accessory be regarded? (14) Illustrate by examples. (15) Give a name to the contracted accessory. (16) Punctuation? 146 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 142. ExEncIsE. —Furnish a number of examples of this construction. (17) Besides these there are two other uses of the infinitive, which it will be necessary to treat always as contracted accessories. and not as mere infinitive modifications in simple propositions. In the analysis of the constructions in which these occur, we should always produce the accessory to which they are equivalent, or which they represent. In treating the preceding contracted accessory, this course is not recommended, because the complete accessory is not always found in common use, or readily exhibited. (18) One of these uses of the infinitive has been called the Infinitive Absolute, because it (with its complements) stands graimmatically independent of the rest of the construction. (19) We have examples in the following propositions; " To confess the truth, I was to blame;" To PROCEED with the story; To CONCLUDE this narrative; To BEGIN with the first, &c. All these may be regarded as contracted accessories of purpose = In order that I mwtay con-.fess the truth; In order that I may proceed in my story; &c. (20) In such constructions as these, there is besides the employment of a contracted accessory, a suppression of the leading proposition, which this accessory is designed to modify. (21) The full construction in the first example is, I admit or declare, in order that I may confess the truth, that I was to blame. (22) In the contractedl and elliptical form of construction, the proposition That Iwas to blame, which in the full construction is an objective accessory proposition modifying the principal verb, assumes the appearance and form of the principal proposition. (23) In analysis, such constructions should be expanded, and the suppressed parts supplied. We may call the infinitive with its complements thus employed, Thle Contracted Accessory of Puplose. (24) Infinitives, apparently absolute or independent, are cmployed sometimes instead of other accessories. Examples: " For every object (1i) Repeat the remarks, made concerning two other infinitives used in forming contracted accessories. (IS) What is the first of these infinitives cal'ed? (19) Illustrate by examples. (20) What suppression occurs in constructions of this kind? (21) Supply the full construction. (22) What remark is made in reference to the proposition Iucas to blanmze in tho sxample? (23) HI-ow should such constructions be treated in analysis? (24) Give examples of infinitives absolute used for other forms of accessories. ~ 142.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 447 has several faces, so to speak, by which it may be presented to us." So to speak is here equivalent to, If I mnay so s2eak, or, If yoru allow me so to speak-, which are conditional accessories. Ah, fool! to exult in a glory so vain." This is equivalent to Fool that he (man) is! BECAIJSE HE EXULTS, or that he exults " in a glory so vain!" That is, the infinitive here serves as an accessory of cause. Possibly infinitives may be found placed indrclperndently to serve the functions of other kinds of accessories. (25) Such constructions as, " To be, or zot to be, that is the question," we do not consider as belonging to this class of examples. It may be questioned whether a revery, such as this is selected from, is to be subjected to strict grammatical analysis. Hamlet's language, true to the condition of his mind, is incoherent, as presented by the poet. But if it is to be subjected to grammatical analysis, To be, or not to be-the choice between existence and non-existence-is the real subject to is, that which it is asserted is the question. There is a repetition of the subject in the determinative that. (26) In sifch examples, as in the expressions, " Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live for ever?" and " That the soul be without knowledge, it is not good," &c., there is what we may call in reference to grammar an elnphatic repetition of the subject-a repetition intended for rhetorical effect. By this contrivance, the prominent conception in the proposition is presented first and alone; the speaker pauses upon it, and leaves the hearer's mind to pause for a moment upon it, and in proceeding to finish his assertion assumes a representative of the subject, which receiving emphatic force gives still greater prominence to the principal conception. (27) How much would be detracted from the force of these expressions by reducing them within the limits of the usual construction? To be or not to be is the question, Where are your' fathers? Do the 1rophets live for ever? are forms of. construction manifestlyflat when compared with the original examples. The second construction, which must be treated in the same way, and not as a simple infinitive modification, is one already noticed in treating of the substantive accessory employed as an objective (25) Repeat what is said about such constructions as, ";To be, or nlot to be, that is the question." (26) What explanation is given of the repetition of the subject in this and in such examples as, " your fathers, where are they"? (2T) What would be the effect of reducing such expressior.s within the limnits of the usual form of construction? Illustrate by eximple. 148 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 142 modification. (~ 107: 6-9.) (28) It consists of a noun or pro noun in the accusative case and an infinitive, together forming the objective modification of a verb. (29) We submit the following as examples of this construction. "I know thee to be expert in all customs," &c. - I know that thou art exzert, &c., which is a substantive accessory employed as an objective modification. " And saw no harm come to him" And saw TETIT NO HARM CAMPE to him. The verb to see is, we believe, rarely followed by an infinitive. It is often followed by a substantive accessory with conjunctive that, sometimes by an interrogative substantive accessory with whether or if. e wishes his son TO LEARN grammar = He wishes THAT MIIS SON SHALL LEARNt grammar. I expected mIM TO COME - I expected THAT HE WOULD COME. " I feel the table to be harld " - If eel THA.T TIlE TABLE IS HARD. 1 find HIM TO BE a gOOd workman. "I found his opinions to accord with mine' I found that his opinions accorded, &c. " I commanded thepeople to be numbered" -- I commanded THAT THE PEOPLE SHOULD BE numbered. " His Lord commanded him to be sold" - Combmanded THAT HE SHOULD BE sold [(30) Here the party to whom the command is given is suppressed; namely, in the first example, the officers of government, and, in the second, the other servants of the Lord. This party, if expressed after commanded, would according to the original use of this verb be the dative modification. Sometimes the party to whom the command is given and the party which would form the subject, when the full accessory follows the verb command are identical; as in the example " Jonadab commanded his sons not to drink wine" - Jonadab commanded his sons, that they should not dlrink woine. His sons may be regarded in the original example either as the dative after commanded7, or the accusative before to drink; or perhaps as fulfilling both functions (partly by implication). If we regard the verb commacnd as taking the name of the person to whom the command is addressed as its objective mnodfication, as, we believe, it is now commonly regarded, all these infinitives after it, especially that in the last example, must be considered as infinitives expressing the purpose, or end for which the command is given. This way of viewing the construction is less accordant with the original use of the verb command, less consistent with the old English idiom, and in other respects objectionable. (See ~ 79. Note p. 219.)] (28) Describe the second construction above alluded to.: (29) Adduce examples, and transform the infinitive construction in each into an accessory. Repeat the remark in reference to the verb see. [(30) Repeat the substance of the remarks on the verb comnmascd.] ~ 142.] CO:STRnACTEo ACCESSORIES. INFINITIVE. 449 (31) There are several other verbs, besides those employed in the examples, such as imagine, suppose, consider, believe, deem, &c., which occasionally take after them a contracted accessory of this kind. But this construction is far from being so common in English, as it is in the Latin and some other languages. (32) This construction may be distinguished from others, in which infinitives perform a part, by the fact, that it can be exchanged for an objective accessory, having the same word which as accusative precedes the infinitive, for its subject noun. In this manner it can be readily distinguished from the infinitive which indicates the purpose, or end of the verb's action. This latter sort of infinitive cannot be exchanged for an accessory having the accusative which precedes the infinitive for subject, without a change of sense. The difference between these two kinds of construction may be best seen by trying examnpiles of the infinitive indicating 2pupose, or end emnployed after some of the verbs in the examples given above. (For some of these verbs admit of both constructions after them, but with results, as regards meaning, markedly different.) Thus, " That we may find grace to help in time of need." If, as in the examples adduced above, we substitute for this, That toe may find THAT GRACE WILL, CAN, &C., HELP rS in time of need, we totally change the meaning. To retain the same meaning, we must retaici theword grace, which is the true objective modification, in the principal proposition, and supply a subject in tI'e accessory proposition; thus, That we nzay find GRACE, THAT IT MAY HELP US, &c. "They found nothing to answer" (Neh. v. 8), in like manner must be changed, not into They found that nothing would answer, which changes the sense; but into They found nothiing, in order that they might answer, or nothing they could answer. In these examples the accessory is added after the real objective mzodifcation, and shows the purpose or end of the action of finding "' grace," and tndisng " nothing." Besides, the accessory is of an entirely distinct class; it is not as in the former examples an objective substantive accessory, but an adverbial accessory of purpose. (33) In analysis, we may recognise this construction by the name of the accusative anzd infinitive contractecl objective accessory; or we may call it, for the sake of greater brevity, by the name (31) Enumerato other verbs which occasionally take after them a contracted accessory of this kind. Is this construction very common in our language? (32) Repeat the substance of the directions given to enable the learner to distinguish this use of the infinitive from other uses, illustrating by examples. Write the examples. (83) What is the name given to this construction? (31) Repeat the caution. 050 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 142. familiar to Latin grammarians, The Infinitive with the Accusative be tore it, (34) taking care to distinguish it from the infinitive of purpose, and bearing in mind that the whole construction-accusa tive and infinitive with their complements, if they have any-forms the Objective Modification of the principal verb. (35) This construction may be distinguished by the fact that, like the simple objective modification, it answers to the question formed by WHArT with the principal verb. Thus, taking the example, " I feel the table to be hard," the answer to WB'It do I feel? is, " The table to be hard.&" "'I know thee to be expert." What do I know? Answer, " THEE TO BE EXPERT,." On the contrary, it requires the two questions made with WHAT and TO or FOP WHAT PURPOSE to elicit in answer both accusative and infinitive, when an accusative and infinitive of purpose follow a verb. To illustrate by examples: That gentleman has found, or procured, or engdegecl an able tutor TO INSTRUCT his son. What has the gentleman found, or procured, or engaged? Answer: An able tutor. For what purpose has he found, &c., an able tutor? Answer: To instruct his son. The Christian finds grace TO HELP in time of need. What does the Christian find? Answer: Grace. For what purpose does he find grace? To help in time of need.* If we propose these two questions in the case of an accusative and infinitive contracted objective accessory, we shall find that the answer to the first question exhausts the mnatter; and that the second question is irrelevant. To illustrate by an example; "I found his opinions to accord with mine." What did I find? His opinions? No; but "his opinions to accord with mine" - That his opinions accorded qwith mine. For what purpose, or end, or in order to what did I find that * Perhaps such propositions nmight be employed or understood so that the infinitive would be equivalent, not to an accessory of purpose, but an adjective accessory. The Christian finds grace that will help him in the time of need. The gentleman has procured a tutor, who will instruct his son. Explained in this way, grace and the accompanying accessory form an objective modification-an answer only to the question, WiVhat does the C;hristian find? But this is a different sense from that contemplated above, and from that intended in the passage which we have slightly altered —Kal XCdpv ei'pcouev, EI e~icalposv BoSaelav. Heb. 4: 16. (35) Describe a way of detecting this construction by a form of question. Illustrate this by examples; and show that the question will not apply to other infinitives preceded by accusativos. (3S) Punctuation? Answer. No Interpunction. ~ 143.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. PARTICIPLES. 451 his opinions accorded with mine? There is no response to this in the example. The question is irrelevant. Compound infinitives are also used in this kind of construction. Luke ii. 44. ExErcIsEs I. II. &c.-Furnish examples of this construction. v 143. CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES FORMED BY THE HELP OF PARTICIPLES.-(1) Participles being a species of descriptive adjectives —adjectives which describe an object by the attribution of action progressive or completed* —the remark already made, that, perhaps, all adjectives might be regarded as contracted accessories, applies to this class of words. (2) We shall, however, in this place notice only the uses of the participle, in which it manifestly performs the part of a verb, and the construction in which it stands serves instead of an accessory proposition. (3) All other participles we leave to be treated as simple descriptive adjectives.t (4) We here distinguish two modes in which a participle is employed. (5) First, a participle is employed as the modification of a noun performing a function in a proposition, either as subject, or as a modifying word; (6) and, secondly, a participle is employed with a noun which performs no function in a complete proposition, but stands grammatically independent of the princi2al proposition, to which the construction formed by said noun and participle, with, or without accompanying modifications, serves logically as an accessory. (7) The participle in the first case can be treated in the same * Even the participle being, may be regarded as implying action in some sense-ativity in opposition to mere passivity. The perfect participles express, of course, action completed. t The reader will remember that whenever a verbal in ing performs any function of a noun, we do not class it with the participles, but treat it as belonging to a distinct species of words. Some grammarians have caused much confusion, both to themselves and their readers, by. regarding the verbal in ing as always a participle when it takes after it an objective, or adverbial modification; though often in such cases it performs as clearly some function of a noun, as when they admit it to be a substantive-viz., when it is accompanied only by the modifications appropriate to other classes of nouns. ~ 148. (1) Repeat the remark about participles. (2) To what uses of the participle do we restrict our notice here? (3) How are participles to be treated in other cases? (4) I-Iow many modes of using participles may be distinguished? (5) Describe the first mode. (6) Describe the second mode. (7) How may the participle be treated, when employed in the first mode? 152 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 143. manner with other adjective modifications. (8) When employed in the second way, the noun and participle must be treated as a peculiar construction which does not come within the reach of any of the modes of analysis yet considered. They must of necessity be treated as a contracted accessory. The participle cannot be treated as a simple adjective modification. (9) We furnish some examples of the first kind of construction, and place over against the propositions of a simple form in which they occur equivalent compound propositions, with complete accessories, instead of the participial construction.' The neighbors hearing what was going forward, came flocking about us"= —— WEN THE NEIG1In130oz HEAD, &C., Accessory of Coincident Tivze. "So saying, he dismissed them"-As he so said, he dismissed them." Same species of accessory "Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, Aspiring to be angels, men rebel" -If angels fell when they, aspired, or because they aspired, &c.; men rebel, when or because they aspire, &c.-Accessory of Causality. (See ~ 125: 15, 16.).Embarrcassed by vulgar cares, he cannot spend his time in making himsef wiser, &c. =Because ]he is embar-rassed, &c.-Accessory of Causality. " The two ladies, having heard reports of us from some malicious person, were that day set out for London." (10) The construction with this compound participle can be expanded most conveniently into a CO-ORDINATE proposition, preceding that which is logically the principal proposition, anid which -is really modified by- it, though the construction is co-ordinate, and not of the accessory form. Thus, The two ladies had heard reports, &c., and had set out for London that morning.. We shall take farther notice of co-ordinate propositions employed with a modifying effect, when we come to treat of co-ordinate construction. (See ~ 146.) "All the tumult of a guilty world, Tost by ungenerous possions, sinks away" - Which is test by ungenerous passions. An adjective accessory. "'Re ceived us falling"-Received tus when, or as wce fell-Accessory of Coincident Time. (8) How must the participle be treated, when employed in the second mode? (9) Copy examples, and transform the participial construction into an equivalent accessory in each case, naming the accessory. (10) Repeat what is said of constructions with the compounds formed with having. ~ 143.] CONTRACTED ACCESSORIES. PARTICIPLES. 453 (11) When, as in these last examples, the participle modifies a substantive which performs a function different from that of subject noun, it is not always so easy to change the participial construction into an accessory, because the participial construction is sometimes the only mode of expression in use. When this is the case, the participle may be treated like a descriptive adjective modification. Even when it can be readily exchanged for an accessory, it may, as we said above, be treated in ordinary analysis as a simple modification. But we advise the learner to exercise himself in trying to supply the equivalent construction; not so much for the purpose of obtaining a satisfactory analysis of the languago, as for the important purpose of increasing his facilities for writing with elegance and harmony. Sometimes, the full construction, with a complete accessory, will be found preferable in reference to style; at other times, the participial construction will be found more compact and forcible. It is highly advantageous, for the purpose of speaking and writing with fluency and smoothness, to be able to avail ourselves 9'eadily of all the resources which language affords for varying or improving our modes of expression. (12) PuCTruXTIoN.-When a participial construction is separated from the noun which it modifies, it is cut off from the rest of the construction by a comma, or commas, in the same manner as a circumstantial adverb, or adverbial phrase. This construction falls under the same rules, as to interpunction, with the circumstantial modification. We add a few poetical examples of the participial construction, which the learner may transform into accessory propositions. "I-IHe sung, Darius, great and good By too severe a fate, Fallen! fallen! fallen! fallen! Fallen from his high estate, And weeltering ill his blood!" "War, he sung, is toil and trouble; Honor, but an empty bubble; Never ending, still beginning, Fightinzg still, and still destroying." "The Passions oft, to hear her shell, Throng'd around her magic cell, Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting, Possessed beyond the Muses' painting." (11) What is said of constructions in which the participle modifies a noun which is not the subject of a proposition? C12) Punctuation? 454 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 143, "And dash'dng soft from rocks around, Bubbling runnels join'd the sound, Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole; Or o'er some haunted stream, with fond delayRound a holy calm diffusing, Love of peace and lovely musingIn hollow murmurs died away." "Vital spark of heavenly flame! Quit, oh quit this mortal frame: Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying," &c. " Defeating oft the labors of the year, The sultry south collects a potent blast." "Strained to the root, the stooping forest pours A rustling shower of yet untimely leaves." EXERCISES I. IL., &c., furnish examples of this construction, aecompanied by equivalent compound propositions with complete qccessories. NOUN AND PARTICIPLE CONTRACTED ACCESSORY, or NOUN AND PARTICIPLE ABSOLUTE. (13) We next proceed to give examples of the participial construction, consisting of a participle attached to a noun which performs no grammatical function in +he principal proposition. "The command devolving upon Eustace St. Pierre, he offered to capitulate with Edward." " This being resolved, my wife undertook to manage the business herself."' The door being opened, the child addressed him." See an example in Heb. xi- 39, 40.-"-'The sea and the waves roaring; men's hearts failing them for fear," &c. "Where rapture burns with rapture, every line WTith rising frenzyfired." "Thus, darkness aiding intellectual light, And sacred silence whisperiny truths divine, And truths divine converting pain to peace, My song the midnight raven has outwinged," &c. "This said, he sat" = Tlhen this ewas said," &c. "The service past, around the pious man, With ready zeal each honest rustic ran." "But see the fading many-colored woods, (18) Give a few examples of participial construction of which the noun and participle are independent. These may be written. ~ 143.] NOUN AND PARTICIPLE ABSOLUTE. 455 Shade deepening over shade, the country round Imbrown." "Shade, unperceived, so softening into shade; And all so forming an harmonious whole." The learner having transcribed these examples, may, after studying the following remarks, be exercised in transforming the substantives and participles into equivalent constructions, whether compound or co-ordinate propositions. (14) We may call this construction THE NouN AND PARTICIPLE ABSOLUTE, or NOUN A-ND PARTICIPLE CONTRACTED ACCESSORY. (15) It is most commonly resolvable into an Accessory of Coincident Time, preceded by the conjunctive adverbs when or while; as in the example above, " This being resolved," is equivalent to When this teas resolved, "my wife," &c. Some of these participial constructions are equivalent to an accessory of causality, for instance that referred to in Heb. xi. 39: 40, " God having provided some better thing for us," &c. - For, or because God hadc provided, &c.* * This construction is commonly called by the grammarians The Nominative Absolute. Like the accusative and infinitive contracted accessory, to which it is in some respects analogous, this is a very common construction in the Greek and Latin languages; but it is a construction uncongenial to modern English —an exotic derived from a different soil. For, though a similar form of construction was not uncommon in Anglo-Saxon, it seems to have disappeared in the early English of the old chroniclers, and to have been reintroduced, as at present used, by the learned in imitation of Latin models. It is known in Latin by the name of the Ablative Absolute, in Greek by the name of the Genitive Absolute; the ablative and genitive cases being employed in these languages respectively in the formation of this construction. In Anglo-Saxon the dative (which performs the functions both of the Latin dative and ablative) is the case employed in this construction. We may still find examples of the employment of the dative form (now commonly, but improperly, recognised as exclusively an accusative form) in some respectable English authors. Milton uses the expression, "Hnim destroyed, or won." And Archbishop Tillotson, "I-im only excepted." These expressions -must be rejected as solecisms, except we choose to defend them as remains of the Anglo-Saxon construction, or admit the use of him for the nominative case, as, on some occasions, legitimate. The compound himself is often so employed. We cannot, we think, defend these constructions as remains of the Anglo-Saxon idiom, since this mode of expression seems to (14) IHow may we name this construction? (15) Into what kind of accessory is it moat 6ommonly resolvable? Illustrate by examples. 456 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 143. (16) It is, in many (perhaps in most) instances where this participial construction could be intrbduced, more congenial to our idiom instead of either noun and participle or accessory, to emnploy a Co-or. dinate Proposition. This co-ordinate proposition is placed before the principal, proposition which it logically modifies, though this is not decidedly indicated by the form of the construction. The coincidence, or (what is nearly the samne) immediate subsequence in time, or whatever happens to be the relation between the two propositions, is to be gathered only from mere juxtaposition, and order of arrangement. (See ~ 146.) (17) When a noun and participle absolute occur in analysis, we give the name of the construction, and furnish the equivalent accessory, or equivalent co-ordinate construction, if this happens to be more agreeable to our idiom. (18) REMARE I. —Constructions of this kind are found consisting of aparticiple without a noun expressed. Examples: This conduct, VIEWING it in the mnost favorable light, reflects discredit on his character -This conduct, WE VIEWING it, &C., or, with an accessory, This conduct, IF WE VIEW it, &c. "His conduct, generally speaking, is honorable" W-, 01 I speaking generally; or Ir WE SPEAK in a general wcay, &c. The boy is far advanced in learning, CONSIDERING HIS AGE - If we consider his age. This may be distinguished by the name of the Par~ticiple Absolute. In all the examples above given, it seems equivalent to a conditional accessory. (19) REM. IL. Sometimes, on the contrary, the participle is suppressed in this kind of construction, especially by the poets. But in suchl cases it is easily supplied, and ought to be supplied as the first step in the analysis of such elliptical forms of expression. Examples: " The bow well bent, and smart the spring, Vice seems already slain," &c. Thle bow BEING well bent, and the spring BEING smart. have become obsolete in our language long before the times of Milton and Tillotson; and if we should make allowance for the use of him as a nominative in these and similar instances, it must be with the caution, that the practice is snot to be imitated. (See ~ 155: 1i, 15.) (16) What other construction for the same purpose is more congenial to our idiom? (1T) vow are we to treat this construction in analysis? (18) Repeat the substance of the remark on the participle absolute, and illustrate by examples. (19) Repeat substance of Remark II. and illustrate by examples. ~ 143.] CONTRACTED ACCESSOnIES. PARTICIPLES. 457 "c Whilst thou, more happy power, fair Charity, Triumphant sister, greatest of the three, Thy office and thy nature still the same, Lasting thy lamp~, and unconsumed the flamie, Shalt still survive," &c. The participle being is here implied with the nouns qgfice, nature, lamp and famne; and must be supplied in analysig. (20) PUNCTUATION.-The noun and participle absolute must always be separated from the rest of the discourse by a comma, or by commas, when it does not stand first in the sentence. EXERcIsEs I., II., &c.-Furnish examples of constructions containing the noun and participle absolute; and present in contrast with them equivalent forms of expression containing either an accessory, or in suitable cases, a co-ordinate proposition, instead of the participial, or independent form of construction. (20) Prnctuation? CHAPTER X. COM3BINA!TION OF INDEPENDENT PPROPOSITIONS. 144. (1) We have now finished the important part of our proposed task-the analysis of the structure of propositions. We have considered the subject and the predicate-the parts essential to every proposition; the subject noun and verb, which are the principal, the prominent or central constituents of these essential members of propositions; and the various modifications which nouns and verbs receive from inflection, from single woords employed to complete them, and from propositions employed to complete them. (2) It now remains to consider the connection of propositions (simple or compound) grcammatically independent of each other, in order to form discourse; and with this the connection of independent members of propositions, and independent complements or modifications which enter into the structure of propositions. The connection or combination of independent propositions will chiefly engage our attention, but the combination of independent members under the form of a single assertion, and of independent complements modifying the same principal word must not be forgotten.* (3) Propositions grammatically independent are, when connected together, sometimes called co-ordinate propositions to distinguish them from subordinate or accessory propositions, used to modify other propositions, to wlich, on this account, they are regarded as subservient or subordinate. Independent members and complements may also be called co-ordinate members and co-ordinate comnplements. * It must be remembered that we here speak of propositions, members of propositions, and complements as grammatically independent-of independence as regards construction, not of absolute logic al independence. ~ 144. (1) Recapitulate progress made. (2) State what remains to be done. (3) What name Is given to independent propositions when combined? To independent members and complements combined? And what name to the connecting or combining of such propositions? ~ 144.] COMBINATIIt OF INDEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS. 459 The connecting or combining of independent propositions may be salled co-ordinate construction, or the construction of discourse, as distinguished from the construction of propositions. GENERAL REMAnRS.-(4) It may be proper here to remark that independent propositions, uttered in succession, and without coherence, do not form what we call discourse. Speech is a representation of thought, discourse a representation of a process of thought. Now, in thinking, what passes in a sane man's mind is not an endless succession of scattered incoherent thoughts, but thoughts connected together, each thought suggesting the succeeding thought, in accordance with certain laws of association. Even in the most desultory conversation of a man of sound mind, there is' a regular succession of thought communicated to those whom he addresses; and if he expresses a thought which seems manifestly foreign to the general purport of his discourse, the hearer is disappointed, and feels ready to ask, what connection has this with the subject under discussion. Much more do we expect this kind of coherence-this connection of the thoughts and of the propositions which express them-in a regular and carefully prepared discourse, whether spoken or written. (5) -When the train of thought in a discourse is natural and coherent, and the words chosen to express it appropriate, and well arranged, the mere juxtaposition of the propositions often serves to indicate sufficiently the nature of their connection. Hence it often happens that no word or sign is employed to unite consecutive independent propositions. But because no connective word is used, we must not conclude that there is no connection. On the contrary, propositions most closely connected by the train of thought which they express, often least need the aid of connectives. (6) If only connection —mere joining together of Independent Propositions were to be effected, a single connective would be sufficient for this purpose. Indeed, we might in this case dispense altogether with connective words, and indicate connection by mere juxtaposition. But there are other relations, besides that of being linked together in expressing a train of thought, subsisting between co-ordinate propositions, though these relations are not those of grammatical dependence. Some of these relations are shown by the contrivances adopted in co-ordinate construction. The words used for the purpose of combining such propositions often, if not always, imply more than mere con(4) State the substance of this paragraph. (5) State the substance of what is said about the omission of connective words, (6) Explain the reason that we have more than one connective for independent propos $60 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 145, nection. (7) The words thus employed are called conjunctions, though they ought to be carefully distinguished from those conjunctio 8s and conjunctive words which serve to connect accessory with principal propositions. When we wish to distinguish these conjunctions from those employed with accessories we may call them Conjunctions, or connectives of Co-ordination, or simply Connectives. (8) All these connectives serve one purpose in common, viz.: they indicate that the construction is co-ordinate, as distinct from the connection of principal and accessory in compound propositions. (9) But besides this common purpose, these words serve peculiar and distinct purposes. This fact, that distinct purposes are served by co-ordinate construction, implies the possibility of dividing such construction into separate species, according to the several purposes which it effects. (10) We shall call attention to three well marked species of Co-ordinate Construction, each serving a distinct purpose, besides the common purpose of indicating co-ordination. We shall treat each of these three species briefly, noticing varieties under them, and illustrating each by examples. We shall also subjoin some additional observations on this kind of construction, and on some of the words which are chiefly employed as connectives. ~ 145. I. (1) The first species of Co-ordinate Construction which invites our attention is that which we may call COPULATIVE CO-ORDINATION, or Simple Connection. (2) This is the most simple and the most frequently employed of all the forms of co-ordinate construction. It indicates less beyond simple connection in the same train of thought than any other species of co-ordinate construction, perhaps, sometimes nothing beyond this. Hence this comes to be used in all cases where there is nothing in the relation of propositions to one another calling for the other forms of construction. All that is, in any case, implied by this species of co-ordination, beyond mere conjunction, is that the connected propositions have the same relation to the general drift or bearing of the discourse. (3) The word chiefly employed to indicate this species of co-ortions. (7) What,are the connectives used for this purpose called? From what words must they be distinguished, and how? (8) What common purpose does this class of connectives serve? (9) Do they serve,any other besides this common purpose? (10) How many species of co-ordinate construction may be distinguished? ~ 145. (1) What name is given to the first species of co-ordinate construction? (2) State the substance of what is said of this kind of connection of propositions. (8) What is the word chiofly employed to indicate this specieos of connection? (4) Men ~ 145.] SIMPLE CONNECTION. 461 dination is AND. This word is the grand co2pulative. (4) The adverbs also, moreover, too, are sometimes employed with a copulative force, and the adverbial phrases, besides this, in addition to this, &c. (Eke may be regarded as obsolete.) And, however, is often employed along with these, and when it is not, it is perhaps always im2lied. It may perhaps be admitted as the correct statement of fact, that when these adverbs or phrases are employed, the suppression of and is more readily admitted. We shall say something more of these adverbial conjunctives after we have first treated and. (5) We subjoin an example or two of propositions connected by AND. "Length of days is in her right hand; and in her left hand are riches and honor." 1' Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace." Here and connects simple grammatically independent propositions. In the following example it unites two compound propositions. " She is a tree of life to them that lay hold of her; and happy is every one that retaineth her." Again in the following it connects two accessory propositions, which in relation to one another are independent, or what we may call co-ordinate accessories. "W Vhen wisdom entereth into thine heart, and (when) knowledge is pleasant unto thy soul, discretion shall preserve.thee," &c. We need not multiply examples; the form of construction is so very common and familiar. We can scarcely write a line without the employment of an and. (6) The word and may be considered as performing alone the function of a proposition-perhaps, an imperative proposition. It is pretty generally agreed, even by those who differ most widely about the derivation of this word, that and means add, or something equivalent. (7) By substituting the imperative proposition add, or add to this, in the examples above adduced, the meaning will remain unchanged, though the junction will naturally appear more clumsy from the exclusion of the customary form of expression, and the introduction of an unusual one. Thus, " Length of days is in her right hand;" add, or add to this, "in her left hland (are) riches and honor." (8) If and is thus recognised as an imperative, and equivalent to an imperative pro., torn some other subsidiary welds, and tell how they are used. (5) Give examples of the connection of simple independent propositions, of compound propositions, and of accessory propositions independently used to modify the same principal proposition. (6) What is said of the function which AND performs, and of its original sense? (7) What word may be substit ted for it, without destroying the sense? Illustrate by examples. (8) What results if AND is recognised as an imperative? 562 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 145 position, the proposition which follows it becomes an objective accessory to it. Add to this " in her left hand".that " in her left hand" (are) "riches and honor," will then be a compound proposition, and co-ordinate with the preceding simple proposition. (9) TIlere is perhaps still another proposition implied in this kind of juncture; for it indicates, agreeably to the usage of language, that the assertion which follows the connective is simpliy additional or continuative of the same train of thought in the same direction, not opposed to the preceding assertion, or expressing an exception to it. (10) From this it follows that and (and the remark applies to other conjunctions) serves as the abbreviated form of a proposition, or propositions employed for the purpose of uniting other propositions, besides indicating that a certain relation exists between these connected propositions. (11) All this, however, may be overlooked in practical analysis. And may be called the simple Copulative Conjunction, and the propositions between which it stands may be regarded as co-ordinate and connected by its means. (12) The words also, moreover, besides, besides this, in addition to this, &c., employed, sometimes with, and sometimes without and, in the junction of co-ordinate propositions continuative of the same train of thought, are to be regarded as performing their usual functions, but not in the proposition which follows them, and which they help to connect. If we thrust them upon this following proposition, we create confusion. They are to be regarded as complementary of (what we may be allowed to call) the conjunctional or connecting proposition. In other words, they modify the conjunction and, expressed or implied, or some other implied verb. Example: "Moreover, by them is thy servant warned." = Add or join moreover, or beyond this, or I say more beyond this, " by them," &c. If we bring moreover as a modifying adverb into the subjoined proposition we spoil the meaning. Also is perhaps rarely to be included in the connective proposition; but besides this, or besides alone, with this implied, and in addition to this, are often a part of the juncture. They are when alone equivalent to add, or, I say besides this; I say in addition to this, &c. In analysis, they may be treated when thus employed as copulative phrases or expressions. (9) What more is implied in this kind ofjztneture of propositions? (10) Repeat the remark in reference to AND and other co-ordinate conjunctions. (11) How may and be treated in analysis? (12) Repeat the substance of what is said about the subsidiary words used with or with nut.iv. Illustrate by example. ~ 145.] SIMPLE CONNECTION. 463 (13) We have already said that words are not always indispensably necessary to connect a train of propositions. In connecting periods, or sentences, consisting often of several co-ordinate propositions, and closing with a rest, or momentary suspension in the progress of the discourse, conjunctions are very generally dispensed with in our language. And co-ordinate propositions in the same period, when there is no danger of ambiguity or misapprehension arising from the suppression of connective words, are often placed together without the intervention of the copulative. We may give as an example, Casar's celebrated dispatch, "Veni, vidi, vici," I came, I satw, I conquered. The suppression of the conjunction in such cases may be regarded rather as a rhetoricld contrivance, than as an ordinary grammatical construction. (14) But when more than two similar propositions follow each other in succession, it is customary to omit the copulative between all but the last proposition and that which precedes it. For example: " The hill appeared more steep, the fruits seemed harsh, their sight grew dilm, and their feet tripped at every little obstruction." Here are four propositions all connected in co-ordinate construction, and the copulative employed only between the last two. This may be regarded as the regular grammatical mode of connecting co-ordinate propositions, co-ordinate members of propositions, and co-ordinate colnplements of propositions. (15) Sometimes, for rhetorical effect, the copulative is placed between each co-ordinate proposition, or co-ordinate member, &c., and that which is connected with it. We select an example from Dr. Chalmers, who seems to have had a strong partiality for this rhetorical contrivance. " We scarcely recognise them as men and women, who can rejoice and weep, and pine with disease, and taste the sufferings of mortality, and be oppressed with anguish, and love with tenderness," &c. " Vapors and clouds and storms."-Thomson. (16) This repetition of the copulative is sometimes employed with good effect to cause the hearer's mind to dwell on each of a series of important propositions by retarding the enunciation. On the contrary, the total omission of the conjunction indicates the rapid move(13) Repeat what is said of the occasioral connection of propositions without cotjanctions. (14) Tell when the suppression of conj unctions is customary, and illustrate by an example. (15) Repeat what is said of the repetition of the copulative between each pair of co-ordl. untes. (16) What is the effect of this repetition? And what the effect of the total supl pression of the copuItti.e? 464 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 145. ment of the mind from thought to thought, imitating, as in the exam. pie above, the rapidity with which the events expressed succeeded each other.* (1 7) When the same assertion is to be made of two or morG distinct subjects, for the sake of brevity and compactness of expression we unite the subjects together by the copulative, and employ the verb only once for all the united subjects. For example, William and James are industrious. (18) When two subjects are thus united they are sometimes preceded by the determinative both; as, Both William and James are industrious. This unites the subjects more emphatically. Bc-th is also sometimes employed in the same way before two united complements. It seems scarcely proper to place both in this way before nmore than two members, or complements, since it implies duality. (19) It will be observed that in this construction the verb is in the plural form. We shall express this fact in one of the rules to be given at the end of this chapter. Propositions of this kind we may distinguish by the name of Plural Pro)positions. (20) When we employ the p9lural form of a single noun as subject of a proposition, we have what may be regarded as one species of plural propositions; for every proposition with a plural form for subject noun has really two or more, sometimes innumerable subjects, but all of the same class of objects, and indicated by the same common name, or general term. (21) On the other hand, it often happens that two or more predicates are asserted of a single subject. In this case, too, the verbs are connected by the copulative. Thus, "The leaves fade away, and leave the parent stem desolate," = The leaves fade away, and the. The rhetoricians call the suppression of the copula the figure asyndeton, = construction without connectives; and thle introduction of it between all the propositions, members, &c., when there are more than two, polysyndeton, = construction wvith many connectives. (17) Repeat what is said of the union of several subjects under the same assertion. Examnple. (18) What is said of the use of the word both in uniting two subjects? Exasmpla (19) What form of the verb is employed in such constructions? (20) Repeat the remark about the plural form of nouns. (21 Wlhat is said of the use of more than one predicate to the same subject? Example, ~ 145.] - SIMPLE CONNECTION. 465 leaves lecave the parent stem desolate. (22) Sometimes several subjects are united with several predicates in the same construction.'" In that season of the year, when the serenity of the sky, the valious friuits which cover the ground, the discolored foliage of the trees, and all tile sweet, but fading graces of inspiring autumn, open the mind to benevolence, and dispose: it for contemplation," &c. (23) Lastly we give examples of the connection of simple modifications of the same class used to complete the same principal word. The dishonest AND unfaithful steward has been dismissed. And here unites two Descriptive Acdective Modifications, both affecting the noun steward. George studies grammar, geometry, AND chemistry. " And leaves the world to darkness, AND to m2e." It is unnecessary to multiply examples of this. kind, as they are. to be found abundantly in every page we read.* (24) To recapitulate, we connect by the copulative AND independent propositions, similar accessories modifying the same word independently of each other, subjects having a common predicate or common predicates, predicates having a common subject or subjects, and similar modifications completing the same word in simple propositions, when these propositions, members, modifications con* Complements which are not of the same class or kind are seldom united together in this manner, and, when they are so united, we believe they are always ungraceful. We have an example of dissimilar complements connected by and in the following: "I-lear now this, 0 foolish people, and without understanding." I-Iere we have a noun and preposition complement connected in co-ordinate construction with a descriptive adjective modification; except we shall say that there is an ellipsis of the word people after "and." This could have been avoided by translating the passage, 0 people, foolish and void of understanding. This would be. an equally close translation of the original which is literally, 0 foolish people, and no heart or no intelligence. ItXmight be said that "without understanding" is equivalent in sense to an adjective modification. Admitted; but we think that only complements of similar form can be gracefully united by the copulative. We would caution the student, if the caution should appear necessary against the imitation of such forms of expression. (22) Illustrate the union of several subjects with several predicates by an example. (23) Adduce examples of co-ordinate complements connected by the copulative. (24) Recapitulate what has been said on the use of the copulative. 31 466 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 145. cur in carrying forward a train of thought uninterrupted by objections or exceptions. (25) In analysis, when co-ordinate propositions, members, &c. occur, we must say that they are connected in simple copulative coordination by the conjunction and alone or modified by moreover, besides, &c., as the case may be. When the copulative is omitted, the omission must be noticed and accounted for in the manner already stated. PUNCTUATION (or rather INTERPUNCTION) or CO-ORDINATES CON NECTED 3Y AND.-(26) Between propositions, whether absolutely independent or accessory, connected in co-ordinate construction, a comma is always placed, whether the copulative is employed or omitted. In regard of co-ordinate members of propositions, subjects or predicates, and in regard of co-ordinate modifications, the rule is somewhat different. When there are only two mrembers or modifications connected by and, no comma is employed. The copulative sufficiently indicates the construction. When no copulative is used, a comma must always be placed between co-ordinate members and co-ordinate modifications. So far all are agreed. But when more than two co-or dinate members or modifications are connected. some place a comma between each member or modification and that which succeeds it, even between the last two, though connected by and. Others, in the connection of members and modifications, invariably omit the comma where the copulative is employed. This seems to us the simplest and the most consistent rule. Those who place a comma between all the co-ordinates, when there are three or more, in the case of connected subjects, place also a comma after the last before their common verb. Example: John, James, and Thomas, are good men. When only two subjects are united by and a comma is not placed after them by these authors, thus, John and James are good. The distinction established by those who adopt this mode of punctuation between the case of two and three or more subjects appears to us capricious. (27) If we dismiss this distinction, the rule for pointing this whole class of constructions is very simple; viz., place a comma always between co.ordinate propositions; and a comma between co-ordinate members and co-ordinate (25) Repeat the directions given in reference to the analysis of copulative constructions. (26) Repeat tile substance of the remarks on the punctuation, or interpunction of co-ordinates connected by AND. (27) Repeat the simplest form of the rule for the interpunction of this class of constructions, dismissing certain capricious distinctions. ~ 146.] CO-ORDINATE USED FOR COMFOUND CONSTRUCTION. 467 modifications whenever the copulative is omitted. When co-ordinate modifications are themselves attended with modifications, a comma is sometimes used in connection with the copulative. (28) There is a variety of this kind of construction in which the coordinate members are connected in pairs, and a comma placed between each pair. Example: "'Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge(,) are the prime movers in public transactions." Here the last comma seems to us improper. ExERCIsES I., II., &c.-Furnish examples of co-ordinate propositions, members, &c. ~ 146. (1) This is, perhaps, the proper place to make some remarks on the occasional employment of the co-ordinate form of construction instead of a compound construction; in other words, of a proposition independent in form and connected by the copulative, yet, in use, having the force of an accessory, and serving the purpose of. an accessory. We have already adverted to this matter in the end of the section on accessories of tilne, and in treating of participial constructions. (See ~~ 129: 9, and 143: 16.) We shall notice only two distinct cases of this employment of the construction with the copulative. (2) The first is to serve instead of an accessory or an infinitive of purpose. We may give as examples, Will you not come, and dine with uts Why does he not go, and tell his father? Come and see us. He came yesterday and visited uts. We shall go to-mnorrow, and see the exhibition. These are equivalent to Will you not come to dine'with us? or, Will you,not come that you may dine woit7h us, &c.. The coming is for the purpose of dining? the going for the purpose of telling, &c. (3) Such forms of expression are colloquial, perhaps they might be called vulgar. They are more commonly employed in the interrogative and imperative, than in the assertive form of propositions. We suspect that they are used impera-. tively and interrogatively in the colloquial intercourse even of good and well-educated society, still they lack precision and elegance. Examples may be found in our standard authors; but few educated men of the present day would be willing to introduce such forms in any kind of dignified discourse. We give an example from Shakspeare: (C8) Describe a variety of this kind of construction, and the mode of interpunctlon, Illustrating by an example. ~ 146. (1) Tell what is said of the use of.co-ordinate instead of compound construction. (2) Describe the first case of this use, illustrating by examples. (3) PLepeat the substance of the remarks on this use; give example from Shakspeare. 468 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 146. "Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed, And batten on this moor?" That you might bcatten, or to batten on this moor. (4) In this case it is the last of the two connected propositions that serves the purpose of an accessory. (5) The second case of the employment of co-ordinate for compound construction is that in which one of the two connected propositions-always, we believe, the first one-serves instead of an accessory of time, or instead of the pcarticipial construction which serves the same purpose. (6) This employment of the co-ordinate form of construction is sanctioned by far more general and more respectable usage. It may be regarded as a settled idiom of our language. We use this kind of construction very generally, when, in the ancient languages, a participial construction is employed. (7) Let us illustrate this usage by a few examples. " He opened his mouth, and taught them." The original expresses what is contained in the first of these propositions by a participial construction-aa participle modifying the subject noun of the second proposition. The literal translation is, Having opened his Mnouth, or, perhaps, rather, Opening his mnouth, he taught them,. The latter form expresses the intended connection of the thouglht more exactly than the authorized version. But the translation, as it stands, is more consonant to the English idiom, especially to the idiom of the period when the translation was made, before the complicated, exotic constructions fashionable in the times of the Commonwealth were forced upon our language. Even to this day, it is less stiff than the Participial form of expression. We have similar examples in the following passages: " The same day went Jesus out of the house, and sat by the sea side" laThe same day Jesus, having come out of the house, sat, &c or, with full construction, The same day, when Jesus had oome out of the house, he sat, &c. " He came to the first, and said." (Greek, Having comze, or coming to the first, he said.) " And he answered, and said." "And he came to the second, and said," &c. In all these cases a participial -construction is employed in the original Greek. (See Acts 18: 1, 2, and the New Testament, passim.) (a) (8) In the following example from Shairspeare the latter of two (4) Which proposition in this case serves the purpose of an accessory? (5) Describe the second case of this employment of co-ordinate construction. (6) Repeat bhe remarks made on this use. (7) Illustrate by examples.'S) Repeat what is said of the example from Shakspeaxe. ~ 146.] CO-ORDINATE FOR COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. 469 propositions in the co-ordinate form of construction is equivalent to a conditional or concessive accessory. " Can one be pardoned, and retain the offence?"' Here the conjunctive words, though or if or zwhilst, would, perhaps, more precisely indicate the relation between the two propositions. It would be still more explicit, though awkwalrd and fiat beside the original, to say, May one who retains the o-fence be pardoned? (9) In all cases two propositions connected by AND may be considered, as regards form of language, co-ordinate or independent. Their true relation, as regards sense in such exceptional cases as we have presented above, is to be ascertained from the nature of the thought. This relation is indicated by no distinct grammatical contrivance, except we consider juxtaposition in this light. NOTE. (a)-We may be allowed to observe, in connection with this subject, that the translator of the Book of Acts has improperly introduced the copulative in a great number of passages where the employment of it cannot be justified by a reference to idiomatic usage, and when it injures or perverts, to a certain degree, the sense of the original. We refer to Acts 1: 16; 2: 29, 37, and 13: 15, &c., in which we find the expression, "Men and brethren." The translator has indeed in all these examples placed and in italics, indicating that it is not in the original. But this does not help the reader to ascertain the exact sense of the original. The word "brethren" is in the original a noun in apposition in all these passages. The English reader would never find this out from the present translation, -even with the help of the italics, because men brethren is not a usual form of apposition in our language. With the Greeks it was. They employed currently such expressions as men soldiers, men Romans, men Athenians, &c.,. in which the latter noun serves to designate the employment, the nation, &c., of the men. These expressions we uniformly translate soldiers, Romans,'Greeks, &c., suppressing the word mnen, in accommodation to the English idiom. The translator ought to have done the same in the passages above referred to, and in several others, which the reader can readily find by the help of a concordance. In Acts 7: 2 and 22: 1, we find the expression "Men, brethren, and fathers," making the hearers addressed in these passages by Stephen and the Apostle Paul to consist of three distinct classes, viz., men, brethren, and fathers-a very illogical division; but it is the division:of the translaltor, not of Stephen or the Apostle Paul. The expression rendered into correct idiomatic English is, simply, Brethren and Fathers. Wiclif renders these passages correctly, "Britheren and fadris," and Acts 1 16 and 2: 29, 37, &e., (9) Repeat the remark in reference to the mnauner in which w-ve may alnways regard pro, rooitlons connected by AND. 470 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 147 "Britheren." This makes it appear the more strange that the translators in the authorized version, and the translators of the 16th century, Tyndale, Cranmer, &c., should have overlooked the Greek idiom to which we have referred. ~ 147. II. ADVERSATIVE OR EXCEPTIVE CONNECTION.-(1) The form of expression, " John arrived in the morning, and went away at noon," is that which we would employ, if it were our purpose to give another person simply an account of John's movemnents. But suppose a friend calls at our house expecting to meet John, and tells us that he has come, because he heard that John arrived this morning, we would naturally say in reply, " John arrived indeed this morning, BUT he went away at noon." Here we, are not to give simply an account of John's movements, but to inform our friend why he does not find John at our house, though he did arrive in the morning. That he arrived is in favor of our friend's purpose, but that he went away is adverse to it. This opposition of the added assertion, in reference to the purpose in view, is indicated by the connective or conjunction BUT. (2) AND and BUT agree, then, in so far, that they both indicate a connection between propositions; but they differ in this, that and connects propositions expressing consentaneous assertions concurring to the same purpose, but, on the contrary, connects propositions expressing assertions opposed in reference to their bearing on the point under discussion. (3) We might perhaps say more simply, BUT serves the purpose which AND serves; namely, to connect propositions, &c.; and, besides, serves a purpose which and cannot serve; namely, to indicate some contrariety in the propositions connected. We may consider AND as by way of pre-eminence the simple connective, and BUT as the adversative (sometimes the exceptive) connective. (4) We shall call the connection effected by but adversative (and sometimes exceptive) connection. (5) The most marked case of adversative connection is that in which BUT is employed between an affirmative and a negative propo. ~ 14T, (1) Repeat the illustration of the distinction between tne connection effected by,ND and by BUT. (2) State the distinction between the Uises of BUT and AND. (3) State it more simply. (4) What name is given to the connection effected by BUT? ~ 147.] ADVERSATIVE AND EXCEPTIVE CONNECTION. 471 sition; thus, Your father will go to the exhibition to-morrow, urT he will not take you with hiln. (6) That but is used in such cases is not attributable to the change from affirmative to negative, but to the fact that such change very generally arises from some change or variation in the train of thought. A negative proposition is not necessarily connected with an affirmative one by but, and but is very often employed to connect two affirmative, and, perhaps, sometimes two negative propositions. Examples: "Fear thou the Lord and the king; and meddle not with them that are given to change." " Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people." (7) But is sometimes employed like and, though less frequently than and, in connecting members of propositions and complementary words, especially when such words represent a proposition. Examples: NYot John, but James is wrong. "I shall not die, but live,"' &c. John has learnt all his lessons BUT one. " None of them is lost, BUT the son of perdition " = John has learnt all his lessons, but one he has not learnt; and, "None of them is lost, but the son of perdition " is lost. (8) BUT in such cases expresses an exception, and may generally be represented by the imperative ExcEPT. Thus, John has learnt all his lessons, except one. NOTE.-This is perhaps a use to which but was applied, before it came to'.e used merely as an adversative-the manner in which it is now most commonly employed. But, at least the but thus used, is supposed to have been originally an imperative or participle in the Anglo-Saxon language, signifying be out, except, save, or being out, excepting, saving. We regard the use of this word first mentioned above, viz., to indicate the addition of a proposition in a lesser or greater degree opposed to the previous current of thought, as a secondary use to be traced perhaps to the effect of insensible extension. The opposition expressed by but in the present use of the language, is in many cases so slight that and may be substituted for it without much change of sense. If, indeed, there is no opposition whatever, no variation of the train of thought, but cannot with propriety be used. When there is but a trifling variation of the thought we may use but to indicate such variation, or we may employ the simple copulative and, leaving the hearer or reader to detect and appreciate for himself the opposition between the propositions. If, on the contrary, we think the opposition worthy to be marked, we must do it by the employment of but. (5) Mention the most marked case of adversative connection. (6) Repeat the remark about the connection between the change from affirnative to negative assertion, and the employment of adversative construction. Illustrate by examples. (7) What is said of the use of BUT to connect members of propositions and complenmen tsry words? Illustrate by examples. (8) Whlat does BUT in such cases express? HIow may it be represented? Example? 472 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 147. If we look into versions made by different translators fromn the same passage in a foreign tongue, we shall find that, when the opposition between two co-ordinate propositions:is slight, one translator will employ and, another but as the connective word. For example, turning, in Bagster's IIexapla, to Luke 21: 9, we find in the authorized version "Bui when ye shall hear of wars," &c.; in.Wiclif, "AND whanne ge schulen here,' &c.; in Tyndale and Cranmer; "BUT," &c., and in the versions of Geneva and Rheims "AND," &c. On the contrary, these all agree in using BUT in the commencement of the twelfth verse of the same chapter, perhaps, because there is, if not a more marked opposition., at least a more marked transition of thought. It is to be observed that in the original Greek, the conjunction employed in both passages is the same, a conjunction performing without discrimination the functions of both AND and nuT, (that is, but in the first-mentioned sense as a weaker adversative, but not but when decidedly exceptive,) and which Greek conjunction (6C) we translate by one or other of these words, according as the sense of the author, and the genius- of our own language demand. (9) We must not forget a very peculiar use of the conjunction but, in which it is nearly equivalent to the adverb only. Examples: " Our light -affliction, which is BUT for a moment." "If I may touch BnuT his clothes." " We shall BUT die." These are nearly equivalent to "w' hich is ONLY for a moment." " If I may touch ONLY lhis clothes." ": We shall only die," no Mnore. This use of but is apparently of more recent origin than either of the two already mentioned. (10) In propositions of the above form, the negative, it is supposed, was anciently employed; and this use of butt, so unlike, as it now seems, to the two above mentioned, is thought to have arisen from the habitual suppression of the negative in such expressiins. If we insert the negative in the examples above given, but will have the force which it has in the second mentioned, and now less prevalent, though, we believe, older use (viz., the exceptive) and the sense will remain unchanged. Thus,:' Our light affliction, which is" not " but for a moment."'" If I may" not' but touch'his clotles." "; We shall" not "but die." When the not is inserted but, as in what we have called the older usage, can take except or save for its substitulte. Thus, " Our light affliction, which is" not, except or save "'-for a moment," &c.* W hen not was employed in such expressions as the above, it would naturally receive very little force in pronunciation: thus, which isn,'t but for a moment. This fact may perhaps help to account for the gradual sup(9) Describe a peculiar use of but, and illustrate by examples. (10) Repeat what is "sd in reference to a supposed stppression in such ceases. Illustrate by examples. ~ 147.] ADVERSATIVE AND EXCEPTIVE (ONNECTION. 473! 1) As in the case of simple connection by the copulative, so in thle case of adversative connection certain other words besides but are sometimes employed in company with it, as subsidiary to it, and often where but is suppressed, to express more emphatically the adversative nature of the connection. We notice among these the expressions, On the contrary, on the other hand, &c. But is also sometimes followed, like and, by the word besides, or besides this, in addition to this, &c. Examples: Maany think this man a patriot, oN THE CONTRARY, or B3UT ON THE CONTRARY, MOe think hiim a mere time-serving, selfish politician. This man is industrious and enterprising;, o THE OTIIER HAND, or BUT ON THE OTHER HAND, he is very extravagant. - is lady is very beauttifql, BUT BESIDES THIS, or BUT IN ADDITION TO THIS, she is very hiaughty. As we remarked in treating of simple connection, it is, perlaps, most proper-most correct-to treat all such words as forming part of the connecting or conjunctive proposition; as modifications, if we please, of BUT (which may be regarded as implied when not expressed), or of some other suppressed verb -such verbs as add, join, say, &c., as I add, say, &c., or but I add, or say on. the other hand, &c. This will save us from thrusting them as modifications on the following proposition, in which they will often appear misplaced and unmeaning.* pression of the negative. (See more on this use of BUT in Additional Observations, ~ 150.) * It may be remarked that the proposition joined to another by but ex ceptive (and consequently that joined by but = only) stands often more in the relation of a subordinate than of a co-ordinate proposition. It may sometimes be regarded as an accessory proposition, designed to modify that to which it is attached by expressing a necessary exception, rather than as an independent proposition. In fact it serves often nearly the same purpose as the exceptive accessory already considered. Propositions in adversative construction, are more generally strictly coordinate. This is proved by the fact that in such propositions we can sometimes substitute the copulative AND for the adversative BUT without material change of the sense. But, as we have seen, even AND, the great connective of co-ordinate propositions, is sometimes employed to join propositions which in sense are really accessory or modifying; and BUT adversative (as well as BUT exceptive) is perhaps much oftener employed in the same way. Yet both AmTD and BUT are chiefly used to connect propositions essentially independent in sense, as well as inform. The real criterion of the independence of pro(11) Enumerate other subsidiary words employed in adversative construction. Repeat the remarks on their uses, and illustrate by examples. 474 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. 4~ 147 (12) In the analysis the manner of procedure is the samne as in the case of simple connection. The nature of the connection must be stated, whether adve~rsative or exceptive, distinguishing these froln each other, and adverting to the explanation given of the use of but=-only, when this word occurs in this peculiar use. (13) As to the punctuation, when but joins complete propositions, a comma is always inserted before but. (14) When other adversative words, as on the other hand, &c., are inserted, for the more full expression of adversative connection, we place a comma also after the whole connective phrase, separating it from both the propositions connected. Besides this, it is most usual, we think, to place a comma between but and the accompanying words, when both but and an adversative phrase are used. This is proper, if we suppose a verb suppressed, and that the connective is really made up of two contracted propositions. Thus, but on the other hand may be considered equivalent to be out or except this, that I add or say on the other hand. (15) When BUT exceptive is employed to connect a single word serving as a member or complement of an incompletely expressed proposition, it is not generally preceded by a comma, except when the connected word draws lengthened accompaniments after it. Thus, in the assertion, John has learnt all his lessons but one, a comma is not generally inserted before but. In "None of them is lost, but the son of perdition;" and " Neither was I taught it, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ," the comma is inserted. But in this matter usage is not consistent. Perhaps the comma should in all these cases be inserted. Before nUT for only the comma is not employed, as may be seen in the examples given already. When but adversative is separated from the proposition which it really connects by another proposition, or an adverbial phrase which requires interpunction, such proposition or phrase, of course, is separated from but and its proposition by commas. positions is the sense of the discourse, not invariably the fornm of the expression, or, in other words, the conjunction which is employed to connect them. The relation of propositions to one another is not always precisely indicated by the construction of discourse. It is not always necessary that their relation should be so indicated, because it is often rendered sufficiently clear by the train of thought. Neither AND nor BUT can be regarded as ever used for the express purpose of indicating subordination. (12) What is said of the mode of analysis? (18) What is the punctuation when buht separates complete propositions? (14) What when other adversative words are introduced? (15) What when but exceptive is employed to connect a single word? Ill strate by examples. ~ 148.] ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION 47b ExERCIsEs 1., II., &c. —Furnish examples of propositions connected adversatively by but and other adversative phrases. Examples of Exceptive Connection. Examples of butw-only. ~ 148. III. ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION.-(1) In discourse we often find occasion to introduce two distinct, independent propositions, with the intention of asserting one or the other, but not both. In many cases, we may not know which is to be asserted as true, while we are assured that one of them must be true: in other cases, we may not wish to express decisively which we think true, though we have perhaps formed a decided opinion. We therefore submit to the party addressed a choice between two or more alternatives, expressed by two or more independent propositions. (2) The word chiefly employed as a connective for this purpose is on. (3) As this word serves to conjoin alternative assertions, we may call it the Alternative Connective, or the Alternative Conjunction. We may illustrate this form of construction (of discourse) by the following examples. (4) These inen will govern their passions, on theirpassions will soon govern themn. Ile will act honorably in this matter, on I shall be greatly disappointed. (5) In such forms of expression an alternative is proposed; neither both propositions, nor one or other by itself is asserted absolutely, but some one of the two. If the first is admitted, the last is abandoned; and, if the first is abandoned, the last is admitted. If it is true, that the men will govern their passions, then I abandon the assertion that their passions will govern them; but if it is not true that they woill govern their passions, it is positively asserted that their passions will govern theml.* * It will be noticed that there is some kind of analogy between alternative propositions and conditional propositions. We can sometimes substitute the alternative form of construction for the conditional; or, in other words, we can express the same thought by the conditional and by the alternative form. In the one case we use negative, in the other affirmative proposi. tions. Example: If the boy does not study, I shall certainly znot countenarce his neglogence. Thye boy will stuedy, OR 1 will not countenance, &c. The alternative is a softened and weaker form (a hope is indicated in the example, that the boy will study); and here, as perhaps in all cases of the use of co~ 14S. (1) State the circumstances under which alternative construction is resorted to. (2) What word is used chiefly as connective? (3) low do we name it? (4) Give examples of this construction. (5) Illustrate with reference to the examples. (6) What fiequently happens in alternative construction? Gi ve examples of common 76C STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 148. (d) It haplpens most frequently that assertions connected alternatively have either a common predicate, or have a commnon subject. Thus, with common predicates, we have propositions of this form, William OR Robert will accompany us== William will accompany us, oR Robert will accompany us. With common subjects, of this form, Riches may become a blessing on prove a curse to their 2possessors. Sometimes also on is used to connect alternative complements; thus, I see a cloud onI a mountain dimly in the distant horizon. Such expressions can generally be readily resolved into two separate and complete propositions connected by the alternative conjunction. (7) But they cannot in all cases be so resolved. For example, Riches become a blessing on ac curse to their possessors, according. to the use which they make of them, cannot, without a change of the modifications of the predicate, be resolved into separate complete propositions. (8) The grammarians, we think, may safely admit that all co-ordina te conjunctions may be used to connect co-ordinate propositions, co-olrdinate subjects, and predicates of propositions and co-ordinate complements. See more of this in the additional observations on the co-ordinate conjunctions. (9) There is another distinct use of the conjunction on, in-which it is always placed between words and not between propositions, and performs a function which has exclusive reference to words. In this use it indicates what we may call verbal alternation, or the proposal of a choice of terms or signs of the same conception, not a choice of assertions or of conceptions. (10) Thus we say Alexander, on Paris, referring to the Trojan prince known by both names. Logic, on the art of reasoning. (11) Here on plainly connects words, and these mere.words, not words expressive of separate and distinct conceptions, but alternative names for the same conception. This use of on is so distinct fiom the preceding that some languages (Latin for example) have a word or sign for this peculiar purpose, altogether different from that employed to perform the first mentioned and more general function of on. ordinate for accessory construction, the former effects indirectly, by the aid of inference, that which the modifying construction effects directly and indicates explicitly. ppedicctes, &c. (7) Can such constructions be always resolved into scparate propositions I (8) What may grammarians safely admit in reference to the connection of co-ordinates? (9) Describe a distinct use of the conjunction on. (10) Ilustrate by esamples. (11) What does or plainly connect in this case? What is said of the equivalent for or thus emrloyed in other languages? ~ 148.] ALTERNATIVE CONNFOTIONC. 477 (12) When we wish to express alternation, or yropose a choice of assertions with greater emphasis, we employ the word EITHER before the propositions, besides using or to connect them. Thus, EITHER John on William is mistaken. (13) Some call EITHER, when thus employed, a conjunction; but it is here, as elsewhere, a determinative word, meaning one of two, and serves a purpose similar to that which BIOTH serves before co-ordinate propositions, members of propositions, &c., connected by and. The expression in the above example is equivalent to, ONE OF TWO things is asserted, Joh07 is mistaken, on William is mistaken. (14) If what we believe to be the proper sense of EITlER were strictly attended to, it should be used only when a choice of two coordinates is proposed; but the use of this word has been insensibly extended to cases where there are more than two alternatives proposed.* Thus, " Either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or- he is in a journey," &c. (15) The word ELSE is sometimes employed with or, sometimes without or for the purpose of connecting alternatives. Thus, William must go with us, ELSE I HWill not go - oR I -will not go. (16) The word otherwise is also employed in the same way to connect alternatives. Example: We must govern our passions, OTHERWISE toe shall become the worst of slaves. This is a more emphatic, but also a more stiff manner of indicating alternation. Or might be used before OTHERWISE, and consequently both else and otherwise may be regarded as modifications of or, just as we may regard besides, on the con7trary, &c. as modifications of and and but. (17) In like manner the phrase, in other: words, is used, sometimes alone, sometimes preceded by or to indicate alternation between two nodes of expressing the samle assertion, in the same manner as ori is employed to inci7cate alternation of single terms or signs. This may be regarded as a species of verbal alternative connection, viz.: the * The word alternative also means properly one of two, and in strictness ought not to be extended to a greater number; but we have ventured to depart, for the sake of convenience, from the strict usage. (12) What word is used where alternation is to be expressed with emphasis? Exam. ple? (13) What do some call EITIlER when thus employed? State objection. (14) What is said of the strict use of either? Give example of its use when there are more than two co-ordinates. (15) What is said of the use of the word elee in connecting alternatives? Example? (16) What of otherwise? Example? Is or used with ot/emccise? (17) Repeat what is said of the use of the phrase, in other words. Example? 478 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 18, species in which there is a choice presented of different modes of expressing the same assettion, or a choice of equivalent propositions. Ex. ample: That man has succeeded in the world, onR, IN OTHER WORDS, he has made a fortune; or simply, IN OTHER WORDS, lhe has made a fortune. (18) On may be regarded as the great sign of the alternative combination of propositions, members of propositions and complements. The other forms of expression are only subsidiary. (19) OR has a negative form onR, and- EITHER a negative form NEITHER. We must make a remark or two on the use of these negative forms. (20) Non is sometimes employed as a connective when we couple one negative proposition to another. In this case it is equivalent to AND NOT. Thus, John is NOT at home, Non is his brother - John is not at home, AND his brother is NOT at home. That man has NOT got money, NOR has, he got credit. In such constructions it will be observed that we place the subject after the verb. The poets do not restrict themselves to this mode of arrrangement. "What though his bowl Flames not with costly juice; nor sunk in beds, Oft of gay care, he tosses out the night," &c. (21) Neither is sometimes used in the same way.'" They toil not, neither do they spin," &c. (22) The more common and emphatic way of connecting two or more members of propositions or complements, in negative alternation, is to place NEITHER before the first, and NoR before the second, third, &c., if there are more than two. Examples: NEITIERn John NoR his brother is at home. That boy RNEITHER reads non writes. " Give me neither poverty nor riches." " I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, &c., shall be able to separate us from the love of God." (23) It will be observed that Non and NEITERn- nor express the negation of that which on and EITHER —-- 0o indicate; that is, they exclude an alternative. (18) -ovow may OR be regarded? How other forms employed in expressing alternation (19) What are the negative forms of oR and EITHER p (20) How is NOR sometimes employed? Examples? What is remarked about the arrangement? What is said of the poets? Example? (21) What is said of NEITHfER? CM) What is the more common and emphatic mode of connecting ntembsers of proposel lions and complements in negative alternation? Illustrate by an example. (23) What observation, is made in reference to nosr and neithez —tir? 5 148.] ALTERNATIVE CONNECTION. 479 (24) Observations on the poetical use of onR and NerT.-The poets often employ onR instead of EITHER, and Non instead of NEITHER before the first of two alternative propositions.* OR is most frequently found employed instead of EITHER) and NOR instead of NEITHER in connecting complements. Examples: " Whose greater power On bids you roar, oR bids your roaring cease." " OR other worlds they seemed, on happy isles." " OR floating loose, on stiff with mazy gold." In prose this would be expressed thus, EITHER bids you roar, On, &c. EITHER other worlds they seemed, onR happy isles. EITHER floating loose, on stiff, &c. "NoR wife, NOR children more shall he behold, NOR friends, nor sacred home." In prose this would be expressed thus, NEITHER wife, Nos children, &c. (25) In the poets NOR for and not, not only often follows an affir mative proposition, but commences a new sentence or section. "NoR less the palm of peace inwreathes thy brow." "NoR art thou skilled in awful schemes alone." " NoR purpose gay, Amusement, dance, or song, he sternly scorns." " NOR less at hand the loosened tempest reigns." In all these exalmples NOR commences a new sentence, as well as follows affirmative propositions. For who * * * * * * Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Non cast one longing, lingering look behind?" * This may perhaps be regarded as an imitation of the Latin usage. This language expresses emphatic alternative connection, by employing the same alternative conjunction before both propositions, or members of propositions or complements. We may remark that it also expresses emphatic simple connection or combination, by a similar repetition of the copulative. Thus, in Latin Vel-vel -= Either-or, Nec-nec = Neither-nor, Et —e Both —and. (24) Mention a usage of op, and nou peculiar to the poets. Give examples. (25) Describe a poetical use of nor, and illustrate by examples, 480 SIRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 148 Milton has employed NOR as equivalent to not even "For Heaven hides' nothing from thy view, NoR the deep tract of Hell." (26) The same mode of punctuation is adopted generally in alternative connection of discourse as in simple connection. Propositions completely expressed are separated by a comma. When members of propositions or complements take oR or Non between them the comma is generally omitted; though in this matter usage is far from uniform, as will be seen in: some of the examples above in which we ]lave followed the punctuation of the copies from which we have quoted. When several co-ordinate complements or members of propositions are connected and thle conjunction suppressed, a comma is always inserted. When alternative names are connected by or, the comma is usually interposed, as, Alexander, or Paris. ExERCISEus I., II., &c. —Furnish examples of propositions connected by onR and by EITHERn —OR; of the members of propositions-subjects and predicates so connected; and of complements so connected, (27) YET appears to be sometimes employed in; connecting co-ordinate propositions either alone or in connection with and, but, nor, &c. We believe, that, generally, in such cases it indicates the suppression of a concessive proposition. (See ~ 138: 5.) For example, " I have smitten thee with blasting and mildew, &c., YErT have ye not returned unto me"- AndTHOUGrT I have done this, ye have not returned unto me. A similar remark might, perhaps, be made in reference to the word still, when it apparently serves as the connective of co-ordinates. But:most generally this latter when placed thus between co-ordinates modifies some word in the latter proposition. (28) There are certain forms of expression employed to introduce explanatory matter, such as. O IT,, VIDELICET, usually expressed in writing by the contraction viz.; and NAMELY. These may all be regarded as a species of conjunctive contracted propositions. In analysis they may be designated conjunctive phrases used to introduce an explanation or enumeration of particulars. They are equivalent to such propositions as the following; I state particulars to help you to know, or that you may see for yoaurself, I give you names, or the names are, or by naime they are, or the like. To these we may add et ccetera, commonly written, &c., which indicates the connection or addition of unnamed particulars similar to those just enumerated. (26) Tell what is said of the interpunction of alternatives. (27) What is said of the use of YET in connecting co-ordinate propositions? (23) What is sald. of TO WIT, VIDELICET, NAMELY, and'&c? ~ 149.] CONNECTION OF PROPOSITIONS. RULES OF CONCORD. 481 ~ 149. (1) We have already, in.treating of simple propositions. given the rule of agreement, or of concord, as the grammarians call it between verbs and subject nouns of the singular and plural forms and of different persons; namely that the verb and subject must be of the same number and person. (2) Some further rules of concord become necessary in certain cases of combined construction, when two or more subject nouns having common predicates are, for the sake of abbreviation, connected by conjunctions and the predicate expressed once for them all together. (3) When two or more subjects are embraced in this manner under one common predicate, they are generally such as are connected by the copulative AND or tile alternatives on or Non. (4) In rare cases, indeed, BUT is employed between two subjects, but then tile verb manifestly applies only to the last subject, and is suppressed after the first. The same rule may be given for such cases of adversative- construction as for alternative construction. The facts, so far as regards the form of the verb agree, though we should rather, in the cases of adversative connection, explain the construction, as we have just said, by saying that there is a suppression oir ellipsis of the verb after the first subject. The following example will serve as a nmodel of the kind of construction which we mnean; Not interest, BUT duty ITAs determined his choice. Leaving out these rare cases of adversative construction to be treated as cases of the ellipsis or suppression of a verb, Or, if the reader chooses, to be brought under the rule for alternative subjects, we proceed to lay down rules applying to the case of subjects united by the copulative and of subjects united by the alternative conjunction. (5) The subjects may be all singular, or second, they may be all plural, or third, they may be some singular, and some plural. (6) Omitting the case when all the subjects are plural, because this manifestly comes under Rule I., given in reference to the agreement of verbs and subjects in simple propositions, we have only to do with the cases where all the subjects are singular, or some singular and some plural. (7) These cases need not be considered di'tinctly in giving a rule for subjects connected by the copulative, as it ~149. (1) Repeat the reference to a rule of concord already given. (2) In reference to wnat cases do farther rules become necessary? (3) How are several subjects emrnbaced under one assertion usually connected? (4) Tell what is said of constructions with but employed between two subjects. Give an example. (4) Enumerate three distinct cases of the combination of subjects. (6) Which of these cases may be left out of consideration, and why? (7) Is it necessary to consider these cases distinctly in giving a rule for the concord of verbs with subjects connected by the eopulalve? Give a reaso. 32 482 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 149 makes no difference whether these subjects are all singular, or partly singular, partly plural. Two subjects, though both singular, when coupled together and both embraced under the same assertion, form a plural and require a plural verb. This fact may be expressed thus as a rule of concord. RULE 1V.-(8) When an assertion is made by a single verb ir reference to two or more subjects conjointly, the plural form of the verb is employed; as, Integrity and industry DESERVE success. Pride and poverty ARE ill assorted companions. (a) This rule of course applies whether the copulative is employed or suppressed. Example of suppression: " Love, wonder, joy alternately alarm." (9) We need not give a rule in English for the case in which subjects connected by the copulative are of different persons, since the plural form of all our verbs is always the same for all three persons. (b) ExERCISES I., IT., &c.-The learner will furnish examples of propositions having a plurality of subjects in simple connection. NOTE (a).-It is only when the assertion is made of the singular subjects conjointly that this rule applies. There are cases in which AND (as well as BUT) is employed between two subjects, and yet the assertion does not apply to both but only to one of the subjects. Thus, John, AND not James, Is to blame. Sometimes two nouns connected by the copulative, express but one single subject, in which case the verb is of the singular number; as, This great philosopher AND good maMn LIVES in poverty. Similar to this is the case when an author employs two nouns of kindred meaning, to express more fully a single conception; as, "Their safety and welfare is most concerned." Some writers seem to have lnitated the Latin and Greek authors, who often make the verb accord in number and person with the last subject, and leave it to be supplied with the others. We do not condemn this practice as inconsistent with any general fixed principle or law of language. If it were a usage universally adopted in such cases, to make the verb, when there are two or more subjects, agree invariably with the last, and leave it to the party addressed to supply it in its proper form with the rest, the grammarian would have no reason to object. But general good usage does not in our language sanction this mode of expression. The employment of the plural form of the verb, in all cases where the assertion embraces two (8) Repeat PTrLen IV. (9) Why is no rule necessary when the subjects are of different persons ~ 149.] CONNECTION OF PROPOSITIONS. RULES OF CONCORD. 483 distinct subjects, is so completely established that every tyro in grammar is ready to detect and condemn as blunders all aberrations from this fixed usage. We recommend in such cases conformity to the general custom of the language. But when men of education have chosen, on some occasions, to adopt a mode of construction not uncommon in the most respectable Greek and Latin classics, we think it improper to regard such variations from the ordinary construction as blunders. The grammarian steps out of his place, as we have had occasion before to observe, when he attempts to legislate in regard of language. His business is to investigate and describe the usages of language, and to account for them, if he can; but not to dictate what they ought to be. lie may with propriety distinguish anomalous and clumsy, or otherwise objectionable forms of expression, and caution the learner against imitating them, though they may be found in writers of the highest celebrity; but he ought not to stigmatize as blunders forms which have obtained the sanction of reputable usage. Some examples may be found in respectable authors, of a singtular noun connected with others by the preposition with taking the plural form of the verb; as if, for example, we were to say, John with his brothers ARE going to the country. We would not imitate this model of construction. Tenses connected together should be all of the same form, whether simple, emphatic, or jprogressive. Thus, The man EATS and DRINKS, or The man is EATING and (is) DRINKING. DOES he EAT and (does he) DRINK, or Is he eating and drinking. Verbs of different times, however, are often connected by the copulative in the same construction; John ARRIVEED this morning, and WILL GO AWAY this evening. The tense to be used must be determined by the sense, and a knowledge of the functions which each tense performs; not by the connection. NOTE (b).-In languages which have distinct forms for the several plural persons, the rule is the same as when individuals of different persons are united under the same plural pronoun. If 6ne of two or more individuals performs the part of the first person, (namely, that of speaker,) the plural. pronoun is the first person, and the plural verb is, of course, the same person. Again, if of two or more individuals one performs the part of the second person, (the party addressed,) and the rest the part of third persons, (that is, of parties only spoken of,) the plural pronoun is the second person, and the verb, of course, is of the same person. The pronouns and verbs are of the third plerson plural, when all the individual subjects represented by the pronouns are only spoken of-that is, in other words, when both the speaker and the party addressed are excluded. R1ULE V.-(10) When two or more singular subjects are connected by the alternative conjunction OR, the verb employed is of (10) Repeat RunE V. 484 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 149. the singular form; as, James or IWTilliam Is going to accompany me. That the verb should be singular follows from the fact that the assertion applies only to one of the subjects, not to both. RULE VI.-(1 1) When two or more singular subjects are connected by the negative alternative nor, the verb employed is of the singular form, as, Xeither Jamzes nor William is about to accompany me. (12) In this case, though the verb is of the singular form, the negat;ion applies to both subjects. It is denied that either one or other is about to accompany me. The assertion is to be regarded as made of the two subjects separately viewed, or as suppressed in the first, and to be supplied from the second proposition. There are exceptions found to these two rules; but they are rare in English, and not to be imitated. RULE VII.-(13) When two subjects, the one singular, the other plural, are connected in the same assertion by on or by NOR, if the latter is plural, the plural form of the verb is employed; if the latter, on the contrary, is singular, the verb is singular. This is when the verb follows the subjects, which is generally the case; if not it agrees with the nearest subject. In other words, when two subjects, the one singular, tlhe other plural, are connected in the same assertion by the conjunctions Or or nor, the verb is of the number of the nearest subject. For example, Either the master or his servants ARE to blame. Either the servants or the master is to blame. Neither the master nor the servants ARE to blame..NTeither the servants nor the master is to blame. (14) We are not certain that as regards this last rule examples of a contrary usage may not be found. in reputable authors, but we believe that it may be followed with safety in all cases. (15) When subjects of different persons are connected by on or NOR It is more difficult to settle the usage. Most of the grammarians agree (11) Repeat RirLE VI., with example. (12) Repeat the remark about the extent of the negation in this case. Any exceptions to the two preceding rules? (18) Repeat RULE VII., particularly the second form of it with examples. (14) What is said of exceptions? (15) What is the opinion of most grammnarians in reference to the concord of verbs witt g 150.] OBSERVATION:S ON BUT = ONLY. 485 that the verb should be of the same person with the nearest subject, -hat is, with the last, except in some few instances in which the verb precedes the subject nouns. (16) Others contend that all construc"ions with a single verb applied to subjects alternatively connected of variant persons or variant numbers should be avoided. (17) But the fact is, they have not been avoided, but have been used by good authors. (18) Generally speaking the practice is the salne in regard of variant persons as variant numbers; namely, the verb is made to agree with the nearest. (19) The employment of singular and plural alternative subjects to the same verb, it seems to us may be always practised with propi'iety according to RULE VII.; but the use of different persons in this kind of elliptical construction is sometimes excessively awkward. (20) Whenever this happens it is advisable to repeat the verb with each subject, and complete both propositions. Thus, instead of Either the boy or 1 AM wrong, we. may better complete the construction and say, Either the boy Is'wrong, or I aon worong. With this explanation we lmay give as, RULE VIII.-(21) WVhen subjects of different persons are connected alternatively in the samne assertion, the verb agrees in person with the nearest subject. ExEucIsrEs I., II., &c.-Furnish examples to illustrate RULES V., VI., VII., VIII. ~ 150. We here add some additional explanation of the use of BUT equi valent to only, drawn partly from Mr. II. Tooke. We commence by selecting two examples (furnished by Mr. Tooke) fiom Chaucel; of the full construction with the negative expressed. "For myn entent is Nor BUT to play." "That I may have NAT (not) BUT my meate and drinke." " We should now say my intent is BUT to play," &e. We add two more examples from Chaucer. "All N' s5 BUT conseil to virginitee." "For gentillesse N' IS BUT the renommee Of their auncestres, for hir (their) high bountee," &c. subjects of different persons connected by OR or NOR? (16) What do others think? I T) What has in fact happened already in the use of language? (18) Repeat what has leeu the general practice as to concord. (19) What opinion is asserted bytthe author? (20) What advice is given, when the connection of subjects of different persons leads to awkward forms of expression? (21) Repeat RULE VIII. 486 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. j~ 150 We should now say, "All is BUT counsel t visYinzi:; and Gentillesse is BUT the renown, &c. 1' is = Ne is = is not. "The omission of tile negative before BUT," says IH.'ooke, " though now very common, is one of the most blamable and corrupt abbreviations of construction which is used in our language," &c. Dr. Noah Webster says, " This use of but is a modern innovation." The term "modern" is rather va~gue. We shall not therefore venture to contradict Dr. Webster's assertion. We state the fact, that BUT was employed in the manner described above, the manner to which Dr. Webster refers, before the middle of the sixteenth century. We find but thus employed in Tyndale's version, 1534; Cranmer's, 1539, and in the Geneva version, 1557. We give Tyndale's translation of Mark 5: 28, already quoted, as an example from the authorized version. "For she thought: yf I maye but touche his clothes," &ce. We find examples of this use even as early as the foulteenth century. "But that ligt thing of oure tribulacioun that lastith now BUT as it were bi a momente," &c., Wiclif, 1380. The following are from Wiclif's cotemporary, Chaucer: "Now, sire, quod she, BUT o (one) word er I go." Cant. Tales, line 7433. We have noted another example, but have lost the reference: "Which that am BUT lorne,": am BUT lost = only lost. Dr. Webster may well say that this use is "perhaps too firmly established to be corrected." IHe adds, "The common people in America retain the original correct phrase, -usually employing, a negative. They do not say, I have but one. On the other hand, they say, I llave not but one," (pronounced I haven't but one); "that is, I have not except one-except one, and I have none." lWebst. Dict., art. But. It might possibly be objected to this explanation of the use of but equivalent to only, that, if we introduce the negative before but thus used, the sense is in some cases entirely changed. Thus, we say, IHe can BuT fail in his atiemppt, and He canfNOT BUT fail in his attempt. The first expression is equivalent to, Ile can OsNL fail, nothing more; the last to, He can do nothing else but vmust fail (so far as the opinion of the speaker is concerned), in his attempi. The objection drawn from such examples as this is not, we think, insu perable. We can readily imagine that, after the suppression of the negative, originally used, had become idiomatic, and had been forgotten, it was found convenient to give some of these idiomatic expressions a negative form This seems to us the probable history of the usage on which the supposed objection rests. To illustrate by an example, when the pr'OpOSition, lIe can BiUT fail in the attemrpt, had become idiomatic-the received formula to express, lie can. ONLY fail inl the attempt, there would appear no objection to ~ 151.] THE TRANSITIONS OF THE WORD BUT. 487 affix the particle not to can for the purpose of expressing, He cannot (do any thing), or he can do nothing ONLYfail. Both forms of expression may be regarded as idiomatic and elliptical, and as expressing a sense which could scarcely be ascertained by a mere reference to the ordinary laws of language. We must in addition have recourse to the history of the language, if we would trace such usages successfully. In such cases, the whole expression has come, by conventional usage, to bear a meaning which is not to be discovered by ascertaining the proper import of the several words and their construction. This seems to us the proper description of idiomatic expressions. In forming all such, the laws of language-the fixed principles which have generally guided its development-have been held in abeyance, and a conventional sanction has been given to the products of accident, or of the caprice of fashion. We see no reason, because of such examples as that now considered, for refusing to acquiesce in the account of this singular use of the word BUT given by Mr. Tooke, and sanctioned by Dr. Webster and other lexicographers and grammarians. We cannot give the same ready acquiescence, as will be seen presently, to some other opinions advanced by Mr. Tooke in reference to this word. ~ 151. The word BUT performs such important andC various and apparently dissimilar functions in our language, that it has given occasion to much speculation among grammarians and philologists. For these reasons, we subjoin a few additional observations, in which we shall attempt to trace the steps by which it has made the transition from the earliest use, with which we are acquainted, to that which is apparently its latest, and, certainly, its most common use at the present time. We are the more induced to do this, because the accounts commonly given of the origin of the adversative and exceptive uses of BUT do not appear to us completely satisfactory. We cannot acquiesce in some of the rash conclusions which Mr. H. Tooke defends in his usual dictatorial manner. We shall subject his reasonings to a brief examination, reject what appears to us inconclusive, and endeavor to trace the probable history of the transition from the exceptive to the adversative use of this very important word. The word but was employed in the earliest times in a sense distinct from any ini which it is now employed. It seenas to have been nearly equivalent to without, and to have had a just claim to be considered a preposition. Mr. Tooke, in his attempt to establish a distinction between bult and bora has furnished a host of examples of this apparently original use of but from Gawin Douglas's Translation of the Eneid. We give a few of these examples in the briefest manner consistent with our purpose, and refer the inquisitive reader to the Diversions of Purley (article on the word but), for the passages in connection with these examples. "Thare is gret substance ordanit the BUT dout.." 488 STRUCT'URE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 151. In modern English, There is great substance (wealth, fortune) ordained (de creed) to thee WITHOUT doubt. "And als mony nychtes BUT sterneys leme." And as many igyhts WITHOUT star-light. "Before Eneas feite stude, BUT delay." - Before.zEneas' feet stood WmIOUT delay." "Bot of the bargane maid end, BUT delay." We have followed the pointing of Mr. Taylor's edition of the Diversions of Purley. We see no reason, however, for using the comma in the last two examples, if it is unnecessary in the first two. In all these passages BUT is employed, like a preposition, before single nouns. It connects a word-complenment, not a proposition-complement MIr. Tooke draws no distinction between this use of but and its still current use, to express exception. No doubt, the two uses are allied, and we believe the present exceptive use has originated from the more ancient use exhibited above. Still there is a marked transition from the one to the other In not one of these passages could except or save be substituted for BUT, as they can generally, if not universally for but exceptive. Compare with these examples, John has learnt all his lessons BUT one. "All but the wakeful nightingale." Here but is manifestly equivalent to except, save. Examples of the use of BUT similar to those above from Gawin Douglas are, we believe, to be found chiefly in Scotch authors. This use is rarely found in the writers of South Britain, of even the earliest date. Mr. Tooke has attempted to prove that BUT adversative, employed to connect a proposition in some respect opposed to the tenor of the preceding discourse, is a word entirely distinct from BUT employed for the other pur poses above mentioned; and his conclusions in reference to this matter: have been followed by many since his time, apparently without much examination. This adversative but is, according to Mr. Tooke's view, the inmperative of an Anglo-Saxon verb botaL to boot, and was spelled bot; whereas but is the imperative of be-utan, to be out. In reference to Mr. Locke, he remarks, "It was the corrupt use of this one word (BUT) in modern English, foi two words (noT and BUT) originally (in the Anglo-Saxon) very different in signification, though (by repeated abbreviation and corruption) approaching in sound, which chiefly misled him." By this passage we Inig't be led to conclude that bot, distinct from but, is found employed as a conjunction in the Anglo-Saxon language. The word bot or bote meaning boot, advantage, remedy, is indeed found in Anglo-Saxon employed as a noun. But we doubt whether this word was ever used alone in Anglo-Saxon or old English, as a conntective. (To bote, is sometimes used to mean moreover.) As to the verb botan, and its imperative bot or bote, we can find no reason to believe that they ever existed, except in the imaginations of Mr. Tooke and sonime of his followers. ~ 151;] TI-IE TRANSITIONS OF THE WORD BUT. 489 We suspect that bot in Gawin Douglas is only a variation in spelling, the orthography of those times being, as Mr. Tooke himself admits, very un. settled. IMr. Richardson in his dictionary has given examples of bot and bote from Robert of Gloucester and others; but in these examples there is no distinction maintained between but and bot or bote. Bot and bote are used on several occasions, when the sense is plainly butan, except. As, for:-example, "Ne that no mran ys wurthe to be ycluped (called) Kyng. Bote the heye king of heuene," &c. "That in all the lond suld be no king bot he." Bote and bot are plainly here employed for but = except, and not for the adversative but. Such examples show that the authors, to whom Mr. Tooke aad Mr. Richardson appeal, are not to be relied on to establish the different origin of the adversative but, and but - without and except, since they spell the word in all these senses indifferently bot or bote or but. Mr. Richardson himself, as well as the authors whom he quotes, seems to confound these meanings of but, which he meant to separate. He has arranged one, if not two, examples under but or bot, which should have been, on his principles, placed under but. We refer to the citations from fHolland, Plinie, &c., and from Feltham. The last is perhaps doubtful. See Richardson's.Diet. Art. But. Examples of butae. or buton used in the adversative sense of our modern but are not, we suspect, to be found in Anglo-Saxon. The connection which we express by but adversative seems to have been expressed invariably in that language by ac; never by bot, as an incautious reader of the Diversions of Purley might be led to suppose. No trace of ac thus used (except it is in eke) remains in our language. Its place seems to have been supplied not by bot from botart-n-the invention of Mr. Tooke-but by an insensible extensionz of the exceptive but. The transition from the exceptive use of but to but adversative, in cases where it has the greatest force, does not appear to us so violent as Mr. Tooke represents it. Let us take for example that passage in the 115th Psalm; "They have mouths, but they speak not, eyes have they, but they see not," &c. The transition from the exceptive to the use here found does not seem to us much wider than from the use equivalent to the preposition witlhout to the exceptive sense. And yet Mr. Tooke thinks these so much alike that he does not recognise them as distinct. By but exceptive we except a complementary word, by but adversative a proposition. The first, in other words, indicates an exception from a proposition, the latter an exception from the discourse-from the train, of thought. Mr. Tooke seems to us to have been led, by his attempt to support a foregone conclusion, to rob but adversative of an essential part of its significance. It fits his pur. pose to make it mean only add, and in this way he has entirely destroyed 11 distinction between this word and AND. 490 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 151 It may be added that Mr. Tooke admits that ancient authors have not consistently observed the distinction between bot and but. He confesses that no trace of it can be found in Chaucer, and we can find none in Wiclif's New Testament, printed by Bagster from a good manuscript. We certainly see no necessity for the high-handed course pursued by Mr. Tooke in order to account for the distinction between but adversative and but exceptive. But we do not presume to pronounce a positive opinion. We leave the question to be settled by those who possess sufficient acquaintance with Anglo-Saxon, and old English literature, in which we do not pretend to be versed. We regard Mr. Tooke's rash and confident ipse dixit as of no weight in the case before us, and consider the question open for discussion. In the mean time we have traced the transition of but from one meaning to another, so far as we have been able to do it by the helps accessible to us. To sum up the results we have, 1st. BUT = -WITIOUT. This is likely the primary use of this word, and likely enough, as H. Tooke and others allege, both the Anglo-Saxon butan or buton and this are the imperative be-utan of beon-utan. It is now found almost exclusively in the older Scotch writers, and is, perhaps, the same word still used adverbially in the colloquial Scotch in the expression gang BUT -= go out. 2d. BUT= EXCEPT. This meaning, like the last, is usually traced to the original sense of the compound be-utan, be out = except. Both these meanings are expressed in the Anglo-Saxon by butan or buton. 3d. BT r= ONLY. This is the same as the last when the negative is supplied. So far we accept the account given by Mr. Tooke & Co. 4th. BUT Adversative. This indicates, as we have already shown, the addition or connection of something variant from what precedes; or perhaps we may venture to say an exception in reference to the train of the discourse, whereas but in the second sense indicates an exception in reference to the proposition in which it is employed. There remains a point yet to be settled. With what class of words shall we arrange BUT E xceptive? When employed in the first-mentioned manner as equivalent to without, the Anglo-Saxon grammarians call it a preposition. and class it with those which take after them a dative case; with this use we have nothing to do in this place, as it is long since entirely obselete. BUT exceptive has also been recognised by many of our late grammarians, and by some lexicographers as a preposition. But if but exceptive is a preposition, it should, according to the definition which these same grammarians give of a preposition, take the noun which it connects always in the acccusative case. This we think it never does, according to the most reputable usage of the language, except when the accusative which follows is plainly the objective modification of a verb suppressed. For example, we consider, There is nobody here BUT 1, the tlrue corstruction, and not, Theere is nobody lhere nBr ~ 151.] TRANSITIONS OF THE WORD BUT. 491 ME. When this expression is fully developed, it would be, There is nobody here BIUT Z am here -except I am here.'When the verb suppressed is an active verb, and the noun after but would, if the verb were supplied, stand to it in the relation of objective modification, we place this noun in the accusative thus, I sate nobody BUT IIn = I saw nobody but, or, except I saw himn. That is, I saw nobody BE OUT I saw him. In this form I saw him is subject to the conjunctive verb BE OUT. We believe that examples may be found in reputable authors of the use of an accusative dependent on but alone; but we think they are not to be imitated. We subjoin a few examples of what we consider the correct usage of the language in this matter, as well as the general usage of educated speakers and writers. The intelligent reader will readily perceive that the older these examples are the more weight they have in determining the question before us. If old, they prove that the present usage is not a modern refinement of the educated classes, or based on grammatical theories, but the effect of spontaneous development. We adduce first a line already quoted from one of our oldest English authors: "That in alle the loud suld be no king but nIE." "There is none other but he." Mark 12: 32. He hath not grieved me but in part." "Neither was I taught it but by the revelation of Jesus Christ." In all these examples, whether we say that but connects a complementary proposition, or that it only connects a complementary word, it is obvious that it has not the characteristic of a preposition. In the first two examples it is followed by a nominative case, in the last two by a preposition. It is not perhaps uncommon to hear persons use me after but where me cannot be the objective modification of any other word. Perhaps the same persons might be found to say, there is nobody in the house but he, and yet say, there is nobody here but me. This may be attributable to the fact to be noticed in another place (See ~ 155: 12), that in the language of the uneducated me is used as nominative in all cases where it is not manifestly the immediate subject-noun to a verb. Thus, the answer of the uneducated classes to the question, Who is there? is universally ME. In the same manner the accusative (or rather in this case we should say the. dative) is still used by the uneducated after comparatives and than, as He is taller THAN MPE. We may place these expressions on a level with, There is nobody here BUT DIE, as regards purity of language. The dative after than has perhaps stronger claims to be recognised as English than the accusative after but; and consequently than has as great if not greater claims than but to be considered sometimes a preposition. We may cite Milton as authority for the ise of a dative or accusative after than. "Belial came last, THAN WHOM_ a spirit more lewd Fell not from Heaven," &c. The present usage of correct writers and speakers, we believe, is to avoid 492 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 152 all constructions alike, in which either BUT or TIIAN take after them an ohlique case, which is not the modification of some other word expressed or implied in the discourse. In a word then, we consider but as now employed in our language a conjunctive word, (a conjunctive proposition, if you please), not a preposition; though the old but - without was rightly considered a preposition, that is, a word used in connection with a single word employed to modify a principal word, as distinguished from a word used to connect either two propositions, or two independent modifications of the same proposition or the same principal word. In the following passage from,Elfric's Colloquium, we have beautiful examples of buton conjunction and butan preposition. Whether the distinction here observable in the spelling is intentional or not, we are not able to determine. "Ne canst thee huntian BUTON mid nettum?" Ccanst thou not (or knowest thou not how to) hunt EXCEPT with nets? = EXCEPT to hunt with rnets. This usage exactly agrees with that of but exceptive in the language of the present day. Buton here connects either two prorp)sitions or two independent modifications of canst (or perhaps huntian), according as we choose to supply the construction. The answer to the above question is, " Gea, BUTAN nettum huntian ic maeg." Yes, I can hunt WITIOUT nets. Here butan is a preposition and with the dative nettunz forms a noun and preposition modification of the infinitive huntian. ON TIIE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS, ~ 152. We may here submit a few remarks onl a subject which has caused some controversy among grammarians; we mean the distinction which separates the two classes of words called prepositions and conjunctions. The more ancient grammarians have generally represented prepositions and conjunctions as having the common property of serving as connectives, and as distinguished by the sole fact, that prepositions connect only words, and conjunctions connect only propositions. Many of the modern grammarians contend, on the contrary, that conjunctions sometimes connect words, as well as propositions. All admit that two or more subjects, two or more predicates, and two or more similar and independent complements may be united by a conjunction; but the first-mentioned class, including some recent grammarians, as well as the more ancient, contend that in all such cases the discourse may be resolved into as many propositions, as there are similar members of a proposition connected by conjunctions. Thus, John AND James are studious, may be resolved into the two independent propositions, John is studious, and James is studious. John reads AND writes, may be resolved into the propositions, John reads, and Jozhn writes. TVilliam studies Greek AND mathematics, into William studies Greek^, and William studies mathematics. The other class of grammarians contend that words are sometimes con ~ 152.] CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. 493 nected together by conjunctions, when no such resolution into separate propositions can be effected. They present in confirmation of this fact such examples as the following: "A man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect character." " Three and three make six." " The sides AB, Be, and cA form a triangle." "John and Mary are a handsome couple." "John and Thomas carry a sack to the market." "Here (to use the language of Dr. Crombie) it is not implied that a man of wisdom is a perfect character; but a man of wisdom combined with virtue." It is not implied that John is a handsome couple, or that fa1ry is a handsome couple; that John carries a sack to the market, or that Thomas carries a sack to the market, but that they jointly carry the sack. Dr. Latham (First Outlines, p. 21), as quoted by Sir John Stoddart, says, "The answer to this lies in giving the proper limitation to the predicates. It is not true that John and Thomas each carry a sack; but it is true that they each of them carry. It is not true that each three makes six; but it is true that each three makes (i. e. contributes to the making). As far then as the essential parts of the predicate are concerned, there are two propositions; and it is upon the essential parts only that a grammarian rests his definition of a conjunction." We are astonished at the authoritative air with which Dr. Latham propounds this argument, and at the readiness with which Sir John Stoddart approves it, and avails himself of it. Suppose we propose as an example, John and Mfary are a couple whom all their neigh. bors admire, how will Dr. Latham give us a "proper limitation," so as to exclude the word couple? And how will he apply his arbitrary method of limitation to the following proposition, Two and three are five? Will he say that are, which he represents, in common with other grammarians, as per forming solely the function of copula, is the essential part of the predicate? Dr. Latham's argument appears to us wholly unsatisfactory, and Sir John's commentary does not seem to help it. If the definitions of prepositions and conjunctions given by the old grammarians were worth defending, (which we think they alre not,) it seems to us the best mode of defence to maintain boldly, that a plurality of subjects constitutes a plurality of propositions, and that in the words, John and MIary are a happy couple, two propositions are found, because there are two distinct subjects. In the whole of this controversy it has been taken for granted by one party, (and not explicitly denied by some of their opponents,) that there is little functional distinction between conjunctions and prepositions, save as regards the classes of expression which they come between. So far as concerns the conjunetions which connect co-ordinate propositions, and it is in reference to these exclusively that the controversy has originated, we think this a great mistake. The functions of this class of conjunctions are essentially distinct both fi-om those of prepositions and fiom those of the conjunctions and conjunctive words which connect accessories with principal propositions. Both prepositions and this last-named class of conjunctives are employed as we have before intimated in forming mnodifications, the pre 494 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 15 positions with a noun, the conjunctives with a proposition. Sometimes the same word is employed for both these purposes. When employed in the first way the grammarians choose to call it a preposition, when in the latter way a conjunction. Between these two classes of words as defined by the grammarians, we admit freely, that the distinction, often the sole distinction is, that the one class performs a function between words, the other between propositions. But the class of conjunctions which we are now considering, and the only class involved in the controversy, serve a purpose totally distinct from prepositions and the conjunctives of accessories. They are not employed to indicate the connection of modifications, but the connection of co-ordlinate or independent expressions. Now, as modifying expressions sometimes consist of single words or phrases, sometimes of propositions; so, co-ordinate expressions, that is, expressions which we have occasion to connect in co-ordinsate conzstruction, may sometimes happen to be single words or phrases, as well as propositions. We have occasion in fact, as we have already seen, to connect independent propositions having no modifying influence on each other, to connect independent members of propositions, and to connect independent modifications. We mean, of course, independent of each other. As this coordinate coznnection is a very simple function, it is altogether unnecessary to employ different words to unite these several classes of co-ordinates. Another reason for employing the same words to connect these differe.lt classes of coordinates is, that co-ordinate members, and co-ordinate modifications can very generally be readily expanded into complete independent propositions. But cases occur, in which this is perhaps impossible, and attempts to effect it are fruitless, and lead, as we have seen, to absurdities. If the distinct functions of the two great classes of conjunctive words had been properly exhibited, the grammarians would likely have kept clear of this cor.troversy. At least, so we think. CHAPTER XI. OF INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATORY WORDS AND PHRASES. ~ 153. IJNTERJECTIONS. —(1) In the introduction we distinguished two species of language or great classes of signs used as means of intercommunication between different minds, namely, the natural and the artificial; and we remarked, that (what are called) interjections belong to the first of these classes. (2) This class of words does not, as we may suppose, claim a large share of attention from the grammarian, whose proper province is to investigate the structure of artificial or articulate language. (3) Yet as interjections enter into the structure of discourse, and even, as we shall see, sometimes of compound propositions, we must not pass them over with entire neglect. (4) The name interjection, meaning something thrown betweeJn, has been given to this class of signs, because they are thrown between the parts of discourse; not between the parts of speech or parts of pro. positions, as some lhave inconsiderately asserted. (5) As we have said already, they may be regarded as portions of natural language super. added to artificial language. (6) When naturally introduced, they spring spontaneously from the emotion of the speaker or writer, serving to give animation to discourse, or to express feelings more briefly and more impressively than can be done by artificial speech. (7) One distinguishing circumstance to be remarked in reference to this class of signs is, that each of them expresses a particular feeling or emotion completely, and so is equivalent to a proposition. ~ 153. (1) What is referred to as mentioned in the introduction? (2) Do interjections claim much attention from the grammarian? Reason? (3) Why may they not be altogether overlooked? (4) What is the meaning of the name interjection? (5) How may these words be regarded? (6) From what do they spring when naturally introduced, and what purposes do they serve? (7) Mention an important circumstance in reference to this class of words 496 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 153. (8) Since in this case propositions are expressed by single signs, there is no structure, so far as a solitary interjection is concerned; and, therefore, no work for the grammarian-no analysis of a simple proposition. (9) Thus 0, often spelled oh, is equivalent to I vish, de sire, &c., in a weaker or stronger degree, according to the force given to the sound in utterance. Oh (Scotice and more expressively och) - Ifeel pain, or anguish. Ah = I am filled with wonder, surprise, &c. Alas - I feel grief, sorrow, pity, &c. Lo = the imperatives look, behold, see, &c. These are the only interjections which find a place often in dignified discourse. (10) In writings of a dramatic character, exhibiting colloquial discourse, and in ordinary conversation many other words of this class enter.* (11) We have one more (and an important) remark to make in reference to this class of words. Interjections being, as we have said, equivalent to propositions, like other propositions, some of them admit of modification by accessory propositions. (12) This fact is perhaps most remarkable in the case of 0, or oh, the interjection expressive of wishing. This word frequently takes after it a substantive accessory as objective modification to the verb which is implied in it. (13) Examples: " Oh that I had wings like a dove." -I wisI that I had wings like a dove. " Oh that I were as in months past," &c. " Oh that I * We subjoin the following classified list of the principal words generally recognised by grammarians as interjections, borrowed chiefly from Dr Crombie, with some suppressions, additions and modifications: 1. Interjections expressive of joy, as hey, io, &c. 2. Of grief: oh, ah, las alack. 3. Of wonder: ah! hah I aha! hah! 4. Of wishing: 0, oh. 0 is often used with the vocative or case of address. 5. Aversion or contempt: tush, pshaw, fie, poh, pugh. 6. Laughter: ha ha. 7. Desire of attention: lo, halloo, hem. 8. Languor: heigh ho. 9. Desire of silence: hush, hist, mum. 10.: Deliberation: hum. 11. Exultation: huzza, hurrah, &c. 12. Pain: oh. It will be observed here that the same word, that is, a word represented by the same characters in writing, is used to express very different emotions; but then the word is very differently uttered, with a sound and intonation in each case accommodated to the emotion, so that in the spoken language these words may be regarded as in fact different signs, or distinct utterances. The above list might be greatly enlarged, without introducing into it, after the example of the grammarians, exclanmatory words and phrases. (8) What follows from this circumstance? (9) Give examples of the use of the princi. pal inteljections. (10) In what kind of writings do interjections chiefly occur? (11) What other important circumstance is mentioned in reference to interjections! (12) In what case is the fact mentioned most remarkable? (13) Give examples. ~ 154.] EXCLAMATORY WORDS AND PHRASES. 49' knew where I might find him."' Oh that there were such an heart,n theln."'" Oh, that this too, too solid flesh would melt." (14) The proposition which follows lo might, perhaps, be regarded in the same way as accessory to it; for example, in expressions of this form, "Lo the winter is past," &c. We are rather inclined to consider lo, in such expressions as equivalent to a simple imperative proposition, like the exclamatory words, behold, see, employed for the purpose of calling the attention of the party addressed, and the following proposition as independent. (15) What is here said may be extended to many imperatives used in exclamation. (16) The vocative or case of address is used also for the purpose of arresting attention, and like these imperatives stands independent, and does not mingle in the construction of the neighboring proposition. It may be said to be used in an interjectional way. ~ 154. EXCLAnrATORY WonPs ArND P1IRASEs. —(1) Exclamatory words and phrases often serve a purpose very similar to that which interjections serve. (2) The distinction is that interjections serve only the purpose mentioned, but the exclamatory words are signs of articulate language, and are most commonly employed like other words in forming regular propositions. (3) Indeed these exclamatory words and phrases should, perhaps, always be treated as contracted propositions, and in analysis, the learner should be taught to supply the ellipsis, when there is a suppression of the parts essential to a complete proposition. This is the only method of obtaining a satisfactory explanation of this kind of expressions; and when this is done, they are brought within the reach of the ordinary rules for the analysis of propositions. We need not include among exclamatory words and phrases expressions which are manifestly complete propositions. Yet some forms of expression which have been enumerated even among the inteijections ought to be considered as propositions. (4) Such are the imperatives, behold, begone, hail, hold, oo1007, cark, &c. WVhen these ~occur there is perhaps seldom any necessity of supplying a word. (5) They are the imperative in its usual form, with the subject implied. Such of these verbs as are active either have an objective modification (14) What is said of lo in reference to talking an acces3ory? (15) To what class of words does this remark extend? (16) What is said of the case of address? ~ 154. (i) What kind of purpose do exclamatory words and phrases serve? (2) What is the distinction between themn and interjections? (3) IIow should they-, perhaps, be treated? (4) Mention some forms of expression improperly classed as exclamatory or as inteijoctiens. (5) What is said of these words? 33 498 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 154. implied, or take the following proposition, or someti: nes a larger portion of the following discourse as their objective modification or limitation. (6) In the use of many other exclamatory expressions there is an obvious ellipsis. (7) For example: Welcome - (you are) wellcome; it is well, I am glad, that you have come. Adieu = To God (i connend you.) XHe misecab le, perhaps - It is MISERABLE in reference to me, or, It is MISERABLE r for ME. MIE in all such cases is likely a remnant of the Anglo-Saxon dative. (8) A "a me! Alas for him! and similar exclamations may, perhaps, be regarded as exhibiting a mixture of natural and articulate or organized language. Ale and foir him are either dative and noun and preposition complements to the verbal conception included in ah and alas respectively, or they are used elliptically instead of accessories to these verbal conceptions. Ah sne - I feel sorrow for mne, or, I fel sor'row, as regards me (Inyself). (9) TVould God, and Would to God are also sometimes used in tihe exclamatory way without a subject. We have examples both with the subject suppressed and with the subject expressed. " Wvould God it were morning!" "W ]ould to God ye could bear with me." "I would to God ye did reign." " I would to God, that not only thou," &c. Acts 26: 29. A comparison of these passages affords a satisfactory explanation of the ellipsis. (10) The true way of explaining all such exclamatory expressions is to expand them into propositions. If the grammarian thinks this business lies out of his path, he will content himself with calling them exclamatory expressions. The learner must not hope in all cases to succeed by this process of expansion or development in obtaining propositions which will express the intended meaning with the same spirit and energy as the exclamatory word; but if we can succeed in transforming such expressions into a proposition, giving the sense even in a homely and flat manner, it affords a test, and perhaps the only satisfactory test, that we thoroughly understand them. NOTE-The learner must not be surprised if he should sometimes find it peculiarly difficult to unravel exclamatory language. The difficulty is not attributable to the perplexity of grammatical principles, but to the fact that such expressions are the language of passion, and that passion disregards grammatical 1 laws, as it often does all other laws. Grammar and (6) What occurs in some other exclamatory exprtitsions? (T) Explain a number of these.'S) Repeat what is said of ah mle! and alas for him! &c. (9) Repeat what is said of the exclamation qvould God, or wcozud to God. Give ex amples. (10) What is the true way of explaining exclamatory expressions? ~ 154.] EXCLAMATORY WORDS AND PHRASES. 499 grammatical principles are the product of human reason; they regulate the rational interchange of thought; they have no certain application to the reveries of deep emotion. The man overpowered by strong emotion, especially in his reveries addressed to himself, does not take the trouble to express himself fully, or with reference to the usual laws of language. tHurried on by passion, he utters fragments of the train which occupies his mind, perhaps only the main conceptions, in a disjointed manner. If grammar should fail to reduce such language under law, it is what is to be expected. We may illustrate this by a reference to some of the celebrated soliloquies given by dramatic writers, which soliloquies often consist wholly of exclamatory words and disjointed conceptions. In these the speaker often shows a disregard of all laws alike of regular thought and regular language. It would be equally improper on the one hand to subject such outbursts of emotion to grammatical animadversion, and, on the other, to demand that the grammarian shall explain them in conformity with the general laws of language. It is unnecessary, in closing our investigation of the different forms of compound construction, to submit examples for the exercise of the stz. dent in analysis, since he is now supposed to be competent to analyze any piece of discourse, and no longer to require that passages involving only certain classes of constructions, should be selected for his use. When the student is once perfectly familiar with the structure of simple propositions, we would recommend the separate exercise of the analysis of discourse-the examination of the relations of the propositions which constitute a sentence, omitting the examination of the structure of individual propositions. In this way a large portion of discourse may be analyzed very rapidly and with great profit to those who wish to make progress in the correct knowledge of construction. This part of analysis should indeed always be conducted separately from the analysis of single propositions by the advanced student; and, when both kinds of analysis are to be applied to the same passage, the general analysis of the structure of the discourseseparating the several propositions which constitute this structure, and describing their connection whether of co-ordination, or as principal and accessory in compound assertions-should always precede the analysis of the individual propositions. It will not be necessary in the case of those who are proficients, to accompany the general analysis always by the particular analysis of each proposition, nor that the particular analysis should when:ntroduced be extended over all the passage embraced by the general analysis A good method is to call the student's attention, when engaged in the gensral analysis, to whatever is most important) most difficult, most necessary to be inculcated by frequent repetition. In this way a due regard to the economy of time and labor may be combined with thorough trainiag. The economy recommended appears the more important in the case before us, when we remember that grammatical analysis is an exercise in which 500) STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 155. the minds of students cannot be long employed at one time with profit. As much as possible should be effected before the attention flags, whilst the intellectual powers are fresh and vigorous. ~ 155. We have some additional observations to make on the personal and conijunctive pronouns, and on the determinative adjectives, which we have purposely reserved till the present time, because some of them can be better understood, as well as more briefly expressed, after the reader is already acquainted with the structure of the language. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. For convenience in reference, we head these observations with a tabular view of the declension of Anglo-Saxon personal pronouns. Declension of the First Person. Singular. Pluhral. Noi. IC I. We ie. GEN. Min of me. Ure of us. DAT. Me to, for, with me. Us to, for, with us. Ace. Me me. Us uts. Declension of the Second Person. Now. Thu thou. Ge ye or you. GEN. Thin of thee. Eower of you. DAT. The to, for, with thee. Eow to, for, ce., gyou. Ace. The thee. Eow ~you. These two pronouns have a dual form, which we have omitted in the above table as irrelevant to our purpose. Declension of the Third Person. SINGULAR. llMase. Fem. Neut. NoM. He H1eo = (He-e) Hit =- (He-t) he, she, it. GEN. His (He-es) Hire - (He-e-re) His- (He-es) of him. DAT. Him -(He-urn) Hire' Him to, &c., him. Ace. Hine. Hi Hit him, her, it. PLURtAL. NozI. Hi in all the genders they. Gun. Hira " of them. DAT. Him " to, &c., theua Aco Hi " them. 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERn &TIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 501 (1) The nominative I and accusative mne of the first person are forms which appear to have no etymological connection. The same remark applies to the corresponding pronouns in the northern dialects and in the Greek and Latin and its descendants. In all these languages the equivalent pronouns appear to have descended from the same two distinct roots from which our I and me have descended.. It is likely that these two roots may have been in use, to express the functions of the pronoun of the first person, before the introduction of inflection to distinguish the functions of nouns and pronouns. We suspect that many irregularities in all languages are to be accounted for in the same way.! See what has been said on this subject in speaking of the comparison of adjectives. (~ 94, p. 305, note. (2) A connection between swe and us, as soine grammarians think, may be traced through the possessive form our' by the help of the other northern dialects. See Lathamn's Eng. Language. (3) The second persons t7hou and thlee are evidently only different forms of the same word. The same may be said of the plurals ye and you; (4) but between the singular and plural forms of the pronouns both of the first and second persons, there seems to be no etymological connection now traceable. (5) He, she, it (Anglo-Saxon He, I-leo, Hit, see table above) appears to have been originally a determinative adjective with the usual inflections to indicate gender, number and case (a). (6) Hit instead of Eret was simply the neuter form of He, t being the regular inflection to denote the neuter gender. Hit, losing the aspirate in pronunciation, has in the modern language become It; but the ancient form Hit is found in our old writers down till the age of Shakspeare. (See Diversions of Purley, pp. 339-341. T. Tegg. Lond. 1840.) (7) From It there has been formed, within a comparatively recent period, a new genitive or possessive 0ronoun ITS instead of the old p9ossessive His ( H He-es regular genitive of He,) which as we have already remarked (~ 75, p. 188 note), was used in Anglo-Saxon and in English, both as mzasculine and neuter, as late as the times of James the First of England. To the examples in proof of this, given in the place above referred to, we may add the following from Bacon's Essays, cited by Dr. Lowth:'Learning hath his infancy, when it is but beginning a.el ~ 155. (1) Whllat is said of the forms land mnte m (2) What of the connection between swe and n.s? (8) What is said in reference to the singullar pronouns of the second person? (4) Wh'at of the plural pronouns of both first and second persons? (5) Repeat the remark in reference to he, she, it. (6) Repeat what is said of the origin of it aln the changes of inflection, &;c., which it has undergone. (7) What is said of the 502 STRUCTURE O. LA.NGUAGE. [ L 155, almost childish; then his youth, when it is luxuriant and juvenile then his strength of years, when it is solid and reduced; and lastly his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust." Essay 58. "Put un again thy sword into his place." Matt. 26: 52. NOTE (a).-It is worthy of remark, that the words which serve as pronouns of the third person in Greek. and Latin, were originally determinative adjectives. One of the words which served this purpose in Latin (ille, illa, illud,) is still, though with some change of form, employed as the pronoun of the third person in the languages of the South of Europe derived fiom the Latin. The Italian egli, feminine ella; French 1i, elle; Spanish, el, ella; and Portuguese, elle, ella, are all forms (corrupted forms, if you please) of the Latin pronoun ille. The (so called) definite articles of the three first-named languages are also manifestly derived from the same ille. (8)' Hit occurs in the older editions of Shakspeare, and still more firequently in English of earlier dates. (See Div. of Purley as cited above.) (9) The dative common to HIe and Hit, as will be observed in the paradigm?, above, was Him, which our grammarians now recognise as an accusative form, but which still, like me, us, thee, you, &c., often performs a dative function. In Anglo-Saxon it performed always a dative or ablative, never an accusative, function. The use of datives in the English of the present day has been sufficiently explained. ~ 79, p. 220, note. (10) Instead of Heo, the old feminine form of H/e, we have adopted the word SHE in modern English. Some suppose this a corruption of the feminine form of the determinative Se, SEo, Tlaet, used in AngloSaxon for the same purpose as our article the, and also as a demonstrative and relative pronoun. (Qumre: May it not have been formed by the coalescence of Se, or Seo and eo -- the she? Douglas spells the word sche.) (11) The plural form of He, rHeo, lit in the Anglo-Saxon, as will be seen above, was nominative and accusative Hi, genitive Hira, dative Him, for all genders. In the progress of the language the present forms they, their, themn have been substituted, though not all at once, formation of the word its, and what was the old neuter genitive or possessive? Repeat part of the examples. (8) Repeat the observation about hit. (9) What was the old dative form of he and hit, and what is the present use of this form I Doss it still serve sometimes as a dative? (10) What is said of the origin of the form SIE? (11) Repeat the substance of what is said of the plural of the third person. 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 503 for these old forms. We find they in Chaucer and Wiclif. In.the!atter (Translation of the New Testament), this word is uniformly written thei. See Bagster's Hexapla, in which we have an edition from an ancient manuscript. Most likely the early manuscripts of Chaucer have the same orthography. Our modern editors are justly censured for having taken improper liberties with the orthography of our old writers, and having thus rendered their editions munch less serviceable to the philological inquirer. Neither Wiclif nor Chaucer (so far as we know) appears to have used their or them. Instead of these they retain the older English forms hir and hems, which are the Anglo-Saxon forms with a slight change of orthography. Wiclif seems to prefer the use of hem with the preposition of to hir. (Of hem instead of hirn =- the modern their.) (b) NOTE (b). —The old forms hi, hir, hem, were all in use in the age of Robert of Gloucester. Our philologists have not satisfactorily accounted for the introduction of they, their, them, to supersede these forms. "It is very difficult to say from whence, or why, the pronouns they, them, their; were introduced into our language. The Saxon pronouns, hi, hem, and hir, seem to have been in constant use in the time of Robert of Gloucester." (Tyrwhitt's Essay on the Lang. and Iers. of Chaucer, note 28.) Dr. Latham (Eyng. LLang., p. 243, 2d Ed.) says, "The plural forms they, them, in the present Englisll, are the plural forms of the root of that." His account of the matter seems to us very unsatisfactory. He answers one of the queries suggested by Mr. Tyrwhitt only by his bare assertion, and does not, as it appears to us, give a sufficient response to the other. Query. Is not they (uniformly written by Wiclif, as has been already observed, THEI) a word formed from the coalescence of the determinative the with the old form hi; the hi being contracted into thei equivalent to the they in the modern language? Compare with this the Greek o'~ros, and the French celui = ce-lmi, and celle - ce-elle, &c. Are not their (= tIhe-hir) and them (- the-hem) formed in the same manner by a coalescence of the determinative with the old pronoun t We invite the attention of those who have access to writings, especially to manuscripts of the age preceding Chaucer, to this conjecture. If the conjecture is well founded, we may expect to find traces of the use of the determinhative with the old forms previous to their complete coalescence, or, at least, evidence that the form with the determinative was used at first in eases where the pronoun is emphatically or determinately employed. If auch traces should be discovered, they would leave scarcely a doubt in regard of the true origin of they, their, tlhem, and both queries suggested by Mr. Tyrwhitt might be satisfactorily answered. Since writing what precedes, we have found a passage in an old version 504 STRIUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 155 of parts of the Evangelists made before the times of Wiclif, which seems fa. vorable to our conjecture. The manuscript of this version is described, and the passage to which we refer cited in the "Historical Account of the English * Versions of the Scriptures," prefixed to Bagster's Hexapla, p. 8. The writer of the translation in the portion given in the Hexapla, uses hem for them; and hii invariably for they, except in the following sentence: " And hii that were sent thei were of Phariseus." Is not the thei here substituted for hii because the pronoun is used determinately? ANoarALIEs IN THE USE or ME, US, HIMI, &C. —(12) In vulgar usage me is treated as a sort of' indifferent form " (to use the term adopted by Dr. Latllam), like mnoi in French. Like moi, it is employed by the uneducated, whenever they have occasion to use the pronoun of the first person singular in any other way, except as immediately accornpanied by the verb to which it serves as subject. It is used in the predicate in such expressions as these: Who is there? The answer of the uneducated class to this is invariably, ME, or It is me, like the French, C'est noi. Who did thtat? It tas ME. It is also by the same class used as subject, when its verb is suppressed, as in comparisons: If2e is wiser thaC ME, instead of the form of expression recognised as good English by the educated class; namely, I-He is wiser than I. (13) Us, himD, her, them are also employed in similar forms of expression, where the educated employ the nomzinative form of these words. This is, and has been for ages the current usage of the unlearned, Nwherever our language is spoken; and, had it not been for the general study of the Latin language, it would long since, we suspect, have been the current usage of all classes. (14) There are some forms of expression still retained in what is considered pure granmmatical English, which imay be regarded as remains of this unlearned colloquial usage, not yet eradicated from the written language by the prevalence of classical constructions, or, perhaps, because of a casual coincidence with the classical forms of exr)ession. Such are the exclamations, Ah vme! ife mZiserable, &e. Some of these nmay have been real accusatives or datives completing some word now suppressed, or they may be in some instances forms introduced by the learned in imitation of Latin idioims; but some of them, we think, can be most readily accounted for, by considering (12) Repeat what is said of the employment of me by the uneducated classes. (1) What of the words se, hhim, &e., and of the extent of this usage? (14) Repeat wIlat is said in reference to the supposed retention of scme vestiges of the colloquial usage of the unoducated, ~ 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 605 them remains of the dialect of the uneducated, in which me is regarded as an "indifferent form?" (15) We have already observed (~ 143, p. 455, note), that in AngloSaxon, when a substantive and participle are used absolutely, the substantive is of the dative form; and that some might be disposed to explain such expressions, as " us dispossessed," in the following lines of Milton by reference to this Anglo-Saxon construction. "This inaccessible high strength, the seat Of Deity Supreme, us dispossessed, He trusted to have seized." WVe need scarcely repeat the caution, that such constructions (however accounted for) are not to be imitated, since there is no tendency in the present age towards such iinitation. (16) The word self plural selves is combined witlh some of the personal, perhaps with solne of the possessive pronouns, for the purpose of giving them greater emphasis. (17) The compound pronouns thus formed are myself, thyself, himself,, herself, itself, and the plural forms, ouzrselves, yourselves, themselves. These words serve the functions both of nominatives and accusatives. (18) In the function of accusatives they are generally used in a reflexive sense, referring back to the subject of the proposition; as, I hurt mnyself. M~yself here refers back to the pronoun of the same person used as the subject. In such cases the agent and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb are tile same individual. Cato hcilled himself; The mzan brought that calamity on himsey. In the last example himself is used to form a noun weith a preposition comp)lemenent to the verb brought. Still it refers reflexively to the name of the agent, to "' the mnan," which is subject of the proposition. * * The use of the plural form of the pronoun of the first person where only an individual is intended to be indicated, is common in our language, especially in royal proclamations, in periodicals of all kinds when the editor speaks of himself, and in public speaking. This usage has arisen partly from the desire of writers and speakers to give more authority to what they say by representing it as a declaration emanating from the united wisdom of numbers, as in a royal proclamation from the sovereign aided by his council; or from a real or affected modesty, which shrinks from individual responsibility, or from giving offence by appearance of egotism. This latter (15) Repeat the remarks in reference to a construction found in Milton. (16) What is said in reference to the word SELF? (17) Enumerate the cmpound pronouns formed with this word, and tell what functions these compounds serve. (18S) What 1s said of their use in the function of accusatives? .506 STRUCTURE OF NANGUAGE. [~ 1 5. (19) We have said that these compound pronouns of the first person perform the functions both of nominatives and accusatives. But we do not think that it is accordant with good or with general usage to employ them as subject noun of a proposition. We think they are rarely employed in any other way as nominatives save in connection with another pronoun or noun which is the direct nominative of the verb and to which they serve to give emphasis, being appended to it as a sort of apposition. Such expressions as " Myself did it," " Them selves brought their misfortunes on them," &c., though sometimes used, appear to us not merely inelegant, but unsanctioned by current usage either of the educated or uneducated classes. (20) Some grammarians have considered the word self, when added to the genitive case of the personal pronouns (or to the possessive pronouns, if we choose so to call them), a noun, and when added to the accusative case of the pronouns of the third person, rnlr, RER, IT, TIIEM, as an adjective. (21) SELF or SYLF seems to have been regarded by our Anglo-Saxon ancestols as performing, in all these compounds, the function of a noun in apposition; or, at any rate, the same function in them all, whether that of a noun in apposition or of an adjective. (22) They attached this word to all the cases of the several personal pronouns, and inflected it to suit the case to which it was attached. For example, they used ICSYLF Iself; genitive, MIN — SYLnFS = of 0myse7,f; plural, WESYLFE - weselves; genitive, URnEsYLFPn -of ourselves. (23) In modern English we have retained only a part of these forms. All the nominatives compounded with SELF have fallen into disuse, except itself for hitself, either nominative or accupurpose is often more effectually secured by resorting to the third person and presenting the author's own sentiments, as the sentiments entertained by those around him, using such forms of expression as, "It is thought;" "Some think;" "Many here think," &c. But these are all rhetorical contrivances, and the explanation of them scarcely belongs to the department of the grammarian. As we employ We for,, and You for Thou, we substitute also Ourself and Yourself for JMyself and Thyself. ( O'rself has almost falen into disuse.) Here whilst the pronoun of the first and second person assun.es the plural form, the word Self remains singular, indicating that a sing-e individual is represented by the compound sign. (19) What is said of the employment of these compound pronouns as subject nouns? (20) FHow do some grammarians consider the word self? (21) IHow does it seem to have been regarded in Anglo-Saxon usage? (22) How did they attach this word to pronouns, and to what cases? (23) What forms used in the Anglo-Saxon have fallen into disuse, ard what is said in reference to those which have been retained? ~ 155.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 507 eative. The forms retained with the exception of ourselves (ourself), and yourselves (yourself), were, in our opinion, either datives or accusatives; namely, myself, in Anglo-Saxon mesylf, dative or accusative; thyseyf Anglo-Saxon thesylf, dative or accusative; himself, AngloSaxon himsyyf, dative; herseyfe Anglo-Saxon hiresylf, a dative. Themselves is also, obviously, a dative or accusative, though the word them is not Anglo-Saxon. Our and your in the words ourselves and yourselves seem to be either genitives or possessive pronouns. (24) The fact that himself and themselves (obviously formed by the union of a dative or accusative of the pronoun of the third person with the word self) are employed as nominatives for all purposes, except the great purpose of serving as the direct subject of a verb, may, perhaps, be accounted for in the same way, as we account for the use of mie and uts, him and: them among the uneducated for similar purposes. The only difference in the two cases is perhaps this, that, in regard of the compounds of self, the usage of the uneducated has become the universal usage, while, in reference to the simple pronouns, this common usage has been opposed and rejected by the educated. QuERIES. —Has the Norman use of moi, toi, luti, as:" indifferent forms," led to the use of mne, us, you, as indifferent forms; and has this use afterwards extended to him and them, himself and themselves, though so distinctly marked by form as oblique cases? Are there any traces of this "' indifferent" usage of any of these forms before the Norman times? (25) We may add here a remark on the pronoun ONE which we have alleady noticed in ~ 30: 17. This word is entirely distinct from the numeral one. Though the two words are identical in sound, and are represented by the same letters in the written language, they are totally dissimilar in every thing else-in meaning, in etymnology, and as to the source from which we have received them. ONE, the numeral is of Anglo-Saxon origin; the other ONE, whether we call it noun or pronoun, is apparently of Norman origin, and the same with the present French indefinite pronoun on. If it has connection with any Anglo-Saxon word in our language, it is with MANA, not with the numeral ONE. The French on is generally admitted to be a corruption of homme from the Latin homo homlnis, which is again generally admitted to be a form made fiom (24) How may we, perhaps, account for the use of himzself and themselves to perform certain functions of the nominative case? (25) Repeat the substance of what is said of tie pronoun ONE. 508 STRJUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 156. the root MArN. The root is more clearly exhibited in the -word hUMANMU formed from honmo. The Germans still use the word mlan for the same purpose for which the French employ on, and for which we (less frequently) employ oNE. (26) Let the learner observe that this word one has both a plural form, and a genitive form regularly made. "I have commanded my sanctified ones, I have also called my mighty ones." We also say, ONE'S reputation; ONE'S interest, &c. ~ 156. (1) Each of the personal pronouns has, according to most of our grammarians, a genitive or possessive case, both of the singular and of the plural forms. (2) In the case of all these pronouns, except it and lie, there are two forms which have been thought to possess claims to the distinction of serving as their genitives. The two forms, connected with I (at least in significance), are MY and MINE, both evidently formed from me; with WE, OUR a;.d OURS; with THOU, THY and THINE; with YE or You (but evidently sprung from You), Youn and YouRs; with SHE, tHEIt and HERS; and with THEY, TItEIR and THEIRS. HE has only one genitive or possessive form iis, and IT only one form, ITS. (3) Where two forms occur, some grammarians recognise only one of them as genitive of the personal pronoun, and call the other forms possessive pronouns. (4) But those who agree in making this distinction are not agreed, as to which are genitives of the personal or substantive pronouns, and which are the possessive or adjective pronouns. (5) The older grammarians generally considered mzine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, as exclusively genitives, and, consequently, substantives; and my, our, thy, your, her (except when used as an accusative), their, as pronominal adjectives. His and its the:y regarded as performing both functions. (6) Some of the more modern grammarians reverse this arrangement. (7) Exceptions might, perhaps, be taken to the reasons assigned by both parties for the course pursued by them in this matter. (8) We regard the subject of dispute as of very small importance, since every genitive performs nearly the same function as an adjective. This is plainly seen, when we happen to (26) Of what modifications of form is this pronoun ONx susceptible? Examples? ~ 156. (1) What is said in reference to genitives of the personal pronouns? (2) What of the forms connected with each claiming this distinction? (8) What course is pursued by some grammarians, where double forms occur? (4) Are the grammarians agreed whnich form is genitive, &c.? (5) Describe the course pursued generally by the older grammariars. (C) Do all the modern grammarians acquiesce? (7) What remark is made in reference to the course pursued by both parties? (8) Repeat the substance of the reasons assigned for considering this dispute or difference between the ~ 156.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. POSSESSIVES. 509 possess an adjective formed from a noun, or an adjective of similar meaning, though not of the same derivation. Thus, iL Latin, horninis natura, and naturca hucana; in English, a parent's fondness, and parentac fondness. 1Here the genitives and the adjectives formed from common roots perform functions scarcely distinguishable, at least, in many cases. To the same purpose we might adduce such examples as the following: his father's mansion, his paternal mansion; a brother's love, brotherly love; "Agamlemnoniko phalanges," Agamcyemnonisphalccanges;'EKro'peor XLTWV, n'EKTOpOS XLtrv. We do not allege that these double forms of expression are always exactly of the same import, or always interchangeable, though some of them are in some cases manifestly interchangeable. We mean only to show the identity, or, at least, close similarity of the functions of genitives of nouns and of adjectives. (9) To distinguish the genitive case of a personal pronoun from a possessive adjective formed from that pronoun, by its function in language, is therefore both a difficult and an unprofitable task. Dr. N. Webster (as quoted in Well's Eng. Gram., p. 74) makes the following observation in reference to this subject. "That mine, thine, yours, &c., do not constitute a possessive case, is demonstrable; for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs, and as objectives after verbs and prepositions." "Constantly used," we presume is only a dashing way of saying can be uased. But even making this allowance, Dr. Webster's argument proves too much, as may be seen by comparing the following forms of expression, which are all equally in accordance with the settled usages of speech. 3iy friend and I bought each a pair of horses; his are bays, MIINE are grays; his surpass aMINE in beauty, MINE surpass his i~n speed; he gave a larger price for his, than I gave for MINE. Compare with this the following:.My friend and I bought, &c., as before; my FRrIEND'S are bays, &c.; mnine surpass ty FRIEND's; I would give a larger price for mine, thaz for my FRIEND'S. If it is " demonstrable " from the fact, that they can be used "as the nominatives to verbs, and as objectives after verbs and prepositions," "that mine, thine, &c., do not constitute a possessive case," what shall we say of the word friend's in the above forms of expression? (See ~ 75: 14, et seq.) The argument from the FUNCTIONS of mine, ours, &c., is, we think, decidedly more favorable to the arrangement of the old grammarians, than to that adopted by Drs. Webster, Latham, &c. To prove fiom theirfornm, that any of these sets of pronouns are genitives or not genitives of the pronouns which correspond with them in person and grammarians of little importance. (9) What is said of the attempt to dli inguish the geni4 rte case of the personal pronoun fromn a possessive pron0oun0 510 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. - [~ 156 number, is equally difficult, since none of them have the regular inflection ot the genitive case. Ours, yours, hers, theirs, have the appearance of genitives; but, if they are genitives, they cannot be proved from their form to be the genitives of we, ye or you, she and they. They are, manifestly, not formed from. these words; but from the genitives or possessive adjectives (whichever we may choose to call them) our, your, her and their. If we have recourse to the Anglo-Saxon, it will not extricate us completely fiom the difficulty. It will, however, show that the forms mim, thin, ure, &c., which are given in the grammars as the genitive eases of ic, thau, we, &c., are susceptible of all the variations of gender, case, and number, like other adjectives. We think, that the best way to treat these pronouns is to class them all of both forms as determinative adjectives formed from the personal pronouns (as the words which answer to them are classed in the grammars ot all the languages of Southern Europe, derived from the Latin), and then indicate the distinct purposes for which they are employed, or distinct occasions on which the different forms are used. This we have done already (See ~ 75.) We may notice here that in ancient times, and, perhaps, sometimes at present in the solemn style, mine and thine are used instead of my and thy before a noun commencing with a vowel sound; "Mine iniquity," " Mine hour," " Mine eye," "Thine eye," &c. The possessive pronouns, especially those of the first order (as we may call msy, our, thy, yoer, her,; &c., for the sake of distinction), are often accompanied by the adjective owN, for the purpose of greater emphasis; thus, "Mine own life," "Thine own person" (in these examples mine and thine ale used for my and thy, because own commences with a vowel sound; see preceding remark), "Our own power," "Your own nation," "His own head," "Their own things," &c. We may notice here the fact that in the. English language the possessive pronouns of the third person singular agree in gender with the nouen which they represent, not with the nomu which they modify, as in Latin and the mo. dern languages of the South of'Europe. This may be, otherwise, expressed as follows; the possessive pronouns of the third person agree in gender with atle name of the possessor, not With the name of that which is possessed. Thus in French son pere means either his father or her father; sa mere, either his mother or her mother. In this particular case our language has the advantage as regards perspicuity. lHis or her carries our mind directly to the person represented, and in some cases prevents ambiguity; and even where there is no danger of this the construction is more clear and lucid. The change of form, as in French, &c. according to the gender and number of the modified noun secures no advantage, where (as in that language, as well as in our own) the possessive is placed always immediately before the modified nicoun. ~ 157.] REMARKS ON.THE GENDERS. 511 ~ 157. ADDITIONAL REdMARKS ON TIIE G(ENDERS.-This classification cf nouns is a very important matter in the grammar of some languages-a subject which demands much attention and much study, on tile part of all who wish to speak or write these languages with propriety. But, as regards English grammar, it is a matter of very little importance. In the Greek and Latin, and also in all the languages of the South of Europe derived from the Latin (and in most of the Teutonic dialects), adjectives assume a different termination according to the gender as well as the number of the noun which they complete. And, besides, where the nouns, as in Greek, Latin, German, have terminations for different cases the adjectives have case terminations also. That the adjective must agree with the substantive which it qualifies, or renders determinate, in gender, number and case, is an expression full of meaning in those languages. But in English we have no change of termination in our adjectives for such purposes. Were it not for the three forms of the personal pronoun of the third person, he, she, it, their possessive forms and their compounds with self (see ~ 155: 16. et seq.), even the mention of the genders would be superfluous in teaching English grammar. In this pronoun we have, as we have seen, a distinct singular form for the male sex, for the female sex, and for things without sex, or of which the sex is not intended to be discriminated. And to use these pronouns correctly, we must have regard to the classification in reference to sex; that is, to the genders of nouns. In the Latin, Greek and German languages, there are three genders or classes of nouns, but the arrangement of the nouns under these classes is not precisely the same as in English. In the masculine gender or class in these languages all the males are arranged, and from this circumstance the class takes its name, masculine gender, that is, class of males. But with the maleJ many names of things without sex are arranged in the same gender, that is in the same class. In making this arrangement, or, in other words, in applying adjectives of the masculine rather than of the feminine or neuter form to nouns, those who used these languages were guided either by some notion that the things represented by these nouns participated of masculine qualities, or by the mere similarity of termination. In the feminine gender or class, were arranged in like manner the names of all fenmales; from which circumstance the appellation feminine; and together with these many other names of objects neither male nor female. In the third class called the neuter gender (that is the class of neither males nor females), were arranged the names of the residue of things without sex. In the languages derived from the Latin, the neuter gender is omitted (in ether words, adjectives have no neuter form2) and all nouns are arranged under the masculine, or fenziizne gender. In all these languages, these classes of nouns have received their appellation (not because they include the masculine class, saales exclusively, and the femin ine class, females exclusively, but) from the noblest and most distinguished portion of the ob 512 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 157. jects represented by the nouns arranged t:der these classes respectively. The masculine is so called from containing all the names of males (that is of all animals discriminated as males), the feminine from containing all the names of females. It may here be observed that many grammarians have perplexed themselves and their readers by insensibly confounding gender with sex, or at least, attaching to the term gender, ideas which belong only to sex. Some have even thought it necessary to make an apology for the impropriety supposed to be implied in the expression neuter gender; though there is really no impropriety whatever in the form of expression, correctly interpreted, consequently, no need of an apology. Those who introduced in Latin grammar the term genus, meaning sort or kind (from which we have in French, genre, meaning also sort or kind, and in English, gender), attached no conception to the word inconsistent with the notion of a genus neutrum, a nreuter class or class of neuters, that is, of names of objects which are neither masculine nor feminine,-neither male nor female. The same may be said of the common gender, (recognised in some of the gram mars of the ancient languages), which includes those names sometimes applied to a male, sometimes to a female, as for example, the nouns parent, cousin, fiiend, &c. in English. The expression common gender has been ignorantly and presumptuously called a solecism. If we have a clear conception of what the ancient grammarians meant by gender, we can easily perceive the perfect propriety of the expression common gender —that is, a class of names common to males and females-as well as of the expression neuter gender. But with the following definitions laid down (and, apparently, tacitly assented to, when not expressed in words), "Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex," and " Gender is the distinction of sex," it is not strange that the notion of a neuter and of a common gender should present insuperable difficulties and incongruities. This definition, if closely examined, will be found to involve not only a total misconception of the meaning of the term gender, as employed by the old grammarians, but an absurd (not to say ridiculous) assertion, whatever we may understand by the word gender. Of what could it be asserted with propriety, that it is the distinction of sex! If we could find such a thing, what business has it among the terms of grammar? From this absurd definition, what could be expected to follow but confusion and inconsistency in every matter of detail founded upon it No wonder that it was thought necessary to censure the old grammarians, or to apologize for them, when they were supposed to talk of a neuter " distinction of sex!" and a common " distinction of sex!" The old gentlemen knew, we think, much better what they said, and whereof they affirmed, than their inconsiderate critics. Many other definitions of gender, though not chargeable with the same absurdity as those already noticed, yet afford evidence that their authors la. bored, less or more, under the influence of a similar misconception of the ~ 15'.] REMARKS ON THE GENDERS. 518 bense of this very simple term; simple, we mean as it was evidently understood by those who first introduced it into grammar. " Grammatical gender points out the sex, or the absence of sex." This assertion might with more propriety be made of the masculine, feminine, and neuter terminations of adjectives in Latin, Greek, and most of the modern languages, or of such terminations appended to a noun as distinguish the female occupant of an office, station, &c., from the male occupant: the termination ess, for example, in English, as abbot, a male head of an abbey; abbess, a female head of an abbey; prince, princess, &c. The same may be said of the follc~wing: " Gender, in grammar, is an alteration generally in the endings of words, to mark distinction of sex." "Gender in grammar, a difference in words to express distinction of sex."-Webster's Diet. The two following definitions are still more faulty: " Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex." " Gender is the distinction of objects in regard to sex." Whatever gender may be, whilst it is recognised as a term of grammar, it has reference to words, to the signs of objects, and not to objects themselves. To say that gender is a modification of objects, or a distinction of objects, is therefore altogether irrelevant. This is the old and very common error of confounding words and objects-things and the names of things. Most modern writers on grammar have taken care not to commit themselves by giving a direct definition of gender. They have dodged the question, what is gender? This was perhaps a prudent course, especially if these writers labored in any degree under the apparently very general misconception of this matter, originating, as we think, in confounding the meaning of the terms sex and gender. No rational definition could be expected till this misconception was completely cleared away. Another subject has generally, in our English grammars, been treated under the head of Gender, though it has connection rather with the original structure of single words than with the changes which they undergo in order to perform their grammatical functions, and might, without impropriety, be wholly omitted in this place. In the case of some offices or stations, which may be held both by men and women, and in the case of the more conspicuous animals, there is a separate name for the separate sexes. These names are sometimes formed, the feminine fiom the masculine, by the addition of a syllable or some change of the termination, generally by the syllable ess; as, priest, priestess or female priest; prince, princess, &c. Sometimes the words which indicate the female are less clearly connected with the male form, and sometimes altogether distinct. According to the custom of the grammarians, we subjoin a list of some of the masculine and feminine forms which most frequently recur. List of M3asctuline Names which have a Femi.nine Form.in mEs. Abbot, Abbess. Baron, Barcadess. Actor, Actress. Benefactor, Benefactress. ^, 514 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 158. Count, Countess. Master, Mistress. Duke, Duchess. Peer, Peeress. Emperor, Empress. Priest, Priestess. Heir, Heiress. Prince, Princess. Host, Hostess. Prophet, Prophetess. Jew, Jewess. Shepherd, Shepherdess. Lion, Lioness. Songster, Songstress. Marquis, Marchioness. Viscount, Viscountess. Some names have a feminine form in ix; as3, Administrator, Administratrix. Testator, Testatrix. Executor, Executrix. Director, Directrix. We give no list of those names for males and females which are entirely distinct in form; as, husband, wife; father, mother; brother, sister; horse, mare, &c., since the fact that these different names are given to animals of different sexes has nothing to do with the structure of language, nothing to do with grammar. All this is to be learnt from dictionaries or vocabularies, not from treatises on construction. ~ 158. T:EE ARTIcLEs.-The two determinative adjectives AN or A, and THE have been called very generally by English grammarians the deftnite and the indefinite article. Under this name these two words have been raised to the dignity of forming a separate class by themselves, and hlave been placed in the foremost rank among the parts of speech. Yet, so far are these words from being entitled to so much consideration from the indispensable importance of the functions which they perform in speech, that there are many highly polished languages-amnongst these the Greek-which possess no separate distinct word equivalent to our an or a-the (so styled) indefinite article; and the Latin has no word exclusively used to perform the functions either of the definite or of the indefinite article. To the mere English scholar the term article applied to the words an and the conveys no meaning whatever. When we have traced it to articulus in Latin, and ascertained that this was employed to translate bp.pov —the name applied by the Greek grammarians to a word nearly equivalent to what our grammarians have called the definite article, and learned that these Latin and Greek words mean a joint, we are still far from unravelling-the mystery which hangs about thlis strange term. Why a and the should be called joints or hinges, and joints or hinges in contradistinction to all other words in the language, remains still to be explained. The application of this name to the Greek determinative 6, 7, ro, is accountedl for in the following manner: The Greek grammarians ~ 158. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 515 originally gave the appellation tip2pa (joints) to two words in connection, which they afterwards distinguished by the names of the prepositive and postpositive articles or joints. These two words taken together serve indeed as joints or hinges of language, and have been named by the Greeks not inappropriately. One of these is the word above mentioned, the prepositive article 6', rS, ro, which alone retains this name, though it has no claim to it, save what it obtained through its alliance with the postpositive. This latter (the postpositive article) is what has been commonly called the relative pronoun, equivalent to our who, which and that. To this the name joint was appropriately given. Some modern grammarians (whom in this we willingly follow) still call it by a name of nearly the same import-the Conjunctive Pronoun. We may readily comprehend the reason of giving the name joint to the relative or conjunctive pronoun and, the determinative equivalent to THE, if we consider attentively the Compound Proposition with Adjective Accessory already described (~ 111). For example: THE ~mDan wrno promised to assist us disappointed our hopes. I-ere the word who serves as a joint to connect the adjective accessory, promnised to assist its, with the word man, which it modifies or completes. In performing this function it is assisted by the determinative sign the used before the noun modified. The intimate relation of the article and conjunctive pronoun in Greek served to render the reference of the latter with its accessory to the former and its noun more striking. The article and relative in that language resemble each other in sound, are of the same family, or rather varieties of the same word, and seem to have been used indiscriminately, in ancient times, as conjunctive pronouns.'O a'vpco7oro ~ s, The man who, was a form almost like Which mlan who, or The man the. If this kind of expression were now admissible with us, it would evidently serve to establish the closest relation between the noun man and the accessory introduced by who. This is no imaginary case, as regards the use of the article the in our language. The, like the Greek article, was currently used both as article and relative in the Anglo-Saxon. The determinative use, we suspect, as we shall have occasion to say in another place, was in both languages the earliest and the original use out of which grew the relative or conjuncti ve use. In other words, we suppose all relatives to be determina. tires used in a peculiar mode. But be this as it may, the mode of writifg accessory adjective propositions in Anglo-Saxon was to introdace the accessory by the word the, whilst the noun modified by the accessory was preceded by the proper case of the determinative se, seo, 516 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 15S thaet, which seems to be the same word, at least the same root subjected to flection. The only forms which are exceptions are se, and seo. All the other forms of all genders, num.bers and cases, appear to be formed from the root THE. Thus viewed these words might well be compared to a double joint-a prelpositive and postpositive article to connect or lock the word which the one preceded and the other followed with the clause in which the latter performed some prominent function. In many cases the explanatory proposition and postpositive article came to be suppressed, because readily suggested to the mind of the hearer or reader by the drift of the discourse. In such cases the article may be considered as indicating such suppression-as warning us of the Ellipsis. Let us take as an example the following words from the first chapter of Genesis: " God said, Let there be light; and there was light. Andl. God saw TaE light, that it was good." Here the word light is twice used. without any determinative, and the third time with one. " God saw THE light," that is the liyght which, has been, just nme.rtioned-the light which he had called into ezistence. Some accessory proposition is evidently implied, and the determinative sign the indicates (to all who understand the usage of our language) that the light referred to is the same that has been already mentioned. What we have said accounts sufficiently for the ancient Greek grammarians calling this determinative and the conjunctive pronoun taken in connection articles or joints. But it can scarcely vindicate the conduct of their successors, when, having given a distinct name to the form of the determinative which, in time, came to be used exclusively to perform the conjunctive function, they gave the name of joint to that form which no longer served alone as a joint, but only occasionally lent its aid to the jointing or conjunctive word. SMuch less can these historical facts serve as a just excuse for conti. nuing to call the dete:minative THE, without any allusion to its cooperation or original connection with the conjunctive pronoun, by this inappropriate and (to the mere English scholar) unintelligible name; less still can they justify the application of this name to the word atn andi its equivalents in the modern languages. This practice, we believe, is confined at present to our own language. The grammars of Elost modern languages recognise only one article. Yet, if, as originally, the connection with the conjunctive pronoun were recognised in applying the name article, AN might set up an equal claimn with THR to the appellation of prepositive article. In the assertions, A man who bways does to others, as he would wrish others to do to him, is a qood ~ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 517 citizeaz and, THE man zwho allays, &c., A and TIIE in connection with the conjunctive wi-ro perform functions of a similar nature. But this function seems to be merely to indicate a lesser (in the case of a) or greater (in the case of the) degree of determinateness, or, in the language of the common grammars, to point out the word to which the conjunctive refers and to which it joints the accessory proposition. But THIS and THAT, ANY, SUTCYOH ALL, in fact most determinatives perform the very same function. There seems not a shadow of apology for considering these two little words as forming a distinct part of speech, or division of the signs of our language, and then entering on the vain search for some function pertaining exclusively to thell, by which they may be discriminated from all other classes of words. Such a course presents strong temptation to the exercise of ingenuity in finding grounds of distinction where none actually exist,'and, thus, to pervert as well as perplex the granmar of the language. Injudicious classification —the application, especially, of distinctive names to things which are not in fact different (in the aspect in which they are regarded in classifying them), naturally leads to false speculation. It is not a sufficient apology in such cases to allege that the classification can do no harm, because the things classified remain unchanged by the classification. The establishment of a class is the implied assertion of a distinctive difference —a difference worthy too of the attention of an inquirer. Where such difference does not exist, the implication that it exists is an error, and may, like other errors, which in themselves appear trivial, lead in the end to more important errors. If we wish to account for the fact that the articles have been placed foremost in the list of the parts of speech, we must look for the explanation, as before, to the Greek grammarians. These grammarians very properly placed the nouns at the head of their classification of words, and finding it convenient to indicate the genders of these nouns by prefixing the article which accorded with them in gender, they were led to give the declension of the article 6,, To, the first place in their treatises on language. The article is still used in our Greek lexicons to indicate the genders of nouns, instead of using, as we do in Latin dictionaries and those of the modern languages, abbreviations for a8csculine, feminine and neuter. The most intelligent of our modern grammarians are unanirlolns in the decision, that it is improper to consider the articles a distinct class of words, or part of speech. See Dr. Robinson's Translation of l'uttman's Greek Grammlar, pp. 120, 121, note, &c., A&c. THE DETERIMINmATiVE AN oRi A. —Contrary to what is asserted, or 518 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 158 implied in most of our grammars, the original form of this word is an, and a is a contraction. It is not strictly correct to say that " a becomes an before a vowel and a silent h." We should rather say that an becomes a before a syllable beginning with a consonantal sound. A is employed before words commencing with a consonantal sound; that is, 1st, before all words commencing with the sounds represented by the letters called consonants, in the written language; 2d, before words commencing with an aspirated h, as, a hand, a hamMerO, &c.; 3d, before all words commencing with what is called the long sound of u —equivalent to the sound given to the combination of the semivowel y with the vowels ou in the word you, or in the word youth, as, a utnion, a university, &c. On the contrary, before u short, or purely vocal, as well as before the other vowels, and before silent h, an is employed; as, an euncle, an anigmal, an hour, &c. An is perhaps the weakest of the determinative adjectives-of all the determinatives the least determinative.* When used with a noun it indicates that a single individual of the species, of which the noun is a general sign, is intended to be designated. Thus the word man used alone means the whole species, or race of men, as in the words of the poet, "' The proper study of mankind is MAN.x' But A man indicates a single individual of the race. The a prefixed shows, Ist, that we do not intend to include a whole class; nor 2d, a number of the class, but a single individual of a class, and " farther it saith not." What particular individual is meant is left wholly undetermined. The word an. with its contract form a descends to us from the AngloSaxon an, or ane, the word expressive of ulnity in that language, and from which we have, with a little variation of sound and orthography, our modern sign of unity, the numeral one. Ane or ae to express unity is a form still extant in the Scottish dialect, little differing in orthography and pronunciation from the Anglo-Saxon sign of unity, on the one hand, and our modern Engli5sh determinative, on the other. Indeed, an more nearly resembles the Anglo-Saxon numeral in form than one, which corresponds exactly with the parent word in sense. In the present usage of our language, AN and ONrE agree in this, that both imply individuality. But they doffer in this, that an implies, as we have already said, that an individual of a class is indicated, as dis* Hence many of our grammarians have been led to commit the solecism of classing an among the definitives, and then calling it the indefinite at' tile-the indfilite definitive! ~ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 519 tinguished from the whole class of which the noun is the common appellation; whereas one implies that a single individual is meant, as distinguished from a number of individuals of the same class. The force of the two words and their distinct functions can be most clearly exhibited by the aid of examples. For this purpose we present the following questions, with suitable answers: Can A man perform that piece of work? No; but A HonsE can perform it. Can ONE man perform that piece of work? No; but TWO MEN can perform it? In the first question the emphasis is on the word man, in the second on the determinative word one. The inquiry in the first case is, whether man (a human being) can do the work; in the latter, whether one man or more than one are necessary to perform it. It will be seen from this that the employment of the determinative an (differing in form from the numeral one) introduces a convenient distinction in our language. Yet, in languages which employ the numeral for both purposes, no peculiar inconvenience is experienced, since a variation of emphasis is sufficient (in spoken language) to mark the discrimination of meaning. For example, the words un homme (in French), by laying a slight stress of voice on un, imply one man; without this stress, and giving preponderant force to homme, a man. We may here notice a use of the word ONE resembling that of the indefinite (more properly, less definite) alticle, in such expressions as " Oe Simon, a tanner," " One Mnason of Cyprus," &c. This use, certainly, more nearly resembles that of the article ans, than the common use of the numeral. It may be doubted whether this word ONE iS not the indeterminate pronoun described in ~ 155: 25. It strongly indicates indeterminateniess, and hence is often employed contem ituously to insinuate a reproach of obscurity, want of notoriety and social importance. The word is, we believe, in this use employed only with the names of persons. Thus used it is equivalent to the Greek indefinite pronoun TLs, and the Latin quidam. The word any is of kindred meaning as well as of kindred origin with an. It is formed from the Anglo-Saxon numeral ane or aen, with the addition of the affix ig, and was originally written aenig, meaning on7e like. This word may be regarded perhaps as more loosely determinative than an. Though originally implying unity, it is, unlike an, often employed before plural nouns. We can say any men, as well as any man. We may observe the distinction between an or a, any and some in the following examples: C(an A boy do that? No; but A man can. Can ANY boy do that? No; but SOEI boys can. Some is commonly in present usage employed with plurals, anciently it was used with nouns of the singular form with the force of the Latin aligqyis; as 520 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 1s8. "Some man will say," &c. We have examples of this usage in the compound words somebody, something. All three wordis an, any, some, agree in this that they indicate the partition of the class of objects represented by the nouns to which they are applied, and that only a part (in the case of an only an individual) is embraced under the expression. If the noun is accompanied by a limiting or descriptive complement, they indicate that only a part (an individual in the case of an) of the objects represented by the noun so limited is embraced: for example, a wise anc, means an individual of the class indicated by the words wise nan. It is always implied that there are more individuals of the same kind not embraced by the expression. In this respect can and the other determlinatives now mentioned are markedly different fiom those which we are about to consider. Before passing from an or a, we mnay remark an apparent exception to the assertion that it indicates individuality in the fact that it is placed before plural nouns modified by numerals. Thus we say, a dozen men, or a dozen; a thousand men, a hundred men; &c. In all such cases the word dozen, or hundred, or thousand is regarded as expressing a collective unit. The proof is at hand. We can equally say, one dozen, one hundred, one thousand, &c. THE DETERMINATIVE T-IIE.-This word is used before both singular and plural nouns to indicate that they are to be taken in a strictly determinate sense. It indicates that the object or objects represented by the noun, as limited either by an expressed or implied modification, are embraced in their complete totality. Thus, the man of integrity, indicates the class mnan, as limited by the words of integrity, in its complete totality. If we make any assertion about the man of integrity, it oug'ht to apply to every individual of this whole class. The phrase, a man of integrity, agreeably to what we have said in considering acn, implies the partition of the class, and that only an individual is embraced in the expression. There are numerous instances in which these two forms of expression may be employed indifferently in expressing the same truth. Thus, A man of integrity would not do such an actionz; and, TIIE mCan of integrity wouldl ot do such an action. These two assertions are nearly equivalent, for, if an individual of integritv taken at random would not do a certain action, it is obvious to infer that the whole class (included under the expression, the man of integrity) would not do it. But this is not explicitly declared in the assertion. Something is left for the exercise of the hearer'* judgment-something to be inferred. ~ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVAT1ONS. DETERMINATIN ES. t21 That the two expressions are not in themselves (without the assistance of inference) exactly equivalent may be readily discovered by attending to similar forms of expression in which the szbject matter is different. For example, A macn wom woe saw yesterday came to my house this morning, and THE man whom we saw yesterday came, &c. In the first of these forms it is indicated, that the man whom we saw yesterday is only one of a class-an indefinite individual of a number whom we saw; but, in the latter form, a definite man, about whom wct have an understanding-whom we both know, as the man whom we saw yesterday, is indicated. We must, if we wish to understand this subject, guard carefully against confounding the function performed by the determinatives with the function performed by the more intimate limiting words. We believe that the determinative the is never employed in our language except with a noun that is otherwise limited either expressly or by implication. The determinative THE indicates the fact of such limitation, the mutual recognition of such limitation by the speakler and the party addressed, and further that the object or class of objects represented by the noun so limited is embraced in its totality by the expression. When some grammarians say that the article the " limits a noun and shows how far its signification extends," they seem to confound together the function performed by the determinative and the functions performed by the more intimate modifications, expressed or implied, which together with the noun taken as a whole compound conception come within the determinative influence of the article. It is, perhaps, more correct to say that the article is placed before a noun because it is already limited, than to say that it is placed before the noun bfor the purpose of limiting it. It rather refers to a limitation expressed or implied than expresses one itself, and it thus exercises a force similar to that of the relative pronouns. In fact the closest relation in origin and function exists in most languages between determinatives and relatives. In some cases the same word, like our that, performs both functions. We reiterate, at the hazard of being charged wifhi repetition, that the noun, which is the name of a class, is first limited by what we have called its more intimate modifications (descriptive adjectives, genitives, &c.), expressed or understood and coming, as is taken for granted, within the cognizance of the party addressed; thus generally forming a subclass by means of the limitations, which subclass, it is further indicated by the article, is to be taken in its totality. A subclass, we say, is generally formed, but sometimes the determinate expression embraces only an individual object limited as above de 522 STRUoCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 158. scribed; that is, the limitation itself implies individuality; for example, the key of my desk, the virtzue of temperance, the sun, the earth. Here the expressed or implied (as in the case of the sun and the earth) nmo dification limits the noun to an individual object. For the purposes above described, the determinative TnHEis employed before nouns limited by most of the forms of modification of which they are susceptible-before nouns modified by a descriptive adjective, by a genitive case complement, by noun and preposition complement, by an infinitive, and by an adjective accessory proposition. All common nouns-nouns universally employed as names of classes, whether always reckoned and used as common or not-if restricted by the complements enumerated, when of the singular form take either an or the, except they are preceded by some other determinative. Plural forms stand without a determinative, when the singular form would take an. Whether a singular noun modified as above shall take an or the, and whether a plural noun shall take the, or stand without a determinative, is to be decided by reference to what we have already said. We have had occasion to notice that adjectives employed substantively are always preceded by the determinative the. Such forms of expression as the wise, the virtuous, &c., are equivalent to the noun ~men or the noun persons restricted by the adjectives wise, virtuous, &c.!I-ence they come within the class of limited nouns mentioned above, namely those limited by a descriptive adjective; and because in such expressions a whole class in its totality is indicated, the determinative employed is always TrEE, never AN. It may be noticed that when a noun is restricted by a genitive case, the determinative is used only before the genitive noun, or, perhaps, it would be more proper to say, before the whole expression, including the modification; for example, the Queen's palace, the President's house. If we substitute for these the Norman forms of expression with a noun and preposition instead of the genitive, the determinative is expressed before both nouns, because both are in fact determinately used. Thus, the palace of the Queen, the house of the President. Here palace and house are limited expressly by the accompanying complements, and. Queen and President by implication in a manner to be now described. It must be remembered that nouns a. e often employed determinately without being accompanied by any expressed limitation or restriction. Such nouns equally with those which are expressly limited take before them the determinative the. Hence we employ the before the names of objects of eminence, and of Objects which stand alone, ~ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 523 the only individuals of their kind in which we are interested; as, the President, the Eiing, the Queen, the Sun, the 3loon, the E'arth, &c. Some limiting complement rrmay Jere be regarded as suppressed, because it naturally suggests itself tro the mind of the party addressed. This complement may be any one of those above enumerated. Sometimes several different complements may equally serve the purpose. In such cases the noun is not less determinate, because one or more determinative or limiting circumstances are so well understood by speaker and hearer mutually, that it is unnecessary to express them in the form of an accessory proposition, or by any other form of complement. We employ the determinative also in such expressions as, the sciences, the mathematics, and before the names or many important mechanical inventions, as the press, the steam engine, the lever, the woedge, &c., because all these names are employed determinately. For similar reasons we use the determinative before the singular class names of animals when we intend to designate the species in its totality; for example, the horse, the dog, the ox, the lion, &c., meaning the whole kind. The horse is a noble and useful animal; the dog is faithfual to his master, &c. A noun often becomes determinate by the fact that it has been already employed by the speaker with reference to some individual person or thing. Hence when a noun under these circumstances is repeated, the determinative is used. Here it indicates that the noun which it precedes is employed in reference to the same object already mentioned, and by this circumstance rendered determinate to the hearer. For example, "Two men went up into the temple to pray; the one a Pharisee, and the other a publican. The Pharisee stood and prayed," &c. "' And the publican, standing afar off, would not lift up so much as his eyes unto heaven," &c. Here we have first "a Pharisee," and "a publicacn "-individuals of certain classes, but no farther determinmate. Next we have "1 the Pharisee," and ".the publicain,"I because now determinate individuals-the same already introduced to the hearer's notice, who went up to the temple to pray. As John was taking a walk in the park a boy came up to him and entered into conversation with him. They soon after passed near a number of boys, who were endeavoring to raise a kite. As they were passing the boy exclaimed, &c. HIere the boy refers the hearer to the boy who joined John in the walk. If we substitute a for the, the reference will be i;o some other boy-an indeterminate individual of the group, engaged in raising the kite. NOuns modified by a noun in apposition never, we think, take the determinative TIIE, at least, in consequence of this species of modifica 524 STRUCTURE. OF LANGUAGE. [~ 158. tion. The noun placed in apposition, on the contrary, very generally takes the determinative. The nouns which mcst commonly take after them a noun in apposition are proper names; for example: Plato, the philosopher; Cicero, the orator. In such forms of expression the noun in apposition is always preceded by the determinative. When the noun appended or apposede is a personal or official title, no determinative is employed; for example: George Washingto~n, PRESIDENT of the United States, COMMANDER in chief, &c. Victoria, QUEEN of Great Britain, &c. When the noun expressing an official title is placed before the proper name, the article is also generally omitted; as, General Tashington, President Adams, Queen Victoria, &c. But it may he doubted whether these are properly examples of apposition. The words appended have by general usage become part of the appellation of the individuals to whom they are applied, as much so almost as a cognomen in the case of private individuals. To the following forms of expression, apparently little differing from the last mentioned, we customarily prefix the article. Thle emperor Constantine, The emperor Trjancn, &c. Thie frigate Constitution. The ship Albion.. The steamer EEuropa, &c. ITere frigate, ship, steamer, seem to partake more of the nature of apposition, although, contrary to the most usual arrangement of the noun in apposition, they are placed before the noun which they serve to complete. When a noun in apposition7 complemeent is appended to an abstract noun, the usage is the same as when it is appended to a proper name. The noun that is completed takes no determinative, at least none on account of the complement, and the complement, if of the singular form, takes either the determinative an, or the; and if of the plural form it either takes the or takes no determinative, according as it is more or less determinately used. Example: Justice, a virtue indispensable to the stability of every form of government, should be strenuously inculcated anckd scrupulously practised by all true patriots. Justice, the virtue most indispensable to the stability of every -form of government, &c. Examples of a noun of the plural form used'in apposition. Justice and humanity, the virtues most indispensable, &c. Justice and hunmanity, virtues which highly promote the oeafcre of states, &c. With common or general nouns (as distinct from abstract nouns nnd proper names) we still more rarely employ the noun in apposition coinplement, and when we do, the usage, so far as we are aware, is the same inregard of the determinatives. Example: Jiian, the only animal endowoed with reason, is, at the same time, the only animnal endowed with speech. A noun modified by an explicative or epithetic accessory proposition never takes the determinative in consequence of this complement. ~ 15S.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES.' 25 This fact has already come under our notice (~ 113). There is a close analogy between the noun in apposition and the epithetic modification, as we have already shown that there is an analogy between the latter and the adjective employed as a mere epithet. These modifications do not, as we have already said, limit or restrict the noun, or render it more determinate. They are not, in fact, a necessary or essential part of the proposition in which they are inserted, but something superadded for illustration, or, sometimes, merely for ornament. The noun in apposition may be expanded into an explicative accessory: Cicero, the great orator, owas both a statesman and philosopher, may be expressed more fully, thus, Cicero, who was a great orator, was both a statesman, &c. The noun in apposition may, perhaps, be regarded as an abbreviated form of the explicative accessory. The same kind of analogy may be traced between the restrictive accessory and the other complements which restrict or limit nouns; namely, the genitive case complement, noun in apposition, and limiting descriptive adjective complement. These latter, as in the case of the noun in apposition, seem to be only more compendious methods of expressing what is more formally expressed by the restrictive adjective accessory. For example: The mansion which belongs to his father, is more compendiously expressed by the words, The mansion of iis Jather; more compendiously still by the words, Hisfather's mansion; and perhaps yet more compactly by the words, His paternal mansion. The determinative the, as we have seen, is prefixed only to nouns which are employed in a limited or determinate sense; but we must not conclude from this that it is prefixed to all nouns which are so employed. On the contrary, nouns are often, from the nature of the objects which they designate, so clearly and so invariably determinate, that they need no indication of determinateness. To nouns of this kind we dco not generally prefix determinatives in our language. 1. Of this class of nouns are proeer names, which, being appropriated to individuals, admit of no further determination or restriction. We might connect with these the personal pronouns, especially of the first and second person. The pronouns of the third person and the relative or conjunctive pronouns may themselves be regarded as a sort of determinatives, or as involving the folrce, if not sometimes the form of a determinative word. 2. Common nouns, when employed in the whole extent of their signification, are completely determinate, and in English generally take no article; as, for example, lan is mortal; Tea is brought from China; Cotton is cultivated in the United States; &c. We have already noticed what appears an exception to this usage, in 526 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L[ 158. the case of the names of animals, as, the horse, the ox, &c. In these last examples possibly animal or some such word is implied, which is rendered determinate by the name of the species, and so takes the article. 3. Abstract nouns, when employed in the whole extent of their signification, are not in our language accompanied by the determinative the; for example: Virtue is immortal; Vice always, sooner or later, produces misery; &c. But, when we employ abstract nouns in a limited sense, or, in other words, restricted by complements, especially by the noun and preposition, or the adjective accessory, we prefix the determinative sign; as, for example, The virtue of temperance; The faith which overcomes the world; "The wisdom that is from above is first pure," &c. 4. The determinative the is, of course, seldom used when any other determinative is prefixed to a noun. It would be manifestly absurd to employ it in company with an or a, which are used for the express purpose of indicating a different and weaker degree of determinateness, or with this and that, which are more emphatic determinatives than itself. The article the is never in our language employed in company Nith possessive pronouns, whether placed before the nouns which they modify, or employed -separately froin the noun to which they refer. We can neither say, The my boo/c, nor that book is The mine. (For the usage of other languages in such cases see the remarks in the next note.) Again the article the is not employed, when such words as any, many, every, such, &c., are placed before nouns. On the contrary, the determinative the is employed before the de terminative same, and after the determinative all, and sometimesafter both; as, for example, The same man; All the world; All the men in the house;'Both the men, between whom the controversy is, shall stand before the Lord." The determinative the 8 also frequently prefixed'to words limited by a numeral; as, The two men. This means two definite men about whom the speaker and hearer have a mutual understanding; whereas the words two mnen imply any two men indeterminate except as to number. The presence or absence of the determinative the affects very materially the sense of some words in our language. For example, what a difference between the meanings conveyed by the expressions, Earth and The earth; 1Faith and The Faith; Thou art man, Thou art a man, and Thou art the man? The same remark applies to the determinative an or a. For ex ~ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 527 ample: Few and A f6ew; Little and A little. A few implies a positive, though small number; A little, a positive, though small quantity; but.Few and Little verge towards the very borders of absolute negation of number and quantity respectively. "Ah! little think the gay licentious proud." This almost amounts to saying, that they do not think at all. NOTE.-In those languages which have a determinative adjective equivalent to our determinative the, great diversity prevails as to the extent of it:s application. In English, it is generally omitted whenever the noun is of itself determinate without any complement; as in the case of proper names, and of abstract nouns used in the whole extent of their signification. In the Greek language, on the contrary, the article is often employed with proper names, with abstract nouns employed in the whole extent of their signification, especially when subjects of propositions, and even with the infinitives of verbs. By prefixing the different forms of the article (which has case terminations like nouns and adjectives), the Greeks are enabled to use:heir infinitives in all the various cases which belong to other nouns in their language. Hence the infinitive with them performs functions which in other languages it cannot conveniently perform. In Latin and English, and most other languages, infinitives are rarely employed except as subjects of propositions and complements of other verbs-in other words, only in the nominative and accusative (or objective) cases. (We have noticed some cases in which the infinitive is used in English with the force of a dative or of a noun and preposition-the infinitive of purpose, for example.) In Greek, by the help of the case forms of the article, infinitives are employed to perform the functions of genzitive and dative (as well as nominative and accusative cases) functions in Latin generally performed by the gerund, and in English also bythe gerund or verbal in ING. In French and many other modern languages the article is prefixed to common nouns taken in their general or most extensive sense, as l'homme est faible, man is weak; to the names of countries, as la France, France; to abstract nouns employed in the whole extent of their signification, as la vertu est aimnable, virtue is amiable; and to possessive pronouns, when employed separately from the nouns to which they refer, as le mien, le notre, &c., (in which case it may be regarded as indicating the suppressed noun.) In Italian, the article is employed even with the possessive pronouns prefixed to nouns, il mio libro, my book, literally, the my book. The omission of the article in English, and the employment of the article in other languages, does not render the noun in the one case less, or in the other case more determinate. The article adds nothing to the definiteness of the expression. The French, &c., prefix it, because the noun is definitely used; we omit it, because the noun is in its nature invariably definite. The use and omission is an idiomatic ieculiarity of the respective languages 528 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 15a. The remark, that the article adds nothing to the definiteness of the expression, is apparently applicable, when it is prefixed in our own and in other languages, to the names of rivers, mountains, &c., as, the tnHudson, the Thames, the Tiber, the Seine; the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Alleghanies, &c. But these forms of expression seem to have arisen from the suppression of the words river, and mountains respectively. The full expression would be, the river Hudson; the Pyreseees mountains, &-c. Here the determinative is appropriately joined with the comsmon nouns, "rivere" and "mountains," because they are used determinately, being limited by the addition of the words Hudson and Pyrenees. Perhaps, the use of the determinative with other proper names; as, for instance, the names of countries, or even its use with the proper names of individual persons in the Greek language, might be accounted for in a similar way.'O _evoEpc7v, the Xenophon, may have arisen from an abbreviation of'o a&vip -AEYoq&^, the man Xenophon. In support of this explanation it might be alleged that the Greeks were accustomed to employ the word'Avp, and its plural form "Avpes, in a manner which appears to the moderns redundant; as in the phrases'AvYpes 0rparIWrTaL, soldiers; literally mensoldiers;'AvSpes, aBeXxpo1 Kj&L cracpes, brethren acnd fathers; literally men brethren and (man)fathers. (See ~ 146. Note, p. 469.) When several nouns are connected in the same construction, the determinative is often, in English, suppressed before all but the first noun; as, for example, The men, women and children whom he met gazed upon him, with woonder; instead of The men, the women and the children, &c. (The same remark applies to the determinative an.),When emphasis is intended, the determinative is repeated; and when special discrimination is required it must be repeated before each noun; for example, " Cincinnatus, the dictator, and the master of the horse marched against the SEqui." If, in this sentence, the determinative were omitted before "master of the horse," it would, to a person guided by the mere form of the expression without other knowledge of the fact, appear that the appellations " dictator " and " master of the horse" were both intended to apply to Cincinnatus, whereas the master of the horse was a distinct person. The article before an adjective employed substantively should never be suppressed. It would be improper to say, the wise and good, for the wise, and the good, if we intend to indicate two distinct classes of men. If we mean one class of men possessed of the two qualities expressed by wise and good, only one article should be employed, since only one noun is suppressed. The article is often imlproperiy suppressed by careless writers, so as to inljure sometimes the perspicuity and sometimes the brcee of discourse. In French and some other modern languages, the ~ 158.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. DETERMINATIVES. 529 determinative is repeated before each individual noun far more geonerally than in English. This practice conduces to render the language both more clear and more forcible. The repetition of the article would in some cases appear stiff in our language. It is better, however to repeat it unnecessarily, than to omit it where its presence is requisite to prevent ambiguity. THIs AND THAT.-We have already observed one marked peculiarity of these two determinatives, viz; that, unlike our other adjectives, they both possess a plural form. (See ~ 94. note p. 300) These words are much more determinate (that is, used with nouns much more determinately employed) than the (so called) definite article the. Their primary use is to accompany nouns intended to designate objects present to the view of the speaker, and determined by some look or gesture, or intimation borrowed from the signs of natural language, to which natural sign they call the attention of the hearer. Hence they have been called demonstratives by the grammarians, because, as they allege, they point out (demonstrate) the particular objects designated. This is prefixed to nouns representing objects relatively near to the speaker, that to objects more remote, the differs from these words in being, though less determninative, of far more general application. It is employed in speaking of objects absent, as well as present, and indicates a limitation given to its noun by artificial, or articulate language, without the aid of natural signs. In these respects it differs from this and that. Another difference worthy of observation is that we often employ this and that substantively, suppressing the noun which they designate, but we never so employ either of the determinatives the or an. A secondary use of the determinatives this and that is to indicate in written discourse, and, sometimes, in formal addresses-this, something proximate in the order of the discourse, that, something relatively more remote. " Some place the bliss in action, some in ease; Those call it pleasure, and contentment t*ese."-Pope. "The palaces and lofty domes aroseThese for devotion, and for pleasure those."-Idem. Here relative proximity in the arrangement of the words serves the same purpose of rendering the reference determinate, as proximity in place does in the case of tIhe speaker, who has thle objects to which he refers under his eye, and employs a natural gesture to assist artificial.anguage in fixing on them the attention of the hearer. The deter. 530 STRUCTJRE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 158; minative words formzer aird latter are more frequently used for this purpose, and perform this function generally in a more natural and graceful manner —with much less stiffness and formality than this and that. With this and that may be classed yonder and yon. These words, though at present in less common use, have been employed by many of our best authors. They are used to designate objects in sight but distant from the speaker. Ex. " Yonl flowery arbors, yonder alleys green." -Milton. " Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower."-Gray. NoTE. —We have had occasion to speak elsewhere of the several functions performed by that as a conjunctive pronoun and as a conjunction. We may here declare unreservedly our agreement with the opinion of those who hold that THAT in all these diverse functions, is one and the same word; and that, in all the uses which it serves, it still retains its original force, namely, that of a determinative adjective. We believe that all its functions may be traced to its original determinative function. The and that with then, there, than are all forms, as we believe of one original word. Thence and thither are derivatives from these, and we suspect that thou (Ang.-Sax. thu) and thee (Ang.-Sax. the) are of the same family. We'exhibit the declension of the Anglo-Saxon article, and mark the words by italics, which have been retained in modern English. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neut. All Genders. N. Se, Seo, Thlce t. Tha, Thile. G. Thaes, Thaere, Thaes. Thara, Of the. l). Tham, Thiaere, Tham. Tham, To the. A. Thone, Thlla, Thaet. Tha, The. Se is most likely only a corruption of the sound of the, and seo of theo. From thaet we have our English that; from the dative thaere our adverb there, as explained elsewhere; and from the accusative thone, thaene, thlaenne or thanne we have thesn and than, written in Anglo-Saxon thonne or tmaenne. ORDER OF ARRANGCEMENT OF TEHE DETERAIINATIVES.-WN~e have already observed elsewhere that, when nouns are preceded both by descriptive and detes-)ninative adjectives, the determinatives take the precedence because they affect the noun as limited or restricted by t-:e descriptive adjectives. Examples: many wise men all degcradieng vices; your black horse; two important truths; a beautifl landscap2e; the setting sun; &c. HIere mnany, all, your, two, a, and the, being determinatives, and embracing within their influence the nouns together with their more intimate modifications (or, in other words, the nouns as alreadv modified by the descriptive adjectives), naturally take the ~ 159.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. x H0t WHICH, THAT. 531 precedence, or, perhaps, we should rather say, the more remote place from the noun, since they are the more remote complements. When more than one determinative precedes the same noun, the determinatives an and the usually take the precedence of all other determinatives. We have already had occasion to observe that many determinative words exclude the articles; such are the possessive pronouns; the demonstratives this, that, yon, yonder, already noticed; of the class which the grammarians have called indefinite pronouns, any, much, no, none, some; and all the distributives each, every, either, neither. Those which admit the use of the articles before them are the whole class of numerals, together with few, other, same, several, wohole, former, latter, last. We have had occasion to notice that all and both take precedence of the; in the same manner many and such and the interrogative what precede an or a, as, "Full many a gem of purest ray serene," &c. Such a man; what a mnonster! In the same manner arn or a is placed after descriptive adjectives modified by the adverbs as, how, so, too. Examples: You have as LARGE A house; How WISE AN answer that man gave; So FINE A landscape is rarely found; Too FOOLISH AN actiona.fbr a sane man to peform; &c. Some have attempted to account for such expressions as all the world, by alleging that there is a suppression of the preposition of in cases of this kind; that all the world is a contraction of the expression all of the world. We believe that all these forms of expression are to be explained by reference to the same principle which regulates the sequence of descriptive and determinative adjectives; namely that the more intimate modification is placed in closest contact with the noun and the more remote which modifies the noun as already modified by the more intimate complement stands at the greatest distance. For examnple, in the expressions all the men, bothF the men, it is vnzen under all- the restriction or limitation (a limitation of which the parties to the discourse are supposed to have mutual cognizance) indicated by the to which the forceof the determinative all is applied. The samne explanation we presume may be given of the expressions in which an or a is preceded by another determinative. An object after being individucalized (if we may be allowed the expression) comes under the modification of the other determinlative. For example, in Fdll wmany a gem, the gem is regarded first as an individual, and as thus regarded it is affected by the word mnany Many individual gems. ~ 159. We take the opportunity of presenting in this place some observations on the CONJIJuNCTIVE PoNorNs, which, though not suit 532 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 159: able to be introduced as a part of the elementary instruction intended for younger students, are yet necessary to the full description, as well as to the full history of this important class of words; nor less necessary to place us in a proper position for obtaining correct views of some of the uses which they serve. These observations may be perused with advantage, after the student has become familiar with the common purposes which Conjunctive Pronouns serve in the current language of the day. It nmay be useful to remember that qoho was not originally employed as a Conjunctive Pronoun. This word, and all the family to which it belongs commencing with the consonantal modification of sound represented by the letters veh, were originally only interrogative. They were used only as interrogatives in the Anglo-Saxon, and not as conjunctive or relative words. In Anglo-Saxon this function of Conjunctives is performed by the words se, with feminine form seo and neuter thaet, and the, which we have been considering above. These words also performed the function of determintatives, as thaet = that, and the do still in the modern language. This circumstance exhibits in a strong light the connection in Anglo-Saxon, as in other languages, of the determinatives and the conjunctive pronouns. In fact conjunctive pronouns seem to have originated from a peculiar usage of determinatives, contrary to the views of those grammarians who have taken so much pains to trace the article (in the Greek language, for example) to the relative pronoun. If they had spent the same labor in tracing the'relative to the determinative, we think they would have been more successful. The conjunctive use or fanction appears to us to have originated in a peculiar employment of determinative words; namely, in the repetition of the determinative which modifies the antecedent before the accessory proposition to mark that it applies to the same word (the antecedent) to which the preceding determinative is attached. Or, perhaps rather, the determinative before the accessory is to be considered as implying the repetition of the antecedent noun to be modified by the accessory, which noun was most likely repeated with the determinative in the accessory proposition. The following form of expression will exhibit what we mean: The MAN, THE MAN met us inl oufr travels last year, is dead. This, we think, was likely the formn in which the first attempt at using an adjective accessory proposition was made. The transition from this to the abbreviation, The mcan, TIE mnet us, &c., is perfectly natural. And this is precisely the form of the adjectikve accessory proposition in Anglo-Saxon. We find, in confirmation of this view, examples, in the classical languages and in the most classical authors, of the oldest form of the ad ~ 159.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. WTIO, WHICIII TIIAT. 533 jactive accessory proposition-that in which the antecedent is repeated witIh the relative. For example, we find in Cesar,'" Diem dicunt, qua die ad ripam Rhodani omlnes conveniant," and " Erant onnnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent." Those who are acquainted with Germnan know that the article der die, das is still often employed as a conjunctive pronoun to introduce an adjective accessory proposition. This usage presents a clear illustration of our views. From what has been said of the use of the article in Anglo-Saxon as a representative word in forming accessory propositions, it will appear that the word THAT (in Anglo-Saxon written thaet), which is the neuter form of the Anglo-Saxon article - to our T]iE, has claim to be considered the oldest conjunctive pronoun in our language. Originally, indeed, it represented only neuter nouns, but for this purpose was employed in accessory propositions long antecedent to the use of who or wohich for the same purpose. We present an example of this use which will further illustrate the remarks which we made above. Ic geenzdocle TIIAET WEORC TIIAET thZu V9Ze sealdest to d7onne. I have finished the wcork which thou gavest mle to do. John 17: 4. This is exactly equivalent to " the work the." IMr. Addison showed such strong preference for that as a colljunctive pronoun, that (by the influence of his example) he seemed at one time likely to render the use of who and which as relatives altogether unfashionable. Had he known the history of these words he might have justified his preference for that, by saying that he was only endeavoring to restore this unfortunate word to the possession of its ancient rights in the language. This word is however still perhaps more than enough employed in the language, and this is a good argument with others against imitating Mr. Addison in the unnecessary frequency of introducing it as a relative. In one respect, we have.xtended its use in the modern language by employing it, though originally a neuter form, as the Anglo-Saxons employed THE, to represent nouns of all genders. But, on the other hand, we give it only a divided empire with who and which the interrogative words, that have usurped a large part of the domain which once belonged exclusively to the determinatives se, seo, thaet, and the. We are not in a position to explore fully the history of this usurpation. It seems to have been begun in the second period of our language-the old English period. We know not what light might possibly be east on this history by a careful examination of the remains of the earlier old Eng!ish, and the later Anglo-Saxon. Possibly the innovation tool; place at a period of which the written remains are most scanty, and perhaps its cornmence ment cannot be satisfactorily traced. We beg leave to comlnend the in 534 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. [~ 159. quiry to those who are conversant with these scanty remains of early documents of various kinds —we could scarcely witn propriety say, remains of our early literature. We may remark that the word THAT appears to have been much more used as a relative in the times even of Wiclif and Chaucer, than at the present day. We suspect, on a cursory examination, that who and whom are seldom used as relatives by these authors. Chaucer often uses 2,hich and that together in reference both to persons and soon-personals. Examples: "Unto the cure of hem (them) whichl that they han (have) in hir (their) governaunce," speaking of physicians. "Than shuln (then shall) ye examine the second condition, which that the same Tullius addeth in this matere. For Tullius putteth a thing, which that he clepeth (calleth) consenting."-(Tale of Melibeus.) In the first of these examples which that, refers to persons-the patients of the physicians; in the two last to son-personals.- In all these examples-and there are three more similar examples besides these within a few pages-which is evidently used adjectively with that, which serves as the true representative word. It may be that here we have a step in the introduction of which to its present relative function. We have, at all events, a satisfactory proof of the priority of that, which we have asserted above. We may remark, that a similar usurpation of the relative function by tlhe interrogatives seems to have occurred in the Latin language. We pre sume that quei or quis (different forms of the same word) was originally ex elusively interrogative in Latin, or the language fiom which Latin sprung. The sound represented by hc and sounds aklin to it, as qu and h hard, seem to have characterized the interrogative words in the Indo-Germanic (or Arian, as some modern philologists choose to call it) family of languages generally. (See Latham Eng. Lang. p. 250, 2d edit., and Grimm, vol. iii., pp. 1-3.) We have a numerous family of these interrogative words commencing in modern written English with the letters wh (in Anglo-Saxon with hw, which lettters still represent more exactly the present pronunciation), and in Scottish with qnh, which exhibits the connection witll the Latin qu. We may enumnerate among these zwho and its neuter twhat, woheln, wvhere (both originally only cases of who), whence, awhcther, wthich (supposed to be a compound of uv.o and lic, Scotice quhilk, srx Grimm as above), whither, why, and their numerous derivatives. To these we may add how, which retains the characteristic hard sound of h, but has lost the wt, perhaps, through a regalrd to euphony. (See ~ 98.) All the primitive words of this class were originally (and originally perhaps exclusively) employed interrogatively. Same of their derivatives, having been formed after the primitives had been usurped in a determinative sense (for the conjunctive pronouns may all be regarded as essentially determlnatives-detenrminatives used substantively, and with an implication of connection or conjunction), were possibly never employed as interrogatives. We mean such derivatives, for example, as whosoever, wihensoever; &c. ~ 159.] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. WHO, WIIICH, THAT. 535 We may here also notice a similar uniformity in the leading and principal consonantal articulation of the original determinatives. This character istic articulation in the Indo-Germanic languages seems to have been that represented by the letters t, th, or d-all kindred sounds. In our language the characteristic sound of this class is that of th. With the articulation which these letters represent, the determinatives the, that, and there, tlhen, than (all three cases of the article), thence, thither, commence-all apparently from the same root; and perhaps thou, thee, thine, as well as they, their, them, involve the same radicle. We have in English still another class of words kindred in sound, like the above-mentioned classes, and kindred in meaning, commencing with the hard aspiration represented by the letter h, as he, him, her, here, hither, &c. It is likely that these classes of words had each their origin in a single sound, a single utterance from which each respective kindred family sprung. Shall we say that who, the, and he are the patriarchal ancestors of these kindred families? It will be noticed that the two last-mentioned families of words afford answers to the interrogatives; thus, Who 8 Ans. The, or that man, or He. What? " That, or This. Where? " There; -Iere. Whither? " Thither, Hither. This seems to have migrated from its own family, as the interrogatives have done; or some change may have happened to its form, as has happened to they, their, them. (See ~ 155.) The words commencing with the h sound seem to have indicated proximity to the speaker, the words in th distance fiom the speaker, or rather perhaps proximity to the healer. This distinction is best and most manifestly retained between the words here and there, hither and thither. We have already remarked ( ~ 98), that who interrogative is a substanztive pronoun-always performing the function of a noun. The same may be said of it when employed conjunctively. We never connect this word with a noun, anid say, for example, who man, or who woman. WVhich, on the contrary, conjunctively, as well as interrogatively employed, is properly an adjective. It is still employed as an adjective, even, when necessaly, with words signifying persons, since who disclaims this servile function and abandons it to its derivative which. We give examples: "By the which will we are sanctified." W-SicIw person, it happens, that I have never seen. A determinative (article) is sometimes employed before which, namely, the article thlat belongs to the noun suppressed after which. This article indicates clearly the suppression of the noun. Examples: " In the which I will appear unto thee." In the which ye also walked." "That worthy name by the which ye are called." Which., we think, is always to be considered an adjective; and when employed as it usually is, to represent a nouln, as an 536 STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE. L~ 159 adjective employed substantively. (When the noun is expressed with it, which should be treated in analysis as a determinative.) The same is to be said of the determinative that, when employed as a conjunctive pronoun. It is really an adjective; but in its determinative function it is often, in its conjunctive function, we believe, always, employed substantively. The only real substantive conjunctive pronouns in our language, are who and its compounds whoever, whosoever, &c. The facts now stated are important to the right understanding of the uses of who and which. The above observations, it will be seen, apply to who and which interrogative, as well as conjunctive. APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION.. 160. (1) In spoken language pauses are necessarily introduced that the speaker may have opportunity to draw his breath. (2) But at the same time that pauses directly serve this indispensable purpose, a part, at least, of these necessary rests of the voice are so managed by good speakers as to mark incidentally the grammatical and logical divisions of discourse; and besides this pauses are often introduced for rhetorical purposes. (3) The pauses which mark grammatical divisions of discourse may be arranged in two classes; namely, those which consist of a mere rest or suspension of the voice, and those which consist of a rest preceded by a full cadence, or closing fall of the voice. (4) In continued narration, regular cadences and full pauses are used to close the enunciation of portions of discourse which, forming each complete sense, stand grammatically independent of what precedes and what follows. (5) Such portions of discourse are commonly called sentences.* (6) Rests or pauses without a full cadence of the voice are used in speaking to mark the grammatical and logical divisions which occur within the limits of a single sentence, exclusive of the final pause.t (7) In oritten language a number of diacritical marks called points (often improperly named pauses, we object even to calling them signs of pauses) are employed for the same purpose of marking the gramrma* See note (a) at the end of this appendix. f See note (b) at the end of this appendix. ~ 160. (1) What is the direct purpose of pauses in spoken language? (2) For what other purposes are pauses employed incidentally in speech? (3) In what classes are pauses whicll mark the divisions of sense arranged? (4) For what purpose is the pause preceded by a full cadence employed? (5) What name is given to a portion of discourse closed by a full cadence? (6) For what purpose are pauses without a full cadence employed in speech? {?) What contrivance has been adopted in written language for the purpose of marking 538 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [~ 160. tical and logical divisions of discourse not to represent pauses. (8) This contrivance of written language is called PUNCTUATION, by others, perhaps more properly in some of its applications, INTERPUNOTION. (9) It is manifest that this contrivance has a close connection with grammar; and that a knowledge of its principles, founded as they are upon gramumar, is important to every one who has occasion to commit his own thoughts to writing, or to peruse understandingly the writings of others, since a judicious use of punctuation contributes greatly to the perspicuity of written discoulse.* TEIE FULL POINT OR PEnIoD.-(10) The point employed to indicate the end of a sentence-the completion of a construction independent in sense and in grammatical structure-is called a fall point (.), or period. (11) It is necessary to observe here that the same point, or mark is used to indicate contractions as, Mr. m= naster (pronounced snister); MI. P. =- zenber of parliamentt; i. e. - id est (in English that is); &c. = et ccetera. (12) When a point indicating contraction occurs at the end of a sentence, another point is not added, but the same point serves both to indicate contraction and for the purpose of punctuation. This happens most frequently with the phrase &c., as no contraction is so likely as this to occur often at the close of a sentence. For example: His brother sent him 7his clothes, books, pacpers, &c. Here the point after &c. supersedes the use of the full point required to close the sentence. (13) In correct orthography every new sentence commences with a capital, or large letter, which serves (except when the first word for other cause has a large letter) to mark the division of sentences, and enables us the more readily to dispense with the repetition of the point to mark the punctuation. (14) The learner may be warned that the occurrence of a point as a mark of contraction does not Jupersede the use of any other, except the full point. The comma, semicolon and other points follow &c. and other contractions, when the sense and construction require their use. (15) In interro* See note (c) at the end of this appendix. the divisions of sense which are marked by pauses in spoken language? (8) What is this contrivance called? (9) Repeat the remarks made in reference to the importance of punctuation. (10) What is the point employed to indicate the termination of a sentence called? Describe the form of this point inclosed above in parenthetic marks. (11) For what other urploose is this same point or mark employed? (12) What is done, when a point used to indicate contraction occurs at the end of a sentence? Illustrate by an example. (13) What circumstance enables us the more easily to dispense with the second point on such occasions? (14) Does the occurrence of a point indicating contraction supersede the use of any point except the period? (15) By what other marks is the use of the period or full point superseded? ~ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 539 gative and passionate forms of expression the use of the full point at the end of a sentence is superseded by the marks of interrogation and of exclamation. (16) Three distinct signs are employed to indicate the more or less marked divisions which may occur within a sentence. These signs or marks are called the comma (,), the semicolon (;) and the colon (:). (17) The comma, which marks the lesser intersections, or cuttings (the term. comma means a cutting) of discourse, or rather of a sentence, is the point of this class which comes into most general use; especially with our modern authors, who generally strive to avoid the long and complicated constructions fieely employed Iy the writers of the seventeefith century. UsE OF THE COIMA. — (18) We may distinguish three purposes for which the comma is employed: lst.-To separate the propositions which follow one another, or are intermixed in compound constructions; or to separate the several co-ordinate propositions, or members or modifications of propositions which an author chooses to connect in the same sentence: 2d.-To inclose something (which is, at least, grammatically independent) within a construction: and 3d.-To indicate an ellipsis or suppression of a word. (19) Of the first two uses (the principal uses, and closely allied to each other) we have furnished abundant exemplification in the consideration of compound and of combined or connected propositions. We have in treating of these classes of propositions exhausted all that we have to say, whilst we are confined to the mode of punctuation now in use. We consider it the most judicious way of teaching the use of the comma especially, to point out where it is usually introduced in compound and complicated constructions, when we are engaged in the analysis of such constructions, and when the pupil is called upon to furnish examples of these constructions. By requiring himn to point all his examples, he comes without labor to learn the principles of punctuation (so far as our present system has any principles), and to apply them practically. We confine ourselves at present to a partial recapitulation of what we have already taught in illustration of the first two uses of the comma. (I il) How many distinct signs are employed to mark the divisions within a sentence?:anle t2hese signs, and describe their form. (17) Which of these three points is in maot general use with modern writers? What is the original meaning of the word comma? (IS) For how many distinct purposes is the. comma employed in written language? Mention the 1st purpose; the 2d purpose; the 3d purpose. (19) Where has abundant exenlpification of the first two uses of the comma been farmislied already? Repeat the substance of the remarks in. reference to the best manner of teaching the application of the co:'mma, 540 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [g 1I6 1st. (20) As to the first purpose; the comma is often employed in separating accessory frorn their principal propositions. (21) The employment of the comma (as we have already had mnore than one occasion to observe) is not in all cases of this kind determined by fixed usage; and neither the customary interposition, nor the customary omission of this sign can be always explained by an appeal to clear and well settled principles. (See note (c) at the end of this appendix.) (22) Generally speaking, the comma is not interposed between substantive or adjective accessories and the p2'rincipal propositions to which they are attached. (The substantive accessory used as subject is generally separated by a comma, ~ 103.) (23) On the contrary, most of the adverbial accessories are either uniformly separated from their principal propositions, or the usage in reference to them is not uniform. (24) The accessories used in comparison of the intensities of qualities with the conjunctions as and than are not generally separated from the principal proposition by a comma, nor the adverbial accessories of time preceded by the prepositions before, after, since, when these accessories follow the principal proposition. (25) When the construction is inverted, and such accessories precede the principal proposition, they are generally separated by interpunction. (26) When independent, or co-ordinate propositions are connected, a comma is always interposed; and when co-ordinate members of propositions, or co-ordinate complements are arranged together, a comma ihould be interposed, except when a conjunction is placed between such co-ordinate members and such complements. (27) A conjunction interposed sufficiently indicates the separation of words thus employed and the nature of the construction. For further details we refer back to the remarks on punctuation which follow the discussion of the different forms of compound propositions, and of the different modes of connecting co-ordinate propositions together in the same construction. (20) What kind of propositions is the comma often used to separate? (21) Repeat the observation in reference to the separation of accessory from principal propositions by a comean (22) What classes of accessories are generally not separated by a comma? (23) What cdass is most generally separated? (24) Enumerate some adverbial accessories wllich are not generally separated by interpunction. (25) What happens when the construction is inverted, and the accessory precedes the principal? (26) What is said of the punctuation of co-ordinate propositions? What of co-ordinate members of propositions, and of co-ordinate modifications? (27) Mention tile cases In which the comma is omitted between co-ordinate words and the reason ~ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 541 2d. (28) We have already observed on several occasions the use of the comma for the second purpose, that of inclosing a word, phrase or proposition within a construction. We have examples in the case of such adverbs and adverbial phrases as perhaps, possibly, generally, indeed, therefore, then~, without doubt, on the contrary, in the first place, beyond dispute, &c. &c., which are generally separated from thle rest of the discourse by commas. We have examples also in the case of nourn and.preposition? modifications expressing circumstances, when these are placed before and at a distance froml the part of the predicate which they modify; and especially when they modify the proposition generally rather than the predicate particularly. (29) This use of the comma, to separate, or insulate single words or complements, should perhaps be confined to cases in vwhich these words or complements suggest other additional propositions distinct from those in which they are interpolated, or before which they are placed. (30) We may notice again that the words by which we address persons to call their attention, &c., whether their own names or pronouns or appellations of respect and honor as is'., Sir, By Lord (in a word, what are known by the name vocatives), are usually separated by a comma from the adjoining proposition. (31) The noun in apposition, especially when followed by a train of modifying words, is generally separated by commas (and perhaps should in consistency be always separated, when itfollocws theprincipal noun) from the proposition in which it occurs. (32) The explicative, or epithetic proposition (which, as we have had occasion elsewhere to observe, bears a strong analogy to the noun in apposition) should always be inclosed, or cut off from the rest of the construction by commas. 3d. The third use of the comma to indicate ellipsis is altogether peculiar, arbitrary, as it seems to us, in its application, and little, if at all, connected with the other uses of this mark. (33) In this use, it indicates the suppression of a verb which belongs in common to two or more successive propositions, but which is expressed only in the first. (34) Examples: "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist." The comma after " Virgil" indicates the suppression (28) What examples are referred to of the second use of the comma? (29) To what 3ases should this use of the comma in inszulatisbg single words and complements, perhaps, ba confined? (80) Mention another class of words usually separated by interpunction. (31) What is said of the noun in apposition? (82) To what kind of accessory proposition is reference made as the last example of this use of the comma? (33) Describe the third use of the comma. (314) Illustrate th!is use by examples. 542 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [~ 160 of the verb " was." " In one we most admire the man; in the other, the work." Here the comma after " other " indicates the suppression of the verb " admire." Sentences constructed in this artifical manner are rare, and the comma is not invariably employed in such cases. REMARK. —This use of tile comma seems to have originated from the attempt to indicate all the pauses of speech by points in written language. It is certainly natural to indicate the suppression in propositions, like those now quoted as examples, by a suspension of the voice in speaking. But we doubt much whether the use of a diacritical point as above, separating the parts of a proposition most closely connected grammatically and logically, can contribute much to perspicuity. We can conceive cases in which it would confuse the reader. It is vain to hope that we shall be able to represent by diacritical marks to the eye, all the delicate distinctions which the human voice can convey to the ear by pauses, suspensions, tones, &rc. Confusion, it seems to us (instead of greater clearness), has resultcd from endeavoring to represent all pauses by points, instead of contenting ourselves with the use of these marks to distinguish the important divisions of discourse. USE OF THIE SEMICOLON.-(35) When a sentence arranges itself into two or more larger and less closely connected divisions, containing (one or more of them) subdivisions which demand the use of the comma, a semicolon is employed to mark the separation of the larger divisions. Example: "We then relax our vigor, and resolve no longer to be terrified with crimes at a distance; but rely upon our own constancy, and venture to approach what we resolve never to touch." (36) Such greater divisions as are separated by semicolons are generally co-ordinate and independent in sense, though the subsequent divisions often borrow words or whole members, sometimes both subject and verb from a preceding division of the sentence. Thus, in the example, the verbs relyy and venture, which follow the semicolon, borrow their subject ioe fromn the propositions which precede the semicolon. An example will be adduced presently in which a series of propositions, separated by semicolons, borrow both subject and verb from the first in the series. All is surpressed in the subsequent propositions of the series except the modifications of the predicate. (37) Members between which the semicolon is used, being coordinate, are very generally, though not invariably, connected by coordinate conjunctions.* * Solne writers make the whole distinction between the use of the seenl(35) Describe the chief purpose for which the semicolon is employed. Illustrate by an examlple. (86) State what is said of the relation between members separated by semicolons,I37T How are such members generally connected? ~ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 543 (38) Sometimes propositions enunciating independent facts, which minght, if the writer chose, be separated by periods as distinct sentences, are comprehended within the same construction, and separated only colon and the colon to consist in this, that the semicolon is properly placed only between members connected by a conjunction, and the colon between members which are not so connected. In this case it would be very important to determine what conjunctions are intended; whether all conjunctions and conjunctive words in general, or only the co-ordinate conjunctions The rule seems to us to lead to strange inconsistency in the use of points. Those who advocate it admit that the colon is employed to mark a greater division in sense and construction than,he semicolon. The very names given to these two points imply this fact. Yet the rule, as laid down in some treatises, would lead us in many cases to employ the colon where, not even the semicolon, but the comma only can with propriety be introduced. M embers (whether consisting of single propositions or of groups of propositions separated by commas) unconnected by a conjunction, sometimes stand in closer relation, both in sense and grammatical construction, than members connected by conjunctions. The rule would often require the introduction of a colon between a noun and the noun which stands in apposition with it. An advocate of this rule gives the following sentence as affording examples of the improper use of the colon: " He first lost by his misconduct the flourishing provinces of France, the ancient patrimony of the family: he subjected his kingdom to a shameful vassalage under the see of Rome: he saw the prerogatives of his crown diminished by law, and still more reduced by faction: and lie died at last," &c. We agree with our friend that the colons are here unnecessarily used: for in this case semicolons are sufficient. But our reason for rejecting the colons is not simply because the members are connected by and expressed between the last two members and implied between the other members. We cannot, however; agree with him, when he remarks, speaking of the passage quoted above, "At Franlce, we have perfect sense: consequently the comma should be displaced by the colonwhich were, the connective and the verb, being suppressed." Why; it may be alleged that wuho or which and some tense of the verb to be is suppressed in any and every case of apposition; therefore, if such apposition occurs where the preceding words happen to form complete sense, a colon must be introduced between the noun and the apposition, notwithstanding their close connection as principal and complement. Such punctuation, it seems to us, fiustrates the great design of punctuation, which is to contribute to perspicuity. The confounding of points with pauses, is the original source of trouble in this matter. A longer pause is used (perhaps) between members, when a conjunction is suppressed. Therefore a higher point should mark (88) Describe another purpose for wliclh the semicolon is employed, furnish examplea and repeat the substance of the remarks. 544 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [~ 160 by semicolons, though no one of these propositions admits of subdivision by a comma. Example: "True gentleness teaches us to bear one another's burdens; to rejoice with those who rejoice; to weep with those who weep; to please every one his neighbor for his good; to be kind and tender-hearted; to be pitiful and courteous; to support the weak; and to be patient towards all men." These propositions by the way in which they are here gathered together are rendered constructionally, though not logically dependent. We adverted to this sentence above as an example of a construction in which succeeding propositions borrow both subject and verb from the first in the series. The following example presents a series of independent propositions similarly comprehended in the same sentence, but in this case all the parts of each proposition are fully expressed. " The pride of wealth is contemptible; the pride of learning is pitiable; the pride of dignity is ridiculous; but the pride of bigotry is insupportable." Some writers would employ only a comma in the punctuation of such sentences as we have exhibited in these two examples; and certainly a comma would in constructions of this kind answer all the usual purposes attained by punctuation. A semicolon indicates more clearly the writer's sense of the marked distinctness of the assertions comprehended together, and gives greater emphasis to this fact. There are again writers who would place a period after each of these propositions, and exhibit them as forming separate sentences. USE OF THE COLON.-(39) In the punctuation of the last and of preceding centuries, the colon seems to have borne the same relation to the omicolon which the semicolon bears to the comma. When a sentence was so constructed that it contained two larger members, themselves, or at least one of them, subdivided by semicolons, and these subdivisions of course again subdivided by commas, the colon became necessary to distinguish the larger subdivisions.* (40) In it. That is, the point is to represent the pause, and not merely to discriminate the sense. This reasoning would necessarily lead to the use of the colon in instances, when the conjunction is (as usually happens) suppressed between all the members of a series except the last two. Consequently no colon, except the last, in the above quoted passage should be exchanged for a semicolon, contrary to the author's views in which we have acquiesced. * We do not mean to imply, by what is here said, that the colon itself was of later invention than the semicolon. The point on a level with the lower part of the letter, and the point on a level with the upper part thus', (89) What is said of the use of the colon in earlier writers? (40) Tell why it is that the ~ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 545 modern composition we generally contrive to avoid the constrrction of sentences so long and so complicated as to involve subdivisions of subdivisions. Hence the colon is now much less frequently used in writing than in former times. (41) It is still occasionally introduced principally for the following purposes: To separate a member added to a complete construction in order to express some remark or short explanatory observation; before a formal enumeration ~f particulars; and before examples, quotations and speeches, when formally introduced. The sentence just finished affords all example of the second use. We subjoin additional examples. Colon before an additional remark.-" There is no greater monster in being than a very bad man of great talents: he livti like a man in a palsy, with one side of him dead." "We labor to eat, and we eat to live, and we live to do good, and the good which we do is as seed sown with reference to a future harvest: but we must come at length to some pause." Hooker's Eccles. Pol. I. 11. Oxford, 1843. "A family connected with a common parent, resembles a tree, the trunk and branches of which are connected with a common root: but let us suppose that a family is figured, not barely to be like a tree, but to be a tree; and then the simile will be converted into a metaphor, in the following manner: "Edward's seven sons, whereof thyself art one," &c.-J-ames El. xx. 4. This last passage might he given as an example of the old use of the colon, as the member which follows it is divided by a semicolon. In this passage we have also an instance of a colon preceding the introduction of an example. The colon is more liberally employed in the " Elements of Criticism" than in most books of equally modern date. We refer, in making this remark, to a London edition, 1805. It may be noticed that both in the example from Hooker and KIames the colon precedes a member commencing with a conjunction. Colon before aez enumeration of particulars.-" lian doth seek a triple perfection: first, a sensual, consisting &c.; then an intellectual, consisting &c.; lastly, a spiritual and divine, consisting" &c. Colon before quotation.-" When a Persian soldier was reviling Alexander the Great, his officer reprimanded him by saying:'Sir, you were paid to fight Alexander, and not to rail at him.' " and the two points now called the colon were in use, we believe, long before either comma or semicolon. The present use of the points is of modern invention, though diacritical marks of some kind seem to have been erlployed, at least by more careful writers, in very remote times. colon Is seldom introduced in modern composition. (41) State the several purposea~f, which it is occasionally employed, and illustrate by examples. 36 546 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. ~ 160. NOTE ORl MARK Or INTERROGA:TION. —(42) We have already had occasion to notice the use of the interrogation mark (?) in treating of interrogative propositions. This mark is employed after each separate proposition, when employed for the direct purpose of asking a question. Sometimes an interrogative proposition is included in a construction which is assertive or imperative; thus, I asked the man where he wcas going; Ask that man where he is going. In such cases the mark of interrogation is not employed, because the interrogative proposition is not here used for the purpose of inquir'y. The same remark applies to propositions of the interrogative form employed figuratively to express a thought in a more striking or moving manner, when no answer is expected. Such propositions are usually classed with exclamations, and followed by the same mark, which we are about to describe. Examples:' How jocund did they drive their team afield!"'' 0, how canst thou renounce the boundless store Of charms which Nature to:Per votary yields!" It must be admitted, however, that there is little consistency observed in the punctuation of these passionate interrogations. Sometimes the interrogation mark is used, and sometimes the exclamation mark. NOTE On MAnR OF ExcLAMATION.-(43) The mark of exclamation is used after impassioned exclamations, and generally after all interjections, except 0. Both the note of interrogation and the note of admiration, though rhetorical rather than diacritical marks, supersede the use of the period, comma, &c., whenever they are introduced after sentences or members of sentences. USE OF TEE DASH.-(44) The dash (-) is perhaps most properly employed in impassioned discourse to indicate a sudden transition of thought. It is used sometimes to indicate merely a rhetorical pause often between words closely united in construction, to call special attention to the part of the discourse which follows the pause. -Examples: "When I do see the very book indeed Where all my sins are writ, and that's-myself." The dash has come within the last twenty or thirty years to be much used.to indicate a certain class of parenthetic remarks, viz.: those which present a thought in a new dress, or in a new point of view to exhibit it with greater clearness. Such expressions may be regarded as substitutes offered for that (42) Repeat what is said of the mark of interrogation. (43)'Whatis said of the use of the mar1o of exclanation? (44) What of the use of the das/h $ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 547 which precedes the dash. Sometimes a comma is used before the dash thus employed, sometimes not. Usage in this respect is unsettled. In such cases the construction of the member which follows the dash must be carefully adjusted to the construction of that which precedes. When the dash alone is used, if the parenthetic or substituted or amended expression does not close the construction (or, at least, affect, equally with what precedes the whole construction following), another dash must be used after it. We give examples: " Neither should writing be disfigured by the contrary practice,-by omitting capitals, when, in all propriety, they ought to be introduced." In pointing this we should prefer to omit the comma before the dash, and substitute a dash for the comma after "capitals." "I may be censured-perhaps I may be laughed at, for having said so much against the colon and semicolon." The writer in the last example, as it were, amends his expression, or introduces a substitute. A dash is not repeated after the substituted expression, because the following part of the sentence affects or modifies the substituted and the original expressionalike. "In 1746, lie published'The Castle of Indolence'-the most highly finished of all his compositions," &c. "The view from this remarkable group of mountains-the most remarkable by far in the island-differs much from any other with which I aml acquainted." In this example the words between the dashes are explanatory. Upon the whole, we must agree with those who have asserted that the dash has been too unsparingly and too recklessly employed by many English authors. Yet we do not condemn the use of this mark judiciously employed for the purpose last mentioned. This use may be regarded as a legitimate extension of its original use to denote a break in the sense. This is a break in the construction —a sudden turn in the form of the expression. It often happens that what is thus separated by a dash might be separated by parenthetic marks. Parenthetic marks are used when a new, often an extraneous thought is thrown between the parts of a construction, and they can be used in multitudes of cases when neither commas nor dashes can with propriety be employed. We would use the parenthetic marks to indicate an interpolated thought (without confining them exclusively to this function, for they may with propriety be used to separate an explanatory expression), and the dash or dashes to indicate the introduction of another mode of expressing a preceding thought, a repetition of the same thought in a different form, or an equivalent substituted for it. The usage described, we think, agrees with the practice of the best writers of the present day. (45) The dash is sometimes used to indicate the place of an omitted word, or, more generally, some letters of a word; thus, The MN- rs, for The Ministers. Omitted words and letters are also represented by (45) Describe another punlpose for %which the dash is sometimes employed, and tell what other marks are used occasionally for the same purpose. 548 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [~ 160, asterisks; thus, * * * * Omitted letters are often represented by hyphens, or by dots or points; a hyphen or point being usually substituted for each letter omitted; thus, P........ t, for Parliament. PARENTHETIO MrAR.s.-(46) The use of parenthetic marks, or crotchets, has been incidentally explained in treating of the dash. They are employed to introduce a sentence, a phrase, or sometimes a single word within a sentence. Sometimes a thought having a very remlote (if any) connection with the general.tenor of the discourse is introduced in this way. Neither commas nor dashes can with propriety be employed in such cases. In reading, such parentheses are usually marked by a suppression of the voice. Brackets [] are sometimes ermployed for similar purposes, most frequently, we think, to inclose interpolated words. When a parenthesis occurs within a parenthesis (an occurrence which should be avoided), brackets are employed to indicate the greater parenthesis, and crotchets to indicate the parenthesis included within the greater. We may here describe some other marks used for certain Purposes in written discourse. (4'7) THE ArOSTROPEre (') is used to mark the omission of a letter; thus, e'er for ever,'tis for it is, &c. We have already noticed the manner in which the apostrophe is used to indicate the English genitive case. In this case, too, it marks the omission of the e or i which anciently belonged to the genitive termination. (48) TaE HYPHEN (-) is used to indicate compounded words; as, printing-press, &c. The hyphen is used when part of a word is carried to the next line. In doing this, care must be taken never to divide a syllable. (49) QUOTATION BMARs ( ". " ) are used at the beginning and end of a passage to indicate that it is quoted or borrowed from some other writer. Sometimes these marks are repeated at the commencement of every line of a quotation. These marks are called by the French "Guillemets," we believe, from the name of the inventor of this contrivance. We have no appropriate name for them in English. (50) TE DiEharEsis consists of two points placed over the last of two vowels, to indicate that they are to be pronounced in separate syllables-not as a diphthong. They are unnecessary except over vowels which generally coalesce into a diphthong, and not even then in words which are in familiar use. We have examples in the proper names Laocobn, Bobtes, &c. (46) Describe the use of pcarenthetic marks, or crotchiets and bracket. (47) Describe the use of the apostsoophe. (48) Describe the two uses of the 7hyphen. (49) Describe the use of qntotation marks. (50) Describe the use of dicresis. ~ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 549 (51) TImE BRACE is employed to connect two or more lines, for the purpose of indicating that the words on the opposite side of the brace have a common relation to what these lines severally contain. Example: I will Here we have two braces; the second indicates that tie word write belongs in common to I shall and I will-that, in fact, it is to be repeated with both; and the first brace indicates that all which follows and is embraced by it, has a common relation to the word future. Iore examples of the use of this mark may be found in the Synoptical Table of English Verbs, pp. 152, 153. This mark is now seldom employed, except in the construction of tables. Formerly it was often used in poetry to connect triplets (see Appendix on Versification): but both triplets and braces are out of fashion at present. (52) TIIE ACCENT (t) is used (chiefly in dictionaries) to. ark that syllable of a word on which the chief stress of the voice is laid in pronunciation. (53) THE SECTION ( ~ ) is used to mark the divisions of discourse. Formerly THE PARAGRAPH (~T) was used to indicate the transition to a new subject; but it is now seldom employed for this purpose, except in some editions of the Sacred Scriptures. (54) TuE CArET having the form of an inverted v is placed, in manuscript, under the line to indicate the accidental omission of words. The words omitted are placed above the line, and the caret shows the place at which they are to be inserted. This mark is not used in printed books. (55) The following marks are employed in referring to notes placed at the bottom of the page, and generally in the order of precedence in which we here arrange them: viz., for the first note THE ASTERISK ( ) is employed to indicate the place to which the note belongs, and to designate the note; for the second, when more than one note occurs on the same page, TIr, OBELISK ( t ): for the third, THE DOUBLE OBELISK ( ); and so in succession TnE SECTION ( ); THE PARALLELS ( L); TIHE PARAGRAPH ( ); TIHE INDEX ( ). Sometimes, when these marks are all exhausted, we commence again frorm the beginning, doubling each mark; thus (* 5), (It), &e. Letters anti figures are often used for the same purpose. (56) CAPITAL LErrTTERs.-These are employed at the beginning of words. 1st. To mark the commencement of every sentence; of every line of poetry, and of every quotation and every example formally introduced. (51) Describe the use of the brace. (52) Describe the use of the accent. (53) Describe the use of the section. (54) Describe the use of the caret. (55) Enumerate in order the several marks used for reference. (56) Mention the several purposes for which capital letters are employee in the begin. ning of wordl. 550 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [~ 100, 2d. To distinguish every proper name, including the appropriate desigztions of persons, countries or regions, states, mountains, riv7ers, cities, ships, and all adjectives formed from such proper names; the names of months, and days of the week; titles of honor, or office, which have become a part of the appellation of the individual to whom they are applied; and names of personified objects; as, for example: "Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom reared! Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrained!".d. The pronoun I, and the interjection O are always written with a capital letter. 4th. Writers often commence with a capital the word which expresses the subject of present discussion, or any word to which they wish to draw particular attention. (57) ITALICS are often employed in printing words or passages to which the author wishes to call the special attention of the reader, or which he wishes to distinguish for any purpose. SMALL CAPITALS are introduced, generally as a more emphatic indication of the same purpose; and CAPITALS for a still more emphatic. Italics are represented in manuscript by a single line under the word or passage, small capitals by two lines, and capitals by three. NOTE (a).-The word sentence is most loosely employed by grammarians. Sometimes it is used to express what we have thought it expedient to call in the course of the preceding treatise a PROPOSITION, avoiding the term sentence on account of the vague manner in which it is applied by most writers. MIost generally the word sentence is used to signify so much of discourse as forming complete sense is closed by a full cadence in speaking, and by a period or full point in writing. Of such a sentence no good definition has been given, nor, we believe, can be given. It is essential to such an asserm blage of words that they should be fit to stand logically as well as grammatically independent, or form a sense. Sentence (sententia) fiom its etymology implies this. But whilst this condition is satisfied, authors and speakers are left at full liberty, especially in constructions consisting of an agglomeration of independent propositions, to include less or more matter in a sentence according to their own judgment or their caprice. Some divide that matter into several separate sentences separated by full points, which others separate only by semicolons-sometiimes only by commas. There are strong objections to excessively ( ng sentences, and to an unvaried succession of very long or very short sentences. But whilst a lucid grammatical structure is secured, the whole subject of long and short sentences comes under the supervision, not of the grammarian, but of the Iheto. (57) Describe the purposes for which italics, small capitals, and capitals, are occasion ally introduced in printing. ~ 160o. APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 551 rician. It is not generally the mere length of a sentence, but the complication and clumsy arrangement of its modifying members which produces obscurity, and renders it faulty as a grammatical structure. Very long sentences are sometimes so carefully constructed as to be perfectly clear, and entirely unobjectionable in a grammatical point of view; and, on the contrary, short sentences do not always escape the charge of obscurity from faulty grammatical construction. NOTE (b).-It is important here to observe that pauses in discourse are employed for other purposes, besides that of indicating the grammatical divisions of discourse, whilst diacritical points are employed nearly exclusively for this last purpose. Pauses are often employed for. rhetorical purposes, and for purposes connected with versification, where no pause is required to indicate any grammatical division. A suspension of the voice for the purpose of drawing breath may take place where there is no grammatical division in the construction, for example, between the subject and the predicate; and rhetorical pauses are often made for effect (to draw attention) between words which are in the closest grammatical union. This fact has been apparently overlooked by our writerl on punctuation. You would suppose from their language that the points are lused to represent the pauses in spoken discourse, instead of helping to exhibit the grammatical structure of discourse more clearly. So far as pauses in speech are used for the same purpose, points and pauses will naturally correspond with each other; being intended to mark the same distinctions, though the former: are not to be regarded as the representatives of the latter. But when it is attempted, forgetting the direct purpose of punctuation, to make it agree with the pauses throughout, we immediately involve ourselves, as was to be expected, in difficulties, and subject our rules and practice to a charge of inconsistency, by attempting to accommodate our system to two sets of laws which do not always coincide; namely, the laws of grammatical construction, and the laws which regulate the pauses in human speech. -We:have an example of this inconsistency in the rule given by some grammarians for placing a comma between the subject and predicate of a simple proposition, when the proposition happens to be long and the subject noun is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts. For instance, those who give this rule would place a comma before the verb is in the following proposition; thus, "To be totally indifferent to praise and censure, is a real defect in character." This makes punctuation depend not on grammatical structure, but on the length of a proposition. Such punctuation capriciously separating the subject of a proposition from its predicate, is certainly not well calculated to assist the reader in readily ascertaining the sense of an author; whichl is the great purpose of punctuation. We may in this manner indicate where a pause or suspension of the voice may be made within a:simple proposition with least injury to the expression of the sense; but this is aside fiom the proper purpose aimed at by the punctuation used in our books. To indicate the places o552 APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. [~ 160 in discourse, where pauses may be admitted, or perhaps required in order to a just elocution, would demand a distilict system of notation and various marks to represent pauses of different degrees of duration. It follows from this that the rules given in reference to the length of time, or the proportional time that we may pause at each of the several points, are utterly useless and unfounded. A speaker who would attempt to follow these rules, would render himself ridiculous. All this matter of pauses must be left to be regulated by the taste of good speakers and the laws of elocution. In order to main tain consistency in punctuation, we must regard the sense and grammatical structure, and these only, and guard against considering points as the mere representatives of paues. We have had occasion to notice that the dash is sometimes used to represent a pause where there is no break in the sense. We here submit another example of this use. "Is it like 8 like whom The things that mount the rostrum with a skip, And then-skip down again." NOTE (c).-The system of punctuation, it seems to us, is not yet satisfactorily settled. Perhaps, a deeper knowledge of the structure of language, than can be acquired from the grammars hitherto in use, is necessary before this can be effected. In the preceding note we have adverted to the confu-. sion which has arisen fiom regarding diacritical marlcs as the direct signs of pauses, and consequently assuming that a point may be placed wherever a pause is proper or allowable in speaking. We have also noticed, in treating of the punctuation of compound propositions, that, in many cases, it is not settled by unvarying usage lwhether a cozmma should, or should not be introduced between a principal proposition and its accessory. We have not proposed to ourselves to give a complete or improved system of punctuation in this appendix. The attempt to introduce such a system would, as we think, oblige us to propose important innovations-innovations which we leave no hope that we could influence the public generally to adopt. And this is one of those things in which universal agreement is of more importance, than that the method on which we,agree should be the best conceivable. All we have aimed to accomplish is to put the student in possession of the rules at present followed by authors and printers, as well as we can within a narrow space. We believe that the most effective method of teaching the use of the comma (and this is both the most important, and the most difficult part of punctuation), is that which we have adopted; viz., by pointing out to the learnel; in the construction of the several classes of compound and combined propositions, in the connection of contracted accessories, of co-ordinate meinners of propositions and of co-ordinate complements, where a comma is commonly used, where it is not used, and where the usage is unsettled. We may be allowed to suggest, as the first and:xtost important step to ~ 160.] APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION. 553 wards the formation of a complete and consistent method of punctuation, the introduction of a point to be employed exclusively in separating principal and accessory propositions in compound constructions. If we had a sign always used for this and for no other purpose, the rules of punctuation might be greatly simplified, whilst the use of points would, we think, contribute much more than under the present system (or systems, for universal agreement is wanting) to the perspicuity of discourse. Every proposition of every kind could then be separated from all other propositions, contracted propositions and words which do not perform a function in propositions or in connecting propositions. The separation between accessory and principal propositions could be indicated by a new mark (say by a mark like an accent, such as the Germans use for a comma, thus (,), and the separation between independent propositions, members, &c., as at present, by commas. The use of the other points, the semicolon, colon, &c., would require little change or modification. There are, as it appears to us, only two principles on which a consistent method of punctuation can be based; namely, the principle that every proposition of every kind is to be distinguished from all other propositions, &c., or the principle that only independent assertions with all their modifications, however numerous, and whether consisting of single words or of propositions, are to be separated from one another by punctuation. To adopt this last principle would greatly abridge the use of punctuation in complicated constructions-the very case in which its service seems most necessary. If the principle last mentioned cannot, for the reason now indicated, be admitted, we must choose between making the effort necessary to introduce the system sketched above, and following the present inconsistent and perplexed method, equally difficult for the teacher to explain, and the scholar to understand and a pply in actual p-aetice. APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. ~ 161. (1) English verse is distinguished from prose by a fixed order of succession of strong and weak syllables, by the recurrence of pauses at measured distances, and the recurrence of sounds chiming with each other at some of these pauses. (2) In other words, the elements of English verse, as distinguished from prose, are-1st. METRE; 2d. PAUSES AT IMEASURED DISTANCES; 3d. RrHYME. (3) The first and second of these elements are essential, the third is not essential: it does not accompany all our verse, though it is a constituent of a large proportion of English poetry. (4) Such a portion as forms a complete specimen of the law of succession of weak and strong syllables in any species of verse is called a MIETRE or MEASURE or FOOT, because it is employed to mneasuzre the particular kind of verse which consists of a repetition of this foot or measure. (5) By these two, circumstances, viz. the nature of the measure, and the number of times it is repeated in a single verse, together with the fact of the presence or absence of rhyme, the various species of English verse are distinguished from each other. (6) We shall indicate the strong syllables, which enter into metres, by tile symbol ( —) placed over them, and the veak syllables by the Symbol (v); thus, cspect. rpe'at, &c. NoTE.-We have assumed the same names to distinguish measutres or feet which are employed by writers on Greek and Latin versification, and the same marks to indicate the different kinds of syllables which enter into the several measures. But these names and these marlks do not indicate the ~ 161. (1) Mention the circumstances by which English verse is distinguished from prose. (2) Repeat the names of the three elements of English verse. (3) Which of these elements are essential to verse? (4) Describe a metre, measure or foot in verse. (5) HIow are the various species fit English verse distinguished? (6) By what symbols are st'onmg and wceak syllables distinguished? ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 555 same things in treating of English versification or other modern species of versification and in treating of. ancient Gr;eek and Latin versification. J3easures, and, consequently verse, in these ancient languages consist of long and short syllables, and in treating of the versification of these languages the symbol (-) is used to indicate a long (not a strong) syllable, and the symbol (-) to indicate a short (not a weak) syllable.~ The melody of ancient verse is founded mainly on the metrical succession of syllables distinguished by the time which they occupy in pronunciation; or what, in treatises on prosody, is called QUANTITY (i. e. the relative length of syllables). (7) The melody of English verse is founded mainly on a succession of strong and weak syllables; or on what is sometimes called BEAT, or, perhaps not altogether correctly, ACCENT; in other words, on the relative force of syllables or sounds. (8) It may as well be observed here, that good measure or the perfect beat of verse does not depend upon the absolute force of the individual syllables employed, but on their force relatively to the syllables with which they are matched in the same measure orfoot. Hence it often occurs, in the connection of monosyllabic words in one metre, that the same wol'd (according as it is matched with a weaker or a stronger syllable, that is with a word that demands greater or lesser force in pronunciation) occupies sometimes the place of a strong, sometimes the place of a weak syllable. (9) Versification is perfect, so far as concerns measure, when the arrangement of the words in a verse is such that, regarded as mere prose, the relative force which the syllables demand for correct pronunciation corresponds with the demands of the measure of the verse; in other words, when good pronunciation of a passage naturally produces metrical melody. To this we may add that the perfection of verse, as regards pauses, consists in so arranging the words that the metrical pauses demanded by the laws of the verse shall occur at places where a pause is allowable without injury to the sense. When in both these respects the demands of the particular measure and form of verse are complied with, without greater departure from the ordinary grammatical arrangement of language than.is allowable and becom, ing in poetical compositions, the versification is good, so far as regards all but rhyme (if rhyme is present). The demands of rhyme we shall consider presently. fst. MEAsunE. —(10) There occur in our language four principal kinds of metre or measure, and these are distinguished by the names (7) On wlat is the melody of English verse mainly founded? (S) Repeat the observation in reference to what good measure depends upon. (9) State the substance of what is said in reference to the constituents of good versfilca. tion. (10) HIow many distinct species of measure occur in the English language? What ars their names? (11) Repeat the names given to the single measures. 556 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [~ 161. IAMBIC MEASURE, TROCHAIC MEASURE, ANAPAESTIC MEASURE and DACTYLIC MEASURE. (11) A single Iambic measure is usually called am Iambus; a single Trochaic measure, a Trochee; a single Anapaestic measure, an Analpcest; and a single Dactylic measure, a Dactyle. (12) An IAMBIC MEASURE or FOOT consists of a weak syllable followed by a strong syllable whether in the same or in different words. We may give as examples the words, repe'ct, respond, and the combinations, the wznd, a geim, an hour, dt home, &c. (13) A single iambic measure is represented by the symbols (v-). (14) Remark. -Any two successive syllables of which the second is sufficiently distinguished from the first by the relative degree of force which it requires in pronunciation may be regarded as forming an iambus. (15) A TROCIAIC FOOT or MEASURE consists of a strong syllable followed by a wOeak one, as in the words, strSnger, vctor, natitare. A trochee may be formed of two monosyllables, or of any two successive syllables of a word of more than two syllables, when the first of these syllables must, in accordance with the sense of the passage and the proper accentuation of the words, be pronounced with considerably greater force than the second. The symbols which represent the trochee are (- ). (16) A single ANAPAESTIC MlEASURE or ANAPAEST consists of two weak syllables followed by one strong syllable. There are few single words in our language which serve as good examples of an anapaest. Cdl1nale and Lebdnon, have been used by the poets as anapaests. Generally anapaests are constituted in the English language of syllables from more than one word. This measure is represented by the symbols (-.-). (17) A DACTYLE consists of one strong syllable followed by two weak syllables. We may give as examples the words sensibl, crtcib lM, &c. It is represented thus (- -). (18) We may exhibit along with these two other feet, which, though they do not alone (indeed cantnot) form, or give name to any species of Eng(12) Of what does an iambic foot consist? Give an example. (13) What symbol repre. cents it? (14) Repeat the remark about the formation of an iambus. (15) Describe a trochaic foot; give examples; repeat remark; tell how It is represented by symbols. (16) Hiow is the c(tsapcaestic measure constituted? Adduce examples; tell how this measure is generally formed in English, and how represented by symbols. (17) Describe the dactyle; give examples; tell how it is represented. (18) State the substance of what is said about two other feet. ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 557 lish verse, are often used as occasional substitutes for sorn of the feet already described. These are called the spondee ( —), consisting of two strong syllables; and the pyrrhic ( v), consisting of two weak syllables. Some call these secondary feet. We exhibit all these feet together in the following table: Iambus - - Trochee - Anapaest- - Dactyle - - Pyrrhic v Spondee -- NoTE.-Some introduce a third trisyllabiecfoot, the amphibrach - -, consisting of a strong syllable flanked by two weak ones. We think it unnecessary to introduce this either as a primary or a secondary measure. Most of the examples adduced of its use come under the class of mere double rhymes at the end of iambic verses. Such verses as the first and third in the following four from Burns ought, if we have regard to rhyme, to be written each as two verses, consisting of a single iambus with an additional weak syllable, and having, as all iambics ending with a weak syllable must have, double rhymes. "It warms me, it charms me, To mention but her name; It heats me, it beats me, And sets me a' on flame." To exhibit the rhymes we must write thus: "It warnms me, It charms me, To mention but her name:" &c. The examples of measure consisting of amphibrachs selected by lDr. Latham (Eng. gram. pp. 204-206) we should regard as anapaests having an iambus substituted for the first foot. This substitution is common, even in the purest specimens of anapaestic measure. (See Beattie's Hermit.) The movements in such verses as, " I've found I outt a gift I f6r my fair; I've found where the wood pigeons breed:" &c. is surely undistinguishable from the anapaestic movement. The lines, we think, are more properly printed thus, " I have found I out a gift J f6r my fair;" &c. in which form they appear to be what they really are-pure anapaests. Dr. Latham seems to have presented the lines in a form to suit his purpose. That the anapaest and iambic admit readily of interchange we shall have occasion again to observe. (19) Verses formed of iambic measures may be said to have iatm(19) RIepeat what is said of the different species of movement, or r'hytnhm of verse. 558 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICAiION. [l 161. bic movement, or iambic 9rhythm; verses formed of tr'oc1ees, of a. tapaests, of dactyles, tsrochaic, anacpaestic and dactylic movement respectively. REMARKS.-(20) These different movements or species of rhythn affect the ear and mind very differently, and are consequently, suited to different classes of subjects. The anapaestic and dactylic measures lhaving two weak (or light) syllables to each st~rong (or heavy) syllable, may be regarded as less adapted to grave and solemn subjects than the other measures. The iambic seems of all our English measures the one best adapted to solemn subjects. The poets in choosing measures have not always attended sufficiently to these facts. 2d. PAusES.-(21) A pause or aest of the voice determines the- end of a verse. This is usually called thefinal pause of a verse. (22) The place of this pause is marked in written verse by turning to a new line, each separate verse being contained in a separate line. NOTE. —The name VERSE has originated from this fact: Verse (in Latin versus) means a turning, so called because the end of it is indicated by turning back to a new line. (23) But, besides the pause in reading which marks the termination of a verse, other pauses occur in the course of each verse, of considerable length. These (at least the chief pauses of this kind in each verse), are called coesural pauses, because they cut the verse. We shall have more to say of these pauses, whenwe collie to treat of the number of measures, or feet contained in a verse. NoTE.w-The word tverse is often employed in ordinary language as the name of what is more definitely called a stanza. At the end of a stanza, as at the end of a verse properly so called, there is a turning, but, in this case, a turning not only to another line, but to the recommencement of a form of poetical composition consisting of a number of verses arranged in a fixed order. Verse is also employed as the name of a well-known division of the Sacred Scriptures, adopted in modern times for the purpose of securing easy reference to any particular passage. These divisions are called verses, because in most printed editions each of them begins on a new line, and consequently there is a turning (versus) at their termination. 3d. PrnYME.-(24) idhyme consists in a certain correspondence of sounds, or the chiming of the last syllables of two or more verses with one another. For example: (20) Repeat the substance of the remark in reference to different species of rhythm. (21) What is said of thefnat pause? (22) How is its place indicated in written poetry!,(23) Repeat what is said of the caeszural pause. (24) What constitutes rhyme? Illustrate by an example. ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION..559 " As some tall cliff that lifts its awfulfornz, Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal sunshine settles on its head." At the close of these verses the words " form" and "storm " rl'ymelll with each other; and in like manner "' spread " and " head." Endings like these are called rhymes. (25) Three things are essential to perfect rhymes: the syllables. vwhichl constitute such rhymes must be strong (heavy), or, generally speaking, what are called accented syllables; the vowel sounds of these syllables and the modifying consonantal sounds which follow them, when these syllables are closed by consonants, must be the same e; and, lastly, the consonantal modifications which precede the vowel sounds must be different. Thus, in the rhymes closing the first two lines of the above example, the vowel sound in form is the same as in storm; the consonantal modification which follows is the same in both cases, namely, the modification represented by the consonants rm; and the modifications which precede the vowel sound are diffeent, being the modification represented by the letterf in one verse, and that represented by st in the other. In other words, syllables, to form perfect rhymes, must end with the same vowel sound, closing (if modified in the close) with similar modifications, and must be unlike in their commencement. The last mentioned circumstance is indispensable to a good rhyme. Every one will discover the awkwardness in the rhymes of the following verses from Spenser: "Dan Chaucer, well of English undefyled, On fame's eternall beadroll worthie to berfyled." NOTE.-It is to be observed that many of the rhymes employed in verse do not conform perfectly to these conditions. The poets feel themselves often compelled to have recourse to imperfect rhymes, that is, rhymes formed with syllables in which the vowel sounds and the following consonants are not precisely the same, but more or less similar. But the more perfect the rhymes, the more pleasing the versification, so far as rhyme is concerned. The frequent recurrence of imperfect rhymes, especially of rhymes very imperfect (for the imperfection of rhyme admits of various degrees), is a great blemish in poetical compositions. Rhyme may be regarded as an ornament; and every thing intended as an ornament, if not excellent of its kind, utter-,y fails of its purpose. (25) Mention three things essential to perfect rh7.yFmes, and illustrate by reference to the example given above. 560 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [~ 161. It ought to be remarked that rhymes which, when written, seem perfect to the eye, are not always perfect to the ear. If we would form good rhymes, we must attend exclusively to sound and not to orthography. Examples: head and bead are not perfect rhymes, while head and bed (though unlike in writing), are perfect rhymes. (26) "An accented syllable followed by an unaccented one, and coming under the condition given above " (namnely, that the accented vowel sound and all that follows it shall be the same, and what precedes diverse), "' constitutes a double rhyme." —Latham's Eng. Gramn. p. 187. Examples: " So she strove against her weakness," " Shaped her heart with woman's meekness!" "When the praise thou meetest To thine ear is sweetest, Oh! then remember me." See other examples in the verses quoted from Burns in a preceding note: " It warms me," &c. (27) In the same manner, a strong syllable followed by two weak syllables, coming under the same condition, constitutes a triple rhyme. Such rhymes rarely occur in serious poetry. Mr. Moore has introduced a whimsical assortment of them in some of his satirical pieces. For example: "I suspect the word' crucified' must be made' crucible,' Before this fine image of mine is producible." "Who lived just to witness the Dbluge —was gratified Much by the sight, and has since been found stratfied." It now remains to exhibit some of the principal kinds of English verse formed by- the combination of the three elements considered; namely, the several species of measure variously repeated, pauses and rhyme. 1st. IAMIMc MEASURES.-(28) By far the largest proportion of our English poetry consists of iambic measures; and of English iambic poetry far the largest proportion consists of verses containing eachl five measures; in other words, verses containing ten syllables alternately weak and strong, commencing with a weak and ending with a strong syllable. This verse may be called IAMBIC PENTAMETER - (26) Describe double rhymes, and repeat examples. (27) Describe triple rhymes, and repeat examples. (28) Repeat the remark about the prevalence of iambic measure in English poetry. ~ 161.] APPENDIX )N VERSIFICATION. 561 Iambic five mnetre VERSE. It is often called HERoIc VERSE, because ieroic or Epic Poetry is written in this verse. (29) The following scale represents this species of verse so far as regards the measures or feet: (30) Nearly all the verse without rhyme in our language is of this form. Such verse for the sake of distinction is called BLhLNX VERSE. Much of our rhyme verse is of the same form. To distinguish this from blank verse, it is somnetimes called rhyme. (31) A perfectly regular verse of this kind, besides admitting a final pause without violence to the grammatical arrangement and sense of the language, should also admit a pause either after the second or third measure or between the syllables of the third measure. That is, one or other of these places should coincide with the ending of a word which can, without impropriety, be separated from the following word by a moderate pause. When a pause is not only allotwable, but demanded by the sense, the beauty of the verse is enhanced. NOTE.-This ccesural or principal pause is sometimes deferred, both in rhyme and blank verse, till we come to the middle of the fourth foot; sometimes again it occurs (all that is allowed for it), so early as the middle of the second foot. These pauses have a less pleasing effect-are less melodious than the three legitimate pauses first mentioned. This failure of melody is more perceptible in rhyme, especially in heroic couplets, than in blank verse. In blank verse the only cesural pause occurs sometimes even so early as after the first, and again, so late as after the fourth measure. Such unequal division of the verse injures the melody, and if too frequently repeated, detracts greatly from the pleasure which good versification yields. A little harshness when it does not recur too often, may contribute to variety. When the ccesural pause falls so near the beginning or the end of the verse, the final pause in reading sometimes becomes scarcely perceptible, so that the hearer cannot always distinguish where a verse ends; especially when the reader takes care not to sacrifice the sense to the melody. All really good readers and reciters of blank verse follow the sense in the employment of pauses, leaving the poet himself to look out for the melody. (32) Besides the cisural pause each verse of this form usually admits of one-generally of more than one secondary pause. Much of the (29) Write a copy of the scale and explain it. (80) Repeat what is said about verse without rhyme. How is it named? (81) Repeat the substance of the remarks on the pauses of this klind of verse. (82) What is said of secondcirly pauses? 37 562 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [ ~161. melody both of blank verse and rhyme depends upon the proper adjustment of the pauses of the versification so as to accord with the pauses which the sense requires, or, at least, readily admits. (33) We submit a few examples of blank verse, marking the chief (csesural) pause by two perpendicular lines. We give alse a scale over these verses. Ye nolbl1 few! 11 who here I[ nbendling stand B6neath I life's preslsare, [I yet I bear up I a while, And what. your bound[l(d view, U which onjl? saw A litltlo part, II deemed eviil is 1 no more: Th6 storms I of win ltry Time Iv will qoicklly pass, And -one 1 finboundljd Spring 1I Oencirjcl6 all. The melody of the verse depends greatly on the degree in which a marked contrast between the weak and strong syllables is attained by the arrangement. Observe as an illustration the superior melody and'eauty of the fifth line, " The storms," &c. The strong syllables are all decidedly strong (not merely allowed through courtesy to the poet to pass as such), in contrast with the weak ones. In these lines we have three examples of the substitution of a spondee (- -) for the iambus. The second and fourth measures of the second verse, and the third measure of the fourth verse ought to be read as spondees, if we pay regard to the proper force of the syllables. (34) Besides the spondee, blank verse fieely admits the trochee (an equivalent measure, but wvith contrary movement), especially in the first place. Examples: "' Thick a.s aitaimhnal leaves [ that strew I the brooks." " Szveet is I the breath of morn, I[ her rising sweet." A pyrrhic ('-') is also found in the first and sometimes in other places, and often followed by a spondee as compensation, the two together being equal to two iambic measures = two weak and two strong syllables. Example: Wit7h the 1 fixed stars, 11 fixed in I thdir orb 1 that flies." The anapnst (Q -) is also freely admitted (we believe in all places) in blank verse, and imparts what some consider a pleasing variety to the measure. The anaplcst, though differing in measure, resembles (88) Copy the verses given as examples with scale, and repeat the remarks made upon them. (34) Tell what other measures may be substituted for the iainmbus, and illustrate by es amples. ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 563 the iambus in movement, as it commences with weak, and terminatee in a strong syllable. When the anapsest is introduced the number of syllables in the line is increased beyond ten. The introduction of other feet as substitutes for the iambus does not increase the number of syllables. In the following verses we have examples of anaplsts substituted for iambic measures. "Now morn her rosly steps 11 in tThe asltern clime." "H6 scarce b had ceased, U whlen th6 I sAperli6r fiend Was mnovjing toward I the shore: I1 his ponld&rbus shield," &c. "To slaviely prone, 11 and bade I thee rise I again." "By liklening spir{itual I to I corporloal forms." NOTE.-In the last verse, if we pronounce "likening " and " spiritual" as words of three syllables, and " corporeal" as a word of four syllables, we shall have three anapests; which we think two more than enough in one verse. If we pronounce " Spiritual " as a word of four syllables, as it is pronounced in prose, we shall have four weak syllables (for "to" in that case ought to be reckoned weak) instead of an iambus. Perhaps the best way of pronouncing the verse is according to the scale which we have placed over it, though "to," we admit, does not well support the dignity of a strong syllable. In some of the examples, it will be observed that there is a hiatus, or concurrence of vowels between the weak syllables of the anapnest: that is, the first weak syllable terminates in a vowel, and the second commences with a vowel. These vowels might be allowed to coalesce into a single syllable, in which case the anapnest becomes an iambus. Thus, if in the first verse above we allow the e of the word "the" to coalesce in pronunciation with the sound of ea in "eastern," "in th' east6rn clime" will form two regular iambic measures. In a similar way, if in the next verse we pronounce "superior" as a word of three syllables (suaperyor), the anapest disappears. It is much best in all such cases to pronounce all the syllables (perhaps a little more slightly and quickly than in prose) and class the measure as a substituted anapoest, or secondary foot. By this course, instead of detracting from the beauty of the versification, we improve it by introducing greater variety. The poet would not thank us for any effort made to reduce his verses in recitation to uniform iambic measures. For similar reasons, we would pronounce as well as write such words as slavery, ponderous, dangerous, always as three syllables, sounding lightly the middle syllable. In some editions we find the last two printed "pond'rous," "dang'rous" in situations like that in which ponderous occurs in one of the above verses. This mode of printing is wholly unnzecessary, in whatever way we may choose to pronounce the words. It is altogether improper, if the views above stated are correct; and they accord, we believe, with those of the best poets, prosodians, and readers of poetry. It is the common error 564 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICAfION. [~ 161 of careless and inexperienced readers of verse to yield themselves to the prevalent measure and movement, and thus force all the syllables, in violation of the rules of correct pronunciation and correct emphasis, into strict accordance with this prevalent measure, obliterating eve -y trace of the secondary or substituted measures. The chief poems written in blank verse are Milton's Paradise Lost, Th:mson's Seasons, Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination, Young'a Night Thoughts, and Cowper's Task. Milton, Thomson, and Akenside appear to be the great masters of this species of verse. (35) The analysis or dividing of verse into the separate feet or measures of which it is composed is called scanning or scansion of verse. In performing this exercise the learner pronounces the syllables which form each single measure separately, at the same time naming the measure; thus, "Sweet is" trochee, "the breath" iambus,'" of morn" ciambus, csesural pause, " her ris-" iambus, " ing sweet," iambus. The best form of exercise is to copy a number of verses from scme interesting piece of poetry, and apply a scale to each verse (as we have done in the examples given above), exhibiting all the measures and pauses. The method which we would advise to be pursued in order to obtain a correct knowledge of versification with the least expenditure of time and labor, is to continue the analysis of one kind of verse, say of the iambic. pentameter, till the learner becomes perfectly acquainted with it. After this, the other varieties of verse will present very little difficulty. It is shameful that the subject of English versifiCation is so much neglected in our schools. It is a curious and interesting subject. Some knowledge of it is important to all who read poetry aloud, if it were only to guard them fiom being led into a sing song mode of recitation by servilely yielding to the general movement of the measures, and overlooking the secondary or substituted measures. Only a few hours' study are required to obtain a satisfactory knowledge of this curious art, through which so much has been contributed to the higher and more refined pleasures of mankind in all ages. IAMBIC PENTAMETERS WITHr H1nYME.-(36) As Iambic Pentametess withf hyme do not differ essentially either as to pauses or measures from blank verse, it is necessary to do little more in treating this subject than to exhibit specimens of the several divisions of this kind of verse in reference to the order of the rhymes. HERoIa COUPLETS.-(37) The most common species of rhygmed pen(3i) What is said of the analysis or scanning of verse? What form of exercise is re. commended? And what method of studying versification? (86) What remark is made in reference to iambic pentameters with rhyme? (87) Repeat what is said of hleroic couples. ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 565 tameters in the English language is what is commonly called the Heroic Couplet. This couplet consists of two verses rhyming with each other. In poems composed of these couplets the first verse and second rhyme with each other; the third and fourth, with each other; and so on of all the rest in succession. (38) Sometimes three verses rhyme together. Such verses are called Triplets, and are sometimes indicated by a brace uniting them. Verses of this kind are written and printed in unbroken succession. (39) We have already given a specimen of Heroic Couplets in treating of Rhyme: "As some tall rock," &c. We submit others. " Of a111 th6 cauls6s, II that I conspire I to blind Man's erlring judgment 11 and misguide the mired, What the I weak head II with strongest bias rzules, Is pride, ] the never-failing vice of fools." " So, pleasedI at first, il the towlering Alps ] w6 try, Moant o'er th6 vales, 11 and seem to tread the sky; Th6 eterlnal snows 11 appear already past, And the I first clOuds ll and mountains seem the last: But those attained, II we tremble to survey, The growing labors I1 of the lengthened qway; The increasling prospect 11 tires our wondlering eyes, Hills peep I o'er hills, 11 and Alps on Alps arise." NOTE.-If we examine these verses, we shall find that a similar liberty of introducing other than iambic measures is allowed here as in blank verse; but it is not allowed in so great a degree. Good poets generally arrange verses of this kind so that each couplet expresses (as in the last extract) a complete thought. Much of the beauty of this species of verse depends upon the skilful management of the casural pauses. These should rarely fall at any other places, except those which we have pointed out as the regular places; viz., the end of the second, the middle of the third, and the end of the third measure. It will be found by compairing the verses above, that the melody is sensibly affected by the place of the pause. For fuller information on this subject, the reader is referred to the:acute and judicious observations of Lord Kames on English Heroic Verse. (See Kamea' Elements of Criticism, ch. xviii., sect. 4.) Lord Kames has examined with care the question as to what words (do (85) Repeat what iss:id of triplets. What is said of the nlanner in which couplets are written? (89) With a written copy of these verses in his hand, let the student point out the 4auses, secondary measures, &c. 566 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. L[ 161 not gracefully and without violence to sense and grammar admit a caszura. pause between them. The result of his inquiry on this matter is that pauses cannot, without manifest detraction from the perfection of the verse, occur between words used exclusively for the purpose of modification (adjectives and adverbs) and their principal word, when the modifying word precedes the principal. The reason is that such modifying words express no complete conception of themselves, and a pause or rest of the voice cannot with propriety take place except where a complete conception at least, if not a complete proposition, is presented for the hearer's mind to repose on. For the same reason a pause should not come between a preposition and the noun which it precedes, or between a conjunction and that which follows it. On the contrary there is not the same objection to the intervention of a pause, when the principal word precedes the modifying word. A pause is allowable between subject and verb; and even between the verb and its objective modification, though it is less proper here. These principles are often violated by the poets, nsot without detriment to the verse. We refer for details to the place above cited. We add here an example of a Triplet, and examples of verses with double rhymes. Verses of this last description contain, as a matter of course, an additional syllable. They are rare in iambic pentameters. " Thou paint'st as we describe, 11 improving still, When on wild nature 1] we ingraft our skill; But not creating beauties at our will." To draw fiesh colors from the vernal flouers; To steal from rainbows, ere they drop their showers." "The meeting points the sacred hair dissever From her fair head for ever and for ever." (40) TUIE ELEGIAC STANZA. —The Elegiac Stanzac, so called, because it is generally employed for mournful subjects, consists of iambic pentameters with alternate rhymes, the first verse rhyming with the third and the second with the fourth. The stanzas are separated in printing by spaces. We have a beautiful and well known specimen of Elegiac verse in Gray's Elegy written in a country church-yard. We present a single stanza as an example. " Can storied urn, 11 or animated bust, Back to its mansion 1I call the fleeting breath? Can honor's voice 1I provoke the silent dust, Or flatjttry soothe 1 the dull cold ear of death?" (41) TIIE SPENSERIAN STANZA.-TThis beautifill stanza consists of (40) Describe the elegiac stanza, and point out the syllables which rhyme with each other in the example. (41) Describe the Spenser'issz stanza; tell the origin of the name; mention some ol ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 56eight iambic pentameter verses, and a closing iambic hsexameter or Alexandrine verse containing six iambic measures. The rhymes of the eight pentameters are alternate, and the ninth or Alexandrine verse rhymes with the eighth and sixth verses. We present an example from Spenser, from whom the verse receives its name, and another from Thomson. Some of the most beautiful poetry in our language is written in this stanza, including Spenser's Faerie Queene, Thomson's Castle of Indolence, Beattie's Minstrel, and Lord Byron's Childe Harold. The same rules apply to the measures and pauses as to other iambic pentameters. " How oft do they their silver bowers leave To come to succour us that succour want! How oft do they with golden pineons cleave The flitting skyes, like flying pursuivant, Against fowle feendes to ayd us militant! They for us fight, they watch and dewly ward, And their bright squadrons round about us plant; And all for love and nothing for reward: 0, why should hevenly God to men have such regard! Faerie Queene, B. II. Cant. 8: 2. " I care not, Fortune, what you me deny: You cannot rob me of free nature's grace; You cannot shut the windows of the sky, Through which Aurora shows her brightening face; You cannot bar my constant feet to trace The woods and lawns, by living stream at eve: Let health ray nerves and finer fibres brace, And I their toys to the great children leave: Of fancy, reason, virtue, naught can me bereave." Castle of Indolence, Cant. II. 3. (42) TImE SONNET. —Th e sonnet consists of fourteen iambic pentameters. As generally written by Petrarch, the great master of this species of poetical composition, the first verse rhymes with the fourth; the second with the third; the fifth with the eighth; and the sixth with the seventh. NOTE. —In many modern English sonnets these eight verses are cunstructed with alternate rhymes; and this is certainly an improvement as regards melody, if any thing can improve this stiff, pedantic, exotic form of the chief poems written in this stanza; analyze the examples, marking pauses and measures and noting secondary and faulty rhymes if such can be found. (42) Describe the sonnet, and repeat the substance of what is said of it. 568 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [~ 161. poetical composition. In verses arranged in the first way, so that between a pair of rhymes designed to correspond two rhyming verses shall intervene, the labor of seeking rhymes, at least, so far as regards the first and fourth verses, appears to us something worse than thrown away. Such rhymes, we think, detract from the melody of the measure and are much less pleasing to the ear than mere blank verse. We believe this to be the Inain cause of the unpopularity of the sonnet.. We think it strange that M3r. Tennyson should have adopted a stanza with this most unmusical arrangement of rhymes in his "In Memoriam." The six remaining verses of the sonnet have generally alternate rhymes. Often in Petrarch the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth accord with each ether in rhyme, and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth in like manner. Sometimes the ninth is made to rhyme with the twelfth; the tenth, with the thirteenth; and the eleventh, with the fourteenth: with the sole design, one would be tempted to think, of rendering the rhymes as little perceptible and as little agreeable to the ear as possible, after the poet has taken all the pains necessary to find them. There is however great variety in the mode of arranging the rhymes of the concluding six verses of the sonnet; but all varieties are inferior to the arrangement first mentioned; each seems to vie with the others in the trial which shall be least melodious. We select a sonnet as an example from Wordsworth:' MUTABILITY.": " From low to high doth dissolution climb,,And sinks from high to low, along a scale Of awful notes, whose concord shall not fail; A musical but melancholy chime, Which they can hear who meddle not with crime, Nor avarice, nor over-anxious care. Truth fails not; but hler outward forms that bear The longest date do melt like frosty rime, That in the morning whitened hill and plain And is no more; drop like the tower sublime Of yesterday, which royally did wear Its crown of weeds, but could not even sustain Some casual shout that broke the silent air, Or the unimaginable touch of Timle." The rhymes in the last six verses of this sonnet are in some respects worse than those which we have described above as most prevalent in Petrarch. What ear can appreciate any chime between "sublime" in the tenth verse, and "Time " in the fourteenth, at the distance of four verses ~ 161.] APPFENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 569 The sonnet appears to us a most capriciously contrivod unnatural poetical structure, with nothing to recommnlend it, save the unprofitable labor which it costs the poet. To increase this labor each sonnet, according to the law of the composition, should contain a complete subject, and only one subject. Few of our English poets have succeeded in the difficult cultivation of this exotic. Even when sonnets are good, the repetition of them soon becomes monotonous to the reader. It is not so with the truly beautiful native Spenserian stanza. It now remains that we submit examples of the other more important kinds of iambic verse, and of anapmstic and trochaic verse. It is unnecessary for our purpose, in a brief sketch like this, to accompany these examples with many remarks. If the student has completely mastered what precedes and applied himself faithfully to the analysis of iambic pentameters, other species of versification will give him little trouble. IAKBIrn VERSE, oF FOUR MEASUREs.-After the form of verse which we have been considering, ialrbic verse of four measures or feet is by far the most prevalent in our language. Some call this Iambic Tetrameter. (43) This is always accompanied with rhyme. Sometimes the rhymes are consecutive, like those of the heroic couplets, sometimes alternate, like the elegiac stanza. In the first case, as in the heroic couplets, the verses are written consecutively, in the second, as in elegiac verse, in stanzas. We submit examples.' Th~ wild I r6se, I egjlantinel, And broom, Wasted around i1 their rich perfume e; The birch trees wept n in fragrant balm, The aspen slept 11 beneath the calm; The silver light, 11 with qUilvvring glance, Played 6n l the water's 1H still expanse,Wild were I the heart whose passion's sway Could rage beneath the sober ay!" - It will be observed that the ceasural pause usually occurs in tne middle of the verse, between the second and third foot. It will also be seen from this example, that this species of verse admits the same secondary or substituted feet, as the species which we have been considering. This kind of verse also admits occasional double rhymes, and, of course, an additional weak syllable. Example: "Exsfltting, trdmblling, ragling, faintling, Possessed beyond the Muse's painting/." (43) Describe the Iambic tetrameters with consecutive, and with alternate rhymesa Copy the examples and apply a scale of scansion to each verse. 570 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. L 161l The following stanzas afford examples of this kind of measure with alternate rhymes. " With listless look 11 along the plain, I see Tweed's silver current glide, And coldly mark 11 the holyfane Of Melrose rise 11 in ruined pride. The quiet lake, II the balmy air, The hill, the stream, 1I the tower, the tree,Are they still such!1 as once they were, Or is the dreary 11 change in me?" " When coldness wraps this suffering clay,.Ah, whither strays the lnimortal mind? It cannot die, it cannot stay, But leaves its darkened dust behind. Above or Love, Hope, I-late, or.Fear, It lives all passionless and vure: An age shall fleet like earthly year, Its years as moments shall endure." (44) This verse is often alternated with an IAraBIc VERSE oF TERE.R nMEASURES, which some, regardless of the frowns of classical prosodians, who have given the name to an iambic verse of six measures, have ventured to call Iambic Trimeter. We give an example: " How lightly mounts II the muse's wing, Whose theme 11 is in the skiesLike morning larks, 1[ that sweeter sing The nearer Heaven 1I they rise." (45) There is another stanza which in the third verse only has four measures, and in the first, second and fourth, three measures. Ex. ample: " Behold the Sun, how b}right From yonder East he springs, As if the soul of life and light Were breathing from his woings." NOTE.-In psalmody stanzas of four tetrameters (eight syllables) are com (44) Describe fa stanza formed of four and three measure Iarr bics. (45) Describe another sinilarly formed. Exhibit the scansion of both in writing. ~ 161.] APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. 37k monly called long metre. The rhymes are sometimes alternate, sometime; consecutive, and sometimes there is no rhymc. Stanzas consisting of alternate tetrameters and trimeters are called comnmon tmetre. In these the rhymes are often confined to the second and fourth verse, in which case the verses are sometimes printed as consecutive verses of esven measures each. Stanzas consisting of three trimeters, with a tetrameter for the third verse, are called short metre. We have already noticed the Alexandrine verse, consisting of six iambic measures. This is now only used in connection with other verses, as in the Spenserian stanza. Iambic verses of two measures, and even of a single measure with an additional weak syllable (and consequently double rhyme), are sometimes found connected with longer verses in odes formed of verses of varying length. (46) ANiAPESTIC VERSE.-We give specimens of the two kinds of anapemstic verse which occur most frequently in our poetry. It will be observed that as iambic verse freely admits the anapmest, so anaprestic verse admits the iambus, especially in the first measure of the verse. The following may be called Anapcestic Tetrameter. "At the close I 6f the day, II when the hamllet is still And morltals the sweets II of forgetlfulness prove, When naught I but the torlrent 11 is heard I on the hill, And naught I but the nightlingale's 1H song I in the grove;'TwAs thus! i by the cave II of the mounltain afar, While his harp I rung symphonlious, 11 a herlmit began; No mnore I with himself, 11 or with nalture at war, He thought as a sage, II though he felt as a mnan."' The following is an example of Anapeestic Trivzeter: " I am monlarch 6f all I I siirvey, Myd right I there is none I to dispute; From the centre H1 all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute." Iambuses and anapmsts are often intermingled in the same verse with pleasing effect. Example: " The samlImer is comling, ]I on soft I winds borne, fie may press I the grape, II ye may bind I the corn. F6r me I I depart I1 t6 a brightler shore, Ye atr marked I by care, II ye arte mine j n6 more. (46) Write out tile specimens of anapsestice measure, and give an analysis of the feet The same with the mixed tetramneter. 572 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [l 161 I go I where the loved II wh6 have left l y6u dwell, And th6 flowers are not De-ath's- -I fare y6 well, I fare-woll." - There are many sweet specimens of these mixed tetraineters in the poems of Mrs. Hemans. TnocIAICb VERSE.-(47) It will be noticed that a verse consisting of complete trochaic measures must end in a weak syllable. A verse thus ending admits of none but a double rhyme, since every rhyme must, as we have seen, rest on a strong syllable. Hence in the trocliaic verses which most -frequently occur in our poetry, the last trochee is curtailed, or, if you please, a strong syllable-is added. Some complete measures occur with double rhymes. We submit specimens of the forms which are most common in our poetry. Trochaic measure is almost exclusively confined to lyrical poetry —songs, odes, &c. We give only such forms as occur as continuous verses, not those short verses of two measures or less which occur in longer odes consisting of verses of various lengths. Example of Trochaic verse of three measures with double rhymes, and two measures with additional strong syllable. "'Then should ] mAsfc, 1 stealing All the I soul of I feling, To thy I heart 4plpealing, Draw one I tear fr6m I thee; Then lt l mem6ry I bring thee, Strains I I used t6 I sing thee, Oh! then I r6memlber me." The last verse here is iambic, the fourth a trochaic dimeter (two-measure line) with an additional strong syllable, or a trimeter wanting a syllable, the other verses are trimeter trochaics with double rhymes. We next give an example of Trochaic verses consisting of four measures (Trochaic Tetrameters), having of course double rhymes, with alternate verses of three measures, and an additional strong syl. lable to sustain the single rhyme. "Every I season I hath its pleasures; Spring maiy boast her I fiower~ I prime, Yet thy I vineyard's I rtab~ I treasiures Brighten I auatmn's I soberer I time." "' They by I parks and I lodges going, See the lordly castles stand: (47) Write the several specimens of Trochale verse; describe and analyze them. ~ 161.] A'PENDIX ON'ERSIFICATION. 573 Summer woods, about them blowing, Made a murmur in tlie land." It may be noticed in the second and fourth lines above, that the trochee admits the dactyle in its place, as the iambus interchanges with the anapast. The interchange in'both cases is easy and natural, being between measures of similar movement. Some would read' the feet which we have marked dactyles as trochees, making "flowery" and "soberer" words of two syllables. Such coarse pronounciation is far fiom improving the rhythm of the verse, and we think offends good taste. See more examples of this species of verse, in Pope's beautiful ode, commencing thus: "Vital spark of heav6nlN Ifldme, Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame: Trembling, hoping, lingering, }flyingOh, the pain, the bliss of dying!" And in Tennyson's "Lord of Burleigh." Example of four trochaic measures with an additional strong syllable, and of five trochaic measures with double rhymes: " Then melthotght I I heard a I holl6w I souand, Gathbring i up from all the lower ground. -Narrowing j in to where they sat assembled, Low vllaptfiofis I music winding treimbled," &c. Verses of this and the following forms are rare in our poetry. Example of six measures. "On A I mouantain, stretched bcIneath A 1 hoary I willow, Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow." There are examples in Mr. Tennyson's poems of trochaic verses of seven measures, and his "Locksley Hall" is written in verse of seven trochaio measures with an additional strong syllable. Example: "Yet II doubt n6t I through the[ ages I ne inlerOasingI parpose I runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns." DACTYLIC MIEASURES.-(48) Dactylic measures are very rare in our language; so much' so that we doubt the propriety of giving them the rank of a separate class. Single dactyles are often substituted with good effect for trochaic, and also for iambic measures; but there are few specimens of English verse in which this measure so predominates as to render the name dactylic appropriate. In the following example (48) Repeat what is said of dactylic measures, and wlite and give the analysis zf the examples. 574 APPENDIX ON VERSIFICATION. [~ 161. we have three dactylic measures with an additional strong syllable to support the rhyme: "Erin, the I tear and the I smile in thine I 6yes, Blend like the rainbow that hangs in thy skies!" The first and the third verses in the following stanza consist each of three dactyles with an additional strong and weakl syllable, or of four dactyles wanting one syllable in the fourth measure. "Where are the I joys I hlave t met in the I morning, Th-at danced I to thie lark's I earll song? Where is the I peace that Alwailtd my I wandering, At evening the wild woods among?" "Is it that summer's forsaken our valley, And grinm surly winter is near? No, no! the bees' humming round the gay roses, Proclaim it the pride of the ypear." These verses ought to have double rhymes. Burns has substituted singe rhymes. Could he have found double rhymes, in accordance with the general law of rhymes, it would have added much to the melody of the verse. The single rhymes falling on weak syllables, it will be seen by contrasting them with the rhymes in the alternate anapwstic verses, are almost imperceptible. The poet seems to have felt this, for in all the stanzas, except the first, he has left the dactylic verses without rhyme. We may subjoin the following examples for analysis: "Merrily, merrily shall I live now, Under the blossom that hangs on the bough." "Warriors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord, Heed not the corpse, though a king's in your path, Bury your steel in the bosoms of Gath." —BYnoN. "Hail to the chief who in triumph advances! Honored and blessed be the ever greenpine! Long may the tree in his banner that glances Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line!" THE END, AppleIons' Standard Scientific Text-Books, Youmans's First Book of Botany. Designed to cultivate the Observing Powers of Children. By ELIZA A. YOUMANS. X2mo. 183 pages. $I.oo. This little book has proved a wonderful success, and is emphatically a step in the right direction. 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