A U U N ION-C$ RO OL G A X 1 1A Ra TF THIE 1NGLISH LANGUAGEC B3T IMON i ERL A.tM At9ag0 OF COM.pPRElHENSIV' GIRSAMAR " FI'PRST LES9SONS GJ OtSAMMtIR 2, acred Interpreter of human tflouhit, eov few respect or use tlhee a they ought.' " COWPER, -on:Lemgmff~"NEW YORK: IWISON, PHINNEY, BELAKESMAN, & CO. HI CA: A S C. G R IGS & C 0 18 8. KERL'S SERIES OF GRAMMARS. lierI's First Lessons in EnlglishlB Granmmair. - Designed as an introduction to the Common-School Grammar. The plan, definitions, observations, and exercises, are in the simplest style, and suited to the capacity of children. Kerl's Common-School Grammar.- A simple, thorough, and practical grammar of the English language. Great care has been taken to make it, if possible, the best treatise of its kind now before the public. The parts relating to Idioms, Analysis, and False Syntax, will be found particularly valuable. Keerl's Comprehenslve Grammar. - An original work, that breaks up the old stereotyped method of English grammars, and re-arranges matter more nearly in accordance with the genius of the language. The articles on Versification, Punctuation, and Capital Letters, throw new light on these subjects; and in False Syntax, and the Analysis of Sentences, the exercises are fresh, pithy, and exhaustive. The work is especially useful to every speaker, writer, or teacher, as a bo)ok of reference. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by SIMnON KERL, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. PREFACE. "LANGUAGE," said Sheridan, "is the great instrument by whichall the faculties of the mind are brought forward, moulded, and polished." He who travels over our extensive country can easily observe that wherever the people have a limited and obscure knowledge of language, there all the other elements of civilization and refinement are in a correspondingly undeveloped state; but that wherever a home is surrounded by the beauties of nature and art, there is also generally heard such language as reveals the presence of literature and the cultivation of thought and sensibility. Language is at once the most useful, powerful, delicate, and durable instrument wielded by man. It materializes thought, so as to make it tangible, permanent, and transmissible; and it thus carries civilization into every nook and corner of the world. It receives the intellect, heart, and achievements of every generation; and bears forward the responsible burden to be judged by every future generation. While the marble crumbles, and the canvas fades, an embodiment of great thoughts in glorious language lives through all time; rcnewing its youth, like the phoenix, with every edition from the printing-press, and, like the sun, spreading its light and beneficence round the whole globe. But how many literary productions are more or less disfigured with inaccuracies of grammar; and what an injurious influence is often exerted on the language of the people, by the hasty and crude literature of the daily press! Iow often do men express their thoughts, even on important occasions, inaccurately, obscurely, ambiguously, or ridiculously; and what a multitude of bickerings, lawsuits, and contentions arise from language misapplied or misunderstood! It was the opinion of a late AttorneyGeneral of the United States, that the people of this country pay at least twenty millions of dollars a year for the abuse of the English language in matters of contract and legislation alone. Till the excellent treatise of Murray made its appearance, the study of English grammar had hardly become a branch of common-school education; but since that time the importance of the science has been so far established in the convictions of the public, that grammar is now everywhere one of the leading studies in common schools. Corresponding textbooks have constantly increased, until we have a superabundance; yet there is doubtless always room for an improved system in every science. iv PRnEFACE, Most readers prefer to ascertain the plan and contents of a book by simply turning over its leaves; but the following features of this treatise are some of those which the author has endeavored to make worthy of special notice: - 1. The simple and scientific nature of the general plan, and the methodical arrangement of matter throughout the book. 2. The clearness, brevity, and uniformity of the definitions. 3. The abundance and appropriateness of the illustrations and exercises. 4. The careful development of every part in proportion to its importance; so that the book is unusually symmetrical and comprehensive. 5. The introduction of the historical element of our language; and the careful regard for those laws which underlie the fabric of language, and make it what it is. 6. The treatment of infinitives and participles. 7. The Rules of Syntax, in regard to both meaning and brevity. 8. The collection of idisms and other difficult constructions. 9. The system of Analysis, and the progressive development of sentences according to its principles. 10. The classification of False Syntax; and the lessening of so great a number of little rules, which are seldom learned and always soon forgotten. 11. The critical remarks on syntax, punctuation, and capital letters. 12. The superior mechanical execution of the work. The relative importance of the matter has been carefully distinguished by different sizes of type; and what is designed only for reading or reference, has been placed at the end of each Part, or so distinguished from the portions to be committed to memory as not to embarrass the learner or distract his attention. The pages to be studied make thus but a comparatively small book. Yet for those pupils who may need a smaller or an introductory treatise, a book called " First Lessons in English Grammar," and made on the same plan as this work, has been expressly prepared. If any teacher wishes his pupils to "analyze and parse" as soon as possible, he can require them to commit the Rules of Syntax to memory, and he can then drill them, as they advance from the commencement of the book, on the sentences which begin page 241. Brevity has been constantly studied; and great care has been taken to make this grammar as simple, progressive, and interesting as such a book can be made without injuring its scientific value. In closing this Preface, the author desires to express his grateful acknowledgment for valuable suggestions received from the Masters of the Boston Public Schools; of whom he would especially mention Daniel C. Brown, Joshua Bates, and James A. Page, as the gentlemen to whom he is mostly indebted. INDEX. PAGS PAGE Abbreviations,.. * *.337 Observations, 58, 209, 811, 346Accent,.. 39 59, 325, 336 Orthography....... 34 Adjectives, 6, 108; Definitive, 108, 115 Paragraph,..... 228 Adjectives, Irregular, List of,. 176 arsing,...... 198, 261 Adjuncts,... 178, 309 Participles,. 154, 221, 307 Adverbs,. 7, 172; List of,. 176 Parts of Speech,. 1, 70, 209 Analysis of Sentences,... 227 Pauses...... 330, 335, 336 Analysis and Parsing, Exer- Period,........ 337 cises,....... 241-275 Persons,.... 11, 85,142, 309 Apposition,.. 100, 211 Phrases,.......18, 239 Arrangement of Words,.. 260, 308 Pleonasm,.... 95,222,320 Articles,.. 4, 105, 279, 282, 300 Poetry,......... 34 Articulation,.... 334 Poetic Licenses,... 332 Brackets,..... 343 Predicates,....,232 Cases,.. 12, 95, 292 Prefixes,.... 54, 345 Clauses,... 18, 229, 239 Prepositions, 8, 178, 285; List of, 181 Colon,..337 Pronouns,.... 3,73, 293, 303 Comma,........ 339 Pronunciation,.... 35, 58 Comparison, Degrees of, 16, 109, 279 Properties, Grammatical,... 2 Compound Words,.. 56, 260, 344 Properties of Nouns and Pronouns, 81 Conjugation,.... 160 Properties of Verbs,....129 Conjunctions, 9,182; List of,. 185 Prosody....... 35,318 Connectives,...... 238 Punctuation,....... 336 Correlatives,..... 186 Quantity,...... 8 Dash,...... 8.. 42 Questions,.. 57, 116, 188, 275, 350 Declension,...... 102 Quotation-Marks,.... 336 Derivation of Words,... 54, 66 Roots of Words,..... 54,66 Discourse,.e..... 227 Rules,.. 50, 190,222,292 Ellipsis,....... 214,319 Scannin g........ 332 Emphasis,..... 335 Semicolon,.... 338 Equivalent Expressions,... 257 Sentences, 18, 229; Elements of, 231 Etymology,..... 35,66 Sentences, Classes of,... 240 Exclamation-Point,.. 341 Sentences, how contracted or False Syntax,.... 276, 311 abridged,.. 256 Figures of Orthography,... 318 Spelling,. 50, 65; Rules of. 50 Figures of Syntax,.. 319 Subjects,..... 4, 232 Figures of Rhetoric,... 321 Suffixes,........ 54 Formulas,... 198,262 Syllables,....... 48, 65 Genders,.... 10, 81,216,314 Syntax, 35,276; Rules of, 190,292 Grammar,... 34, 58 Tenses,... 15,136, 306 Idioms,........ 209 Tenses, Forms of,... 140 Independent Element,... 238 Tones,......... 335 Infinitives..... 151,217, 07 Utterance,...... 334 Interjections,... 9,187, 217 Verbs,. 4, 119; Classes of, 120 InterrogationfPoint.... 341 Verbs, Auxiliary,. 128, 148 Inversion,... 217.320 Verbs, Impersonal,... 148, 217 Italics,......... 345 Verbs, Irregular, List of,... 121 Letters,. 35, 60; Capital,. 41, 61 Verbs, Number of,... 142,295 Modifiers,........233 Verbs, Person of,.. 142, 295 Moods,...... 14, 131, 219 Versification,.......325 Nouns,... 2, 71, 220 Voices,.... 13, 129, 316 Numbers,.12, 86, 142, 220, 295, 315 Words, 1, 53, 66 For nice points, see Observations, pp. 58, 209, 311, 346. SYNOPSIS. Part I. -An Outline for Beginners. THIS Part shows, the connection between thought and language, and how the latter is developed from a few great or fundamental ideas. It contains a familiar explanation of the chief ideas in grammar, which i; followed by a series of exercises that show the general construction of sentcnccs. For a mode of using these exercises, the teacher may consult Kerl's "First Lessons." Part II. Words Uncombined. This Part begins with a presentation of the subject and its divisions, it then treats of letters, elementary sounds, accent, pronunciation, syllables, spelling, and derivation, or it teaches what can be learned about words before they are combined in sentences. Part III. - Words Grammatically Combined. This Part shows what we must learn about words In order to know how they should be put together to make sentences. It treats of the parts of speech and their properties, the rules of syntax, and parsing; or it shows into what classes we miust divide words, and what jointings we must make, or by what ideas we must be governed, in order to put words rightly together in sentences. Part IV. - Words Logically Combined. This Part supposes that the jointings and small combinations of words are already made; and that we are now ready to put the larger parts together so as to get sentences for all kinds of thoughts. It therefore treats of phrases and clauses, as well as of words; of subjects, predicates, modifiers, connectives, simple sentences, complex sentences, and compound sentences. Part V. -Words Improperly Combined. This Part treats of the errors which can arise under both the preceding Parts. It implies that there may be some excess, deficiency, wrong choosing, or improper arrangement, in regard to the words which are to show precisely what we mean. Part VI. - Ornament and Finish. This Part supposes that we have already learned to express thoughts intelligibly and correctly, but that we now seek to express them in the most interesting and impressive manner; or it shows by what means thoughts are imparted to the best advantage. Hence it treats of figures, versification, utterance, and punctuation. Remarkss. - i denotes separation. = is placed between equivalent expressions. A number placed over a word shows which Rule of Syntax should be applied to it. W means wrong: sentences beginning with this letter are to be corrected. What is to be committed, to memory by the pupil, is printed in large type, or is distinguished by being numbered with, heavy black figures. The few technical or difficult words which we have been obliged to use, the teacher should explain; or he should give out a number of them to the pupils from time to time, and require them to learn the meanings in some large dictionary. U )Lh -A-N- OT LIE S FOC BEI 1 O 3 Gi ERSI. " I amn co:ivi-nced tlhat the mnethod of teachilng'which approaclhes lnosit nlearly to the I-method of investisation, is inYcolmnrparably the best; since, not content -vith serving up a fewv barren and lifeless truths, it leacs to the stall oil which they grov.-' BURKE. THOUGHT AND ITS EXPRESSION. 1. We tiinlk, or have thloghts. 2. We express our thoughts by means of words.. WTords are either spoken or written. 4.. The expressing of our thoughts by means of wordsi is called language, or speech. k. Language is made to suit the world, and consists of many thousands of words; but, like trees or persons, they can all be divided into a small number of classes. 60 To express our thoughlts, we use nine classes of words, which are therefore called the Parts of Speech. 7' The PARTS OF SPEECI- are Nout2ns, Pronoutns, Articles, Ac'djectives, Verbs, Adverbs,.Prcpositiozs, Cojuncze tions, and.Iterjeetionzs. 8, To these nine classes of words belong eight chief I A 2 ENGLISH GRAM1MAR. properties; Gencler,'lPersonl, Ni'mnber, Case, Voice, ifood, Tense, and Comparison. 9D These classes of words, and their properties, are based mainly on the following ten things or ideas: Objects, iActions, Qualities e, Sx 2iNumber, Relation,* jlanner, Time, Place, anld Degree. Let ns now see by what natural process we shall get thoughts, and then words to express them. Parts of Speech. NOUNS. When we look around us, we naturally first notice objects. The words Jo/hn, 27l, tree, 1house, street, man, horse, apple, flower, rose, chair, desk, book, paper, pencil, are, all of them, words that denote objects, and such words are called nouns. l0. A Tqoun is a name. Tell what trees grow in the woods. What flowers grow in gardens? What animals are on farms? What things can boys eat? WThat things do children play with? What objects did you see this morning, on your way to school? Who are your classmates? What would you call the words you have mentioned? You can generally tell whether a word is a noun or not, by considering whether it denotes something that you can see, hear, taste, smell, or feel, or think of as being a person or thing. PRONOUNS. When objects are near to us, or already known by having been mentioned, we do not always use their names. but cer* Considered here chiefly as applied to Case and Person. PARTS OF SPEECH. 3 tain little words in stead of the names. If I say, "William promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's grammar, that Mary might study the grammar," you can easily see that the sentence is clumsy and disagreeable, because I have repeated the words William, liary, and grammar. But if I say, " William promised Mary that he would lend her his grammar, that she might study it," you notice that the sentence is much more simple and agreeable, because I have used the little words he, she, and it, for the nouns William, lMary, and gram. mar, in stead of repeating these nouns. Pronoun means for a noun; and pronouns are so called because they are used for nouns, or in stead of nouns. Hl. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. The most common pronouns are I, my, myself, mine, me, we, our, ourselves, ours, us, you, your, yourself, yours, ye, thou, thy, thyself, thine, thee, he, his, him, himself, she, her, herself, hers, it, itself, its, they, theirs, them, themselves, who, whose, whom, which, and that. The easiest way in which you can generally distinguish a pronoun from a noun, is to consider whether the word denotes an object, without being itself the name of the object. "I saw you." Here I denotes me, without being my name; and you denotes the person spoken to, without being his name. Put suitable pronouns for the words in Italic letters: John has learned John's lesson. Mary has torn Jlary's book. The apple lay under the apple's tree. The apples lay under the apples' tree. Thomas has come home, and Thomas is well. Lucy is pretty, and Lucy knows it. The gun was brought, but the gun was out of order. Laura was disobedient, and therefore Laura's teacher punished Laura. Julia will buy you a basket, if Julia can buy the basket cheap. Joseph and Mary went to meet Joseph and Mary's father, but Joseph and Mary's father came another way. 4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ARTICLES. Most objects exist in classes; and when we use merely the ordinary name of something, we generally mean the class or object at large or indefinitely; as, tree, apples, water. To show that we mean only one object of a kind, and no particular one, or that we mean some particular object or objects, we generally place the word a or an, or the, before the name; as, a tree, the tree, the trees. If I say, " Give me a book, an apple," you understand that any book or apple will answer iny purpose; but if I say, " Give me the book, the books," you understand that I want some particular book or books. These words, a or an and the, which are very often used before nouns, and which generally show how we select the objects of which we are speaking, are called articles. 12 An Article is the word t7e, a, or an, placed before a noun to limit its meaning. Place A before each of the follolviny nouns; then TIIE:Man, book, pen, boy, parrot, pink, school-house, newspaper. Place AN before eachlcof tls following Inouns; theln TrIE:Ax, eagle, Indian, os, owl, arbor, undertaker. VERBS. We can not think of an object, without thinking something of it. Therefore every thought or saying implies at least two things; something of which we think or speak, and something that we think or say of it: the former is called the subject, and the latter the pred'icate. " Rivers flow"; here rivers is the subject, and fow is the predicate. "Deep rivers flow smoothly"; here deep rivers is the subject, and flow smoothly is the predicate. 13. A St iject is a word or phrase denoting that of which something is said. PARTS OF SPEECH. 5 14. A Predicate is a word or phrase denoting what is said of the subject. 15, A Proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. When we speak of any objeat, we generally tell either what it is, what it does, or what is done to it. 1. Flowers are beautiftl. The ant is an insect. 2. Birds sing. Boys play. Carpenters build houses. 3. Fields are ploughed. The corn was ground. The words are, is, sing, play, build, etc., by means of which we say things of the subjects, are called verbs. 16a A Verb is a word used to express the act or state of a subject. "The river washes away the soil"; here washes is a verb, because it tells what the river does. "The river is deep"; here is is a verb, because it tells something of the river, or helps to show in what state it is. Sometimes we say that the verb cffirrs or predicates something of its subject. This is nearly the same as to tell you that it says something of that about which we are talking. We are sometimes obliged to use hard words in books, for the sake of greater accuracy or exactness. By dressing soldiers in a different style from that in which citizens are dressed, we can easily distinguish them from citizens. So every science has generally, in its words, a dress of its own. M3ention the subjects, the predicates, t,'e verbs of the predicates, and why: Frogs leap. Fishes swim. The winl whistles. The thunder rolls. The lightning flashed. Clouds were moving. He recited his lesson. The door creaked. The snake crept into the grass. Out flew the partridges. Lilies and roses were blooming together. Put a suitable subject to each of the following predicates:Is happy; knows nothing; am sick; art released; grew 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. rapidly; was neglected; were neglected; went away; spoke sensibly; replied; stepped forth; retreated; should obey their parents; was a great man. Say something.of each of the following objects, by telling what they are:Street, grass, hay, ice, stars, mountains, room, table. Say something of each of the following objects, by telling what they do: _ Horse, farmers, trees, servant, hogs, tailor, teacher, scholar. Say something of each of the following oljects, by telling what is done to them: Lesson, bonnet, bridge, yard, window, John, newspaper. ADJE CTIVES. We notice every day that objects are not all alike, even when of the same general kind. Some roses, for instance, are red; some are white; and some are yellow. An apple may be large or.small; red, green, or yellow; hard or mellow; mealy or juicy. Sometimes we notice several things of interest in the same object. A river, for instance, may be deep, broad, clear, and swift. The value of objects, or the regard we have for them, depends not a little on their qualities; and hence it is necessary for us to have words that will show the qualities of objects, or describe the objects. These words are called adjectives. Sometimes we use words that do not express the qualities of objects, but that still serve to show what objects are meant. Such words are this, th/at, each, every, either,first, second, one, two, three, etc. These words are also called adjectives. The word adjective means throwing or joining to; an adjective generally modifies the idea of an object, by joini:g to it that of some quality. 17. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun. "A good pupil will be industrious." Good and industrious PARTS OF SPEECH. T are adjectives, because they describe the pupil; that is, they describe the object meant by the word pupil. " This tree bore five bushels of apples." This is an adjective, because it makes the indefinite word tree mean a particular one; and five is an adjective, because it makes the indefinite word bushels mean a particular number. Tell which are the adjectives, and why: Warm weather; dark clouds; shady lawns; tall trees; a white cloud; yonder house; a hollow tree; a steep bluff. Put suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns; and then tell what each of the objects is, by using the same adjective:AMan, boy, workman, star, rose, river, book, day, crow, swan, pink, winter, snow, wood, stones, lead. ADVERBS. Not only are objects different, but their actions are also different, even when of the same general kind. People do not all walk alike, nor talk alike, nor write alike. Hence we often use such words as well, badly, fast, slowly, gracefully, awkwardly, sweetly, harshly, hastily, etc., to describe the actions of persons, or to distinguishl their actions from one another. These words are called adverbs, because they are generally added to verbs. Sometimes we distinguish actions by telling simply where or when they are done; as, " It rained everywhere "; It rained seldom." We not only use words to describe objects and their actions, but we often use words to show in what degrees objects or actions have their qualities; as, very good; tolerably fast; more rapidly; most rapidly. And these words, which express degree, and are joined to adjectives and adverbs, are also called adverbs. 18 An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "John studies diligently"; here diligently is an adverb, because it shows the manner of studying, or it shows the mode of doing that act which is meant by the word studies. "The apple is very good"; here very is an adverb, because it shows in what degree the apple is good. "The cars ran uncommonly fast"; here uncommonly is an adverb, because it shows in what degree the cars ran fast. PREPOSITIONS. By looking around us, we can easily see that the great mass of objects composing this world, is held together in a thousand different ways. " Houses are on the ground; cellars are under houses; and trees grow around houses." "Boats run up and down rivers, and rivers flow between hills." "The morning star rises before the sun, and night comes after sunset." To describe objects and all their actions and states, we have not a sufficient number of words made especially for this purpose, or we should have to use these words disagreeably often.'Hence we often describe objects, actions, or their qualities, by showing simply how they are related to other objects; or we make our thoughts pictures of parts of the world, by showing in these pictures how the corresponding things are linked together. Such linking words, that express relation, are the words on, under, around, r, down, before, and after, used above; and such words are called prepositions, because they are generally placed before the nouns and pronouns with which they make descriptive phrases. Preposition comes from pre, before, and positio, placing; the word therefore means placing before. 19A A Preposition is a word used to show the relation between a following noun or pronoun and some other word. "The roses by my window are in full bloom." By is a preposition, because it shows the relation between roses and window, or the phrase by my window shows what roses are meant; PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 and in is a preposition, because it shows the relation between are and bloom, or the phrase in bloom shows in what condition the roses are or exist. CONJUNCTIONS. We frequently use certain words simply to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences, and to show the dependence of the parts thus connected. When you hear such words as and, but, because, you at once know that something more is to come, and that it bears a certain relation to what has been said. If I say, " John writes and ciphers"; "John spilt his ink on the desk and on the floor"; "John writes every day, and I generally look at his writing"; you see that the word and adds something more to what has been said, or joins two words, two phrases, or two propositions together; and since conjunction means joining together, this word, and others like it, have been called conjunctions. 20, A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or propositions. "He rides, if he is sick." "lie rides, though he is sick." "He rides, because he is sick." Here if, though, and because are conjunctions, because each connects two propositions. INTERJECTIONS. When we see, hear, or in any other way notice things, our feelings are often suddenly excited, and we utter,almost unconsciously,certain little words that show these emotions. Words of this kind are such as 0, oh, ah, pish, tut, aha, whew, etc., which you have doubtless often heard. They generally express surprise, wonder, joy, grief, anger, or contempt. Interjection means throwing between; and since these words are loosely thrown between other words in speaking, they have been called interjections. 1* 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21. An Interjection is a word that expresses an emotion, and is not connected in construction with any other word. " Day broke; but then, oh! what a spectacle was that battlefield!" Oh is an interjection, because it expresses the sudden emotion of the speaker, and is not related to any of the other words of the sentence. SUGGESTION TO THE TEACHER. - Take a walk with your class during some leisure interval, and teach them the parts of speech from the surrounding scenery. Properties of the Parts of Speech. GENDER.'When I say John, I mean a male; when I say Mary, I mean a female; when I say child, I can mean either a male or a female; and when I say knife, I mean neither a male nor a female. Hence some nouns are the names of males; some are the names of females; some are the names of either males or females; and some are the names of neither males nor females. From this distinction in the use of words, we get that property of nouns and pronouns which is called gender. 22. Gender is that property of nouns and pronouns which distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 23. There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter. 24. A noun or pronoun is of the masculine gender, when it denotes a male. MaIan. 25. A noun or pronoun is of the feminine gender, when it denotes a female. Woman. 26. A noun or pronoun is of the common gender, when it denotes either a male or a female. Person. PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 27. A noun or pronoun is of the neuter gender, when it denotes neither a male nor a female. SHouse. The nouns man, boy, and king are of the masculine gender, because they denote males; the nouns woman, girl, and queen are of the feminine gender, because they denote females; the nouns parent, cousin, and neighbor are of the common gender, because they can be applied to either males or females; and the nouns house, tree, and chair are of the neuter gender, because they are the names of neither males nor females. PERSON. In speaking, we can refer either to ourselyes, to the person spoken to, or to the person or thing spoken of; and there are no other ways of speaking. From this distinction in the use of words, we get that property of pouns, pronouns, and verbs, which is called person. 280 Person is that property of words which shows whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 29. There are three persons; the first, the second, and the third. 30 A noun or pronoun is of the first person, when it denotes the speaker. I saw yon. 31. A noun or pronoun is of the second person, when it denotes the person spoken to. You saw me. 32. A noun or pronoun is of the third person, when it denotes the person or thing spoken of. He saw it. "IPaul have written it"; here and Paul are of the first person, because they denote the person speaking. In the sentence, " Thomas, your I horse has run away," Thomnas and your are of the second person, because they denote the person spoken to; while the word horse is of the third'person, becuse it denotes the object spoken of. 2 - ENGLISH GRAMMAR. NUMBER. There are not only many kinds of objects in the world, but generally many objects of each kind. In speaking, we often wish to show that we mean one object of a kind, or more than one; and we use words accordingly. From this distinction in the use of words, we get that property of words which is called number. 33. Number is that property of words which shows whether one object is meant, or more than one. 34. There are two numbers; the singular and the plural. 35. A noun or pronoun is of the singular number, when it denotes but one object. Book.. 36. A noun or pronoun is of the plural number, when it denotes more objects than one. Books. The nouns Albert, tree, and girl are of the singular number,. because each denotes but one object; the nouns boys, trees, and girls are of the plural number, because each denotes more objects than one. CASE. When we speak of an object, we either say that it is something, that it does something, or that something is done to it; as, "The dove is white "; The dove coos "; The dove was caught." This relation of an object to what is said of it, is called case. When something is done, the act often affects some object; as, "The dove eats corn." This relation of the. act to what is acted upon, is also called case. Almost every object in the world belongs to some other object, or is a part of some other; as, " lary's dove "; "The dove's feathers." All these relations of objects produce, in the expression of our thoughts, those relations between words which are called cases. PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 37, Case is that property of nouns and pronouns which shows how they are used in the construction of sentences. 38, There are three cases; the nom'inative, the possessive, and the objective.'39, A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, when it is the subject of a predicate-verb. Irun. 4@0 A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case, when it denotes possession. My hat. 410 A noun or pronoun is in the objective case, when it is the object of a transitive verb or a preposition. IIe sent me to him. "J John shot some squirrels in my father's field." Here the word John is said to be in the nominative case, because it denotes the doer of something, or the person of whom something is said; the words squirrels and field are said to be in the objective case, because squirrels slows what he shot, and field shows in what; and the word father's is in the possessive case, because it denotes the owner of something. The teacher should explain the subject of Case more fully. V 0ICE. When an act is done by one person or thing to another, we can state the fact in two ways, - either by telling what the doer does, or by telling what is done to the person or thing acted upon; as, " Brutus killed Cesar "; " Cssar was killed by Brutus." From this distinction in the use of words, we get that property of verbs which is called voice. 42, Voice is that property of verbs which shows whether the subject does, or receives, the act. 4b3 There are two voices; the active and the passive. 440 A verb is in the active voice, when it represents its subject as acting. I struck. 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45. A verb is in the passive voice, when it represents its subject as acted upon. I was struck. If I say, " The servant scoured the floor," scoured is said to be hi the active voice, because it represents the subject, servant, as acting upon the floor; but if I say, " The floor was scoured by the servant," was scoured is said to be in the passive voice, because it represents the subject, floor, as acted upon. MOOD. Many actions really take place; but many actions are only in the mind, or people are in certain relations to them. If I say, " I write," I express something as a matter of fact; " I may or can write," I express not what is matter of fact, yet may become such, or I simply declare my relation to the act; " If I were writing," I express a mere supposition; " Write," I request it to be done; " To write," " Writing," I simply speak of the act. These different modes of expressing the verb, grammarians call moods; or, from this distinction in the use of verbs, we get that property of verbs which is called mood. 46. Mood is that property of verbs which shows how the act or state is referred to its subject. 47. There are four moods; the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the imperative. 48. A verb in the indicative mood expresses an actual occurrence or fact. I go. 49. A verb in the subjunctive mood expresses a future contingency, or a mere wish, supposition, or conclusion. If I go. If I were. 50* A verb in the potential mood expresses power, possibility, liberty, inclination, duty, or necessity. I may, can, or must go. 51. A verb in the imperative mood expresses command, entreaty, exhortation, or permission. Go (thou). PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 52. There are two other forms of the verb, the infinitive and the participle; but it is hardly necessary to call them moods. See pp. 131, 217. " I study "; here study is in the indicative mood, because it expresses something as really taking place. "If I study," " If I were studying "; here study and were studying are in the subjunctive mood, because the former expresses only what may take place hereafter, and the latter a mere supposition. "I can study"; here can study is in the potential mood, because it expresses only my ability in regard to studying. " Studdy "; here study is in the imperative mood, because it is given as a command to the person spoken to. " To study," " Studying "; here the actions are spoken of abstractly, that is, without referring them to any particular person or thing. TENSE. We can not separate our actions from time. Besides, the time of an act, or whether the act is completed or not, is often a matter of great importance to us. Time may naturally be divided into three great divisions, -present, past, and future; and in each of these periods we may speak of an act as simply taking place, or as completed. Thus: " I write," "I have written"; " I wrote," " I had written "; " I shall write," " I shall have written." These different ways of using verbs to distinguish time, are called tenses. 53. Tense is that property of verbs which shows the distinctions of time. 51 There are six tenses: the present, the presentperfect; the past, the past-perfect; the future, and the future-perfect. 55. A verb in the present tense expresses a present act or state. I see. 56, A verb in the present-perfect tense represents 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. something as completed in present time; or as past, but connected with present time. I have seen. 570 A verb in the past tense expresses simply a past act or state. I saw. 580 A verb in tile past-perfect tense represents something as completed in past time. I had seen. 590 A verb in the future tense expresses simply a future act or state. I shall see. 6D0 A verb in the future-perfect tense represents something as completed in future time. I shall have seen. The following sentences illustrate the six tenses: " The tree blossoms," " The tree has blossomed"; "The tree blossomed,"'The tree had blossomed"; "The tree will blossom," "The tree will have blossomed." C OMPARIS ON. Objects not only have qualities, but they often differ in their qualities, especially in degree; and not a little of our regard for objects depends on whether they have more or less of the qualities which we like or dislike. I may prefer, for instance, one apple to another because it is larger or better than the other. Actions also differ, and not unfrequently in degree. "John may study diligently, but Mary may study more diligently." When we thus compare qualities, actions, and their circumstances, we usually make but three chief distinctions. We may speak of the quality itself, of a higher or a lower degree of it, or of the highest or the lowest degree; as, ise, wiser, wisest; wise, less wise, least wise. From these distinctions in the use of qualifying words, we get that property of adjectives and adverbs which is called comparison. 61. Com-parison is that property of adjectives and adverbs which expresses quality in different degrees. GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 17 62. There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 630 An adjective or an adverb is in the positive degree, when it expresses simply the quality. TWise. G64 An adjective or an adverb is in the comparative degree, when it expresses the quality in a higher or a lower degree. Wiser, less wise. 65A An adjective or an adverb is in the superlative degree, when it expresses the quality in the highest or the lowest degree. }isest, least wise. Jane is t"; is l lie is taller"; Louisa is the tallest." "Jane writes carefully "; " Alice writes less carefully "; "Louisa writes least carefally." Fundamental Ideas, and Grammatical Development of Sentences. OBJECTS. 1. Horse, dog, man, boys, lady, monkey, parasol. The horse runs. The dog barks. The man works. Boys study and play. The ladly lost her I parasol. The monkey had taken the lady's I parasol. I bought a barrel of flour. Life has its j pleasures and its I troubles. 2. For me to go. To die for one's country. For me to go is impossible. (What is impossible?) IHe wishes to sell the farm. It is glorious to die for one's country. 3. That he will ever return. That you are not very attentive. Y'hat he will ever return, is doubtful. (What is doubtful?) H-e says that you are not very attentive to your business. Is it not a pity, that she knows so little? From the examples under this head, we can infer that a fundamental idea may show itself in a worcd, a phrase, or a B 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. clause. And from some of the examples under the following heads, it will be evident that it sometimes shows itself in the changes which it causes in the forms of words. C6, A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, without making a proposition. 67 A Clause is a proposition that makes but a part of a sentence. 6CS A S teence is a thought expressed by a proposition, or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause. ACTIONS. Roll, read, climb, fly, swim, dance, sing. The ball rolls. The boy reads. Squirrels climb trees. Pigeons fly rapidly. Ducks swim. The girls sing and dance. The girls sing, walk, and dance. The lightnings dart from cloud to cloud. The dew bends and refreshes the flowers. Changes in Form. —The bell tolls. The bell is tolling. The bell has tolled. The bell tolled. The bell had tolled. The bell will toll. The bell will have tolled. The bell 2may toll. The bell may have tolled. The bell should have tolled. Toll, sweet bell! I strike. I am striking. I am struck. I was struck. I was striking. I struck. I have been striking. I have been struck. I shall strike. I shall be struck. I shall have been striking. I could strike. I could have been struck. See Manner and Time, pp. 23 -25. QUALITIES, OR ATTRIBUTES. 1. Words. —A green meadow. The meadow is green. A fragrant pink. The pink is fragrant. Warm weather. The weather is warm. Blue hills. The hills are blue. Long lessons. The lessons were long. An idle boy. The boy is idle. A bleak and frosty morning. The morning is bleak and frosty. GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 19 She has black eyes, rosy cheeks, and pearly teeth. The windy summit, wild and high, rises against the distant sky. Rosy child, with foreheadcfair, coral lip, and shining hair. Changes in Form. - A cold day; a colder day; the coldest day. The day was cold. The day was colder. The day was the coldest. Large fish live in deep water. Larger fish live in deeper water. The largest fish live in the deepest water. This tree has many apples. That tree has more apples. Yonder tree has most apples. See Degree, p. 26. 2. Phrases, - The flowers of spring and the stars of heaven. (What flowers?) Beauty is like the flowers of spring, but virtue is like the stars of heaven. The song of the robin was clear and tender. A bough with red berries floated on the water. The time of danger is the time Jbr courage. It is the knell of the departed year. She has a bouquet of rare and beautiful flowers. The shady lawn between the house and the river is the most delightful part of the farm. 3. Clauses. -The lady who sings so well, is now in the house. (What lady?) He who is fond of solitude, is generally fond of studying. Those people who flatter you, are not your friends. The rain which we have had this week, has been very refreshing. We gathered every year large quantities of nuts, which grew in great abundance in the forest I that surrounded our little farm. SEX. He is a boy. She is a girl. It is a tree. I met him. You met her. We met them. IHe is my father. She is my mother. My uncle came on his pony. My aunt came in her carriatge. His brother is a duke. His sister is a duchess. He married a Jewess. She married a Jew. He was administrator. She was administratrix. He is an actor. She is an actress. If Joseph was a hero, Josephine was a heroine. Beaus wait upon belles. The prince and the princess are now king and queen. Miss 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAKT. Julia Brooks is the niece, not the nephew, of Mr. Julius Brooks. Ganders are white, and geese are gray. Ganders and geese are often called geese; drakes and ducks, ducks; horses and m3ares, horses; and heirs and heiresses, heirs. Two sons were all the male descendaznts, and three daughters all the female descendants, of the faimily. The landlady was very polite to the gentlemen and the ladies; but I assure you the landlord made them all pay for their titles the next morning. NUMBER. One is. Two or more are. One was. Two or more were. One has been. Two or more have been. One reads. Two or more read. The man works. The men work. My tooth is sound. My teeth are sound. That goose is wild. Those geese are wild. The boy has lost his knife. The boys have lost their knives. The girl has recited her lesson. The girls have recited their lessons. Only one half was accepted, though both halves were offered. The fox is a cunning animal. Foxes are cunning animals. The lady is modest. Ladies are modest. My foot is sore. IMy feet are sore. Our feet are sore. The mouse ran into its hole. The mice ran into their holes. The child sleeps. The children sleep. He bought an ox. They bought a yoke of oxen. I am busy. We are busy. Thou art. Ye are. I know myself. We know ourselves. He knows himself. They know themselves. HIe, she, or it, is good. They are good. The deer is a pretty creature. Deer are pretty creatures. The sheep is timid. Sheep are timid. The swine is greedy. Swine are greedy. I bought one dozen. He bought five dozen. This species of flowers is beautiful. These species of flowers are beautiful. The committee was large. The committee were not unanimous. The whole flock of partridges was caught. A multitude of people were assembled. The news is good. By this means he lost all. By these means he lost all. His GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 21 lungs were diseased. Riches are seldom well spent. The embers were hot. The dregs were at the bottom. The tongs have been more useful than the snuffers. An ash is a tree; but ashes are the remains of burned wood or coal. Geniuses are men of genius, but genii are spirits. Dice are used for gaming, and dies are used for stamping. A memorandum denotes one thing, but memorandd denote more. A radius is a single line, but radiz are more. Silk is a kind of stuff, but silks are different kinds of silk. Tea is a kind of drink, but teas are different kinds of tea. By spices we usually mean different kinds of spice. The Misses Bates are sisters to Dr. Bates; and the Messrs. Barnes are brothers to Miss Barnes. Ten spoonfuls made a cupful; and twenty cupfuls made two pitchers nearly full. My brothers-in-law live at my father-in-law's residence. The court-martial appealed to all the preceding courts-martial's decisions. Every boy has brought his books. All the boys have brought their books. All sugar is sweet. All ripe oranges are yellow. Either place is suitable. Both places are suitable. Neither place is suitable. Some children are industrious. Most children are lazy. Some one is talking. Some others are shutting their desks. Many were invited, but only a few came. Two make a pair; twelve make a dozen; and twenty make a score. Five pair were sold for fifty cents. Man's years are three score and ten. PERSON. This subject belongs more properly to the next head, Relation; but it is probably best to consider it in connection with Number. I am. Thou art. He is. We are. You are. They are. I was. Thou wast. He was. We were. You were. They were. I have been. You have been. He has been. They have been. I write. He writes. I know my lessons. He knows Ais lesson. You know your lesson. ie know our les 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. sons. They know their lessons. I take care of myself. You take care of yourself. MTe take care of ourselves. You take care of yourselves. He takes care of himself. They take care of themselves. This is mine; that is yours; and the other is his or hers. The responsibility must fall upon him, upon you, or upon me. We have deceived ourselves; you have deceived yourselves; and they have deceived themselves. RELATION. Things have many relations to one another, and there are as many corresponding relations in the use of words; but we shall here notice only the chief of those relations which afford us the cases of nouns and pronouns. Nominative Case, - The tree fell. (What fell?) The flower is unfolding. The partridges flew away. The ship moves. The bell rings. The storm roars. She laughed. (Who laughed?) He is reading. I shall return soon. The boys skate. The trees wave. The Jire crackles and flames. The ocean is blue. (What is blue?) This map is beautiful. The well was deep. Her dress was white and neat. The lark is a singing-bird. A thief is also a liar. Our corn is gathered. The bread is baked. Brass is made of zinc and copper. Objective Case. - The fisherman catches fish. (Catches what?) The boy broke the looking-glass. My mother spinsflax. The carpenter mended the door. The caterpillars devoured the buds. The weaver weaves yarn into cloth. The barber shaved me. I invited him. They hid themselves. The sun is warming the garden. Snow has covered the hills. She sang us a song. I was going down the street. (Down what?) The Mississippi river rises in 2f2innesota. The book lay on the table. The child fell into the well. The bridge extends over the river. There is a plank-road from the church to the college. Several railroads run through Pennsylvania. The garden lies behind the house. The swallows flutter about the eaves. GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 23 Possessive Case. - Here is the boy's book. Here are the boys' books. This is the man's hat. These are the men's hats. I have cleaned my desk. We have cleaned our desks. You have broken jyour slate. He has bruised his thumb. She has torn her book. They had lost their way. This is minez; that is yours; and the other is hers. Yozrs are better than ours. MIy brother's estate belongs to one person only. My brothers' estate belongs to two or more persons. AMy friend's request comes from one person only. My friends' request comes from two or more persons. It is our duty, not theirs, to supply the people's wants. For goodness' sake, help me out of my troubles. I-e resides near St. James's Place. MOOD OR MANNER. We shall notice manner here, only so far as it relates to the different modes of expressing the verb in regard to its subject. INDICATIVE fMOOD. -John is at home. The glass was broken. The servant has made a fire. I had bought a farm. You shall see him to-morrow. The miller will have ground the corn before we return. SUBJUNCTIVE MIOOD. If John were at hone. If the glass be broken, you may throw it away. If the servant had made a fire, we should have been comfortable. If I bought the farm, I should have to sell it again. If you see him tomorrow, tell him to visit me. Had the miller ground the corn, we should have returned sooner. POTENTIAL MOOD. - John may be at home. The glass may have been broken. The servant could have made a fire. I would buy the farm, if he w-ould sell it. You must see him to-morrow. The miller should have ground the corn. IMPERATIVE MOOD. — John, be at home. Peter, make a fire. Miller, grind the corn. Buy the farm. See him tomorrow, if you can. Behave yourself well. Be always kind and obliging. Do not grieve over unavoidable calamities. 24 ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. INFINITIVES AND PARPTICTPLES. - A servant came to make a fire. I ought to have bought the farm. It seems to have rained last night. Two hundred cannons, fashing and thundering continually, seemed to shake the very earth to its centre. The glass having been broken, we threw it away. Akin to theforms of the verb known as MOODS, are the forms of the verb called VOICES. John hit James. James was hit by John. IHe told the story. The story was told by him. The puppy tore the book. The book was torn by the puppy. The water turns the wheel. The wheel is turned by the water. The winds fan the flowers and ruffle the waters. The flowers are fanned and the waters are ruffled by the winds. 4Akin to the MOODS are also the INTERROGATIVE and the NEGATIVE FORn3 ofq the verb. He has read the book. He has not read the book. Has he read the book? Has he not read the book? You have been at home. You have not been at home. Have you been at home? Have you not been at home? Life is a burden. Life is not a burden. Is life a burden? Is not life a burden? Akin to the MOODS are also the FORMS of the tenses. He teaches. He teacheth. He is teaching. He does teach. IHe doth teach. You know him. Thou knowest him. You are ar sinful people. Ye are a sinful peole. I write. I am writing. I do write. I wrote. I was writing. I did write. Visit me. Do visit me. Are you the traitor? Art thouthe traitor? TIME. A chief idea sometimes displays itself in the changes which it causes in a certain class of words. When this occurs, the idea becomes a grammatical property. Hence time affords us the tenses. GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 25 Changes in Form. -PRESENT TENSE. — The rose blooms. The boy studies. The work is done. The leaves are falling. The cars do not move. The journey is expensive. PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. -The rose has bloomed. The boy has studied. The work has been done. The leaves have been falling. The journey has been expensive. PAST TENSE. —-The rose bloomed. The boy studied. The work was done. The leaves were falling. The cars did not move. The journey was expensive. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. -The rose had bloomed. The boy had studied. The work had been done. The leaves had been falling. The journey had been expensive. FUTURE TENSE. — The rose will bloom. The boy will study. The work will be done. The leaves will be falling. The journey will be expensive. FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.-The rose will have bloomed. The boy will have studied. The work will have been done. The train will have left. The journey will have been expensive. Time may show itself more definitely in words phrases, or clauses, that are used to express it. WTords. — The paper comes weekly. Go instantly. It rains daily. Your class is now reciting. He will return late. I shall see you to-morrow. He was here yesterday. Jonquils bloom early. The oak lives long. We shall soon reach the shore. He visits us frequently. She is always cheerful. Phrases. —He remained till morning. A great storm arose after sunset. They were treated well that night, and the next day they departed. At the break of day, our horses were saddled. He rode a hundred miles in twenty-five hours. For many a returning autumn, this Indian visited the graves of his fathers. Within twenty years from the foundation of this village, deer had become scarce. Clauses. - Ie knocked at the door, before any one was awake. We shall have peace, after we have subdued the enemy. Great 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. was the alarm in the colony, while these children were lost. We traveled through dim paths, until the day drew to its close. She smiled when I told her how Ihadfallen into the water. Frequently, the changed form, the word, the phrase, and the clause, are all found in the same sentence; as, "He came] early I in the morning, I while we were at breakfast." PLACE. Words, - The man is here. My horse stands yonder. I went home. I have seen him somewhere. I shall go abroad. The wall fell inwards. The birds flew away. The dog came up. Beautiful mansions gleamed.far and near. Phrases. — Melons grow on vines. Tea is brought from China. The child slept in its mother's lap. I was at the same school. You reside in a pleasant part of the city. Let us take a ramble in the woods. The cascade tumbled from the rocks. The army marched round the hill. We went through swamps, thickets, and endless mud. The Indians bore them far beyond the limits of the settlement. She sat below us, I at the same table. Clauses. —We caught the minnows where the water ripples over the.rocks. He remains wherever he finds good company. Thou hearest the sound of the wind; but thou canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth. Frequently, two or more chief ideas are combined in the same sentence. A recent French novel begins thus: "'li the gloomy month of November, I when the English drown and hang themselves, a disconsolate lover walked forth I into the fields, and seated himself under a juniper-tree." (Time and place.) DEGREE. The river is deep. The lake is deeper. The ocean is the deepest body of water in the world. This one is good; that one is better; but the other is the best. Want is bad; but LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENT-ENCES. 27 debt may be worse. A good name is better than riches. The worst gambler won the money. Who has more enemies and fewer friends, more trouble and less pleasure, than the miser? The pink is more beautiful than the marigold, and one of the most fragrant of flowers. He sat next to me, though I was nearer to the speaker. I said an elder soldier, not a braver. The upper room is already occupied. The hindmost man was left in the utmost distress. Most men judge others more severely than themselves. The weather is somewhat colder. The weather is so cold that I need my overcoat. There was so much noise that we could hear but very little of what was said. Logical Development of Sentences. Persons are often perplexed in determining how they shall arrange the words by means of which they express their thoughts. We generally express our thoughts as we naturally think them. That of which we think or speak, is naturally first thought of; and therefore it is generally first put down. To this we add, either before or after, all the descriptive words, phrases, and clauses, that belong to it; as,' The boy," "The little boy," "The little boy from the country," "The little boy from the country, who was here yesterday." Having thus got the subject, we next put down, in like manner, what is said of it; as, " wept," " wept bitterly," " wept bitterly for a long time," "wept bitterly for a long time because he could not find his father." "The little boy from the country, who was here yesterday, wept bitterly for a long time because he could not find his father." From this sentence it is obvious that we naturally first put down the subject, then the predicate, adding to each, or rather, including with each, the various qualities or secondary ideas which enter into the thought. We do not, however, always arrange our words in this way; but we sometimes put down first that which is first or most thought of, or makes the greatest impression upon us, even if it is not the 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. object itself of which we are speaking. " The whole shelf of china fell down with such clattering and breaking as startled us all." In an occurrence of this kind, the fall is naturally the most striking part; and therefore we would probably say, "Down fell the whole shelf of china, with such clattering and breaking as startled us all." We have many different thoughts. Our thoughts are made thus different because they are made up of many different ideas. Hence we get many different sentences; but nearly all of these sentences come more or less within the following description, or their parts answer to some of the following questions: -- Which one? ) (Is what? ( When? Where? HIow many? Subject..e Does what? How? Why? Of what kind?) Who? What? (Has what done to it? As to what? Let us now develop sentences accordingly. SUBJECT. Simplest Form. Who? What? Columnbus discovered America. Galile'o invented the telescope. Capt. John Smith colonized Virginia. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem. Washington is called the father of our country. The Mayor did not sign the bill. Iron is the most useful metal. Wealth is not the greatest blessing. A pen may be more dangerous than a sword. Poplars grow rapidly. Beauty is a perishing flower. Which one? This TREE iS an oak. That TREE is an elm. Yonder FARM belongs to me. The first MAN was shot. The last SQUADRON had arrived. The youngest CHILD is a daughter. The eldest SON is in the army. Albert's BOOKS are new. Mfy neighbor's HORSES ran away. Tour CAP fits me. The RIVVER Hudson is in New York. The POET Cowper lived at Olney, in England. The STEAMiSIIP Arctic was wrecked at sea. DAVID, the son LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 29 of Jesse, became king of Israel. The TREE dead at the top was first cut down. The APPLE highest on the tree is not always the best. The ELM before the house must be a thousand years old. The PALING around the garden cost a hundred dollars. The FIELD below the hill is sometimes overflowed. The HILLS beyond the river are blue and beautiful. The HOUSE erected by the church is a parsonage. The TREES planted along the river grow rapidly. The LINES written by Coleridge are the most beautiful in the collection. The MAN who sits next to the speaker, is the president. The SUM. which was collected last Sunday, has already been expended. The EVIL about which you have said so much, I have myself noticed. How many? Seven MEN were wounded. A thousand SOLDIERS make a regiment. Twenty-five CARRIAGES followed the hearse. Only one PERSON was seen in the canoe. Of what kind? A terrible THUNDER-STOR3M passed over the city. A beautfifu LAKE lay in front of the house. Silvery CLOUDS fringed the horizon. Iron RAILING is very durable. Small and beautiful FLOWERS hung from the rocks. A Colt's REVOLVER was in his belt. A hunter's RIFLE was the only gun we had. ISABELLA, a pious and noble queen, assisted Columbus. COLLINS, a poet of the most delicate sensibilities, died in the prime of life. A SHIP of the largest size was sunk by this rifled cannon. A MAN of good habits generally enjoys good health. The FEATHERS of ducks and geese are used for beds. A PERSON governed by his inclinations only, is apt to be fickle. A LADY admired and praised for her beauty, is apt to become vain. PLANTS reared in cellars are seldom strong. LAWS to prevent such outrages should be enacted. A DINNER to suit the occasion was prepared. The IMAN who does not keep his word, should not be trusted. The TREES which are of the smallest size, generally grow on high places. There arose, about this time, from 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the lower ranks of the people, a MAN named Cromwell, of incredible depth of understanding, strict integrity, and unwavering resolution, I who with one hand held successfully the reins of civil authority, and with the other hurled victoriously the thunderbolts of war. PREDICATE. Is what? Life is short. Time is precious. War is ruinous. Cotton is dear. Farmers are generally industrious. Tomatoes are wholesome. Tomatoes are red or yellow. The pine-apple is sweet and juicy. The cat is a useful animal. John is an idle boy. The turkey is a native of America. The eagle is a bird of great power. The home of the brave is the home of the free. Gratitude is the memory of the heart. Hope is the blossom of happiness. Does what? Lambs play. Eagles soar. Cars run. Bears growl and bite. My head aches. James IS GATHERING hazel-nuts. Mary Is PARING apples. These islands PRODUCE spices. Caesar FOUGHT many battles. You HAVE MADE an enemy of him. George GAVE me a piece of his apple. He TOLD the story to his brother, and then they both LAUGHED. Has what done to it? The door was shut. The stranger WAS BITTEN Zb the dog. The book WAS SENT by mail. The field had been reaped. The meat WILL BE COOKED in a few hours. The treasures of the pirates WERE BURIED on an island. The cargo was landed. The bells were rung. The old house WAS TORN down by the workmen. Our apples MUST BE GATHERED next week. The book Is well PRINTED and BOUND. Most people ARE easily DECEIVED by fair appearances. When? Words. - Come soon. I called afterwards. I have never seen him. He has always been in debt. Let us start early. LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 31 Phrases. - He visits us every day. I go to school in the morning. The robber was hanged before noon, I about ten o'clock. Clauses.- Remain till I return. We often deceive ourselves, while we try to deceive others. When wolf eats wolf there is nothing else in the woods to eat. We used to go to bed at nine o'clock, when we lived in the country. My heart dilated with honest pride, as I recalled to mind the stern yet amiable characters of our Revolutionary fathers. Where? Words. - Stop here. I called there. Yonder comes your father. I found no amusement anywhere. He lives above. Phrases. - He visited us at home. We went into the country. There is a railroad across the Isthmus of Darien. Have you made a fire in my room? On the banks of the Ganges we can see the ebony in bloom. Clauses. —The enemy put their cannons where no enemy could approach them. Where honesty takes root, the blessing of God makes it a tree. Wherever there is honey, there you will also find bees. As far as we went, there was nothing but desolation. HIow? Words. - Move briskly. I knocked gently. The boatmen sang merrily. Did your goods sell well? The procession moved slowly and solemnly. Phrases. It rained in torrents. She dresses after the Spanish fashion. We keep without remorse that which we acquire without crime. Half the people in the world live at the expense of the other half. Here comes the body of Cesar, mourned by Mark Antony. The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. Clauses. — She behaved as every modest young lady should behave. The honest man speaks as he thinks; the flatterer, as others like to hear. As you work, so shall you thrive. The storm howled and tore as if it would uproot the forest altogether. 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Why? Words. - Therefore go. JWhy did you knock? Wherefore did you not write? Hence we parted. Phrases.- She died of grief. The soldiers perished from hunger and thirst. The accident happened through carelessness. He wentfor pleasure. I want money to buy books. He called to see you. Clauses. - He feels very much dejected, for he cannot find employment. I sent for the doctor, because the child was very sick. Since you will have it so, I will go with you. Live virtuously, that you may be happy. As to what? Phrases. - She is ashamed to dance. She has not the courage to speak to him. He is poor in money, but rich in knowledge. I am fond of strawberries and raspberries. I paid the bookseller for the books. He is indolent about every thing. I am able to pay him. Clauses. I consent that you go and see him. I feared lest I should lose it. I am glad that we have peace again. Propositions, or Simple Sentences, combined. Our thoughts consist of propositions, either single or combined. Propositions are combined in many different senses. The following are the principal modes of combining them. Addition. The coffee was good, and the rolls were excellent. I was alone, and the night was dark and stormy. That boy is very studious, and he is loved by all his classmates. The rivulet rested clear as crystal in the rocky urn, and large blue violets hung over the surrounding moss. Contrariety. I-e is a small man, but he is very strong.. We started early, but we came an hour too late. He is stout and healthy in appearance, yet he has always been sickly. We lost the battle, LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES. 83 notwithstanding we did our utmost to win it. Although he is accused, yet he is innocent. Alternation, or Choice. I will either send you my horse, or you may hire one at my expense. Neither spend your money before you have it, nor buy what you do not need..Either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Cause. This field will produce well, because the soil is fertile. I refused his present,for I knew he offered it from selfish motives. He is angry; therefore let him alone. As it is impossible to go, let us remain contentedly at home. Since we cannot enjoy this world long, is it not strange that most people are so very avaricious? Sometimes a sentence will consist of a combination of differently connected propositions; as, "Great men undertake great things, because they are themselves great; but fools undertake them, because they think them easy." (Cause and contrariety.) Condition. If I were in your place, I would join the army. Would you go, if you should be invited? If there were no evil listeners, there would be no evil talkers. So it answers the purpose, it will matter little how indifferent it is. ~No Connective expressed. When no connective is expressed, the connecting sense generally is that of and, for, but, if, or that is. The woods are hushed, the waters rest. Every age has its pleasures; every situation has its charms. It is not too late: it is only nine o'clock. He who renders a service, should forget it; he who receives it, should remember it. That concerns you, does it not? Would you thrive? rise at five. (If you would thrive, etc.) Had he done his duty, he would not now be in disgrace. 2* c PART II. WORDS TUNC 01MJBINlED. GRAiMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS. 69. Grammlar is the science which teaches how to speak and write correctly. 70. English Grammar is the science which teaches how to speak and write the English language correctly. Every language can be investigated according to the following particulars - 1. The sounds of its words. 2. The forms of its words. 3. The classification of its words, according to their meanings and variations. 4. The combination of its words, in the construction of sentences. 5. The finish and ornament of sentences. Hence, 71. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is divided into five parts; Pronunciation, Orthog'raphy, Etymol'ogy, Syntax, and Pros'ody. 72. Pronunciation treats of the sounds of letters, and of the sounds and stress of syllables in uttering separate words. 73. Orthography treats of the forms of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly. PRONUNCIATION. 35 74, Etymology treats of the derivation, classes, and properties of words. 75. Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement of words in sentences. 76. Prosody treats of figures, versification, utterance, and punctuation. 77. The basis of grammar, or the test of correctness in the use of language, is the usage of the best writers and speakers. PRONUNCIATION. LETTERS AND SOUNDS. 78. LANGUAGE consists of a great variety of sounds, which are used as the signs of ideas, and are called words. 79. These sounds can all be reduced to a small number of simple sounds, which are represented to the eye by means of letters. 80, A Letter is a character that denotes one or more of the elementary sounds of language, or it is the least, distinct part of a written word. EXAMPLES.- A, b, c; age, at, art; bubble; cent, cart. 81, The English language contains about forty elementary sounds, which are represented by twenty-six letters, called the alphabet. The Phoneticians make forty-three elementary sounds. LONG VOWELS *: eel, ale, arm, all, opo, food. SHORT VOWELS: ell, an, odd, tip, foot. SHADE VOWELS: earth, air, ask. * That the pupil may not confound the letters with their powers, let him substitute " VOCALS " for " VOWELS," " DIPHTHONG VOCALS " for " DIPHTHONGS," and " LIQUID SOUNDS" for "LIQUIDS." 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. DIPHTHONGS: isle, oil, owl, mule. COALESCENTS: yea, way. ASPIRATE: hay. EXPLODENTS: rope, robe, fate, fade, etch, edge, lock, log. CONTINUANTS: safe, save, wreath, wreathe, buss, buzz, vicious, vision. LIQUIDS: fall, far. NASAL LIQUIDS: seem, seen, sing. If we consider the foregoing " diphthongs" composite, equivalent to d-,, o-t, i-oo, and'-oo, our language will have but thirty-nine simple sounds. If we regard c as a more slender sibilant than s; and if o, as heard inform, is broader or more orotund than a, as heard in fall, then we shall have forty-one simple sounds in all. - See p. 61. 82. Some letters represent several sounds each; as a in at, art, qal, etc. 83. Sometimes different letters represent the same sound; as c and s in " since " and " sense." 84. Sometimes two or more letters represent but one sound; as ph =-f in phleme; eau = o, in beau; ch, in church. 85. Hence our alphabet is both defective and redundant; for a perfect alphabet should have one letter, and but one, for every simple sound. 86. The name of a letter is what it is called in the alphabet. 87, The power of a letter is the sound, or oral element, which it represents. Some letters have several powers each. The name of a letter is generally one of its powers, or a syllable that shows the power; but the name and the power should not be confounded. Thus, a represents the sounds of d, a, a, a. ]Kay shows the power, or oral element, represented by k. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 88. The Letters are divided into vowels and consonants; the consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels, and some of the semivowels are called liquids. PRONUNCIATION 37 Vowels. 89. A Vowel is a letter that denotes pure tone. The vowel sounds are formed by keeping the organs of speech more or less apart or open, or by letting the voice flow out freely. The organs of speech are the lips, the teeth, the tongue, the palate, and the glottis. 90. The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u. Also w and y are vowels, when equivalent to the vowels u and i; as in now and tyrant. 91, A Diphthong is the union of two vowels to denote one sound. Ex. - PIOPrE: oil, fraud, ground. IMPROPER: ear, pour, yoir, deceit, sleight. 92. A diphthong is proper, if the two vowels are heard, or denote a sound different from that of either; improper, if only one vowel is heard. 93. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels to denote one sound. Ex. - Beauty, bureau, view, lieu, buoy. 94. Triphthongs are also divided, like diphthongs, into proper and inmproper. Consonants. 95. A Consonant is a letter that can be fully uttered only with the aid of a vowel sound. It denotes a contact of some of the organs of speech, called an articulation. Some of the consonant sounds we modify by emitting breath; as in the sounding of th or f H denotes only an emission of breath. Some of the consonant sounds we modify by using the head as a sort of drum; as in the sounding of m or 1. 38 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. -- 96. The consonants are all the letters except the vowels. 97. Wor y is a consonant, when a vowel sound follows it in the same syllable; as in water, i-o-wa, year, Bun-yan. 980 U and i are consonants, when equivalent to the consonants w and y; as in per-suade, pon-iard, u-nit (consonant and vowel). X is equivalent to is, gz, or z; as in tax, ex-act, Xerxes. 99. A Mute is a consonant that has no sound whatever without the aid of a vowel, and at the end of a word stops the voice entirely. 100. The mutes are b, p, d, t, k, qu (=kw); also c and g hard, as in lac and gig. 101. A Semivowel is a consonant that has some sound of its own, being in its nature between a vowel and a mute. 102. The semivowels are all the consonants except the mutes. 103. The Liquids are 1, m, n, r; and perhaps s and z, which are sometimes called sibilants. The liquids are so called from their soft sound, which easily flows into and unites with that of other letters. Ex. — String, brilliance. " Lull with Amelia's liquid name the Nine." - Pope. 104. A letter is said to be silent, when it is suppressed in pronunciation. Ex.- Walk, kiln, night, victuals, hour, phthisic. 105. In singing, vowel sounds are made most prominent; and clear and distinct utterance is attained chiefly by pronouncing the consonants with exactness. PRONUNCIATION. 39 ACCENT. 106. Accent is a stress of voice on a certain syllable of a word that has two or more syllables. Ex. - Bak'-er, a-muse'; an en'-trance, to en-trance'. "An August' procession in the month of Au'-gust." Accent sometimes serves to distinguish words that are spelecd alike, or to show the chief part of the word. 107. Words of three or more syllables generally have a chief accent, called the primary accent; and one or more inferior accents, called the secondary accent or accents. Ex.-Lu'-mi-na'-ry, an'-te-cel-dent, in-com'-pre-hen'-si-bilf-i-ty. 108. Some words, mostly compounds, have two accents of nearly equal stress. Ex. - A'-men', fare'-well' (interjection), knit'-ting-nee'-dle. 1O9. The penult syllable of a word is the second syllable from the end; and the antepenult is the third syllable from the end. 110. Most words used in our language have the chief accent either on the penult or else on the antepenult. PENULT: Con'-quest, at-tor'-ney, dis-a-gree'-ment, Jer-e-mi'-ah. ANTEPENULT: Tem'-per-ate, con-tin'-u-al, mu-ta-bil'-i-ty, Je-ru'sa-lem. I11. RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION. 1. Give to every syllable its proper sound. Do not say ben for been, ware for weire, blate for bleat, dreen for drain, ceow for cow, toon for tttne, sassy for saucy, rench for rinse, hif for hoof, pint for point, larn for learn, o'nly for only, guane for going, atter for after, winder for window, meader for meadow, hostile for hiostle, genuine for genulae, America for America, Canader for Canadd. 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Be careful not to omit any letter or letters of a syllable, nor any syllable or syllables of a word, that are not silent. Do not say kep for kept, ness for nests, lenth for length, strenth for strength, srub for shrub, sriek for shriek, mornin for morning, shinin for shining, chile for child, wuss for worse, goverment for government, hickry for hickory, particler for particular, spose for suppose. 3. Place the accent on the proper syllable. Do not say fan'-atic for fanat'-ic, interest'-ing for in'-teresting, i'-dea for ide'-d, mu'-setum for muse'-um, indus'-try for in'-dustry, in'-quiry for inqui'-ry, hospit'-al for hos'-pital. 4. Bear in mind that derivative words are not always accented or pronounced like their primitives. Pyr'-amid, pyram'-idal, not pyr-amidal; converse', con'-versant, not convers'-ant; lament', lam-entable, not lament'-able; pro-serve', pres-ervation, not prC-servation; a-pos'-trophe, p-os-troph'-ic, not a-pos'-trophic. 5. Remember that a change in the part of speech sometimes requires a change in the accent. To absent', to be ab'-sent; to escort', an es'-cort; to perfume', a per'-fume. But sometimes we suppose such words differ in pronunciation, when they really do not. To ally', an ally', not al'-ly; to consent', my consent', not con'-sent. 6. In doubtful cases, pronounce words according to their spelling or according to analogy. Lieutenant is better pronounced loo-ten'-ant than lev-ten'-ant. ORTHOGRAPHY. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 112. The letters are used in different styles; as, Roman, Italic, azcnS, and D lb (nfglisl. ORTHOGRAPHY. 41 113. The letters are printed in types of various sizes: at Primr1 Small Pica, Minion, Great P rimer, Nonpareil, Long Primer, Agate, English, Bourgeois, Pearl, Diamond. Pica, Brevier, 114. The letters are used either as capital letters or as lower-case or small letters. CAPITAL LETTERS. 115. Small letters are preferred in all ordinary writing, except where capital letters are needed for distinction. 116. Words that begin with capital letters, may be divided into two classes; First Words, and Words that are themselves Words of Distinction. First Words. 117. The first word of every sentence or its equivalent, or the first word after a full pause, should begin with a capital letter. For examples, see any page of this book. 118. Within a sentence, the first word of any important beginning may commence with a capital letter. Ex. -" Resolved, That our senators be requested," etc. " One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right." - Pope. W. Be it enacted by the Legislature of New York, that a tax, etc. 1. Any part of a sentence, especially in enumeration, that is broken off to begin a new line for the purpose of making it more conspicuous, should begin with a capital letter. 42 ENGLISH GRAM~MAR. Ex. " Our citizens have contributed" To the support and improvement of schools,. $12,275; " To the building and repairing of bridges,... 5,130." "I am, Sir, with sincere esteem, "Your faithful servant, " ROBERT PEEL." W. The work is admirably adapted to the use of schools,by thorough and varied exercises; by frequent and complete reviews; by simplicity of terms and arrangement. 2. The first word of a direct quotation, an example, or other saying, so introduced as to imply a transition from one speaker to another, should begin with a capital letter. Ex.- Solomon says; "Pride goeth before destruction." Remember this ancient maxim: " Know thyself." She called out, "Why did you go?" He answered, No. Stare is often used in a bad sense; as, " The impudent fellow stared at me." W. They shouted, "victory." Every tongue shall exclaim with heartfelt joy, welcome! welcome! La Fayette. But indirect quotations or questions, resumed or partial quotations, and words quoted merely as language, should not begin with capitals. Ex. Solomon says, that pride goes before destruction. She asked me why I went. This is indeed, as Chatham says, "a perilous and tremendous moment." With Mr. Headley, an event always "transpires." -Poe. 3. The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital letter. Ex. -" But now the smiles are thicker, Wonder what they mean; Faith, he's got the KnickerBocker Magazine! " — Saxe. W. Now bright the sunbeam on St. Lawrence smiles, her million lilies, and her thousand isles. ORTHIOGRAPHY. 43 Words of Distinction. 119, Tihe words Iand 0 should always be capitals. Ex. -" For I will not forsake thee, 0 friend of my youth." W. IIe knew i was there. Such, o music i is thy heavenly power. 12@, Every word denoting the Deity should begin with a capital letter. Ex. —The Most High; the Supreme; the Infinite One; to God and his angels; Divine Providence; our Lord Jesus Christ; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. " The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee." - Moore. W. The holy spirit; the eternal; the omnipotent; our saviour; to him who is the friend of the widow and the orphan. 1. A common word that merely relates to God, must sometimes begin with a capital letter, to show its reference to the Deity, Ex.-" The Hand that made us is divine."- Addison. " He who is the Mind of the universe, overlooks no small things."-John Wilson. 2. A pronoun used in connection with a name that is the chief word denoting the Deity, usually requires no capital. Ex. -" God provides for all his creatures." -Blair. "0 thou merciful God! " —Book of Common Prayer. W. 0 Lord, Thou Who art merciful and omnipotent, save us. 3. An ordinary adjunct used as a part of a name that denotes the Deity, or a word that describes rather than denotes the Deity, usually requires no capital. Ex. - The all-seeing Searcher of our hearts; great Parent of good; to Him who is the friend of the widow and the orphan. W. The King of Kings, and lord of lords; the judge of the world. They were made by the Wisdom and Goodness of thy Hand. 121. Every proper name, or each chief word of a proper name, should begin with a capital letter. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ex. - Thomas, Susan, Sunday, Monday, May, Alabama; George Washington; Amelia B. Welby; the Duke of Wellington; Charles the First. When a word implying distinction or honor is constantly used with a proper name, it becomes a part of the name itself. (The teacher should explain to the pupil what a proper noun is.) W. mary, george, march, saturday, kentucky, henry 1. gaylor. 122, Every title, whether used alone or in connection with a proper noun, should begin with a capital letter. Ex. -l r. Brown; JIrs. Elizabeth B. Browning; Dr. Vaughan; Maj. IHolt; Gen. Washington; Sir Isaac Newton; James M. Marlow, Esq.; Alexander the Great; a letter from the lion. Robert Wells. " The petty governor of Shiraz has the title of' Flower of Courtesy,' Nutmeg of Consolation,' and' Rose of Delight."' - Gazetteer. "'You are old, Father William,' the young man replied." -Southey. " So Master Dick went off on his travels." -. TV. Holmes. " The Doctor now heard the approach of clattering hoofs." Id. W. From capt. Jones; lord Byron; Joseph Allen, esq.; a speech from gov. Andrew. John bull can tell brother Jonathan what are the consequences of being too fond of glory. Proper names consist chiefly of the names of persons, places, and time. They are therefore very numerous, amounting to millions. And since it is not always easy to make a new and acceptable proper name, a common word or phrase of the language, whose meaning is supposed to suit, is often taken and made a sort of proper name. 1. When a new proper name is made from an old one, by the addition of some common word, the common word generally begins with a capital. Ex. - Orleans, New Orleans; Cambridge, East Cambridge; Boston, South Boston, Boston Neck; Scott, Gen. Scott; Jefferson, Jefferson City; Maon, disonadiso Square; Astor, Astor House; Vernon, Mount Vernon; Pike, Pike's Peak; Mexico, the Gulf of Mllexico; Britain, the British Channel. W. Rhode island; Miller's landing; lower California; Japan OR-THOGRAPHY. 45 sea; Harper's ferry; Lafayette place; Hudson's bay; the bay of Honduras; lake Erie; cape Ann; mount Auburn; Cook's inlet; Behring's strait; the strait of Magellan; Queen Charlotte's sound; Faneuil hall; William and Mary's college. 2. When a common word or phrase of the language is raised to the diguity of a proper name for a particular object, the word or chief words should begin with capitals. Ex. - The Park; Salt River; Great Bear Lake; Lake Superior; the Black Sea; Big Sandy; Land's End; the Cape of Good Hope; the United States; the WNestern States; the Mountains of the Moon; the Old South Church; the City Hall; a book called-The Temple of Truth. To this head may be referred the titles of books and topics. BV. The laurel hills; the dead sea; white river; sandy hook; a hill called cedar crest; the lake of the woods; point lookout; the five points; pea ridge; the white sulphur springs; the rocky mountains; union square; central park; on fifth avenue, near spruce street; from the common, to the dry dock. I23. An ordinary noun applied to a personified object, often becomes a proper noun in sense, and should then begin with a capital letter. Ex. -- The Wind and the Sun loved the Rose, But the Rose loved but one; For who recks the wind where it blows, Or loves not the sun."- Buliwer. W. Pride, poverty, and fashion, once undertook to keep house together. 124, Every word derived from a proper name should begin with a capital letter. Ex.- Columbia, American, Roman, Jesuit, Christian, Scotchman. "I-e is the Cicero of his age." " A Southern man is from the South." W. These spaniards joined the italian army. 125, But when such a word has lost its reference to 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the proper name, and has become a common word of the language, it should not begin with a capital. Ex.-A guinea, sandwiches, damask, daguerrotype, galvanize, china-ware. 126. A word of special importance or emphasis, or a word so peculiarly or technically applied as not to be sufficiently definite if written otherwise, should begin with a capital letter. Ex. —The General Assembly; the excellence of our Constitution; the War Department; William Penn with several Friends; the American Revolution. "The Reform Bill." - London Times. "Education is the great business of the Institute." - Holmes. " The other member of the Committee was the Rev. Mr. Butters, who was to make the prayers before the Exercises of the Exhibition." —Id. W. Put this motto upon the banner: "The union, the constitulion, and the enforcement of the laws." Frequently, in accordance with the foregoing rnle, the subject of discourse is commenced with a capital letter; as, "The disasters which this little band of Puritans encountered."- Everett. 12i0 In capitalizing phrases or sentences, whether used as titles or as headings, distinguish the nouns by capitals.; also important adjectives, participles, or other words; but always write the mere particles in small letters. Ex. - Episcopal Innovation; or, the Test of 3Modern Orthodoxy, in Eighty-seven Questions, imposed as Articles of Faith, lupon Candidates for Licenses and Holy Orders, in the Diocese of Peterborougqh; witi, a Distinct Answer to each Question, and General Ieefections relative to their Illegal Structure and Pernicious Tendency. - SIDNEY SMITH. 128. Names, titles, or mottoes, when very emphatic, or when designed to catch the eye from a distance, are frequently printed or painted wholly in capitals. And in Advertisements or Notices, the liberty of capitalizing is carried to a great and almost indefinite extent. ORTHOGRAPHY. 47 Examples to be Corrected. FORMULA.-Incorrect: the word -, beginning with a small-, should begin with a capital —; because-. (Give the precept violated, as presented on some preceding page; and vary the Formula when a variation is needed.) 1. These Birds go South in Winter, but return in Spring or Summer. Audubon. 2. for Rent or Sale. balance, $ 9.25. 3. When Laud was arraigned, "can any one believe me a traitor? " exclaimed the astonished prelate. -.Bancroft. 4. The question is, which of them can best pay the penalty? 5. The answer may be, yes or no. 6. The bible says, children, obey your parents. 7. The blood of those who have Fallen at concord, lexington, and Bunker hill, cries aloud, " it is time to part." 8. Lindley murray teaches, " when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a Capital is unnecessary; as, solomon observes, That the child is spoiled by sparing the rod." — octavo grammar, P. 284. 9. Washington city, the Capital of the united states, is in the district of Columbia. 10. This chief had the sounding appellation of white thunder. 11. In ancient days there dwelt a sage called discipline. 12. There lay madam partlet, basking in the sun, breasthigh in sand. 13. Falsehood sheltered herself among the passions. 14. This County was settled by welsh emigrants, who were zealous Christians, and entered heartily into our revolutionary struggle. 15. New year's day and the fourth of July are holidays. 16. Cowper, the Author of the Task, was a good Poet. 17. The secretary of state visited fortress Monroe. 18. The president lives in the white house. 19. He was President of the Massachusetts historical society, and the Editor of the Boston daily advertiser. 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 20. The Missouri compromise was discussed in the senate. 21. A presbyterian minister preached every sunday at west Brookfield. 22. She is gone to him who comforteth as a father comforteth. 23. The Guests were entertained by mayor Rice, at his residence, no. 34, union park. 24. Believe not each aspersing tongue, as most weak people do; but still conclude that story wrong which ought not to be true. SYLLABLES. 129. A Syllable is a letter, or a union of letters, pronounced as one unbroken sound. Ex. - A, on, no, stretched, barb'dst, a-e-ri-al, pro-fu-sion. 130. Every syllable must consist of one or more vowels, or of one or more vowels enclosed on one or both sides by one or more consonants. Ex. - 0, i-dle, au-tumn, bro-ker, an, ants, dot, breast. SYLLABICATION. 131. Syllabication is the division of words into syllables. 132. Words are divided into syllables, to show their pronunciation or derivation. Ex.- De-pose, dep-o-si-tion, re-in-force-ment, lov-er, rain-bow. Syllabication thus enables us, in writing, to divide words properly at the ends of lines. ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 133. In dividing words into their syllables, we should give to every syllable precisely those letters which the correct pronunciation of the word gives to it. Ex. - Su-pren-a-cy, pro-cras-ti-nate, pref-ace, oth-er, ma-ter-nal, as-tron-o-my, twin-kle, tic-kle, Rob-ert, E-liz-a-beth. W. Plan-ting, un-loa-ding, ma-keth, or-ga-ni-zing, e-squire, govcrn, cons-ti-tu-tion, va-le-tu-din-a-ri-an, mark-et. 134. Words should generally be divided according to their prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical endings, if they have any; and compound words should be divided into their simple ones. Ex. —Re-new, ring-let, great-er, wis-est, ful-ly, boat-swain. W. Dril-ling, vea-ver, a-noth-er, wi-ser, ren-ted. 135. When derivation and pronunciation conflict, the division must be made according to the pronunciation. Ex.- Ap-a-thy, not a-path-y; rec-ol-lec-tion (remembrance), apos-tol-ic-al, ther-mom-e-ter, pred-i-cate, prop-o-si-tion. W. A-scribe, or-tho-graph-y, pre-fer-ence, de-po-si-tion, par-ti-cipi-al. 136. A word that has more syllables than one, may be divided at the end of a line, but only at the close of a syllable. The part in either line should consist of at least more letters than one, and be of such a nature that it is not likely to be misconceived at the first impression. Such words as a-log, a-gain, o-lio, crafi-g, read-y, curv-ed, should rather stand wbiolly in one line; and such words as accomnpli-ces, advanta-ges, should rather be divided acconm-plices, advan-lcayes -Divide into syllables:Artery, sorcery, luscious, varnish, blanket, pickle, musket, extraordinary, possession, decision, nevertheless, western, monkey, paternal, unserviceable, reformation, recreate, rieelect, 3 P 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. grafter, rafter, charter, chanter, waiter, traitor, felony, felonious, active, picture, pitcher, lounger, noisy, knitting, shilling, willing, azure, national, siren, soldier, associate, pronunciation, Boston, Diana. RULES FOR SPELLING. 137. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their right letters, properly arranged. This art must be learned chiefly from spelling-books, dictionaries, and observation in reading. Rule. —Doubling. Words of one syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel; and words of more syllables, ending in the same way, with the accent fixed on the last syllable, -double the consonant before a vowel in the derivative word. Ex. - Sad, sadder, saddest; rebel', rebelled, rebellion; rob, robber; win, winning; fop, foppish; drum, drummer; up, upper; admit, admittance; quiz, quizzed. In other cases, no doubling takes place. Ex. - Seal, sealed; gild, gilded; hard, harder; infer', (inferred,) in'fer ence; bigot, bigoted; tax, taxed. X final = two consonants, ks or gz; therefore never doubled. There is a difference between robed and robbed, planing and planning, hater and haltcr. Good writers sometimes double I, contrary to the Rule above. Ex. -" Traveller" - Prescott, Bryant; " carolled" Irving. Rule ITI.-Final Y. Final Y, preceded by a consonant and followed by any letter except i, is changed into i in the derivative word. x. - Fly, flies; glory, glories, glorif y, glorfied, glorifying, glorifi ORTHOGRAPHY. 51 cation; try, trial; pretty, prettier, prettiest; merry, merrily, merriment; pity, pitiable; ivy, ivied. E x c ep t i o s: Most of the derivatives of sly, dry, and shy usually retain y; as, dryly, slyness. Final Y, preceded by a vowel, or followed by i, remains unchanged in the derivative word. Ex. - Chimney, chimneys; gay, gayer, gayest, gayety; cry, crying, crier; buoy, buoyant; destroy, destroyer; annoy, annoyance; joy, joyful. Exceptions: Pay, paid; said, laid, daily; staid (remained), stayed (checked). Rule III.-Final E. Final E, when silent, is rejected before a vowel in the derivative word. But it is retained when needed to keep c or g soft, or to preserve the identity of the word. Ex. -Bite, biting; force, forcible; sale, salable; rogue, roguish. Agree, agreeable; peace, peaceable; singe, singeing; glue, gluey. There is a difference between dying and dyeing, singing and singeing. Words ending with ie change i into y, before i, to prevent the doubling of i; as, Die, dying; vie vying; tie, tying; lie, lying. Final:3 is retained before a consonant in the derivative word. Sometimes it is rejected when not needed. Ex.- Base, baseless; rue, rueful; definite, definitely; eye, eyelet; whole, wholesome, but wholly. Due, duly; true, truly; awe, anful; judge, judgment. (D softens the g, and renders the e unnecessary.) Monosyllables that end with f, 1, or s, preceded by a single vowel, generally have this consonant double, as cliff mill, pass; words that end with any other consonant in the same way, generally have it single, as man, cat, map. The final consonant of a primitive word generally remains double, but should not be trebled, in the derivative word, as in blissful, skillful, fully. 52 EENGLISII GRAMMAR. One I is often dropped from 11, especially when the accent is on some other syllable; as in shaltj always, welcome, fulfill', use'ful, Derived verbs generally prefer the ending ize to ise, as legal, legalize. Ei after c, as in ceiling, deceive; generally ie after any other letter, as in siege, lien, sieve. Specie, seize, inveigle, and a few other words, are exceptions. Compound words generally retain the spelling of the words from which they are formed; as, housewife, juryman, illness, wherein. Where, wherever; whose, whosever; sheep, shepherd; feet,fetlock; pass, pastime; well, welfare; holy, holiday, - are some of the exceptions. 138. Generally speaking, spelling and pronunciation are the better, the better they agree, and serve to distinguish words that differ in meaning. Ex. - Gray is preferable to grey; haul, to hale; and show, to shew. 139. Contraction, in spelling, is the omission of some letter or letters from a word. An apostrophe (') is generally put in the place of what is omitted. Ex.- E'er, ever; o'er, over;'gainst, against; o'clock, of the clock. Sometimes two or more words are contracted into one, and the parts combined are occasionally changed in spelling.'Tis or it's is used for it is; won't, for will not l'd, for I would or I had. Exercises in Spelling. RULE I. RULE II RULE III. MISCELLANEOUS. Swimming, Witticism? Pining, Scarred, steaming, laziness, pinning, scared, thinned, gayety, valuable, solely, learned, wearisome, chargeable, wholly, airy, moneyed, striving, till, starry, allies, fusible, until, ETYMOLOGY. 53 druggist, alleys, sedgy, truly, acquittal, reliable, smoky, singeing, benefited, relying, stylish, gluing, dreaded, thriftily, paroled, hoeing, referred, gayly, patrolled, recall, reference, daily, vying, willful, regretted, likelihood, advertisement, countryman, propeller, holiday, traceable, receipt, shopping, spied, servilely, siege, galloping. spy-glass. acknowledgment. colonize. 140, The most ludicrous blunders in spelling are usually made by the misapplication of those words which agree in pronunciation, but differ in spelling and meaning. Correct the errors: He was bread for the church. Hawks pray onr other birds. The judge immediately baled the prisoner. The benches were all in tears, one above another. All those barrels for sail, at ten o'clock. ETYMOLOGY. WORDS. 141, Letters make syllables, syllables make words, words make sentences, and sentences express thoughts. 142. A Word is a syllable, or a union of syllables, used as the sign of some idea. Ex. - Man, horse, pink, green, strikes, down, because. 143. WORDS are divided, according to their number of syllables, into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. 54 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. A monosyllable is a word of one syllable. Act. A dissyllable is a word of two syllables. Active. A trisyllable is a word of three syllables. Actively. A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. Activity. 144. WORDS are divided, according to their formation, into primitive, derivative, and compound. A primitive word is not formed from another word. Breeze. A derivative word is formed from another word. Breezy. A compound word is composed of two or more words. Sea-breeze, nevertheless. 145. WoIuDS are divided, according to their use, into nine classes, called parts of speech. - See p. 70. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 146. The elements of words, in derivation, are roots, prefixes, and suffixes. 1470 A Root is the chief part of a word, or that part which receives the prefix or the suffix. 148. A Prelfix is a letter or letters joined to the beginning of a word, to modify its meaning. 149. A Suffix is a letter or letters joined to the end of a word, to modify its meaning. PREFIXES. ROOTS. De, down. De - press; to press down. Re, again. Re - build; to build again. Ex, out. Ex - pel (drive); to drive out. Con, together. Con-nect (join); to join together. Un, not. Un - sound; not sound. ETYMOLOGY. 55 SUFFIXES. ROOTS. Able, can be. Read-able; can be read. Er, person or thing. Read-er; one who reads, a reading-book. En, to make. Black-en; to make black. Ness, state or quality. Happi-ness; the state of being happy. Y, having, resembling. Ston-y; having stones, hard as stone. Sometimes a word has two or more prefixes or suffixes; as, re-product-ive-ness. 150, Roots are either native or foreign, and sometimes much disguised. Ex. - Bakery is derived from bake. Attract' is derived from the Latin ad, to, and traho, I draw. Ide'a, from the Greek eido, I see, denotes something " in the mind's eye." 151. Derivative words are formed from primitives, by means of prefixes or suffixes; and compound. words are formed by uniting primitives or derivatives. Ex. -Plant, re-plant, trans-plant, im-plant. Act, act-or, act-ice, act-ivity; great, great-est. Blacksmith, spelling-book. 152. There are different prefixes capable of expressing the same sense, and there are also different suffixes capable of expressing the same sense. The choice of prefixes or suffixes is therefore determined not merely by their meaning, but also by euphony, analogy, and the character of the root. Ex. — Generous, un-generous; accurate, in-accurate; throne, dethrone, un-throne; confess, confess-ion; acknowledge, acknowledgment. 153. Frequently, in making derivative or compound. words, some of the parts must be altered for the sake of euphony or analogy. Hence there occurs sometimes a change, an omission, or an insertion of some letter or letters. The last letter of the prefix must often be the same as the first letter of the root. 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ex.- Con-lect, col-lect; dis-fer, dif-fer; in-moderate, im-moderate; con-operate, co-operate; dis-vulge, di-vulge; a-archy, an-archy; mucilage-ous, mucilag-inous. Compound Words. 15S4 Two or more words, expressing but one conception, or habitually used together as the term for one object or idea, should be compounded. Ex..-H-orseman, gooseberry, rainbow, to-morrow, four-footed. " A five-cent savings-bank; " " blue-eyed, golden-haired Mary." A crow is a black bird, but not a blackbird. A glass house is made of glass; but a glass-house is a house in which glass is manufactured. A live oak is simply a living oak; but a live-oak is a species of evergreen oak. A dancing master is a master that dances; but a dancing-master teaches dancing. A white washed house may not be a white-washed house. MAany-colored birds have many colors each; many colored birds are numerous, though they may all be of one color. A dog's-ear is the corner of a leaf turned over; but a dog's ear is the ear of a dog. A lady's slipper is a shoe; but lady's-slipper is a plant. 155. When a compound word is first formed or but little used, a hyphen is generally placed between its parts. Ex. — ight-robber, rosy-fingered; the tree-and-cloud-shacowed river. 1569 By long and general use, most compound words lose the hyphen, provided the parts coalesce like the syllables of one word and under one chief accent. Ex. - Statesman, steamboat, railroad, inkstand, no'bleman, book'seller, home'sickness, notwithstand'ing. For more, in regard to compound words see pp. 260 and 345. [A sufficient knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and roots is so generally obtained from spelling-books and other sources, that we have followed the advice of many eminent teachers, and omitted the rest of this subject.] QUESTIONS. 57 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW'. 1. What is Grammar?... 69 49. Of words denoting the Deity?. 120 2. What is English Grammar?. 70 50. When does a pronoun, denoting the 3. Into what parts is it divided?. 71 Deity, not require a capital? 4. Of what does Pronunciation treat? 72 51. What is said of proper names?. 121 5. Of what does Orthography treat? 73 52. Of titles?... 122 6. Of what does Etymology treat?. 74 53. Of new proper names made from 7. Of what does Syntax treat?. 75 old ones? 8. Of what does Prosody treat?. 76 54. Of common phrases made proper 9. What is the basis of grammar? 77 names? 10. Of what does language consist?. 78 Of titles of books? 11. To what can these sounds be reduced? 79 55. Of the names of personified objects? 123 12. What is a letter?... 80 56. Of words derived from proper names? 124 13. How many elementary sounds has 57. When should such a word not begin the English language? and how with a capital?. 125 many letters to represent them? 81 58. What is said of words that are par14. What is the name of a letter?. 86 ticularly importantoremphatic,or 15. What is the power of a letter?. 8 that are used in a technical sense? 126 16. Our alphabet is both defective and 59. Iow are phrases or sentences capredundant: explain how it is so. 82-5 italized?. 127 17. IIow are the letters classified?. 88 60. What is a syllable?... 129 18. What is a vowel?... 89 61. Every syllable must have, at least, 19. Which letters are vowels?. 90 what kind of letter?.. 130 20. What is a diphthong?.. 91 62. What is syllabication?..131 21. A proper diphthong? An improper? 92 63. Why are words divided into sylla22. What is a triphthong?... 93 bles?....132 23. What is a consonant?. 95 64. How are words divided into sylla24. Which letters are consonants?. 96 bles?... 33-5 25. When are w and y vowels? and 65. What is said of dividing words at when consonants?.. 90,97 the ends of lines?... 133 26. What is a mute?... 99 66. What is spelling?... 37 27. Which letters are mutes?.. 100 67. From what must this art be learned? 137 28. What is a semivowel?... 101 68. What is the first Rule? 29. Which are the semivowels?. 102 69. What is the second Rule? 30. Which letters are called liquids? 70. What is the third Rule? and why?.... 103 71. What is said of contraction, in spell31. When is a letter silent?. 104 ing?.... 139 32. What is accent?... 106 72. What is a word?... 142 83. What is said of primary accent and 73. How are words classified according of secondary accent?... 107 to their syllables?.. 143 34. What is said of two equal accents on 74. What is a monosyllable? the same word?... 108 75. What is a dissyllable? 85. Which syllable of a word is the pe- 76. What is a trisyllable? nult? which is the antepenult? 109 77. What is a polysyllable? 36. Give the first rule for pronuncia- 78. How are words classified according tion; -the second; -the third; to their formation?... 144 - the fourth; - the fifth; -the 79. What is a primitive word? sixth.. 11 80. What is a derivative word? 37. In what styles are the letters used? 112 81. What is a compound word? 38. In what sizes of type?.. 113 82. How are words classified according 39. How are they distinguished in form? 114 to their use?.. 145 40 How are small letters used? and 83. What are the elements of words, in for what are capitals used?. 115 derivation?.. 146 41. How may words beginning with 84. What is a root?. 147 capital letters be classified?. 116 85. What is a prefix?....14 42. What is said of the first word of 86. What is a suffix?... 149 every sentence?... 117 87. What is said of roots?... 150 43. When are capital letters used with- 88. From what are derivative and comin sentences? 118 pound words formed?.. 151 44. What is said of parts of a sentence 89. What variations do the elements of that begin anew? words sometimes undergo, in deri45. Of direct quotations? vation.... 153 46. Of indirect quotations? 90. When are words compounded?. 154 47. Of lines of poetry? 91. When is the lyphen used?.. 55 48. Of I and 0?....119 92. When is the hyphen omitted? 156 3"' 68 ENGLISH -GRAMMAAR OBSERVATIONS. Grammar. - Since the different nations of the earth speak different languages, -as, English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, etc.,- every language has many peculiarities of its own; and these peculiarities, which generally make the burden of its grammar, are sometimes called the particular grammlar of the language to which they belong. But since people and the world are everywhere much alike, and since people therefore think everywhere nearly in the same way, it follows that all languages have much in which they agree, and this is sometimes called universal grammar. We have said that the basis of grammar is the usage of the best writers and speakers. This usage is merely a convenient test for determining what is proper or improper; for the real basis of grammar must be sought in the laws of mind.and in the requirements of thought, or it is the philosophy of thought and language applied to the requirements of human knowledge in all its extent and variety. As to the two kinds of language, spoken and written, spoken language has the advantage in the power of enforcing its meaning by means of voice, emphasis, and gestures; but written language, in modern times, by the help of the press and other facilities, has greatly the advantage in durability and the almost unlimited powers of circulation. Pronunciation. - Among the educated, the pronunciation of the English language is everywhere nearly the same; but, among the uneducated, there is considerable diversity. In the United States, however, there is less deviation from the literary standard than in Great Britain. The modern pronunciation of the English language differs also very much fiom that which prevailed about five hundred years ago, or in the time of Chaucer. This is evident fiom the old spelling, and from the requirements of the rhyme and metre in old verse. "The soun of briddes for to hear, That on the bushes singen clear."- Chaucer. "And she was cleped Madam Eglantine; Full well she sange the service divine." - Id. " ie stode the bright moone to beholde, And alle his sorrowe to the moone he tolde." Id. "Me tlinketh it accordant to reason, To tellen you alle the condition." —Id. "And whanne this alchymister saw his timb, Ris'th up, Sir Priest, quod he, and stondeth by me."- Id. Here final e's, and other endings not now in use, are made syllables. Reason and condition are pronounced with the accent on the last syllable, somewhat as in French. Time is pronounced ti-me; for it was made to rhyme with by me. PRONUNCIATION. 59 From the foregoing and other examples we may infer three things:1. Pronunciation formerly had more syllables than it now has. Most of these extra syllables consisted of faint or draggling syllables at the ends of words. In some German dialects the people have even at the present day the habit of annexing obscure d to most of their words, (somewhat as bad readers annex ers,) by which they apparently make their speech more rhythmical. Query: Was the English language ever pronounced as these German dialects? 2. Accent was formerly more Continental, or French, than it now is; that is, it has since glided more fiom syllables near the end to syllables near the beginning: it has also become more permanent. In Chaucer we have virtue and virtue, nature and ndture, langqdye and dlaigage. 3. The sounds of certain words are now different from what they were, and the vowel sounds have generally run into greater variety. An was sounded aia; heart, hert; gyld, goold; great, great, etc. ("None but an Irishman would say great." — Cesterfield.) Even within our recollection, the broad sound of griiss, hddf, and liist, has passed into grdss, hacf, and last. English pronunciation has a hasty air, tends to brevity, slides its accents toward the left, and gradually improves in melody, or musical variety An omnibus has become a mere'bus; Brougham is pronounced Broom; Worcester, Woos-ter; and Michilimackinac loses its serpentine length in _Mack'-e-naw. A balco'-ny has become a bal -cony; con'-template is now more common than conten'-plate; o-be-je-ent has yielded to the more euphonious o-be-di.ent; and pro-nun-ci-a-tion is becoming more common than pro-nunshe-a-tion. Poetry sometimes adopts antiquated modes of expression because they tend to give it an elegant quaintness. But poetry, written long ago, must sometimes be pronounced, for the sake of the rhyme, as the language was pronounced when the verse was written. "Lo! the poor Indian, whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds or hears him in the wind." - Pope. "Tell me, where is fancy bred, - In the heart, or in the head? How begot, how nourished? "-Shakespeare. Here wind must be pronounced wind, to rhyme with mind; and ed must be sounded, so as to rhyme with head. The verbal ending ed is yet heard in the speech of some very old people; but, unless the word is used adjectively, as in the phrase a learned )nan, this ending is now generally blended with the preceding syllable when it will coalesce with it in sound. Accent. —1. Words ending with the sound of shun, zhun, or chun, or 2* D 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. with any kindred sound, have the chief accent on the penult; as, contempla'-tion, decis'-ion, conven'-tion, artifi'-cial, coura'-geous, inslffl-cient. 2. Words ending with cive, sive, ic, ics, or with tire preceded by a consonant, have the chief accent on the penult; as, deci'-sive, hero'-ic, sulphu'-ric, calisthen'-ics, collect-tive. Exceptions: Aritha-metic, ar'-senic (noun), ad'-jective, bishl-opric, cathf-olic, cholr-eric, ephemt-eric, her'-etic, lu'-natic, poll-itic, polt-itics, rhetf-oric, sub-stantive, tur'-meric, and perhaps pleth-oric and splen-etic. 3. Words that have the following endings, have the chief accent on the antepenut:Acal, acy, athiy. Ileli'-acal, theoc-racy, sym'-pathy. E-al, e-an, e-ous. Or'-dcal, Hercu'-lean, sponta'-ncous. Eifq, ety, erous. Stu'-pcfy, sati'-ety, aurif'-erous. Fluent, fluous. Circuml-fluent, supert-fluous. Gonal,'Y aphy. Diag'-onal, orthog'-raphy. i-a, i-ac, i-al. Rega'-lia, demo'-niac, armo'-rial. f1an, ical, i-ous. Collet-gian, astronom'-ical, contume'-lious. Inous, ify, ity. Om'-inous, person'-ify, solid'-ity. Logy, loquy, lysis;. Anal'-ogy, col'-loquy, paral-ysis. M2eter, metry. Barom'-eter, trigonom-etry. Oraus, ulous. O'-dorous, sedl-ulous. Phiony, tomy, thropy. Eun-phony, anatt-omy, misan'-thropy. Exceptions: Adamante!-an, antipode'-an, colosse'-an, cano'-rous, empyret-an, hymenet-al, hymenet-an, pygme'-an. 4. Words of three or more syllables, ending with ative, have the accent on the antepenult, or on the preceding syllable; as, demon'-strative, op'-erative, nomnt-inative, pacl'liative, spect-ulative. E x c e pt i ons: Crea-tive, colla'-tive, dila'-tive. Letters. - There is not, perhaps, any other language in the world that has experienced so many revolutions as the English; but, like the political institutions of the people by whom it is spoken, it seems to have gained strength and excellence by every change. About a thousand years ago, our ancestors used what is called the Anglo-Saxon Alphabet. This alphabet is as follows: — X a, B b, I c, D b, G e, F F, Fr, p h, I i, L 1, C m, N n, O o, Pp, R p, S, T, U u, W p, Xx, Y y. p (th aspirate), D 3 (th vocal). Then followed the Old English, or Black Letter. X a, 3 b, c, B, I, $ f, (,, 1., Kt f I, 1, 3Twn, Nn, ~o, 0'0, Q, SV, 2Ft, au t, Vb, b, X,, 7 0. ORTHOGRAPHY. 61 These were superseded by the much more beautiful Roman Alphabet, which is the alphabet now generally used. Powers of the Letters. - In considering the alphabet, we should notice, and keep distinct, two things:1. The written elements of language, which are letters. [breath. 2. The oral elements of language, which consist of tone, articulation, and Hence the oral elements have been sometimes classified into vocals, subvocals, and aspirates. But this classification does not present the truth beyond the vocals; for nearly all the elements denoted by consonants are composite. The following is probably as minute an analysis of the oral elements as the pupil can understand: — Paure tone. Ex.- Ale, at, art, all, me, met, pine, pin, old, odd, move, use, us, thou, oil. Pure breath. Ex. - Hat. Toned articulation. Ex. -Bib, did, gig, judge, loll, mum, nun, ring, roar, thus, van, we, yet, zone, azure. Aspirated articllation. Ex.-Fife, kick, pop, since, tit, theme, sheep, cheap, whip. The powers of the consonants are most readily obtained by simply omitting the vowel sounds with which they are uttered. The element denoted by s consists of a whistling sound made purely of breath. Admit tone, and you have z. The sounds denoted by the consonants w and y are very nearly vowel sounds. The same is true of h; or, denoting mere breath, h leaves the vowel after it nearly bare. Capital Letters. - Formerly, every noun was commenced with a capital letter; and other important words of the sentence were sometimes commenced in the same way. The following is a specimen of the usage in fashion a hundred years ago: — "A Deadly Feud had long fubfifted between the Houfes of Malcolm and Douglas; but it happened that the Heir of Malcolm faved the Heir of Douglas in Battle, and this Adt produced an Inviolable Friendship between them."-London Chlronicle. Beginnings.- Persons of not much skill in composition frequently find a difficulty in determining when they have a sentence, or in deciding how to divide their thoughts into sentences. This difficulty must be overcome mainly by skill in grammar and composition. A proposition (see p. 5) can not be partly in one sentence and partly in another; and modifying words or phrases should remain with the parts which they modify. Propositions closely bound together in sense, should make but one sen 62 ENGLISHI GRAMMAR. tence; but propositions loosely connected may often be either gathered into one sentence or divided into two or more sentences. Examples.- When an example consists of a proposition, or of something used in the sense of a proposition, it should begin with a capital letter. But when words or phrases, used for illustration, occur in the body of a sentence, they need not begin with capitals if the meaning is sufficiently obvious without them; though usage is divided in regard to such expressions, and capitals sometimes distinguish the parts better than small letters.'erse. - When verse is written in the form of prose, it should generally have only the capitals which are suitable to prose. Words of Distinction.- The Indian always says, " Great Spirit," or uses both words to denote God; but when Pope wrote, " Thou great First Cause," he used great in its ordinary descriptive sense. The King of kings shows pre-eminently God's relation to worldly kings; but the Anzel of Death does not show the relation of any angel to death. The Devil denotes Satan; but a devil may be simply a bad person or spirit. When the words god, goddess, deity, divinity, etc., are applied to the heathen deities, they do not begin with capitals. When Muses, Graces, Naiads, etc., are regarded in the splendor of ancient imagination, they are generally favored with capitals; but our own fairies, sylphs, ghosts, hobgoblins, etc., are rather too puny and undignified in idea to be thus distinguished. The names of important individual objects, as spring, summer, autumn, winter, time, eternity, space, seasons, morning, evening, da!y, night, earth, heaven, hell, sun, moon, world, universe, nature, equator, zodiac, north, east, etc., when used in their most ordinary sense, or when their ordinary meaning predominates, do not usually begin with capitals; but when they are used in a specific or personified sense, they should begin with. capitals. When Heaven denotes God, it should always begin with a capital letter; and when it denotes the abode of the blessed, it is also frequently written with a capital. Lord's Day. is equivalent to Sunday. New Year's Day, the Fourth of July, Good Friday, or any other holiday, is as much a particular day as Sunday, or any other day of the week. The phrases Elegy in a Country Churchyard, Battle of Hohenlinden, The Task, are as much the names of particular poems as John, James, and lenry, are the names of particular boys. " Gray took hardly more pains with his Elegy," not elegy. The gospel denotes the Christian doctrines; but the Gospels and the Revelation denote parts of the New Testament. A Methodist, a Republican, a Mussulman, or a Roarer, belongs to some religious, political, or social sect or party. "The President sent the document to Congress; and the Senate returned it to the General Assembly, or Legislature, of New York." ORTHOGRAPHY. 63 Hcence, the names of holidays, the names of the days of the week or months of the year, the chief words in the titles of books, the names of sects, parties, associations, or public bodies, should begin with capital letters. Should the word park be constantly applied to a particular place in stead of a proper name, then the place should be called the Park, not the park. If I should use the phrase Old Dominion for the proper name Virginia, I would begin each word of the phrase with a capital letter; but if I should call Goldsmith's Deserted Village Goldsmith's great poem, I would not begin the latter words with capitals. We must often judge whether the specific or titular sense, or else the ordinary meaning of the words, is uppermost in the speaker's mind, and use capitals or small letters accordingly. Webster's Speeches refers to a book, or to their title; while Webster's speeches refers simply to the speeches as such. "I went with him to visit the Lakes;" i. e., a celebrated group of lakes. We can see white mtountains in almost any mountainous country; but the ]White Mountains are in New Iampshire. A Cambridge Professor speaks of his Essay, in referring to a book called Cambridge Essays; and, having introduced Captain Marrqlatt, he afterwards speaks of him as the Captain, not as the captain. When I speak of the principal of a school, I refer to his duties; but when I speak of the Principal of a school, I refer to his title. A chapter in your history refers to your life; but a chapter in your History refers to a book so named. "Part 1, Remark, Observations, Rules for Spelling," refer to certain divisions or headings of a book. Our Club, President, Treasurer, and Secretary, are such in title as well as in fact. The London Times says, "IIer Majesty, the Prince Consort, the Bride, the Prince of Wales, and the other members of the Royal Family, were present." Common folks would not have been thus honored with capitals. An astronomer writes, " The Sun is the centre of the System;" because these capitalized words denote subjects of which he treats. When I speak of the Company or the Convention, I mean to guard you against thinking of the wrong one, or.to make you think of a particular one. Missouri is a part of the South, though it lies west. If the North, East, South, and lWest, make the United States, then any one of these states is a State, being derived from a proper noun. We may speak, however, in general terms, of the states, kingdoms, and empires of the earth. The Insurrection was printed with a capital letter only while the excitement lasted; but the Reformation and the Revolution are still matters of interest, and retain their capitals. Hence, the names of great events, of important places, or of persons in high official positions, even when they consist of common words of the language, should generally begin with capitals. 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When a term consists of two or more words, and especially if they are linked together in the sense of apposition, it is sometimes difficult to de. termine how many capitals should be used. In such cases we should care. fully consider how much makes the name, or whether the parts are separately significant. The Ohio river is as well denoted by the Ohio, which is a sufficient name to call it by, and which implies the word river; but the Red River is not usually called the Red, nor is the Blue Ridge ever called the Blue, for it takes both words to make the name. The city of New York, or New York city, is generally called New York; but Jersey City needs both words to make the name. The Erie Canal is wholly a name; but the Erie and Ohio canal is understood as being simply the canal be. tween Lake Erie and the Ohio river. In the phrase, " the prophet Jonah," the words are separately significant, or but temporarily united; but in the terms Lake Erie, Mount Vernon, Cape Hatteras, Penobscot Bay, Queen Elizabeth, Loch Gyle, Ben Lonmond, both words are so commonly used as the name, that each begins with a capital letter. " Victoria, the queen of Great Britain;" "Mary, Queen of Scots:" the former phrase is explanatory, but the latter is also titular. In this country, Esq. is always. used as a title, and therefore it properly begins with a capital letter; but, in England, esq. is often used merely as a term of rank, and therefore in English journals we often find it beginning with a small e. Harper's ferry was once a ferry belonging to a man named Harper; but now Harper's Ferry is a town. When objects are very common and comparatively insignificant, we often find that only the specific words, and not the general words, —especially when the latter are plural,-begin with capital letters; as, "in Cass and.Butler counties." The words county, township, hill, creek, river, when used in connection with specific words, are not generally commenced with capital letters. Street we find written -Fifth Street, Fifth and Madison Streets; Fifth-street, Walnut-street, Fifth and Walnut streets (the hyphen being omitted from the plural phrase, to show the common reference of streets to the two words beforejit); and, lastly, Fifth street. The first two modes are best authorized. The same remark applies occasionally to the words place, square, house, church, etc. But, in all cases in which the specific word is also a common word of the language, the tendency is, to begin the general word with a capital letter too; as, "Black Sea," "Long Island," "White River." Tile English, in many cases, compound some kinds of the foregoing terms; as, "Spring-gardens, Leceister-place, iHarmp den-street, Arklow-house." Only the first part of a compound word is usually commenced with a capital letter, as in the foregoing terms; but when the term has a titular sense, each part is more generally commenced with a capital, as " Attorney- General." ORTHOGRAPHY. 6 Personification. - A word denoting a personified object is commenced with a capital, only when it has strictly the sense of a proper noun that is applied to a person; as, "And Hope enchanting smiled, and waved her golden hair." But, " The ship lost her cargo." "' Will you walk into my parlor?' said the Spider to the Fly," represents the spider and the fly as if they were Mr. A and Mr. B. Derivatives. - The word Christian, though it has become a common word of the language, begins with a capital on account of its highly honorable derivation. The word Italic, applied to letters, is often commenced with a small i; but the analogy of the word Roman rather tends to sustain the capital 1. After all, in regard to capital letters, something must be left to taste, or to the nice intuitive perceptions of the writer. Syllables. - Formerly, words were divided into syllables according to their derivation and vowels; as, or-thoo-gra-pJl, ha-bit: but now the highest rule is, to divide them as they are pronounced; as, or-thog-ra-phy, hab-it. In dividing words into syllables, we should endeavor, first, to show the exact pronunciation; secondly, to make neat syllables; and, thirdly, to show the derivation of the words. Quite a number of words are still variously and sometimes inconsistently divided in our best dictionaries. The following additional rules may be useful to the learner. VOWELS.- Diphthongs and triphthongs, not severed; as, loy-al, buoy-ant: vowels making different syllables, separated; as, a-e-ri-al, co-op-e-rate: vowels changed to consonants, to their own syllables; as, un-ion, liq-uid, brill-iant. CONSONANTS. - Single consonant between two vowels, and not shortening the forner nor sounded with it, to the latter syllable; as, re-belt, ha-zy, ea-s: shortening the former vowel or joined to it, to the former syllable; as, reb'-el, heav.y, fraud-u-lent: mute and liquid, not shortening the syllable preceding, joined to the latter; as, pa-trol: shortening it, separated; as, cit-ron: liquid and mute, blending with formner vowel, joined to it; as, post-age: not both blending with former vowel, separated; as, can-ger, pas-tor: two consonants, in other cases, generally separated; as, sup-per, memn-ber, mos-sy, col-lec-tive, pic-ture, pic-lde, etc. Ch, sh, th, gh, ph, wh, and tch, are regarded as single letters; and tion, sion, cious, tient, etc., as single syllables. Spelling. - The spelling of the English language, several hundred years ago, was much more clumsy and variable than it now is. It was spelled it, itt, yt, ytt, hit, hitt, hyt, or hytt; when, whanne or whan; company, comnpagnie; truly, treeulyche; earth, corthe; hands, hondes; unkind, unkuynde; should, scholden; which, quhiche and whiche; since, syghlhen; gathered, y-gadered. In the course of time there was introduced a Rule to double the consonant, whenever the vowel before it was short; and to leave it single, 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. when the vowel was long. Accordingly, we find hadde, thanne, starre, etc., for had, than, star. The effect of this rule can still be seen in such words as mill, less, cliff; and our existing rule for doubling the final consonant in certain cases, is probably an offshoot from the same rule. Formerly, parlor, labor, vapor, etc., were spelled parlfour, labouzr, vafpour; but the superfluous t is now rejected. Formerly, public, music, arithmetic, etc., were spelled ptblick, mizfck, arithmetick; but the superfluous k is now omitted from nearly all such words except monosyllables. A few verbs of two or more syllables retain or assume the k for the sake of the pronunciation; as, traffic, mimic, mimicked, mimicking, not mimicing. Some words can be spelled in two or more different ways, with good authority for each; as, keg and cag; plough and plow; inquire and enquire; traveler and traveller; hominy, homony, and hommony. But this diversity is now confined to a comparatively small number of words; and the better forms of these words will probably soon exterminate the other forms. Generally speaking, the spelling of the English language is so irregular that it is safer and better to learn the words themselves than to depend upon rules. Derivation.- The English language is a composite, derived from a number of other languages. Hence it is full of conflicting analogies. The chief languages fiom which it has been formed, are, in the order of time, about as follows:Celtic, Saxon, Danish, French, Latin, and Greek. Its groundwork, its syntax and idiomatic pith, are essentially Saxon. Nearly all the most common words, as earth, heaven, water, fire, wind, wood, grass, man, boy, ox, cow, sheep, hen, goose, house, mouse, rat, hand, heart, soul, love, hate, grief, sorrow, rye, ear, hair, arm, fist, finger, breast, foot, clay, nigqht, mlorning, evening, month, year, summer, winter, word, way, speak, say, whisper, smile, laugh, weep, walk, wash, watch, lie, stand, run, dance, creep, fly, come, go, have, hold, good, bad, long, short, near, far, deep, wide, old, young, thin, thick, sour, bitter, sweet, I, my, you, he, she, it, who, which, that, this, so, as, thus, here, there, where, ever, never, in, on, under, up, to, fr'om, with, )b, and, both, for, if, since, then, than, or, but, etc., are Saxon. The other languages which have contributed most words, are the French and the Latin. The French has furnished most of the words pertaining to refinement and fashion. The Latin and the Greek have furnished most of the terms required in the great circle of sciences and arts. From the Latin duco, ductum, to lead; capio, captum, to take; fero, latum, to carry; mitto, missum, to send; tendo, tensum, to stretch; teneo, tentum, to hold; plico, plicatum, to fold; pono, positum, to place; specio, spectum, to look; and from the Greek logos, discourse; and grapht, writing, - are derived about 2,000 English words. ETYMOLOGY. 67 It is said that the English language has about 100,000 words, and that about 13,000 of these are derived from 154 Latin and Greek primitives. That spirited, that glorious little poem, Campbell's lohoenlinden, contains 198 words. Of these, 170 are Saxon; 19, French; and 9, Latin; making about 86 per cent of Saxon words. Probably no other specimen of English literature shows so well the simplicity and force of the Saxon element, and what preference should be given to Saxon words in our daily use of language. A word can sometimes be traced through a number of languages. The Greek aner, the Latin vir, the German Herr; the French sieur, and the English sir, are all of them essentially the same word. Words, like people, exist in families and kindreds. Act, actor, action, active, activity, actuate, actual, actually, etc., are a family; and hide, hat, hood, hut, and house, are all akin. So are bind, band, and bond; rest and roost; scale, sdell, and skull; and draw, drag, draggle, drawl, dray, dredge, drudge, drain, train, and draft. Words have been called fossil poetry; and it is sometimes very interesting to trace them to their originals and kindreds. An acorn is an oakcorn0; a berry is what a bush bears; a daisy is a day's-eye; clover is something that has cloven leaves; a field is a place where the trees are felled; a yard is a piece of ground that girds a house; what is wild, is self-willed, or follows its own will; a landscape is a land-shape;.fodder is food for feeding cattle; an ore is taken from the earth; heaven is what is heaved (heaven, giv-en) or arched over; a hamlet is a dear little homee, and a satchel is a small sack; a neighbor is one who lives nigh; what I ought to do, is owed by me as a duty; a nostril is a nose-drill, or nose-hole; a husband is the house-band, or support; a man's tife once was the weaver of his household; a month is measured by the moon; he who is tantalized is treated or mocked like Tantalus; a meandering river is as crooked as the M3eander, a river of Phrygia; umbra is the Latin word for shade, and an umbrella is therefore a little shade; a parasol- from the Greek pasr, against, and the Latin sol, sun - is something held against the sun; a mansion - from the Latin maneo, mansulm, to remain -is a place to remain in; the first clock seemed to cluck, like a hen; and a flea is probably so called from the rapidity with which he flees, or tries to escape. Ill is contracted from evil, and ail is akin to it; dawn, from day-en (daying), making day; deed, from do-ed, done, what is done; first, from foreest, for'st; last, from latest; lass, from laddess; alone, from all one; only, from one-like; flood, from flowed; fulsome, from foul-some; parboil, from part-boil; Naples fiom nea polis, new city; offal is what falls off, or is cast away; and what I doff, I do off King Henry the Eighth, of England, became " the chiefe anthour " of Perhaps rathcr from the Italian parare, to ward off, and sole, sun. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. an English grammar, for " the childrene of his lovynge subjects," which he compelled the people to use; and thus originated the common phrase, the King's English. The Irishman may claim that his nickname has descended from "the senators of Rome, in Rome's best day." Thus, pater, patres, patricians, Patricits, Patrick, Paddy, Pat. Many words, applied first to material things, have been extended to things intellectual or abstract. " The spirit in its literal import is breath or wind, rectitude is straightness, error is a wandering, transgression is a goingover, education is a drawing-out, a language is a tongue; " and we speak of "bright hopes, unshaken confidence, and corroding cares." The two principles which guide us most in the use and formation of words, are resemblance and relation. The leaf of a book resembles the leaf of a plant; and the key to an arithmetic serves to unlock its mysteries. Buzz, hiss, hum, roll, roar, rattle, clatter, click, clang, thin, burly, are all imitative. Some letter combinations are eminently suggestive of the meaning. There is something decidedly nasal in the sn that begins sneeze, sneer, snout, snore, snort, snuff, snuffle, and snicker. Spr or sp implies expansion or unfolding; as in spread, sprawl, sprinkle, sprout, and spring. St implies firmness; as in stout, stand, stool, stump, stay, stiff, strut, stronq, and stack. A sceptre indicates royalty; a sword, a soldier, or war; a sail, a ship; and a head, the ox that wears it. There are many beautiful analogies in derivation, of which the following are specimens: Crack, crackle; crumb, crumble; curd, curdle; fond, fondle; game, gam. hie; grim or grum, grumble; nest, nestle; rank, rankle; roam, ramble; rough, ruffle; set, settle; shove, shovel, shliWle; spark, sparkle; stray, straggle; stride, straddle; throat, throttle; wade, waddle; wink, twinkle; writhe, wriqqle. Bind, bundle; gird, girdle; hand, handle; lade, ladle; seat, saddle; shoot, shuttle; spin, spindle; steep, steeple; thumb, thimble. Beat, batter; spit, sputter, spatter; pest, pester; blow, bluster; climb, clamber; gleam, glimmer; shine, shimmer; gloss, glisten; wend, wander; long, linger; hang, Aanker; whine, whimper. (The foregoing examples show that a derivative word is sometimes a diminutive, afrequentative, or an augmentative of its primitive; that is, it may imply a lessening, a frequency, or an increase, in regard to the meaning of the primitive. And then, generally speaking, the stronger the sound, the stronger the meaning.) Joined, joint; feigned, feint; waned, want; weighed, weight; cleaved, cleft; thieved, theft; drived, drift; gived, gift; waved, waft; deserved, desert; haved, haft; held, hilt; skim, scum; deem, doom. Healeth, health; stealeth, stealth; groweth, growthl; brcwcth, broth; gird ETYMOLOGY. 69 eth, girth; smiteth, smith. (" The smith that smiteth at the fire." — Verstegan.) Deep, depth; long, length; strong, strength; young, youth; merry, mirth; wide, width; slow, sloth. Bake, batch; wake, watch; make, match; break, breach; speak, speech; seek, beseech; stick, stitch; nick, niche, notch; drink, drench; crook, crouch; stark, starch. There is often a shortening in spelling or pronunciation:Grain, granalry; c'ave, cavity; maintain, maintenance, please, pleasant; zeal, zealous; sheep, shepherd; feet, fetlock; hind, hinder; spleen, splenetic; prime, primner; crime, criminal; goose, g9sling; sour, sirly; boor, burly; south, southern. The changes which words undergo, are such as tend to produce greater musical variety. There is ever a tendency, too, in derivation, to hold to some fundamental parts or analogies. Hence the Saxon prefix ge has in some of our words run into a, as in arise and awake; and the Saxon lifladu, life-leading, has become livelihood. People are thus sometimes misled. Asparagus is often improperly called sparrow-grass; and we often hear the improper forms preventative, maintainance,. proposial, and moa.ntain'eous, for the words preventive, maintenance, proposal, and nmounftaitous. Lllaguage not only exists, but lives, grows, and decays. It is not a dead mechanism, but a living organism. Words, and modes of expression, are constantly coming into use; others, passing out of use; and others, assuming hew burdens of meaning, and probably losing the old. An old writer speaks of-a "polite surface" (polished surface), and of "resenting a favor" (re-fieling it, or reflecting upon it with gratitude). Our expressive words bulk, dose, opiate, ponderous, caress, thrill, grisly, tissue, and plumage, were all denounced, at different times, either as being newfangled or as being obsolete. Words become respectable or otherwise, according to the use made of them; but it is remarkable that they nearly always pass from good meanings to bad ones, and very seldom the other way. The word knave once denoted simply a lad; but as lads frequently became pages, attendants, or servants to persons of consequence, the word was gradually applied to attendants or servants; and as these were sometimes dishonest or not deemed respectable, the word gradually acquired its present meaning. The good, substantial gentlewomen of the olden times have been superseded by those who are all flattered, by the gentlemen, into ladies (wives or daughters of lords); and yet even this word will soon cease to be respectable if it should be frequently applied as in the following instance: " Stolen by a lady, from a little girl, a cashmere shawl," etc., etc. - Newspaper Aderltiscment. PART III. WO1RDS GRA 1VM:MATICALLE COMBINELD. PARTS OF SPEECH. 3EMTYMtMOLOG-Y ArND SYNSTA.X. 157. A Part of Speech is a class of words, made according to their use and meaning in sentences. By synecdoche, the term part of speech is often applied to a single word. 158. The English language has nine PARTS OF SPEECH; Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. The nouns, pronouns, and verbs, are the chief classes; and next to them rank the adjectives and the adverbs. These five classes have, to some extent, what are called inflections; that is, they are sometimes changed in form to express a modification in the idea. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.* Classification. ocuns. Proper.[ Masculine, Nouns. Common; GENDER. Feminine, Common, including Neuter. Collective, First, Abstract, PERSON. Second, Verbal. Properties. Third. ~Y81Personal, Nu~IBm:. { Singular, Personal, NUMBE.R. Plural. Pro- Relative, Nominative, nouns.1 IInterrogative,. CASE. Possessive, 1 Adjective. Objective. * Nouns and Pronouns are sometimes called Sub'stantives. NOUNS AND PBONOUNS. 71 NOUNS. 159. A Noun is a name. Ex. -Martha, Columbus, river, wind, farm, farmer. 160. Sometimes a phrase is used as a noun. Ex.- New York; Sir Walter Scott; Ienry the Eighth; Duke of Marlborough. " Toward the earth's centre is down." 161. Sometimes a clause is used as a noun. Ex. -" That the war must soon end, is plain." (What is plain?) " I will see whether the fire is burning." (See what?) " It is certain that he will go." (What is certain?) 162. Sometimes a word from another part of speech, or a mere sign, is used as a noun. Ex. -" The proudest she in Christendom." - Shakespeare. "The why is plain as way to parish church."- Id. " The signs —,, X, and -." Robinson. CLASSES OF NOUNS. 163. Nouns are divided into two classes, -proper and common; and the common nouns include, as a part of their number, collective nouns, abstract nouns, and verbal nouns. 1i4 A Proper oun is a name that distinguishes a particular one from the rest of a class. Ex. -Mary, Henry, Boston, Connecticut; the Iliad. 3lary is a proper noun, because it is a name that distinguishes a particular girl or woman from others. 165 When a proper noun assumes meaning, or implies other objects that have the same name, it becomes a common noun. Ex. -" Bolivar was the Washington of South America." (Great general and patriot.) " Some mute, inglorious Milton here may 72 ENGLISH GRAMMALR. rest." (Great poet.) "I saw the Russians, and also a Turk and several Persians, at the Astor House." Plural nouns that begin with capital letters, and distinguish groups as singular proper nouns distinguish individuals, should be considered proper nouns. Hence "the Azores," "the Cherokees," "the MIessrs. Harris," denoting each the whole of a group, are proper nouns. 166. A Common Noun is a name common to all of the same kind or class. Ex. - Girl, boy, city, river, mountain, man, horse. Girl is a common noun, because it is a name that is common, or can be applied, to any one of a certain class of females. 167. When a common noun denotes an object in the sense of a proper noun, it becomes a proper noun. Ex. - The Common; INiagara Falls. " Come, gentle Spring." Sometimes there is no class, or but one object to be denoted by a proper noun or a common noun. When this is the case, the proper noun simply denotes the object; as, God: while the common noun denotes the object, and also shows what it is; as, earth, sky, truth. 168. A Collective Noun is a name that denotes, in the singular form, more than one object of the same kind. Ex.- Family, army, swarm, class, congregation. 169. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an action, or some other attribute. Abstract means drawn, from. The words goodness, virtue, hope, wisdom, motion, rest, peace, and industry, are abstract nouns; because they are not the names of objects that exist by themselves, but the names of qualities, actions, or states, belonging to objects, or of notions that we form in regard to them. 17Bt A Verbal Noun is a participle or an infinitive used as a noun. Verbal nouns belong to abstract nouns. IEx.-" To climb is generally difficult." " The boy hurt himself by climbing a tree." (The teacher should give the pupil some idea of what a participle or an infinitive is.) A participle, used as a noun, is sometimes called a participial noun. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 73.4 noun, and why; whetler proper, common, or collective, and why: - Boy, George, day, Saturday, month, September, flock, tribe, holiday, Christmas, island, Cuba, nations, city, Boston, people, multitude, river, Hudson, party, Azores, ashes. PRO NOUNS. 171. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. Ex. -" The father and his son cultivated the farm which I they had purchased"; i. e., The father and the father's son cultivated the farm whichffarm the father and the father's son had purchased. 172. Pronouns enable us to avoid clumsy expressions, and especially the disagreeable repetition of nouns. 1X73. The word, phrase, or clause, which a pronoun represents, is called its antece'dent. Ex.'- James saw his mistake." James is the antecedent of his. " lie who is well, undervalues health." He is the antecedent of who. "I wished to call him back; but it was impossible." " He sold his farm; and now he regrets it." Sometimes the antecedent follows the pronoun; as, " And there her brood the partridge led." - Bryant. 174. When a pronoun has a modified antecedent, it represents it with all its modifications. Ex. -" The largest tree of the grove spread its shade over us." Here its represents not tree merely, but the largest tree of the grove. i75. The antecedent of a pronoun is sometimes omitted. Ex. " There are, who, deaf to mad Ambition's call, Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame." - Supply those, or those persons, after are. [Beattie. 17G. The pronoun is sometimes omitted. Ex. -" The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Hlad he thy reason, would Ihe skip and play?" - Pope. Supply which after lamb. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 177. PuRONOU, N may be divided into four classes; personal, relative, interrogative, and acdjective. 4 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Personal Pronouns. 178. A Personal Pronoun is one of those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical persons. Ex. - "I saw you and him." I means the speaker; you, the person spoken to; and him, the person spoken of. 179. The chief personal pronouns are I, thou or you, he, she, and it. For their declined forms and their compounds, see p. 103. 180, You, your, yours, and yourself, are now preferred in common usage to thou, thy, thine, thee, etc. 181. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, are ancient and solemn forms. Hence they are still used, 1. In the Bible. Ex. " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor." 2. In prayers or other addresses to the Deity. Ex. -' Thou Almighty Ruler, hallowed be thy name! " Prayer. 3. Frequently, in poetry. Ex. -" Thou art not false, but thou art fickle."-Byron. 182. Ours, yours, hers, theirs, and generally mine and thine, are respectively equivalent to our, your, her, etc., and the name of the object possessed. These two words should be parsed in stead of the other word. Ex. -"Ie ate his apple, you ate yours [your apple], and I ate mine" [my apple]. Yours is not governed by a noun understood, for the noun could not be put after it; but it is equivalent to your and a noun. See p. 103. 183. Before vowel sounds or the letter h, mine and thine are sometimes preferred, in the solemn or poetic style, to my and thy. Ex. —, All mine iniquities." — Bible. "' Tine altar." - Whittier. " Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow." - Byron. So, formerly, none to no. " Thou shalt have none other gods before me." - Bible. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 75 184. It sometimes denotes merely the state or condition of things, or a point of time. Ex. - It rains. It thunders. It is 12 o'clock. "'T was moonlight on the Persian Sea." - Mloore. 185. It sometimes introduces a sentence, and is explained by a following word, phrase, or clause. Ex.- It is he. It is she. It was they. It is mean to take advanage of another's distress. It is perfectly plain that a straight line must be the shortest distance between two points. It, in all the foregoing examples, has no antecedent. 1i86 A Compound Personal Pronoun is a word consisting, in the singular number, of mny, thy, your, him, her, or it, compounded with self; in the plural, of our, your, or them, compounded with selves. Ex. — Myself, yourself, himself; ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 187. These pronouns are used in two senses: 1. For emphatic distinction. Ex. - " He himself said so"; i. e., no other person said so. 2. In a reflexive sense. Ex. - " He hurt himself" "Said I to myself, I am myself again." That is, the act or state of the person terminates upon himself. Relative Pronouns. 188. A Relative Pronoun is'a pronoun that generally stands in close relation to an antecedent, and joins to it a descriptive clause. Ex. —' The fur which warms the monarch, warmed a bear." " Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." — Young. " Spirit that breathest through my lattice." - Bryant. tWhich means the fur; and which warms the monarch tells what fur. Who relates to they; and its clause describes the persons meant by they. 189. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, and as, with their declined forms and their compounds, 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 190. Who is applied to persons, and to other objects when regarded as persons. Ex. -" The man who feels truly noble, will become so." — Chapin. "Now a faint tick was heard below, from the Pendulum, who thus spoke." - Jane Taylor. W. "'The son of Esrom, which was the son of Seth."- Bible. 191. Which is applied to things, and to all animals inferior to man. Ex. - The rose which; the horse which; the army which. W. The lion who had killed the man, was shot the next day. A group of persons regarded as one whole, and denoted by a collective noun, becomes a thing, and who should not be applied to it; as, " He instructed and fed the crowds which [not who] surrounded him." 192. What is used in place of thing which or things which, and it has therefore no antecedent. Ex. - "I will take what [the things which] you send." 193. That is preferred to who and which in the following instances: - 1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and other objects. Ex. - The ship and passengers that were lost at sea. W. Was it the wind, or you, who shut the door? 2. Generally when a more specific or restrictive relative than who or which is needed. Ex. -" In thoughts that breathe, and words that burn."- Gray. "Riches that are ill got, are seldom enjoyed." -Johnson. That is, not all riches, but only those which are ill got. W. Adjectives which express number are called numerals. 3. After the superlative degree, when the sense is restrictive. Ex. - This is the hardest lesson that we have yet had. W. I was the first one who came to school this morning. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 77 4. After who, used as an antecedent. Ex. Who that respects himself, would tell a lie? 5. After same. Ex. - It is the same star that we saw last night. W. These are the same sums which we had yesterday. 6. Generally, after no, all, any, each, every, some, or very. Ex. -" And all that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave." — Gray. W. No man who knows him, would trust him. 7. Frequently, after personal pronouns, or after predicate-nominatives referring to it. Ex. - " Fall he that must." - Pope. But, " His praise is lost who waits till all commend." -Id. " It is not grief that bids me moan." 8. Generally, where who or which would seem less proper. Ex. - " A little child that lightly draws its breath." -Wordsworth. "A woman who had a daughter that was very beautiful." "A woman that had a daughter who was very beautiful." 194. The relative that does not allow a preposition to stand immediately before it; and hence whom or which must be used after a preposition, or the arrangement of the words must be varied. Ex. -" He is the same man with whom I came"; or, " He is the same man that I came with." 195. Which and that have no possessive form of their own; and hence they sometimes borrow whose, the possessive of who. Ex. - " The undiscovered country, from whose bourn [from the boundary of which] no traveler returns." - Shakespeare. 196. As is a relative pronoun when it follows such, many, or same, and relates to the objects thus specified. Ex. -He has such friends as every one should wish to have. As is also generally a relative pronoun after as much. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 197. A Compound Relative Pronoun is who, which, or what, with ever or soever annexed to it. Ex.- I will take whatever you send. A compound relative pronoun is generally a little more emphatic or comprehensive than the simple one; and it dispenses with the antecedent when this is indefinite. The indefinite ever or soever partly represents the antecedent, by being a sort of substitute for the indefinite adjective before it; and hence, when the antecedent is expressed or supplied, the ever or soever must generally be omitted. Ex.-" Whoever [he who] cares not for others, should not expect their favors." - " The Gaul offered his own head to whoever [any person who] would bring him that of Nero." - Gibbon. Interrogative Pronouns. B9~8 An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question. Ex. - Who came with you? Which is he? Interrogative pronouns have no antecedents; but the noun or pronoun which is given in answer to the interrogative pronoun, is sometimes called the subsequent; as, " Who came with you?- John." "An interrogative pronoun is a relative in search of an antecedent." - Phil. Museum. 99. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what, with their declined forms. All these pronouns can be applied to either persons or things, except who, which is applicable to persons only. 200. Who inquires for the name of a person; but, when the name is given, for some description. Ex. - "Who is he? " kWirt. " Who was Blennerhasset?" - Id. 201, Which generally supposes the name known; and it is applied to persons or things, in asking for a particular one of two or more. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 79 Ex. -" Which is Shylock?" - Shakespeare. " VWhich is yours?" In this sense, whether was formerly used in asking for one of two; as, " Vhether of the twain? "- Spenser. " Whether is greater, the gold or the temple? " - Bible. 2 2, What asks for the kind of thing; and hence, sometimes, for the character or occupation. EIx. - "TWhat can ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards? Alas! not all the blood of all the Howards." - Pope. "What art thou? "- Milton. " TWhat is he? " 203. An interrogative pronoun is sometimes used in a responsive sense; and it may then be called a responsive pronoun, or an indirect interrogative pronoun. " Who is he?- I know not who he is." "Which is it? -I can not tell which it is." "What is truth?" Tell me what truth is." - See p. 222. Observe the difference: "Who went?" (What person.) Interrogative pronoun. "I do not know who went." (What person.) Responsive pronoun. " I do not know the person who went." Relative pronoun. Adjective Pronouns. 204. An Adjective Pronoun is a common specifying adjective used as a pronoun. Common specifying adjectives are such as this, that, each, any, some, such, all, etc. Ex. -" The new ones [edifices] are larger." - Addison. " Such men as one [a person] sometimes meets with." - Taylor. 4 By others' faults, wise men correct their own." - Proverb. " Where either's fall determines both their fates." - Goldsmith. "It was the latter, not the former, that was in danger." -Benton. " The age of chivalry is gone; that [the age] of," etc. - Burke. Virtue and vice are before you; this leads to misery, that to peace." Some put the bliss in action, some in ease: Those call it pleasure; and contentment, these." - Pope. " They deemed each other oracles of law." - Pope. " Husbands and wives are continually complaining of each other."" Bear ye one another's burdens." -Bible. [Johnson. Adjective pronouns frequently have no antecedents. 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 205, ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS may be divided into four classes; distrib'utive, demon'strative, indefinite, and reciprocal. 296. The distributive pronouns are each, either, and neither. They relate to objects taken singly. Every, used as a pronoun, is nearly obsolete. 207. The demonstrative pronouns are this, these, that, those, same, former, and latter. They point out objects definitely. 208, The indefinite pronouns are one, ones, other, others, amy, some, such, all, both, and none. They relate to objects indefinitely. A few other adjectives may occasionally be called indefinite pronouns. 209. The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They imply a reciprocal action or relation. Each other and one another can generally be parsed in a different way. - See p. 100. 210. Either, neither, and each other, should be used in speaking of two only; one another, in speaking of more. For correct examples, see the preceding page. W. Either of the eight Professors. (Any one.) The two Smiths are not related to one another. Pupils should be polite to each other. - N. Webster. 211 When this and that are used in speaking of two, that should be applied to the more distant, the first-mentioned, or the absent; this, to the nearer, the last-mentioned, or the present. T7iepronouns, and why; personal, relative, interrogative, or adjective, and why:I will go with you and him to see them. It was the owner himself who killed the dog which bit us. Who knows who he is? Some are lazy, and others stupid. "Why is my sleep disquieted? Who is he that calls the dead? " Byron. That is a relative pronoun when who, whon, or which can be put in its place, without destroying the sense. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 81 PROPERTIES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 212. NOUNS and PRONOUNS have gender, person, number, and case. 213. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in gender, person, and number. Ex. - " John met his mother." His is of the same gender, person, and number as John. W. Every one should attend to their own business. GE N D E R, 214. Gender is that property of nouns ana pronouns which distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 215. There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter. 216. A noun or pronoun is of the masculine gender, when it denotes a male. Boy. 217. A noun or pronoun is of the feminine gender, when it denotes a female. Girl. 218. A noun or pronoun is of the common gender, when it denotes either a male or a female. Child. 219. A noun or pronoun is of the neuter gender, when. it denotes neither a male nor a female. Book. The sex of an object denoted by a word of the common gender sometimes becomes more definitely known from some other word, and the words should then be parsed accordingly; as, " The child and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine, as shown by his. 229. For the sake of brevity, nouns that are strictly masculine or feminine only, are sometimes applied to both sexes. The masculine term is generally preferred. Ex.-" Horses are fond of green pastures"; i. e., horses, and mares too. "The Jests are scattered over the whole world." " We saw geese and ducks." " The poets of England." 4- y 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. But in connection with a proper noun, only the appropriate term will harmonize in sense; as, "The poet Homer." " The poetess Sappho." 221, On the same principle, the masculine pronoun is sometimes preferred to the feminine, or used for both. Ex. —Every person should try to improve his mind. W. "Almost everybody has their faults." — Chapin. 222. Sometimes animals are regarded as male or female," not from their sex, but from their general character. Ex. -" The lion meets his foe boldly."- Addison.' Every ant minds her own business." - Id. On the same principle, sex is sometimes disregarded when the creature is small, unimportant, or imperfectly known; as, "The child has scorched its frock." " The mouse ran back when it saw me." In such cases it would probably be best to parse both the noun and the pronoun as being of the common gender. 223. Things without life are sometimes regarded as persons, and have then a suitable sex ascribed to them. Nouns thus used are said to be masculine or feminine by personificatioon. 224. The masculine gender is preferred, if the object is noted for size, power, or domineering qualities. Ex. -" Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears! "- Rogers. The sun seemed shorn of his beams." - Milton. 225. The feminine gender is preferred, if the object is noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or submissive qualities. Ex. -" Soon Peace shall come with all her smiling train." "Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God." "The ship, with her snowy sails and flaunting banner." 226. When a collective noun is used in the plural number, or when it denotes the whole collection as one thing, it is of the neuter gender; when it is used otherwise, its gender corresponds with the sex of the individuals composing the collection. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 83 Ex. " Six families settled on this river." "Every generation has its peculiarities." " The congregation will please to retain their seats.' Personal pronouns of the first or the second person are of the common gender, unless the sex becomes more definitely known from some other word. How Gender is Expressed. 227. There are three methods of distinguishing the two sexes. 1. By different words. Masculine. Feminine, Masculine. Feminine. Bachelor, maid. Man, woman. Beau, belle. Master, mistress. Boy, girl. Master, miss. Bridegroom, bride. Mr., Mrs. Brother, sister. Monk, friar, nun. Buck, doe. Monsieur, madame. Bull, cow. Monsieur, mademoiselle. Bullock, heifer. Nephew, niece. Colt, filly. Papa, mamma. Drake, duck. Ram, buck, ewe. Earl, countess. Rooster, hen. Father, mother. Sir, madam. Gander, goose. Sire (horse), dam. Gentleman, lady. Sloven, slattern. Hart, roe. Son, daughter. He, she. Stag, hind. Horse, mare. Steer, heifer. Husband, wife. Swain, nymph. King, queen. Uncle, aunt. Lad, lass. Wizard, witch. Lord, lady. Youth, maiden, damsel. Male, female. Charles, Caroline. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. By different endings. Most nouns of this class denote rank or occupation; and the feminine generally ends with ess or trix. Ex. - Abbot, abbess; governor, governess. Add Ess: Baron, count, viscount, dauphin, deacon, diviner, giant, god (see p. 50), heir, hermit, host, Jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prince (see p. 51), prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, author. C]ange RER into RESS: Adulterer, adventurer, caterer, murderer, sorcerer. Change TER or TOR into TRESS, and DER into DRESS: Actor, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, enchanter, conductor, embassador, elector, founder, huckster, hunter, idolater, inventor, instructor, Mister, painter, porter, protector, proprietor, teamster, songster, traitor, victor, waiter, auditor, editor, orator. Chlange TOR into TRIX: Administrator, executor, testator. Change TOR into TRESS or' TRIX: Director, mediator, spectator. WORDS NOT SO REGULAR. Mlasculine. Feminine. Mlasculine. Feminine. Emperor, empress arave, argrave, margraine. Tiger, tigress. Joseph, Josephine. Negro, negress. Paul, Pauline. Votary, votaress. Goodman, goody. Duke, duchess. Widower, widow. Marquis, marchioness. Don, donna. Anchoret, ) anch Infant, infanta. Anchorite, ) Signor, signora. Doctor, doctoress, Suta, sultana, doctress. sultaness. Tutor, f tutoress, Tzar, tza:i'na. tutress. Augustus, Augus'a. Hero, her'oine. Cornelius, Cornelia. Landgrave, landgravine. Louis, Loui'sa, -ise'. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 85 John, Joanna. Jesse, Jessie. Henry, Henrietta. Frank, I Fracs Julius, Julia, Juliet. Francis, Words derived or compounded from others, usually express gender in the same way. Archduke, archduchess. Grandfatler, grandmother. Landlord, landlacdy. Stepson, stepdaughter. Schoolmaster, schoolmistress. Peacock, peahen. 3. By using a distinguishing word. Bear, he-bear, she-bear. Cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow, Goat, he-goat, she-goat. Male descendants, female descendants. Servant, man-servant, maid-servant. ir. Reynolds, As. Reynold, Rabbit, buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit.' tMliss Reynolds. Some masculine terms have rarely or never corresponding feminines, as baker, brewer, lawyer; and some feminine terms have rarely or never corresponding masculines, as laundress, coquet, hag. The gender, and wlhy: — Person, corpse, corps, spirit, angel, they, 1, hers, game, clergy, party, nations. John is a noun, and she is a pronoun. PERSON. 228. Person is that property of words which shows whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 229. There are three persons; the first, the second, and the third. 230. A noun or pronoun is of the first person, when,it denotes the speaker.'1I Paul have written it." 231. A noun or pronoun is of the second person, when it denotes the person spoken to. "Paul, thou hast written it." 232. A noun or pronoun is of the third person, when 86 ENGLISH GRAUIMAR. it denotes the person or thing spoken of. "Paul has written it." 233. The third person is sometimes elegantly used for the first or second. Ex. — " The king is always willing to listen to the just complaints of his subjects "; for, "I am always willing," etc. "Surely, my mother does not mean to marry me to such an old miser"; for, "Surely, mother, you do not," etc. When inanimate objects are addressed, they are of course personified, or regarded as persons; as, " O Liberty! what crimes are committed in thy name l" - Madame Roland. When a noun comes after a verb and explains the nominative, it is of the third person, though the nominative may be of the first or second person; as, " I am the sheriff." (I am he.) " You are heroes." The nouns and pronouns, and why; of what person, and why:You will find that many evils beset us mortals. I said to him, Well, my little friend, how fare the school-boys? Change into the other persons: - John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. Shall Hannibal compare himself with this half-year captain? NUMBER. 234, Number is that property of words which shows whether one object is meant, or more than one. 235. There are two numbers; the singular and the plural. 236. A noun or pronoun is of the singular number, when it denotes but one object. Tree, she. 237. A noun or pronoun is of the plural number, when it denotes more objects than one. Trees, they. 238. A proper noun is made plural, when it is needed to denote a family, race, or group, or two or more individuals of the same name or character. E.. - The Dixons; the Cherokees; the Azores; the twelve Cxsars. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 87 239. The names of qualities, states, actions, substances, arts, sciences, and diseases, when the reference is to the kind of tling, are generally used in the singular number only. Ex.- Pride, peace, business, gold, grammar, painting, fever. 240. But such words may become plural,1. When different kinds are meant. Ex. - Teas, fevers. "The nationalities and religions of the world." — Chapin. 2. When things are meant that have the property or substance, or consist of parts. Ex.- Curiosities, marbles, paintings, proceedings. "The heights around the city." - Gen. Scott. " I had only a few coppers left."Franklin. " I heard the waters roar down the cataract." - Addison. 241. Some nouns are always plural, especially the names of things consisting of two or many parts, Aborig'ines Eaves Mat'ins Stairs Annals Embers Nuptials Statist'ics Antip'odes Entrails Nippers Stilts Ar'chives Goggles Oats Suds Ashes Hatches Paraphernalia Thanks As'sets Head'-quarters Pinchers Teens Belles-let'tres Hose Ple'iads Tongs Billiards Hyster'ics Regalia Tidings Bitters Ides Riches Trousers Breeches Lees Remains Tweezers Cattle Litera'ti Scissors Victuals Clothes Lungs Shears Vitals Dregs 3lamma'lia Snuffers Withers. To the foregoing list belong a few more words less common; also most of the scientific family names of animals and plants. Some nouns, that have the singular, have acquired a plural that differs from it in meaning. Plurals of this kind also belong to the list above. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ex. - Arms, weapons; colors, banner; compasses, dividers; dividers, an instrument; drawers, an article of clothing; goods, merchandise; greens, young leaves for cooking; grounds, dregs; letters, literature; manners, behavior; morals, morality; shambles, meat-market; spectacles, glasses; stays, a corset; vespers, evening hymn. 242. Sometimes such a word may be used in the singular number, to denote a part or an individual. Ex. -" The left lung was diseased." - Dr. Rush. " A mainmal." - Goldsmith. "A valuable statistic."- Census. 243. Some nouns have the same form for either number. Deer, Series News Mathematics Sheep Species Alms Politics Swine Corps Odds Physics Vermin Appara'tus Amends Metaphysics Grouse Bellows Wages Mechanics Head (cattle) Gallows Pains (care) Glanders Sail (ships) Means Ethics Measles, etc. It seems to us that all names of a plural form that denote sciences or diseases, should be classed under this head. News, though analogous to goods and odds, seems to be now used in the singular number only. Wages and pains are generally plural. Corps is pronounced kore in the singular number, and kores in the plural. A word of the foregoing class, especially if applied to a science or a disease, often denotes what is singular in its essence but plural in its manifestations; and whether the word should be considered singular or plural, will therefore depend on our conception of the thing. 244. Some nouns of number, preceded by a numeral, and some nouns denoting small animals or other objects regarded as to their nature or in mass, are also often used in the singular form to express either number. Ex. -" Twenty pair of eyes." - Shakespeare. "Three score and ten." - Bible. So, brace, dozen, yoke. "This creek abounds in trout and perch." - Exploring Expedition. " The foe! they come; they come." - Byron. Foot and horse, meaning troops, are thus often used in a plural sense; and sometimes cannon and shot are thus used. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 89 But the plural forms of most such nouns are also used, especially when the word implies number or individuals rather than kind or quantity. Ex. —" Trouts and salmons swim against the stream." -Bacon. "As pilchards are to herrings." — Shakespeare. "By scores and dozens." Id. It seems, indeed, that some nouns, such as fish and fowl, have two plurals; a regular one, denoting individuals or kinds, and a collective one, denoting the kind of thing, in which the word remains unchanged as in the case of collective nouns. 245. A collective noun is singular, when the entire collection is regarded as one thing. Ex. - The army was large. 246. A collective noun is plural, when it refers to the individuals composing the collection. Ex. - Most people are too solicitous about the future. 247. A collective noun is plural, when it has the plural form. Ex. - The armies were large. How the Plural Number is Expressed, 248. Most nouns are made plural, by adding s to the singular. Ex.- Book, books; chimney, chimneys; nation, nations. 249. Nouns that end with s, x, z, sh, or soft ch; and nouns that end with i, o, u, or y, preceded each by a consonant, - are made plural by adding es to the singular. Ex.- Glass, glasses; fox, foxes; topaz, topazes; bush, bushes; church, churches; alkali, alkalies; negro, negroes; gnu, gnues; story, stories. (Y is changed to i. See p. 50.) 250. When a vowel precedes final o or y, s only is an-:nexed; as, folio, folios; monkey, monkeys. 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2510 Proper nouns, foreign nouns, and unusual nouns, to prevent the liability of mistaking them, are varied as little as possible; and hence they merely assume s, or es when s will not coalesce in sound. Ex. —Denny, the Dennys; Dennie, the Dennies; Peri, Peris; canto, cantos; "several tos" [or to's]; the two Miss Foots. But, Jones, the Joneses; Fox, the Foxes. When words of these classes are so familiarly known as to be easily recognized in almost any form, they are often made plural like ordinary nouns; as, Henry, Henries; Nero, Neroes; no, noes. Owing to their foreign tinge, we still find in good use cantos, duodecimos, fjndangos, frescos, grottos, halos, hidalgos, juntos, lassos, mementos, octavos, pianos, porticos, quartos, salvos, solos, tyros, zeros, in stead of cantoes, grottoes, etc., which are also coming into use. 252. The following nouns change the ending into ves: - Beef, beeves. Life, lives. Wife, wives. Calf, calves. Loaf, loaves. Wolf, wolves. Elf, elves. Self, selves. af wharfs, Half halves. Sheaf, sheaves. W wharves. Knife, knives. Shelf, shelves. Staff staves (sticks), Leaf, leaves. Thief, thieves.'. staffs (officers). Staff always makes staffs in compounds; as, flagstaff, flagstaffs. 253. For forming the plural of some words, no general rule can be given; and they are therefore said to be irregular. Man, men. Goose, geese. I, we. Woman, women. Tooth, teeth. Thou, ye. Child, children. Mouse, mice. He, she, or it, they. Ox, oxen. Louse, lice. This, these. Foot, feet. Cow, cows, kine. That, those. The words ending with man, that are not compounds of man, are NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 91 regular, or take s; as, German, Germans; talisman, talismans; Mussulman, 3Mussulmans. 25i. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular plural, but with a difference in meaning. Brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society). Die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (small cubes for gaming). Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species). Genius, geniuses (men of genius), ge'nii (spirits). Index, in'cexes (tables of contents), in'dices (algebraic signs). Penny, pennies (pieces of money), pence (how much in value). Brothers is sometimes used in the sense of brethren, probably as a more affectionate term. 255. Most compound words are expressed in the plural number, by making plural only that part of the word which is described by the rest. Mouse-trap, mouse-traps. Brother-in-law, brothers-in-law. Cupful, cupfuls. Sister-in-law, sisters-in-law. Spoonful, spoonfuls. Billet-doux. billets-doux. Wagon-load, wagon-loads. Court-martial, courts-martial. Ox-cart, ox-carts. Aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp. 25g. The pluralized part of a compound word is made plural in the same way as if it stood alone. Ex. - Horseman, horsemen; dormouse, dormice; hanger-on, hangers-on. 257. When a compound word is a foreign term or other phrase, of which the descriptive part is not very obvious, the whole term generally takes the regular plural ending. Piano-forte, piano-fortes. Tete-a-tete, tete-a-tetes. Camera-obscura, camera-obscuras. Ipse-dixit, ipse-dixits. Port-monnatie, port-monnaies. Jack-a-lantern, Jack-a-lanterns. 258. A few terms have both parts made plural. Man-servant, men-servants. Ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. Woman-servant, women-servants. Knight Templar, Knights Templars. 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 259, When the title Mri., Miss, or Dr., is used with a name, the whole term is made plural by making plural the title only. Ex. - Mr. Harper, Messrs. IHarper; Miss Brown, the Misses Brown; Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee; Messrs. John and James Morton; Misses Julia and Alice Clark. 260. When the title is Mrs., or when the word two, three, etc., stands before the title, the latter noun is made plural. Ex.- "The Mrs. Barlows." -Irving. "The two Miss Scotts had been gathering flowers." - Id. Other terms, consisting of names and titles, follow sometimes one analogy, and sometimes the other. "From Dutchesses and Lady Maries." — Pope. " I went to the Ladies Butler." — Swift. " May there be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science." — Watts. 261 Words adopted from other languages usually retain their foreign plurals in our language. Some, however, take the English plural only; some, the foreign; and some, either. No certain rule can be given for forming such plurals, but the following rules may be of some assistance: — 1. The ending a is changed to ce or ata. 2. The ending us is changed to i. 3. The ending um or on is changed to a. 4. The ending is is changed to cs or ides. 5. The ending x or ex is changed to ces or ices. R means that the word before it nas also the regular English plural. Change final A to ae:- Fibtula Minu'tia A to ata:Alumtna Formtula, R. Neb'ula Dogma, R. (alumnce) Lam'ina Sco'ria (dogmas, dogmata) Aretna, R. Lartva Sim'ia Stigma, R. Cica'da, R. Mac'ula Ver'tebra Mias'ma NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 93 Us to i:- Fulcrum, R. Phasis LESS REGULAR. Alum'nus Gymnalsium, R. Praxis Beau, R. (alumni) Ierba'rium, R. Synop/sis beau. Cal'culus Me'dium, R. Syn'thesis Bandit, Echi'nus Memoran'dum, R. Thesis bancitt Focus R. ~Mentstruum, R. b Fungus, R. Momen'tum, R. Is to ides: Chel'ub, R., HippopotamusR.Pahelion Aphis cher'ublm. Ma'gus Perihe'lion (aphlides) Gelnus, Nau'tilus, R. Phenom'enon Apsis genera. Nu'cleus, R. Rostrum, R. Can'tharis Ilialtus, R., Pol'ypus, R. Scho'lium, R. Chrys'alis hiatus. Ra'dius, R. Spectrum, R. Epllemhcris Lar'ynx, R. Sarcoph'agus Spec'ulum, R. Epider'mis larynles. Stim'ulus Stratum, R. Iris, R. Ter'minus Trape'zium, R. Probostcis Aesdanes. Tu'mulus Vin'culum, R. Is to es - to ces:- Monsieur, Messieurs. Um or on to a: Amanuensis Appendix, R. Animaltculum (amanuenses) (appen'lixes, Mr. (animalcule) Analtysis appendices) sss. Apheflion, Antith'esis Calx, R. Iha'lanx, R., Aqualrium, R. Axis Ca'lyx, R. phaila'ges. Arcalnum Basis Cicattrix, R. Ser'aph, R, Autom'aton, R. Crisis IIe'lix, R. serlaphim. Corrigen'dum Diertesis Mattrix, R. Sta'men, R. Crite'rion, R. Ditesis Ra'dix, R. stamnina. Datum Ellip'sis, Desidera'tum Em'phasis to ices: Vro, vertiltiles. Efflluvium Hypothtesis Apex, r. Ephemreron Metamortphosis (alpexes, ap'ices) Virtuo'so, Encotmium, R. O'asis Vertex, I. virtuosos, virteosi. Erra'tum Paren'thesis Vortex,. virtuos The English plurals of the foregoing words are generally pre. ferred in familiar language; and the foreign, in scientific. 262. Letters, figures, and other characters, are made plural by annexing's. Ex.-'" The a's and n's in the first line." "By 5's and 7's." "What mean those's and 3's?" The apostrophe is used to pre 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. vent ambiguity; thus, " Cross your t's and dot your i's," is not the same as " Cross your ts and dot your is." 5s might mean 5 shillings or five times s. Numbers of Pronouns. 263.. In editorials, speeches, and proclamations, we, our, us, etc., are frequently used to denote apparently but one. Ex. -" We believe that the war can not last much longer." London Times. This manner of speaking gives generally an air of modesty or authority to the assertion; the speaker seeming to deliver his own sentiments as if they were also entertained or could be enforced by others as well as by himself. To the foregoing manner of speaking, ourself is peculiarly adapted, and it is sometimes used accordingly. " What then remains? Ourself." - POPE's Goddess of Dullness. 264. You, your, and yours, are now singular as well as plural; but yourself is strictly singular. 265. What, in close connection with a plural, is sometimes used in the plural number. Ex. - "We were now at the mercy of what are called guerillas." 26g. None (no-one) is used in either the singular or the plural number. Ex. - "None is good save One." - Bible. " None are completely happy." -Blair. 267. Relative, interrogative, and some adjective pronouns, have the same form for both, numbers; and most other pronouns are irregular. For the analogies which most pronouns follow, see paragraphs 243 and 253. The number, and why: Rose, roses, molasses, ashes, family, families, I, we, him, them, two, a two, a pair, two pair, memoranda, miasma, cherubim, optics, commanders-in-chief, orang-outangs. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 95 Spell the plural of the following words:Sofa, larva, house, mouse, feather-bed, booth, tooth, ox, box, root, foot, turf, wolf, genus, genius, isthmus, trio, cargo, valley, Tully, alley, ally, trellis, ellipsis, Mr. Jones, Mrs. Jones. CASE. 268. Case is that property of nouns and pronouns which shows how they are used in the construction of sentences. 26. There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Nominative Case. 270. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, when it is the subject of a predicate-verb. That is, when an act or state is predicated of it. -See page 5. Ex.-" John struck James." (Who struck James?) "The rose is beautiful." (What is beautiful?) " Ie came after I left." W. Him and me went to school together. - See p. 103. 271. A noun or pronoun is also in the nominative case, when it is used independently or absolutely. 272. A noun or pronoun is used independently, - 1. By direct address. " Jolmn, your father is here." 2. By exclamation. "Alas, poor Yorick!" 3. By pleonasm or specification. " lie that hath ears, let him hear." " Worcester's Dictionary, Unabridged." To this last head belong inscriptions, and generally those nouns which are used merely to name objects. - See p. 100. 273. A noun or pronoun is used absolutely, when, by some abridgment, it is set free, or absolved, from its nominative relation to a finite verb, but still remains with the participle or the infinitive. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "The house being sold, we removed." (When the house was sold, etc.) "The vanity of being a belle." (" That she was a belle.") "To become a scholar, requires exertion." ("He has become a scholar.") W. Me being sick, the business was neglected. - See p. 103. Possessive Case. 274. A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case, when it denotes possession. Ex. - John's horse. (Whose horse?) My slate. Possession may be past, or future and intended, as well as present and actual; as, " Webster's Dictionary "; " Men's boots for sale here." The former example implies origin; the latter, fitness. 275. The possessive case of nouns is formed by annexing to the name of the owner an apostrophe ('), and then the letter s. Ex.- ~Mary's slate. Burns's poems. Men's affairs. W. Henrys books. Brooks' translation. Childrens' playthings. 276. The apostrophe only is annexed to plural nouns that end with s. Ex. - The soldiers' camp. 277. The possessive s is sometimes omitted from singular nouns that end with the sound of s, when so many hissing sounds would come together as to produce unusual harshness. Ex. -" The defeat of Xerxes' army was the downfall of Persia." Rollin. A singular noun that ends with an s-sound, should generally have the apostrophe and s; as, " Dennis's Works."-Pope. "Louis's reign." - Macaulay. " Charles's affairs." — Prcscott. "For conscience' sake," " For goodness' sake," are rather idiomatic exceptions to the rule, than fair illustrations of a general principle. Possession may also be expressed by of, and sometimes by an adjective, or a noun made an adjective; hence, — NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 97 278, The meaning of the possessive case is sometimes more elegantly expressed by using of, or by making the possessive word an adjective. "The death of Socrates" is a better expression than " Socrates's death"; and "Lucas Place" is quite as intelligible as Lucas's Place." W. Essex's death. Demosthenes's orations. 27 9 The two possessive forms of such words as deer and sheep are distinguished by placing the apostrophe before the s in the singular number, and after it in the plural; as, deer's, deers'. This is a questionable rule. 280. A compound or complex term takes the possessive sign but once; generally at the end, or next to the name of what is owned. Ex.- The court-martial's decisions; the courts-martial's decisions.'"The Bishop of Landcaff's residence." " Edward veret's oration." "At fHall's, the baker." "At Hifll the baker's." Supply residence or store. W. At Smith's, the bookseller's. 281. A pair or series of nouns, implying common possession, take the possessive sign at the end, and but once. Ex. " Oakley and ]Mason's store "; i. e., the store of Oakley and Mason. 282o A pair or series of nouns, not implying common possession, or emphatically distinguished, take each the possessive sign. Ex. — " Webster's and Worcester's Dictionary"; i. e., rVebster's Dictionary and Worcester's Dictionary. "By his mother's as well as his father's advice." W. John and Mary's books. In such expressions as all the foregoing, of is sometimes preferable. 5 (-G 0~93 ~ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS. —~" A discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's" is equivalent to "A discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries." " That head of yours," however, is not equivalent to " That head of your heads"; but the expression can be parsed by considering it equivalent to " That head of your possession." - See p. 103. Objective Case. 283. A noun or pronoun is in the oljective case, when it is the object of a transitive verb or a preposition. Transitive means passing over. A transitive verb generally denotes an act that passes over from one person or thing to another; as, strike. The object of a transitive verb or a preposition is the noun or pronoun which completes its relation. Ex.-" The soldiers carried their bleeding companion to the river." (Carried whom? to what?) " Whom did you send to me?" W. Who do you want? Who did you send for? See p. 103. 284. A noun or pronoun is also in the objective case, when it is used in the sense of an adjunct. An acdjunct is a preposition with the noun or pronoun required after it to complete the sense;, as, "o01 thejioor." Ex. -" I do not care a straw." Care not how much? "The street is a mile long, and sixty feet wide." Long and wide to what extent? "He went home." Went to what place? The objectives under the latter head are simply phrases from which the preposition has been dropped; as, " He remained five days " = -He remained during five days. In many cases the preposition can be supplied: but when such an abridged mode of expression has struck root in a language, there springs up at once an idiom; and since the relation of the object to the other word is simply the known relation between the things, cases may occur in which no suitable preposition can be found, for that relation may never have been expressed by any preposition in the language. 285, There are expressions, however, obviously elliptical. Ex. -" Dr. Rush, No. 340, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Penn." To Dr. Bush, at No. 340, on Chestnut Street, in Philadelphia, in PennsylvaLia. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 99 Same Case. 286. A noun or pronoun is generally in the same case as another, when it denotes the same person or thing. Ex. -" Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, was a brave man." Cortez may be called the leading or principal term; and the other, the subordinate or explanatory term. 287. The subordinate term may be,1. An emphatic word. Brown himse7f went." 2. An explanatory word. "Brown the merchant." 3. A repeated word, repeated for emphasis or explanation. "I, I, am the man." "Company, villainous company, has been the ruin of me." 288. Under SAME CASE, two kinds of construction may be noticed; predication and apposition. 289. When an intransitive or passive verb joins the two terms, the latter is said to be predicated of the other, and may be called a predicate wnominative or substantive. Ex.-"'-Ie is Governor." "lie was elected Governor." "The world is but a stage, and all the men and women [are] merely players."- Shakespeare. " Tom struts a soldier." -Pope. " She walks a queen."-Id. W. It was me. Is it him? I knew it was her.- See p. 103. 29I. The verb declares the identity between the two terms, or shows how that identity is acquired or made known. When an infinitive or a participle joins the explanatory term to an objective term, the relation is still predication rather than apposition; but the explanatory term should then be called simply a predicate-substantive, for it is not a nominative; as, "I know it to be him." After a participle, the explanatory term is generally a predicate-nominative; as, " le, being the brother, interceded." 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 291 When no verb joins the terms, the latter term is said to be in apposition with the other, and is called an appos'itive. Ex. -" Webster, the orator and statesman, was not related to Webster the lexicographer." " At Smith's, the bookseller." "A firth, or fith." " As a statesman, HE had great ability." "IT is useless to resist." " IT-is plain that he must fail." The terms in apposition sometimes differ in form, as Smith's and bookseller above. - See p. 211. 292. Two words are also in apposition, when both are objects of a verb that produces the identity. Ex. —" They named her Mary." (She was named Mary.) " They elected him Mayor." (Hie was elected lMayor.) 293. Two or more explanatory nouns are also in apposition, when used together to denote the same person; though they may not be explanatory of each other. Ex.- Yonder lives a great scholar and statesman. 291, The explanatory term sometimes precedes the other, or the verb. Ex. -" A man he was to all the country dear." - Goldsmith. "Who is he?" He is who? ( Who asks for explanation.) 295. It is not always necessary that the explanatory term should agree with the other in any thing else than case. Ex. -" Our liberties, our greatest blessing, we shall not give up so easily." " I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame." 29g6 The whole is sometimes again mentioned by a distributive word, or by words denoting the parts; and sometimes the separate persons or things are summed up in one emphatic word denoting the whole. Ex.-" THEY bore each a banner." " The two love each [loves 1th~1 other." (See p. 80.) "Time, labor, money, all were lost." NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 101 " But those that sleep, and think not of their sins, Pinch THEM, - arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins." - Shac. 297. The explanatory termn is sometimes cut off from the other by a governing word, and may then be different in case. Ex. -Yonder is the city of St. Louis. Cases of Pronouns. 29$. The compound personal pronouns, and some other pronouns, are used only in the nominative and the objective case; and for both they have the same form. See the declension of pronouns, p. 103. 299. To express emphatic distinction in the possessive case, we use the word ouwn in stead of sef or selves. Ex. - Every man should attend to his own business. 30. ITho is declined, what is not declined, and wtvich and that borrow whose; but all the relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers. 301. What, used a3 a common relative pronoun, and sometimes other expressions of the same kind, may supply two cases. Ex. -" Take what suits you." Here what is the object of take and also the subject of suits. 302. When the form of the relative prevents it from furnishing two cases, it must take the form required for its own clause, and a suitable antecedent must be supplied for the other clause. Ex. -" Give it to whoever needs it." tWhoever can not be both objective and nominative; therefore its nominative form is preferred so as to suit the verb needs, and an antecedent is supplied for to. 102 EKNGLIsH GAiMAAn. "Give it to an?l person who [that] needs it." The ever or soever must generally be omitted when the antecedent is supplied. — See p. 78. 3O3. When what is nmterrogative or responsive, it has but one case, and that depends on some word in its own clause. Ex. - " What is it?- I do not know what it is.'" TVhat is in the nominative case agreeing with it. Know governs not what, but the entire clause beginning with what. 384. One, other, and another, are declined like nouns. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Having shown you what properties nouns and pronouns have, we shall next show you, briefly and regularly, how the different nouns and pronouns are written to express these properties. This process is called declension. 3@o. To Decline a noun or pronoun is to show, in some regular way, what forms it has to express its grammatical properties. Observe that nouns sometimes remain unchanged, and that pronouns are sometimes wholly changed, to express their properties. NOUNS. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Boy, boy's, boy; boys, boys', boys. Man, man's, man; men, men's, men. Lady, lady's, lady; ladies, ladies', ladies. Fox, fox's, fox; foxes, foxes', foxes. Smith, Smith's, Smith; Smiths, Smiths', Smiths. John, John's, John. Decline Mary, woman, duchess, state, farmer, Benjamin, city. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 103 PRONOUNS. SINGULAR. PLUAtL. Nom. Poss. Obj. Noom. Poss. Obj. mine, ours, 23- Paes. { I, { her' } me; Wcey, { or., } US. thy, (Thou, It thee; ye, ( o 12dt Per~s B~-el'(7^orcl) thuie, yuyour, You, y. y ou; you, yours,. yours, FM 3Ls. IHe, his, him;1' 3 d Pe::.. eFern. She, her, her; they, their them. {hers, theirs, - _ZeuLt. It, its, it; 1Nor. or O0j. Now. or Orj. 1st Pers. lyself (or ourself); ourselves. 2d Pers. Thyself or yourself; yourselves. 8d Pers. Himself, herself, itself; themselves. N7om. Poss. Obj. Nor. Poss. Oij. One, one's, one; ones, ones' ones. Other, other's, other; others, others', others. Who, whose, whom. (-ever or -soever.) Which, (whose,) which. " SINGULAR What, what. " or 5 That, (whose,) that. PLURAL. As, as. None, none. Decline I, thou, you, lhe, she, it, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, one, ot/her, who, whoever, whosoever, which, whichever, what, that, as, none. lExoreises. Tell which words are nouns, and wlin; which words are pronouns, and why: — Tell what kind of noun, and why; what kind of pronoun, and w7hy - Mention the gender, and wy: - Mention the person, and why'. - 104 ENGLISH: GRAMMAE. Mlention the runlber, and wiy: - Mention the case, and why; or show on what word it depends: - It will probably be best to interrogate the pupil on but one thing at a time, through all the following sentences. Jesus wept. Farmers plough. Iron rusts. Jerusalem was destroyed. He works. She studies. I thank you. John found lary's book. Lucy's lamb nips the grass. Our friends are kind. Albert wrote his name in his book. Love and kindness go together. Colonel Thomas H. Benton died in the year 1858. Hannibal defeated the Romans. Hatred produces strife. Vain people love flattery. Must I leave thee, Paradise? Captain Cook sailed round the world. We went to Boston. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. Youth, the morning of life, is often misspent. She seemed a creature fresh from the hands of God. A herd of buffaloes crossed the prairie. A flock of blackbirds is on the tree. The groves were God's first temples. There are lions and ostriches in Africa, She deceived herself. The lady who had been sick, received the peaches which were ripe. This is the same marble that you gave me, and it is the best one that I have. Is this apple yours, or mine? We bought only such mules as we needed. Who is perfect? Whom did you see? What you thoroughly understand, you can easily describe. Whatsoever comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, enabled Columbus, a Genoese, to discover America. Liberty has God on her side. Bad boys spoil good ones. I am the captain, sir. There ha': been much severe fighting in crushing this rebellion. I like apples. I like to skate. Learn the how and the why. Why he went, is obvious. (What is obvious?) I know that you can learn. (I know what?) It is probable that he will be elected. (What is probable?) The storm having ceased, we renewed our journey. "On that day of desolation, lady, I was captive made; Bleeding for my Chriltian nation, by the walls of high Belgrade.' ARTICLES. 105 What is the objective corresponding to I? - thou? -we?-ye? - you? he? she? -it? - they? - who? lVlhat is the nominatice correspondinq toMe? - us? thee? - him? - whom? - her? hers? - them? - themselves? - herself? - it? which? Fornr the compound pronoun: My, our, thy, your, him, her, it, them, who, which, what. Of what gendcr, person, number, and case is each of the following pronouns? Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, your, us, they, my, mine, thine, yours, hers, others, theirs, we, thee, our, ours, ye, myself, themselves, ourselves, thyself, yourselves, yourself, himself, itself, herself, one, none, one's, ones', other, others', who, what, which, whatever. ARTICLE S. S3, An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed before a noun to limit its meaning. Ex. - Horses; a horse, the horse, the horses; the others. Sometimes an article, as in the last example, is placed before a pronoun. Classification. De, The. (. In7defiitUe, A or An. 3G70O Tho is used to point out a particular object or class, or something as being a particular one, part, or group. " The sun"; i. e., not a particular sun, but a particular object that is called sun. " -Honor the soldier"; " Here lived the Cherokees." A particular class of persons. Thie first man"; " the luns'; "the first men." One, part, group. Sometimes the may point out either a particular one or part of a class, or else the entire class as distinguished from other kinds of objects; as, " The bee stung him"; " The bee is a pattern of industry." W. Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. Sometimes one article is improperly used for another. 106 ENGLISH GRA MMAR. 308. The sometimes precedes a proper noun, to render it sufficiently definite; or it points out an object as already known, or as pre-eminently distinguished. Ex. - Ohio means a State; but the Ohio, a river. " The Fulton went up the river this morning." " Fulton went up the river this morning," may relate to a man, " The generous Lafayette and lhe noble Washington." " These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O Lyttleton, tlefriend." W. Connecticut is a beautiful river. 309. The may relate to a singular or a plural word. Ex. - The river, the rivers; the fourth man, the four men. 3l0. A or An is used to show that no particular one of a class is meant. A man, an insect; a small picture. "H ie was a merchant." W. The interest is the fourth part of the debt. 311. A or an can be used to point out one only, or one aggregate. Sometimes more are spoken of, but they are still considered one by one. Ex.-"A pen"; not, a pens. An eye; a large tree; a dozen apples; a wealthy people; a few dimes. "We paid for the mules a hundred dollars a head." W. A winding stairs led us to the observatory. (A flight of, etc.) When a noun is limited by other words, the indefinite article does not relate merely to the noun, but to the noun with its limitations. " A young man," " A man of fine sense," do not mean no particular man, but no particular young man, no particular man of fine sense. 312. A and an are both called the indefinite article; because they are but a later and an earlier form of the same word, have the same meaning, and differ in use only. 31t3 A should be used wllenever the next word begins with a consonant sound. U long, cl, to, o in one, and articulated with a vowel aft:ci' it, have each a consonant sound. ARTICLES. 07 Ex. A brother, a cup, a union, a eulogy such a one. W. An useful exercise. An hundred men. Such an one. 384, An should be used whenever the next word begins with a vowel sound. That is, an should be used before a, e, i, o, u not equivalent to yu, y equivalent to i, silent h, and h faintly sounded when the next syllable has the chief accent. Ex. An arm, an car, an inch, an oar, an hour; an hero'ic deed. W-. A interest. A adjective. A officer. A honor. A historian. 310. Igo Ayrticlo is used when we refer chiefly to the nature of the object, to the class generally, or to only a part indefinitely; also when the substantive is sufficiently definite itself, or is rendered so by other words. Ex. - Meat is dearer than bread. Gold is heavier than silver.. Peaches are better than apples. Virttue and vice are opposites. Workinq is better than starring. He honors the name of gentleman. Man is endowed with reason. There arecfishes that have wings. George; Post-Office; that tree; some tree; words that breathe. " They were the means by which"; not, the which. XW. A cypress is a curious species of a tree. The highest officer of a State is styled a Governor. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. The article, and why; whether definite or indfinite, and why; and to what wtrord it relates: The roses in the garden. (The what?) The rose is a beautiful flower. A fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. The daughter'of the duke. A daughter of the duke. An eagle's nest. Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or phrases: - Razor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, aunt, ox, ball, hundred, African, hexameter; interesting story; honest man; humble cottage. 108 ENGLISH GRAMM3AR. AD J ECTIVES. 31l1 An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun. Ix.- A mellow apple; a beautiful woman; a brilliant star; Jive carriages; yonder mountains; brass buttons; hoary-headecld men. He is brare and prudent. To slight the poor is mean. 31B7 Words from other parts of speech are frequently used as adjectives. Ex. - A gold ring; a mahlogany table; Calibornia gold; she politicians; a would-be scholar; parsing exercises; the fur-ojf future; the above remarks; a farewell address. " The lightnings flashed vermilion." - Dante. (Were red.) CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 318t Adjectives are divided into two chief classes; descriptive and definitive. 319. A Descriptive Adjective describes or qualifies. Ex.- ~White, good. " The green forest glowed in golden light." 320, A Definitive AdLjective merely specifies or limits. Ex. - There are many wealthy farmers in this country. 321. Adjectives may be divided into several smaller classes; namely, common, prolper, particip'ial, compound, numereal, and pronom'inal. This classification is not strictly logical, but it is convenient and instructive. 322. A common adjectivo is any ordinary adjective that expresses quality or circumstance; as, good,.upper, daily. 323. A proper ajective is an adjective derived from a proper noun; as, American, _ En glish, Newtonian. 324, A participial adjective is a participle used as a descriptive adjective. " Tinkling stars." - See p. 221. ADJECTIVES. 109 325. A compound adjective is a compound word used as an adjective. " TIicck-arbled songs." 326( A numeral adjective is a definitive adjective that expresses number. 327. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES are divided into four classes; cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, and indefinite. 1. A cardinal nunmeral tells how many; as, one, two. 2. An ordinal numeral tells which one; as, first, second. 3. A 7multiplicative nuimeral tells how many fold; as, single, double. 4. An indefinite numeral expresses number indefinitely; as, few, many. 38,2. Pronominal adjectives are definitive adjectives that are sometimes used as pronouns. Not all the words usually called pronominal adjectives, can be used as pronouns. 329, PRONOIINAL ADJECTIVES are dividled into three classes; distributive, demon'strative, and indef'inrte. 1. The distributive relate to objects taken separately. Ex.- Each, every, either, neither, many a. - See p. 80. 2. The demonstrative point out objects definitely. Ex. -This, these, that, those, yon, yonder, same, former, latter. 3. The indefinite relate to objects indefinitely. Ex. - Any, other, another, one, both, all, some, such, several. DEGREES OF COM PARISON. 330, Comparison is that property of adjectives and adverbs which expresses quality in different degrees. lx. - Lime is hi/ate; milk is whiter; snow is the twhilest. " Mules are.more hardy and less expensive than horses." 3310 -There are three degrees of comparison; the lpositive, the cocmparative, and the supzcrlativ8e. 330 Positive. An adjective s in the positive degree, when it expresses simply the quality; as, hard, good. 3330 Comparative. An adjective is in the comparative degree, when it expresses the quality in a higher or a lower degree; as. zharder, less hard. 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 334. Superlative. An adjective is in the superlative degree, when it expresses the quality in the highest or the lowest degree; as, hardest, least hard. The positive degree sometimes implies comparison from its syntax, but without referring to a higher or a lower degree of the same quality; as, " She is as good as he, and as modest as she is beautiful." e33. The Comparative Degree may imply, - 1. Two different objects with the same quality. Ex. — Ioney is sweeter than molasses. VT. This is the best of any other. The youngest of the two sons is yet going to schooL 2. Two different conditions of the same object. Ex. - A nation is happlier in peace than in war. 3. Two different qualities in the same object. Ex. - A nation may be more prosperous than virtuous. Sometimes, though seldom with elegance, different qualities of different objects can be compared; as, "MIy horse is whiter than yours is black." 336. The Superlative Degree usually implies three or more objects or conditions; and it may refer simply to the rest considered, or to all others. Ex. -" The least of three evils." "The best peaches are already taken from the tree." "The loveliest flowers were there." - Cazrlyle. "I am happiest at home." " The river is highest in June." The degree of comparison is sometimes estimated from so low a positive that it falls even below a full positive; as, " Your claim is better than his, though neither is good"; "Your largest horse is not large." And comparatives and superlatives are sometimes estimated from other comparatives or superlatives; as, " Myy kite rose hiigher, and highler, and higher, until it was highest, and far higher than the highest of all the other kites." "And in the lowest depth a lower deep, Still threatening, to devour me, opens wide.'" - Milton. ADJECTIVES. Ill 37~b An adjective can not be compared with propriety, when it denotes a quality or property that can not exist in diCferent degrees. Ex. - Equal, level, perpendicular, square, naked, round, straight, one, two, second, deaf; dead, fill, empty, perfect, right, honest, sincere, hollow, four-footed. 333. Good writers sometimes compare such adjectives'when they do not take them in their full sense. Ex. " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses." — Addison, This means that it approaches nearer, than the rest, to perfection. "' And love is still an emptier name."- Goldsmith. Most qualifying adjectives can be thus used either in a relative or in an absolute sense. 3S9, The positive is sometimes diminished by annexing ish, or by using such words as rather, somewkhat, sligtly, etc. Ex. - Black, blackishi;.omewhat disagreeable; rather young. ~S0. A high legree of the quality, without implying direct comparison, is expressed by very, exceedingjly, almost, etc. Ex. - Very respectfully; a most valiant soldier. How Adjectives are Compared. 3il, To express degrees below the positive, we use less and least. Positive, good; comparative, less good; superlative, least good. Important, less important, least impiortant. 342. To express degrees above the positive, we annex to it er and:est, or place before it nmore a.nd most. Ex. - ositive, rich; comparative, richer; superlative, richest. Deep, deeper, deepest; cheerful, more cheefill, most cheerful. Which of these methods should be used, depends chiefly on the sound of the word, or on the number of its syllables. 343, Adjectives of one syllable are compared by annexing er for tho conmparative, anI eet for the superlative. 13~~~..'1.'~a~lOf! 112 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. Large, larger, largest; sad, sadder, saddest; dry, drier, driest. While studying this section, the pupil should review the Rules for Spelling, pp. 50, 51. 344. Adjectives of two syllables, ending with le or y, or accented on the second syllable, are also compared by annexing er and est. Able, abler, ablest; lovely, Zovelier, loveliest; polite, politer, politest. A few other adjectives of two syllables, especially those which end in avowel or a liquid sound, are sometimes compared by er and est; as, narrow, narrower, Rrnarrowest; handsome, handsomer, (handsomest. tThe metaphor is the commonest figure." — Blair. "Philosophers are but a soberer sort of madmen." - lrving. 31S5 Other adjectives of two syllables, and all adjectives of more than two syllables, are compared by placing more and most before the positive. Loyal, more loyal, most loyal; evident, more evident, most evident, W. It was the beautifullest and curiousest thing I ever saw. 346, Some words are expressed in the superlative degree by annexing MIOST to them. Ex. - Foremost, utmost (outmost), inmost, innermost, hindmost. 34-7 More and most can sometimes be used in comparing any word that admits of comparison. Ex.-"A foot more light, a step more true, Ne'er fiom the heath-flower dashed the dew." - Scott. When several adjectives come together, of which some are properly compared by er and est, and others by more and most, the smaller are generally placed first, and all are compared as one, by more and?mov,; as, The more nice and elegant parts." - Johnson. " Homer's imnaslnation was by far the oso.t rich and copious." - Pope. 848. JMore, most, less, and least, when used to compare other words, are usually parsed separately, and a.s adverbs. It does not, however, seem to us I:iprolcr, to parse the whole phrase as one word. 349o Those adjectives which can not be compared by means of a general rule, are said to be irregular. ADJECTIVES. 113 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Good, better, best. (Up,) upper, uppermost. Bad, ). n. f inmost, III, worse, worst (In,) inner, Q innermost. Evil, ( outmost, M ^an, ~ more, most. utter,) termost 3/1tlbll, ) lnore, most. (0ut,) (uter, ost, Many, ) uttermost. Little, less, least. Near near nearest, IFore, former, 7Fore, former, foremost, next. i.first. Late ilater, { latest, Hind, hinder, hindmost. latter, last. Far, farther, farthest. Old, older, 5 oldest, (Forth,) further, furthest. elder, eldest. Elder and eldest are applied to persons only; older and oldest, to persons or things. Later and latest refer to time; latter and last, generally to order in place. Lesser is sometimes used for less; as, " Lesser Asia"; better, " Asia Minor." 350. Some irregular adjectives have no positive. Ex. - Nether. nethermost; under, undermost; hither, hithermost. 35,l Some irregular adjectives have no comparative. Top, topmost; head, headmost; southern, southernmost. 352, Some irregular adjectives have neither positive nor superlative. Ex. — Minor, major, junior, senior, interior, exterior, anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, prior, ulterior. - See p. 214. 353, Most compound adjectives are compared by varying only the descriptive word, and in the usual way. Ex. - Long-headed, longer-headed, longest-headed. Good-natured, better-natured, best-natured. Adjectives that have tIumber. 3540 Some adjectives have number. Ex. - This, these; that, those; few; many. n 114 N; L ISHII GRAMMAlR. 355. One, each, every, either, neither, many a, this, that, another, mucth, all (the whole), and whole (all the), are singular. Ex. -" Every creature loves its like." " Neither combatant recovered from his wounds." "Every four years make an Olympiad." - Lempriere. Sometimes, as in this last example, the adjective relates to an aggregate of objects. 353. The numerals above one, and the words these, those, all (number), few, several, many, divers, and sundry, are plural. T57, Adjectives that imply number, must agree in this respect with the substantives to which they belong. Ex. - Four feet; not, four foot. " That kind of trees "; or, " Trees of that kind "; not, "'Those ind of trees." W,. I never liked those sort of bonnets. Three cord of wood. 358, The substantive to whichl the adjective belongs, is sometimes understood. Ex.-" She is using the new book in stead of the old" [book]. 3590 An adjective sometimes becomes a noun, - 1. To denote the quality abstractly. Ex.-" Burke wrote on the beautifl." 2. To denote some object distinguished by the quality. Ex. - " A home on the rolling deep." 3. To denote a class of persons distinguished by the quality. Ex. - Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 360. Sometimes it is necessary to supply a noun. Ex. -" The truly good" [persons]. The adverb truly can modify good as an adjective, but not as a noun. "Nearly all [the soldiers] were captured." " The tender and helpless " [children]. ADJECTTVFS. 115 Pronominal and other Definitive Adjectives. All; number or quantity. " All men." "All the land." [salt " Any; indefinite, opposed to none. " Any one may go." "H Iave you any Both; the two. " Both horses are lame." Divers; several or many and dijerent. " Divers philooophers think so." Each 3 two or more considered separately. " Each glove." " Each pupil." Either; one or the other of two. " Take either road," Else; besides. " Any one else." " Who else? " Every; all of many considered separately. " Every hour of the day." Feew; a comparatively small number. " Few shall part where many meet." Former; preceding in place or time. " The former rule." "A formn'er Latter; following in place or time. "The latter position." [notice." Little; not much. "Little money." (Little, meaning small, is a descriptive Iany; a comparatively large number. - Sec Few. [adjective.) lany a; many considered separately; to many as every to all. "M lany a,Much a comparatively large quantity. "Mlluch money." [flower." Neither; not the one nor the other. "Neither of my gloves." No; not any, n1ot a. " No ice." "He is noffiiend of mine." None; no one, no ones. " None is needed." " N'one are needed." One - a person or thing indefinitely considered, opposed to other. "One man or another." Other9 another; something different or distinct. " Some other person." tOwn; possession with emphasis or distinction. " My own book." Same; identity, similarity. " The same boat." " Built of the sanme stones." Several; more than two and fewer than many.. "Several boys." Some; indefinite, and opposed to all or a particular one. "Some of the robbers."; Some one said so." Such; the same as something else mentioned or described. " Such a nman is he." "Such writers as Swift." This adjective is descriptive as well as definitive; and it is often a sort ofpro-adjective. Sundry; emphatically more than one or two. " Sundry foes assailed me." That, those distant or absent in time or place, the more remote of two, the first-mentioned, something indefinitely selected but definitely described. This, these; near or present in time or place, the nearer of two, the lastmentioned.- See p. 80. "That affair about which we talkled yesterday." " This affair about which you are now talking." " This chair is better than that." Those pupils who wlerS absent, will please to give their names." Very; equivalent to a compound personal pronoun. " Our very existence." What, which; interrogative or responsive " What man." " Thich man." Toil or yodwer points out something in sig,ht, " Yondecr hill." 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exorcises. The adjective, and why; whether descriptive or definitive, and why; and to what it belongs:- The blue sky. The sky is blue. An aspiring man. The American flag. The star-powdered galaxy. A modest and beautiful woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. This is a broad, deep, clear, and winding river. The night grew darker and darker. The apples boiled soft. He is asleep. That field has been in cultivation four years. The first car is not full, having but one man in it. Compare, of thefiollooling adjectives, those which can be compared:qWise, studious, near, good, evil, melodious, high, tuneful, saucy, eloquent, expressive, lovely, nimble, late, many, much, few, little, old, glowing, accomplished, expert, half-finished, full, counterfeit, graceful, worthless, bottomless, fundamental, ornamental, vernal, green, sluggish, sunburnt, free, first. Meiantion and spell the thrce degrees of comparison:Strong, weak, light, gay, rough, nice, coarse, fierce, white, ripe, thin, slim, dim, fit, hot, fat, glad, big, droll, dry, sprightly, manly, gentle, noble, idle, discreet, remote, sublime, profound. Compare by using, LESS and LEAST - Broad, convenient, confident, oily, troublesome, thick, joyful, sorrowful, exorbitant, exact, indulgent, handsome. Join suitable adjcctives to each of the following 2nons:3ioon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, man, woman, pen, ink, day, wood, boys, thoughts, feelings, conduct. QUiSTIOSTS FOR REVIEW 1. What is a part of Speech t. 157 9. What smaller classes do the com2. How imany and what are the parts mon nouns include? of speech?.....158 10. What is a coll:ctive noun?.. 16 8. What is a TOn ieea s159 L What is an abstract noun?. 169 3. What is a n 1;Un'. Give examples. 159 WI What is a verbal or participial 4. Into what classes are nouns di- n1 W 1a0 vided?. 163 nou 5. What is a proper oun?... 164 13. What is a Pronoun. 171 6. When does a proper noun become a 14. What is the antecedent of a procommon noun?... 165 noun?... 173 7. What is a comnlo on noaun?.. 166 15. Into what classes are pronouns di8. When does a common noun become vided?. 77 a prouper uluu., I 17 13. What is a personal pronocun?. 173 QUESTIONS. 117 17. Mention the chief personal pro- 161. What is Person?. ~ 228 nouns?..19. 62. HIow many persons in grammar, 18. What is said of you, yours, etc.?. 180 and what are they called?. 229 19. What is said of thou,t thy, thine, 63. When is a noun or pronoun of the etc.?.. 1811 first person?.. 230 20. Of ours, yours, etc.?... 182 64. Of the second person?.. 231 21. Of it?.... 184, 185 65. Of the third perso?... 232 22. What is a compound personal pro- I6. Whlt is Humber 234 n66. What is Humber... 234 nouno?.18 28. Ilow are these pronoun used? 67. How many rnumnbers in grammar, 24. What is a relative pronosun?. 188 ad wht are they callled?. 3 25. Mention thea relat77ive pronouns?. 18968. When is a noun or pronoun of tie 25. Mention the relative pron'ounas?. 189 i. 236 26. To what is the relative whuo applied? 190 si ^e slar o7ber?.. 23' 27. To what is the relative w/ichl ap- 69. hen is a noun or pronoun of the plied?..... plural nzumber?. 237 plied?.. 1 70. When is a proper -noun made plu28. How is the relative what used?. 192 0. he is a proper noun made pu29. When is the relative that preferred ral.... to who or which?... 193 71. What nouns are generally used in 80. When is as a relative pronoun? 196 the singular nuslbr only?.. 239 81. When is as aons s rel ative pronoun:? 72. What exception is mnentioned?. 240 B1. What is a compound relative pronoun?... 73. Mention sotne nouns that are gen82. What is an interrogatte pronoun? 19 all used oly in the plural 33. Mention the interrogative pronouns. 199 74. nier..... e. Mention some notins that have the 34. What is said of the interrogative sLefo for eite nuher. sames form for either number. 243 who? 200 35. What is said of the interro.gative 075. What is said, in regard to number, 35. What iS said of the interrogative o pJ;, f r teh/ich. 201 of pair, dozen, fish, fowl,? trost, salmon, and similar words'? 2441 etc. 36. What is said of the interrogative sln, and s llilr or? 2. what?..202 76. When is a collective noun singularr? 245 87. What is a resposive or n idrect |, 77. When isa collective noun plural? 246,'7 87. What is a recponsive or an indirect 2 78 IIow are most nouns made plural? 248 interrogative pronoun? 203 S9. To what nouns is es added?.. 249 38. What is an adjective pronouzn? 204 Ho are proper nouns made lural? 89. Into what classes are the adjective e proper s made plura pronouns divided? 205 8.Give examples... 251 pronouns d ivided?..' 205 81. What is the plural of foot, a part 40. What is said of the distributive pro- hat is the plurand of Foot, a Ipart,ouns?..... 206' of the body; and of Foot, a man's 0uns~?.2 * * - * *~06 name? 41. Of the demonstrative prononus? 207 82. name? 41. Of the demonstrative prono uns? 207 82. Give the plural of berf, half, loaf, 42. Of the indefinite pronoulss?. 208' vie, and olf; and tell us vhat 43. Of the reciprocal pronotunls? 20 is said of such rds... 252 44. Itow should either, neither, each i saoisuch w. -252 4 e. Hoe should e nthe,71 ezitler, eacl 83. Give the plural of tan,, tooth, and other, and one another be used?. 21Chat is said of 4o5.se and tell us what is said of 45. Ilow should this and that lbe used? 211 sch words 253 46. What properties have nouns and s wod... 2 40. W'hat propertien have..nouns a 21d 84. Give the plurals of brother, die, pronouns'?..... - genius, and penny; and tell us 47. What is Gender?... 214 what is said of such words.. 254 48. Iow many genders are there, and 85. How are most compound words what are they called?.. 215 made plural?... 255 49. When is a noun or pronoun of the 83. What exceptions?. 257, 258?nasculine gender?...216 87. How is a name that begins with 50. Of the feminine gender?. 217 the title Mr.,.fiss, or Dr. made 51. Of the common gender?... 218 plural?..259 52. Of the neuter gender?.. 219 88. What is said of the title Mrls.?. 260 53. What is said of personified objects? 223 89. What is said of the plural of foreign 54. When is the masculine gender pro- words?..... 26 ferred?... 224 90. What is said of the ending a? Give 55. When is the feminine gender pre- examples. ferred?. 22591. Of the ending us? Give examples. 56. What is said of the gender of col- 92. Oftheending umoron? Exiamples. lective nouns?... 226 93. Of the ending is? Examples. 57. How many methods are there of dis- 64. Of the ending or e? Examples. tinguishing the two sexes?.. 227 95. How are letters and figures uade 58. What is the first method? Give plural?... 232 examples. 96. What is said of the editorial we? 2'33 69. What is the second method? Give 97 What is said of you, your, etc., in examples. regard to number?. 264 60. What is the third method? Give 98. Whitt is said of relative and other examplos. pronouns, in regard to number? 267 118 ENGLIS.H -GRAMMAR. 99. What is Case? 1127. What is an Article e. ~ 100. Ilow many cases are there, and 1128. How are the articles classified? what are they called?.. 269:129. How is the used?... 307 101. When is a noun or pronoun in the 130. ILow is a or an used?.. 310 nomlinative case?.. 270 271 131. Does a or an mean one, or more 102. In what different ways is a nouhan one?.... 311 or pronoun used independent- 132. Why are a and an both considered ly?...... 272! the same word?..312 103. When is a noun or pronoun used 133. When should a be used?. 313 absolutely?....273' 134. When should an be used?..314 104. hen is a noun or pronoun in the 135. When should no article be used? 315 104.'When is a noun or pronoun in the possessive case?... 274133. What is an Adeetic v. 3, 16 105. Ilow is the possessive case regular- 1137. Into what two c iief classes are adly formed?....275 jectives divided?... 318 106. When is the apostrophe only added, 133 at is a d(.sriptive adjetive? 319 or when is the possessive s omit- 139. What is a definilice adjective? 320 ted?.... 276, 27 140. Into what smaller classes are ad107. In what other ways can possession jectives divided?.. 321 be expressed?... 278 141. What is a commoln ajective?. 322 108. Ilow is a compound or complex 142. What is aproper a'/jective? 323 tern expressed ia the possessive 143. Wnat is a participial adjective? 324 case?.. 280 144. What is a compound adjective? 325 109. What is said of a pair or series of 145. What is a numeral adjectie?. 32 terms implying commnon posses- 146. Into what classes are numerals dision?.. 281 vided?.. 327 110. WIhat is said of a pair or series of 147. What are pronnlilal adjectivcs? 328 terms not imply ing common pos- 148. Into what classes are they disession?... 22 vided? 3 149 Watvidmed?. 32!) 111 When is a noun or pronoun in the 149. hat is comparis in grlrmar? 330 objective case... 283 150. IIo many degrees of comparison, and what are they called.. 331 112. When is a noun or pronoun in the 151. When is an adjective in the posisanle case as another?.. 286 tivse degree?.. 332 113. What lmay the subordinate term 152. When, in the comparative degree? 333 be?... 287 153. When, in the superlative degree?'334 114. What two linds of construction 154. What is said of the compa rative under same case?... 288 degree?.. 335 115. When is the explanatory term 155. Of the superlative deree?.. 333 predicated of the other?. 289 156. When can an adjective not be 116. What is said of the connecting compared? What exception? 337, 333 verb?...290 157. To express degrees below the posi117. When are the two terms in apposi- tive, how are adjectives comparei? 341 tioI?... 291 158. To express degrees above the posi118. Must the terms agree in anything tive, how are adjectives compared? 3t2 else than case?.. 295 159. When are the endings er and est 119. In what different ways are words preferred?... 343, 314 in apposition sometimes applied 160. When are more and most preferred? 3i5 to the same objects?.. 296 161. Compare good, bad, zbalc, temany, liltle, hind, far, in, neatr, late, 120. In what two cases are compound old; and tell us what is said of personal pronouns used?.. 298 such words.. 346, 349 121. What is said of woho, what, which, 162. Do adjectives have number?. 354 and that, in regard to case and 163. Mention some adjectives that are declension?.. 800 singular, and some that aro plu122. When may what have two cases?. 301 ral? 3.5, 356 123. When does what have but one 164. What is said of adjectives in regard case?... - 313 to their agreemenet with substan124. How are one, other, and another tives in number?... 357 declined?...804 165. Is the substantive to which the ad125. What is it, to decline a noun or jective relates, always expressed? 358 pronoun?. r..c 305 166. When does an adjective become a 126. Diecline merchant, child thou, u noun.... 359 yoi, h, S,c oe, it, whoe and 167. Define each, every, either, neither, hinWeli I this) and that. VEIBS. 119 VERBS. $61, A Verb is a word used to express the act or state of a subject. Ex. - The horse ran. The rose blooms. IHe was electel. US2 Frequently, a verb consists of two or more words. Ex. - They migylt have been captured. He was sent for. 3B3, Sometimes words from other parts of speech are made verbs. Ex. —" We have tried to better our condition."- Shakespeare, " This out-lHerods Herod!" - Id. "I'11 fortune-tell you! "-Id. For exercises, see Part I.; p 22, for instance. Classification. iN FORtU. ^ O Active, TH FE~ORMkI. YorcE. I Passive. Regular, Passive. Irregular. f Indicative, Subjunctive, IN SYNTAX. MOOD. SujctiVe, Potential, As related to Subjects. Impeative. Finite or Pred- mpertive icate Verbs. Present, Not Finite. prop- Present-perfect; Verbs. Participles, eties. TENSE. Past attic s.. Tr^s~. Past-perfect; Infinitives. Futu-e, Future, MA relatei.. to OiGjeets. LFuture-perfect. Transitive, Intransitive. PE- First, Second, As related to one an- SON. T other. Principal, N'U- I Singular, Auxiliary. EBa. Plural. 120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CLASSES OF VERBS. Regular and Irregular.'684. VERBS are divided, according to their form, into regular and irregular. 3~5, A Regular Verb is a verb that takes the ending ed, to form its past tense and its perfect participle. Ex. -Present, plant; past, planted; perfect participle, planted. Carry, carri ed, carri ed; rebel', rebel led, rebel led. While studying this section, review the Ruies for Spelling, pp. 50 and 51. 366. An Irreigular Verb is a verb that does not take the ending ed, to form its past tense and its perfect participle. Ex.- Sweep, swept, swept; cling, cleng, clung; cut, cut, cut. 367, The Principal Parts of a verb are the present tense, the past tense, the present participle, and the pelfect participle. These are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS, because by means of them and the auxiliary verbs all the other parts of the verb can be formed. 368. The Present Tense is the simplest form of the verb; as, go. 369. The Past Tense is the simplest form that expresses a past fact; as, went. 370, The Present Participle is that form which ends always with ing; as, go-ing. It is therefore so well known that it hardly needs mentioning. 3T1. The Perfect Participle is that form which makes sense -wth the word having before it; as, gone, (having gone). In general, only the sinmple participles are used in compound forms. - See p. 158. VEI'BS. 121 The present tense and the past tense which we have just mentioned, are the present indicative or infinitive andl the past indicative. For the sake of brevity, they are generally called simply the present and thepast; and the past is sometimes called the part'erit. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. The following are the irregular verbs, with their principal parts. Having learned them, the pupil will also know the principal parts of the remnaining verbs, for these are regular. lle must not infer, however, fromn the word irregular, that the verbs so called are a mere straggling offshoot from the language; for they are really the very core or pith of it. The Two Past Forms DilTferent.* Present. Past, or Fret. Perf. Participle. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Arise, arose, arisen.t bitten, awaked, Bite, bit, bit. Awake, awoke, R., awoke. Blow, ble b ^ awoke. Blow, blew, blown. Be or am, was, been. broke, broken, Break, Bear bre brrn. ek brake, broke.r (bring forth), bare, chidden, Bear bore, borne. Chide, chid, chid. (carry), (cariy), beaten, Choose, chose, chosen. Beat, beat, beat. Cleave cleaved, (adhere), clave cleaved. Become, became, become. le cleft Befall, befell, befallen. Cle cleft, cleft, begot, begotten, (split), clove, coven Beget, begat,, begot. clave, cleaved. Begin, began, begun. C e, ame, c e. bid, bid, Crow crowed. yj^d, ^Crow, crow ^ red. bade, bidden. cew * In general, only those irregular verbs are liable to be used improperly, of which the past tense and the perfect participle are different in form. These verbl have therefore been given first, and separate from the rest, that they may be learned perfectly. I. denotes that the regular form may also be used in stead of the other. * denotes that the form under it is si:'ldom used, being either ancient., poetic, or of late introduction. The forln suppol)ed tol e of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some verbs is 1l n'i:,labh when al)plied in a certain way; as, "freighted with spices and silks," "fraugylt with mischief"; thunderstruck,"'s sorrow-stricken."- Commit to memory the unmarked forms only, t The pupil may also mention the present participle just before he mentions the perfect 6 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Dare durst, Lade laded, laden, R. (venture), dared, dared (oad), Lie lay, lain. (Dare, to challenge; regular.) (reose), lain. Do did, done. (Lie, to speak falsely; regular.) (prin. verb.), mowed, mow, Draw, drew, drawn. Dxi-,. drunk, Prove, proved, prove Drink, drank.* proven. n.,. d'Rend, rent, rent, nR Drive, drove, driver rode, Eat, ate, eaten, Ride, rode, ridden. at, at. rang, Falll,fell, fallen. Ring,, rung rung,:Fly, flew, flown. iFly, flew, flown. Rise, rose, risen. Forbear, forbore, forborne. Rive rived, iven, Forgotten, Run, ran, run. F t o Iforgot. Saw, sawed, sawn, r. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. S Freeze, froze, frozen. see, seethe seethed, seethed, freighted, Seethe, Freight, freighted, sod, sodden. fraught. Shake, shook, shaken. Get, got, got, pd gotten. Shape, shaped, n Give, gave, given. shaved, Go, went, gone. Shave, shaved, shven. Grave, graved, graven, R. sheared, Grow, grew, grown. Shear, shore, shorn,. heaved, heaved, Show, showed, shown, R., hove, hoven.* shrunk, shrunk, Hew, hewed, hewn, n. Shrink, shrank, shrunken.* hidden, Slay, slew, slain. Hide, hid, hid. slidden, held, Slide, slid,, slid, R. Hold, held, holde smitten, hn, kne olden. Smi, s, smitten Know, knew, known. Smite, smote, smit VERBS. 123' Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. S SUIg, Strive, strove,r.,* striven.R.* Sing, sull. sang, 0 Strow, strowed, strown,R. Sink, sunk. Sink, k, sunk. Swear, swore, sworn. sank, sn.sware,* Sow sowed, sown, R. Swell, swelled, swollen, R. (to scatter seed), spok,. swam, Spe spoke, Swim, swum. Speak, spake,* spoken. swum, STake, took, taken. spun, Spill, span, spun. Tear, tore, torn. thrived, thrived, spit, spit, Thrive, trive pit spat,* spte throve, thriven. spat,* spitten " Throw, threw, thrown. (Spit, to pierce wit[ a spit; regular.) trod Sp-n~~ru~~ng, ~trociclen, Spring, sprang sprung. trod. sprang, Steal, stole, stolen. Wax waxed, (grow), wa, xen.d strode, stridden, wa Stride, strid, strid. Wear, wore, worn. struck, |Weave, wove, R.,* woven, t.* Strike, struck, stricken. Write, wrote, written. The Two Past or the Three Forms Alike. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Abide, abode, abode. blessed, blessed, Behold, beheld, beheld. Bles, blest, blest. Belay, belaid, R., belaid, n. Breed, bred, bred. Bend, bent, R., bent, R. Bring, brought, brought. Bereave, bereft, R., bereft, R. Build, built, R.., built, R.* Beseech, besought, besought burned, burned, Burn, Bet, bet, R., bet, R. burnt, burnt. betided, betided, Burst, burst, burst. ee betid,* betid.* Buy, bought bought. Bind, bound, bound. Cast, cast, cast. Bleed, bled, bled. Catch, caught,.,* caugfht,R. blended, blended, Cling, clung, clung. B blent, blent. b 124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. Present. Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle. clothed, clothed, leaned, leaned, Clothe, lad, clad. ean, lant, leant. Cost, cost, cost. leaped, leaped, Creep, crept, crept., lapt, leapt. Cut, cut, cut. learned, learned, Deal, dealt, dealt. Learn learnt, learnt. Dig, dug, R., dug, R. Leave, left, left. Dwell, dwelt, R., dwelt, R. Lend, lent, lent. dreamed, dreamed, Let, let, let. Dream, dreamt, dreamt. lighted, lighted, resse, 1ih t dressed, dressed, L lit, lit. Dress, drest,* drest.* Lose, lost, lost. Feed, fed, fed. Make, made, made. Feel, felt, felt. Mean, meant, meant. Fight, fought, fought. Meet, met, met. Find, found, found. passed, passed, Flee, fled, fled. Pass, past,* past.b Fling, flung, flung. Pay, paid, paid. gilded, gilded, Pen penned, penned, Gild, gilt, gilt. (fence in), pent, pent. Gird, girt, R., girt, R. (Pen, to write; regular.) Grind, ground, ground. pleaded, pleaded, Hang, hung, R., hung, R.a Plead, plead,* plead,* Have had, had. pled,* pled.* (prin. verb.), Put, put, put. Hear, heard, heard. quit, quit. Hit hit, hit. rapped, rapped, Hurt, hurt, hurt. Rap, rapt, rapt.c Keep, kept, kept. Read, read, read. Kneel, knelt, R., knelt, R. Reave,* reft, reft. Knit, knit, R., knit,., rid, i. Lay, laid, laid. Say, aid, said. Lead, led, led. sought, souht. Seek, sought, sought. (a.) Iang, hanged, hanged; to suspend by the neck with intent to kill; but the distinction is not always observed. (b ) Past is used as an adjective or as a noun. (c.) Rap, rapt, rapt; to seize with ranpturc. VERBS. 125 Present..Past, or Pret. Perf.Participle. Present. Past, or Pret. Pcrf. Participlec Sell, sold, sold. Swing, swung, swung. Send, sent, sent. Teach, taught, taught. Set, set, set. Tell, told, told. Shed, shed, shed. Think, thought, thought. Shine, shone,.,* shone, R.* Thrust, thrust, thrust. Shoe, shod, shod. waked, waked, Shoot, shot, shot. Wake, woke, woke.* Shred, shred, shred. wedded, wedded, Shut, shut, shut. Wed, wed,' wed.* Sit, sat, sat. Weep, wept, wept. Sleep, slept, slept. Wet, wet, R.,* wet, R.* Sling, slung, slung. Win, won, won. Slink, slunk, slunk. Wind, wound, wound. Slit, slit,.,* slit, R. worked, worked, Smell, smelt, R., smelt, a. or wrought, wrought. Speed, sped, R.,* sped, R.* Wring, wrung, wrung. Sell spelled, spelled, Beware, (wanting,) (wanting.) spelt, spelt. Can, could, Can, could, " Spend, spent, spent. Do(auxil'y),did, Spill, spilt, R., spilt,. Have, " h.d, Have," had, " Split, split, R.,* split, I. May, might, May, might, - spoiled, spoiled, Spoil, AMust, must, " spoilt,* spoilt.* ugh,,ht, ( Ought, ought, " Spread, spread, spread. (an ) (wanting,) quoth, " Stap, staid, R., staid, Shall, should, y ^ ^ ^^' Shall, should, " String, strung, strung, R.e " WVill, " would, Stave, stove, Ir., stove, Il (Will, wish, bequeath; regular.) Stand, stood, stood. Wit, Stick, stuck, stuck. Wot,* Wt,* ) Sting, stung, stung. wis, wiSt,* sweat, R., sweat, ir. Wee wote.* Stveat, swet, swet. Most of the verbs that have no Sweep, swept, swept. participles, are auxiliary verbs. (d) Stay, stayed, stayed; to cause to stop. (e.) Stringed instruments. 126 ELNGLISH GRAMMAR. 372. A derivative verb generally forms its principal parts in the same way as the primitive verb. Ex. - Mistake, mistook, mistaken; undergo, underwent, undergone. 373. A Redundant Verb is a verb that has more than one form for some of its principal parts. Ex.- Kneel; knelt, kneeled; knelt, kneeled. 374, A Defective Verb is one that has not all the parts which belong to a complete verb. The defective verbs are most of the auxiliaries, and the following: Beware; from be and ware (wary). It has no participles. Mlethinks, 1 think, methought, I thought; meseems, to me it seems; meseemed, to me it seemed. These words are anomalous and poetical. Ought is an old preterit of owe. It is in the present tense when it is followed by the present infinitive; as, " I ought to go ": and in the past tense when followed by the perfect infinitive; as, "I ought to have gone." Quoth is sometimes used, in quaint or humorous language, for said; as, "'Not I,' quoth Sancho." Wit, in the sense of know, is yet used in the phrase to wit = namely. The other forms are nearly obsolete. Give the principal parts; and tell whether the verb is regular or irregular:Flow, fly, flee, sow, grow, sin, win, spin, skim, swim, heal, steal, fling, bring, spread, dread, fold, hold, uphold, close, lose, loose, blind, find, fine, reel, feel, lend, loan, need, feed, land, stand, heat, eat, free, see, play, slay, may, call, fall, fell, bind, bound, come, welcome, hive, strive, live, give, rise, raise, tell, toll, lie, lay, seat, set, sit.'Finite and Not Finite. 3750 VERBS are divided, according to their relation to subjects, into finite and not finite. 376. A Finite Verb is a verb that predicates the act or state of its subject. Ex.- The plant grows. John has arrived. I am alone. 377. A verb that is not finite, does not predicate the act or state of its subject. " The plant growing." " John having arrived.", For me to be alone' Observe the difference between these phrases and the preceding sentences, rT 376. VERBS. 1 378. Verbs that are not finite, may be divided into two classes; Infinitives and Participles.- See p. 158. Transitive and Intransitive. 379. VERBS are divided, according to their relation to objects, into transitive and intransitive. ~380, A Transitive Verb is a verb that has an object, or requires one to complete the sense. Ex. -" The lightning s t r u c k the oak." (Struck what?) " I k n e w him well, and every truant k n e w" [him]. -Goldsmith. Transitive verbs are used in two forms. - See Voice, p. 13. 381. An Intransitive Verb is a verb that does not have or require an object. Ex. - Birds fly. Roses bloom. Gamblers cheat. 382. An intransitive verb that does not imply action or exertion, is sometimes called a neuter verb. Ex. - The ocean is deep. The book lies on the table. 383, The same word is sometimes used as a transitive verb, and sometimes as an intransitive. " The prince succeeds the king." " In every project he succeeds." 384. A verb usually transitive may become intransitive, when the chief design is to set forth the act, and to leave the object unknown or indefinite. Ex. -"- She reads well." " He rides out every day." Observe that the design is to show how she reads, not what she reads. 385. A verb usually intransitive may become transitive, 1. When it is used in a causative sense. Ex. -" To march armies"; i. e., to cause them to march. 2. When the object is like the verb in meaning. Ex. -" To live a righteous life." " To die a miserable death." 3. In certain poetical expressions. Ex. -" And eyes looked I love to eyes that spake again."-Byron. " The lightnings flashed a brighter curve." - Thonson. 128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. In certain idiomatic expressions. Ex.- "I laughed I myself hoarse." " He slept himself weary." In such expressions the verb has both a causative and a reflexive sense. 388. Sometimes the object is combined with the verb so closely as to make in sense almost a part of it. Ex. - To take care of; to lay hold of; to bethink oneself A similar remark applies sometimes to other words used with verbs. 387. Some verbs, mostly of asking or teaching, are followed by two objects, each of which they can govern. Ex. -" She taught me grammar"; i. e., she taught me, and she taught grammar. In parsing, however, it is probably better to supply a preposition; as, " She taught grammar to me "; or, "She taught me'in grammar." 388. Some verbs are followed by two objects, of which one is governed by the preposition to or for understood, and the other by the verb. Ex. -, She gave me a book "; i. e., she gave a book to me. The object governed by the verb is called the direct object; the object governed by the preposition understood, is called the indirect object. 389, Some verbs are followed by two objects that are in apposition. Ex. -" They made him captain."- See 1 292, Principal and Auxiliary. 390a VERBS are divided, in regard to the chief mode of combining them, into principal and auxiliary. 391. A Principal V"erb is a verb that expresses by itself the act or state, or the chief part of it. " He studies." " He may have studied." Study is a principal verb. 392, An Auxiliary Verb helps other verbs to express their grammatical properties. Ex. - " He was captured." (Voice.) "He can learn." (Mood.) For an explanation of auxiliary verbs, see p. 148. VERBS. 129 PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 3938 VERBS have voice, mood, tense, person, and number. VOICE. 394. Voice is that property of verbs which shows whether the subject does, or receives, the act. 395. There are two voices; the active and the passive. 3s9. A verb is in the active voice, when it represents its subject as acting. H' Ie watches." 397. A verb is in the passive voice, when it represents its subject as acted upon. "He is watched." Most transitive verbs imply action;;Ut a few - a s, resemble, own, and have do not imply action. Such a verb is in the active voice, -when it relates to an object; and in the passive, when it has the object for its subject. 398. Voice is a property tat belongs to transitive verbs only. 399. A few intransitive verbs are sometimes used in the passive form. This is a French idiom, and the verbs are not passive., Ex.-" Ie is fallen." "She is gone." "'The melancholy days are come." Equivalent to has fallen, has gone, have come. The passive form generally differs from the active by an elegant shade of meaning: in the latter, the mind dwells on the act; in the former, on the state of things after the act. 400. A few intransitive verbs can be made passive, when combined with a preposition or other word. The whole phrase should be called a compound passive verb. Ex. -" Had Monmouth really been sent for?" -l Macaulay. " Colonel Butler was accordingly written to." - Irving. So, " My claim was lost sight of "; i. e., disregarded. The modifying word is so closely blended in sense with the verb, that it seems to make a part of it. 6 x 130 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. 401. Transitive verbs are sometimes passive, even in the active form. Ex. -"This field ploughs well." "Your poem reads smoothly." "Wheat sells, is selling, is sold for a dollar a bushel." " The fortress was building."-IRVING. And probably, "An ax to grind." Most such verbs denote merely the capacity to receive the act in the way specified; and when this is the meaning, some grammarians call them simply intransitive verbs. 402. The object of the active verb is made the subject of the passive. We caught these partridges. These partridges were caught by us. W. We were shown some very curious fossil remains. A -erb is generally made passive by combining the corresponding tense or part of the verb be with the perfect participle of a transitive verb; as, was, was broken. " The pitcher was broken." 403. Sometimes the object of the preposition is made the subject of the passive verb. Ex. -" If you wear that coat, people will laugh at you.' " If you wear that coat, you will be laughed at'"' " He was smiled on [favored] by fortune.' 404,'We may use, at pleasure, either the active voice or'the passive. The following are the chief advantages of having both forms: - 1. To enrich language in variety of expression. Ex. -Snow protects plants. Plants are protected by snow. 2. To avoid the confusion which is apt to arise from introducing different subjects into the same sentence. Ex. -" I went to the river, was ferried over, and saw the procession." Make was ferried active by introducing another subject, and you can easily notice the bad effect. 3. In the active voice, to make the doer and the act prominent. Ex. - Washington defended our country. 4. In the passive voice, to make the result and the act prominent, or to avoid mentioning the doer. VERBS. 131 Ex. -" The work was done, nevertheless." "My watch was stolen." I may not know, or may not wish to say, who stole it. " The ship was stranded." It might be very tedious to give the causes: to state the result is sufficient. MOOD. 405, Wood is that property of verbs which shows how the act or state is referred to its subject. The act or state can be referred to the subject, as something real; as something merely supposed; as something real or supposed, and modified by a relation; as something commanded; or as something merely assumed, and not predicated. 406. There are four moods; the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the imperative. Most grammarians call the infinitive the infinitive mood, thus making five moods; and some call the participle the paliticipial mood, thus making six moods. Infinitives and participles mav be considered a mood; but it seems to us that they are sufficiently distinguished by being called izfinitives and participles. Indicative Mood. The Indicative Wood denotes what is real. 407. A verb in the indicative mood expresses an actual occurrence or fact. Ex. —I went. Jt snows. "Moses was God's first pen." - Bacon. 4C8. The indicative mood can be used interrogatively. Ex.-"' Is he in the army, then?' said my uncle Toby."- Sterne. Here an inquiry is made about the fact. 409. A doubt, condition, or inference, assumed as a fact or expressed in indicative time, must also be in the indicative mood. Ex.- If I am deceived, I am ruined. If I was deceived, I did not know it. This will produce a quarrel, when he returns. W. Though he be helpless now, he will not remain so. See p. 160. Which phrase, if it mean any thing, means paper-money. — Atlantic Monthly. If he have a rival, it is Mrs. Barbauld. - Coleridge. She doubted whether this were not all delusion. - Iring. 132 ENGLISH GRAMMIAr. Subjunctive Mood. The Subjunctive Mood denotes what is supposed. 410 A verb in the subjunctive mood may express,1. A future contingency. Ex. -"If I go, I shall go alone." "Beware lest thou fail." W. If any member absents himself, he shall pay a dollar. He will maintain his suit, though it costs him his whole estate. 2. A mere wish or supposition. "O had I the wings of a dove " But I have not. " that I were as when my mother pressed me to her bosom, and. sung the warlike deeds of the Mohaks! " But I am not. " Were I in your condition, I would remain." " Had I been in your condition, I would have remained." W. 0 that I was at home. I wish I was at home. He talked to me as if I was a widow. Was there not another reason, I would object. - P. Henry. 3. A mere conclusion, conception, or consequence. Ex.- "It were useless to resist." (Would be.) " He had need all circumspection." - M/iilton. That is, he would have need of all circumspection. "If it were done when it is done, then't were well It were done quickly." - Shakespeare. " Had more time been given, my translation had been better." - Dryden. Colloquialism: "I had much rather be myself the slave." - Couper. To the pure subjunctives of conclusion, good writers now generally prefer the subjunctive potential forms; as, would be, would have been, should be, etc. Bl4. The subjunctive mood, being mental, is generally applied to the suppositions and conclusions in reasoning and wishing. " Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts Given to redeem the human mind from error, There were no need of arsenals and forts." - Longfellow. Since reasoning always implies two parts, a premise and a conclusion, - VERBS. - 133 A clause with a subjunctive verb either has or implies another clause; and hence the mood is called subjunctive, which means joined dependently to something else. 41 2. When the subjunctive mood refers to present or past time, it generally implies a denial of the fact; when to future time, that the fact is uncertain or contingent. This is obvious: we can not do a past act; we may do a future; and a present supposition, developed into reality, becomes indicative. 411, The subjunctive mood uses be in stead of am, are, and is; were in stead of was; and generally undergoes no change of form throughout the same tense. To a verb in the subjunctive mood, should or some other auxiliary verb can generally be understood; as, "If thou ever return, thou shouldst be thankful" - If thou shouldst. ever return, thou shouldst be thankful. 414. If, though, lest, unless, except, whether, that, till, or a similar word, generally precedes and indicates the subjunctive mood. Ex.- If I were. If I had been. 415. By placing the verb or its auxiliary before the subject, the conditional word can generally be omitted. Ex. - Were I, for Ifj' were. Had I been, for If I had been. 415. The subjunctive mood has three tenses: the present, the past, and the past-perfect; which are generally equivalent in time to a future tense, a present tense, and a past tense. Present (Futulre, in time) "If he be at home, I shall speak to him." Past (Present, in time): " If he were at home, I would speak to him." Past-perfect (Past, in time): " Hadhe been at home, I would have spoken to him." These tenses are sufficient, yet needed, for all the purposes of this mood. Most grammarians reject the past-perfect tense: but this tense is subjunctive, not indicative, in time; subjunctive in origin, and subjunctive in syntax. The past subjunctive may sometimes be called the indefinite subjunctive and the past-perfect, the pluperfect. The outer or real world impresses itself so vividly and with such distinctness upon the mind, that the indicative mood has two tenses ~ 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. for each great period of time; but the subjunctive mood, being applied to what is more vague and less important, has and needs but one tense for each period. Sometimes other tenses, especially the perfect, are found in this mood; but such forms are antiquated, and not considered necessary to modern English. There is one thing about the subjunctive mood that is remarkable. Obliged to borrow the tenses of the indicative mood, and unable to vary them sufficiently in form, it adopts for each period of time the tense of the prior period, in order to avoid expressing the matter-offact sense denoted by the indicative mood; because we can not now, for instance, do a past act. Thus the past-perfect tense becomes simply a past tense; the past, a present; and the present, a future. Potential Mood. The Potential Mood expresses our chief relations to acts or states, either indicatively or subjunctively. Ex. -"I could not go yesterday"; indicative, in time. "I would go now or to-morrow"; subjunctive, in time. That is, the tenses of this mood, especially in time, correspond sometimes with the indicative mood, and sometimes with the subjunctive. 417. A verb in the potential mood may express, - I. Power. "I can go." "I could go." 2. Possibility. "It may rain." "It might rain." 3. Liberty or permission. "You may go." 4. Inclination. " I would go." 5. Duty. "I should go." 6. Necessity. "I must go." 7. A wish. "3 May you prosper." Occasionally, this mood expresses other relations, as tendency, adaptation, consequence, contingence, etc.; and in some expressions the relational sense is so nearly lost that the mood is almost indicative or subjunctive. 418. The potential mood can be used interrogatively. Ex. -. Must I endure all this?" VERBS. 135 419. The signs of the potential mood are may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. Shall in the sense of must, and will when it expresses volition, belong rather to the potential mood than to the indicative; but, to avoid troublesome distinctions, they are always considered as belonging to the indicative mood. Imperative Mood. The Imperative Brood expresses our volitions, generally as commands. 420. A verb in the imperative mood may express,1. Command. " John, sit up." 2. Entreaty. " Forgive our trespasses." 3. Exhortation. "Believe, reform, and be saved.' 4. Permission. " Go in peace." We command inferiors, entreat superiors, exhort equals, and permit in compliance with the wishes of others. 421 The imperative mood is generally used only in the present tense and the second person. Ex. - " Charge, Chester, charge! " Scott. 422. The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is thou, you, or ye, generally understood. Ex. - " Know thyself" I Know thou thyself. Sometimes the imperative mood is found in the perfect tense; as,'"Have done thy charms, thou hateful, withered hag." - Shakespeare. 423. Sometimes the imperative mood is used in the first or the third person. Ex. -" Somebody call my wife." - Shakespeare. "' And rest we here,' Matilda said." - Scott. "Laugh those who can, weep those who may." - r-d *" Whoever comes this way, behold and tremble." Pollok, Such expressions are generally poetical forms, preferred to the common imperative let. The imperative let is often used with little or no reference to a person addressed; simply as a form of expression, to make known the will of the speaker; as, "Let it rain." To let this be done evidently does not depend on the power of the person addressed. 136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. TENSE. 4249 Tense is that property of verbs which shows the distinctions of time. TIME may be divided into present, past, and fiutre. PRESENT TIME, strictly speaking, can denote but a moment of duration; yet longer periods, extending into both the future and the past, are often considered present; as when we say, this day, this week, this year, this century, in our lifetime. PAST TIME begins from the present, and goes back as far as our thoughts can wander. FUTURE TIME begins from the same point, and goes forward to a similar extent. In each of these periods, an act may be considered either as merely taking place or as completed, thus making the six tenses. Read the following both down the page and across it:Present. Past. Future. I write I wrote I shall write I have written I had written I shall have written. 425. There are six tenses: the present, the presentperfect; the past, the past-pefect; the future, and the future-perfect. The terms perfect and pluperfect may also be used in stead of present-perfect and past-, erfect. It seems better to define the tenses according to their forms, and in every mood, than according to the time which they denote. Present Tense.. 426. Present Indicative. A verb in the present tense of the indicative mood may denote, - 1. A present act or state. Ex. - The grass is growing. This is a warm day. 2. A present habit or custom. Ex. - He chews tobacco. People go to church on Sunday. 3. An unchlangeable truth. Ex. - Heat melts snow. Virtue produces happiness. We. The Doctor said that fever always produced thirst. He said it was forty miles from Baltimore to Washington. Such acts or states are truths inherent in the nature of things, and therefore belong not only to present time. but to all time. Since we live, however, only in present time. and are mostly concerned with this period, the present tense is preferred. VERBS. 137 4. A past or future transaction, vwhich is thus presented with greater vividness or certainty. Ex. — " On Linden, when the sun was low,... The combat deepens. On, ye brave! "- Campbell. " The Guard never surrenders: it dies!" i. e., will never, etc. By this species of present tense, the reader is made, as it were, a spectator of the scene. 5. Some characteristic of an author, as observed in his works now existing. Ex.- Seneca reasons and moralizes well. Milton is sublime. 427. The present subjunctive implies future time, Ex. -If it rain, our flowers will live. It is necessary that the messenger be sent as soon as possible. 428. The present potential is present or future in regard to both the mood and the act or state. Ex. - He may be coming. I can pay you next Christmas. 429. The present imperative is present in regard to the mood, and future in regard to the act or state. Ex.-" Return soon." "I said, Go; and he went." The imperative mood has the form of the pres.nt te?)n.e in other respects, however, it has little or nothing to do with time, but exprescs mnerciy the will of thi speaker in regard to the person adAressed. Present-perfect Tense. 430. Present-perfec. Indicative. A verb in the present-lvefect tense of the indicative mood may represent something,1. As completed in present time. Ex. - I have finished the work. 2. As connected with present time. Ex.- " They have been married twenty years." And still rcmain so. VI. They continue with us now three days. 431. An act may be connected with present time, - 1. By the present existence of the doer. lx. - " I have often read Virgil." And I still live, and may read him again. 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. By the present continuance of the act or state. Ex. -" Thus has it [the Mississippi] flowed for ages." And it still flows and flows. 3. By the present existence of the result.:Ex. -" Cicero has written orations." Cicero is dead, and the writing is past, but the orations still exist. 4. By the presence of some important circumstance. Ex. - "Many important events have happened I during this year." " On this island several duels have been fought." Time and place yet remaining. 432. The present-perfect potential is present or future in regard to the mood, and presents the act or state as relatively past. Ex. - "The child may have fallen into the well," "By that time he may have gone ahead of you." Past Tense. 4330 Past Indicative. A verb in the past tense of the indicative mood denotes, - 1. Simply a past act or state. iEx. - " He was fishing when I saw him." "If he ever was rich.' 2. Sometimes a past habit or custom. Ex. -'" The good times when the farmer entertained the traveler without pay, when he invited him to tarry, and join in the chase, and when Christmas and Fourth of July were seasons of festivity, have passed away." -Benton. 434. The past subjunctive denotes present or indefinite time, and it generally denies the act or state. Ex. - If I were rich, I would give freely. W. He runs as if he was running for life. This tense sometimes becomes definitely past or future from its syntax. 435. The past potential may be present, past, or future, in regard to both the mood and the act or state. It represents the act or state as real, contingent, or denied. " He would go yesterday." " He would go now or to-morrow, if he could." VERBS. 139 Sometimes it denotes a past habit or custom. Ex. - There would she sit and weep for hours." Past-perfect Tense. 436. Past-perfect Indicative. A verb in the pastperfect tense of the indicative mood represents something as completed or ended in past time. Ex. - " Here a small cabin had been erected." W. And he that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 437. The past-perfect subjunctive or potential denotes simply past time, and denies the act or state. Ex. -" If I had been at home, I should have gone." Future Tense. 438. A verb in the future tense denotes,1. Simply a future act or state. Ex. -" The snow will melt." "I shall be busy this evening." 2. Sometimes a future habit or custom. Ex. -" The steer and lion at one crib shall meet." Futuro-perfect Tense. 439. A verb in the future-perfect tense represents something as completed in future time. Ex. - The house, when finished, will have cost a fortune. W. This was four years ago next August. -School Report. Next Christmas I shall be at school a year. General Remarks. 440. The tenses of the subjunctive mood, in order to be distinguished better from the tenses of the indicative, move forward in time. Indicative: " If I am" - now. " If I was "- in past time. "I had been there " before a certain past time. Subjunctive: "If I be "- hereafter. " If I were "- now. "Had I been there "at a certain past time, etc. 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4410 The tenses of the potential mood, when used subjunctively, also move forward in time. Ex. -" I should think you might risk it"; i. e., now or hereafter. 442. Sometimes when, till, before, as soon as, whoever, whatever, or a similar term, carries the present or the present-perfect tense into future time. Ex. - "When he comes, I shall go." "Catch whatever comes." "When he has finished the work, I shall pay him." A tense is sometimes used to deny the same act or state of the subject in a neighboring tense; as, " He has been rich"; i. e., he is not so now. The present, the past, and the future, are called the absolute tenses; and the present-perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect, the relative tenses, for these relate from one point of time to another. Sometimes the prominent idea in the absolute tenses is simply that a certain act or state exists; in the relative tenses, that it is completed. Since the perfect passive participle generally implies completion, a passive verb in the absolute tenses is frequently equivalent in time to the corresponding relative tenses of the active voice.' My rose-bush is destroyed "; " Some one has destroyed my rose-bush." "The coat will then be inished"; "The tailor will then have finished the coat." Observe also the kindred analogy in the following passive forms: - " The house is building "; present. So, "The house was building"; imperfect. "The house is built "; completed. " The house was built "; completed. FORMS OF THE TENSES. 443. The Forms of a Tense are the different ways in which it can be expressed. Ex. - Ie strikes, does strike, is striking, is struck, striketh.'444. There are five forms; the common, the emphatic, the passive, the progressive, and the ancient, or the solemn style. 445. The Common Form is the verb expressed in the most simple and ordinary manner. Ex. —Time flies. He went home. VERBS. 141 416. The Emphatic Porm denotes emphasis, expressed by do or did as a part of the verb. Ex. — I did say so. Really, it does move. Do and did do not make negative propositions emphatic, but simply give a better position to the negative by helping to enclose it within the verb; as, " I did n o t see him." Do and did do not make interrogative propositions emphatic, but simply give the interrogative form by preceding the subject; as, " Did ye not hear it? " 4417 The Passive Forn is that which is generally used to express the passive voice; and it is made by combining the verb be, or some variation of it, with the perfect participle. Ex. - The oak was shattered by lightning. " The melancholy days are come." - Bryant. 448, The Progressive Form is that which expresses continuance of the act or state; and it is made by combining the verb be, or some variation of it, with the present participle. This form, by spreading out, as it were, the act before the mind, is sometimes highly vivid and expressive. Active: I wrote; I was writing. She is dancing. (Dances -trait.) Passive: " I guessed that some mischief was contriving." — Swift. "Where a new church is now building." - Everett. "While these affairs were transacting in Europe." - Bancroft. "Our chains are forging."- Wirt, as Patrick Henry. "Yankee Doodle was playing as I came in." - AI. C. " Where the new rifle-practice was being introduced."-A tl.lMoznthly. "Your friend is being buried."- Harper's Magazine.' "The shocking neologism,' The ship is being calked.' " Marsh. "The participial form [infin. and part.] is, in most languages, a stumbling-block. (Query for the purists: Ought I rather to say, A block-that-is-beilng-stumbled-at?) " -Marsh. For additional remarks on this subject, see pp. 307 and 316. The progressive form can generally be applied only to those acts or states which admit of intermissions and renewals. Permanent mental acts or states, and unchangeable truths, can therefore be seldom expressed in it. We can not say, " I am respecting him," "I am understandinc you," " The air is having weight"; but we must say, "I respect him," " I unlder'stand you," " The air rius weight." 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 449. The Ancient PForm is an old common form that is still retained in the solemn style. It has the ending t, st, or est, for the second person singular; th or eth in stead of s or es, for the third person singular; and generally uses thou or ye in stead of you. This form occurs in the Bible, in prayer, in sermons, and in poetry. Ex. -" Thou barb'dst the dart" "Adversity flattereth no man." Doth is used for the auxiliary does, and doeth for the verb does. Hath and saith are contractions of haveth and sayeth. 450. Interrogative. A proposition is made interrogative, generally by placing the verb, or some part of it, before the nominative. Ex. - " Know ye the land? " Have you seen him?" 451, ]Negative. A proposition is made negative by placing not after the verb or after the first auxiliary. Ex. " I know not." " It could not have been known." A participle or an infinitive is expressed negatively, generally by placing not before it; as, "Not to know some things is an honor." " Not hearing of him, we returned." Some propositions are both interrogative and negative. Negative questions generally imply something contrary to the speaker's belief, or ask for confirmation. Both affirmative and negative questions are answered by no or yes alike. "Did you go — No." "Did you not go. — No." "And did they not catch you, then? - No, thank Heaven! "Garrick. PERSON AND NUMBER. 452. The Perso n and Number of a verb are its form to suit the person and number of its subject. Ex. -I am. Thou art. He is. We are. Verbs have, like their subjects, three persons and two numbers. 453, A finite verb must agree with its subject, in person and number. That is, it must be expressed according to the Conjugation, pp. 160-170, which shows how the best writers and speakers express the verb in regard to its subject; VERBS. 143 454. I, thou, you, he, she, it, we, and they, either are the subjects of finite verbs, or they can represent all other subjects in person and number. 455. Thou generally requires the verb, or the first auxiliary, to end with est, st, or t. " Thou knowest that thou didst the deed." " Thou art the man."' When the termination required by thou would be harsh, it is sometimes omitted, especially in poetry. " 0 Thou my voice inspire, Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." - Pope. " Perhaps thou noticed on thy way a little orb." - Polloic In the imperative mood, thou does not require any variation in the form of the verb. 456. He, she, or it, requires that the verb, in the present indicative, shall end with s or es, th or eth. IEx. - le has, or hath. She teaches, or teacheth. The verb ought, which is never varied, is the only exception. 457. In the plural number the verb has the same form for all the persons. Ex. — We write. You write. They write. The agreement of the verb with its subject, and the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent, make the chief syntax of the English language; let us therefore consider, 1. The person of the subject or antecedent. 2. The number of the subject or antecedent. 3. The terms relating to the subject or antecedent, which do not affect the form of the verb or pronoun. I. Person. 458. When two or more nominatives or antecedents, differing in person, are taken together, or are connected merely by and, the verb or pronoun prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the third. Ex. -" You and I," or, "You, he, and I" ==IWe; "You and he "=You. " James and I have recited 1 our lessons." 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 459. When two or more nominatives, differing in person, are taken separately, or connected by or or nor, the verb prefers the nominative next to it. Ex. -" You or I am to blame "; better, Either you are to blame, or I amn. " Thou or thy friends are to make reparation." MW. He or you is the cause of my trouble. 2. Singular Subject o-r Antecedent. J60. The following subjects or antecedents are singular - 1. A singular noun, or pronoun denoting a single object. Ex. - The fire burns. John is at home. 2. A singular collective noun denoting a group of objects as one thing. Ex. -" His family is large, yet he supports it."'W. The army of Xerxes were vanquished by the Greeks. 3. A plural noun denoting but one thing. Ex. - The " Pleasures of Hope " was written by Campbell. W. Young's " Night Thoughts" are a gloomy but instructive poem. 4. Two or more nouns joined by and, yet denoting but one person or thing. Ex.- Yonder lives a great scholar and statesman. "' Why is dust and ashes [man] proud? " Goldsmith's " Edwin and Angelina" is a beautiful poem. 5. Sometimes two or more singular substantives, joined by and and denoting different things, but taken as one whole. Ex. - WTooing, wedding, and repenting, I is a Scotch jig, a measure, and a cinque pace." - Shakespeare. Here is seems to be proper, as referring to the three things taken in a certain order as one whole. "Descent and fall to us is adverse." - Milton. So, " To turn and Jlee I was now impossible." - Irving. VERBS. 145 6. A singular substantive, or a phrase of two or more, modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, or no. Ex..- "Every house was burned; and every man, woman, and child, was killed." - Burke. " No rank, no fortune, no honor, makes the guilty happy." —Blair. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." - Gray, W. No crop, no house, and no fence, were left. - Newspaper. Every heart and eye were filled with pity. - Croly. 7e Two or more singular substantives joined by or or 9or. " Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, was the appointed day." " To forsake a friend, or to divulge his secrets, is mean." "Neither precept nor discipline is so forcible as example." Nor eye nor listening ear an objectfinds."- Young. W. Neither poetry nor criticism have emerged from pedantry. Edinburgh Review. 8. A series of substantives placed after a verb, when the verb, for the sake of emphasis, agrees only with the first, and is understood to each of the rest. 6 Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." - Bib'e.' There is Concord, and Lexington, and Bunker Hill, and there they will remain forever." - Webster. The pronoun they, in this last example, seems to afford, in regard to pronouns, an exception to the general principle; but it is obvious that this apparent exception arises simply from a different view that is taken of the sense. 3. Plural Subject or Anteedent. 4lS. The following subjects or antecedents are plural: -- 1. A plural substantive that denotes two or more objects, or that is plural in sense. E x. -The fires burn. The ashes have lost I their heat. VI. Here is five or six barrels that you may take. There was not more than ten or fifteen persons present. 7 J 146 ENGLISH GRAMMARI. 2. A collective noun that is singular in form, but plural in idea. Ex. -" The council were divided in their opinions." Such a noun is plural in idea when we must think of the persons or things separately, in order to make the assertion. Ex.-"The majority are handsome, and of large stature." That is, the individual islanders of this majority are so. - See Ellis's Polynesian Res. W. The public is respectfully invited. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure. 3. A singular noun, used, by synecdoche, for a plural. Ex. - Forty'head of cattle were grazing on the meadow. 4. Two or more substantives connected by and, and denoting different persons or things. Ex. -" John, James, and William, [- the boys,] are studying." " You, he, and I, [== we,] are allowed to go." 4'To love our enemies, to mind our own business, and to relieve the distressed, are things oftener praised than practised." W. Where is your slate and pencil? Is your father and mother at home? There was at least he and I, who did not recite. 5. A singular and a plural substantive, or two or more plurals, joined by or or nor. "The king or his advisers were opposed to that course; while neither the prince nor his friends were prepared to defend it."-Hume. Sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative; as,'" Wheere there is an infant or infants who are yet," etc.-MlIo. Statutes. 4. Terms that do Not Affect the Form of the Verb or Pronoun. 4.2, The following terms do not affect the form of the verb or pronoun: — 1. An adjunct to the nominative. Ex. -" The long row of elms was magnificent." So, " Six months' interest is due." W. The chief portion of the exports consist of silks.-iVewuspaper. VERBS. 147 2. A term in apposition. Ex. -" Love, and love only, is the loan for love." W. The Bible, or Holy Scriptures, are the best book. 3. A predicate-nominative. Ex. - " I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame."- Bible. "His meat [food] was locusts and wild honey." - lb. "The people are a many-headed beast," - Pope. W. The crown of virtue are peace and honor. It is sometimes difficult to determine which of the nominatives is the subject, or to which nominative a relative clause should be referred. The sense is the best guide. " The wages of sin is death." Here wages is the nominative to is. "I am the general, who command you "; i. e., I am the general. " I am the general who commands you ";'i. e., I am your general. 4. A term set off parenthetically or emphatically. " This man (and, indeed, all such men) deserves death." 1" Our statesmen, especially John Adams, have reached a good old age."' The carriage, as well as the horses, was much injured." The subjectsbelong to different propositions, and the verb agrees with the first subject.'W. Our taxes, especially the military tax, is enormous. The house, as well as the furniture, were destroyed. 5. An excepted or excluded term, or a term that is apparently set aside for a more important or expressive one. Ex. - " Pleasure, and not books, is his delight." " 3ooks, and not pleasure, are his delight." " Since none but thou can end it." - Milton. " Not only rage, but even murmurs cease." - Pope, abridgel. What black despair, what horror fills his heart! " — Thomson. " Honor and virtue, nay, even interest demandcs a different course." W. Industry, and not mean savings, produce wealth. Nothing but wailings were heard. 463. Words must sometimes be supplied, to complete the subject. Ex. -- Little and often fills the purse" = To put in little and often, etc. " Dear and far-fetched is for ladies" == What is dear, etc. It would probably be quite as well to parse the whole lphrase as a noun, without supplying words. 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 464. A few verbs denote such acts or states that the language has no nouns suitable to be their subjects; and these verbs are therefore accommodated in syntax with the pronoun it. Ex. - "It rains." "It snows." " It thunders." Verbs of this kind are impersonal in some languages; they are logically so in ours, but not grammatically so; for the difficulty is in the meaning of it, and not in the agreement of the verb. The word it seems to be needed in syntax; for without it such words as rains and thunders might sometimes appear as the plurals of the nouns rain and thunder, and not as verbs.' 465. An Impersonal Verb is a verb that has person and number, without having a subject; being generally a mere modifying form of expression. Ex. - Methinks, meseems, frequently the imperative let, and sometimes other imperatives; as, " There are, say, a thousand languages and dialects;" i. e., probably a thousand, etc. It is worthy of notice that independent infinitive and participial phrases also fall into the foregoing analogy; as, " To speak frankly, he will probably not succeed." "Generally speaking, the people are in good circumstances." Let us next notice by what means all the foregoing properties of verbs are expressed. AUXILIARY VERBS. 466. The auxiliary verbs express voice, mood, tense, person, and number. They also contribute to what is called, in syntax, position (as in negative or interrogative propositions); and they are used as the pronouns or pro-verbs to other verbs. 467. The auxiliary verbs are be and its variations; do, did; can, could; have, had; may, might; must; shall, should; will, and would. Be is used to express the verb in the passive and the progressive form; as, "The house is built." "The leaves are filling." It shows when or how the person or thing exists in the state denoted by the rest of the verb. Do and Did, except in negative or interrogative propositions, are generally used to give emphasis to the verb; as, "But when I do go, I choose to go as a lady." -~Mrs. Caudle. They denote action indefinitely, which is made specific by the rest of the verb. Can and Could are used to express, 1. Ability. "I can carry the basket," 2. Possibility. "It can not be." It is impossible. VERBS. 149 Have and Had are used to express the perfect tenses. Ex. I have seen. I had seen. I shall have seen. May and Might are used to express, - 1. Ability or probability. " I might have done it." 2. Possibility or probability. "It might have been." "It may rain." 3. Permission. "You may go." 4. Wishing. "Mlay you prosper." Must is used to express necessity. " Die I must." - ~I. K. White. Shall and Should are used to set forth the act or state, - 1. As a duty, as something commanded or authorized, or as something determined or resolved upon. Ex.-" Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." " You should obey." "He shall stay at home." " They said,' It shall be done.'" " Shall I be left, forgotten in the dust, When Fate, relenting, lets the flower revive? "- Beattie. W. Will I be allowed.to occupy this seat 2. As something compelled by circumstances, especially when the subject is of the first person. Ex. -" I shall be drowned; for nobody will help me."'W. I will suffer, if I do not take my overcoat. We would then be obliged to retreat. 3. As something future or contingent, but without reference to the will of the subject, and especially when the subject is of the first person. Ex. -" I shall call to see you this evening." " Should you meet any of my friends, remember me to them." "Do you think the book will sell?- I should think so." "Whoever shall violate this rule, shall [~I 1] be punished." "Yes, my son; you shall often find the richest men the meanest." - Tattler. That is, this fact will often force itself upon your notice. An obsolescent but good use of the word. W. Will I find you here when I return?- See also ~ 1. Would we hear a good sermon if we would go? [land. Isabella promised a pension to the first seaman who would discover The various meanings of shall tend to make it very expressive in prophecy. Ex. - "Earth shall by angel feet be trod, One great garden of her God! "- Croly (on the Millennium). "Beware of the day when the Lowlands shall nmeet thee." —Campbell. 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Will and Would are used to set forth the act or state,1. As something proceeding from the will or nature of the subject. Ex. -" We will drain our dearest veins, but they shall be free." "I would not live always; I ask not to stay." "This will do." "It will rain soon." "The cause will raise up armies." W. I shall go home, in spite of all opposition." 2. As something repeated from a steadfast inclination to do it. Ex. -" There would she sit and weep for hours." 3. Simply as something future, wherever shall or should would imply compulsion; and hence especially when the subject is of the second or third person. Ex. - " You will be ridiculed for your eccentricity," "If he should go to church, he would hear a good sermon." W. I believe that all these volunteers shall be sent away. In conditional propositions, shall or should must nearly always be used to express simple futurity or contingence; for will and would in such propositions generally refer to the will of the subject. Ex. —" If I shall have been." "If you shall have been." "When he shall go." "Whoever shall say so." 468. Auxiliary verbs are often convenient when we wish to express the verb interrogatively, negatively, or elliptically. Ex. -" Do you know Lydia Flare " Placed before the nominative. "Can you go " " I do not want his company." (See page 141.) "If man will not do justice, God will " [do justice]. "They herd cattle, and raise corn, just as we used to do; i. e., to herd cattle and raise corn. Do is sometimes thus used as a sort of pro-verb to represent an active verb or a phrase. 469., Be, do, and have, and sometimes other auxiliaries, are used also as principal verbs. They are thus used when not combined with a principal verb expressed or understood. PRINCIPAL. AUXILIARY. "I was sick." "I w as made sick." "He does well." "He do e s write well." "She has nothing." "She h a s learned nothing." 470, The auxiliaries do, have, may, can, must, will, and shall, generally accord best with one another, and with the present tenses; the auxiliaries did, had, might, could, would, and should, VERBS. 151 generally accord best with one another, and with the past tenses. Ex. -" What Nature has denied, fools will pursue." - Young. What Nature had denied, he would pursue. W. If I lend you my horse, I should have to borrow one myself. To the foregoing paragraph there are many exceptions. INFIlN ITIVE S. 471. An Infinitive is a form of the verb that generally begins with to, and that expresses the act or state without predicating it. Ex. - To lead, to have led, to be led, to have been led. 472. There are two infinitives; the present and the perfect. A transitive verb has both in each voice j thus making four forms, as above. Present Infinitive. 473. The Present Infinitive denotes, - 1. Simply the act or state. Ex. -" To love is to serve." 2. The act or state as present in regard to the word on which the infinitive depends. Ex. - " She seems I to study." 3. The act or state as future in regard to the word on which the infinitive depends. Ex.- "Man never is, but always to be, blest." - Pope. W. I hoped to have heard from you. I intended to have said less. It was still in his power to have refused. - Dryden. 474. The present infinitive consists of to, combined with the simplest form of the verb; or of to be, with a simple participle. Ex. - To write, to be writing, to be written. 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Perfect Infinitive. 475. The Perfect Infinitive represents the act or state as completed at the time referred to. Ex. -" You seem I to have come through the rain." 476. The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or to have been, combined with a simple participle. To have written, to have been writing, to have been written. The perfect infinitive is so combined with the verb ought, and sometimes with the verb have or was, that the whole expression is equivalent in time to the past-perfect potential; as, "I ought to have gone." And in the idiom, " I had like to have fallen overboard."- Swift. And, probably, " I was to have gone," implying, "I did not go," and considered incorrect by most grammarians, is allowable as belonging to the same analogy. - See p. 307. It is remarkable that, in combination with most of the auxiliary verbs, the perfect infini. tive does not imply antecedent time; and all the foregoing verbs seem have fallen into the saume analogy. Syntax of Infinitives. 477. An infinitive may express something, - As the cause. " I grieve to hear of your bad conduct." As the purpose. " And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray." As simply aftfture or subsequent event. " He fell to rise no more." As the respect wherein. " Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike." As a determination or obligation. "I am to go." "It is to be deplored, that," etc. As the manner. " All things went to suit me." As the supplement of a comparison. " Good enough to sell." " So mean as to be despised." 478, An infinitive may be used, - Chiefly as a verb. "He is supposed to have gone." Partially as an adverb. "I came to see you." (Came why?) Partially as an adjective. "An opportunity to study." Partially as a noun. " To have learned the art, will be a pleasure." In combination with all the auxiliary verbs except have and be. "I did [to] write." " I can [to] study." Independently, for a clause or a sentence. " But, to proceed," etc. 479. In its substantive sense, the infinitive may be used,As the subject of a verb. " To retreat was impossible." As the objectof a verb. " Iie wished to retreat." An infinitive becomes thus the object of a verb when that verb is transitive, VERBS. 153 As the object of about, except, or but. " He is about to retreat." As a predicate-nominative. " To sin is to suffer." As an appositive. "Delightful task! to rear the tender thought." 480. An infinitive may be construed with,A noun. " He has the courage to venture." A pronoun. " Hear him speak." An adjective. " He is anxious to start." A verb. " He seems to prosper." "I came to remain." An adverb. " He knows when to purchase." Strictly speaking, the whole phrase, when to purchase, depends on knows. A preposition. "He is about to sell his farm." A conjunction. "He is wiser than to believe it." An interjection, elliptically. "0, to be in such a condition!" Strictly speaking, the infinitive phrase is here used as a nominative independent, by exclamation. Be is often combined with about and the infinitive, to express something as future and impending at the time referred to; as, " We were I about to start." Be, in some of the tenses, may be combined with the infinitive, to express determination or design; as, " They are I to be sold." Have is often combined with the infinitive, to express obligation or necessity; as, " I shall have I to pay it." The verbs seem, appear, suppose, etc., are often combined with the infinitive, to modify or soften the assertion; as, "She seems to know but little." 481. To is omitted when the infinitive is combined with an auxiliary verb. Ex. - " He does [to] study." " I can [to] study" = I am able to study. 482. To is omitted after the active verbs bid, make, need, hear, let, see, feel, and dare; after let in the passive voice; sometimes after have, help, please, find, and equivalents of see; and sometimes after a conjunction, or in colloquial expressions. Ex. - "Let us [to] sing." "I heard him [to] say it." [It is] " Better [to] lose than [to] be disgraced." About seven hundred years ago the infinitive had the ending en or an in stead of the prefix to. The combinations of the infinitive with auxiliaries, and with most of the foregoing verbs, were then or previously made; and it would therefore be more appropriate to say that these verbs are followed by the OLD infinitive, which had not TO; as, "Heo conne speken" = They can speak. 7t 154 ENGLISH GGRAIMAR. PARTICIPLES. 483. A Participle is a form of the verb that expresses the act or state without predicating it, and generally resembles an adjective. Ex. -' A tree, bending with fruit, fell to the ground." Observe thatfell, and not bending, predicates something of tree; also that the phrase, bending withfruit, is, like an adjective, descriptive of the tree. 484. There are two participles; the present and the perfect, each of which is either simple or compound. Present Participle. 485, The Present Participle represents the act or state as present and continuing at the time referred to. Ex. - " We saw the moon rising." "Being thus wounded, he can not return to his regiment." 486. The simple present participle is made by annexing ing to the simplest form of the verb. Ex.- Catch, catching; hide, hiding; dig, digging. 487. The simple present participle, of a transitive verb, is nearly always in the active voice. Ex. -" The bee, stinging the boy, soon set itself free." 488. In some connections this participle can be used in the passive voice. Ex. —" Virgil describes some spirits as bleaching in the winds, others as cleansing [i. e., being cleansed] under great falls of water, and others as purging in fire, to recover the primitive beauty and purity of their nature." - Addison. " I could easily see what was doing on the other side of the river." - Bulwer. Perfect Participle. 489. The Perfect Participle represents the act or state as completed at the time referred to. Ex.-" A fox, caught in a trap." "A fox, having caught a hen, met the owner," etc. TVEBS. 155 490. The simple perfect participle is made by annexing ed to the simplest form of the verb; or it is an irregular form, given in the list of irregular verbs. Ex. - Pitch, pitched; give, given; see, seen; teach, taught. 491, The simple perfect participle of a transitive verb is either active or passive. 492. It is in the active voice, when have in any of its forms is combined with it. Ex. - Having given. To have given. I have given. I had given. I shall have given. 493. It is in the passive voice, - 1. When it stands by itself. Ex. -" The apple eaten by Eve was the first temptation." 2. When be in any of its forms, is combined with it. Ex. - " The apple was given to Eve to be eaten by her." 494. The simple perfect participle of some verbs can be used as a present participle. Ex. -" He lives loved by all." Compound Participle. 495. A Compound Partieiple is one that consists of being, having, or having been, combined with some other participle. Being, having, and having been, thus become a u xili a ry participles to other participles. Ex. - Written; being written, having written, having been written. 49g. Being is used chiefly to express the present passive participle. Ex.-" The soldier, being wounded, was carried to the hospital. The act of wounding is past; but he still remains in the wounded state. The compound participle, thus formed, generally expresses the present con* tinuance of a completed act, rather than the, present receiving of the act. 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 497 EHaving is used chiefly to express the perfect active participle of transitive verbs, or to express the participle in time that corresponds to some perfect tense. Ex. - Loved, laving loved. " Having said this, he withdrew ". When he had said this, he withdrew. "iHaving learned the lesson, you may play "= Since or when you have learned the lesson, etc. 498. Having been is used chiefly to express the perfect participle corresponding to the compound present passive participle, or to the simple perfect passive participle that is present in time. "The soldier, having been wounded, was recognized by the scar." Loved, having been loved; occupied, having been occupied. Occasionally, the auxiliary participles are used for other purposes, of which the principal are, to exclude predication, to distinguish voice, to distinguish cause from condition, to show more distinctly the participial sense, and to give more distinctly the sense of a clause to the participial phrase. "This being proved, the conclusion is irresistible." iProved, without being, would seem to be a finite verb, and in the active voice. " The army did not march, being ill provided," implies cause; " The army did not march ill provided," implies condition. " Being admired and applauded, she became vain," is simply a little more forcible or formal than, "Admired and applauded, she became vain." It is thus that simple and compound participles approach so nearly in meaning that they are sometimes almost equivalent. A compound participle that consists of been placed between two participles that end each with ing, is frequently found; as, "having been standing." But a compound participle that consists of being combined with some other participle that also ends with ing, is seldom found; as, "being standing." Good writers generally prefer to change the form of expression; as, "The inhabitants, being starriq, surrendered"; better, "The inhabitants, being in a starving condition, surrendered." From what has thus far been said of participles, we may infer,1. That intransitive verbs have three participles, or participial forms, - the present, the perfect, and the compound; as, Rising, risen, having risen. Risen is used chiefly in combination, having risen is used alone. 2. That transitive verbs have six participles, three in each voice, - the present, the perfect, and the compound; but that of these six the perfect active can be used only in combination with have, thus leaving but five participles that can be used alone. We may also observe that the compound participle has three forms. VERBS. 157 Ex. - ACTIVE Building, -built, having built. PASSIVE: Being built, built, having beef bulbt. COMPOUND: Bei'ng built, having built, having been built. Observe here that being built is not only a somewhat clumsy form, but that it does not strictly express the progressive passive sense; therefore building is sometimes compelled to serve in its place. Observe also that the active built has the same form as the passive; but as the passive was more needed, the active built left the field to the passive, and havirg built came in to supply the place of the former. Syntax of Participles. 499. A participle may express something subordinate,As the cause. " John, being tired, went to bed." As the means. " The horse charged upon the wolves, striking them with his fore feet." As the manner. "The cars came rattling." - See Southey's Lodore. As the time. "Hlaving taken shelter here, he saw an ant," etc. As the state. " Ie became attached to us." As the accompanimpent. " She sat near, reading a book." As the condition. "Circling round, you may approach on the other side." As the respect wherein. " I consider him as having lost his right." 500. A participle may be used,Chiefly as a verb. "Seeing me, he approached." Chiefly as an adjective. " States severed, discordant, belligerent." Wholly as an adjective. "Interesting stories." "Farminl utensils." Chiefly as an adverb.; The horse stands sleeping*" (How?) Wholly as an adverb. "Scalding hot." Partially as a noun. "By sending those books immediately." Wholly as a noun. "By the immediate sending of those books." In combination with the auxiliary be, to express the passive form. " They were shot." In combination with the auxiliary be, to express the progressive form. "They were shootirng." In combination with the auxiliary have, to express the perfect tenses. "I have seen." " I had seen," " I shall have seen." Absolutely with a substantive. " The bells having rung, we went to church." Absolutely after an infinitive.' To go prepared, is necessary." Independently, in the sense of a clause. " Generally speaking, few men," etc. 501, In its substantive sense the participle may be used,As the subject of a verb. "Reading is taught daily." As the object of a verb. " He teaches reading and writing." As the object of a preposition. " By readiln the book." As a predicate-nominative. " To die for her is serving thee." - Holmes. This last construction occurs so frequently in good writers that it must be allowed when the sense is obvious, especially in verse; though the infinitive would be better, for is serring might in some constructions appear to be a verb. 158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Participles and Infinitives. Agreements. 502, Participles and infinitives have voice, something of tense, but neither person nor number. 5e3. Participles and infinitives are annexed to auxiliary verbs, to express all those parts of the verb which it can not express by itself. 501i Participles and infinitives partake of the nature of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 50j5. Participles and infinitives lose the idea of time as they become nouns or adjectives. 5fO. Participles and infinitives become verbal nouns when they assume case; and they may then be used in any case except the possessive.' To be despised is the consequence of Ieddilizg." What is? and of what? Mr. Gould Brown repudiates this extension of case. But case, in English, is a relation as well as a form of words; and had he been better acquainted with foreign languages, especially the Greek, in which the article is even declined before the infinitive, he would probably have come to a different conclusion. Only participles that end with ing, and compound participles, can be used as nouns. O57, By virtue of their verbal sense, verbal nouns may govern other substantives in the objective case, or be modified adverbially. Ex.-" To consider i sometimes the consequences of our actions, is our duty." Such participles and infinitives may be parsed first as participles and infinitives, and then they may be disposed of substantively in syntax. Differencees. 5 8, Participles are combined with the auxiliaries be and have; infinitives, with all other auxiliaries. Participles. Infinitives. I am writing. I can [to] study. I was struck. I did [to] study. I had been writinq. I might [to] have studied. I have written. I shall [to] study. To is used here simply to show the infinitives; for the infinitives of these old syntactical combinations never had to, but an ending in the place of it. VERBS. 159 W. The ground is froze. The sun has rose. My horse was stole. The coat is wore out. The slate is broke. I might have went. So, on the contrary, participles should not be used for the past tense. I seen him. (See p. 122.) He done it. He begun well. We drunk but little. I knowed it. - See T 369. 599. Participles are used after prepositions; infinitivcs are generally required in connection with finite verbs. Ex. -" You will lose nothing by helping him." " To defer the matter is to give it up." 510. Participles may become concrete, and even assume number; infinitives never do, but remain strictly abstract. Ex. -" To lodge in comfortable lodgings." 511. A participle, by virtue of its substantive sense, may govern the possessive case; an infinitive, never. Ex. - " He made no secret of myn I having written the review." - IRVING. Such possessives are condemned by Mr. Brown; but they are abundantly authorized by good writers. It is sometimes better, however, to use, in stead of the participle, arordinary noun, or a clause beginning with that. 512, A participial noun may become so nearly a full noun, as to require an adjective rather than an adverb. Ex. -" By carefully reading the book." "By a careful reading of the book." "By slow marching." But, "To march slowly." Only participles that end with ing, can be used as such nouns. All participles thus deprived of their verbal syntax should be parsed simply as parti cipial nouns. 513, A participle sometimes becomes an adjective; an infinitive, never. Ex. - PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES: " A broken pitcher; "Life's fleeting moments." Sometimes the participle becomes a mere adjective; as, "This is surprisin " == wonderful. - See p. 221. Only the simple participles can be used as adjectives. 514. Infinitives lean more to predicates and substantives; participles, to modifiers. Participles and infinitives form a very important circuit of expres. sions between finite verbs and other parts of speech. 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CONJUGATION. 515. The Conjugation of a verb is the proper combination and arrangement of its parts, in their full order. "In their full order," - that is, in all the persons and numbers of each mood, tense, etc. Conjugation embraces all the persons and numbers; synopsis, only one person and number.,56. A Synopsis of a verb is only an outline of it, which shows its parts in a single person and number, through the moods and tenses. SYNOPSIS of write, with I, through the indicative mood:Present, I write. Present-Perfect, I have written. Past, I wrote. Past-Perfect, I had written. Future, I shall write. Future-Perfect, I shall have written. 517. Most forms of the verb consist of auxiliaries combined with participles or infinitives; and such forms may be called composite. The present and the past are the forms mostly used without auxiliary verbs. In general, verbs branch out thus: They have moods; moods have tenses; tenses have forms; and forms have persons and numbers. 518, The irregular verb BE is conjugated thus:PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present. Past. Present Participle. Perfect' Participle Be or am, was, being, been. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. First Person. I am, 1. We are, Second Person. You are, 2. You are, Third Person, lie, she, or it, is; 3. They are. Formerly, be was used in stead of am, are, is, etc. VERBS. 161 Present-Perfect Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1 I have been, 1. We have been, 2. You have been, 2. You have been, 3. He has been; 3. They have been. Past Tense. 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. You were, 2. You were, 3. He was; 3. They were. Past-Perfect Tense. 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 2. You had been, 2. You had been, 3. He had been; 3. They had been. Future Tense. Simple futurity; foretelling 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. You will be, 2. You will be, 3. He will be; 3. They will be. Promise, threat, or determination. 1. I will be, 1. We will be, 2. You shall be, 2. You shall be, 3. He shall be; 3. They shall be. Future-Perfect Tense. Simple futurity; foretelling. 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 3. He will have been; 3. They will have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 2. If you be, 2. If you be, 3. If he be; 3. If they be. It 162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Past Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. If I were, Were I, 1. If we were, Were we, 2. If you were, Were you, 2. If you were, Were you, 3. If he were; or, Were he; 3. Iftheywere; or,Werethey. Past-Perfect Tense. 1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. Or thus: 1. Had I been, 1. Had we been, 2. Had you been, 2. Had you been, 3. Had he been; 3. Had they been. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 2. You may be, 2. You may be, 3. lie may be; 3. They may be. In the same way conjugate can be and must be. Present-Perfect Tense. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 3. He may have been; 3. They may have been. In the same way conjugate must have been and " Can I have been? " Past Tense. 1. I might be, 1. We might be, 2. You might be, 2. You might be, 3. He might be; 3. They might be. In the same way conjugate could be, would be, and should be. Past-Perfect Tense. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been; 3. They might have been. In the same way conjugate could have been, would have been, and should have been. VERBS. 163 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 2. Be thou; or, Do thou be. 2. Be ye; or, Do ye be. Present. Perfect. Compound. INFINITIVES.-To be. To have been. PARTICIPLES. - Being. Been. Having been. Synopsis of the verb be, with thou. INDICATIVE MOOD.'present Tense, Thou art. Present-Perfect Tense, Thou hast been. Pas\ Tense, Thou wast, or wert. Paslf-terfect Tense, Thou hadst been. Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt be. Future-Perfect Tense, Thou shalt or wilt have been. "Thou wert, thou art, the cherished madness of my heart." - Byron. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense, If thou be. Past Tense, If thou wert; or, Wert thou. Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst been; or, Hadst thou been. "If thou were," and " If thou had been," are sometimes used by good writers. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must be. Present-Perfect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shculdst have been. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Be thou; or, Do thou be. 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 519. The regular verb RO W is conjugated thus:PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present. Past. Present Participle. Perfect Participle. Row, rowed, rowing, rowed. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I row, 1. W, Te row, 2. You row, 2. You row, 3. He rows; 3. They row. -~ Let the verbs love, rule, permit, carry, strike, and see, be now conjugated in the same way by other members of the class. So, in each following tense. Emphatic Form. Do, combined with the present infinitive.* 1. I do row, 1. We do row, 2. You do row, 2. You do row, 3. He does row; 3. They do row. Present-Perfect Tense. Have, combined with the perfect participle. 1. I have rowed, 1. We have rowed, 2. You have rowed, 2. You have rowed, 3. HIe has rowed; 3. They have rowed. In the solemn style, 7zath, roweth, and doth row are used for has, rows, and does row. Past Tense. 1. I rowed, 1. We rowed, 2. You rowed, 2. You rowed, 3. lIe rowed; 3. They rowed. * The infinitive, in combining with auxiliary verbs, drops the sign to; and these composite forms tend to show that the present should be considered the present infinitive rather than the present indicative; but since the latter is also needed as a principal part, it may be well to call the present either. The English infinitive, as we have already said, formerly had the ending an or en instead of the prefix to; and hence such primitive combinations of verbs as must have been made with auxiliaries, are without the sign to. VEIRBS 165 Emphatic Form. Did, combined with the present infinitive, SINGULAR. PLURAL, 1. I did row, 1. We did row, 2. You did row, 2. You did row, 8. He did row; 3. They did row. Past-Perfect Tense. Had, combined with the perfect participle. 1. I had rowed, 1. We had rowed, 2. You had rowed, 2. You had rowed, 3. He had rowed; 3. They had rowed. Future Tense. Shall or will, combined with the present infinitive. Simple futurity; foretelling. 1. I shall row, 1. We shall row, 2. You will row, 2. You will row, 3. He will row; 3. They will row. Promise, threat, or determination. 1. I will row, 1. We will row, 2. You shall row, 2. You shall row, 3. He shall row; 3. They shall row. Future-Perfect Tense. Shall or will, combined with the perfect infinitive. Simple futurity; foretelling. 1. I shall have rowed, 1. We shall have rowed. 2. You will have rowed, 2. You will have rowed, 3. He will have rowed; 3. They will have rowed. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The tenses of the subjunctive mood are formed like those of the indicative. Present Tense. 1. If I row, 1. If we row, 2. If you row, 2. If you row, 3. If he row; 8. If they row. 166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Emphatic Form. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. If I do row, 1. If we do row, 2. If you do row, 2. If you do row, 3. If he do row; 3. If they do row. Past Tense. 1. If I rowed, 1. If we rowed, 2. If you rowed, 2. If you rowed, 3. If he rowed; 3. If they rowed. Emphatic Form. 1. If I did row, 1. If we did row, 2. If you did row, 2. If you did row, 3. If he did row; 3. If they did row. Past-Perfect Tense. 1. If I had rowed, 1. If we had rowed, 2. If you had rowed, 2. If you had rowed, 3. If he had rowed; 3 If they had rowed. Or thus: 1. Had I rowed, 1. ITad we rowed, 2. IIad you rowed, 2. Iad you rowed, 3. Had he rowed; 3. Had they rowed. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. May, can, or must, combined with the present infinitive. 1. I may row, 1. We may row, 2. You may row, 2. You may row, 3. IIe may row; 3. They may row. Present-Perfect Tense. May, can, or must, combined with the perfect infinitive. 1. I may have rowed, 1. We may have rowed, 2, You may have rowed, 2. You may have rowed, 3. He may have rowed; 3. They may have rowed. In the same way conjugate must have rowed. VERBS. 16T Past Tense. Might, could, would, or shtould, combined with the present infinitive. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I might row, 1. We might row, 2. You might row, 2. You might row, 3. He might row; 3. They might row. In the same N ay conjugate could row, would row, and should row. Past-Perfect Tense. slight, could, would, or should, combined with the perfect infinitive. 1. I might have rowed, 1. We might have rowed, 2. You might have rowed, 2. You might have rowed, 3. IHe might have rowed; 3. They might have rowed. In the same way conjugate could have rowed, would have rowed, and should have rowed. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. 2. Row thou; or, Do thou row. 2. Row ye; or, Do ye row. Present. Perfect. Compound. INFINITIVES.- To row. To have rowed. PARTICIPLES. - Rowing. * Rowed. Iaving rowed. Synopsis of the verb row, with thou. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Thou rowest, or dost row. Preselzt-Perfeet Tense, Thou hast rowed. Past Tense, Thou rowedst, or didst row. Past-Perfect Tense, Thou hadst rowed. Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt oow. Future-Perfect Tense, Thou shalt or wilt have rowed. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense, If thou row, or do row. Past Tense, If thou rowed, didst row, or did row. Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst rowed. * The simple perfect participle of a transitive verb, in the active voice, is used only in combination with the auxiliary verb hare. 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must row. Present-Perfect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must have rowed. Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst row. Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have rowed. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Row thou; or, Do thou row. The Passive Form and the Progressive Form of the Verb URow. The passive or the progressive form of any tense consists of the corresponding tense of the verb be, combined with the simple perfect or present participle. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Tense. SINGULAR. Present Tense. 1. I was rowed, rowing, SINGUOLAR. SINGULAR. 2. YOU was rowed, rowing, Neuter. Passive. Progressive. 3. e was rowed; rowing; ( 1. I am rowed, rowing, PLURAL. 2. You are rowed, rowing,. We were rowed, rowing, ( 3. He is rowed; rowing; 2. You were rowed, owing, PLURAL. 3. They were rowed. rowing. 1. We are rowed, rowing, Past-Perfect Tense. 2. You are rowed, rowing, SINGULAR. 3. They are rowed. rowing. 1. I had been rowed, rowing, The pupil should first conjugate through 2. You had been rowed, rowing, each three persons the verb be, then the passive verb, then the verb in the progres- 3. He had been rowed; rowing; sive form. PLURAL. Present-Perfect Tense. 1. We had been rowed, rowing, SINGULAR. 2. You had been rowed, rowing, 1. I have been rowed, rowing, 3. They had been ed rowing. 2. You have been rowed, rowing,ture Tense.,Future Tenise. 3. He has been rowed; rowing; 3. lH~e has been ro~owedl; rowingj; Simple futurity; foretelling. PLURAL. SINGULAR. 1. We have been rowed, rowing, 1. I shall be rowed, rowing, 2. You have been rowed, rowing, 2. You will be rowed, rowing, 8. They have been rowed. rowing. 3. He will be rowed; rowing; VERBS. 169 PLvURAL. PLVUAL 1. IIc shall be rowed, rowing, 1. If we were rowed, rowing, 2. You will be rowed, rowing, 2. If you were rowed, rowing, 3. They will be rowed. rowing. 3. If they were rowed. rowing. Promise, threat, or determination. 01 thus SINGULAR. SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 1. I will be rowed, rowing, 1. Were I rowed, rowing, 1. IWere I rowed, rowing, 2. You shall be rowed, rowing, 2. Were you rowed, rowiong, 3. They shall be rowed; rowing; 3. Were he rowed; rowing; PLURAL. PLURAL. 1~ ~. We will be Wre we rowed, rroing,W 1. aCWe will be rowed, rowing, 1. Were we rowed, rowing, 2. You shall be rowed, rowing, 2. Were you rowed, roaing, 3. They shall be rowed. rowing. Were they rowed. rowing. Past- Perfect Tense. Future. Perfect Tense. SIN6uLAn. Simple futurity; foretelling. SIULA I. If I had been rowed, rowing, SrINGULAR. 1. I shall have been rowed, rowing, 2. If been ed, ing, 2. You will have been rowed, rowing, 3. If he had been rowed; rowing; 3. lIe will have been rowed; rowing; PLURAL. PLURAL. 1. If we had been rowed, rowing, 1. We shall have been rowed, rowing, h n o 2. You will have been rowed, rowing, I h been oed, ro,. They will have been rowed. rowing. 3. If they had been rowed. rowing. Or thusSUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. Present Tense. SINGULAR. 21. Had I been rowed, rowing, 1I. 2If I be roed, o g2 3. Had you been rowed; rowing, 2. If Iou be rowed, rotwing, 3. If he be rowed; rowing; 1. Had we been rowed, rowing; 2. If he be rowed; rowing;. PLURAL. 2. Had you been rowed, rowing, 1. If we be rowed, rowingq, 3. Had they been rowetd rowing. 2. If you be rowed, rowing, 3. If they be rowed. rowing, POTENTIAL MOOD. Past Tense. Present Tense. LAR. SINGULAR. SINGULA 1. If I were rowed, rowing, 1. I may be rowed, rowing 2. If you were rowed, rowing, 2. You may be rowed, rowing, 8. If he were rowed; rowing; 3. He may be rowed; rowing; 8 170 ENGLISH. GRAM3MAP. PLURAL. Past-Perfect Tense. 1. We may be rowed, rowing, SINGULAR. 2. You may be rowed, rowing, i. i might have been rowed, rowing, 3. They may be rowed. rowing. 2. You might have been rowed, rowing, In like manner conjugate can be and 3. Hemighthave been rowed; rowing; must be. PLURAL. Present-Perfect Tense. 1. We might have been rowed, rowing, SINGULAR. 2. You might have been rowed, rowing, 1. I may have been rowed, rowing, 3. They might have been rowed, rowing. 2. You may have been rowed, rowing, In like manner conjugate could have 3. He may have been rowed; roin been, would have been, and should have been. PLURAL. 1. We may have been rowed, rowing, IMPERATIVE MOOD. 2. You may have been rowed, rowing, 3. They may have been rowed. rowing. Present Tense. In like manner conjugate must have SINGULAR. beenI Past Tense. 2. Be thou rowed; rowing, SINGULAR. -PLURAL. 1. I might be rowed, rowing, 2. Be ye rowed. rowing. 2. You might be rowed, rowing, InFINXITIVES. 3. He might be rowed; rowing; INFINITIV OPLURAL. Present. To be rowed. rowing. Perfect. To have been rowted. rowing. 1. We might be rowed, rowing, 2. You might be rowed, rowing, PARTICIPLES. 8. They might be rowed. rowing. Present. Being rowed. In like manner conjugate could be, Perfect. Rowed. would be, and should be. Compound. Having been rowed, rowing. The synopsis with thou is similar to the synopsis given on p. 163. When neither of the foregoing forms of the verb can express the pro gressie passive sense, the compound present passive participle is sometimes joined to the verb be in stead of the simple perfect or present participle; in other words, being is put into the common passive verb, between the auxiliary and the participle. These clumsy forms. however, are usually tolerated only in the present and the past indicative and the past subjunctive. - See p. 307. SINGULAR. PLURAL. r -1. I am being educated, 1. We are being educated, Pant i- j 2. You are being educated, 2. You are being eductted, dicative. 2. Yeuis being ed 3. He is being educated; 3. They are being educated. (1. I was being educated, 1. We were being educated, Past.Indi. 2. You were being educated, 2. You were being educated, at*ve. 3. He was being educated; 3. They were being educated. 1. If I were being educated. 1. If we were being educated.Past Sb- 2. If you were being educated, 2. If vou were being edncated, 3cte.. If he were being educated; 3. If they were being educated, VERBS. 171 Exercises. How many and what tenses has the indicative mood? - the stijunctive? - the pokntial? the' imperative? What ifinitices are there - what participles? In what mood and tense do you find do? - did? - have?- hd? sha/l or will - shall or will have?- mail, can, or must? - ml/, can,, or must have? —mi/ght, could, would, or should?. — ight, could, would, or should have? What is the sign of the present indicative? -the past? - the future? the present-perfect'? - the past-perfect?- the future? - te tuture-perfeet? the present subjunctive - the past? - the past-perfect? - the present potential - tile present-perfect? - the past? - the past-perfect? Change the following verbs into the other tenses of the same mood: I write. I may write. If I write. If I be writing. Change into the other forms of the same tense: - He strikes. He struck. He has struck. You rule. You ruled. You have ruled. Give, in the order of the Conjugation, the infinitives, then the participles; first in the active voice, and then in the passive, if the verb can have the passive voice: Move, rise, spring, degrade, drown, invigorate, overwhelm, bleed. Give the synopsis of the verb be with I, through each tense of all the moods; first aflirlnatively throughout, then interrogatively, then negatively; - with thou; -with he;- with they; -with you. Now of I and he together, or in pairs, through all the tenses;- of he and they; -of youl and tlhlt. Give in like manner the synopsis of see, through both voices; of love, biCn, carry, and permit; - of rise, in the progressive form. Give thou with each auxiliary except be; -give he; - give they. low; do the indicative and the subjunctive mood agree and differ in form? Conjugate each of the following verbs, beginning with the first person singular. and stopping with the subject: — The boy learns. (Thus: SINGULAR, 1st person, I learn; 2d person, Yob learn; 3d person, He, or the ho/, leaerIs.) The leaves are falling Flowers must, fade. Jane reads. Jane and Eliza read. Jane or Eliza reads. Tell of what mood and tense, then conjugate throughout the tense, beginning with the first person singular: —I imagine. He suffered. We have lost it. I had been ploughing. I will visit. Were I. Had Ibeen. If he were. Were I invited. Had I been invited. If I be invited. They shall have written. I lay. We read. It may pass. You should have come. We may have been robbed. I was speaking. It is rising. You might be preparing. Had you been studying. Do you hope? Did she smile? If I do fail. If thou rely. Thou art. Art thou? He forgiveth. Dost thou not forgive? It must have happened. They are gone. Thou art going. Predicate each of the following verbs correctly of thou; then of he, and of they:- Am,.was, have been, wIould have been, are deceived, had been, do sav. did maintain, gave, touched, cast, amass, recommend, be discouraged, shall have been, will pardon, may have been rejoioing, was elected, should have been elected. 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The verbs, and wt:~Regular or irregular, and cw7/ i:Transitive or intransitive, and wh/q; with voice, and wuhy:-.Mood and tense, and zwhy; with emphatic or progressive form, and why:Person and number, and w/hy:IHc is reading the Bible. We have slept. She died. Were we surpassed. You had sent him. Take care, lest you lose it. 3Iy time might have been improved better. The corn was ripening. The wind has risen. Frr additional exercises, if needed, use the examples on p. 104. The best mode of dril!ing pupils on verbs is simply this: Whenever the pupil parses a verb, let him give the synopsis of it through 1ll the preceding moods, or only through the moo.l in which il is, to the tense in which it, is found; thei let him conjugate it t0 the person and number of its subject. By this process he will soon become master of all parts of the verb. ADVERBS. 20. An AdLverb is a word used to modify the meaning, - 1. Of a verb. "She sings wll." Sings how? 2. Of an cjcective. "Very deep." How- deep? 8. Of another adverb. "To run very fast." How fast? 4. Of a phrase. Ilie sailed n e a rly I round the world." 5. Of a clause. " Eve rn as, a miser counts his gold, Those hours the ancient timc-piece told." Even emphasizes the adverbial clause after it; and this clause modifies told. A phrase or a clause sometimes has the meaning of an adjective or an adverb; and therefore an adverb can modify such a phrase or clause. 5211 Words from other parts of speech, especially when imitative, are sometimes used as adverbs. " Smack went the whip, round went the wheels." - Cozper. 522, Some idiomatic phrases are commonly used as adverbs, and are therefore called adverbial phrases. In general = nererally. In vain, as yet, By and by = soon. at least, in short, At present = now. at last, out and out. Most adverbial phrases are adjuncts from which the noun has been dropped. 523. Most adverbs modify other words by expressing manner, place, time, or degree. ADVERBS. 173 Frequently, an adverb denotes manner when it modifies a verb, and degree when it modifies an adjective or an adverb. He thinks so "; manner. " He writes so awkwardly "; degree. " Ilw did you do it? " manner. "I know how deep it is "; degree. 524. A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb that usually connects two clauses, by relating to a word in one and forming a part of the other. When, while, as, before, till, ere, where, why, how, after, since, whereby, etc. " The seed grew up where it fell." WTere relates to grew and fell, or it joins to the word grew a clause denoting place. "The seed grew\ up from the place I on which it fell." IVhere is tihus resolved into two phrases, which attach themselves respectively to each of the clauses, and the latter of which has a relative pronoun. Sometimes a conjunctive adverb joins a phrase to some word or clause, in stead of uniting two clauses. 525. The clause which has the conjunctive adverb, is used in the sense of an adverb, an adjective, or a noun.. " You speak of it a s you understand it." How? " In the grave wv h e r e our hero was buried." What grave? " I saw h o w a pin is mtade." I saw what? A conjunctive adverb shows merely whether its clanse expresses manner, timc, place, or identity; and it is sometimes essentially a preposition ur a conjunction. 529. Sometimes the antecedent or correlative adverb is expressed, and then the latter adverb modifies its own clause, or annexes an identifying explanation. Ex. - "I was there 1 where it happened." Where it happened, is explanatory of there, somewhat like an appositive. So, "No uw, while it is cool, let us work." " As the mother is,:, o will the daughter be." 527, Some adverbs of addition, exclusion, emphasis, or quantity, may relate to any part of a sentence. Ex. -"But c hi efl y Thou, 0 Spirit,.... instruct me." —Mlillon. "Take, 0 boatman, thrice thy fee." " Can n ot you go?" "Can you not go?" are different. Such a word is sometimes best parsed as an adjective, and sometimes as a conjunction, or as a correlative or auxiliary conjunction. 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 528, Some adverbs are the equivalents of independent propositions, and some appear as remnants and representatives of such propositions. Such adverbs are said to be used indeleendently. Ex. - Yes, no, amen, well, why, secondly, nay, thus. Yes; there is a remedy." "So, so; and this is the way," etc.' Well, I hardly know what to say." " Why, you must be crazy." " Thus, in France common carriers are not liable for robbery." Such an adverb may sometimes be parsed as modifying the entire sentence or the preceding sentence or discourse, or else something understood; and sometimes perhaps better as a conjunction or an intejection, for most such adverbs have more or less the nature of conjunctions or interjections. 219 Adverbs are short equivalents for phrases or propositions. Now = at this time. Thus = in this manner. There = in that place. In vain - in a vain manner. Where = in what place. Occasionally - as occasion requires. A conjunctive adverb generally supplies the place of two phrases; as, " She was buried when [at the time I in which time] the sun was setting." 53o0 Many adverbs are compound words. Ex. - Indeed, forever, hereafter, whithersoever, afoot. 531. Most adverbs are formed from adjectives, by annexing ly, sometimes s, to the adjective. Ex. -Brave, bravely; easy, easily; upward, upwards. Many of the most common modifying words can be used in the same form either as adjectives or as adverbs. Ex. -No, well, better, best, very, more, most, hard, long, like, less, least, worse, worst, ill, yonder, fast, late, early. " H is no fool"; adcjective. " He is no better"; adverb. "Few men, like him, fight"; adj. "Few men fight like him"; adv. 532. In poetry and in compound words, the adjective form or comparison is allowed to a greater extent than elsewhere. "The swallow sings sweet fiom her nest in the wall." -Dimond. Here sweet is an adverb, used by poetic license for the adverb sweetly. ADVERBS. 175 " Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring." - Pope. Here deep is an adverb, used, by ellipsis, for the objective phrase deep draughts. "Though thou wertfilrmlier fastened than a rock." - Milton. "By the verdurous banks of a smooth-gliding stream." - Moore. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether a given word is or should be an adjective or an adverb. 533. To express manner o' describe the act, the adverb should be used; to describe the object, the adjective. "Things look [are] favorable this morning"; adj. "He looks skillfully at the moon, through his telescope." How? " We arrived safe "; i. e., we were safe when we arrived. W., She looks beautifully in her new silk dress. 5i34 When the verb be or become can be joined to the verb, or put in its place, the modifying word is or should be an adjective. " The waves dashed high"; i. e., they were high, and dashed. " Soft blows the breeze "; i. e., it is soft, and blows. " He spoke better "; adv. " He seemed better, felt better"; adj. B535 A word may remain an adjective, and qualify a substantive, when the adjoining verb shows merely how the quality is acquired or made known. "The clay burns white." " The milk tastes sour." " The glass was colored blue." " Magnesia feels smooth." " Amid her smiles her blushes lovelier glow." " How much nearer he approaches to this end!" The verbs look, appear, taste, feel, smell, make, and other verbs that imply transformation of the subject, are most commonly associated with such adjectives. In the sentence, "Previous to the next draft, an enrollment of all the men will be made," - NEWSPAPER, -previous relates to the entire following proposition; or, rather, previous to has fallen into the analogy of the prepositions accordiing to and contrary to. - See p. 300. 536. Sometimes an adverb becomes a noun. Ex. — "For once." By far the best." "We have enough." Much, little, and enough, are generally nouns after transitive verbs; adverbs, after intransitive. 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. COIPARISON OF ADVERBS. 537. Adverbs arc compared like adjectives; except that a smaller,number cal be compared, and that these are more commonly compared by more and most. Regular. Soon, sooner, soonest. Wisly, more wisely, most wisely. Long, longer, longest. Wisely, less wisely, least wisely. Early, earlier, earliest. Foolishly, more foolishly, most jfolishly. Irregular.. Well, better, best. Little, less, least. Badly or ill, worse, worst. Forth, further, furthest. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest. Compare the foregoing adverbs with the adjectives on p. 113. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 1. ADVERBS OF MANNER. So, well, otherwise, separately, aloud, in vain, as, ill, headlong, together, apart, in brief, thus, like, fast, somehow, asunder, happily, how, else, slowly, however, amiss, trippingly. Most words that end with ly, are adverbs of manner. Adverbs of manner answer to the question HIow? 2. ADVERBS OF PLACE. Here, thence, whither, nowhere, away, in, out, there, whence, herein, everywhere, aside, back, where, hither, therein, yonder, aloof, forth, hence, thither, wherein, far, off, up, down, forwards. Adverbs of place answer to the question Where? Whence? or Whither? and hence imply position or direction. 3. ADVERBS OF TIME. Now, always, after, sometimes, to-morrow, since, when, already, lately, seldom, yesterday, till, then, as, early, daily, immediately, yet, ever, while, aalin, forever, hitherto, just, never, before, often, to-day, hereafter, anon. Adverbs of time answer to the question When? How lonyg? Hlou often? How soon? or iHow lotnq a(qgo? and hence they denote present time, future time, relative time, duration, or rl)eptition. Adverbs of Number. - Once, twice, thrice. These denote time. Adverbs of Order. - First, secondly, thirdly, etc. These denote either place or time. ADVERBS. 177 4. ADVERRS OF DEGREE, EXTENT, OR QUANTITY. Much, less, so, wholly, even, chiefly, more, least, just, partly, how, nearly, most, very, tflly, all, hlowever, well-nigh, mostly, too, full, quite, enough, ever so, little, as, generally, scarcely, nevertheless, somewhat. Adve)rbs of this class answer to the question, In what degree? To what extent? or How much? Adverbs from other classes can be frequently used as adverbs of degree The following adverbs of the foregoing class are worthy of separate notice. Adverbs of Addition, Exclusion, or Emphasis.- Too, only, merely, but, especially, also, besides, else, still, likewise, even, not, particularly, moreover, withal, eke. o, MIODAL ADVERBS. These show how the statement is made or regarded. Of AfFrmaatio or Approval. - Yes, yea, ay, verily, surely, certainly, forsooth, indeed, truly, really, amen, of course, to be sure. Of Negation. - Not, nay, no, nowise, by no means. Of Doubt. - Perhaps, probably, perchance, may-be, haply. Of Cause or Means. - Why, therefore, wherefore, hereby, thereby, whereby, wherewith, whereof, accordingly, consequently, hence, thence, whence, etc. Some of these adverbs, as whereby, consist of a pronombiel adrerb and a preposition, and may therefore be called arjunctice adverbs. Of Position. - There. " There was no one there." There, as used in such sentences, is a word that has withdrawn from the common vocabulary of significant words, and become simply a word of syntax:; having been appropriate(l by Language as something necessary to run the machinery." There, thus used, simply serves to give the sentence.nother form, by allowing the words to assume a more emphatic arrangement. A similar remark is applicable to it, and some other words. Exercises. Mention six adverbs of manner; - six of place; - six of time;- six of degree; - five different modal adverbs; - six conjnnctive adverbs. Compare late, soon, early, much, little, well, ill, long, far, heroically. An adverb, and why; of what kind, and what it mzodiJies:Wisely, now, here, very. The horse runs swiftly. God is everywhere. Never before did I See her look so pale. These things have always been so. I have been too idle heretofore; but henceforth I will study more diligently. Your book is more beautiful. He was lately here. The hall was brilliantly illuminated, and densely crowded with hearers. 8* L 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PREPOSITIONS. 538. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation between a following noun or pronoun and some other word. "The rabbit in the hollow tree was caught." What in what? The substantive after the preposition must be in the objective case. 539. Two prepositions are sometimes combined, and used as one; and some phrases are generally used as prepositions. Ex. - Upon, according to, as to, as for. "The river flowed from under the palaces." Such phrases are sometimes called complex or compound prepositions. 5. 4 An Adjunct, or Prepositional Phrase, is a preposition with its object, or with the words required after it to complete the sense. Ex. -" The wind swept in waves I over the bristling barley." An adjunct generally shows where, when, how, how long, of what kcind, by whom, by what means, etc. ( lnde l te'luff, Ex. -" A fox I of thle largest size I was caught ~ before sunrise, L by our dogs." L1, Some adjuncts may be inverted or parted, especially in poetry. Ex. - " Whom was it given to? " better, "To whom was it given?" " From peak to peak, the rattling crags among." — Byron. That is, " From peak to peak, among the rattling crags." b42. An adjunct may relate to, - 1. A substantive. Ex. - " The caves j of Kentucky are wonderful." What caves? 2. A verb. Ex.-" The river rises I in the mountains." Rises where? 3. An adjective. Ex. — " The river is oear I in the mountains/ " Clear where? 4. An adverb, Ex. -" You have acted inconsistently I with your professions." PREPOSITIONS. 179 But when the adverb relates to the adjunct, then the adjunct relates to some other word; as, "You were far before us." Before us relates to were, andfar modifies bebfre us. Sometimes an adjunct relates to a phrase; as, "You study grammar for your improvement in language." Here fubr relates rather to study gramnnar than to study only. 543. The substantive which follows the preposition, or is governed by it, may be,1. A noun. Ex.- " The fox ran under the bluff." Under what? 2. A pronoun. Ex. -" Come to me." To whom? 3. An infinitive. Ex. -" None knew thee but to love thee." Except what? 4. A participial noun. Ex. - "In the selling of their estate, a mistake was made." 5. A participle that has case, yet retains the syntax of the verb. Ex. —" By carefully removing the difficulties, you may succeed." 6. A clause. x. -" This will depend ON who the commissioners are." "Reason and justice have been jurymen ever s in ce e beJore Noah was a sailor." -- Shakespeare. 544. Two or more prepositions may govern the same substantive. Ex. -" e walked up and down the hill." 545. Two or more substantives may be governed by the same preposition. Ex. " A battle be t w e e n Mexicans and Indians." "He left his estate TO his wife, children, and friends." Two or more adjuncts may be combined. " The gold in apiece of quartz." The modified term, which commonly precedes the adjunct, is called the antecedent term; and the governed substantive the subsequent term. 546. Frequently, the adjunct precedes the word to which it relates, or is considerably removed from it. "O On the ncxt day, while we retreated, the enemy approached." 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 547. An adjunct is generally equivalent to an adverb or an adjective. lx.. - He acted with wisdom " = Ie acted wisely. A man of wisdom " == A wise man. "He is in misery " I-Ic is miserable. Adjuncts can supply the place of the possessive case; as, "Absaom's beautvy -'lhe beauty o' Absalom. (See p. 97.) Sometimes an adjunct is equivalent to a participle or a verb; as, " He is in trouble " l He is troubled. Finally, adjuncts supply the deficiency of all other descriptive expressions, and often relieve them. 548. A preposition that has no word to govern, becomes an adverb; sometimes, a noun or an adjective. Ex. -" The eagle flew up, then round, then down again." "It fell from above." "It came fronz within." Above is a noun, orfrom above can be parsed as an adverbial phrase. " The forest overlooked the shaded plain below." - Dryden. Be/low is equivalent to the adjective adjunct bel/ow it, or the adjective claust which teas below; and it is therefora a definitize adjective. Below is a preposition or an advcirb i3 regard to the omitted words; antd it becomes an adjective only as having assumed tho office of an adjective phrase or clause, which it represents. 549. Sometimes the object is merely omitted.' The man you spoke of; i. e., of whon you spoke." "I have nothing to tic it with; i. c, with whzich to tic it." 550. The antecedent term is sometimes omitted, or there is none. "Industrious all, from the youngest to the oldest"; reckonihl fiom, etc. "Sold at the rate of fron fifty cents to a dollar;" i. e., of prices vary/inf fiom, etc. It seems to us that it would not be improper to parse the whole phrase after of as a noun. "As to riches, they are not worth so much care." 551, The preposition itself is sometimes omitted; especially to, unto, or for, after like, unlike, near, nigh, worth, opposite, and verbs of giving or imparting Ex. -" The house was near [to] the river, nearer [lo] the river, next to ours." "The son is like [to or unto] his father." Opposite [to] the market." " Lend him your knife" = Lend your knife to him. " Give [to] us our daily bread." " Who departed [fromn] this life," etc. The adjective or adverb has essentially absorbed the preposition; and it might therefore be called aprelositional adjective or adverb, governing the object. PREPOSITIONS. 181 552. Prepositions are much used as parts of compound words; and when thus used, they are generally adverbial. Ex. - Overshoot, undermine, etphoid, income, afterthought. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. Learn the List, and tell between what words each preposition shows the relation. A. " VW went a fishing" " This set people a thinking." - SXft. Aboard. " To go or be aboard a ship." About. "To run about the house." "To dine about noon." Above. "The stars above us." "To be above meanness." Acro3s. "A tree lying across the road." After. " To start cafer dinner." Against. " We rowed against the stream." Along. " The cloud is gilded along the border." Amid, amidst. " The rogues escaped amidst tlhe confusion." Among, amongst. "Flowers perish among weeds." Around, round. "The ring around his finger." "To sail round the At. " She lives at home." " The sun sets at six o'clock." [world." Athwart. " Why advance thy miscrcated front athwart my way? " Before. " The tree before the house." "To rise bbrore day." Behind. " The squirrel hid behind the tree." Below. " The James River is very crooked below Richmond." Beneath. "The chasm beneath us." "IIe is beneath contempt." Beside,) besides. " A large sycamore grew beside the river." Between. " The river flows between two hills." Betwixt. " He was crushed to death betwixt two ears." Beyond. " The life beyond the grave is a mystery." But. " Whence all but him had fled." By. "A lily by a brook." " Demolished by soldiers." Concerning, " He spoke concerning virtue." Down. " The boat went down the river." During. " He remained abroad during the war." Ere. " Hi came ere noon." Except, excepting. " All except him were set free." For. "To sell.for money." "A collectionfor the poor, From. "A branchlfownt the tree." " To judgefrom the description, In. "A pond in a meadow." "To play in the afternoon." Into. " To step into a carriage, and then ride in it." Notwithstanding. "He succeeded, notwithstanding the oppositioni" Of. Thse house of a friend." "To die of a disease, 182 ENSGLSH GRAMMAR. Oft. "Juan Fernandez lies off the coast of Chili." On. " The picture on the wall." " To start on Tuesday." Over. " The bridge over the river." "To rule over a nation," Past. "They drove past the house." Respecting. " Respecting his conduct, there is but one opinion." Save. " All save him remained." Since. "He has not been here since last Christmas." Till, until.' He will remain here till next Christmas." To unto. " To go to the river." " Verily, I say unto you." Toward, towards. " He came towards me." Through. "To travel through woods and swamps." Throughout. There was commotion throughout the whole land." Under. "The earth under our feet." " To be under age." Underneath. "Underneath this sable hearse lies the subject of all verse." Up. " He climbed up the tree." Upon. "The people stood upon the house-tops." With. "Girls with sparkling eyes." " Enameled with flowers." Within. "The war will end within the next six months." Without. "A purse without money." " To live without company." According to. " It was done according to law." Contrary to. " He has acted contrary to orders." As to. "As to your case, nothing was said." From beyond. " They came from bezlond Jordan." From out. "From out thy slime the monsters of the deep are made." In stead of. " This in stead of that." Better, in stead of, as " in place of," "in lieu of," " in my stead," but this in stead." Stead is a noun. Out of. " Drawn out of a well." " A piano out of tune." To the foregoing prepositions may he added the following, which are less common: Abaft, adown, afore, aloft, alongside, aloof, aneath, aslant, atween, atwixt, bating, despite, despite of, inside, mnaulre, minus, outside, pendingq, per, plus, sans, saving, than, thorough, touching, versus, via, withal, withinside; aboard of, as for, along with, froml among, from before, fromn betwixt, fr'om of', fromn under, off of, over against, round about, but for. CONJUNCTIONS. 553. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or propositions. Ek. -' The' mossy fountains and the sylvan shades." Pope. "John and James are.happy, because they are good." CONJUNCTIONS. 183 -554 Conjunctions not only connect parts of a sentence, but they also show how the connected parts are related or regarded. " bear, because worthless." " Read and write "; "Read or write." 555, Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and used as one; and sometimes a common phrase is used as a conjunction. "And yet I would not get riches thus, even if I were a beggar." "John, as wtell as Arthur, must be punished, inasmuch as they have both been disobedient." Such phrases are sometimes called conmplex or compound conjunctions. Sometimes an adverb is added to a conjunction simply to strengthen or vary the connecting sense, and the two words may then be called a conjunctive phrase, or simply a conjunction; but such adverbs as even, too, and also, should probably rather be referred to our Note VII, under the Rules of Syntax. 556. A Corresponding Conjunction, or Correlative Connective, is one of a separated pair that connect the same parts. Ex. -" Neither flattery nor threats could prevail." Neither is a corresponding conjunction answering or relating to nor, and helping it to connect the wordsflattery and threats. The two connectives give greater completeness to the connection, by enfolding the terms; while one connective would appear as a nere tie. It is sometimes probably best to say'tbat the subordinate connective is an auxiliary connective that helps the other to unite two words, phrases, or clauses, by giving emphasis or greater Comipleteness to the connection, Sometimes the connectives, as so and as, or rather and than, stand next to each other; but they still belong to different clauses or phrases. 557. And, or, and nor, are the chief conjunctions; and they are mostly used for connecting words or phrases. Ex. -" Bees and blossoms." "Bees or blossoms." "Neither bees nor blossoms." 558. But, if, and that, are the next most important conjunctions; and they are mostly used for connecting clauses. Ex. — " She tries a thousand arts, but none succeed." - Young. In language, the simple succession of parts implies connection. Hence,:-: 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 559. For the sake of brevity, conjunctions are some.times omitted. "T was certain [t7at] he could write, and cipher too." *' Had I been at home, you should have staid;" i. e., If I, etc. " The way was long, [and] the wind was cold." When and, or, or nor, is used before the last term of a series, it probably shows simply that the end is reached; and it is therefore hardly proper to consider it as being understood before each preceding term. 660. A conjunction is sometimes used where it is not absolutely needed. 1. At the beginning of a sentence, to make its introduction less abrupt. " And tell me,. I charge you, ye clan of my spouse, WVhy fold ye your mantles, why cloud ye your brows?" 2. In the body of a sentence, when the speaker means to dwell on particulars, in order that the hearer may duly appreciate what le says. Ex. -" Italy teems with recollections of every kind; for courage, and wisdom, and power, and arts, and science, and beauty, and music, and desolation, have all made it their dwelling-place.":31. When a conjunction connects words or phrases, they are nearly always in the same construction. Ex. —' Mary, Jane, and Alice, I went into the garden, and brought some large, ripe, and juicy peaches." IHere the connected nouns are nominatives to the same verbs, the connected verbs or predicates have the same subject; and the connected adjectives qualify the same noun. 502, Most conjunctions are emigrants fiom other parts of speech. Ex. - Both, either, that, adj.; then, yet, as, adv.; except, provided, if (probably from give), verbs. LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. Learn the List, and show what terms are connected by each conjunction. Anid; copulative; co-ordinate. " The winds and the waves arc absent there." As; causal; suboidinate. "As you request it, I will,o." As comparative; subordinate, sometimes co-ordinate. "You did as well as I." A.s, implying comparison, is generally rather a conjunctivc adverb than a pure coDjunction. CONJUNCTIONS. 185 As well as; copulative; co-ordinate. "He, as well as I, was deceived." Because; causal; subordinate. " Success is difficult, because many strive." HBut; adversatice; co-ordinate. "I go, but I return." [politics." Except; restrictive; subordinate. "He is sane, frcept when lhe talks of Except; conditional; subordinate. "Except a man be born a' ain," tc. For; causal; subordinate, sometimes co-ordinate. " Rise, or it is day." Furthermore; copulative; co-ordinate. It sometimes begins a paragraph. If; conditional; subordinate. "If the advice is good, take it." Lest; cautionary or causal; subordinate. "T'ouch it not, lest ye die." Notwithstanding; adversative and co-ordinate, or concessive and subordinate. N\otwithstandingq, when used in the sense of " still, howevrer," is co-ordinate; when used in the sense of " even,;" subordinate. Moreover; copulative; co-ordinate. It sometimcs begins a paragraph. Nor; disjurctive; co-ordinate. " lie said notling more, nor did I." Or; disjunclive; co-ordinate. "We must educate, or we must perish." Provided conditional; subordinate. " I will go, provided you g6." Since; causal; subordinate. " Since you have come, I will go." Still; adversative; co-ordinate. "Ile has often failed, still lie strives." Than; comparative; subordinate. "Performance is better than promising.' That; final; subordinate. " He studies, thdt he may," etc. For what end? That, demonstrative; subordinate. That, in this sense, is a sort of pronoun, with which the rest of the clause is put in apposition;, or it forms a kind of handle to the clause, by pointing out a group of words that must be referred as a whole to something else. " Th at I the war is a calamnity, is admitted." " It is admitted t h a t I the war is a calamlity." "We all know t h at I the war is a calamiit." Then; illative; co-ordinate. " The cotton is yours? then defend it." Thhough, although, sometimes what though; concessice, subordinate. " Thouqh lhe owns but little, he owes nothing." Unless; conditional; subordinate. "Unless you study, you will not learn." Unless; adversative; co-ordinate. "Remain, unless you must go." Whether; indeterminate; subordinate. "I will see whether lie hlas come." TVcether, and not if, should hegin an indeterminate clause used as a noun. IW. Nobody knows if the war will end soon. I will see if he has come. Whereas; causal; subordimnate. "Whereas it doth appear," etc. Whereas; adversative; co-ordinate. "Reason errs; 7whereas instinct," etc. Yet3 adversative; co-ordinate. "All diead death, yet few are pious." Tihe principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, or, nor-, and but. The principal subordinate conjunctions are that, than, as, f, andn because. The left or first column of meanings will serve for parsing; and the right or second, for analysis. CO-ORDINATE 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CONJUNCTIONS join the parts of COMPOUND phrases or sentences; SUBORDINATE, of COMPLEX. There are some exceptions to what las been said in the List; but these we refer to the judgment of the teacher, for it would be too tedious to mention them. Correlative Conjunctions or Connectives. Both - and. " It is both mine and yours." Either - or. " It is either mine or yours." Neither - nor. " It is neither mine nor yours." Whether - or. "I know not whether it is mine or yours." Though, although - yet, nevertheless. " Though deep, yet clear." If — then. " If you have no confidence, then do not venture." As - as; equality. " Time is as precious as gold." As - so; equality. "As the one dies, so dies the other." So - as; consequence. " It is so plain as to require no explanation." So - that; consequence. "The road was so muddy that we returned." Not only - but also. " He is not only bold, but he is also cautious." Or - or; sometimes used by poets in stead of either - or. Nor - nor; sometimes used by poets in stead of neither - nor. To these correlative connectives may be added such and as, same and as, such and that, not and nor, other and than, rather and than, else and than, the comparative degree followed by than, the and the followed each by the comparative degree, and a few similar expressions. Correlative connectives are sometimes not conjunctions. The antecedent correlative is frequently an adverb or an adjective. Such a correlative connective should be first parsed as the part of speech to which it belongs; and then its conjunctive character may be stated, with the Rule for conjunctions. To the conjunctions already given may he added as if, een f even though, except that, provided that, save, saving that, seeing that, inasmuch as, forasnmuch as, so that, in ord(e that, so as, on the contrarl, on the other hand, the moment that, etc. Some of these may be more appropriately called conjunctive phrases. Again, also, hoowever, now, nay, even, firther, besides, therefore, uwherefore, namely, nevertheless, otherwise, likewise, so, thus, else, accordingly, consequentlsy, and a few other such words, though originally adverbs, may be considered conjunctions when they stand near the beginning of a clause or sentence, and serve to introduce it. Most such words have acquired their conjunctive sense by ellipsis. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a given word should be considered an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction. The chief characteristic of adverbs is, to modify; ot conjunctions, to connect; and of prepositions, to govern substantives in the objective case. It is generally not so much a matter of importance to know precisely to what class a given word should be referred, as to understand clearly the meaning and force of the word in the sentence. JNTERJECTIONS. 187 INTERJECTIONS. 563. An Interjection is a word that expresses an emotion, and is not connected in construction with any other word. Ex."' 0, stay!' the maiden said,' and rest. " - Longfellow. Omit 0, and the sentence will still make good sense without it. 564. Words from almost every other part of speech, and sometimes entire phrases, when abruptly uttered to express emotion, may become interjections. Ex. -Strange! behold! what! why! indeed! mercy! "Why, there, there, there!" " Fire and brimstone! what have you been doing?" But when it is not the chief purpose of such a word to express emotion, and when the omitted words are obvious, the word should be parsed as usual; as, "Patience, good lady! comfort, gentle Constance!" =- Have patience, good lady! receive comfort, gentle Constance. 56,5 Words used in speaking to the inferior animals, and imitative words or syllables that are uttered with emotion, are generally interjections. Ex. - Haw! gee! whoh! scat! whist!'st,'st! "The words are fine; but as to -the sense - b-a-h I"' Up comes a man on a sudden, slap! dash! " " Be sure that you blow out the candle, Ci fol de rol tol de rol lol." - Horace Smith. 56, A substantive after an interjection is independent, or else its case depends on some word understood. Ex. -" O thou!" "Ah me!" Ah! pity me; or, Ah! what has happened to me! or, Ah! wo is to me! or, Ah! it grieves me. "0, happy we! " O0, happy are we! Or else apply Rule II. LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 1. Of Earnestness inl Address. -! 2. Of Surprise, Wonder, or Horror. - Iah! ha! what! h'm heigh! indeed hey-day! la! whew l zounds! oh! ah! oh! hoity-toityl 188 ENGLISH GRADMAR. 3. Of Sorrow or Pity. -Oh! alas! ah! alack I welladay 4. Of Joy, Exultation, or Approbation. - Aha! ah! oh! hey! ch! cigh! huzzzah! lhurrah! good! bravo! 5. Of Contempt or Aversion. - Pshaw! pish! tut! tush! po! lie! bah! humpil! fitugh! whew! off! begone! avaunt!' G. Of Attention or Calling. - Ho! lo! behold! look! see! hark! la! heirghl-o i soho! hollo! Ihalloo! hoy! lwhoh!'st! 7. Of Silence. - Hush! hist! whist!'st! aw! mum! 8. Of Interrogating. - Elh hem, or h'm? (The opposite of the preceding class.) 9. Of Detection. - Aha! oho! ay-ay! 10. Of Laughter. - Ia, ha, ha! he, he, he! 11. Of Saluting or Parting. - Welcomc! hail! all-hail! adieu good-by! and perhlaps good-day! good-morning! etc. Can you mention two intejections of grief?- two of joy? etc. QUJESTIQTS FOR REVIEW. 1. What is a Verb?. S~33128. A verb in the subjunctive mood?. 410 2. Give the Classification of Verbs. 029. A vel, in the polential mlood?. 417 3. What is a regular verb? -.. 365 3'. A verb in the imperative mood?. 420 4. What is an irregular verb? 336' 5. WVhih are the principal parts of a 3 31. What is Tense?. 424 verb? and wvhy are they callel 8*2 It32. How niany tenses are there, and -verb? and why are they called such?... - - what are they called?. 425 6. What is a redunldant verb?. 373 3. What is said of the present indicaW7 What is a defectice verb? -. 34 8. Wt'hlat is al feinite verb.? *. 3 5 34. Of the present subjunctive?. 4'7 9. t.lh:t parts of the verb are not 135. Of the present potential?. 428 fi ite? -R'. 3 Ot the present imperative?..429 10. What is a transitive verb?.. 38. 37. Of the present-pe eijct indicative? 430 11. Wht is an intransiti ve verb? 381 38. Of the present-perfect potential?. 42 12. Whalt 1 a tneuter verb?. 3S2. Of the past indtcative?.. 43 13. When may a transitiveverb become 41. Of the past spbuntive? 431 intransitive!?.38441. Of the past potential? ~. 435 1. henmayaintransittiv verb be384 42. Of the past-perfect indicative?. 433 co.e transitive?. 38... 3 15. What is a principal verb?, 391 potential? 3 16. VWhat is an auxililry verb? 44. Of the fu ture tense?. 438 17. ~What properties. have~ verbi s? - 39345. Of the:f.uture.perfect tense n 439 ~-,~17. htprprie'ae334-. hat is said of the tenses of the 18. What is Voie?, in grammar?. 394 suhjunctive mood?. 440 19. llow. many voices are there, and 47. Of the tenses of the potential?. 441 what are they called?.. 395 48. Of when, till, as soon as, etc.?.442 20. When is a verb in the active voice;' 39 4 hat re the Fos f a TNs? 443 21. When is a verb in the passive voice? 397 4. ohat are theFors rfn TF e 443 22. To what verhs does voice belong?. 398 50. IIow many forms are theie, and 23. What is said of such verbs as are ht i sd of the co on come, Zs ge. 399 51. What is said of the common 24. Ilow is a verb in the active voice rm?.. 44 changed into the passive?. 402 53. Of the emphaic form?. 44 53. Of the passie form?. ~ 447 25. What is mood?.. 405 54. Of the provressrve.form?. 44 26. Ilow many moods are there, and 155. Of the ancienlt form?.. 449 what arethey called?... 406 56. llow is a proposition made inter-'7. What does a verb in the indicative rotative... 45 mood express?.. 407 5. How is it made negative?. 451 QUESTIONS. 189 68. What are the Person and Number 84. What is said of -the perfect partiof a verb.... 452 ciple?. 489 59. What ending to the verb doss thou 85. IIow is the simple perfect partigeuerally require?. 455 ciple made?....490 60. He, she, or it, in the present indic- 86. When is it in the artive roice? 492 ative?..456 87. When is it in the passive voice?. 493 61. When a sqbject or antecedent con- 88. What is a compound participle? 495 sists of words that differ in person, 89. For what purpoe is the auxiliary how do you determine the person participle being used?. 496 of the verb or pronoun?. 458, 459 90. For what purpose is the auxiliary 62. What kinds of subjects or antece- participle having used". 497 dents are singular in construction? 400 91. For what purpose is the auxiliary C3. What kinds of subjects or antece- participle having bers usCed?. 498 dents are plural in construction? 461 92. IIow many and what infinitives in 64. What termsn do not affect the form both voices' of the verb or pronoun?. 462 98. Ilow many and what participles in 65. What is an inmprsonal verb?. 465 both voices?. W d A a V 94. Mention the chief particulars in G3. What do the uxiliary Verbs ex- which prticiples and infinitives press?.... 466 ar? 15 67. Which are the auxiliary verbs? 467 95. tion the hief particlar in 95. Mlention the chief particulars in 68. In what instances is it proper to which they differ? use shatll and should? 69. In what instances is it proper to 96. What is Conjugation? ~ 515 use 7uill and would? 97. What is synopsis?... 516 70. In what other ways than that of expressing grammatical properties, 98. What is an Adverb t... 520 are auxiliary verbs useful?. 8 9. What is a n tonjnctive adverb? 524 71. When are be, do, and have princi- 100. From what are most adverbs pal verbs?.. 469 formed?..531 101. When should the adverb he used? 72. W-hat is an Infinitivet. 471 and when the adjective?. r33 73. Ilow many infinitives are there, 102. IIow are adverbs compared?. 587 and what are they called?. 472 103. Into what classes are adverbs di74. What is said of the present infini- vided? tire? 473 75. How is it formed?. 4. 104. What is a Preposition 533 76. What is said of the perfect infit- 105. What is an adjunct?.. 540 itive?.. 475 106. What may the antecedent term 77. Ilow is it formed?.. 476 be?.. 541 78. When is to, the sign of the infin- 107. What may the subsequent term itive, omitted?... 481, 482 be?.....543 79. NWhat is a Participle?. ~483 108. Repeat the list of prepositions. 80. IIow many participles are there, 109. What is a Conjunction? 553 and what are they called?. 484 110. What is a corresponding conjunc81. What is said of the present parti- tion?. 556 ciple?. 485 111. Repeat the list of conjunctions. 82. IIow is the simple present parti- W ciple made?.... 486112. hat an Iterjection. 3 83. What is said of it in regard to 113. Mention some interjections. voice?.. 487 Write a sentence that has a proper noun. Write a sentence that has a common noun. Write a sentence tha't has a collective noun. Write a sentence that has a personal pronoun. Write a sentence that has a compound personal pronoun. Write a sentence in which the relative Lwho is properly used. Write a sentence in which the relative which is properly used. Write six sentences to illustrate different constructions of the relative that. Write a sentence that has your name properly used in the possessive case. (The teacher should extend these exercises so far as to draw out nil the important points of the book.) 190 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. RULES OF SYNTAX. 567. Syntax comprises relation and position. 568. The Relation of words is their reference to one another according to the sense. RELATION frequently implies government and agreement. Government is the power which one word has over another, in determining its case, person, number, or some other property. A greement is the correspondence of one word with another, in case, person, number, or some other property. 569. Position refers to the place which a word occupies in reference to other words of the sentence. 570. A Rule, in grammar, is generally a brief statement that teaches the proper form or use of words. RULE I. —Nominatives. A Noun or Pronoun, used as the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. Johnz studies. I study. They study. EXPLANATION. - Since John does the studying, there is plainly a relation between John and studies. Observe also that we can not use objective forms, and say, " Me study," " Them study ") but we must use the nominatives I and they. Hence the Rule. W. I have tasted no better apples than them are. Were you and him at the party? Whom, would you suppose, stands head in our class? He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. RULE.II. -Nominatives. A Noun or Pronoun, used independently or absolutely, must be in the nominative case. Mary, your lilies are in bloom. The rain having ceased, we departed. EXPLANATION. — Mary is simply addressed, and something else is said; or the sentence would make sense without the word Mary, which is therefore said to be used independently of the rest of the sentence. The noun rain is so used with a participle that it does not relate to any other word; and it is therefore said to be used absolutely, with the participle. RULES OF SYNrAX. 191 NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT. By direct Address: "Auspicious Hope! in thy sweet garden grow Wreaths for each toil, a charm for every woe." By Exclamation: " Scotland! there is magic in the sound." By Pleonasm or Specification: "He that hath, to him shall be given." NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. Before a Participle: "Peace being established, commerce revived." " The steed [being] at hand, why longer tarry?" After a Participle s "Such is the folly of becoming a politician." After an Infinitive: "To be a good Christian was his highest ambition." W. Him who had led them to battle being killed, they retreated. Whose gray top shall tremble, Him descending. There is no doubt of its being him. RULE III.-Possessives. A Noun or Pronoun that limits the meaning of another by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case. John's horse is in our pasture. EXPLANATION. - Since John owns the horse, there is plainly a relation between Jo'hn and horse; and it is also evident that not any horse is meant, but only the one which belongs to John. A similar remark is applicable to our and pasture. W. Do you use Webster or Worcester's Dictionary? RULE IV.-Objectives. A Noun or Pronoun, used as the object of a transitive verb, must be in the objective case. I shot a deer. We caught them. EXPLANATION. - Since I shot the deer, there is a relation between my shooting and the deer, or between the words shot and deer. In the second example, there is as plainly a relation between caught and them; and notice also that the objective form, them, and not the nominative form, they, will make good sense after caught. Hence the Rule. The foregoing Rule is also applicable to infinitives and participles. W. She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. WVho do you mean? Who did you see? VWo should I meet the other day but my old friend! 192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULE V.-Objectives. A Noun or Pronoun, used as the object of a preposition, must be in the objective case. The money was sent by me to him. EXPLANATTON. - Sent by some one, sent to some one; hence there is evidently a relation between by.an:l me, and between to and him. Observe also that the objective forms, me anil him, and not the nominative forms, I and he, will make good sense after the prepositions. Hence the Ru:e. W. Between you and I there is little difference of opinion. I (do not know who she went with. I gave it to somebody; I have forgotten who. RJULE VI.-Objectives. A Noun or Pronoun that limits the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is sometimes used in the objective case without a preposition expressed. Sometimes a substantive is thus used in the objective case, to limit a noun. This Rule is designed to reach all thos-a objective nouns and pronoun?, which, by the idiom of our la1nguage, are commonly used to limit other words adverbially, or in the sense of adjuncts, without having a governing word expressed. It is therefore applicable to some nouns that show the time, extent, direction, manner, value, or quantity; to the indirect objects after such verbs as give, lend, offer, present, etc.; and to the objects which follow the words like, near, worth, opposite, etc. By supplying a preposition, the Rule can be dispensed with. - See ~ 284 and p. 222. We sailed north, a hundred miles, the first day. We sailed toward the north, over a hundred miles of space, during the first day. It is [by] a ton heavier. It happened five times. Ice afoot thick. He wears his coat cloak fashion. It is worth nothing. Give [to] me the reins. Oranges grow, like apples, on small trees.. W. My landlady had a daughter of nine years old. - Swift. Just beyond the church is a lot of sixty feet square. RULE VII.-Same Case. A Noun or Pronoun used for explanation or emphasis, by being predicated of another, or put in apposition with another, must be in the same case. RULES OF SYNTAX. 193 Jones is a lawyer. The lawyer is Jones. It is Jones the lawyer. Hle himself is Jones the lawyer. EXPLANATION. -Since Jones is a lawyer, there must be a relation between the words Jones and lawyer; and since each word can be used as the nominative to is, both must be in the same case. For an explanation of predication and apposition, see pp. 99 and 100. Words in apposition are sometimes connected by as, or, and, or than. W. I knew it was him. I knew it to be he. Is it me Remark. —A substantive put in apposition with a clause, phrase, or word that has not case, must be in the nominative case; as, "He reaoived to rely on himself, -a resolution which he kept." RULE VIII.-Two Cases. The pronoun what, when it comprises a simple relative and its antecedent, has a double construction in regard to case. I remember what was said. What is here used as the object of remember, and also as the subject of was said. Rule VIII is given merely as a convenience i for this Rule can be dispensed with, by applying two other Rules.'W. Give that what you can spare, to the poor. Iote I. - A Compound Relative, or a similar expression, may furnish two cases, when its form allows them. T;Whoever sins, must suffer. Take whichever horse you like. rhoever is used as the nominative to sins, and also as the nominative to must suffer. I will employ whomnsoever you recommend. VWhat money lhe brought with him, was soon spent. OBSERVATION 1.- When the form of the relative does not allow the two cases required, it must take the form needed for its own clause, and an antecedent must be supplied in parsing. RULE IX.-Pronouns. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in gender, person, and number. Ml~ary has lost her bonnet. EXPLANATION. - tler must he of the same gender, person, and number as Mary; for if it were different in any of these respects, it is evident that it could not denote Mary. For an explanation of antecedents, see pp. 73 and 143. W. Each of our party carried a knapsack with them. Not one of the boys should come without their books. You and your playmates must learn their lessons. The earth is my mother; and I will recline upon its bosom. 9 M 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. RULE] X. - ARTICLES, ADJECTIVES, and PARTICIPLES. An Article, an Adjective, or a Participle, belongs to the noun or pronoun to which it relates. The girl brought a large rose just refreshed by a shower. EXPLANATION. - The what? a what? What kind of rose? Observe that both large and refreshed describe the rose. Note II. - An Adjective that implies number, must agree in this respect with the substantive to which it relates. For the sake of -reater definiteness, this Note, which is applicable to the adjectives thlis, these, that, those, two, three, obur, etc., may be used in parsing; though the Rule can also be used in place of it. WV. You have been playing this two hours. How do you like those kind of apples? The room is eighteen foot long, and sixteenfoot wide. Note II. - An Adjective or a Participle is sometimes used absolutely, after a participle or an infinitive. The way to be happy is to be good. The dread of being poor. To appear discouraged is the surest way to invite an attack. Observe that happy, good, poor, and dis.couraged, are not used with the names of the personsdlescribed. It does not seem to us that it, wotuld he improper to parse the entire phrase simply as a noun, accordinu to Note IV i thus dispensing with this Note altogether, OBs. 2. — When the article stands only before the first of two or more connected nouns, it belongs to them jointly if they denote but one person or thing, or more viewed as one; if not, it belongs to the first noun, and is understood before each of the others. I saw Webster, the great statesman and orator. A man and horse passed by the ehouse and lot. The man, [the] woman, and [the] child, were drowned. OBS. 3. — When two or more adjectives come between an article and a plural noun, they sometimes qualify each only a part of what the noun denotes. The New and Old TESTAMENTS " The New Testament and the Old Testament; not, The New Testaments and the Old Testaments. RULES OF SYNTAX. 195 RIULE XI.-Pinite Verbs. A Finite Verb must agree with its subject, in person and number. John studies. I study. I am. He is. They are. EXPLANATION. - Since John does the studying, there is obviously a relation between John and studies. Observe also that we can not say, when speaking properly, "John study,"'I is," "I e am "; but we must use with each subject that form of the verb which will agree with it in person and number according to the Conjugation, pp. 162 -169. For an explanation of the different kinds of subjects, see p. 143. W. I always learss my lessons before I goes to school. My outlays is greater than my income. Five is too many to ride in the canoe at once. There is six cords of wood in the pile. That which you yourself has asked. What signifies fair words without good deeds? He dare not say it to my face. I called, but you was not at home. A finite verb is sometimes used without a subject. "' Meseens." " Alethinks." " God said, Let us make man in our image." There are but few instances in which verbs are used so; and probably the simplest way to parse these few is, to supply it, thou, or ye, even when the sense must be strained a little. The two or three anomalous expressions of this kind, as methinks, methought, can be easily disposed of by the figure enallagd. RULE XII.-Infinitives. An Infinitive depends on the word which it limits, or which leads to its use. We were anxious to return that night. The Passions oft, to iear her shell, Thronged around her magic cell. The definitions are so arranged as to be easily learned. To return linlits anxious, by showing as to what we were anxious; and it therefore depends on anxious, accrding to Rule XII. To hear limits thronged, by showing for what purpose; and it therefore depends on thronged, according to Rule XII. To be learned depends on as, according to the last clause of Rule XII. (See pp. 153 and 216.).An infinitive depands on the word with which it -makes syntax. Note IV.- An Infinitive, a Participle, a Phrase, or a Clause, may be used as a noun in any case except the possessive. To be witlhot waents is the prerogative of God only. His being bloody was the cause of suspicion. It is best not to have any thing to do with hin. 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. He knows when to purchase. TIe knows what to say. He knows when it is best not to purchase. "Lazy wire!" exclaimed the dial-plate. "Very good," replied the pendulum. (Next parse the separate words as usual.) This Note can be dispensed with by applying the Rule of Syntax which is applicable to thei case in which the word, phrase, or clause is used. When an infinitive or a participle assumes case, it may be treated as a noun would be in the same situation. But sometimes the infinitive or participle is so intimately blended with other words, that it seems absolutely necessary to take the whole phrase as one thing; and in such cases the Note is preferable to any of the Rules. Note V. - A Participle or an Infinitive is sometimes used independently, in the sense of.a clause. Generally speaking, young men are best for business. We, generally speaking, would say, that young men are best for business. But to proceed: it has been frequently remarked, that, etc. But it is time to proceed, and therefore let us renew the subject thus' Supplied words often vary the meaning, or make the scut. nc clumsy. Ience the Note. RULE XIII.-Adverbs. An Adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. "The horse runs rapidly." Runs howl? " The horse runs very rapidly." How rapidly?' The horse is very strong." Iow strong? W. He spoke clear and correct. A remarkable fine country. She dresses suitable to her means and station. Note VI. - A Conjunctive Adverb joins a modifying clause or phrase to some other word. See p. 173, for examples; and pp. 210- 226, for remarks. Note VII. - Sometimes an Adverb modifies a phrase or a clause; and some adverbs of addition, exclusion, emphasis, or quantity, may relate to any part of a sentence. "Dryden wrote m e r e ly I for the people." -Johnson. " Ju st I as I approached the jungle, the panther made a spring." " NOT even I a philosopher can endure the toothache patiently." Even relates to the subject of the sentence; and not relates to the subject as modified by even. Some of these adverbs are a species of conjunctive adverbs. - See p. 186. Note VIII. - An Adverb is sometimes used independently. "Yes, my lord." " No; I was not there." - See p. 174. RULES OF SYNTAX. 197 RULE XIV.-Prepositions. A Preposition shows the relation of an object to some other word on which the adjunct depends. A man OF wisdom spoke. The man spoke OF wisdom. RULE XV.-Conjunctionso A Conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Words or phrases, connected by conjunctions, are generally in the same construction. *' Weeds and briers grow in the field, because it is not cultivated." Note IX. - As or than sometimes joins a word or phrase to a clause, in stead of connecting two clauses. Words can sometimes be supplied after the infinitive, so as to make two clauses; as, " Be so kind as to write to me " [would be kind]. But in most instances words can not be thus supplied without varying or destroying the sense. RULE XVI.-Interjections. An Interjection has no grammatical connection with other words. - See ~ 563 and 566. Can you repeat RuZe 1st?- 2d?-3d -4th? -5th?-6th? — t7h7?-8th?-9th?-lOt 1?-llth?- 12th? - 13th? - 14th?15th?-1Gth? - Note lst?-2d?-3d? —4th?-5th?-6th?7th? -8th? 9th? POSITION. Articles generally precede their substantives. Adjectives precede or follow their substantives. Participles precede or follow their substantives. Pronouns generally follow their antecedents. Infinitives generally follow the words on which they depend. Finite verbs generally follow their subjects. Adverbs generally follow their verbs or the auxiliaries, and precede the adjectives or adverbs modified. Possessive words precede the names of the things owned. Objective words generally follow their governing words. Explanatory words generally follow the words explained. In regard to the arrangement of words logically and rhetorically considered, see p. 260. 198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PARSING. General Formula.- The part of speech, and why; the kind, and why; the properties, and why; the relation to other words, and according to what Rule. ARTICLES. Formula. - An article, and why; ndefinite and why; to what it belongs, and according to what Rule. The river. ANALYSIS. -17 Te river is a phrase. The principal word is river, modified by the article the. (All the following exercises may be first analyzed, and then parsed, if the teacher deems it best to do so.) PARSING. - The is an article, it is placed before a noun to limit its meaning; definite, it shows that some particular river is meant; and it belongs to river, according to Rule X: An article belongs to the noun to which it relates. It is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat more of a Rule than the example requires. ABRIDGED. - The is the definite article; and it belongs to river, etc. River is a noun, it is a name; common, it is a name that can be applied to all objects of the same kind; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular nzumber, it means but one. In like manner pa;rse the following phrases: The man. The men. A rose. An arrow. The horse. The horses. A melon. An island. The child. The children. A university. An uncle. A man's hat. ANALYSIS. - A man's hat is a phrase. The principal word is hat, which is modified by man's, showing whhat at; and man's is modified by a, showing that no particular man is meant. PARSING. - A is an article, it is placed before a noun to limit its meaning; indefinite, it shows that no particular man is meant; and it belongs to man's, according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) ABRIDGED. - A is the indefinite article; and it belongs to man's, etc. Mans is a noun, it is a name; common, it is a name common to all persons of the same kind; masculine gender, it denotes a male; third person, it denotes the man as spoken of; singular number, it means but one; and in the possessive case, it limits the meaning of hat, according to Rule III. PARSING. 199 Hat is parsed like rhver. ABRIDGED. — lan's is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singular number; and in the possessive case, governed by ha.t. A neighbor's farm. The boy's book. An Indian's hatchet. The boys' books. The sun's splendor. Women's fancies. ADJECTIVES. Formula. - An adjective, and why; def itie and wly; whether compared or not, and how; the degree, and why; to what it belongs, and according to what Rule. Descriptive Adjectiresl A beautiful morning, with a refreshing breeze. ANALYSS. — A beautiful morning, with d refreshing breeze, is a phrase. (Give definition.) The principal word is morning, which is modified by the article a, the adjective beautiful, and the adjunct with a re freshing breeze. Breeze is modified by the article a, the adjective reJfieshinq, and joined to morning by the preposition with, Beautiful is an adjective, - a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun; descriptive, it describes or qualifies the morning; comparedpos. beautijltl, comp. more beautifui, superl. most beautiful; in the positive degree, it expresses simply the quality; and it belongs to morning, according to Rule X. ABRIDGED. - Beautiul is a descriptive adjective, (compare it,) in the positive degree, and belongs to morning. IRefreshing is a participial acjective, from the verb refresh. As a participle, it is present, and in the active voice. As an adjective, it is placed before breeze to describe it; and belongs to it, according to Rule X. ABRIDGED. - Refreshing is a participial adjective, from the verb refresh; and it belongs to breeze, according to Rule X. A ripe melon. An upper room. Theblack-wingedredbird. The fairestlady. Purling streams. The red-wingedblackbird. A gold cup. The best gift. A good boy's mother. Definitive Adjectives. Formula. - An adjective, and why; the kind, and why; to what it belongs, n an according to what Rule. All men. Five dollars. All is an adjective, it is used to limit the meaning of a noun; defini 200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. tive, it specifics how many men are meant; and it belongs to men, accord. ing to Rule X. ABRIDGED. -All is a pronominal definitive adjective; and belongs to men, according to Rule X. Five is an adjective, a word, etc. * X* numeral, and of the cardinal kind, because it expresses number and tells how many; and it belongs to dollars, according to Rule X. Or say, -"and it agrees with men, in the plural number, according to Note I." ABRIDGED. Five is a numeral definitive adjective, of the cardinal kind; and belongs to dollars, according to Rule X. Yonder house. That barn. Every fourth man. This tree. Each pupil. Those two benches. These trees. Such a person. The lawyer's own case. NOUNS. Formula. - A noun, and y and w hy; collective, Fonoun1, 7 and hy; comon1, and why; gender, and why; person, and why; number, and why; declension; case, and Rule. Snow is falling. ANALYSTS. - Snow is falling, is a simple declarative sentence. Snow is the subject, and isfjlling is the predicate. Snow is a noun, it is at name; common, it is a name common to all substance of the same kind neuter gender, etc. (see river, p. 198); and in the nominative case —it is the subject of the verb is falling-according to Rule I. ArRIDGED. - Snow is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number; and in the nominative case to is falling. Rule I. Parsing is usually abridged, by simply omitting the reasons. Parse the articles, the adjectives, and the nouns:Galile'o invented the telescope. Henry Johnson's cattle have eaten our grass. James the coachman is sick. George is a gentleman. Alice, bring your books, slate, and paper. My mother being sick, I remained at home. PARSING. 201 PRONOUNS. personal, 1 relative, Formula. — A pronoun, and why; interrogative, and why; adjective, J gendler, and why; person, and why; number, and why; declension; case, and Rule. Personal Pronouns. I myself saw John and his brother. ANALYSIS. - This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is I zmy self; I is the subject-nominative, which is modified by the emphatic appositive myself. Saw John and his brother, is the predicate; saw is the predicateverb, which is limited by the objects John and brother, which are connected by and, and the latter of which is limited by his. I is a pronoun, it is a word used in stead of a noun; personal, it is one oi those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical persons; of the common gender, it may denote either a male or a female; first person, it denotes the speaker; singular number, it means hut one; nom. I; and in the nomina. tive case - it is the subject of the verb saw - according to Rule I. ABRIDGED. - I is a personal pronoun of the common gender, first person, singular number; and in the nom. case to the verb saw. Rule I. Myself is a pronoun, -a word used in stead of a noun; compound, it ia. compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * and in the nominative case, to agree with I, according to Rule VII. ABRIDGED. - Mysef is a compound personal pronoun, etc. His is a pronoun, - a word used in stead of a noun; personal, it is one of those pronouns which distinguish the grammatical persons; of the masculine gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with John, according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) nom. he, poss. his; and in the possessive case - it limits the meaning of brother - according to Rule III. ABRIDGED.- His is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 3C pers., s. n., to agree with John, according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) and iq the possessive case, governed by brother, according to Rule III. Parse the articles, the adjectives, the nouns, and the pronouns: - We caught him. Hie came with me. Albert hurt himself. John, you are wanted. Art thou the man? Thou2 majestic Ocean7. Martha and Mary have recited their lessons. A dutiful son is the delight7 of his parents. Your horse trots-well, but mine paces. Say, Mine is used for my and horse. (Now parse each word.) 9* 202 ENGLISH GRAIMAB. Relative Pronouns. Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die. Which is a pronoun,- a word used in stead of a noun; relative, it stands in close relation to an antecedent, and joins to it a descriptive clause; of the neuter gender, third person, and plural number, to agree with flowers, according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) and in the nominative case- it is the subject of the verbs fade and die -according to Rule I. ABRIDGED.- VWhich is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third person, and singular number, to agree withflowers, according to Rule IX; and in the nominative case to the verbsfade and die. Rule I. James reads what pleases him. What is a pronoun, - a word used in stead of a noun; relative, it makes its clause dependent on another; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female; third person, ft represents an object as spoken of; singular 1number, it means but one; and it is here used as the object of reads and the subject of pleases, -because it takes the place of that which or thing which, - according to Rule VIII. ABRIDGE)D.- lWhat is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, etc. (She who studies her glass, neglects her heart.) It was I that went. I am His who created me. He was such a talker as could delight us all.,Take whatever you like. What is dear, few buy. Whoever gives to the poor, lends to the Lord. Interrogative Pronouns. Whom did you see? Whom is a pronoun, - a word used in stead of a noun; interrogative, it is used to ask a question; of the common gender, it may denote either a male or a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; si.ngular nunmber, it means but one; and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb did see -- according to Rule IV. ABRIDGED.- WVhom is an interrogative pronoun, of the com. gen., 3d pers., s. n.; and in the obj. case, governed by did see, etc. I do not know what he is doing. What he is doing, is a clause used in the sense of a noun; of the neuter gender, third person, singular number; and in the objective case - it is the object of do know - according to Rule IV. PARSING. 203 What is a pronoun, - aword used in stead of a noun; responsive, it is used as if in answer to a question; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one; and in the objective case- it is the object of the verb is doing-according to Rule IV. ABRIDGED. - WViat is a responsive relative pronoun, of the n. g., 3d p., 6. n.; and in the obj. case, governed by is doing, according to Rule IV. Who was Blennerhasset? Who is my neighbor? Which is it? Who can tell what democracy is? Adjective Pronouns. The old bird feeds her young ones. Ones is an adjective pronoun, it is a common specifying adjective used as a pronoun; it is here used in place of birds, and is therefore of the cominon gender, third person, and plural number; and in the objective case - being the object of the verbfeeds - according to Rule IV. ABRIDGED. - Ones is an indefinite adjective pronoun, of the c. g., 3d p., and pl. n.; and in the objective case -governed by the verb feedsaccording to Rule IV. Others may be wiser, but none are more amiable. Some were for this, and some for that. VERBS. Finite Verbs. regular, Formul.- A verb, and why; principal parts; irreular, and y transitive, with voice, and y; the ood, and hy; the hy; intransitive or neuter,, tense, and why,- with form, and why; conjugation; the person and number, to agree with its subject —, according to Rule XI. Mention Forme only when it is progressive, or emphatic, or passive without being passive in sense. He is ploughing the field which was bought last year. Is ploughing is a verb, it expresses the act of a subject; principal parts - pres. plough, past, ploughed, pres. part. ploughing, perf. part. ploughed; regular, it takes the ending ed; transitive, it has an object (field), -and in the active voice, because it represents its subject as acting; indicative mood, 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. it expresses an actual occurrence or fact; present tense, it denotes a present act, - and in the progressive form, it represents it as continuing; (singular number- First person, I am ploughing; 2d p., You are ploughing; 3d p., He is ploughing; ) and in the third person, singular nunber, to agree with its subjectfather, according to Rule XI. ABRIDGED. - Is poughing is a regular transitive verb, from the verb plough; (principal parts, - pies. plough, past ploughed, pertf part. ploughcd;) in the indicative mood, present tense, progressive form; and in the 3d p. and s. n., to agree with its subjectfather, according to Rule XI. Was bought is a verb, it affirms something of a subject; principal parts, pres. buy, past botucht, pres. part. buying, perf. part. bought; irregular, it does not assume the ending ed; transitive -but in the passive voice, because it affirms the act of the object acted upon; indicative mood, it asserts something as an actual occurrence or fact; past tense, it refers the act simply to past time; third person and singular number, to agree with its subject which, according to Rule XI. ABRIDGED. - VWas bought is an irr. pass. verb, from the verb buy, eteParse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs: - Regular and Irregular, Transitive and Intransitive. The sun warms the earth. They struck me. Birds fly. Rivers flow. It was I. The rose is beautiful. Fierce was the conflict. Voices. She broke the pitcher. The pitcher was broken. They named her Mary. She was named Mary. Moods. Robert sold his horse. Can you spell phthisic? Were he rich, he would be lazy. Be sincere. Tenses. The distant hills look blue. The robber was caught, The soldiers will be attacked. Had I known it. The day will have passed. Do not venture yourself. The apples might have been eaten. Tall pines are rustling. She may have been handsome. She has been teaching. I do object. Thou hast a heart of adamant. PARSING. 205 Persons and Numbers. Bees collect honey. Reckless youth makes rueful age. Time and tide wait for no man. You and I are invited: Monday or Tuesday was the day on which it happened. Iis family is large. The multitude pursue pleasure. Every house has a garden. Who are they? Wait is of the 3d p., pl. n., to agree with time and tide -a plural subject-according to Rule XI. - See pp. 144, 145, 146. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. A participle, } an perfect, transitive, with voice, and why; on what it depends, Rule XII. intransitive or neuter, to what it belongs, Rule X. The sun having set, we were obliged to return home. Having set is a participle,- a form of the verb that expresses the act or state without predicating it, and generally resembles an adjective; cornpound, it consists of having, combined with another participle; perfect, it expresses the act or state as completed at the time referred to; intransitive, it does not have an object; and it belongs to sun, according to Rule X. The forms of the participle, in each voice, may also be mentioned in parsing. ABRIDGED.- Having set is a compound perfect participle, from the irregular, intransitive verb set, set, setting, set; and it belongs to sun, according to Rule X. To return is an infinitive,- a form of the verb that generally begins with to, and that expresses the act or state without predicating it; present, it denotes simply the act; intransitive, it does not have an object; and it depends on was obliged, according to Rule XIL. ABRIDGED. - To return is a present infinitive, from the regular, intransitive verb return, returned, returning, returned; and it depends on was obliged, according to Rule XII. The forms of the infinitive, in each voice, may also be mentioned in parsing. Not to be sometimes deceived is impossible. To be deceived is an infinitive used as a noun. As an infinitive, it is present, transitive, in the passive voice, and modified adverbially. As a noun, it is of the neuter gender, third person, singular number; and with the rest of the phrase of which it is the chief word, it is used as the subject of the verb is, according to Note IV. 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I insist on writing the letter.;Writing is a participial noun, from the irregular verb write, wrote, writing, written. As a participle, it is present, transitive, and in the active voice. As a noun, it is of the neuter gender, third person, singular number; and in the objective case, governed by the preposition on, according to Rule V. Participles. The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. The machinery, being oiled, runs well. Time and thinking tame the strongest grief. Of making many books, there is no end. Infinitives. We had a great curiosity to see the battle-field. I ordered him to be brought. We are glad to see you. He ought to have written. Let no one pass. She is wiser than to believe his flattery. Not to love is unnatural. I forgot to mention it. It is reasonable to suppose7 that he will try to escape. ADVERBS. Formula. - An adverb, and why; of what kind; whether compared, and how; what it modifies; Rule or Note. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB. - AS an adverb, it modifies the verb -, in its own clause, by expressing -, (Rule XIII); as a conjunctive adverb, it refers its clause to, (Note VI). The trees are waving beautifully. Beautifully is an adverb, it modifies the meaning of a verb (are waving); it is an adverb of manner; and it modifies the verb are waving, according to Rule XIII. ABRIDGED. - Beautifully is an adverb of manner, can be compared, and modifies the verb are waving, according to Rule XIII. Since but few adverbs can be compared, it is not necessary, in parsing adverbs, to compare them, except when the adverb happens to be in the comparative or superlative degree. 1. Adverbs Modifying Verbs. The horse galloped gracefully. Our roses must soon fade. Then blue and lofty mountains successively appeared. Mary sews and knits well. Here will I stand. PARSING. 207 2. Adverbs.Modifying Adjectives. Her child was very young. He is perfectly honest. The music rose softly sweet. My hat is almost new. John is most studious. The wound was intensely painful. 3. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs. The horse ran very fast. Thomas is not very industrious. He stutters nearly always. The field is not entirely planted. You did as well as I. She is now writing more carefully. These scenes, once so delightful, no longer please him. PREPOSITIONS. Formula. - A preposition, and why; between what it shows the relation; Rule. The water flows over the dam. Over is a preposition, - a word used to show the relation between a following noun or pronoun and some other word; it here shows the relation of dam to flows, or between flows and dam, according to Rule XIV. ABRIDGED. - Over is a preposition, showing the relation, etc. I found a dollar in the road. In spring the leaves come forth. We should not live beyond our means. From virtue to vice the progress is gradual. The river is washing the soil from under the tree. He struggled, like a hero, against the evils of fortune. We went from New York to Washington City, by railroad, in eight hours. C ONJ UN CTIONS. Formula. - A conjunction, and why; its peculiar nature; what it connects. Rule. The meadow produces grass and flowers. And is a conjunction, -a word used to connect words, phrases, or propositions; copulative, it implies addition; co-ordinate, it is used to connect parts of equal rank; and it here joins flowers to grass, according to Rule XV: A conjunction connects words or phrases in the same construction. ABRIDGED. - And is a copulative co-ordinate conjunction; connecting grass and flowers, according to Rule XV. 208 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. You must either buy mine or sell yours. Either is a conjunction, a word, etc. * * it corresponds to or, and assists it in connecting two phrases according to Rule XV. Or is a conjunction, etc. * * c disjunctive, it disjoins the words in sense, notwithstanding it joins them in form; co-ordinate, it unites parts of equal rank; it here corresponds to either, and connects two phrases according to Rule XV. Words Connected. Learning refines and elevates the mind. We should cultivate our hearts and minds. She is amiable, intelligent, and industrious. Neither flatter nor despise the rich or great. Phrases Connected. Through floods and through forests he bounded away. Death saw the floweret to the desert given, Plucked it from earth, and planted it in heaven. Clauses or Sentences Connected. Eagles generally go alone, but little birds go in flocks. Italian music's sweet because'tis dear. If it rain to-morrow, we shall have to remain at home. Though he is poor, yet he is honest. He was always courteous to wise and gifted men; for he knew that talents are more glorious than birth or riches [are]. INTERJECTIONS.'ormula. - An interjection, and why; of what kind; Rule. Alas I no hope for me remains. Alas is an interjection of grief; and it is used independently. Rule XVI. Ah I few shall part where many meet. 0, young Lochinvar is come out of the West! O Desdemona! DesdemonaI dead? Dead! Ohl Ih oh oh OBSERVATIONS. 209 OBSERVATIONS. Parts of Speech. - Some grammarians include the articles with the adjectives, and thus make but eight parts of speech; others set off the participles as a distinct class, ana thus make ten parts of speech. The classification of words adopted in this book seems to us not only the best, but is also that which most generally prevails. Inflections. - INFLECTIONS may be divided into three classes; declension, comparison, and conjugation. Nouns and pronouns are said to be declined; adjectives and adverbs, compared; and verbs, conjugated. Inflections abound most about the core, or most ancient part, of a language. Hence our irregular verbs, especially the verb be, our pronouns, and some of our most common adjectives and nouns, are the most irregular words in our language. In the course of time, most inflections are dropped, or they are superseded by certain little words - such as prepositions, conjunctions, and auxiliary verbs-which are simpler and more obvious signs, and therefore better suited to express the relations of words. Inflections, particularly ancient ones, consist sometimes of a vowel change in the word; as, man, men; goose, geese; cling, clung: sometimes of a different ending; as, ox, oxen; fox, foxes; great, greater; give, given: sometimes of a syllable or word prefixed; as, go, aqo(ne); beautiful, smore beautifll; write, may write, to write: and sometimes of two or more of these combined; as, weave, woven; break, having been broken. AIDS TO PARSING AND ANALYSIS. Designed only for Reference. The following selections comprise the most important idioms. Many words can be used as different parts of speech. It is simply the manner in which a word is used, that determines the part of speech. A. "A 3MAN's duties "; "A summer's DAY"; article. "To go a hunting "; preposition. " A few men"; a belongs to few men as denoting one aggregate. - See Few. Abed, ablaze, abroach, abroad, adrift, afoot, aloft, etc. When these words are used with active verbs, so as to imply manner, they are adverbs. When they are used with neuter verbs, so as to denote mainly the condition of the subject, they have very much the meaning of adjectives; but they are still considered adverbs, because they must be construed with verbs. When such words, however, are construed with nouns rather than with verbs, they become adjectives. - See Asleep. About. "What are you about?" prep. " He wanders about"; adv. Above. "He sits above me"; prep. "He sits above"; adv. "Amounted to above a dozen." - Swift. Suppiy number, or call above a dozen a noun. Adjuncts are sometimes used for nouns, as well as for adjcctives or adverbs. N 210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Absolutely. "'He is a,friend." "He being a friend "; " To be af fiend." "He is friendly." "To be friendly"; "His being afriend." By thus changing an intransitive verb into an infinitive or a participle, the substantive or adjective, joined to it, is frequently set free, or absolved, from its chief syntactical relation though it still remains connected with the infinitive or participle by a relation that is within the reach of Analysis, and that should be mentioned in analyzing. Adjectives. An adjective may imply quality, as good; quantity, as much; number, as five; time, as eternal; place, as near; position, as perpendicular; shape or form, as round; activity, as studious, etc. Most of the definitive adjectives imply number, place, or relative distinction. Adieu. "Adieu! adieu! my native land." - Byron. Interjection. "Wept a last adieu." "Bid him adieu"; i. e., say adieu to him. Noun. After. "He came after me"; prep. " He came soon after"; adv. "He came after I left"; conjunctive adverb. Before, after, since, and till, are usually parsed as conjunctive adverbs when they stand before clauses; though they are in reality prepositions that. govern the clauses in the sense of nouns. Again. "Call again"; adv. "Again and again"; i. e., repeatedly; adv. phr. " Again, it has been fiequently observed, that," etc.; conj. In general, a phrase should be parsed as one word, when its meaning is different fiom that which the separated words give; hence, oagain and again, throluh and throuygh, ever and anon, now and then, here and there, over and over, should be considered adverbial phrases. So. at all, at first, at once, at last, at least, at most, etc.; adv. phrases, rather than adjuncts. " Not at all" = not in any degree; at all, adv. of degree, modified by not. Ago. "It happened a hundred years ago "; adv. or adj. Long ago; adv. phr., or make long modify ago, as in long before. Ago is an adverb, limiting happened, and limited itself by years according to Rule ViI. Or it is an adjective, meaning past, and belonging to years. "Twenty years uaone." - Tillotson; adj., or old participle. " It happened a year before," and similar expressions, confirm the first solution. Alike. " They are alike "; adj. " They please alike"; adv. All ADJ. "All places." "All this." "All ye." "Ye all." rRON. "All are but parts of one stupendous whole." " Wealth, pleasure, and honors, must all be given up." NOUN. " Our little all." "All of which." " He is all in all." ADV. "I am all alone"; i. e., wholly. "All heart they live, all head, all eye, all ear." - Milton. A word is sometimes so used that it has not the meaning of one part of speech only, but of two or three; and if we may borrow a beautiful and expressive term from the forists, we would say that a word so used is a variegated part of speech. All is sometimes so used, and especially in the last example above. In the sentence, " They live all heart," all modliics adverbially neither live nor heart, but the predicate live heart. Note VII. All or both, when it limits the plurality of a noun or pronoun, is an adjective; when it emphatically repeats the idea, an appositive. Some teachers call these words adjectives whenever they precede the substantives, and appositives when they follow them; but OBSERVATIONS. 211 they should generally be considered adjectives, simply when they are joined to substantives or can be joined to them. "This is all that is done "; noun. "The sheep are all here"; adj. "The sheep are all of them here "; pron., appositive. "I was all attentioa ", adv., or adj. belonging to I. " It is all one to me"; adv. or noun, according to the sense; one, descriptive adjective. " He is all right," i. e., in all respects; adv. For all in all, all over, all along, and all hollow, are generally adverbial phrases. Alas. "Alas for us! " "Fie upon your law! " interj. or noun. Alas is rather an interjection, and fie a noun. "Alas, I sigh for us!" "I say fie upon your law!" Compare with, "To bid welcome." Alone ADV. "The boy studies alone." Manner of studying. ADJ. "The boy alone studies." " Let it [be] alone." Also. " He is also blind"; adv. " The spring, and also the autumn, has its pleasures"; conj. phr. Or, and, conj.; also, adv., Note VII. Antecedent. The antecedent of a pronoun is not the word which can be put in place of the pronoun, but the word elsewhere used in reference to which the pronoun was chosen as a substitute. Therefore, when a pronoun is applied directly to the object itself, when the speaker can not be thought to have the supposed antecedent in his mind, and when the supposed antecedent does not first present, in the order of the sense, the object meant, Rule IX should not be applied. Any. "Any person"; adj. "Any of them"; pron. or adj. "Are you (any better "; adverb, analogous to the adverb muoch. Apposition. "Ye men of Altorf." " It is known that he is here." Either term can be considered the appositive; but it is generally better to consider the pronoun the leading or principal term, and the other the appositive. "So, "In her brother Absalom's house." Absalom's is the explanatory and appositive word. " At Smith's, the bookseller "; bookseller, appositive, or else supply who is..opposition, or identification in language, is a much more comprehensive idea than grammars represent it to be. It reaches not only substantives, but adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, and other parts. (See ~526; also Both, As, and Such.) When substautives are put in apposition, they must agree in case. But sometimes, in accordance with the foregoing comprehensive idea of apposition, a substantive is put in apposition with a clause or an adjective that has not case; and then the substantive is in the nzominiative case, simply because a noun naturally prefers the nominative case, or comes into the world in the nominative case, when there is nothing to make it vary or decline from this case. As ADV. "As cold as ice "; degree, Conjunctive Adverb: "Skate as I skate "; manner. "It fell as I entered "; time. And probably, " As cold as ice"; degree. CONJ. "As [since] we all must die, why not be charitable?" " As it regards this, I have nothing to say." " Such characters are called letters; as, a, b, c," etc. "Appoint him as clerk"; him and clerk are in apposition. PRON. "Let such as hear, take heed"; i. e., those who. PREP. "I object to his appointment as clerk." Here it seems rather better to call as a preposition than to say that his and clerk in apposition but in sentences implying comparison, as should not be considered a preposition. As follows and as appears are generally best parsed as adverbial phrases, 212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. equivalent to thus and apparently: sometimes the pronoun it may be supplied. In parsing as regards and as concerns, it is probably best to supply it. As yet, adv. phr.; as if, conj. phr. " They, as well as I, have written"; conj. phr. "He has done as well as he could"; first as, adv. of degree, modifying the adverb well. "HIe concealed his good luck from everybody, as is usual in money dreams"; i. e. as it is usual for people to do, etc. As, in this construction, is partially a relative pronoun; because which could be substituted for it. So, "Then the dust shall return to the earth, as it was." "I bought such as were new," i. e., those which; identity; as, relative. "I bought such as you have," i. e., as those are which, etc.; similarity, as, rather conjunction, but considered a relative, to avoid troublesome distinctions.' They seek out some particular herb, which they do not use as food ";.food is in apposition with which. So, "The wood of the silver fir is not much used as timber." In both these sentences, it would be hardly improper to call as a preposition, equivalent tofor. "I consider him as responsible"; conj. adv. of manner. " Be so kind as to write to me "; conj., or conj. adv. of degree. "As the tree falls, so it lies." Here the clause, as the tree falls, and the adverb so, can both be regarded as modifying lies; or else the clause can be considered a modifier of so, by being related to it as a noun is related to the pronoun with which it is put in apposition. - See That. Asleep. "HIe fell asleep"; adv. "I found him asleep"; adj. Asleep is strongly drawn into the analogy of awake and alive, and is therefore generally an adjective. Auxiliary Verbs. Some grammarians parse auxiliaries as independent verbs, and the rest of the verb as a participle or an infinitive. Ay. "Ay, so let it be "; adv. "The ays have it"; noun. Before. "He stood before me"; prep. "I knew him before"; adv.' Ile came before I returned"; conj. adv. - See After. Below. "Fields below us"; prep. "He went below "; adv. "The shining fields below"; adj. "From below"; noun. So, beneath. "From the supporting myrtles round, [adj.,] They snatched her instruments of sound." - Collins. By supplying words, round can be parsed as a preposition or an adverb. But the phrase or clause will still be an adjective element relating to myrtles; and it would seem that the same analogy of syntax should be allowed to run through word, phrase, and clause. Considered as an adjective, round is not a descriptive one but it still shows what myrtles are meant, and this specifying sense comes within the province of local definitive adjectives. Beside. "I stood beside him"; prep. " What do you know besides"; adv. "To all beside it is an empty shade," i e., to all others. " O'er all the world beside," i. e., all the remaining world; adj., or else adverb under Note VII, analogous to also and too. Best; ADJ. "Do what is best." ADV. "He best can tell." " Tones he loved the best "; adv. phr. NOUN. "To do one's best." "Every creature's best." At best and at worst are generally adjuncts rather than adverbial phrases. Better. "I could have better [adv.] spared a better [adj.] man." "To get the better of"; "Take her for better or worse "; noun. Blame. " He is to blame" = to be blamed; passive. - See ~ 401. Blow. "To blow up, out, away, off, down, back, in "; adverbs. OBSERVATIONS. 213 Bot; ADJ. " Both. men." "Both these " And probably, "We both." Both and all are about as much definite or demonstrative adjectives as they are indefinite adjectives; though they are usually classed with the indefinite. PRON. "The bee and the butterfly are both busybodies." CONJ. " She is both young ald handsome." It is remarkable that both, as a representative word, can relate to two nouns, or two pronouns, or two adjectives, or two adverbs, or two prepositions. At bottom, it has always a pronominal or adjective meaning, or implies apposition i but it is usually considered a conjunction whenever it corresponds to and. Either and neither are used as both is used, with this additional peculiarity, that, when they are corresponding conjunctions, they can be applied to more than two. Burden. " A ship of two thousand tons burden"; apposition. But; coNJ. " Sin may gratify, but repentance stings." "No creature is so helpless, but it can protect itself." PREP. "Whence all but him had fled "; i. e., ercept him. "' None knew thee but to love fhee." "What rests but that the mortal sentence pass " — Milton. "Man but for [without] this were active to no end." ADV. " Words are but leaves "; i. e., are only leaves. It is worthy of notice that the second conjunctive sense of but, as given above, is somewhat prepositional, for it suggests the meaning of except; and that more or less of this meaning lies at the bottom of all the difficult constructions of but. "I can but go" - = I can only go. " I can not but go" = I can not do any thing except to go = I must go. It is probably best to consider but in the latter sentence a modal adverb, equivalent to otherwise than, and modifying the assertion (see p. 177); though different from but, only, which is an adverb of extent or quantity. So, "It can not but be obvious to you, that this state of things can not last." -A. Lincoln. " Who but would deem their bosoms burned anew." - Byron. That is, who is there, but he would, etc. By thus supplying words, butt becomes a conjunction. Sometimes, however, but is used in this sense where words can not be thus supplied; and it is certainly a more sensible mode of analysis to dispose of what the writer actually said, than of what we suppose he might have said. Besides, the quoted sentence has become a condensed, idiomatic form of expression. "Who hears him, but [he is] is converted by llm'?" conj. In the sentence, "Should none be left but he and 1," supply shiould be left, and parse but as a conjunction. This form of expression, however, is obsolescent; but being now generally regarded, in this construction, a preposition, and therefore followed by the objective case. By. "He passed by me"; prep. "lie passed by"; "Hle lives near by"; adv. " By the bye, there is a little debt behind "; conj. phrase. Cheap. " To sell cheap goods"; adj. " To sell goods cheap "; adv. The second cheap is used for the adverbial adjunct, at cheap prices; and it shows the manner of selling. - See Mlake. Case. The possessive sign was originally is or es. "Kiniqs crowne"; Christes gospel." - Chaucer. By putting an apostrophe in place of c or i, a double advantage was gained, - the possessive sign was distinguished from the plural sign, and language became in general one syllable shorter. Close. " To close the eyes"; v. "At the close of the day "; n. "A close fit"; " To lie close" i adj. " Some dire misfortune lingers close behind "; adj. or adv. Clown. " To play the clown"; "To act thefool 9'; nom. or ohj. Notminative, if the meaning is, to be a clown; objective, to act the part of. Come. " To come to " (revive). It is probably best to supply life. 214 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. Comparison. Formerly, adjectives were more generally compared by er and est than at present. In Milton we find beautftullest, virtuousest, etc. Superior, inferior, jun terior, inner, etc., are adjectives in which the idea of comparison is also a part of the fundamental meaning; and they are therefbre partly in the comparative degree, and partly in the positive. Hence they generally require to after them where pure comparatives would require than; and occasionally some of them may even be compared; as, " This is still nmore iq2erior to the other." - Swit. Daggers. "To look or speak datgers," i. e., fierceness, threats; n. obj. Dear. " He sells clear," i. e., at dear prices; adv., used for adv. adjunct. " To pay dear for," i. e., a dear price; adv., used for objective phrase. Dispense. " I can dispense with luxuries "; "He disposed of his property." "Luxuries are dispensed with "; "The property was disposed of." Here it seems necessary to parse the verb and the preposition as one verb, a compound verb for the words lose their meaning when they are separated. - See ~ 386. Do. " Tllis does away with [removes] my objections"; probably best parsed as a compound verb, for the meaning of the phrase is lost when the words are separated. " He has directions what to do." To do depends on directions, and governs zwhat. " I have more than I know what to do with " = I have more than that is with which I know what to do. To do, with the remaining words of its phrase, is the object of know (Note IV); and what is used as the object of to do, ~ 203. "I ant done for"; v., passive. " I am done," i. e., I have finished smy work; passive in form, but active in sense. Do, thus used, is an excellent specimen of what would be called, in Latin grammars, a deponent verb. Draw. " To draw up, down, on, off, out, away, over, in, back "; adverbs, "To draw near, nigh, close, tight"; adjectives. Drink. " To drink the cup dry "; phrase, object of drink. Say, in parsing cup, that it is in the objective case, being, with the remainder of the phrase, of which it is the chief word, the object of the verb driink, according to Note IV. Then parse dry as an adjective. Each. "Each man"; adj. "They took one each," pron., Rule VII. "They help each other." "They help one another." Here each can be parsed as b'ring in apposition with they, or else each other can be parsed as one word (see ~ 209). " They deemed each other oracles of law." Pope. In this sentence, oracles can not be put in apposition with either each or other, but must be put in apposition with both considered as one expression. It is true, as Mr. Brown says, that the Latin alii alios proves that the words should be parsed separately; but it is just as true that the Greek cihhtAAXA qnd the German einander prove that they should be parsed together. Ellipsis. The follbwing are the most common kinds of ellipsis: — ARTICLE: "A noun -or [a] pronoun." "The first and [the] last." ADJECTIVE: " He is wiser than you are" [wise]. NOUN: "At St. Paul's " [Church]. " Peter the Great " [Epperor]. PRONOUN: " Be [ye] seated." " Take all [that] there is." VERB: " To whom thus Michael " [spoke]. [Rise] " Up, Glenarkin." " And [am] I to be a corporal in his field! " " Dark [is] the day." " Myself [bcisg] a refugee." " Let me [to be] alone." [etc. "With here and there a pearl "; i. c., with a pearl placcd here, OBSERVATIONS. 215?PrEPosIrIoN: "Bring [to] me your slate." CONJUNCTION: " Proud, stern, [and] inflexible." "I believe [that] he is PHRASE: Few are more resolute than he " [is resolute]. [at home." "0 [how much I wish] that those lips had language! " CLAUSE: "He returned; I know not why " [he returned]. The words most commonly omitted are those little ones which help to make syntax rather than to express thought. Else. "Any cue else," i.., any other one; adj. Else usually follows the word which it modifies. " How else {otherwise] can I do it " adv. "He has not returned yet, else [or] he would write"; conj. Enough. " Good enough "y; adv. "Money enough"; adj. "To have enough"; noun. Even. " Thy charms taught even toil to please." "I, even I, was there." It is customary to call even, in the first of these sentences, an adverb; and in the second, a conjunction. But it has the same meaning in both; and it plainly relates, in the first, Lo the object, and in the second to the appositive. (Note VII.) It is better to say that such a word relates to the subject, the object, the predicate, or some other syntactical elemcnt, than to say that it relates to a noun or pronoun for it affects the syntax, or the train of thought, rather than describes an object. In the syntax of all languages are used certain little words that are promissory or reiterative; or that are designed to produce some identifying, intensifying, amplifying, or attenuating effect upon the flow of thought or the train of ideas These little words are generally adverbial or conjunctive in sense but sometimes they defy classifcation. Every. " Every one"; adj. " Each and evety of them "; pron., obsolete. "Every now and then"; adv. phr, Or call nowt and then nouns; Rule Fair. " To bid fair"; i. e., to be fair in appearance, hence adj. [VI. Fall. " Wefell out, - my wife and I."- Tennyson. " Tofall lfoul of." Fall out does not have the meaning of fall and out; for it means to quarrel, and therefore the whole phrase should probably be parsed as a compound verb. (See ~ 386.) Far. "A far country"; adj. " r aay; " r p the hill ad aw F up the adv., modifying the word or phrase which follows it. "He went thus faor "; advs. "From far"; "Thits.far is right"; noun. "He went as far as Richmond, i. e., to Richmond, not, as far as Richmond is; prep. Farewell. "Farewell, my friends!" intelj. "A long farewell"; "To bid [sayl farewell" [to]; noun. "A ftrewell address "; adj. rast. "A long fast "; adj. and n. " To fast losng"; v. fand adv. "To walk fast"; " Fast asleep "; adv. "To tie him fast "; adj. " Siloa's brook that flowedfast by the oracle of God "; adv., showing where. Feew. " A few men "; " A dozen men "; "A thousand men "; adj. "Afew of us; " Thefew and the many "; "Two and to "; "By tens"; n. A, in the first example, belongs to the rest of the phrase considered as denoting but one aggregate. Strictly speaking, the words few, dozen, many, thousand, etc., are variefgeted parts of speech, - partly noun and partly adjective; the substantive sense allowing the article before them, and the adjective sense enabling them to coalesce adjectively with the nouns after them. Sometimes they are nouns; anti sometimes it is best to mnake them nouns in parsing, by supplying of. Few, and some words like it, though usually called nouns, are very nearly pronouns. " Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land? All fear, none aid you, aiind fc understand." -Pope. 216 ENGLISH GRAMMAtR. First " ADJ. " Glenara cameft rst "; i. e., was first in coming. ADV. "To write first) then send." "At first"; adv. phrase. For. " Sendfor him "; prep.' I sent, for it was necessary"; coij. "Taken for granted "; i. e., for a thi.gq granted. " We live for good or evil "; "I deem it [to bej for good to do so"; "Taken for perfect "; rather, adjuncts. "' For him to speak would be injudicious" - To speak, for him, would he injudicious t. c., on his part. But if to spea/c i6 referred to him, theu the whole phrase must be parsed as a noun. - See Above. Full. " Bring itf/ll "; a(j. " Fll many a flower"; adv. Gender; the meaning of a word in regard to sex. A word can mean a male, a female, either, or neither; hence there can be four genders while there are but two sexes; and to have four genders is a great convenience in speaking of words. Hail. " llail, horrors!" interj. " He bade the stranger hail "; noun. Half. " A half section of land "; adj. " Half the men," i. e., half of, etc.; n. " To go halves with "; n., Rule VI. " Half dead "; adv. " I-e returns half fiddler, groom, and cook." - Jenyns, abridyed. Half, in the last sentence, seems to be an adverb, modifying the whole of the following nppositive phrase, which has the descriptive force of an ardjective; Note VI. If paried san adjective, it should be referred to all the following nouns as one whole. Haand. "To go hand in hand "; adv. phr., or supply being. Hard. "It is hard"; adj. "To study hard"; adv. Observe that hardlq is a different word. "H ard by a forest's side"; adv. of place, modifying the adjunct after it. Have. " I have to let a house "; active, depending on have. "I have a house to let"; passive, depending on house. (See ~ 401.) "Have it done to-day." "The witnesses testified that they saw him buried"; i. e., they saw his burial; or, they saw that he was buried. Done is probably the perfect passive participle; but buried is rather the present passive infinitive, to be being understood. "I had as lief not be, as be the thing I am." - Shak. " He had better have taken cold than taken our umbrella." — Mrs. Caudle. Had; verb, subjunctive mood, implying conclusion; past tense in form, but, like were, present in sense. [To] be; infinitive, depending on had. So, to have taken. ~~ 410, 482. High. " The spacious firmament on hih "; adjunct. "The day-spring from on high"; phrlse used as a noun, Note IV. "They fired too soon, and too high." - -- Bancroft. Adv. Hlow. " How deep"; adv. of degree. " I know not how to do it"; conj. adv. "How much is it " "I was glad to get even so much." "Htow, in the phrase howo to do it, modifies to do; and joins the phrase to the verb know. To do, with the remaininDg words of the phrase of which it is the chief word, is usted as the object of know; Note IV. In parsing each of the remaining examples. supply a noun; or it is still better to parse nll such mixed constructions in this way: So is an adverb modifying msuch as an adjective; much is an adjective modified by so; and it is also a noun, the object of to get. HBowever. "H owevcr great"; adv. "Great, however, as he is," etc.; conj. OBSERVATIONS. 217 I. "Love of fame makes I the little hero of each tale "; n., 3d p., obj. "When Frog took possession of any thing, it was always said to be foi us; and why may not John Bull be us, as well as Nic. Frog was us? " - Swft. The first us is a pronoun; but the others are nouns, in the 3d person, and nominative case. "Said I to myself, and myself said to me,' Take care of thyself; for none care for thee.'" Separate myself in parsing; self,- noun, 3d pers.; thyself, pron. "Poor, guiltless I! and can I choose but smile?" Rule It. " le miserable!" i. e., woe is to me. " Ah me!" " Oh me!" The supplied words are not satisfactory. In truth, notwithstanding what grammars teach, there is in the English language an exclamatory objective independent as well as an exclamatory nominative independent; the former being used when the speaker is in a passive or suffering condition, and the latter in other cases. Ill. " To fare ill "; adv. "He was taken ill," i. e., became sick; adj. Impersonal. An inappropriate word, for the verbs have person. Unipersonal is also inappropriate, for all verbs not applicable to persons must be unipersonal. Unsubjective would be a better expression. Infinitives. " The infinitive is no mode at all." - Prof Gibbs of Yale Col. "The infinitive has no claim to be considered a mood." - Barnard. " The infinitives." - Dr. Whately. " The participials." - G. P. Marsh. Dr. Whately calls both the infinitive and the participle infinitives; because both are not finite, or have not person and number. Mr. Marsh calls both participials; because they have the meaning of verbs, and also partake of the nature of other parts of speech. But neither calls either of these forms of the verb a mood. We might add much argument and authority in favor of our classification, as given on p. 119 but we have not room. Every act or state must belong to some person or thing; and, in the parsing of participles and finite verbs, this fact is made the basis of the Rule. Therefore it seems to us not altogether proper to disregard this truth wholly in parsing the infinitive; but most teachers prefer such a ltule as we have given on p. 195. Were we teaching, however, we should prefer the following Rule: - RULE XII. - An Infinitive relates to an expressed or indefinite subject, and generally depends on some other word. " He was anxious to return." To return relates to he, and depends on anxious, according to Rule XII. " The wagons were so arranged as to protect the camp." To protect relates to wagons, and depends on as. "Here was an opportunity to grow rich." To grow relates to an indefinite subject, and depends on opportunity. The subject of an infinitive is the noun or pronoun denoting the object to which the act or state belongs and such a subject may be in the objective case, as well as in the nomrinative. But our language does not, like the Latin, allow a Rule for the subject of the infinitive, as being put in the objective case because the infinitive depends on it; for such an object, in English, has always a verb or preposition before it by which it is governed. In order. " We were now obliged to gallop, in order to reach the boat." In order is not so much an adjunct that modifies the verb before it, as it is an adverbial phrase that modifies the infinitive after it by strengthening the idea of purpose. In fact, while to is the common sign of the infinitive, in order to is the formal or strengthened sign, which is generally preferred when the infinitive is considerably removed from the verb on which it depends, or when it depends on another infinitive immediately before it. Inversion. The following are the principal kinds of inversion: — Rhetorically arranged: "My native shore with sighs and tears I leave." Grammatically arranged: I leave my native shore with sighs and tears. 218 ENGLISH GRANMMAR. Logical or grammatical arrangement is that which the sense requires in parsing. Rhetorical arrangement is some deviation from grammatical arrangement, for the sake of rhythm or effect. " Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole." The mingled measure stole through glades and glooms. "Mute was his tongue, and upright stood his hair." His tongue was mute, and his hair stood upright. "0 Time! than gold more precious "; i. e., more precious than gold. "Oh, what a situation I am placed in! " i. e., in what a situation, etc. "When first thy sire to send on earth Virtue, his darling child, designed." When first thy sire designed to send Virtue, his darling child, on earth. Irregular Verbs, in the course of time, sometimes become regular; but regular verbs never become irregular, except that ed is sometimes changed to t. In old writers and in poets, we sometimes find loaden, mollen, and bounden, used for the participles loaded, melted, and bound; also clomb, for climbed; rid, for rode; heat, for heated; and writ, for wrote or written. It. "It was I " = That person was I. Almost demonstrative. " It is easy to do so" == This thing, to do so, is easy. " It is 12 o'clock " = Tihe time is twelve o'clock. "It rains." "It thunders." See ~~ 465 and 184. " Come, and trip it, as you go, on the light, fantastic toe." - Milton, It here vaguely denotes doing or action. Knowsn. "Some men employ their time - an ugly trick - In making known how oft they have been sick." — Cowper. Trick; noun, nom. case, in apposition with the clause before it. (See Apposition.) [To be] known is a passive infinitive, depending on the clause that follows it, which is used as a noun. Large. " To go at large," adv. phr. "The statutes at large "; adjunct. Late. "e islate"; adj. "He came late"; adv. or adj. "He worked late"; adv. " He came lately "; adv. (See Short.) "Of late"; n. Perhaps better: Late is an adjective relating to he; and an adverb, modifying came. (lie was late in coming.) So, " le worked late"; i. e., to a late hour. Lay. " To lay waste"; Rule VI. " He was laid hold of"; verb. Let, "Let out, let off, let on, let in, let down"; adverbs, modifying generally some verb understood, as go or come, "Let loose" = Let it be or go loose; adj. " Let go "; verb, depending on it and let. Let is essentially the auxiliary verb which serves to express the imperative mood in the first or third person. It is unlike other auxiliaries, however, in being transitive; and therefore it prevents the intervening substantive, by governing it in the objective case, from becoming the subject. Like. Adv. or adj., ~ 531. "I like this"; v. "I never saw the like "; n. "John began to chuckle and laugh, till he was like to burst his sides." - Swift. " He had like to have knocked John's hat into the fire." - Id. " I had like to have fallen."- Cowper. Dr. Worcester calls like here a noun; and several passages in Gulliver's Travels give plausibility to thia disposal of the word: but it seems to us that like is rather an adverb OBSERVATIONS. 219 in all these cases, and modifies the following infinitive, which depends on the preceding was or had. "Like enough" is an obsolescent expression for likely enough.. " The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold." There is a peculiarity in this sentence. On can not be parsed without supplying a verb. When a finite verb, however, is supplied, like becomes a conjunctive adverb; but at the same time it ceases to be proper, and must give place to as. Supply coming after wolf, and you avoid the difficulty. Little. " Little better "; adv. " A little better"; noun, Rule VI. Long. "I long for rest "; v. "A long rest "; adj. "To rest long "; adv. Look. "To look big," i. e., with insolence; adv., manner of looking. Loose. "To break loose," i. e., become suddenly loose; adj. - See Let. Loud. "A loud noise"; adj. "To talk loud "; adv. Low. "To be low"; "To sink low"; adj. "To lie low"; adj., sometimes adv. "To aim low"; "To speak low"; " To sell low "; adv. When the lowness is in the subject, low is an adj.; when in the verb, an adv. Mlake. "To make bold with"; "To make free with"; i.e., to be bold with, etc.; adj. "To make sure of," i. e., to make one's self sure of, or, to make [a] sure [thing] of; adj. " To make away with "; adv., or compound verb. " To make much of"; n. " He was made mluch of"; compound passive verb, ~ 400. "By selling all, he will imalce out to pay his debts "; compound verb. "To make light of," i. e., a lilht matter of, - to regard ligiltly; adv. Perhaps better: Bold is an adjective, relating to the subject; and it is also a noun, the object of make. Light is an adjective, relating to some noun understood; and it is also a noun, the object of make. So,'"To pay dear." - See Dear. Methinks. " Methinks I see a noble and puissant nation." - Milton. Methinks is a defective irregular verb, of the indic. mood, pres. tense, 3d pers., and e. n. * but used without a subject. Or else say, AMethinks is an anomalous expression, used, by the figure enallage, for I thinsk. Thinks is used in the sense of seems; an old meaning still retained in this expression, though not generally understood so. " Where it thinks best unto your royal self."-Shak. 3Mistake. " I was mistaken for my brother "; passive verb. " I thought I saw you; but I was mistaken." Deponent verb; see Do. Mood. If our excluding the infinitive and the participle fiom moods be approved, then we would offer the following definition of mood in preference to the one given on p. 131: Mood is that property of verbs which shows how the act or state is predicated or regarded with reference to its subject. More. "More work"; adj. "More entertaining"; adv. "To get more"; n. "Say no more"; no, adj.; more, noun. " Your parents are no more "; "I will not do so any more," i. e., again; adv. phr. [adv. phr. " He becomes more and more angry "; adv. phr. - See Again. " The nore we urged him, the more he resisted"; adv. phr. Parse the more first as an adverbial phrase, and apply Rule XIII; then say that it is used also as a correlative connective, relating to the more of the other clause, and helping it to unite the two clauses according to Rule XV. Much. ", Ich money"; adj. " To have much "; n. "He reads much "; n. or adv. "He sleeps much"; adv. " 3uch the stronger"; n., RuleVI. Must sometimes belongs to the past or the past-perfect tense of the potential mood, as well as to the present tense or the perfect. "I knew he must rise." - Byron. "But for this, the ship must' hae sunk." -Arnot. 220 ENGLISH GRA~MMAR. Names. "He called me names." Rule VI. [it"; n. Nay. "Nay, do not weep"; adv. "To say ay"; "The rays have Nay and yca are sometimes used as amplifiers, to indicate an emphatic addition of reomothing more. W\he: thus used, it is generally best to call them conjunctions. Hear. Near is generally considered an adjective; though it has sometimes partly the nature of a preposition, and sometimes partly that of an adverb. It is not called a preposition, because it can be compared, and sometimes has to after it; and it is not called an adverb, because it has the adverb nearlq. No. "' No place "; adj. " No farther"; adv. " No, never! " independent adv-rb, Note VIII. >-...' None.e "None sorrowed more"; pron. "None the better"; Rule VI. "Silver and gold have I none"; ndj., belonging to silver andgold, ~ 183. Nouns. A noun nmay denote a person, as man; a spiritual being, as anyqel; an animal inferior to man, as dog; a thing, as house; a place, as Boston; time, as dtig; a quality, as goodness; action, as toil, etc. Collective nouns do not include such words as jeweelry, furniture, etc. Complex Nouns. -- Some grammarians call such words as John Smith, Charles XII, and Duke of Wellington, complex nouns. Most of the older grammarians teach that each word of such a name should be parsed and some of them say that John, of the name John Smith, is an adjective, because it shows what Smith is meant; while others insist as strenuously that Smith is in apposition with John, because it shows what John is meant I It is probably best to parse tho whole name as one noun. Concrete Nouns, the names of objects with their qualities; as, snow. Abstract Nouns, the names of qualities without their objects; as, whiteness. Diminutive Nouns, the names of small objects as distinguished from large ones of the same kind; as, hillock fiom hill. Material Nouns, the names of substance in mass; as, water. Nouns,.Proper and Common. - The same word is sometimes a proper and sometimes a common noun. " The planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth,' etc. " The sun shines upon the earth." " Sunday precedes Monday "; "'Preaching on every Sunday." It is not necessary, and perhaps hardly proper, to apply the distinction of proper and common, to participles, infinitives, or clauses, that are used as nouns; but gender, person, and number, should be mentioned, on account of the relations which such expressions have to pronouns and verbs, Now. " Now is the time to repent"; adv. "Now is the time to repent in "; n. "Now Barabbas was a robber "; conjunction, implying transition. " Now -- now "; advs., and also correlative connectives. Number. En was a plural termination in the Saxon language; hence we have oxen, children, and even kine is a contraction of cowen, and the poetic cynze (eyes) of eyen. In old writers, we also find verbs with this plural ending. (See p. 58.) Formerly, nouns had the ending ie in stead of /; as, "A gentle Lcdie." -- Spenser. Hence, according to some writers, the change of y to ie in the plural; as, ladies. Off. Adv. or prep. "He is well off," i. e., rich; adj. "Off with his head I" imper. adv.; Note VIII, for no suitable verb can be-supplied. OBSERVATIONS. 221 Old. "Old men "; adj. "Days of old"; "The young and the old"; n. Once. "At once came forth whatever creeps"; adv. phll' Now, just tis once, we must go on the same as ever"; noun, Rule VI. Only. " The only man "; adj. " I propose my thoughts only as conjectures "; adv., relating to the appositive phrase, as conjectures. See ~ 527. Opposed. " I am opposed to this "; deponent verb. - See Mistake. Ours, yours, hers, etc., are either personal pronouns in the possessive case, or else adjective pronouns of the third person and in the nominative or the objective case. These words occupy a middle position between personal pronouns and adjective pronouns. Ours, for instance, may be equivalent to our books; and hence it may be regarded either as having the gender, person, number, and case of our, or as having the gender, person, number, and case of books. The former view is the one generally taken in English grammars; but the latter is strongly sustained by the analogy of some foreign languages. In the English language, relative pronouns are used to suit either part of the composite word; and this is rather a conclusive argument that the words should be parsed as we have shown on p. 74. " A weary life is theirs, who have no work to do." " My umbrella being torn, I will take yours, which is better." "'T was thine to lead our warrior bands"; i. e., thy part. But in parsing the phrase, "This poor self of mine," for instance, why may we not simply say that the adjtctive adjunct of mine is used as a definitive adjective belonging to self? - See p. 9s. Out, " To put out; to branch out; to break out; to draw out; to run out; to cut out; to make out; to look out; to play out," etc.; adverbs. Over. "We passed over the bridge"; prep. "Over against the church stands a hospital "; prep. " We passed over"; "I turned over a leaf"; "It ran over"; " It is ocer," i. e., gone over; "There were twenty dollars over," i. e., in excess; adv. " Over and above "; adv. phr. Participial Adjectives. - A participial adjective is derived from a verb, has little or no reference to time, and generally precedes the noun which it qualifies, and which would be the subject if the participle were a finite verb. The following are also participial adjectives: "God's presence is renewing, sanctifying, and lightening to the soul." -Bunyan.'The office was unsolzcited and undesired by me." - McCulloch. "Boughs unshaken by the wind." — Bryant As a general rule, prefixes do not change the part of speech; and suffixes do. When un is prefixed to a participle, but can not be prefixed to the verb, some grammarians call the word thus formed an adjective; others, a participle. It seems to us that such words should be called participial adjectives. The word undesired, for instance, as given above, can not make a passive verb with was, and therefore it is not a pure participle but it takes after it the preposition by, as required by participles, and not to, as required by adjectives, and therefore it is not strictly an adjective. Such words as talented, double-barreled, unepztaphed, etc., which are formed from nouns, and take the ending ed simply to give them something of an adjective form, are adjectives. Also such words as parsing, in the phrase patsing exercises. Compound participles, as treated in this book, are to simple participles, somewhat as compound pronouns are to simple pronouns. Participial Nouns. Whenever a participle is used with a verb or preposition in such a way that it assumes case, it may be called a participial noun; and it may then have the modifiers of either a verb or a noun, but not always a part of each class. A participial noun that has the modifiers of a verb, should be parsed first as a participle and then as a noun. - See p. 206. Peas, number i pease, quantity; - a frivolous and pedantic distinction. 222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Pleonasm. " It curled not Tweed alone, that breeze." Scott. "My banks they are furnished with bees." - Shenstone. It seems to us that it would be better to apply to such examples the Rule for apposition than the Rule for nominatives indlepeldeut: for, in general, no extraordinary principle should b, applied where an ordinary one will do as well; and the examples are analogous to such as " Ye mountains," " I myself." in which the pronoun merely strengthens the expression. But when the words are plainly different in case, or when the mode of expression is different, Rule II may be preferable. Possessive.' As Eden's garden bird." - Halleck. "Houghton's 2Esop's Fables." " The Duke of Wellington's forces." "Jones the saddler's wife." "At her brother Absalom's house." "Turner and Mason's store." "Turner's and Mason's store." Eden's is governed by garden, and Eden's garden is an adjective belonging to bird. HoJuhton's is governed by the phrase XEsop's Fables. Duke, Jones, and brother, should be considered the possessive words on which the names of the possessed objects depend. Turner is governed by store expressed; and Turner's, by store understood. -See Ours. Post. " He rides post "; adv.; or noun, under Rule VI or VII, according to the sense. "' He is the post, and rides"; or, " He rides like the post, or by post." The sentence seems to be analogous to " She walks a queen "; " He struts a dandy "; and, if so, the same Rule should be applied to it, though most teachers call post simply an adverb. Prithee. "I prithee" = I pray thee. " Prithee, say no more"; intelj. Put. " To put up with it"; i. e., to bear. " To put up at an hotel." Probably each phrase should be parsed as a compound verb. Pronouns. Pronouns were probably the first of names, and afterwards adopted as general substitutes for nouns; hence pronouns sometimes have no antecedents. Adjective Pronouns. — By supplying suitable nouns after them, most adjective pronouns can be parsed as adjectives; and those few which can not, might be parsed as personal pronouns, for they are always of the third person. Since pronouns represent nouns with their modifications, most adjective pronouns represent themselves, and the nouns understood. Responsive or Indirect Interrogqative Pronouns. " Who he was, is the question." Here no antecedent can be supplied before who; nor is who a direct interrogative. Such a pronoun resembles a relative pronoun, because it makes its clause dependent; and it resembles also an adjective pronoun, because it is equivalent to the same phrase, and implies uncertainty. Some grammarians call such pronouns indefinite. Sometimes an antecedent can be supplied, and the pronoun can then be parsed as a relative. Quite. " She is quite a beauty." "He is almost a poet." Quite and almost are adverbs, modifying the predicates. Note VII. Right. " Our rights"; n. " It is right"; adj. " All is going on right"; adj., ~ 534. "You did right," i. e., what is right; adj. or n. (See Makce.) "Right Reverend"; "Right noble prince"; adv. "Right away "; "Right off"; adv. phr. Rule VI. - Nouns that signifiy which way, how far, how much, how long, OBSERVATIONS. 223 or time when, are sometimes put in the objective case, without a prep. osition exprcsscd We insert this Rule here, because some teachers may prefer it to Rule VI, on p. 192; though we ourselves prefer that Rule, which is more comprehensive. Rule VII. -1. A Noun or Pronoun, added to anothcr for explanation or emphasis, is put, by apposition, in the same case. 2. A Noun or Pronoun, after an intransitive or a passive verb, is put in the same case as the subject, when it denotes the same person or thing. We insert this Rule here, because some teachers may prefer it to Rule VII, on p. 192; though we ourselves prefer that Rule. Run. "To run riot"; i. e., in or into riot. Rule VI. "The brooks ran nectar." " The streams ran blood." "Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run By angels many and strong." - Milton. It is customary to say that ran is transitive, and governs nectar and blood; but the Cmeaning in the first example plainly seems to be, that the brooks were nectar, and hence nectar is a predicate-nominative. The next example is doubtful; for it may mean simply that the rivers carried blood, or flowed with blood; and if this is the sense, Rule IV or VIe should be applied. In the last example, was run is an impersonal verb, and a pure Latinism. - See p. 195. Save and but are prepositions when followed by the objective case, and conjunctions when followed by the nominative case. - See p. 293. Seize. " To seize something." " To seize on something"; comp. v. Set. " To set up, of: out, apart, by, forth, over," etc.; adverbs. Short. " To be short of money"; adj. "To stop short"; adv. "To come short of"; "To fall short of"; i. e., to be short of; adj. " He cut him short with this remark"; adv. "To stop short" (manner), and " To stop shortl y" (time), are very different. Sit. " To sit up late"; v. intr. " I sit me down " (poetic); v. tr. "To sit the matter out"; v. tr. " She sits a horse well"; "He plods his weary way." On may be supplied in the last two examples, but it is not improbable that the idiomatic sense makes the verbs transitive. Situated. " London is situated on the Thames "; adj. So. "So frowned the combatants "; adv. of manner. " It is so cold "; adv. of degree. "So he does it, no matter when"; conj. " A wry mouth or so was all." -- Swift. Noun. So is often used as a sort of pro-word, to represent a word, phrase, or clause; and to express not only manner, but frequently condition, thus having the force of an adjective; but as it must be always construed with a verb, it is still considered an adverb. " He is very stingy, but she is more so." Something. " Of worm or serpent kind it something looked." Rule VII Such.''Such and such a one."- Swift. Adj. "I do not regard lis rules as such," i. e., as rules; pron., apposition. "Some flowers have beautiful names; such as heart's-ease, daisy, honeysuckle," etc. Such, in this last sentence, is a pronoun, in apposition with names, as being included in it; and as is a relative pronoun, predicated of heart's-ease, etc., by the verb are understood. Such could also be referred toflowers. Take. " To take hold of; to take care of; to take up; to take on," 224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " He takes after his father"; i. e., resembles. " We should not take up with mere probabilities." - Watts, That is, -should not adopt. " They took to the woods"; i. e., took themselves. Take is sometimes used in such close combination with its modifiers, that the words can not be parsel with any perception of their separate mealings. In such cases the whole phrase may be treated as a compound verb. - See ~ 386. Thaan. " le is wiser than I" [am]; conj., connecting clauses. "Who forgets the more than Homer of his age?" conj., connecting words. "Beilzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." -Milton. Than whom is an inelegant expression; though it is somewhat analogous to the abridged phrase but me, but him. Than, in the foregoing example, is usually considered a preposition. It may also be parsed as a conjunction, by saying that whom is used for who, by the figure enallayd. " I have more trouble than I can bear " i. e., than that is which, I can bear." This construction of than is so nearly like that of the relative as, that it almost makes than a relative or else as a conjunction: " I have as many as he"; " I have more than he." " This aunt Deborah had no more than a small life annuity." Here annuity is put in apposition with more, being included in it; for the meaning is not that she had no more than a small life annuity is, but that she actually had the small annuity; the idea of identity predominates over that of comparison. As sometimes connects words in apposition, and than is a similar word; besides, than, as used above, would became as, if translated into German. That; ADJ. "That man." [hood" ADJ. PRON. "No other home seems so lovely as that of my childREL. PRON. "It was he that assisted me." [ing." CONJ. "I believe that all sickness is caused by improper liv"' Here is love, in that while we were yet..... Christ died for us." -Bunyan. In governs the whole clause after it; or else, only that, with which the clause after it is put in apposition. "A few, that is, eight or ten, were saved "; conj., or supply number. " Fool that I was, no one knew it" = Although I was plainly the great fool that I was, no one knew it. By thus supplying words, this difficult idiom can be parsed; but the supplied words hardly preserve the sense, -So, "Young as he is, few are his equals." Or else treat the sentences as if that and as were though. The. " The man "; article. " The more we have, the more we want"; article. " The deeper, the cooler"; adv., and correlative connective. " The better to converse"; adv. phr. "He did the best"; adv. phr. When the relates to a noun, it is an article; to an adjective, an adverb; to an adverb, it forms with it an adverbial phrase. Then; ADV. " Did you hear it thunder then? " CONJ. "If you think so, then do not purchase." There. See p. 177. " The ride there and back was delightful "; adj., showing what ride. "To the house thereof"; "And the fame hereof"; " Time when "; "The place where"; "All things whatsoever "; adj. Till. "Stay till to-morrow"; prep. "Stay till I return"; conj. adv. "Till now"; "Till then"; adv. phr.; better, adjuncts. Times. "Three times the son's age is equal to the father's." "Five times four are twenty." " Five times one are five." There is an inconsistency in the foregoing modes of expression. Custom, however, seems determined to uphold them all. To parse them as they are, apply Rule VI to times in the first example, and to four and one in the others. The son's age, taken three times, etc. Five times of four, as to four, or in regard to four, etc. To is a preposition; also the sign of the infinitive, and a part of it. Since the infinitive was not intended for predication, it needed not an auxiliary verb for its sign; and therefore it adopted to as being best suited to express the general idea of tendency, OBSERVATIONS, 225 Too. "Too small"; adv. of degree. "Since he wvent, I will go too. "Devotion, too, hath lingered round each spot of consecrated ground." Too, in the last two examples, is rather conjunctive \ and, in the last one, its construction is so nearly like that of the conjunction however, that it would be hardly improper to call it simply a conjunction. Too, a1so, likewise, even, besides, etc., generally relate to a part of a sentence, and at the same time refer it back conljuctively to a similar part that is either expressed or implied. To those who wish to be critically nice in parsing these words, we would say, first parse the word as an adverb, relating to some part of the sentence according to Note VII - and then say, that it is also used as a conjunction, tonnuecting this part to, etc., according to Rule XV. - See p. 177 and ~ 627. Upb "To march up a hill );prep. "To rise up; keep up; go up"; adv. " Man's life is full of ups and downs "; nouns. Upwards. " Uptrds of twenty houses were burned."'About twenty houses were burned."' In a sermon there may be from three to six heads." The whole phrase, in the first and the last example, can be parsed as a noun; or sup, ply the words hamober and heads. Some grammarians call upwards a noun; and a strange one it is. Since about is an adverb, modifying twenty, it seems to us that it would. be allowable to call upwards of an adverbial phrase modifying twenty. -See Above. Very. "The very man "; adj. " Very strange"; adv. Weigh. " To weqih [lift] anchor"; v. tr. " It weighs a pound"; Rule IV or VI. " To weigh a hog "; Rule IV. Weigh is as much transitive as cost; but the more obvious object of weigh has rather pushed the other under Rule VI. IWell. "A deep well"; noun. "He is well"; adj. " Well advanced in years "; adv. " Well, I don't know what to do "; independent adv. What; Compound relative pronoun. " Take what I offer." Interrogative pronoun. " VWhat ails you? " Responsive pronoun. "I know what ails you." Adjective. " What news from Genoa? " [I succeeded." Adverb. "What [somewhat] with entreaty, what with threatening, Interjection. " What! take my money, and my life too?" The regular expression for the relative what seems to have been that what; for the first cousin to this expression, "das was," is still alive in the German language. The disagreeable monotony of sound, in the two words that what, seems to have caused the rejection of one. "Eschewe that evil is."Gower. Here the what is dropped; but, in the course of time, what gained the supremacy, and now rules in place of both words. Gradually, what also assumed the function of a plural. "I Ie demands as a favor what the former requires as a debt." tWhat is the object of demands and requires; and favor and debt are put in apposition. "Whatsoever you find, take it." Pleonastic; the antecedent of whatsoever is in apposition with it. " To others do- the law is not severe - what to thyself thou wishest to be done." The antecedent part of what is governed by do, and wishes governs the relative part in connection with the infinitive. " Is it possible that he should know what he is, and be what he is? " Know governs the clause after it; and what is responsive, agreeing in case with he, according to Rule VII. "I tell thee what, corporal i I could tear her." That is, I tell thee what I think or feel. What if he should sue you? " i. e., what would you do? " What if there is an old dormant law, nobody will enforce it" i. e., what avails it. " What though no real voicenor sound," etc.; conj. phr., for it seems to have become a sort of poetic although. " What ho! warder "; interj. " For all men whatsoever"; adj.; or supply they are, and apply Rule VII. - See There and Do. 226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When. " When was it? "interrog. adv. " Come when you can"; conj. adv. "Since when was it?" noun. So, where. Though it is customary to teach that relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs connect clauses, yet most words of this kind allow the clauses to which they belong to be contracted into infinitive phrases; and then the chief syntax rests sometimes on the relative word, and sometimes on the infinitive. "I know how to do it"; Note IV; to do is rather the object of know, and modified by how. So, "I knew not which to choose"; "I know what to do." "These precious minstrels could find no room in which to warble"; " He has no money with which to begin the business "; the infinitives rather depend on the preceding nouns or predicates, and the adjuncts on the infinitives. "Tell me when to come, and where to meet you "; Note IV, but the infinitive rather depends on the adverb. So, " The Son of man hath not where to lay his head." In the last two sentences, the nouns time and place can be supplied; and in the last one it would be hardly improper to parse where simply as a noun. Whereby wherew wher whereon, weeo hence, imply each a relative pronoun; and they are therefore generally conjunctive adverbs. Which. "The table on which I write"; rel. pron. "Which is he?" interrog. pron. " Wihich book?" adj. "I know not which it is "; "I know not which to choose"; responsive pronoun. " Can you tell which is which? " " He does not know what is what?" "We shall soon see who is who." This idiom is a very curious knarl in language. The first word seems to be a common interrogative or responsive pronoun, and the subject of the verb; the word after the verb is a kind of indefinite pronoun, altogether peculiar. " Which is which? " seems to be equivalent to "Which is the right one "? " Ias earth a clod its Maker meant should not be trod by man, erect and free?" Supply which, and make meant govern the whole clause, which should ntot be trod," etc. Who. "The man who "; rel. pron. " Who can tell who he is?" first who, interrog. pron.; second who, responsive, or indirect interrogative. "To any one whomsoever "; rel. pron., in apposition; analogous to "The man himself'"- See end of What. [adv. Why. " Why go " interrog. adv. " The reason why he went"; conj. Wit. " They are, to wit," etc.; adv. phr. " These men, to wit," etc.; conj. Worse. " To be worse"; adj. To do orse ad. Forworse "; adv. "For worse; noun. Would. "I would go "; auxiliary verb. "I would I were out of the difficulty"; prin. v. " Would God it were done! " prin. v.; God, subject. The meaning seems to be, " 0 that God wished [subjunctive] it done!" implying that it would then be instantly done. But it is customary to supply I, and to govern God by to. Worth. " Slow rises worth by poverty depressed "; noun. " My knife is worth a dollar," i. e., equal in value to; adj.; dollar, Rule VI. "More worth to men, more joyous to themselves." - Young. "Woe worth the day"; verb; old imperative of the verb be; akin to were, or derived from this branch. English syntax would sustain a Rule of this kind: "Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, that have absorbed the meaning of to or for, may govern the same case." Like, worth, and verbs of giving, would come under this Rule. Yet; coNJ. " Yet, though destruction sweep these lovely plains, ADV. Rise, fellow-men, our country yet remains!" - Campbell. "Yet a few days, and thee the all-beholding sun shall see no more.l-Bryant. One writer supplies passing; but the expression is fully in the idiom of the German language; and in this the sense is, " After a few days yet," etc., yet being an adverb that modifies the phrase. Yet, Note VII; years, Rule VI. Yonder. " Yonder church"; adj. "He lives yonder"; adv. PART IV. WORDS IJOG-ICAILLY COMBIENED. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. "A- mighty maze! but not without a plan.' Analysis is the resolving of a whole into its parts. Synthesis is the combining of parts into a whole. 571. Analysis, in grammar, is the resolving of a sentence into its principal and subordinate parts. Analysis is simply graded syntax; and the most important principal parts are subjects and predicates. Analysis treats of thought and its elements; parsing treats of words and of those properties which sometimes cause changes in the forms of words. 572. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its parts of speech, and mentioning their properties and syntax. DISCOURSE. 573. Discourse is any train of thought embodied in language; and it may be,1. Description, which depends chiefly on place. Description is an account of persons, places, and things. 2. Narration, which depends chiefly on time. Narration is a rehearsal of events. 8. Science or Philosophy, which aims to unfold the nature or plan of things. On this division is based didactic literature, which inculcates moral truth. 4. llustration, which is any foreign matter introduced for the sake of making the speaker's meaning more intelligible or impressive. Illustration is generally rhetorical matter, comprised under the head of Rhetorical Figures, 228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Any one of the first three kinds may predominate in a piece of composition; but the four are frequently combined and mixed. 574. Discourse, or Literature, is usually divided into prose and poetry. 575. The chief divisions of prose are science, philosophy, history, travels, novels, essays, addresses, critiques, and letters. 576. The chief divisions of poetry are epic poetry, dramatic poetry, lyric poetry, satires, epistles, epigrams, and epitaphs. Dramatic poetry is divided into tragedies and comedies; and lyric poetry is divided into odes, songs, and sonnets. PARAGRAPHS. 577, The division of his discourse into volumes, books, parts, cantos, verses, chapters, sections, paragraphs, and sentences, is left chiefly to every writer's own taste and judgment. 578. All discourse can usually be divided into paragraphs. It is generally more convenient to divide poetry into stanzas. 579. A Paragraph is a sentence, or a combination of sentences, distinguished by a break and a new beginning; and it should comprise all that relates to a distinct part of the subject. It may also serve to make prominent an important thought, or to give a needed rest. Most writers seem to know but little of the nice uses of the paragraph; and they abuse it even more than they abuse capital letters and punctuationmarks. That acute writer, Dean Swift, must have well understood the emphasizing force of the paragraph and the dash, when he wrote, - " All modern trash is Set forth with numerous breaks and dashes,' 580, All paragraphs can be divided into sentences. ANALYSIS- 229 SENTENCE S 581, A Sentence is a thought expressed by a proposie tion, or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause. Sometimes a sentence consists merely of a word or phrase, that is equivalent, however, to a proposition, as, " And still her former self lay there, unaltered in change. Yes. The old fireside had smiled on that same sweet face," etc.- Dickens (on the Death of little Tell). S:)metimes, though very seldom, a complete sentence reaches beyond a full pause. (See a piece called " The Forgiven Debt," by L. M. Sargent.) 582. A Proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. 583. A Clause is a proposition that makes but a part of a sentence. Ex. ~- The morning was pure and sunny, I the fields were white with daisies, I and bees hummed about every bank."- Irving. The foregoing expression is a sentence, consisting of three clauses. 584. A clause or sentence is, — 1. Declarative, when it expresses a declarationm Ex. - John rides that wild horse. 2. Interrogative, when it asks a question. Ex. - Does John ride that wild horse? 3. Imperative, when it expresses command, entreaty, or permission. Ex. -John, ride that wild horse. 4. Exclamatory, when it expresses an exclamation. Ex. - Does John ride that wild horse! An exclamatory clause or sentence is simply a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative one, uttered chiefly to express the emotion of the speaker. 585. Any of the foregoing modes of predicating may be either affirmative or negative. 58G. Sometimes a sentence is a composite of clauses differently predicated. Ex. -- " The earth is green again; But where are they who strove upon this field?" This is a compound sentence, consisting of a declarative and an interrogative clause, 280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 587. Sentences are divided into three classes; simple, complex, and compound. Before we explain these classes, it will be necessary to show the chief relations of words in sentences, and to investigate the elements of sentences. THE THREE RELATIONS. 588. Almost the whole of what is usually called Analysis, is based simply on three common relations of syntax, generalized and extended. 589. These are the predicate relation, the adjective relation, and the adverbial relation. Predicate Relation. 1. Trees I grow. 2. Young trees I grow rapidly. 3. The young trees along the river I have grown rapidly this year. Observe that the relation between trees and grow, in the first example, is the common syntax relation between nominative and verb. In analysis, we simply extend this relation over the entire phrase, so as to take in the whole sense. Hence, while trees remains the nominative in parsing, in analysis we make trees, young trees, and the young trees along the river, respectively the subjects. So, while grow remains the verb in parsing, in analysis we make grow, grow rapidly, have grown rapidly this year, respectively the predicates. Adjective Relation. Adverbial Relation. Black HORSES. They BUILD wonderfully. These HORSES. They BUILD ships. The HORSES. They BUILD now. John's HORSES. They BUILD everywhere. HORSES, the property of John. They BUILD concealed. HORSES owned by John. They BUILD to be remembered. HORSES to be sold. They BUILD in great splendor. HORSES of strength and speed. They BUILD while labor is cheap. HORSES of which he boasts. They BUILD thattheymayhavehomcs. HORSES that have been rode. They BUILD because they are rich. Observe that not merely the adjectives black and these tell what or which horses are meant, but that also the article the, the possessive ANALYSIS. 231 John's, the appositive, the participle, the infinitive, the adjunct, and the relative clause, -indeed, all the different words, phrases, and clauses, joined to horses, -tell what or which horses are meant. The adjective sense is thus extended over kindred meanings and over phrases and clauses. Observe that the adverb wonderfully, and the object ship, which limit build, though in very different ways, still both show what kind of building is meant; namely, wonderful building and ship-building. Observe also that all the different words, phrases, and clauses, joined to build, show how, when, where, why, or as to what the building is done, - that is, they are used in the sense of adverbs; and the adverbial sense is thus extended over kindred meanings and over phrases and clauses. THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 590. The Elements of sentences are words, phrases, and clauses. 591. All sentences can be resolved into propositions or clauses. 592. Sometimes a sentence has, besides, an independent word or phrase. Ex. - No, gentlemen of the jury; this is not law. 593. All the foregoing parts of sentences can be divided into six classes of elements: Two Principal Parts, or Elements. Two Modifiers, or Modifying Elements. A Connecting Element, or Connectives. An Independent Element. PRINCIPAL PARTS- 594,Every proposition must have at least two principal parts a subject-nominative and a.predicat-verb. 822 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 595. The SubjectE4ominative is a noun, a pronoun, or an equivalent expression, that is the nominative to the verb. 596. The Predicate-Verb is the finite verb which predicates an act or state of the subject. Ex. - Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 597. Every proposition must consist of a subject and a predicate. 598. The Subject is a word, phrase, or clause, denoting that of which something is predicated. 599. The Predicate is a word or phrase denoting that which is predicated of the subject.* Ex.- Bells i tolled. Full many a flower [ is born to blush unseen. That our life resembles a journey, I has often been observed. 600, Every subject and every predicate is either simple or compound. 601, A subject is simple, when it has but one subjectnominative to the same verb. 602. A subject is compound, when it has two or more subject-nominatives to the same verb. 603. A predicate is simple, when it has but one predicate-verb belonging to the same subject. 604. A predicate is compound, when it has two or more predicate-verbs belonging to the same subject. Ex. - Roses I fade. Roses and lilies { bloom and fade. Days, months, years, and ages, I shall circle away. Full many a flower I is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. * The subject is what remains after the predicate is removed; the predicate is what remains after the subject is removed. The subject, or the entire subject, is the subject. nominative with all its modifiers; the predicate, or the entire predicate, is the predicate. verb with all its modifiers. When the subject or the predicate consists of two or more words, the teacher may let the pupil call it the entire subject, the entire predicate; simply to give the expression a little more fullness or force, ANALYSIS. 233 The subject-nominative is sometimes called the grammatical subject, and the predicate-verb the grammatical predicate; the entire subject is sometimes called the logical subject, and the entire predicate the logical predicate. The predicate-verb be, or any other neuter verb, is sometimes called the copula; and the adjective, noun, or kindred expression, which follows it, is sometimes called the attribute. The word subject, in grammar, is sometimes applied to the entire expression to which a predicate refers, sometimes to the nominative only, and sometimes to a person or thing; the word object is sometimes applied to a governed word or expression, and sometimes to a person or thing. Mention the subjects, the predicates, the subject-nominatives, the predicateverbs; and tell whether the subjects and predicates are simple or compound: - Deep rivers I flow in silent majesty. Rome I was not built in one day. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. The summer breeze parts the deep mazes of the forest shades. There is a mourner o'er the humblest grave. To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. Our feelings and actions are evidently according to our belief. The dipping paddle echoes far, And flashes in the moonlight gleam. When the subject or the predicate is a long or mixed phrase, it may be better to mention first the subject-nominative or predicate-verb, and then the modifiers that make with it the entire subject or predicate. MODIFIERS. 695, A Modifier is a dependent word, phrase, or clause, added to some other word or expression, to limit or vary the meaning. Ex. - The PATHS of glory lead but to the grave. The and of glory are modifiers; because they cease to make sense when the word paths is removed, and they serve to show what paths are meant. A modifier generally specifies, limits, explains, or describes. 606. There are two kinds of modifiers; adjective and adverbial. 607. An Adjective Modifier is one that modifies a noun or pronoun, or that belongs to it or depends on it. An adjective modifier generally describes some person or thing. Ex. —" Solomon's Temple." What temple? "David, the king and psalmist." What David? 234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "The land of palms." What land? "A hill crowned with majestic trees." What kind of hill? A proposition to sell the farm." What proposition? "The store which is on the corner." What store? Omit the words land and hill, and you can see at once that the remaining words cease to make sense; therefore land and hill are principal words, and the others depend on them. To ascertain which word can not be omitted without destroying the phrase or sentence, or the sense, will generally be the easiest way in which the pupil can find the principal word and its modifiers. It is very difficult to define modifiers in such a way as to make the definition sufficiently comprehensive, and at the same time forcible and exact. Our definition of adjective modifiers would include predicates;- and, in truth, all predicates are modifiers or attributes of their subjects -- but the definition which we have given of predicates, will enable the pupil to distinguish them from modifiers. 608. A NOUN or PRONOUN may be modified, 1. By an Article. " A SERVANT brought the HORSE." 2. By an Adjective. "A beautiful rose." " Money enough." BI 3. By a Possessive. "John's horse." " M.y slate." Words, 4. By an Appositive. "John the saddler." "The poet Milton." 5. By a Participle. "Fields ploughed." "Birds singing." 6. By an Infinitive. " Horses to befed." " A house to let." Sometimes also an adverb modifies a substantive, or must be taken with it in analysis. - See ~ 527. 1. By an Adjunct. " A bunch of fresh flowers." 2. By an Appositive Phrase. " Greece, the cradle of arts." Phrases, 3. By a Participial Phrase. "Barns, filled with hay andgrain." 4. By an Infinitive Phrase. "Ties never to be thus broken." 5. By an Adjective Phrase. "Days, short and very cold." Sometimes, though very seldom, a substantive is modified by an absolute phrase that is used for a relative clause. 1. By a Relative Clause. "The winds which bring perfume." Clauses. 2. By an Appositive Clause. "IT was lucky that I found it." 3. By an Adverbial Clause. " The place where hefell.". 4. By a Conjunctive Clause. "A request that you will come." Exercises. Mention the nouns and pronouns, and by what they are limited or modified: - A house. Faithful friends. The river Hudson. An orange. Lurking Indians. Mary the cook. ANALYSIS. 235 The ship. Twenty-five dollars. They themselves. Warm weather. California bears. Time misspent. Rainy weather. Virtue's reward. I, having escaped. Large rooms. Our country's welfare. Visitors much delighted. The President's proclamation. The songs of birds. A path through the woods. A man without money. An order to retreat. A watch to be repaired. Scouts to watch the enemy. Indians lurking near. Indians that lurk near. The sun's bright beams. Lakes fringed with cedars. Two pillars of marble. The armaments which thunder-strike the walls of rock-built cities. 609. An Adverbial Modifier is one that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; or that belongs to it or depends on it. An adverbial modifier generally specifies the kind, limits the action, adds a circumstance, or expresses degree. - See below. A modified verb is a finite verb, an infinitive, or a participle. By adverbial modifier we mean whatever is added to a verb to make with it a predicate; or whatever modifies an adjective, an adverb, a participle, or an infinitive. A comprehensive term is needed; so that we are compelled either to enlarge the meaning of adverbial, or to coin a new expression. Perhaps it would be better to call these modifiers predicate modifiers, because they are mostly used in making predicates; and all adjective modifiers substantive modifiers, because they modify substantives. Predicate or Adverbial Modifiers. G10. A VERB may be modified, — 1. By an Object. "Men build houses." 2. By a Predicate Substantive. " He became a farmer." y 3. By a Predicate Adjective. " The milk turned sour." Words, 4. By an Adverb. "The horse ranfast." 5. By a Participle. "The ball went whizzing." 6. By an Infinitive. "I have come to be instructed." "James is idle." - Owing to a slight radical difference in the modes of classifying, there is sometimes an apparent incongruity between Parsing and Analysis. Thus, in parsing, idle is referred to Jamnes, because James denotes the object to which the quality belongs; but, in analyzing, it is referred to is, because it makes with is the predicate. 236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. F 1. By an Adjunct. " Apples grow on trees." 2. By an Objective Phrase. " He knew when to sell." 3. By an Explanatory Phrase. " To be good is to be happy." Phrases, 4. By an Adverbial Phrase. "He will come by and by." 5. By a Participial Phrase. "He fell, grasping his sword." 6. By an Infinitive Phrase. "He fell to rise no more." 7. By an Absolute Phrase. "He being sick, I returned." A modifying phrase that begins with an adverb, as well as a phrase that has the sense of an adverb, is sometimes best called an adverbial phrase. 1. By an Objective Clause. " I believe that he is honest." 2. By an Explanatory Clause. " My wish is, that you remain." Clauses. 3. By an Adverbial Clause. " Study while you are young." 4. By a Conjunctive Clause. " I am convinced thatyou are right." 611, An ADJECTIVE or an ADVERB can have the same modifiers as a verb, except those modifiers which are substantive or adjective. Modifiers of adjectives or adverbs generally express degree or circumstance. Exercises. Mention the finite verbs, the infinitives, and the participles; and by what they are limited or modified: - Exercises produce health. Cast not pearls before swine. lie sold a variety of goods. Columbus did not become disheartened. She thinks he is rich. I fully intended to go. Time is money. Concealing himself in a thicket. Hte is considered an honest man. Act wisely that you may win. She was there yesterday. The horse has become lame. To write with neatness. To write neatly and rapidly. Nature from the storm shines out afiesh. I believe he will succeed when he makes the effort. The sun having set, we returned to the camp, and made a fire. The adjectives and the adverbs; and by what they are limited or modified:Uncommonly beautiful. How dear to my heart. Too beautiful to last. It is very badly done. Rich in knowledge. She studies most diligently. ANALYSIS. - 237 General Remarks. 612. A modified word may have two or more modifiers at the same time. 613. A word or part that modifies another, may itself be modified. Ex. -" The boy who studied most diligently, gained the prize." Boy is modified by the article the and the relative clause who studied most diligently; diligently modifies studied, and is itself modified by most. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, are never modified. For convenience, all modifiers of subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs may be called primary modifiers; and all modifiers of these may be called secondary modifiers. 614. A modified word may be called principal, in regard to that which modifies it. 615. An infinitive, used as a noun, takes only the modifiers of a verb. 616. A participial noun takes the modifiers of either a verb or a noun. 617. An adverbial modifier sometimes modifies a whole phrase or clause, rather than some word in it. For examples, see Note VII, p. 196; see also pp. 172 and 210. 618. Mlodify we use as the most comprehensive word; but limit, explain, and describe can also be used, especially when more appropriate or expressive. It is said that modifiers always limit. This is not true. "I study" i "I do not study." Not modifies or reverses do study, but does not limit it. 619. The predicate-verb be, when followed by an adjective, a noun, or a kindred expression, is simply combined with it, rather than modified by it; and the latter term can generally be called an attribute of the subject. It is an attribute when it describes; it is simply an explanatory or identifying term when it explains or identifies. " Thou art a man "; attribute. " Thou art the man "; identity. " It was the wind "; wind is no attribute of it. All other neuter or intransitive verbs, and also passive verbs, can be be treated in the same way as the verb be; though it is seldom necessary to do so, because the word mnodify can generally be applied to them. 2238.ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 620. All adverbial modifiers can be divided into three classes: 1. Objective Elements objects, - words, phrases, and clauses. 2. Attributive Elements; predicate adjectives or substantives, - words, plirases, and clauses. 3. Adverbial Elements; adverbs, adjuncts, etc., - words, phrases, and clauses. Though this classification is obvious and instructive in the gross, in practical detail it can never be carried far without endless perplexity: because participles, infinitives, and clauses, belong to all these classes; adjuncts belong to at least two; and all these parts range and intertwist through the classes by many and almost imperceptible shades of difference. To a certain extent, the classification can be made profitable in schools. CONNECTIVES. 621. The Connectives are the conjunctions, the prepositions, the relative pronouns, the responsive pronouns, and the conjunctive adverbs. See pp. 75, 181, 182, 185. 622. A connective that is not a conjunction, performs also the office of the part of speech to which it belongs. Connectives may consist of words or phrases. Also the clauses " that is " and "that is to say " are sometimes used simply as coordinate conjunctions. Such phrases as, the moment that, the instant that, as far as, as soon as, etc., are frequently used in the sense of conjunctive adverbs. Connectives are generally used singly, but sometimes in pairs. Connectives are generally expressed, but sometimes they are omitted. Parts are sometimes connected by simple succession or mere dependence. Complex sentences have most connectivPs; and the parts of compound sentences am the ones most frequently connected by simple succession. INDEPENDENT ELEMENT. 623. An Indepndednt Element may be, - 1. An interjection. 2. An adverb. 3. An independent nominative, or a phrase with such a nominative. ANALYSIS. 239 Ex. - 0, yes, my Lord; the rallying hosts advance. Sometimes an independent substantive may be taken as a part of a logical subject. Sometimes an independent substantive has a relative clause joined to it, and the whole expression then forms an independent propositional phrase. See Gray's Ode to Adversity. 4. Occasionally an absolute, a participial, an infinitive, or a prepositional phrase. See Note V and Rule II. Sometimes a sentence has a loose participial, infinitive, absolute, or prepositional phrase, which is still, however, so related to the proposition that it can generally be taken as a part of the subject or the predicate. Such a phrase is sometimes grammatically independent, or does not modify the matter contained in the proposition, when it still modifies the mode of assertion, or shows as to what, or under what restriction, the statement is made. The phrase then modifies the proposition in the sense of a modal adverb. " Generally speaking " = probably; " Upon the whole " = " hence, probably." (See p. 176.) But when such a phrase has no perceptible connection with the remaining words, it must be called independent. 6241 An independent element may accompany any kind of sentence; and sometimes it stands by itself, like a sentence. PHRASES AND CLAUSES.. 625, A phrase or clause is generally named from its leading or introducing word, from its principal word, from its form, or from its use in the sentence. The different systems of grammar have run the nomenclature and distinctions of phrases and clauses into such a maze, that no scientific classification can now be made without revolution and a new nomenclature. The following seems to us the best classification that can be made without a radical change. 626. In its form, a phrase may be, - 1. Simple. "On the ground." " To be there," " A large tree." 2. Complex. "At the close of the day." One phrase modifying another. 3. Compound. "At night and in the morning." Two co-ordinate phrases joined. 4. PropositionalI or Clausal. "This depends on who the commissioners are." " Between him and the man whom he had employed." A phrase, comprising a clause. 5. Mixed. Seethe beginning of Paradise Lost, down to the word sing. 240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 627. In its grammatical nature, a phrase may be substantive,- nominative, possessive, objective, appositive; adjective; participial; infinitive; prepositional (the adjunct); adverbial; absolute; independent; idiomatic. For examples of phrases and clauses, see pp. 234, 235, and 236. 628. In its logical nature, a phrase is substantive, adjective, adverbial, or independent. 629. In its form, a clause is,1. Simpler when it has but one predicate. 2. Complex, when it comprises a principal clause with a dependent clause. 3. Compound, when it comprises two co-ordinate clauses. A proposition is either simple or complex. A complex proposition or clause is one that has an incorporated clause, or a clause that is folded in. A combination of two or more clauses that makes but a part of a sentence, is sometimes called a member; but the term complex or compound clause is probably more convenient. 630. In its grammatical nature, a clause may be substantive, -nominative, objective, appositive, or explanatory; relative; adverbial; conjunctive. To avoid the ambiguity of the word adverbial, it would be well to call clauses that begin with conjunctive adverbs, conjunctive. 631. In its logical nature, a clause is substantive, adjective, or adverbial. 632. By a fartther remove, a clause may be considered, Independent; when it depends on no other clause. And then it is prin. cipal, when another clause depends on it or is incorporated into it. Dependent, or subordinate; when it depends on some word or phrase. Co-ordinate; when it is a companion, of equal rank, to some other independent or dependent clause. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 633. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that has but one proposition. It may have, besides, an independent word or phrase. The subject of a simple sentence has no clause. The predicate of a simple sentence has no clause. 634. The core of syntax, in all sentences, is predication. ANALYSIS. 241 1. Simplest Combination of Subject and Predicate. Soldiers fight. Dogs bark. Time flies. Wolves howl. Doves coo. Jewels glitter. Sin degrades. Bees were humming. Mary was chosen. We shall return. Clouds are gathering. ANALYSIS. - This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is soldiers, and the predicate isfjiyht. 2. Object added to the Predicate-Verb. Dogs bite strangers. Wolves catch lambs. Lightning strikes trees. Mlisers love gold. Merchants sell goods. Horses draw carriages. Wealth produces pride. I shall see him. ANALYsIs. -This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is dogs. The entire predicate is bite strangers. The predicate-verb is bite, which is limited by its object dsgs. 3. Article or Adjective added to the Subject or the Object. The vessel was wrecked. John found a knife. Leaves cover the ground. Sweet music rose. She wrote a good composition. Tall and beautiful poplars fringe the river. ANALYSIS. - This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is the vessel; the subject-nominative is vessel, which is modified by the article the. Was wrecked is the predicate. 4. Adjective or Nominative added to the Predicate-Verb. Lead is heavy. Most people are ambitious. A bad companion is dangerous. The wind blew cold. Flies are insects. The rose is a famous flower. It was you. ANALYSIS.- This is a simple declarative sentence. Lead is the subject. Is heavy is the predicate. Is is the predicate-verb; and it is combined with heavy, an attribute of the subject, Flies lae insects, is a simple declara-tive sentence. Flies is the subject, are insects is the predicate. Are is the predicate-verb; and it is combined with insects, an attribute of the subject. 5. Adverb added to the PredicateVerb. John comes frequently. Good pupils study diligently. The procession moved slowly. The eagle flew round and upwards. Flowers are peeping out t everywhere. I was there. 6. Adjunct added to the Predicate-Verb. The mountain is clothed with evergreens. The wind glided over the grass. Our troubles are aggravated by imaginary evils. My cousin went to your house, I at noon, J in a carriage. 11r P 242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ANALYSIS.-This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is the mountoin; the subject-nominative is mountain, which is modified by the article the. Is clothed with evergreens is the predicate; is clvthed is the predicate-verb, which is modified by tile atdjaiict with evergreens. 7. Adjinct added to the Subject or the Object. A wreath of rose-buds encircled her head. She brought a basket of fruit. The old oak is loaded with a flock I of singing blackbirds. The path through the woods is cool and pleasant. ANALYSIS. - This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is a wreath of rose-buds; the subject-nominative is wreath, which is modified by the article a and the adjunct of rose-buds. Encircled her he ad is the entire predicate; encircled is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the object head, and head is modified by the possessive her. 8. Possessive or Appositive added to Subject or Object. My hat is new. JMtry9's eyes are blue. Our neighbor's bees left their hive. Rogers the poet was a banker. Lake Erie is a beautiful sheet of water. We visited Rome, the capital of Italy. SImple Sentences with Adjusnects Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. The world is bright before thee. The hatred of brothers is the hatred of devils. The violet has mourned above their graves [ a hundred yeatrs. A hundred years is an abridged adjunct, modifying mournedC In darkness dissolves the gay frost-work of bliss. Rhetorically arranrzed;,gramvnatically arranged, it would be, The gay frostwork of bliss dissolves in darkness. Like the leaves ] of theforest they all passed away. Like the leaves of the forest is an adverbial adjunct, modifying passed. NTame phrases beginning with like, near, or worth, from the leading word. Say that verbs of giving are modified by -, the direct object; and by -, the indirect object. Tell me the story. I gave him some wholesome advice. I insist on sending I him \ the horse immediately. None knew thee but to love thee. Upon the whole, I am pleased with the terms. Looking upon the whole, etc. But it is probably better to say, that upon the whole modifies ampleased, in the sense of a modal adverb. (See p. I16.) ANALYSIS. 243 Simple Sentences with Participial or Absolute Phrases. The poor fellow, baffled so often, became at last disheartened. I saw him returninzg home. They fled, pursued by our cavalry. The money being fJrnished, he purchased the estate. The absolute phrase relates to purchalsed, and modifies it. She sits inclizingforward as to speak, Her lips half open, and her finger utp. - OGERS. The compound absolute phrase tells how she sits. Sometimes such phrases are independent. Supply being. Meanwhile the neighboring fields, trampled and beaten down, become barren and dry, qffording nothing but clouds of dust. That is,-" and afford," etc. This last participial phrase relates to fields, in the sense of a partial predicate; for it modifies neither the subject nor the predicate. Sometimes a participial or an infinitive phrase is almost a predicate or clause. Simple Sentences with Inflnltive Phrases. I went to the river to find a skiff. A path to guide its could not be found. To protect persons and property is the duty of government. It is the duty of government to protect persons and property. The best way to thrive is to keep out of debt. She has learned to do nothing but { dress and visit. Surely we are not destined to live always in war and discord. IIe is very well able to bear the loss. The rain makes the grass grow rapidly. Tie grass frow rapidly is the entire object of makes, and grass is the grammatical object. Such infinitive phrases are almost clauses, and such sentences are nearly complex; but they are still simple sentences. I ordered him to be brought. Let no one pass by. 2o speak plainly, he was a pedant puffed up with conceits. The last infinitive phrase is grammatically independent, but logically it modifies the following proposition in the sense of a modal adverb. Page 176. Simple Sentences with Compound Subjects. There health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. FORMsULA. -A simple sentence with a compound subject;, the subjectnominatives are -, connected by -, and modified by -. Around the post hung helmets, swords, and spears. 244 ENGLISH GRAAMMAR. The breezy call of incense-breathing Morn, The swullow twittering from the straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, INo more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. Simple Sentences with Compound Predicates. They softly lie, and sweetly sleep, low in the ground. Ile tried each art, reproved each dull delay, Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. Here and there a lark, scared from his feeding-place in the grass, soars up, bubbling forth his melody in globules of silvery sound, and settles upon some tall tree, and waves his wings, and sings to the swaying twigs. Simple sentences wath Compoand Modifiers. The water ran I around the bridge and over the bridge. A proverb is the wit of one and the wisdom of many. LET I not Ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys, and destiny obscure; Nor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile, The short and simple annals of the poor. See, in Gray's Elegy, stanzas 16,17, and 18; all of which make but one simple sentence. Simple Sentences with Independent Parts. Why, no, my lord; he has not failed. But the daughter- alas! poor creature -she is accomplished, and cannot do household work. Flag of the brave! thy folds shall fly The sign of hope and triumph high. - Drake. Ah! then how sweetly closed those boyhood days I The minutes parting one by one like rays. -Allston. 0* In general, any part of all the foregoing simple sentences can be made compound, by adding similar words or phrascs, and thus making a series; and any part can be made complex, by adding modifiers, which are generally different words or phrases. It is thus that long simple sentences are produced. ANALYSIS. 245 2. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 635. A Complex Lentn I is a sentence that has but one independent or principal clause, with one or more dependent clauses. It is a sentence in which the parts are coun3mted, at their widest or greatest joint, by a subordinate relation. There runs through discourse, more or less, a serial sense, and also a modified sense. The former gives us compound structure; and the latter, complex structure. 1. A sentence that consists of two clauses connected by a relative pronoun, is complex. 2. A sentence that consists of two clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb, is complex. 3. A sentence that consists of two clauses connected by a subordinate conjunction, is complex. 4. A sentence that consists of two clauses, of which one is used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, is complex. This class includes the three classes before it and it is itself included in the general class, ~ 635. In stead of having but two clauses, a complex sentence may also have several distinct clauses, or else a cluster of clauses, depending thus on the principal clause, or incorporated into it; and it can also have two or more indepetdenit clauses, provided the dependent clause relates to them jointly. Almost every sentence must have at least one clause that is independent; a:nd its clauses lmay all be so. When a sentence has two or more independent clauses, it is generally compound. 63,6 A subordinate clause may be used as a noun in any case except the possessive. Substantive Clauses. Nominative Clauses. Thiat the soul is immortal, is believed by all nations. This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the subject is a.ubordinate or incorporated clause. That the soul is inazmortil, is the principal sulb-;ect; and is believed by alll nations is the principal predicate. Is believed is the predie'.e-verb; tand it is modified by the adjunct by all nations. Thatt is the connective, shiowing the dependence of the subordinate clause on soinething else. The soul, of the dependent clause, is the subject, etc. 246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. W7y he did not go, is obvious. When tEneas landed in Italy, is not known. Whether he can finish the zwork, is doubtful. H-ow an oa/c becomes an acorn, is a mystery. Where TWarrenfell, is not precisely known. By what means he succeeded, has never been explained. Can he hold his position? is the question. Appositive Explanatory Clauses. It is universally believed that the soul is immortal. This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the dependent clause is in apposition with.tie subject. It, with.the clause that the. soul is immontatl, is the entire principal subject. It is the subject-nominative, which is modified by the explanatory clause. Is universally believed is the principal predicate; is believed is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adverb universally. (Dispiose of the dependent clause as heretofore.) It is obvious why he did not go. It is not known when EiEneas landed in Italy. It is doubtful weheter he can finish the work. It is mysterious how an acorn becomes an oak. It is not precisely known where Warren fell. It has never been ascertained by what means he succeeded. The question, Can he succeed? is now discussed in the papers. They did not seem to know the fact that all parties must obey the laws. One truth is clear: [VWatever is, is right. Objective Clauses. All nations believe that the soul is immnortal. This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the object is a dependent clause. All nations is the principal sublject: nations is the subject-nominative, modified bv all. Believe that the soul is immortal, is the entire principal predicate; believe is the predicate-verb, and it is limited by the objective clause thtlt the soul is immorital. You now see why he did not go. No one knows when.Eneas landed in Italy. We doubt whether he can finish the work. I have been considering how an acorn becomes an oak. Our guide showed us where Warren is supposed to have fallen. I have never ascertained by what means he succeeded. He said, " How can I ever fonget your favors to me?" The laws, he thought, should be more rigidly enJbrced. Teach me to know myself, and feel what others are. ANALYSIS. 247 Predicate Explanatory Clauses. The universal belief is, that the soul is immortal. This is a complex declarative sentence, into which a dependent clause is incorporated as a predicate-nominative, explanatory of the subject. (Analyze the principal subject.) Is that the soul is immortal, is the principal predicate; is is the predicate-verb, and it is combined with the predicate clause after it, which is explanatory of the subject. The only wonder is, that one head can contain it all. The cause of anxiety was, why he did not write. One of the greatest mysteries is, how an acorn becomes an oak. The question is, " What is it best to do, under the circumstances. " Adjective Clauses. The following sentences are complex because each has a clause that is used as an adjective, and is therefore dependent. The adjective clause is usually folded in or appended. Relative Clauses with Expressed Antecedents, The man who escapes censure, is fortunate. This is a complex declarative sentence, with a dependent clause used as an adjective. The entire principal subject is, the marn who escapes censure; the subject-nominative is man, and it is modified by the article the and the relative clause who esca'pes censure. Is fortuznate is the principal predicate. Is is the predicate-verb; and it is combined with the predicate adjective fortunate, an attribute of the subject. Who joins the dependent clause to man, and is also the subject of the dependent clause. Escapes censure is the predicate, escapes is the predicate-verb, and it is modified by its object censure. He who is intelligent, will be intelligible. Mary has brought a beautiful rose, which grew in the garden. The man whose conscience is pure, needs fear no accusation. They met with such disasters as redluced thenm to poverty. Who that loves independence, would ever become a politician? Yonder is the plain on which the battle was fought. The man on whose fidelity I relied most, was absent. He owned several lots, from the sale of which he became rich. There never yet were hearts or skies clouds might not wander through. That is, -" through which clouds might not wander." - See ~ 176. All questions, of whateverlo nature they may be, are referred to the council. Here the preceding noun is not an antecedent; but the clause, folded in, still describes it. All questions, whatever7 they may be, are decided by the council. 248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Relative Clauses without Antecedents. Such an antecedent is, in reality, usually included or comprehended in the relative, IWl'at can not be prevented, must be endured. Thii is a complex declarative sentence, comprising a principal and an incorporated clause. The entire principal subject is, what can not be prevented; the sulbject-nolrinative is what, which is modified by the subordinate predicate, to vrhich it is also the subject. (Now analyze the principal predicate, and then the subordinate predicate.) The foregoing is a simplified though somewhat anomalous mode of analyzing;,but it is logical, and can be easily explained to the pupil. A double relative is modified by the rost of the subordinate clause, because this remainder represents a simple relative clause that is partly included in tlhe double relative. - Swe p. 193. What is thoronughly understood, is easily described. Whoever plants trees, must love others besides himself. You can easily explain what you thorouqhly understand. Can e.a iily exp.lain what, etc., is the entire principal predicate; can explain is limited by wh.at oun t.ihoonughly zurderstand as the entire object, and by what as the grammatical object, which is modified by the rest of the subordinate clause, because this represents a relative clause partly comprised in what. You is the subordinate subject; unler.stanl is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adverb thoroughly and the relative part of what. Most politicians advocate whatever seems popular. By indolence he lost wtat ability he once had. Whomsoever the bishlop appoints, the church will receive. I will not object to what is reasonable. To I,.hat is. re.seonate is the entire adjunct; to what is the grammatical adjunct. What is the grammatical object; and it is modified by the subordinate predicate, to which it is also the subject. You know'what you can do, by wh2at you have done. It, is the tree which in I know not what fir country grows. Adverbial and Conjunctive Clauses used as Adjectives. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero was buried. — IWofe. There are times when the soul becomes tired qf its earthly pilgrimage. A presentiment that he would be killed, made him sad. Where and swhen are used in place of in which. What kind of presentiment? Here the conjunctive clause is rather adjective than appositive; for it rather describes than identifies. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences are complex because each has a clause that is used as an adverb, and is therefore dependent. The dependent clause generally precedes or follows the principal clause. ANALYSIS. 249 Adverbs of Time. When the sun rises, the birds begin to sing. This is a complex declarative seetnce. The birds begin to sing, is the principal clause. ( Analyze it.) When the sun rises, is the dependent clause, modifying the predicate of the principal clause in the sense of an adverb of time. When is a conjunctive adverb, connecting the two clauses. While the robbers were plundering, she set fire to the house. He locked the door after the horse was stolen. Beobre reinforcements could be sent, the battle was lost. He has become a citizen of this place since you were here. I will take care of your horse until you return. As we approached the top of the hill, we saw the Indians. As soon as my money was gone, I no longer had friends. Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains. Adverbs of Place. We sowed the seed where the soil was moist and loamy. W7iere the soil was moist and loamy, is the dependent clause, modifying sowed in the sense of an adverb of place. He will be respected wherever he may be. As far as we went, the country was well cultivated. Page 250. Our language has no variety of clauses to express place. The farther any field of expression lies fromn the common track of thinking, the more it tends to circumlocution; and vice versa. Place is something that presses so closely and variously into us, and its ideas are so obvious, that they have been favored in language with the simpler garb of words and phrases (adjuncts). Adverbs of Manner. Forgive us as we forgive our enemies. This is a complex imperative sentence. Forqive (thou) us, is the principal clause. As weforgive our enemies, is a dependent clause of manner, modifying fbrgive. As he understands it, so he talks about it. Page 212. As blossoms in spring, so are hopes in youth. You will please to speak so that we can hear you. The dependent clause is explanatory of so, and so expresses manner but the clause also implies consequence. Degree or Extent. I am as tall as he. This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, I am as tall. Tle dependent clause is as he (is tall), Twhich is an adrerbial clause, modifying in an explanatory or limiting sense the phrase as tall, or more directly the adverb as. It determines the degree. 11* 250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. She sings as sweetly as a nightingale. This construction expresses sometimes inere manner; but the idea of degree generalLy predominates. He is as kind to me as he can be. I was as much instructed as I was excelled. We were so fatigued tha't we could not sleep. They had advanced as far as they could with safety. I have gone so far that I can not turn back. There was such a noise that I could not write. In this construction the dependent clause generally implies more or less of degree; but it may also have, partly or whollv, the sense of an identifying clause explanatory of such. A similar remark is applicable to other clauses. After as and than, words are generelly understood. Contentment is better than wealth. He has more than L HIe has more money than brains. I had more fear than it was prudent to confess. The more I use the book, the better I like it. This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of two clauses that are mutually dependent. (Those who insist on having one independent clause in every sentence, can call the second clause the independent one. " When I have used the book more, I shall like it better.") The deeper the well, the cooler the water. Degree is an abstract idea, but a very comprehensive and multifarious one, with which our judgments are much concerned; hence language is both rich and complicated in regard to it. Cause, Purpose, Doubt, Concession, etc. The connectives in the following sentences are subordinate conjunctions; but most of the dependent clauses answer to the adverb wzy, or imply doubt; and hence the clauses fall into the general analogy of modal adverbs. The corn will grow, because it rained last night. This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, the corn will grow; the dependent clause is the conjunctive clause bectazse it rained last light, which is used adverbially, to modify will grow, of the principal clause, by showing why. It rained last night, because the ground is wet. Observe that the cause, in this sentence, is logical, and notphysical. The wet ground did not cause the rain, but the speaker's belief; and therefore we incline to think words should be supplied. Thus: "I know that it rained last night, because the ground is wet." A similar remark is applicable to some other sentences that have conjunctive clauses. ANALYSIS. 251 Since the soil has been enriched, the corn will grow. As he is quite young yet, he should rather go to school. I will not sell the horse, for I can not spare him. Say that the dependent clause modifies will not sell. It is often better to say that a modifier relates to a phrase or clause, than to try to make every modifier relate to a single word. Analysis aims to take in the whole thought or the complete ideas, and it is therefore in accordance with its principles to dispose of phrases and clauses as if they were single words. Such a mode of analyzing will also often remove the perplexity when a word seems to relate to each of several words; for in such cases it generally relates to the whole expression rather than to any one word in it. Whenfor joins two members of a sentence so loosely that they can be separated into two sentences, it is sometimes better to call the sentence compound. I am sorry that you did not come. I have written to you, that you may know how we are. " These lofty trees wave not less proudly That their ancestors moulder beneath them." -BRYANT. If both the vowels are sounded, the diphthong is proper. If spring have no blossoms, autumn will have no fruit. Were I a lawyer, I should not like to plead a rogue's case, Unless you do better, you will lose your situation. Unsheathe not the sword, except it be for self-defense. HIowzever much I may regret it, I can not do otherwise. Ie hesitated, whether he should do this. (As to.) If Virgil was the better artist, Homer was the greater genius. This is a logical condition, not a physical. (See p. 250.) " If you maintain that Virgil was the better artist, I shall maintain that IIomer was the greater genius." Though the whole race of man is doomed to dissolution, and wve are all hastening to our long home; yet, at each successive moment, life and death seem to divide between them the dominion of mankind, and life seems to have the larger share. All the sentences of the foregoing class are allied to compound sentences; and there are some grammarians who call them such. Sometimes it is better to call a sentence of this general class compound; and it seems to us, upon reflection, that it would be better to call such sentences as the last on p. 250, and the one above relating to Homer and Virgil, compound, than to supply words. [I In general, any part of all such complex sentences as we have shown, can be made compound, by adding similar words, phrases, or clauses, and thus making a series; and any part can be made conmple, by adding modifiers, which are generally different words, phrases, or clauses. It is thus that long complex sentences are produced. 252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 637. Most of the long complex sentences are made so, -- 1. By a series of clauses. That is, some clausal element is expanded into a series. "I call that MIND free which protects itself against animal appetites, which resists the u.urpations of society, I which recognizes its own greatness and immortality, and which ever delights to pour itself forth in fresh and higher exertions." - CHANNING, abridged. " We can not help KNOWING That skies are clear and grass is growing, That the breeze comes whispering in our ear, That dandelions are blossoming near, That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing," etc. - LOWELL. 2. By a gradation of clauses. " There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig politicians, who thought it dlanerous to relax, at that moment, the laws against political offenses, but who could not, without incurring the charge of inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to relaxation, had conceived a hope that they might, by fomenting the dispute about the court of the lord 1;igh steward, defer for at least a year the passing of a bill which they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose." There is strong reason to suspect. That some able IVhig politicians had conceived a hope. (Who thoufght it dangerous to relax the laws against political offenses But who could not declare themselves averse to relaxation.) That they might defer for at least a year the passing of a bill. Which they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose. For the complete analysis of this sentence, see Kerl's Comprehensive English Grammar. "He was a man j who never swerved from the path I which duty pointed out," "Come I as the winds come I when navies are stranded." "' No,' I said he;' for I never wished I that it might be so.'" "I knew a man who had it for a by-word, I when he saw men hasten to a conclusion, I'Stay a little, I that we may make an end the sooner.' " Bacon. We have now shown the different modes of forming nearly all complex sentences. There are, besides, a few peculiar sentences of this general class that lie in the unfrequented nooks and around the borders of the empire; but we must leave them to the judgment of the teacher, for we have not room for them, and they can easily be referred to the general definition, ~ 635. ANALYSIS. 253 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 63.8 A Compound Sentence is a sentence that has two or more independent clauses. It is a sentence in which the parts are connected, at their widest or greatest joint, by a co-ordinate relation. 1. A sentence that consists of two clauses, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, is compound. Ex. - The way was long, and the wind was cold. 2. A sentence, consisting of two clauses that have no connective, is generally compound. Ex. - Some ran into the woods; others plunged into the river. 639. A compound sentence may consist,1. Of two or more simple sentences. Ex. - Life is short, j and art is long. " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day; The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea; The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me."- Gray. 2. Of two or more complex sentences. " Ie lived as mothers wish their sons to live; lHe died as fathers wish their sons to die." - Halleck. "~ What in me is dark, illumine; what is low, raise and support." " The character of General Washington, which his contemporaries reverence and admire, will be transmitted to posterity; and the memory of his virtues, while patriotism and virtue are held sacred among men, will remain undiminished." 3. Of two or more compound sentences. Ex.- "Talent is power, tact is skill; talent is wealth, tact is ready money." There's the marble, there's the chisel; Take them, work them to thy will: Thou alone must shape thy future, - Heaven give thee strength and skill." A compound sentence, consisting of two members; and the first member, of two compound clauses, 254 ENGLISH G.AMMAR. 4. Of a mixture of simple, complex, and compound sentences. Ex. " Life is short, and art is long; therefore it is almost impossible to reach perfection in any thing." — Goethe. "Though the world smile on you blandly, Let your friends be choice and few; Choose your course, pursue it grandly, And achieve what you pursue." - Read. A compound sentence, consisting of two members; and the second member, of two simple clauses and a complex clause. 5. Of an independent clausal phrase, and a clause. "Triumphal arch! that fill'st the sky when storms prepare to part, I ask not proud philosophy to teach me what thou art." The independent clausal phrase here ranks with an independent clause. 6410 Compound sentences may be divided into the following classes: — Copulative. Parts united in Meanings Times change, and we change with them. The house was sold; ^ also the furniture. (And.) Alice has been studious, as well as James. The way is beset by enemies; besides, we have no provisions. I believe it is so; nay, I am sure it can not be otherwise. The people demand peace; yea, the army itself demands it. Since mere succession implies addition or connection, copulative conjunctions are often omitted. "The way was long, the wind was cold, The minstrel was infirm and old." - Scott. " It burst; it fell; and, lo! a skeleton."- Rogers. Disjunctive. Parts united in Form but separated in Meaning. You may study your lessons, or you may write a composition. We can not assist him, nor can you. Strong proofs, (and) not a loud voice, produce conviction. Also clauses joined by or else or neither make compound sentences. Adversative. Parts opposed in Meaning. The world is made for happiness; but many people make themselves miserable. ANALYSIS. 255 There is much wealth in England, yet there are many poor people. He has acted unwisely; nevertheless I will help him. [him. The wounded man died; notwithstanding several surgeons attended The dictionary is not perfect; still it is the best we have. The prospect is not good; I will do, however, the best I can. He is a sensible man; though he is not a genius. Illative. Parts related in the Sense of Consequence or Inference. The three angles are equal; therefore the three sides are equal. Observe that the equality of the sides does not show how the angles are equal; and although the first clause is the basis of the truth in the second, yet this meaning is taken up by the substitute therefore, which modifies the second predicate, being equivalent to the phrase from this cause. And, understood, is the real connective. The ground is wet; therefore it rained. Ile is not at home; hence I have not written to him. Corn is very cheap; so I concluded not to sell mine. You see I am busy; then why do you trouble me? The relation of consequence or inference is a very common and forcible one; and hence the connective in many such sentences may also be omitted, the ineaning being sufficiently obvious without it. By reversing the propositions, the sentences would come under the head of cause; and hence many sentences of this kind also dispense with the connective, and are then generally compound sentences rather than complex. IIe is a mean boy; let him alone. Let him alone: he is a mean boy. Such a sentence may be considered compound, chiefly because it could be divided into two sentences. IIe is poor: deal liberally with him. Deal liberally with him: he is poor. Live not in suspense: it is the life of a spider. To the foregoing sentences may be added a few others that are somewhat different; but of which the second clause is still in some way explanatory of the first, or is suggested by it. You know the man; do you not? " Each rising art by just gradation moves: Toil builds on toil; and age on age improves."- Collins. "Ambition often puts men upon performing the meanest offices: so climbing and creeping are performed in the same posture." —Swift. "That which we have acquired with most difficulty, we retain the longest; as those who have earned a fortune, are generally more careful in keeping it than those who have inherited one." - Colon. 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Parenthetic. An Extraneous Clause between Related Parts. A parenthetic clause that is not used in the sense of a part of speech, and that has not the remainder of the sentence for its object, generally makes the sentence compound. " A rose - I know not how it came there- lay on my book." A rose lay on my book: I know not how it came there.'They call us angels - though I am proud to say no man ever so insulted my understanding - that they may make us slaves."-Jerrold. When you meet with a long sentence, glance through it, and notice the joints between clauses. If the sense at the greatest or widest of these joints is a subordinate relation, the sentence is complex; if a co-ordinate relation, the sentence is compound. The general construction of sentences is this: Words make phrases; words or phrases make simple sentences; simple sentences make complex or compound sentences; and simple, complex, or compound sentences make compound sentences. Complex sentences are sometimes said to be compact in structure; and compound, loose. A sentence is sometimes compound in form, but complex in sense; and sometimes complex in form, but compound in sense. When these characteristics are strongly developed, the sentence may be analyzed accordingly. (See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, p. 85.) For the sake of greater effect, conditional or dependent clauses are sometimes expressed in the form of independent interrogative or imperative clauses. Having now shown the general construction of sentences, let us next notice some of the modifying laws, which may be explained under two heads,Contraction and Arrangement. CONTRACTION. 641. Brevity, in the construction of sentences, is obtained either by ellipsis or by abridgment. Sometimes, by substituting a different expression. 642. Compound constructions are generally shortened by ellipsis. 643. Complex constructions are generally shortened by abridgment. 614. Compound Elements. When the clauses of a compound sentence have the same predicate, the sentence can be changed to a simple one with a compound subject. CONTRACTION. 257 "Wheat grows well on these hills, and barley grows well on these hills." Wheat and barley grow well on these hills. 645. When the clauses of a compound sentence have the same subject, the sentence can be changed to a simple one with a compound predicate. "The hurricane tore down trees, and the hurricane overturned houses." The hurricane tore down trees, and overturned houses. 646, When the clauses of a compound sentence have the same subject and predicate-verb, all the repeated parts can be omitted. " He is a wise man; le is a good man; and he is a patriotic man." He is a wise, good, and patriotic man. 6174 A compound modifier is contracted by referring the common part to the rest of the phrase as a compound. Ex. -" It peace and in war " = In peace and war. " To the house and from the house " To and from the house. "To speak prudently and act prudentl" = To speak and act prudentt/. -48. Simple Sentences are often contracted by retaining only the most important part, or that which necessarily implies the rest. "Bread. " Order! " "Arm! " Give me some bread. Let us have order. Arm ye yourselves. In accordance with this analogy, language has single words that are permanently used as equivalents or representatives of sentences; as, yes, no, well, why. 649, The verb be, in all its forms, is frequently omitted. " Where now her glittering towers?" Where are now, etc. "This done, we instantly departed." This being (lone, etc. [To be] " Everybody's friend, [is to be] everybody's fool." The subject of the imperative mood is generally omitted; and an imperative verb mlay be omitted with its subject when there remains a forcible adverb to represent the entire expression. 6500 Language frequently affords us the choice of either a word, a phrase, or a clause; especially in regard to modifiers. "Pleasant scenes." "Scenes of pleasure." " Scenes that please." Q 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65M, A word or phrase that remains as the result of abridgment, generally retains the logical construction of the phrase or clause which it represents, or from which it is abridged. Ex. — " I BELIEVE that he is honst " = I BELIEVE himn to be honest. To ascertain the syntax of a difficult word or phrase, it is often best to consider the term the result of contraction, and to pass thence to the original expression; yet it must not be supposed that there ever was a perfect and ponderous language from which all the parts thus supplied have fallen away by ellipsis or abridgment. There are many exceptions to what is usually taught about equivalent expressions. The constructions which we are obliged to call equivalents, frequently differ from each other, at least rhetorically, by a shade of meaning. "I believe that he is honest," and " I believe him to be honest,' are equivalent; but " I will see that he does it," and " I will see himn do it," are different. " A purse of silk " is the same as " a silken purse "; but " a purse of gold " is not "a golden purse." 652. Coi mplezx Sentences can often be abridged into simple sentences. Ex. -" As we approached the house, we saw that the enemy were retreating" = On alproaching the house, vwe saw the enemy retreating. The abridged part is usually the dependent clause. ON30 The abridged form of a substantive clause is generally an infinitive phrase. " That I may go alone, is mny wish " To go alone is my wish. "It is my wish that I may go alone" = It is my wish to go alone. " I wish that he may go alone " -I= wish himn to yo alone. Sometimes the dependent clause is abridged into a participial phrase. 654. The abridged form of an adjective clause is, - 1. An adjunct or an adjective. Ex. -" Our house which is in the country" Our house in the country = Our country house. 2. A participial phrase. "The book which contains the story " = The book containing the story. 3. An infinitive phrase. "A day that may suit you" = A day to suit you. 4. Sometimes an absolute phrase. For an example, see p. 269. CONTRACTION. 259 655. The abridged form of an adverbial clause is, 1. An adjunct. Ex. -" You will suffer from cold, if you remain here." You will suffer from cold, by remaining here. 2. A participial phrase. Ex. " When I had eaten my dinner, I returned to the store." Iaving eaten my dinner, I returned to the store. 3. An infinitive phrase. Ex. - "I have come that I may assist you." I have come to assist you. 4. An absolute phrase.;When Coesar had crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle." Ccesar having crossed the Rubicon, Pompey prepared for battle. Sometimes there remains, by abridgment, simply a participle, an infinitive, or a single word of some other kind. B58. Sometimes only the prominent part of the dependent clause is retained. " When young, life's journey I began" = When I was young, etc. "If s, you need not remain longer " = If it is so, etc.' It is more easily imagined than described"; i. e., than it is described. The pronoun, and the verb be, are thus often omitted together. 657, When the principal and the subordinate clause have both the same subject, the subordinate clause generally loses its subject by abridgment. "When r had done this, I returned " = Having done this, I returned. "I came that I might assist you " = I came to assist you. 658. When the principal and the subordinate clause have different subjects, the subject of the subordinate clause usually remains; but it is generally changed in its case, to suit the syntax of the new arrangement. "I expect that he will come " = I expect him to come. "There is no doubt that he wrote it " = There is no doubt of his having written it. " When he was caught, we returned " — = He being caught, we returned. The subject of the dependent clause generally becomes, by contraction, an objective word, a possessive word, or a nominative absolute. 260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 659a A modifying phrase can often be abridged into a compound word. Ex. " Boots with red tops" red-topped boots. "Having a sharp edge " == shap-edyed. 6G0. Connectives can often be omitted. See ~~ 176, 551, 559. ARRANGEMENT. 661. The place most important in a sentence is the beginning; and the next most important is the end. Hence the subject, which is the germ of the whole sentence, naturally stands first; as, " Rome was an ocean of flame." - Croly. G62. When a subordinate word, phrase, or clause, denotes what is most striking, or what is uppermost in the speaker's mind, it may occupy the chief place. Adiective: " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." Verb: " Out-flew millions of flaming swords." - Milton. Object: " SilCer and gold have I none." Aderb: " Down I set him, and acway he ran." Adjuncts: " Bqi these [swords], we acquired our liberty; and with these," etc. Infinitive or Participle: " To do this, men and money are needed." 6G3. Frequently, an adjunct, a participial phrase, or an infinitive phrase, may be transposed. Ex.- "In proportion to the increase of luxurfy, the Roman state evidently declined" = The Roman state, in proportion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined = The Roman state evidently declined in proportion to the increase of luxury. GG4. Frequently, the clauses may change places, or one may be placed within another. Ex. - " If you desire it, I will accompany you" = I will accompany you, if you desire it == I will, if you desire it, accompany you. C6G5. Some regard should be paid to the relative importance of the parts, and to the natural order of things. 630, A sentence so constructed that tlh meaning is suspended till the close, is called a period. See the beginning of the Declaration of Independence. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 261 SENTENCES FOR PARSING. Til The following sentences comprise the general circuit of principles involved in Parsing. A fisherman's boat carried the passengers to a small island. Mlexico lies between the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. I lave John's book, not 3Bary's. He, being a mere boy, was spared. He being a mere boy, the Indians spared him. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. Hail, Sabbath, thee I hail, - the poor man's day. 2. I will never forsake you. The party reposed themselves on the shady lawn. John and James know their lessons. Neither John nor James knows his lesson. It is wicked to scoff at religion. It is too early for flowers. It was he. My heart beats yet, but hers I can not feel. 3. That man is enslaved who can not govern himself. Assist such as need thy assistance. Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper. I see you what you are. Whom do you take him to be? " Who is there to mourn for Logan? - Not one." The profit is hardly worth the trouble. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles wide. 4. On the grassy bank stood a tall waving ash sound to the very top. There are two larger pear-trees in the, second row. The cedars highest on the mountain are the smallest. It is well to be temperate in all things whatsoever. You are yet young enough to learn the French language very easily. She gazed long upon the clouds in the west, while they were slowly passing away. The pipers loud13 and louder blew; the dancers quick~3 and quicker flew. 5. Respect yourself. I would I were at home. You or he is to blame. You behave too badly to go into company. James 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ran fast, pursuing John, and pursued by us. Considering his age, he is faLr advanced. To speak plainly, I do not like her. To escape was impossible. It is easier to be a great historian than a great poet. The sailors, in wandering over the island, found several trees bearing delicious fruit. That he should think so, is strange. 6. A troop of girls are searching for flowers on yonder hill. The Rhone flows out from among the Alps. Washington died at his residence, on the 19th of December, 1797; and was buried near the Potomac, among his relatives. However, if they do not come, I shall neither wait nor return. Such, alas is the fate of ambition. CONDENSED ORDER OF ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Sentence 3 simple, complex, or compound; declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, or a composite of. Ilndependent Ph]rase, if any; principal word, modifiers. Simple Seentene subject, subject-nominative, modifiers; predicate, predicate-verb, modifiers. Complex Sentence; independent or principal clause; analysis. Dependent clause or clauses; analysis. Compound Sentence; consisting of, ~ 639. Analyze the clauses. Article: kind; disposal; Rule. Adjective; kind; sub-class; comparison; degree; disposal; Rule. Noun; kind; gender; person; number; declension; case; disposal; Rule. Pronoun; kind; sub-class; antecedent and Rule IX, or gender, person, number; declension; case; disposal; Rule. Finite Verb; principal parts; kind in regard to form; kind in regard to objects, - with voice; mood; tense; form; synopsis; conjugation; person and number; disposal; Rule. Omit synopsis, conjugation, and declension, when familiar to the student. Infinitive e its forms; kind in regard to time; kind in regard to objects, - with voice; disposal; Rule. (So, Participles.) Infinitive, used as a noun; its nature as an infinitive; its nature as a noun; disposal; Rule for nouns, (In a similar way dispose of participial nouns and participial adjectives.) Adverb; kind; comparison; degree; disposal; Rule. Preposition; relation; Rule. Conjunction; kind; connection; Rule. Interection; kind; Rule. (See Kerl's "First Lessons," p. 121.) ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 263 SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS' AND PARSING. The following collection of sentences is of such a nature, and has been so classified, as to exhibit the types of all sentences, and the general construction of language according to the principles of Analysis. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Simple Subjects and Predicates. Unmodified. 1. Banners waved. 2. Lights were shining. 3. He should have been rewarded. 4. Could they have gone? 5. To whisper is forbidden. 6. Whispering is forbidden. Modified by Words and Phrases. 1. Manners make fortunes. 2. These roses are very beautiful. 3. Too much fear is an enemy to good deliberation. 4. Virtuous youth brings forth accomplished and flourishing manhood. 5. 1Milton, the author of Paradise Lost, was deeply versed10 in ancient learning. 3odified by Clauses. SUBJECT. - 1. They who are set to rule over others, must be just. 2. There was one clear, shining star, that used to come out into the sky before the rest, near the church spire, above the graves. 3. The disputes between the majority which supported the mayor, and. the minority headed by the magistrates, had repeatedly run so high that bloodshed seemed inevitable. PREDICATE. — 1. Heaven has imprinted, in the mother's face, something that claims kindred with the skies. 2. I was assured that he would return. 3. We found, in our rambles, several pieces of flint which the Indians had once used for arrow-heads. Inverted and Elliptical Constructionso 1. In every grove warbles the voice of love and pleasure. 2. Bursts the wild cry of terror and dismay. 3. How wonderfully are we made I 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Write. 2. Sweet the pleasure. 3. Here the wigwam blaze beamed on the tender and helpless. 4. t"Where' thy true treasure? " Gold says, "Not in me"; And, " Not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor! 3, Supply children. Or say, Tender and helpless are adjectives, relating to some noun understood that denotes persons; and they are also used as a noun, because they represent the noun understood, -and hence of the corn. g, 3d p, pl. n., etc. Infinitive Phrases used as Subjects. 1. To relieve the poor is our duty. 2. To pay as you go, is the safest way to fortune. 3. To have advanced much farther without supplies, would have been dangerous. Sometimes we find also participial phrases used as subjects; but clauses or infinitive phrases are generally preferable to such constructions. Inverted and Elliptical. Unknown to them, when sensual pleasures cloy, To fill the languid pause with finer joy. Clauses used as Subjects. 1. That the earth is round, is now well known. 2. How the soul is connected with the body, is a great mystery. 3. "Dust thou art, to dust returnest," was not written of the soul. Compound Subjects and Predicates. Compound Subjects. 1. Patience and perseverance can remove mountains. 2. Either James or Henry is talking. 3. His magnificence, his taste, his classical learning, his high spirit, and the suavity of his manners, were admitted even by his enemies. 2. A sentence of this kind can be considered compound, by supplying another predicate; but it is more common to say simply that the subject is compound. When in parsing. however, a distinct predicate must be furnished to each nominative, then the sentence, not the subject, should be considered compound; as, "You or he is to be blamed." "The best books, not the cheapest, should be our object." 1. To remain and to advance were equally dangerous. 2. To fight that night, or to retreat, was the only alternative left. 3. To hope and strive is the way to thrive. 3. To hope and strive is the entire subject and the subject-nominative. To hope is in part the subject of is. Is agrees with to hope and to strive conjointly, taken as one thing. Clauses. That he should take offense at such a trifle, that he ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 265 should write an article about it, and that he should then publish it, surprised us all. Clausal Phrases. The wit whose vivacity condemns slower tongues to silence, the scholar whose knowledge allows no man to fancy that he instructs him, the critic who suffbrs no fallacy to pass undetected, and the reasoner who condemns the idle to thought and the negligent to attention, are generally praised and feared, reverenced and avoided. Compound Predicates. 1. Ile rose, reigned, and fell. 2. Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountains, and read their doom in the setting sun. 3. The rose had been washed, just washed in a shower, Which Mary to Anna conveyed; A delicate moisture encumbered the flower, And weighed down its beautiful head. 4. Glass is impermeable to water, admits the light and excludes the wind, is capable of receiving and retaining the most lustrous colors, is susceptible of the finest polish, can be carved or sculptured like stone or metal, never loses a fraction of its substance by constant use, and is so insensible to the action of acids that it is employed by chemists for purposes to which no other substance could be applied. ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. (SUBSTANTIVE MODIFIERS.) 1. Articles. 1. A church stands on the adjoining hill. 2. A statesman's character should be an honor to his country. Elliptical and Peculiar Constructlons. 1. A man and woman were drowned. 2. IIe bought a house and lot. 3. A river runs between the old and the new mansion. 4. A great many adjectives are derived from nouns. 5. Peter the Great is the pride of Russia. 12 266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Adjectives. 1. This little twig bore that large red apple. 2. Green fields and forests were before us. 3. A swift and limpid rivulet purled over the pebbles. 4. lie used very forcible but courteous language. 5. Two plunm-trees, radiant with white blossoms on every bough, overtop the garden wall. 6. The whole world swarms with life, animal and vegetable. 1. Apple is modified by red; red apple, by large; and large red apple, by that. 2. Green belongs to bothfields andforests. Inverted and Elliptical. 1. It was a bright morning, soft and balmy. 2. Calm, attentive, and cheerful, he confutes more gracefully than others compliment. 3. Then followed a long, a strange, a glorious conflict of genius against power. 4. Violets meek and jonquils sweet she chose. 2. The dependent clause, than others compliment, limits, determines, or completes the comparison; or it modifies the phrase more gracefully, by showing the manner and degree. 3. Supply conflict and put each conflict, after the first, in apposition with the first. 3. Possessives. 1. John's horse is in our garden. 2. Gen. George Washington's residence was on the Potomac. 3. Soft blows the breeze o'er India's coral strand. Elliptical and Peculiar Con cionstrctons. 1. I will wait at Smith's, the bookseller. 2. I will wait at Smith3 the bookseller's.7 3. Lewis" and Raymond's3 factory was burned. 4. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. 5. That head of yours has many strange fancies in it. 6. The bard of Lomond's lay is done. 5. Yours, an idiom; equivalent to your possession. - See p. 221. 6. Bard ('s) is governed by lay, and Lomond ('s) by of. 4. Appositive or Explanatory Expressions. Nouns and Pronouns. 1. Thou, thou,' art the man. 2. I myself was present. 3. The nurse, that ancient lady, preached decorum. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 267 4. There is but one God, the author, the creator, and the governor of the world; almighty, eternal, and incomprehensible. 5. Thou sun, both eye and soul of the world. 6. A cove, or inlet, divides the island. 7. As a writer, he has few equals. 8. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music'. 9. Messrs. William and Robert Bailey were conversing with the Misses Barnes. 10. Two things a man should never fret about; what he can help, and what he can not help. 11. The saint, the father, and the husband prays. 12. You are too humane and considerate; things few people can be charged with. 8. Calls is modified by beautiful architecture frozen music, as the entire object; and by architecture as the simple object. Music is put in apposition with architecture, and is partially governed by calls. 9. WYilliam (Bailey) and Robert Bailey are put in apposition with Messrs. but Misses Barnes is best parsed as one noun. 12. Things, nominative, in apposition with the adjectives humane and considerate Remark under Rule VII. Supply which as the object of with. Infinitive Phrases. 1. It is foolish to lay outmoney in a purchase of repentance. 2. It is our duty to be friendly toward mankind, as much as it is our interest that mankind should be friendly toward us. 1. It, with the explanatory infinitive phrase, to lay out money, etc., is the entire subject; and it is the subject-nominative. It is modified by the phrase to lay out money, etc., as the entire appositive or explanatory phrase; and by the infinitive to lay, as the simple appositive. Clauses. 1. It is through inward health, that we enjoy all outward things. 2. It is scarcely to be imagined, how soon the mind sinks to a level with its condition. 3. Study is at least valuable for this - that it makes man his own companion. Inverted and Elliptical. 1. Child of the Sun7, refulgent Summer comes. 2. Thyself shalt see the act. 3. This monument is itself' the orator of this occasion. 4. I sold them for a dollar a pair.7 5. One by one the moments fly. 6. They had one each. 268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. He thought it an honor to do so. 8. Strange that a harp of thousand strings should keep in tune so long. 2. Thou thyself. 4. I sold them, each pair for a dollar. 5. One by one might also be considered an adverbial phrase. 7. He thought it, to do so, an honor. To do so is in apposition with it. Honor is also in apposition with it; but it is, besides, partially governed by thought. 8. It is strange, etc. 5. Participles. 1. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 2. The deer, seeing me, fled. 3. The wolf, being much exasperated by the wound, sprang upon the horse. 4. There are twenty-six senators, distinguished for their wisdom, not elevated by popular favor, but chosen by a select body of men. 5. The blast seemed to bear away the sound of the voice, permitting nothing to be heard but'4 its own wild howling, mingled with the creaking and the rattling of the cordage, and the hoarse thunder of the surges, striving like savage beasts for our destruction. Inverted. 6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay, Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away. 6. This is one of the sentences in which it is difficult to determine what makes the subject, and what makes the predicate. Perhaps the division is properly made thus: A soldier, fair and young, torn with shot and pierced with lances, I lay close beside her, faintly moaning, and slowly bleeding aoway his life. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether an adjunct, an adjective phrase, a participial phrase, or an infinitive phrase, should be referred to the subject or to the predicate. - See p. 232. 6. Infinitives. 1. Contributions to relieve the sufferers were sent in. 2. The book to be adopted by us should be compared with others of the same kind. 3. Persuade Mary to let him have his books. 4. Let us have some of these clams cooked for supper. 4. Cooked is rather the present passive infinitive than the perfect passive participle. If the clams were already cooked, then it would be the participle. 7. Adjuncts. Simple. 1. The roar of the lion was heard. 2. She bought a house with its furniture. 3. The promises of Hope are sweeter than roses in the bud, and far more flattering to ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 269 expectation. 4. The sailors did not like the idea of being treated so. 5. There is a flower about to bloom. 6. The question of who is to lead them, was next discussed. Complex. 1. A Gothic cathedral is a blossoming in stone, subdued by the insatiable desire of harmony in man. 2. The gold in a piece of quartz from the mines of California, weighed several pounds. Compound. 1. The large elm between the house and the river seems to be the king of the forest. 2. Brazil is regarded as a land of mighty rivers and virgin forests, palm-trees and jaguars, anacondas and alligators, howling monkeys and screaming parrots, diamond-mines, revolutions, and earthquakes. 8. Clauses. 1. The man who sows his field, trusts in God. 2. Selfdenial is the sacrifice which virtue must make. 3. We encamped by a limpid rivulet, that purled over the pebbles. 4. He paid more for the flowers and gems which he brought, than they are worth. 5.'T is the land where the orange and citron grow. 6. There is plain proof thatl he is guilty. 7. The man with whom love is a sentiment, ever yearns for a home of his own. 8. Get what is needed. Inverted and Elliptical. 1. Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. 2. We have no such laws as those by which he was tried in the State from which he came. 3.'T is the land I love. Abridged. She turned, -a reddening rose7 in bud, Its calyx half withdrawn,Her cheek on fire with damasked blood Of girlhood's glowing dawn! - Holmes. Its calyx half withdrawn is an absolute phrase, used here in the sense of a relative clause describing rose. Her cheek [being] on fire, etc., is an absolute phrase, used here for an adverbial clause of manner or cause, and modifying turned. 270 ENGLISH GBAMIMAR. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. (PREDICATE MODIFIERS.) 1. Objectives. Nouns and Pronouns. 1. Birds build nests. 2. The soil produces corn, hemp, tobacco, wheat, and grass. 3. Here we saw green fields, groves of ancient oak, and happy homes embowered in tufts of shade. 4. The hurricane even tore down enclosures that had been lately made, trees that had stood for ages, and mansions that had been built of stone. 5. She gave what she could not sell. Infinitives and Participles. 1. I like to study. 2. AWe preferred to remain at home, and learn our lessons. 3. I-e intended to move to the West, to purchase him a farm, and to end his days on it in peace and quiet. 4. He knew not what to say. 5. After such a hint, I could not avoid offering her my assistance, and regretting my apparent want of gallantry. Clauses. 1. I believe that he is honest and industrious. 2. Every, one must have noticed how much more amiable some children are than others. 3. She saw that we were tired, and needed some refreshment. 4. Tell us not, sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. 5. They said that -alifax loved the dignity and emolument of office, that while he continued to be president it w.ould be impossible for him to put forth his whole strength against the government, and that to dismiss him would be to set him free from all restraint. 6. Who can tell who he is? Inverted and Elliptical. 1. Me glory summons to the martial scene. 2. HIim well I knew, and every truant knew. 3. I have nothing to say. 4. "Trifles," said Sir Joshua Reynolds "make ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 271 perfection; but perfection is no trifle." 5. 0 that those lips had language! 6. Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits, know. 7. Teach me my own defects to scan; what others are, to feel; and know myself a man. 3. Supply that I wish, or which I am able, or which it is proper for mne, or else parse to say according to ~ 401. 2. Predicate Substantives. Nouns and Pronouns. 1. He is a farmer. 2. She was appointed governess. 3. Mlan is a bundle of habits and relations. 4. His daily teachers had been woods and rills. 5. This aunt Betsy7 was the neatest and most efficient piece of human machinery that ever operated in forty places at once. 6. A poor relation is the most irrelevant thing in nature, an odious approximation, a haunting conscience, a perpetually recurring mortification, a drawback on your rising, a stain in your blood, a drain on your purse, and a more intolerable drain on your pride. 7. It is we who are Iamlet. 8. I shall be all anxiety, till I know what his plans are. 9. " Shall we not wait for Decius? - No; were he ten times Decius." 10. I knew it to be him. 11. lie, being a partner, was called in as a witness. 12. He is tired of being a loafer.2 13. Shelooks a goddess, and she walks a queen.-Dryden. 12. When a governing word cuts off one substantive from the other, Rule VII can not be applied. Infinitives and Participles. 1. To venture in was to die. 2. The best way to preserve health is to be careful about diet and exercise. 3. The great object of all knowledge is to enlarge and purify the soul. 4. There is nothing like facts; seeing is believing. 5. It was being idle that made me miserable. Clauses. 1. My impression is, that you will succeed. 2. The law should be, that he who can not read should not vote. 272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. The excuse was, that the army had not been well enough equipped, and that the roads were too bad. 4. It is not that my lot is low, That bids the silent tear to flow; It is not grief that bids me moan, It is that I am all alone. 4. The relative that, of the second line, relates to the clause that my lot is low, as its antecedent, or to it. - See p. 298. Inverted and Ellipticalo 1. A joy thou art, and a wealth, to all. 2. We stand the latest, and, if we fall, the last, experiment of self-government. 3. The moss his bed, the cave his humble cell; His food the fruits, his drink the crystal well. 3. Predicate Adjectives. 1. You are studious. 2. Her countenance looked mild and gentle. 3. The question now before Congress is practical as death, enduring as time, and high as human destiny. 4. Blennerhasset is described as having been amiable and refined, and a passionate lover' of music. 5. To bleach is to make white. 6. Correct the heart, and all will go right. 7. To be poor is more honorable than to be dishonorably rich. 8. There is no way of being loved but by being amiable. 4. When a participle is thus construed with an adjective, call the participle a participial adjective. 8. Except to be loved by being amiable. Inverted and Elliptical. 1. Lovely art thou, O Peace! 2. Deep in the sea is a coral grove. 3. Large, glossy, and black hung the beautiful fruit. 4. Green's the sod, and cold the clay. 5. 0 vain to seek delight in earthly things. 4. Adverbs. Veros 3Modfied.- 1. Ioe spoke eloquently. 2. The net was curiously woven. 3. The bird flew rapidly away. 4. What he did, he did patiently, accurately, and thoroughly. 5. His heart went pit-a-pat. 6. Do not aim low. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 273 Adjectives Modified. -1. The work is very useful. 2. The well is deep enough. 3. How various, how animated, how full of interest, is the survey 4. I had never seen any thing quite so beautiful before. Adverbs odified. — 1. We marched rather slowly. 2. You have come altogether too soon. 3. The car runs not quite fast enough. Adverbial Clauses. 1. The child seemed to recline on its mother's bosom, as some infant blossom on its parent stem. 2. The cottage stood where the mountain shadows fell when the sun was declining. 3. Remember, while you are deliberating, the season now so favorable may pass away, never to return. 5. When misfortunes overtake you, when sickness assails you, and when friends forsake you, religion will be your greatest comfort. 5. The farther we went, the worse we fared. 6. As you sow, so you shall reap. 6. Observe that not the sowing, but the reaping, is described. As is a conjunctive adverb that joins its clause to shall reap to express manner, according to Note VI. Or say, As is an adverb of manner, modifying sow according to Rule XIII; and it is also a corresponding conjunction relating to so, and connecting two clauses according to Rule XV. Parse so in a similar manner. Inverted and Elliptical. 1. Up soars the lark, the lyrical poet of the sky. 2. Here, all is confusion; there, all is order and beauty. 3. Whert young, life's journey I began. 4. The blessed to-day is as completely so, As who began three thousand years ago. The man blessed to-day..... as he who, etc. 5. Participles. 1. He walks limping. 2. They lay concealed. 3. IHe went on his way rejoicing. 4. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the east. 5. The scythe lies glittering in the dewy wreath Of tedded grass, mingled with fading flowers, That yester-morn bloomed waving in the breeze. 274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6. Infinitives. Verbs odified. - 1. The child seemed to sleep. 2. She was supposed to be rich. 3. He was known to have assisted the editor. 4. To curb him, to stand up against him, we want arms of the same kind. Adjectives Modified.- 1. She is rather young to go to school. 2. It is a thing not easy to be done. 3. Pope was not content to please; he desired to excel, and therefore always did his best. Adverbs Modified. - 1. It is too badly done to last. 2. It was so bright as to dazzle our eyes. 3. lIe proceeded too cautiously to fall into such a trap. It is probably best to say, that as to dazzle our eyes modifies so bright. NOTE V.- To say truth, Jack heard these discources with some compunction. 7. Adjuncts. Verbs lodfied. -1. I am in trouble. 2. Deliver us from evil. 3. Religion dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart. 4. You are suspected of having been negligent. 5. This will depend on who he is. Adjectives lodified. - 1. Let us be watchful of our liberties. 2. He is indolent about every thing. 3. They were invincible in arms. Inverted and Elliptical. 1. By fairy hands their knell is rung. 2. Come, go with me the jungle through. 3. On that plain, in rosy youth, they had fed their father's flocks. 4. According to some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches his flames in the ocean. 5. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, That host, with their banners, at sunset were seen. 4. Supply To believe, etc.; for the sun does not quench his flames according to these ancient philosophers. 8. Clauses. 1. We came that we might assist you. 2. He is afraid that you will not return. 3. I am convinced that he is right. This class comprises a few clauses that can not be referred to any preceding class, and that are adjunctive in sense. QUESTIONS. 275 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 1. Repeat the Rules of Syntax. 46. What is said of the predicate-verb 2. Repeat the Notes. be?... 619 3. Give the general formula for parsing. 47. Into what classes can the predicate 4. What is Analysis?... 571 modifiers be divided?...620 5. What is Parsing?... 572 48. What kinds of words are connec6. How do they differ? tives?..... 621 7. What is said of discourse?.. 573 49. What words or phrases are used in8. What other division of discourse? 574 dependently?.... 623 9. What are the chief kinds of prose? 575150. What more is said of them?. 624 10. Of poetry?... 576 51. From what does a phrase or clause 11. What else is said of discourse? 577, 578 usually take its name?.. 625 12. What is a paragraph?... 579 52. What is said of phrases, in regard to 13. What is a sentence?... 581 form, parsing, and analysis? 626 - 628 14. What is a proposition?... 582 53. What is said of clauses, in regard to 15. What is a clause?... 583 form, parsing, and analysis? 629 - 631 16. When is a clause or sentence de- 54. What is said of propositions? clarative? - interrogative? - im- 55. What is a member of a sentence? perative? - exclamatory?.. 584 56. What is an independent clause? - 17. Into what classes are sentences di- a principal clause? - a dependent vided?..... 587 or subordinate clause? —a co18. On what three syntactical relations ordinate clause?...632 is Analysis chiefly based?. 589 57. What is said of simple sentences?. 633 19. What are the elements of sentences? 590 58 What is said of complex sentences? 635 20. Into what six classes can these be 59. Of compound sentences?. 638, 639 divided?..593 60. What is said of brevity?. 641 21. Into what can all sentences be re- 61. Of ellipsis?.... 642 solved? 591 62. Of abridgment?.... 643 22. What else may a sentence have?. 592 63, How are compound sentences con23. What two chief words or terms tracted?... 644, 645, 646 must be in every proposition? 594 64. How are compound modifiers con24. What is the subject-nominative?. 595 tracted?..647 25. What is the predicate-verb?. 596 65. How are simple sentences abridged? 648 26. Of what two parts must every 66. What is said of the verb be, and of clause or proposition consist?. 597 imperative propositions?. 649 27. What is the subject?.. 598 67. What is said of equivalent expres28. What is the predicate?.. 599 sions?..650 29. Iow are subjects and predicates 68. What is said of the syntax of classified?.... 600 abridged expressions?. 651 80. Define these classes?. 601- 604 69. How can the syntax of a difficult 31. What is a modifier?.. 605 word or phrase be frequently most 32. What kinds of modifiers are there? 606 readily ascertained? 33. What is an adjective-or substantive 70. Into what are complex sentences modifier07 abridged?.... 652 34. Tell, so far as you can, by what a 71. Which part is usually abridged? noun or pronoun may be modified. 608 72. Into what is an abridged substan35. What is an adverbial or predicate tive clause usually converted?. 653 modifier?... 609 73. An abridged adjective clause?. 654 36. Tell, so far as you can, by what a 74. An abridged adverbial clause?. 655 finite verb, an infinitive, or a par- 75. When a complex sentence is abridgticiple can be modified?. 610 ed, what is the effect on the subject 37. What modifiers can adjectives and of the dependent clause?. 657, 658 adverbs have?... 611 76. Into what can modifying phrases 38. What more is said of modifi- frequently be abridged? 659 ers?... 612 - 614 77. What place in a sentence is consid89. What parts of speech are never ered the most important?..661 modified? 78. When may a subordinate element 40. What parts of speech, then, can occupy the chief place?.. 662 have modifiers? 79. What is said of transposing phrases 41. What is said of primary and of see- and clauses?.. 663, 664, 665 ondary modifiers? 80. What is a period?.. 666 42. An infinitive, used as a noun, can 81. State how sentences should be anahave what kind of modifiers?. 6151 lyzed. Page 262. 43.. A participial noun?.. 61682. State how each part of speech. 44. What is said of modified phrases should be parsed. and clauses?.. 617 83: Which of the five parts of grammar 45. What is said of molify? are used in Analysis and Parsing? PART V.'WOYDS IJ-ROIOPERI-Y CO2BITNEID. FALSE SYNTAX. ALL the errors, in the use of language, can be reduced to four heads: — 1. Too Many Words. 2. Too Few Words. 3. Improper Word or Expression. 4. Improper Arrangement of Words. 1. TOO MIANY WORDS. General Rule I. - No needless word should be used. This here is my seat.* That there is your place. I have got to go. You have gbt to stay. She is a poor widow woman. He died in less than two hours time. You had n't ought to do it. He had n't ought;to go. Had I have been there, I would have gone with them. Had I have known it, I could have sent yesterday. His two sisters were both of them well educated. I bought it of the bookseller, him who lives opposite. The neck connects the head and trunk together. I-e went away about the latter end of the week. You will never have another such a chance. * We shall not encumber the following exercises with formulas. Surely the teacher, if at all competent, can show the student how to correct the sentences in a clear and sensible manner. As a general rule, the pupil Should first say that the sentence is incorrect; he should then state in what respect it is wrong, make the necessary correction, and give his reasons for the change. Lastly, he may read the corrected sentence. Formerly, arithmetic was taught chiefly by arbitrary rules committed to memory. Since the introduction of mental arithmetic into schools, pupils have been taught to reason out problems by relying rather on themselves for logic and language. Can not a similar mode of instruction be applied to false syntax? FALSE SYNTAX. 277 There are but a few other similar places in the city. What is used for that an'd which. (Omit and.) It is equally as good as the other. Mine is equally as good as yours. The correlatives as and as themselves imply equality. - See p. 186. Who first discovered America? When the world was first created, etc. For his avoiding that disaster, he is indebted to you. Inc their discussing bf the subject, they became angry. He knows the lesson, but you do not know the lesson. Perseverance in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, and will produce effects beyond our calculation. This is taught by Plato; but it is taught still better by Solomon than by him. Miost is annexed to the end of these words. Our flowers are covered over. I was not able for to do it. I borrowed the knife for to sharpen my pencil. For was formerly used before the infinitive; but it should not be used so now. Where is William at? Their situation can hardly be conceived of. My father presented me with a new knife. A very common error. - He did not present me, but the knife. Omit with. Mr. C. S. Bushnell, of New Haven, has presented the divinity school ivith five thousand dollars. N. Y. Times. Say, - " has presented five thousand dollars to the divinity school." The emotion is at last awakened by the accidental in stead of by the necessary antecedent. - Wayland. Omit, the second by. "In a horizontal in stead of a perpendicular direction."- Everett. It is to you to whom I am indebted for this favor. The pronoun it needs you for its predicate-nominative; and therefore to should be rejected. It is to this last feature of the game laws, to which we intend to confine our notice. - Sidney Smith. Our debts and our sins are generally greater than we think for. At about what time will you come? The performance was approved of by all who saw it. From thence we sailed to Liverpool. From whence it came I know not. Hence, thence, and whence, implyfrom, which therefore becomes superfluous when inserted before any of these words. Whenever he sees me, he always inquires after my health. He then told us how that he had always been a Union man. The carol they began that hour, How that a life was [is] but a flower. - Shakespeare. The carol, that a life is but a flower, etc. 278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I have no doubt but that he will come. He never doubts but that he knows their intention. - Trench. This barbarous custom, and which prevailed everywhere, the missionaries have abolished. A relative pronoun is a connecting word, and therefore does not allow and between itself and the antecedent, except when the and is needed to join one relative clause to another. The distinguishing excellence of Virgil, alnd which he possessed above all others [other poets], is tenderness. - Blair. If I mistake not, I think I have seen you before. Her tears dropped and fell upon the face of her dying and expiring babe. A little flowing rivulet. Mr. Henry Felton, Esq. A name should not stand between two titles, when the greater title implies the less but a name can have two or more titles, when one does not necessarily imply the other as, Rev. Dr. Lothrop. UNDER PARAGRAPI 482. We made her to believe it. If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle. To go I could not. You need not to have staid. Make me to understand the way of thy precepts. Special Rules. 1. A pronoun should not be added to its antecedent, when the antecedent alone would express the meaning better. John he went, and Mary she went; but the rest they all staid at home. Henry Barton his book. (Apply also Rule III.) Mary Johnson her book. These lots, if they had been sold sooner, they would have brought a better price. These wild horses having been once captured, they were soon tamed. It is indisputably true, his assertion; though it seems erroneous. 2. When two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, only one of them should be used to express denial. I will never do so no more. We did n't find nobody at home. Change also any word of the sentence, when it is necessary to do so. I don't know nothing about your affairs; and I don't want to know. I never said nothing about it to nobody. Death never spared no one. She will never grow no taller. I sha'n't go, I don't think. (Change the sentence.) FALSE SYNTAX. 279 This England never did, nor never shall, Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror. - Shakespeare. Neither you nor nobody else can walk ten miles in one hour. No banker, brewer, nor merchant, wanted a partner. - Newspaper. 3. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided. The office could not have been given to a more worthier man. A farmer's life is the most happiest. She is the most loveliest one of the sisters. She seemed more lovelier to me than ever before. - Croly. The lesser quantity I remove to the other side. The ending er, of the comparative degree, is equivalent to the word more. Nothing can be more worse - worser. These were the least happiest years of my life. This was the most unwisest thing you could have done. 4. The article is commonly omitted, - 1. When a word is used merely as a title. 2. When a word is spoken of merely as a word or name. 3. When we refer to the kind generally, or to only a part indefinitely. Santa Anna now assumed the title of a Dictator. The original signification of knave was a boy. The ancients supposed the air, the earth, the water, and the fire, to be the elements of all material things. What kind of a man is he? What sort of a thing is it? A kind or sort is comprised in the general class, rather than in a single object. I have had a dull sort of a headache all day. The Tennessee and the Mississippi are names from the Indian tongues. The whites of America are the descendants of the Europeans. 5. When connected descriptive words refer to the same person or thing, the article can generally be used only before the first of the words. A white and a black calf is-one calf with two colors. There is another and a better world. My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable woman. .280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman. Fire is a better servant than a master. I am a better arithmetician than a grammarian. Everett, the patriot, the statesman, and the orator, should be invited. The earth is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. The Old and the New Testaments make the Bible. Better: " The Old Testament and the New make the Bible"; or, "The Old and the New Testament make the Bible." The first and the second pages were our first lesson. The terror of the Spanish and the French monarchies. - Bolingbroke. 6. Do not make transitive verbs intransitive, by inserting a needless preposition. Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. We had just entered into the house. Follow on after us. His estate will not allow of such extravagance. If you can wait till to-morrow, I will consider of it. We entreat of thee to hear us. I do not recollect of such an instance. Many talented men have deserted from the party. 7. Do not let the same word, sound, or expression recur too frequently, nor in close proximity to itself. The fault is still worse when the word is used in different senses. Too much of the same sound frequently produces harshness, and is always so unpleasant to the ear that the word monotony has become a common term for whatever is disagreeable from excessive sameness. The subject of which I shall now treat, is not a subject of general interest; but no other subject is of greater importance to the subjects of this kingdom. Pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and the word so, are often convenient substitutes. Avarice and cunning may gain an estate, but avarice and cunning can not gain friends. (Substitute they.) A catalogue of the children of the public schools of this city has been published. (Substitute in.) John's friend's horse ran away. ~ 278. I believe that he is the man that I saw. (Substitute whom.) One can not imagine what a monotonous being one becomes if one constantly remains turning one's self in the circle of one's favorite notions. A person..... he, etc. Observe that the irregul:rities in the declension of pronouns give beauty to language. FALSE SYNTAX. 281 2. TOO FEW WORDS. General Rule 1,.- No necessary word should be omitted. White sheep are much more common than black. I-e does not know you better than John. (Ambiguous.) Lovest thou me more than these? You suppose him younger than I. A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. - Webster. I-e did it for your and my friend's welfare. Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. He had fled his native land. He was expelled the college. What prevents us going? What use is it to me? The remark is worthy the man that made it. My business prevented me attending the last meeting. She could not refrain shedding tears. San Francisco is the other side the Rocky Mountains. Out of these modifications have sprung most complex modes. Say, -" most of the," etc.; for otherwise most apparently modifies complex. The court of France or England was to be the umpire. The valley of the Amazon is perhaps as large as the Mississippi. Let us consider the works of nature and art, with proper attention. The word depends on what precedes and follows. (Supply what.) She praises who praise her. (Object wanting; supply those.) We speak that we do know. [taken from him. (Supply which and he.) The privileges to which he was entitled, and had long enjoyed, were An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different situations. - S. Smith. (Supply service and one.) Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune. - Blair. So great a separation between two prepositions or other words that govern the same object, always produces a disagreeable hiatus in the sense; therefore place the noun after the first preposition, and the corresponding pronoun after the second. He first spoke for, and then voted against, the measure. The freight was added to, and very much increased, my expenses. He is not now in the condition he was. (Supply in which.) The omission of a relative adjunct generally produces a disagreeable gap in the sense. Yonder is the place I saw it. This is the way it was done. The money has not been used for the purpose it was appropriated. I shall persuade others to take the same measures for their cure that I have. No man can be more wretched than I. (Supply am.) 282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I never have and never will assist such a man. They either have or will write to us about the matter. Money is scarce, and times hard. (Supply ire.) Allowable, by zeugma (p. 300); yet when a verb or an auxiliary is omitted near a different form of the same verb or auxiliary, the attraction between the expressed verb and the nominative of the omitted verb generally produces a disagreeable hiatus in the sense. In other words, it is generally improper to omit the verb when a different form of it is required. The winter is departing, and the wild-geese flying northward. The ground was covered with forests, and the ravines hidden. A dollar was offered for it, but five asked. I can not go, but I want to. I have not subscribed, nor do I intend to. Allowable in the most colloquial style; though it is generally inelegant to let a sentence end with a word so insignificant. Supply go and subscribe. This must be my excuse for seeing a letter which neither inclination nor time prompted me to. - Washington. We ought not speak evil of others, unless it is necessary. ~ 482. It is better live on a little than outlive one's income. This old miser was never seen give a cent to any charitable underPlease excuse my son for absence yesterday. [taking. Allowable in the familiar style; though it is generally better to insert to. How do you like up here? We like right well up here. This is an error common in New England. Supply to live or some other words. Surely no man is so infatuated to wish for a different government from that which we have. Page 186. He is a man of visionary notions, unacquainted with the world, unfit to live in it. Special Rules. 1. The article the is frequently neede to show that all of a class are meant; and when connected descriptive words refer to different persons or things, an article is generally needed before each of the words. The Indians are descendants of the aborigines of this country. Men who are indolent, generally complain of hard times. A black and white calf were the only two I saw. The white and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. A beautiful stream flowed between the old and new mansion. The sick and wounded were left at this place. FALSE SYNTAX. 283 2. In comparison, other, else, or a similar word, must sometimes be inserted to prevent the leading term from being compared with itself. That tree overtops all the trees in the forest. He thinks he knows more than anybody. Nothing is so good for a sprain as cold water. There is no situation so good anywhere. No magazine is so well written as the Atlantic Monthly. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood. In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word only. - Maunder. 3. Parts emphatically distinguished, or to be kept distinct in thought, should be expressed with equal fullness. Neither my house nor orchard was injured. (Supply my.) Both the principal and interest were paid. Neither the principal nor interest was paid. The principal, as well as interest, was paid. Not the use, but abuse, of worldly things, is sinful. The hum of bees, and songs of birds, fell sweetly on the ear. I would rather hear the whippoorwill than katydid. You must either be quiet, or must leave the room. God punishes the vices of parents, either in themselves or children. Such a relation as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory. They were rich once, but are poor now. A man may be rich by chance, but can not be good or wise without effort. He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen, and consequently entitled to reward. lie is distinguished both as a teacher and scholar. Serial parts must generally be expressed with equal fullness or with uniformity. Such a law would be injurious to the farmer, mechanic, and the merchant. Either use the article but once, and place it before the first word, or else use it before each word. 284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. She possesses more sense, more accomplishments, and beauty than the other. My duty, my interest, and inclinations, all urged me forward. He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. By industry, by economy, and good luck, he soon acquired a fortune. While the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, cold, heat, summer, winter, day and night, shall not cease. 4. It is generally improper to omit the subject-nominative, unless the verb is in the imperative mood, or closely connected with another verb relating to the same subject. He was a man had no influence. (Supply who.) There is no man knows better how to make money. It was this induced me to send for you. If there are any have been omitted, they must say so. She saw at once what was best to do. This is what became us to do. Am sorry to hear of your misfortune; but hope you will recover. This is a position I condemn, and must be better established to gain the faith of any one. Whose own example strengthens all his laws, And is himself the great sublime he draws. Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, And never, never, be to heaven resigned? 5. A participial noun generally requires an article before it, and of after it; or else the omission of both the article and the preposition. Keeping of one day in seven as a day of rest, Is required by the Bible. By the exercising our judgment it is improved. This is a betraying the trust reposed in him. A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles. A wise man will avoid showing of any excellence in trifles. Great benefit may be derived from reading of good books. There is sometimes a difference in sense; as, " He expressed his pleasure in hearing the philosopher." He heard. " He expressed his pleasure in the hearing of the philosopher." The philosopher heard. - In the use of a few verbs, when the antecedent term denotes the doer, both the and of should be omitted; when the subsequent term denotes the doer, the aud of should be used. FALSE SYNTAX, 285 3. IMPROPER WORD OR EXPRESSION. General Rule III. - In the use of words, great care should be taken to select the most appropriate. To lay; to make lie, to place. To lie; to rest in a reclining position. To set; to place. To sit; to rest. To seat; to place in a sitting position, to furnish with a seat. To learn; to acquire knowledge. To teach; to impart knowledge. To like; to be pleased with, to desire moderately. To love; to feel affectionate or very kind towards. To raise; to lift. To rise; to erect one's self, to ascend. To affect; to impress. To effect; to accomplish. To elude; to escape. To illude; to deceive. To suspect; to mistrust. To expect; to await, to regard as something that is to be. Stinted; insufficiently fed, restrained. Stunted; checked in growth, dwarfish. Go is estimated fiom the starting-point; and come, from the point to be reached. Less implies size or number; fewer, number only. Wh/ole, the entire object; all, the entire number. Either, neither, or each other, should be used in speaking of two only; any one, no one, none, or one another, in speaking of more. Into, from outside to inside; in, inside only; at, indefinitely in or about; in, definitely within; at, border, no surroundings; in, enclosure, surroundings; between or betwixt, two only; anmong, three or more; frequently, by, the agent, and with, the means or manner; a taste of what is enjoyed, a tastefor what we wish to enjoy; disappointed of what is not obtained, disappointed in what fails to answer our expectations after it is obtained; die of disease, by an instrument; compare with, for ascertaining merits,- to, for illustration; attended by persons, with consequences; agree with a person, to something proposed, and upon some settlement of affairs; change for by substitution, and to or into by alteration; concur with a person, in a measure, and to an effect; a thing consists of what it is composed of, and consists in what it is comprised in; conversant with men, and in things; what corresponds with, is consistent with,- and what corresponds to, answers to; defend or protect ourselves against, and others from; disagree with a person, as to what is proposed; usually, expert or skillful in, before an ordinary noun, - and at, when immediately before a participial noun; we are familiar with things, and they are familiar to us; indulge with occasionally, and indulge in habitually; we introduce a person to another, and a person or thing into a place; intrude upon a person or thing, and into something enclosed; we usually look for what is sought, and after what is entrusted to us; prevail with, on, or upon, by persuasion,- and over or against all opposition; reconcile one friend to another, and apparent inconsistencies with one another; reduce under implies subjugation, and reduce to implies 286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. simply a change of state; to have regard for, and to pay regard to; t unite to means to join to, and frequently as an appendage, - to unite with means to combine with, and generally as a colleague or an equal; to vest authority in a person, and to invest a person with authority. Abhorrence of; abhorrent to, firom; access to; accord with; accuse of; adapted to; adequate to; agreeable to; aspire to; brag of; capacity for; comply with; confide in; conformable to, with; congenial to, with; consonant with; contiguous to; cured of; deficient in; dependent on; independent of; derogate f/rom; derogatory to; destined to; differfrom, seldom with.; difficulty in; diminish firom; diminution of; discourage from; discouragement to; disgusted at, with; disparagement to; dissent from; in distinction from; eager in, for, after; embark in, for; enamored of, with; enter, entrance, on, upon, into; exception from, to, against; exclude front; exclusive of; extracted from; followed b?; fond of; fondnessfor; foreign to, fiom; founded on, upon, sometimes in; free from;; glad of, sometimes at; guard against; hanker after; inaccessible to; incentive to; incorporate into, with, sometimes in; indulgent to; influence over, with, on; initiate into, sometimes in; inroad into; intermediate between; intervene between; inured to; invested with, in; involve in; join with, to; lame of; land at; level with; long for, after; made of;. marry to; intermarry with; meddle with; martyr for; militate against; mingle with; mistrustful of; necessary to, for; need of; neglectful of; object to, against; occasion for; offend against; offensive to; omitted from; overwhelmed with, by; peculiar to; penetrate into; pertinent to.; pleasant to; pleased with; preferable to; preference to, over, above; prejudice against; prejudicial to; preserve from; productive of; profit by; profitable to; provide with, for, against; pursuant to; pursuance of; refrainfrom; relation to;releasef)om; relieve of, from; rely on, upon; replete with; resemblance to, between; in or with respect to; in or with regard to; rise above; rid of; similar to; strip of; subtract fiom; swerve from; sympathize with; sympathy for, with; unison with; weary of; worthy of. Upon is to on as into is to in; but it can often be used for on, and is then simply a little more forcible. The same preposition that follows a primitive word, naturally follows the derivative; but there are many exceptions. Verbs He laid abed till breakfast. Lay down and rest. and We had laid on the ground all night. - Iewspaper. l'. After laying awhile in this position, he raised up. We were all setting round the fire. We set up late. Set down a little bit. Are you going to go? I ain't going yet. I didn't go to do it. I calculate to invest my money in something else. FALSE SYNTAX. 287 She is as peevish as a setting hen. The nurse sat him in a chair. The sun sets; and a current may set in a certain direction: but a hen rather sits than sets on eggs; and a garment sits or fits well, though it may have a good set. I love bread and butter. Can you learn me to write? The business will suit any one who enjoys bad health. He was raised in the South. Carry the horse to water. Cattle and agricultural productions are raised; but a child or a family is reared in a certain style of lifeI expect it rained here yesterday. The garment was neatly sown. We suspect the trip will afford us great pleasure. All the bottom-lands along the Mississippi were overflown. They shall fly from the wrath to come. -flee Very many rivers empty into the Mississippi. -flow The thiefilluded the police. He was much effected b.y the news. A verb ought to agree with its subject, in person and number. Say should agree, for ought usually implies moral obligation. Write for me no more, for I will certainly —. If I can absent myself, I will - to see him. He has made a fine crop of wheat. I am necessitated to go. To make a crop is perhaps as proper an expression as to make money; still, crops are not manufactured. Why not prefer obliged or compelled to necessitated? for the latter is a long, clumsy word, almost as uncouth as necessitude. Four goes in thirty, seven times, and two over. CORRECTED: Four is contained seven times in thirty, with two remainder. Be that as it will. I cannot give my consent. As it will implies certainty; as it may implies uncertainty. He throwed the ball. I seed him. He knowed better. Only those verbs, or forms of verbs, should be used, which are authorized by good present usage. I drawed the line. I writ the name. He shoed the horse. We be all of us from York State. John alit from his horse. He was drownded. They were attackted. That is no preventative. The goods were shipt yesterday. Want of money has checkt trade. Dipt, stript, dropt, perplext, elapst, absorpt, linkt, distrest." Rather than thus be overtopt, Would you not wish their laurels cropt? - Swift. Thou didd'st weep for him. Thou mightest return. He try'd in vain. Spirit of Freedom! once on Phyle's brow thou satt'st. - Byron. The simpler forms, didst, mightst, tried, and satst, are preferable. Wast thou chopping wood? Learns he the lesson? In the familiar style, grave or poetic forms of expression are not becoming. 288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A drive into the country delighteth and invigorates us. The eve was fair, but the morn was cloudy and darksome. It was not taken notice of. - was not noticed. It was made use of for this purpose. She said our noise and romping must be put a stop to. He was found fault with, and taken hold of. - censured and seized. Wreights and measures were now attempted to be established. Brom Carlyle. Better: "An attempt was now made to establish," etc. She is getting the better of her sickness. - recoveringfrom - I have done written the letter. He is done gone. - already - Since you have made the first, you may do the rest. - makeNo one ever sustained such mortifications as I have done to-day. I did not say, as some have done. - Bolinzgbroke. A poet can rise higher...than a public speaker can do. - Blair. She is administrator. He married a Jew. She is a good songster. She is a good singer; for songster is now generally applied to birds. A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death. ~ 224. [gence. Her stupidness soon appeared. I thought she treated me with negliPronouns Take either of the five. Each one of the dozen is injured. and Any one of the two roads will take you to town. ~ 210. Adjectives. Neither one of these three hats is large enough for my head. Jack and Peg called one another nicknames. - Stuift ~ 210. Mankind resemble each other most in the beginnings of society. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. - Blair. You may take e'er a one or ne'er a one, just as you please. That very point which we are now discussing, was lately decided in the supreme court. ~ 211. These very men with whom you traveled yesterday, are now in jail. There is a right, road, and there is a wrong road, before every person: this leads to happiness; and that, to misery. It all tends to show that our whole plans had been discovered. A proper fraction is less than one, because it expresses less parts than it takes to make a unit. -Colburn. I am willing to pay a hundred or two dollars. [part. We have not the least right to your protection. The least distinct These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been exposed to such great dangers. WVho is used here as a mere connective, or it is deprived of its chief syntax. (~ 622.) Say, -" the punishment of whonm would have prevented the republic from being exposed to dangers so great." FALSE SYNTAX. 289 He reached Charleston about the same time that we did. Perhaps allowable, as bei-ng an i!ti)m; but that, in this construction, is a dubious word for parsing. Say, -'Iabout the time in which we arrived there." At the same time that men are giving their orders, God is also giving his. WTile men, etc. He has never preached, that I have heard of. No man is so poor, who has not something to enjoy. Say, - "that he has not," etc.; for the idea of consequence predominates.-See p. 186. Adverbs A wicked man is not happy, be he never so prosperous. and H-ome is home, be it never so homely. Conjunctions. He is seldom or ever here. Ile said nothing farther. I can go no further. Further; additional, more; applied to quantity. Farther, more distant; applied to space. Such cloaks were in fashion five years since..,go, from present time back; since, from some past time forward. (Dictionaries do not make this distinction i but it is nevertheless well founded.) I saw him about five weeks since. I have not seen him Do like I did. You are not studious, like he is. - not so... as - As, and not like, should be used as a conjunctive adverb, between two clauses. A diphthong is where two vowels are united. A diphthong is when two vowels are united. Say, " A diphthong is the union of," etc.; for a diphthong is neither place nor time. Fusion is while a solid is converted into a liquid by heat. He drew up a petition where he represented his grievances. Say,- "a petition in whzich," etc.; for where might seem to be conjunctive adverb relating to drew. She is such a sogood woman. so good a woman. Such expresses quality; and so, degree. I have seldom seen such a tall man. The letter was not as well written as I wished it to be. He is such a great man, there is no speaking to him. Allowable, if the meaning is, he is a great man of such a kind that it is impossible to speak to him. But if degree only is meant, the phrase so great a man should be used. I will see if it rains or no. - whether.. or not. Page 185. Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing. Budtler. Go, and see if father has come. See if that will do. Tell me if we are going to have but one session to-day. Neither our position, or the plan of attack, was known. Page 186. I demand neither place, pension, or any other reward. - Franklin. 13 290 ENGLISH- GI!AMMAR, By personificatlon,things are often treated as though they were hearers That is, - " as (they would be) if they were hearers." You look as though you have been sick. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. After words of doubt, fear. or denial, that is preferable to but, but what, but that, and sometimes to lest. Also how and as that are sometimes used improperly for that. I have no doubt but you can help him. - Dr. Johnson. I am surprised how you could do such a thing. He could not deny but what he borrowed the money. There is no question but the universe has certain bounds to it. I -was afraid lest you would not return soon enough. I don't know as I shall go, and I don't know but what I shall. l-e is not so tired but what he can whistle. -that... lot - P. 186. This is none other but the gate of Paradise. Other, else, or the comparative degree, must generally be followed by than. Page 186. 0 fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted! -~ ilton. It is nothing else but the people's caprice. - Swift. The loafer seems to be created for no other purpose but to keep up the ancient order of idleness. - Irving. Style is nothing else but that sort of expression which our thoughts most naturally assume. - Blair. There is no other umbrella here but mine. Nothing else but this will do. It was no one else but him. It would be still better to omit else from the two foregoing sentences. Scarcely had he uttered the word, tian the fairy disappearedk (when) I will not go without you go too. - unless - They were all there, unless two or three. Proportion is simple and compound. - either... or - To borrow or to lend is equally imprudent. (Equally requires and.) Every one was dressed alike. - Szwit. Say, "They were all dressed alike"; for alike here requires plurality. The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. The donation was the more acceptable, that it was given without solicitation. Prepositions. lie died with a fever. He died for thirst. Do not let the dog come in the house. Hie came of a sudden. This is a very different dinner to what we had yesterday. I have little influence with him. I live to home. I left my book to home. His case has no resemblance with mine. FALSE SYNTAX. 291 I should differ with you, in regard to that affair. Well authorized, and therefore proper; still, from seems to be in better keeping with analogy. English writers generally say differ with, in reference to matters of opinion; and di.ffer.from, in all other cases.'; I dier with the honorable gentleman on that point." - Bro ugham. The soil is adapted for wheat and corn. lie was accused with having acted unfairly. The sultry evening was followed with a storm. (What is the difference between walking in a garden and walking into a garden?) They spent the summer at the North, in a small village. He resides - No. 125, - Tenth Street. A person lives at a No., and in a street; also on a street, especially if it is wide, like an avenue. Please walk in the setting-room. " His prejudice to our cause." Dryden. Far preferable is a cottage with liberty, than splendor with debt. Such were the difficulties with which the question was involved. IIe always tries to profit from the errors of others. You may rely in what I say, and confide on his honesty. I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting you. There is constant hostility between the several tribes of Indians. The space between the three lines is the area of the triangle. (within) The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another. Say, - " among themselves "; for we could not say one among another. A combat between twenty Texans against fifty Mexicans. Sundries. I was thinking of the best place for an office. [another. This can be made an objection against one government as well as Abercrombie had still nearly four times the number of the enemy. I am looking for reinforcements, which the enemy cannot expect. My Christian and surname begin and end with the same letter. Each then took hold of one end of the pole, to carry the basket. Between grammar, logic, and rhetoric, there exists a close and happy connection; which reigns through all science, and extends to all the powers of eloquence.- AMahan. Observe that which does not denote the identical connection mentioned before it; and therefore the word connection is not the proper antecedent. Say, "Grammar, logic, and rhetoric, have.... and such a connection reigns, indeed, through all science," etc. The use of which accents [Greek and Roman] we have now entirely lost. - Blair. (We never had them to lose. Say, is lost.) Our pronunciation must have appeared to them [the Greeks and the Romans] a lifeless monotony. - Blair. (They never heard it. Say, would have appeared.) 292 ENGLISHI GRAMMIAR RULES OF SYNTAX. Rule I. Them that seek wisdom, shall find it. INCORRECT the pronoun them, in the objective case, is the subject of the verb shall find; and therefore it should be they, in the nominative case, according to Rule I. Her and him were chosen. _Thee art most in fault Him I accuse, has entered. tie whom, etc. Who made the fire? - John and me [made it]. The word containing the answer to a question must generally be in the same case as the word which asks it. Who swept the room? - Us girls. Who rode in the buggy? - Hiin and Jane. What were you and him talking about? Whom shall I say called? You did fully as well as me. He writes better than me. The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick. - Bunyan. We sorrow not as them that have no hope. I do not think such persons as him competent to judge. Truth is greater than us all. - Horace Manzn. The advice of those whom you think are hearty in the cause, must direct you.- Wiashington. A reward was offered to whomsoever would point out a practicable road. - Sir W. Scott. Obs. I, p. 193. Rule II. Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. Pages 96, 191. [education. Her being the only daughter, no expense had been spared in her I have no wish to be him. And me, - what shall I do? lie had no doubt of its being me. - that I was the person. Rule III. I will not destroy the city for ten sake. A five days journey. Brown, Smith, and Jones's wife, usually went shopping together. We insist on them staying with us. I rely on you coming. His father was opposed to him going to California. Vhlat do you think of [us? or our?J going into partnership? A participle that follows a noun or pronoun, becomes a participial noun, when the participle is the chief word in sense. Rule IV. Who did you call? Who shall I send? Who have you got? Who can I trust in such a place, or who shall I employ? FALSE SYNTAX. 293 Let him send you and I. Let thou and I the battle try. Ye only have I known. Tell me who you mean. Let them the state detend, and he adorn. - Cowley. Him you should punish; not 1, who am innocent. Rule V. Who did you come with? Who is it for? Who do you work for? Who is that boy speaking to? This is between you and I. They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. I saw no one there except he. "Who did he send for? - We." Who were you talking with? Who shall I direct it to? NI v son is to be married to I don't know who. - Goldsmith. When but and save:ire followed by a substantive, and not by a clause, they are now considered prepositiols rather than conjunctions; as,' Whence all but him had fled.' - Hemnans. " All desisted, all save him alone." - Wordsworth. Rule VI. A lad of twelve or fifteen years old. I returned oli yesterday. Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high. - Bible. To an infant of two or three years old. - Iayland. Who do I ioiok like? She promised him and I some peaches. Rule VII. Let us worship God, he who created and sustains us. It is me. It was them. Was it him, or her? I did not know it was her. I thought it was her. It was n't me, but him. It could not have been us. Is it me you want? It was tlhem that did it. Whom do you think it was? Who do you take me to be? Let the same be she whom thou hast appointed. Whom do men say that I am? - Bible. It is him who, etc. S. Smith. PRule VIII. I would like to have it now, what I had then. Whatever she found, she took it with her. Rulo IX. Nobody will ever entrust themselves to that boat again. When the antecedent is a substantive of the common gender, denotes a person, and is of the singular numler, so that it becomes, necessary to choose either a masculine or a feminine pronoun, the masculine is preferred. ~ 221. Every person should try to improve their mind and heart. A person who is resolute, energetic, and watchful, is apt to succeed in their undertakings. 294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. If there is anybody down there, let them answer. She took out the ashes, and gave it to a servant. ~ 241. If you have any victuals left, we will help you eat it. Vhien a bird is caught in a trap, they of course try to get out. ~ 222. Tile rraiment was much reduced in their number. ~~ 245, 246. Tlle people can not be long deceived by its demagogues. The army being abandoned by its leader, pursued meanwhile their miserable march. Let the construction be either singular throughout or plural throughout, but not both. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster, the less weight it carries. - he carries. Or, - race-hlorse: it runs, etc. The pronominal construction should relate, throughout, either to the tongue or to the horse, but not to both. An idler is a watch that wants both hands, As useless when he goes as when he stands. Here the second line relates more directly to the watch. I'ave sowed all my oats, and it is growing finely. Our language is not less refined than those of Italy, France, or Spain. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or with the noun which the pronoun represents. The peacock is fond of displaying its gorgeous plumage. The hen looked very disconsolate when its brood rushed into the pond. Horses is of the plural number, because they denote more than one. Every half a dozen boys should have its own bench. Poverty and wealth have each their own temptation. Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. ~ 461. One or the other of us must relinquish their claim. ~ 460. No man or woman ever got rid of their vices, without a struggle. Say, - "his or her vices," etc. When the antecedent is of the common gender, the masculine pronoun can be used; but when the opposite sexes are distinctly mentioned, it. is better to use a. pronoun suitable to each antecedent than to use a pronoun suitable to one only. A different expression is sometimes still better. If any gentleman or lady wishes to have their fortune told, etc. Notice is hereby given to every person to pay their taxes. (Change the antecedent say, - " to all persons," etc.) Our teacher does not let any one of us do as they please. Every person and thing had its proper place assigned to it. -the - I do not know which one of the men finished their work first. Coffee and sugar are brought from the West Indies; and large quantities of it are consumed annually. ~ 461. More exercises, in the construction of pronouns, will be found under Rule XI. FALSE SYNTAX. 295 Rule X.-Note II. The inlet was two mile wide. I bought three ton of hay. It weighed five pound. How do you like these kind of chairs? I never could endure those kind of people. These sort of things. These sort of fellows are very numerous. - Spectator. Fellows ofJ etc. This twenty years have I been with thee. - Bible. Plumb down he dropped ten thousand fathom deep. - iilton. I measured the log with a pole ten foot long,- with a ten-feet pole. When a compound adjective consists of a plural numeral and a noun, the noun is not made plural. - See p. 316. The lot has twenty-five foot front, and is eight rod deep. The work embraces every minutiT - all the minutia- of the science. Learn the sixth and seventh page, and review the fourth and the fifth pages. Rule XI. Circumstances alters cases. The molasses are excellent. His pulse are beating too fast. Was you there? He dare not meddle with it. She need not trouble herself. Need and dare, especially the former, are sometimes used by good writers m stead of needs and dares but it is generally better to avoid such usage. Five dimes is half a dollar. There was only seven of us. Peace has at last come, and with it has come many changes. Thou heard the storm; did thou not? Thou shall go. Oats is sowed in spring. Tion are pronounced slhun. Such is the tales his Nubians tell. Every ten tens makes a hundred, ~ 458. You and your companions must not forget their duty. John, you, and I, are attached to their country. 459. Neither he nor you was mentioned. Is I or he to blame for it? On that occasion, neither he nor I were consulted. ~ 460. 2. There go a gang of deer. Generation after generation pass away. A committee were appointed to examine the accounts. The society hold their meetings on Fridays. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 3. "Reveries of a Bachelor" were written by D. G. Mitchell, 6. Everybody are disposed to help him. Each strove to recover their position. 296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Every person are hereby notified to pay their taxes. Neitlher one are suitable to my purpose. Everybody is fighting, and have been for several days. Newospaper. Every tall tree and every steeple were blown down. Every soldier and every officer remained awake at their station. Every leaf, every twig, and every drop of water, teem with life. Every skiff and canoe were loaded to the water's edge. No wife, no mother, and no child, were there to comfort him. No thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or evil, can escape the notice of God. [regret. Many a man looks back on the days of their youth, with melancholy 7. Either Thomas or George have to stay at home. Neither Holmes, Forbes, nor Jenkins, were classmates of mine. Neither the father nor the son had ever been distinguished for their business qualifications. If you should see my horse or mule, I wish you would have them turned into your pasture. Riding on horseback, or rowing a skiff, are good exercise. It is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that speak. - Blair. ~ 461. 1. HIas the horses been fed? There's two or three of us. The victuals was cold. There is no tidings. There seems to be no others included. On each side of the river was ridges of hills. There was no memoranda kept of the sales. The book is one of the best that ever was written. Such accommodations as was necessary, was provided. He is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and takes considerable interest in politics. What is twenty-two poor years to the finishing a lawsuit!- Swift. While ever and anon there falls Huge heaps of hoary mouldered walls. - Dyer. 2. The committee disagrees. At least half the members was present. The higher class looks with scorn on those below them. All the world is spectators of your conduct. In France, the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes. Send the multitude away, that it may buy itself food. 3. Five pair was sold. Fifty head was drowned. Pair and head, when thus plural in sense without being plural in form, resemble col. lectire nouns. FALSE SYNTAX. 297 4. Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. Time and tide waits for no man. This and that house belongs to him. Hill and dale doth boast Thy blessing. In all her movements there is grace and dignity. Two and two is four, and one [and four] is five. - Pope. There seems to be war and disturbance in Kansas. Every store and residence were pillaged. Every merchant's store and residence was pillaged. Enough money and time has already been expended. Both minister and magistrate are sometimes compelled to choose between his duty and his reputation. 5. For the sake of brevity and force, one or more words is sometimes omitted. One or more persons was concerned. Neither beauty, wealth, nor talents, was injurious to his modesty. I borrow one peck, or eight quarts, and add - to the upper term. ~ 462 1. Every one of the witnesses testify to the same thing. Each one of the vowels represent several sounds. How are each of the relatives used? Neither of us have a dollar left. Either one of the schools are good enough. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. Which one of these soldiers were wounded? The sum of twenty thousand dollars have been expended. A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is now in the treasury. The mother, with her daughter, have spent the summer here. The mechanism of clocks and watches were unknown. Hume. Nothing but expense and trouble have grown out of the business. The richness of their arms and apparel were conspicuous. - Gibbon. Each one of us hace as much as we can do. Rule IX. Neither of us is willing to give up our claim. Correct, if common possession is meant; if not, our should be his. There is more stamina in the Western men. - more ofThe idea of such a collection of men as make an army. - Locke. 2. Lafayette Place, or Gardens, occupy several acres. 3. Two parallel lines is the sign of equality. The sign of equality are two parallel lines. - consists ofMy cause and theirs is one. - Dryden. The few dollars which he owes me, is a matter of small consequence. 13* 298 ENGLISH GRAMMIAR. Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. To the Christian, the pleasures of this world is vanity. This sentence, as it stands, means that Christians take the greatest delight in vanity. Twelve single things, viewed as a whole, is called a dozen. Said the burning Candle, "M y use and beauty is my death." Minced pies was regarded as a profane viand, by the sectaries. —Hune. It is vanity and selfishness that ma — a woman a coquet. In such constructions, the genuine antecedent is it; but the relative clause is usually attracted into the nearer or identifying word or words, and agrees with them in grammatical properties. " It is the mental and moralforces which govern the world." - Everett. 4. and 5. Homer, as well as Virgil, were translated and studied on the banks of the Rhine. - Gibbon. All the speakers, but especially the last one, was very eloquent. He, not less than you, deserve punishment. H-e, and not I, am responsible. I, and not he, is responsible. The father, and the son too, were in the battle. " Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." - Shakespeare. The sons, and also the father, was in the battle. Not his wealth, but his talents, deserves praise. It is his wealth, and not his talents, that give him position. It is his talents, and not his wealth, that gives him position. There is sometimes more than one auxiliary to the verb. - Angus. The comparison itself excludes one term from the other. Special Rules. 1. The pronoun them should not be used for the adjective those. Theni boys are very lazy. Give me them books. What do you ask for them peaches? Take away them things. Let some of them boys sit on some of them other benches. Them are good mackerel. Them are my sentiments. 2. Adverbs should be used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; and adjectives, to qualify nouns or pronouns. She sews good and neat. Speak slow and distinct. The work is near done. I an only tolerable well. I never studied no grammar, but I can talk just as good as them that talk grammatical. I am exceeding busy. I was scarce sensible of the motion. You behaved very bad. I came there previous. He acted conformable to orders. We ought to value our privileges higher. I can write easiest this way. FALSE SYNTAX. 299 Apples are more plenty than peaches - Webster. We landed safely after all our misfortunes. Things look much more favorably this morning. How beautifully this whole section of country appears [Dryden. It rarely happens that a verse of monosyllables sounds harmoniously. I can not say a word too highly in praise of his services. - Grant. Now the moonlight began to prevail over the twilight, and Emma felt very poetically. -A Novel. 3. The comparative degree is used when but two objects are compared; and the superlative, when three or more are compared. The eldest of her two sons is going to school. The latter of three. John is the oldest, but James is the largest, of the two boys. Which is the largest number, - the minuend or the subtrahend? Which do you like best, - tea or coffee? The last of two. Which is farthest north, - Chicago or London? Choose the least of two evils. This hurt him worst of any thing else. China has the greatest population of any other country on earth. 4. The leading term of a comparison should not be compared with itself, nor included in that to which it does not belong. When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of comparison should always exclude the former; and when the superlative degree is used, the latter term of comparison should always include the former. But the term construed after the superlative degree should always express plurality; for if it does not, the leading term is also compared with itself. Other, or a similar word, makes two distinct parts, hut comprises them in one general class. Youth is the most important period of any in life. These people seemed to us the most ignorant of any we had seen. Lake Superior is the largest of any lake in the world. That boy is the brightest of all his classmates. That is a better-furnished room than any in the house. That is the best-furnished room of any in the house. China has the greatest population of any nation [country] on the globe. This was the thing which of all others I wished most to see. - Southey. lomer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. - Pope., 800 ENGLISH GRAMIMAR. 5. Avoid all improper modes of expressing comparison or the plural number. I think the rose is the beautifullest of flowers. ~ 345. He is the awkwardest fellow I ever saw, He lives in the fartherest house on the street. The vallies of California are among the most beautiful in the world. We need two astronomys. All the Lee's were officers. They seem to have been only the tyro's, or younger scholars. - Swift. The vermins were so numerous that we could raise no fowl. We saw three deers in the wheat-field. Those are good mackerel. His brother-in-laws were educated at the same school. ~ 255. 6. Words should not be compared, or made plural, when the sense does not allow or require it. It is the most universal opinion. This is more preferable than that. Virtue confers supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. A more perpendicular line. (A line more nearly) It is not so universally known as you think. Say, - "not so generally," etc.; for so expresses degree, and therefore implies comparison. ~ 337. I hope the people are more uncorrupt than their leaders. Say, - "less corrupt than their leaders." The farm is a long ways from market. Make a memoranda of it. By the same analogy, somewhcres, nowheres, etc., are frequently used improperly for somewhere, nowhere, etc. Few persons are contented with their lots. It was for our sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. His father's and mother's names were written on the blank leaf. Better: " Ilis father's name and his mother's were written," etc. - See p. 316. Both he and I were neither of us any great talkers. 7. A should be used before consonant sounds; and an, before vowel sounds. ~~ 313, 314. We encamped in a open field. Such an one said so. It is an useful exercise. He is a honest man. Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes. There was not an human being on the place. A heroic deed it was. It is an universal complaint. An ubiquitous quack. Poe, An united people, — Jefferson. An hun. dred times. - Swift. FALSE SYNTAX 301 8. A or an denotes an indefinite one of several; the denotes the only one, the class, or a particular one of several. He does not own as much as the fifth part of what you own. No particular fifth part was meant; and there are more fifths than one in a whole. An oak is a tree of great durability. That noble animal, a horse. The assertion may not be true of any one tree; but it is true of the class in general, A lion is bold. A pink is a very common species of flower. When a whole is put for the part, or the part for a whole, the figure is called synecdoche. 9. The object of the active verb, and not that of the preposition, should be made the subject of the passive verb. We were shown a sweet potato that weighed fifteen pounds. You were paid a high compliment by the young lady. Mr. Burke was offered a very lucrative employment. - GoodclicJA Washington was given the command of a division. - Irving. He was presented a beautiful sword by his neighbors. 10. The possessive case of a noun should always be written with an apostrophe; the possessive case of a personal pronoun should never be written with an apostrophe. A possessive noun, in apposition with another, is sometimes written without any pos. sossive sign. ~ 291. This is the boys hat. Six months interest is due. ~~ 275, 276. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans advantage. Mens and boys hats. No ones ability ever went farther for others good. ~ 304. The two electric fluids neutralized each others' effects. -Harper's These are our's. That is your's or their's, not her's. [MAagazine. Do not say yourn, hern, hissen, ourn, or theirn, for yours, hers, his, ours, or theirs. This mans place is taken. These mens places are taken. That officers servant is here. Those officers servants are here. This sheeps wool is fine. These sheeps wool is fine. 11. A compound word or a complex term takes the possessive sign but once; generally at the end, or next to the name of what is owned. 802 ENGLISH GRAMIMAR. I will meet you at Mason's, the apothecary's. We usel to read about Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mohammed's. These works are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's. 12. A pair or series of nouns, implying common possession, take the possessive sign at the end, and but once. Bond's and Allen's store is the next one above us. Allen's, Thomson's, and Hardcastle's store is opposite to ours. Peter's and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. Beaumont's and Fletcher's Plays were the joint production of two men. Bond and Allen's store is one store, belonging to both men. Bond's and Allen's store are two stores, one belonging to each man. That one ownership allows but one possessive sign, that each distinct ownership requires a distinct possessive sign, and that the possessive sign should be placed as near as possible to the name of what is owned, are fundamental ideas that govern the syntax of the possessive case. 13. A pair or series of nouns, not implying common possession, or emphatically distinguished, take each the possessive sign. John and William's boots fit them well. Is it John or William's book? Allen, Thomson, and Hardcastle's store, are the next three above us. As well, or better, thus " Allen's store, Thomson's, and Hardcastle's, are the next," etc. They took the surgeon as well the physician's advice. 14. To avoid harshness or inelegance, possession is sometimes better expressed by of; and sometimes even the possessive s may be omitted. Essex's death haunted the conscience of Queen Elizabeth. Leonidas's soldiers were as brave as himself. England and France's armies fought side by side in the Crime'a. Such were Daniel Boone of Kentucky's adventures. He thinks his own opinions better than any one else's opinionsany one's else opinions. - than those of any one else. In the colloquial style, the first expression is probably allowable. "Like nobody else's children." - Jerrold: lrs. Caudle. They cast themselves down at Jesus's feet. Archimedes's screw is an hydraulic machine FALSE SYNTAX. 303 15. Pronouns should be so used that it may not be doubtful for what they stand. Pronouns are very indefinite words, and are therefore often liable to ambiguity. Ambiguity in the use of pronouns is generally best avoided by substituting nouns for them. Since pronouns are substitutes for nouns, it is hardly proper to make a pronoun represent an adjective or a predicate when a better expression can be found. When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called asyndedon. Say, - "the friure is called," etc. (" When I see many its on a page, I always tremble for the writer." - Cobbett.) When a man kills another from malice, it is called murder. Religion will afford us pleasure when others leave us. The lord can not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his death; nor can he remove his present tenant so long as he lives. Blackstone. He wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aristotle] in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of him to undertake his education, and to bestow upon him those useful lessons which his numerous avocations would not allow him to bestow. Goldsmith's Greece. Philip wrote.... Alexander's education...his own numerous, etc. John told James that his horse had run away. (Change the sentence.) They flew to arms, and attacked Northumberland's horse, whom they put to death. - Hume. The law is inoperative, which is not right. Say, -" and that it is so, is not right." The servant took away the horse, which was unnecessary. The prisoners rebelled against the regulations of the establishment, of which we shall presently give an account. Mr. Dana asked Mr. Gore's leave to say a few words, which he did; after which he retired from the Convention. Elliot's Debates. 16. Who is applied to persons, which to all other objects, and that to either. For more definite directions, see pp. 76, 77, and 78. Those which are rich, should assist the poor and helpless. Eve gave of the fruit to the other creatures in Eden, who all ate of 804 ENGLISH GRAMM3 AR. it, and so became mortal, with the sole exception of the phcenix who refised to taste it, and consequently remained immortal, The horse and rider which we saw, fell in the battle. Of all the congregations whom I ever saw, this was the largest. The entire colection of persons is evileutly regarded as one thing ~ 191. This was certainly the largest congregation which I ever saw. All the people which were present, joined in the prayer. There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. - Bible, A butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished traveler, etc. Pitt was the pillar who upheld the state. I am the same as I was. I gave all what I had. [Alamo. It is the best which can be got. The heroic souls which defended the This lubberly boy we called Falstaff, who was but another name for fat and fun. (A mere name is a thf/in.) The most tremendous civil war which history records. - Newspaper. Who ever became great, who was not ambitious? Who of these boys has lost a knife? ~ 201. With the return of spring came four martins, who were evidently the same which had been bred under those eaves the previous year. 17. It is improper to mix different kinds of pronouns in the same construction. Know thyself, and do your duty. You have mine, and I have thine. Ere you remark another's fault, bid thy own conscience look within. The poor man who can read, and that has a taste for reading, can find entertainment at home. The man who came with us, and that was dressed in black, is the preacher. Such as yours, or which you bought. - or such as - But what we saw last, and which pleased us most, was the farce. Policy keeps coining truth in her mints, - such truth as it can tolerate; and every die except its own she breaks, and casts away. 18. It is generally improper to use different forms of the verb in the same construction. Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons well? Did you not borrow it, and promised to return it soon? If these remedies be applied, and the patient improves not, the case may be considered hopeless. FALSE SYNTAX. 805 To profess regard, and acting differently, discovers a base mind. Spelling is easier than to parse or cipher. To say he is relieved, is the same as saying he is dismissed. 19. What is forced upon the speaker, or what will simply happen to him, is better expressed by shall or should than by will or would. TVill or would generally represents the act or state as something desired or wished by the subject. - See also pp. 148 - 150. A foreigner, having fallen into the Thames, cried out, "I will be drowned; nobody shall help me." I was afraid I would lose my money. If I wished him to come, I would have to write to him. We will then find that this confiscation bill was impolitic; and we will have to suffer for our folly, in the protraction of this war. Crittenden. Death was threatened to the first man who would rebel. The overt act was meant; and therefore should, not would, is the proper word. Whoever will neglect his duties, will suffer the appointed punishment. 20. The past tense, and not the perfect participle, should be used to predicate, without an auxiliary, a past act or state. The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should be used after be, have, and their variations. I done so. They done the best they could. He run all the way. I never seen it. He has took my hat. I seen him when he done it. Mary has tore her book. I knew he had wrote it; for it was well writ. The tree had fell, and its branches were broke. The apples were shook off by the wind. Toasts were [drank? or drunk?] You have chose the worse.. - Irtling Ile had broke the ice, -Harper's Magazine. 21. Avoid needless passive forms, and generally the passive form of intransitive verbs. He is possessed of great talents. We are agreed on this. lMy friend is arrived. I-c was already come. T 306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. What is become of him? The tumult is entirely ceased. The greater part of the forces were retired into winter-quarters. 22. The indicative mood, in conditional clauses, expresses doubt in the regular time of the tense; the subjunctive mood expresses doubt or mere supposition, and makes the tense move forward in time. If you be now willing, I will accept the offer. Though he excel her in knowledge, she excels him in behavior. If I was you, I would accept the offer. If it rains to-morrow, we shall not go. - See pp. 131-133. If the book be in my library, I will send it. If the book is found in my library, I will send it. If the book was in my library, I would send it. If the book were in my library, some one must have taken it. Take care that the horse does not run away with you. Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the subjunctive mood after them. f, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, also requires the subjunctive mood, Beware lest he falls. Be it ordered that the law remains unchanged. If he comes but by 10 o'clock, he will be in time. 23. The verbs of a sentence should correspond in tense, and also be consistent with the other words. I have bought it, and now I have sold it. Pages 136- 140. 1 know the family more than twenty years. By the first of next month, I shall finish this book. I should be obliged to him, if he will grant my request. Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations, might have mouldered into oblivion, did not some historian take him into favor. - Irving. When the nation would have rushed again and again to war, his voice has sheathed the sword in lasting peace. "To-morrow will be Saturday" correct, "To-morrow is Saturday"; allowable.See below, and also ~ 426. 4. 24. Present facts and unchangeable truths.must be expressed in the present tense. Our teacher told us that the air had weight. FALSE SYNTAX. 307 He told me where the church was. (An existing church was meant.) Is not that dear? - I should think it was. VWhat did you say his name was? IWhat did you say was the capital of Florida? He seemed hardly to know that two and two made four. No one suspected that he was a foreigner. Plato maintained that God was the soul of the universe. 25. The perfect infinitive denotes something as past at the time referred to; and the present infinitive, as present or future. I intended to have written to him. It was your duty to have arrested him. I expected to have heard from him yesterday. I hoped to have met several of my friends there. He is supposed to be born about a thousand years ago. They were not able, as individuals, to have influenced the twentieth part of the population, - Jefferson. 26. Avoid the needless use of compound participles in stead of simple participles; and never use a compound participle as a part of a finite verb, unless it is absolutely necessary to use it. Such a poem is worth being committed to memory. (committing) Whatever is worth being done, is worth being done well. Dram-shops are now being closed on Sundays. (Omit being,) The report is being circulated everywhere. Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. - is selling - The books are being printed. ~ 488. The new church is being built. 27. Avoid the ambiguous or clumsy use of participles in place of infinitives, clauses, or ordinary nouns. A participial noun is seldom the most appropriate expression, when it does not follow a preposition. ~ 509. A participial noun is seldom the most appropriate expression, when it is much encumbered with modifiers. Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians coming to attack him. - Rollin. My being sick was the cause of my being absent. 308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. What is the reason of you not having gone to school to-day? (oingr to law is giving the matter in dispute to the lawyers.'Compromising conflicting opinions will ever be necessary in a republic..ie Fiiied reciting his lesson. No one likes being in debt. -{fi lalmeness was caused by a horse's running away with her. See iKrl's Comprehensive Grammar. pp 235 and 159. Such will ever be the consequences of youth associating with vicious companions. Since these objects are stripped of their importance, we wonder at their ever having been the cause of hatred and bloodshed. 4. IMPROPER ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. General Rule IV. - All the parts of a sentence should be so arranged as to make it correct, clear, and elegant. Any violent break or separation in the natural order of words is generally improper. except when it is needed for great rhetorical effect. Poetry allows great liberty in the arrangement of words- but any inversion that perverts or obscures the meaning, or that is more uncouth than poetical, should be avoided. She praised the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding. Change also the kind of expression, when it is necessary to do so. A sober and industrious life he had nothing of. - Brougham. Nature mixes the elements variously and curiously sometimes, it is true. Adversity both taught you to think and to reason. - Steele. Special care shoull ba taken to give correlatives their right place in the sentence. I shall neither depend on you nor on him, Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. Our pleasures rather seem to spring from things too low that lie. How pleasant it is at night no follies to have to repent. His visage to the view was only bare. - Dryden. Sire, fiom the foot Of that great throne these h ands have raised aloft On an Olympus, looking dovwn on mortals And worshiped by their awe - before the foot Of that high throne - spurn you the gray-haired man! Bulwocr. FALSE SYNTAX. 309 peocial Rules. 1. Nouns and pronouns should be so used as not to leave the case or relation ambiguous. The settler here the savage slew. (Which slew the other?) And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. - Pope. If the lad should leave his father, he would die. Substitute a noun for he, or change the order of the words. - See p. 303. The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had never before done so unjust an action. Relative clauses should generally be placed as near to their antecedents as possible. Ile slould never marry a woman in higrh life, that has no money. 2. Politeness usually requires that the speaker shall mention the addressed person first, and himself last. I, Mary, and you, are to go next Sunday. Mother said that I and you must stay at home, EXCEPTION. -- When a fault is to be confessed, or when responsibility is to be assumed, it is generally more appropriate for the speaker to mention himself first. 3. Adjectives, adverbs, and adjuncts, must generally be placed as near as possible to the parts which they are designed to modify. The bad position of adjectives and adjuncts is improved by bringing them nearer to what they qualify; and adverbs should generally be placed before the adjectives or adverbs which they modify, after verbs in thle simple form, and between the auxiliary and the rest of the verb in the compound form. Sometimes there is a gradation of adjectives before a noun. When this is the cese, the adjectives should be so arranged that each may properly qualify all the remaintder of the phrase which follows it; as, " An old man,"' A respJectable old mal," " Three respectable old men." I bought a new pair of shoes. There is a fresh basket of eggs. I only recited one lesson. (Only what?) lie is only so when lie is drunk. Sonme virtues are only seen in adI shall be happy always to see my friends. [versity. H-e is considered generally honest. He is just such another man. They became even grinders of knives and razors. They all went to the party, nearly dressed alike. Every man can not afiord to keep a coach, - Webster. I came not to call the righteous, but sinners, to repentance. All that glitters, is not gold. All that we hear, ve should not believe. Please to sing the three first stanzas. The two last classes have not recited. Bows of silk small green buttons. 310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. At that time I wished somebody would hang me a thousand times. A lecture on the methods of teaching geography at ten o'clock. Wanted - a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious turn of mind. [Eastern States. This victory seemed to be like a resurrection from the dead, to the There is a remakable union in his style of harmony and ease. - Blair. The solar system, space, and time. The most prudent and best men. Apparently, "solar space and time." Apparently, "most best.." 4. It is generally improper to place an adverb between to and the rest of the infinitive. They were not such as to fully answer my purpose. He had men enough to strongly garrison the fort. He knew not which to most admire. - Harper's Mlagazine. We were to cautiously and quickly advance to the hill above. 5. When a part of a sentence refers to each of two or more other parts, it should be suitable to each. Cedar is not so hard, but more durable, than oak. Cedar is not so hard as oak, but more durable. Complete the construction of the first part, and leave understood that of the second. She is fairer, but not so amiable, as her sister. [than the old. It is different and superior to the old. It is different and much better He can and ought to give more attention to his business. The reward has already or will hereafter be given to him. We have the power of retabing aeing, a ng, and compounding those images which we have received, into all the varieties of picture and vision. - Addison. Frequently, a sentence has two or more different errors. It is our duty to protect this government and that flag from every assailant, be they whom they may. - Douglas. Parents are of all other people the very worst judges of their children's merits; for what they reckon such, is seldom any thing else but a repetition of their own faults. - Addison. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions; how, then, can you tell the one from the other.- I. C. Smith. The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast side of Lilliput, from whence it is parted only by a channel of eight hun. dred yards wide. - Swlif. OBSERVATIONS 311 OBSERVATIONS. There are three great causes which will always produce errors in the use of language. These causes are logical sense, euphony or attraction, and similhrity. Logical Sense. - We are sometimes governed, in our use of language, by the general meaning of words rather than by their grammatical form. For instance, we frequently begin a sentence with a singular grammatical term that implies, however, plurality, or a class; and before we reach the end of the sentence, we forget or disregard the singular term with which we commenced, and select words according to the general or logical sense; as, " A person who is energetic and vigilant, is apt to succeed in their undertakings." Euphony or Attraction. - When two words approximate in meaning, yet one gives a better sound to the expression than the other, we sometimes select the more euphonious one even when it is less proper. It is probably from this cause that people are so apt to say them for those, and done for did. When two kindred expressions stand near each other, one is sometimes attracted into the form of the other, even when a difference is required; as, " He said it was forty miles from Baltimore to Washington," for, " He said it is forty miles from Baltimore to Washington." Increase the distance between the terms, and there is less attractive force; as, "He said that the distance fiom Baltimore to Washington is forty miles." "It was to him I to whom I was mostly indebted," for, " It was he I to whom I was mostly indebted." To whom being a forcible part of the unexpressed thought, it causes the utterance of to him in stead of he. Similarity. - When words, or forms of words, are nearly alike, as wore and worn, broke and broken, we are apt to mistake one for the other. It is, indeed, chiefly this slight variety in the forms of words which has made it necessary to have the science of grammar. It is worthy of observation that the foregoing causes of error have become to a slight degree in our language, and to a considerable degree in some foreign languages, established laws that justify the expressions which they produce. 1. Too Many Words. 2. Too Few Words. In general, the fewer the words we use to express our meaning, the better. Many of the most admired and durable expressions in our literature are those which tell much in very few words. No one likes to read through a large volume to get what might have been told as well in a pamphlet. Tautology is one of the worst faults of bad writing. It consists in telling the same thing, or nearly the same thing, again and again, in other ways; as, "The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, and heavily in clouds 312 ENGLISI GRAMIMAR. brings on the day." - Addison. It is generally much easier to find other ways of telling the same thing, than to add new thoughts; and hence it very often happens that persons, in order to fill up the time or paper, add new woids or expressions without adding new thoughts: they string together synonymous words and phrases just as if they meant to repeat what they have learned in some dictionary. We get tired of seeing a person always in the same dress, and, as with dress, so is it with thought and language. But while such use or repetition of words as indicates poverty of thought or language is disagreeable, it should be remembered that there can be emphatic or musical repetition or fullness that is sometimes one of the greatest beauties of style; as, - "Must I then leave you? lust I needs forego So good, so noble, and so true a master? The king shall have my service; but my prayers Forever and forever shall be yours." - Shakespeare.' By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed; Ijy foreign hunds thy decent limbs composed; Byforeign hands thy humble grave adorned; By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned." - Pope. The words most commonly repeated for emphasis are articles, conjune tions, prepositions, pronouns, and small adjectives or adverbs. A long;cries of terms is sometimes elegantly gathered into groups, and thus a compromise is made between ellipsis throughout and fullness throughout; as, * I could demonstrate to you that the whole of your political conduct has been one continued series of weakness, temerity, aud despotism; of blundering ignorance and wanton negligence; and of the most notorious servility, incapacity, and corruption." — Chatham. lWhenever words merely encumber the sentence, or do not improve its clearness and force, they should be omitted; but great care should, be talen, in the omission of words, to avoid obscurity, ambiguity, and bad syntax, for these are the chief faults of excessive ellipsis. Hence, when the omission of words would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with impropriety, they should be inserted. Much of what is now considered erroneous English is simply old. Erg. lish that was once in fashion and in good repute. Our old writers sometimes used, in imitation of the classic languages, double comparatives or superlatives and double negatives, for the sake of greater effect. Two negatives are still sometimes used so, when one does not destroy the effect of the other; as, " I not only never said so, but never thought so." Sometimes two negatives are clegantly used to express an affirmation, especially when one of the negatives is a prefix; as, " iHe is not unschooled in the ways of the world";, e., he is shrewd enough. It OBSERVATIONS. 818 is sometimes very difficult to determine whether or or nor should be used. When a preceding negative adjective or adverb plainly modifies both connected parts, or may be preferable; but when the latter part is but faintly affected by the preceding negative, or when the parts are long, nor may be preferable. A is sometimes elegantly omitted before few and little, to give a negative meaning; and inserted, to give a positive meaning; as, "He has few fiiends "; i.e., almost none. " He has afew friends "; i. e., some at least. The phrase kind of a or sort of a is generally improper; though it may sometimes be allowable because needed; as, " What kind of paper [the ma. teriall have you " differs fiom " What kind of a paper [documentl have you?" When connected words require different forms of the indefinite article, it is seldom necessary to repeat the article for this cause alone. Absolute comparisons, without the needed other or else, occur so frequently in good writers that they are perhaps sometimes allowable by the figure synecdoche or hyperbole. Objective relative pronouns can be sometimes omitted; but nominative relatives can seldom be omitted with propriety, except in verse. It is not necessary to repeat the subject before the second of two connected verbs that differ in mood and tense, or imply contrast, unless the parts are unusually long, or the contrast is marked and emphatic. "Many of them were of good families, and had held commissions in the civil war. Their pay was far higher than that of the most favored regiment of our time, and would in that age have been thought a respectable provision for the son of a country gentleman." - Mlacaulay. "So large a sum was expended, but expended in vain." - Id. The omission of the nominatives in hasty business letters, is generally inelegant; for it implies an affectation, on the part of the writer, of being exceedingly busy. There are some expressions in which to, the sign of the infinitive, should be used after bid,c dare, feel, make, see, etc.; as, " My horse bids fair [promises] to take the premium." "I dared [challenged] him to bet." "I feel it to be my duty." " How could you make out to get along i " "I can not see to write this letter." - See ~ 482. Choice of Words. In writers of the last century we frequently find an used before sounded h and before u long. An is still preferred before sounded h when the chief accent is on the second syllable of the word, for then the h is but faintly heard. But when the h is forcibly aspirated, a is sometimes preferred. In this country we usually say a hotel; but the English generally prefer an hotel. " A hotel." - Noah Webster; " An hotel." Russell, Kinglake, etc. It is sometimes very difficult to decide whether the adverbial or the ad14 814 ENGLISH GRAMIMAR. jective form of a word should he used. The adjective expresses the quality of the subject, and the adverb the manner of the act; as, " She looks cold" [is cold]; 6' She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him." (See p. 175.) Sometimes language needs two adverbs from the same word; and then one usually takes the regular adverbial form, and the other retains the adjective form; as, " The lesson is hard; and I can hardly learn it, though I have been studying hard." We say, " He came there previously," or we choose the adverbial form when the word stands by itself; but when to is added, some writers say previously to and some previous to. The analogy of contrary to and according to seems to be converting this phrase into a preposition of the same class with themselves. The analogy seems to be also affecting, though in a less degree, the words agreeable and conformable. "I feel [bad? or badly?] about the matter." Analogy is in favor of bad; but custom is in favor of badlq (See Kerl's Comp. Gram., p. 248.) In discussing a subject by nuimnrical divisions, whether we should say first, sccondly, thirdly, or first, second, third, etc., depends chiefly on whether we refer to the verb or to the divisions. " Page twentq-fiih " is correct, and "page twenty-fice" is also correct; for ttwentq-five is here used as a noun, which represents page by the figure synecdoche, and is therefore put in apposition with page. What is taught about relative pronouns in grammars, rests perhaps on a sandy foundation; for there are good English writers who simply apply who to persons and which to ail other objects, and who use that and as simply for euphony, or when who or which would be less appropriate. When an antecedent is a figurative word, great care should be taken to select the pronoun in accordance with the meaning of that part of the sentence in which the pronoun stands; as, She was a conspicuous flower, whom he had sensibility to love, ambition to attempt, and skill to win." - lVordsworth. "~ Northumberland, thou ladder, by which my cousin Bolingbroke ascends my throne." - Shakespeare. " A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death." -- Thomson. We shall arrange our remaining remarks under this head, according to the grammatical properties as given on page 2. Gender. - To a class of persons, comprising both sexes, the masculine noun is applied, rather than the feminine. "The poets of America" may include the poetesses. When I say, " She is the best poetess," I compare her with female poets only; but when I say, " She is the best poet," I compare her with both male and female poets. It is proper to say, " An authoress sat next to me at the table "; because it nmay be a part of the speaker's wish to specify the sex, and there is no other word in the sentence to express it. But it would be hardly improper to say, " She is the author of the book"; because the sex is not important to the assertion, or it is OBSERVATIONS. 315 sufficiently specified by the pronoun she. So, "She is my accuser," is a proper expression; for the word accuseress is uncommon, and is not needed to show the sex. Our language is defective in not having, in the third person, a singular pronoun for the common gender. This often leads to an improper use of they, their, etc. In such cases the masculine pronoun is preferred when the antecedent is a noun of the common gender, and denotes a person; and both the masculine and the feminine pronoun are used when the antecedent comprises both a masculine and a feminine noun. To small children and to inferior animals the pronoun it is sometimes applied. Person and Number. - In regard to number, writers occasionally allow themselves to be governed by the logical sense, or by euphony or attraction. " In Hawick twinkled many a light, Behind him soon they set in night." - Scott. They, in this sentence, is allowable; because the clauses are not so closely connected that the pronoun it would preserve the full sense. "Neither history nor tradition furnish such information." - Robertson. "A silk dress or a flowered bonnet were then great rarities." - Flint. "Where Leonidas, with his chosen band, were cut off." - Kames. These plurals, though in accordance with the syntax of the Classic languages, are not allowable in modern English. "A coach and six is in our time never seen except as a part of some pageant." - Macaulay. " Two thousand a year was a large revenue for a barrister." Id. "Early to bed, and early to rise, Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." - Franklin. These singular verbs are probably allowable, because all that the subject denotes is taken as but one thing. - See p. 144. Milton, in imitation of Greek and Latin syntax, frequently uses a singular verb after two nominatives joined by and, where, in modern English, a plural verb is required. An abstract number may have a singular verb, where a concrete number would require a plural verb; as, "Five from seven I leaves two"; "Five apples [taken] fiom seven apples I leave two apples." Most nominatives that consist of numbers may be classed with collective nouns; and they are about as indefinite in syntax. In addition, the verb must of course be plural; in subtraction, division, or proportion, it may be sinudlar or plural, according as the number is abstract or concrete. In f'actions and compound numbers that must be read plurally, the verb should, we think, be generally plural; though the principle that a plural term sometimes denotes a single object, or that two or more singular nominatives connected by and denote but one person or thing, may occasionally justify the use of the singular verb. In multiplication, the prevailing custom is, to make the verb plural when the word times is used. - See p. 224. 316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When a plural substantive precedes, some writers use asfollow; but most writers prefer as follows, whether the preceding substantive is singular or plural. "What's justice to a man, or laws, That never comes within their claws." - Hadibras. Justice is nearer to is, and laws to their; hence the difference, and both are proper by attraction. Such expressions as one or more persons are also now considered allowable on the same principle, We say, " The Old and New Testamccnts," in stead of " The Old Testament and the New Testament"; and on the same principle, "Bancroft's and Palfrey's Histories" (Atlantic Monthly), "Glover's, Mason's, and Patterson's rcgimlents" (Irving), seem to have been used. But English grammars teach that we should say, "Bancroft's and Palfiey's History." Such expressions as " A ten-foot pole," "A twenty-cent piece," "A fivedollar note," etc., are proper; but a hyphen should always be used to connect the parts. The noun, in such expressions, being used as an adjective, loses the properties of a noun. If these singulars should be plural, then it would not seem unreasonable to require he to be him or them in the following example: "They brought lie-goats." Case. - In regard to the possessive case and kindred forms, there are some ambiguities, or shades of meaning, that are worthy of notice. The phrase " God's love," for instance, can be so used as to signify either his love toward us or our love to him; and " The doctor's treatment" is rather active, while " The treatment of the doctor " is rather passive. It is remarkable that a possessive appositive noun does not always require the possessive form, while such a pronoun must always have it. "Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, A M11aker wise and good." - Brown's Grammar. The foregoing sentence is correct; but, misled by this grammar or principle, Mrs. Sigourney wrote improperly, - "His curse be on him. He, who knoweth [,- his] Where the lightnings hide." - Mrs. Sigotlney. By the figure enallage, the objective case is allowed in a few poetic or idiomatic expressions; as, - "Fare thee well, thou first and fairest! Fare thee well, thou best and dearest!" - Burns. " Fare thou well" would be so grammatical as to spoil the poetry. Voice. - The scarcity of verbal forms in our language has always caused some perplexity in regard to the mode of expressing verbs in the progressive passive sense. There was at one time a strong tendency to adopt the preposition a and the present participle; as, "Jack always liked to be' present when money was a paying or receiving." -Swift. In the writings of Swift are many specimens of this construction; but the present and established practice seems to be what we have taught on pp. 141 and 307. OBSERVATIONS. 317 Mood. -Formerly, the subjunctive mood was extended over all the tenses of the indicative mood and the potential; or it was used when simply doubt was implied, as well as when both doubt and futurity affected the tense. The blundering and contradictory teachings of grammarians in regard to this mood have caused the public to discard it almost altogether. But there is for this mood a proper and well-established province, which we have endeavored to show on pp. 132, 133, 304; and if the mood should ever be expelled from this field of expression, our language will be the poorer for the change. Tense. - See pp. from 136 to 160; also pp. 306 and 307. We sometimes find an obsolescent subjunctive form in good modern writers; as, " If he have given,' etc. - Wayland. Such forms are justifiable simply as being remnants or imitations of old style. We sometimes meet with a person who prefers some old-fashioned article of dress. Comparison.- A word that is not a pure superlative, can sometimes be used in speaking of two objects only; as, " A trochee has the first syllable accented." And perhaps the superlative degree can be occasionally applied to one of two when we do not refer to inferior objects, but chiefly aim to impress the idea that the object is not exceeded. Since there are adjectives that have a fixed or absolute meaning, we are sometimes at a loss for words that express approximations to this fixed or high state of quality. In such cases it seems best to apply the words to the partial meaning, and then compare them. "Aristides was the most just of the Athenians," is better than "Aristides was the least unjust of the Athenians "; for the latter implies that the Athenians were all knaves, and he was simply not the worst one. Such expressions as "the most nearly just" have sometimes a stiff and pedantic air. Position of Words. A modifier naturally refers its meaning to the nearest word that is suitable to receive it; and since modifiers are numerous and various, and can refer to many different words, to give the best position to the words, phrases, and clauses, which are modifiers, becomes one of the chief concerns of every writer. Ambiguity, obscurity, and sometimes absurdity, harshness, or feebleness, are the chief faults of had arrangement of words. When a numeral and a cardinal adjective precede a noun, the numeral adjective is generally placed before the other; as, " The first two men," not " The two first menr"; for there can not be two firsts. When adjectives or other modifiers precede their noun, the more accidental or comprehensive must generally be placed before those which are less so; as, " Mechanics' Bank," "National Mechanics' Bank," or "Mechanics' National Bank." The adjectives all, such, many, what, both, and adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how, usually precede the article when used with it. PART VI. ORlSNAEVINENT AND FINISEI. FIGURES. 667. A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, construction, or application of words, for the sake of brevity, force, or beauty.* 6680 Figures may be divided into three classes: — 1. Figures of Orthography, which are deviations from the ordinary spelling or pronunciation of words. 2. Figures of Syntax, which are deviations from the ordinary construction of words. 3. Figures of Rhetoric, which are deviations from the ordinary meaning or application of words. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 669. The principal figures of orthography are, - 1. Aphor'esis, the shortening of a word by taking a letter or syllable from the beginning; as,'gainst for against. Ex, - There's a bliss beyond all that the minstrel hath told, A shortened word is thus sometimes made a part of an adjoining word. 2. Syntcope, the shortening of a word by taking a * The end to be reached is frequently gained indirectly rather than directly. Thus. in verse an inferior expression is sometimes allowed for the purpose of gaining the greater beauty of rhythm or rhyme. FIGURES. 819 letter or syllable from the middle; as, red'ning for reddening. Ex. - O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 3. Apoe'opo, the shortening of a word by taking a letter or syllable fiom the end; as, th' for the; Ben for Benjamin. Ex. - The morn is up again, the dewy morn. 4. Pros'thesis, the lengthening of a word by prefixing a syllable. Ex. - Far adown the long aisle sacred music is streaming. 5. Parago'go, the lengthening of a word by annexing a syllable; as, Johnny for John. Ex. - Oft, in the stilly night, ere slumber's chain has bound me. Elision is the omission of letters; ellipsis, the omission of words. When a word is lengthened by pronouncing suppressed final ed, the figure may be called Dicer'esis; and when a syllable is blended with another in pronunciation, the figure may be called Syncer'esis. 6. Tme'sis, the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound; as, "0on which side soever" for "on whichsoever side." Ex. - The century-living crow that caws the live day long. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 670. The principal figures of syntax are, - 1. Ellipsis, the omission of words; usually, the omission of such words as must be supplied in parsing. In analyzing and parsing, only such words should be supplied as are necessary to complete the construction. - See page 214. Under the head of ellipsis can probably be included the following figures; though in parsing examples under them, it will generally be sufficient simply to mention the figure, without supplying words. Aposiope'sis, the leaving of something unsaid. Ex. -i Whom I- but first't is best the billows to restrain. Say, in parsing, that wzhom is in the objective case i but, by the figure aposiopesis, it has no governing word expressed 820 ENGLISH GCIAMMAR. Zeug'ma; the referring of a word to two different ones, when in strict syntax it can agree with only one of them. "In him who is, or him who finds, a friend." - Pope. Page 146, ~ 5. " All of them knowing, and known by, our coachman." Dickens. " One or more scape-goats." - Irving. Supply scape-goat in parsing. Say, in parsing, that friend is used, by the figure zeugma, as a predicatc-nominative after is, and also as the object of finds. (It seems necessary to extend somewhat the ordinary meaning of zeugma, and we have done so accordingly.) 2. Ple'onasm, the use of more words than the sense or the syntax absolutely requires. "One of the few, the immortal names, that were not born to die." Either the same word is repeated, or an equivalent expression is used. 3. Enal'lage; the use of one part of speech, or of one form of a word, for another.' Thinks I to myself, I'11 stop." - J. Taylor. So, "Methinks." " The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall." - Dimond. " And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal." - Byron. Generally speaking, this figure should not be used when it can be avoided. 4. Inversion, or Hyper'baton; inverted syntax, or the transposition of words, as in verse. 671, An Ar'chaism is a word or expression imitative of ancient style or usage. " On which thilk wight that has y -gazing been, Kens the forthcoming rod - unpleasing sight, I ween." - Shenstone. 672. Mimicry is the imitation of another person's improper use of language. Ex. - Mrs. Gilpin. So you must ride on horseback after we. Say, in parsing, that the nominative we is used, by mimicry, for the objective us. Justice Shallolw. Let us examination these men. To this figure should be referred all imitations of brogues and dialects. The last two figures belong to both figures of orthography and figures of syntax. FIGURES. 821 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 673, The following are the most important rhetorical figures: - 1. Sim'ile, 7. Antith'esis, 13. Eu'phemism, 2. Met'aphor, 8. Irony, 14. Interrogation, 3. AlIlegory, 9. Paralip'sis, 15. Exclamation, 4. Meton'ymy, 10. Hyper'bole, 16. Apos'trophe, 5. Synec'doche, 11. Climax, 17. Vision, 6. Personification, 12. Allusion, 18. Onomatopoe'ia. 674. A Sim'ile is an express comparison. Ex. - "The music of Carryl was, like the memory of joys that are past, sweet and mournful to the soul." - Ossian. A simile is a comparison usually expressed by means of like oras. The teacher should read to the class, while he hears the lesson, what is said about each of these figures in Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar. 675. A Metaphor is an implied comparison. Ex. Life is an isthmus between two eternities. A metaphor is a word suitable to one object, applied to another object, on account of some resemblance. Sometimes a metaphor comprises two or more words; as, " Sin is a bitter sweet, and ihe fine colors of the serpent by no means make amends for the poison of his sting." - SOTH..But when the comparison extends beyond a sentence, the figure becomes an allegory. 676. An Allegory is a fictitious story about one thing, generally designed to teach some moral or practical wisdom about another.'It is continued metaphor. See Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. The teacher should refer to an allegory in the reading-book. To allegory belong parables and fables. 677. A Metonymy is the name of one object applied to a different one, from some other relation than resemblance. Ex. -" They have Moses and the prophets"; i. e., their writings. " We drank but one bottle "; i. e., the contents of but one bottle. The most common instances of this figure are those in which the cause is put for the effect, the effect for the cause, the container for the thing contained, or the sign for the thing signified. 14* Uu 322 ENGLISH GlRA'MIAR. The transfer of an attribute to a related object may also be called metonymy; as, "my adventurous song; " "his weary way;" "jovial wine." 678. A Synecdoche is the name of a part applied to the whole; or that of the whole applied to a part. As when we say tea, for supper; or gold, for money. Synecdoche is simply the application of a word to more or less, of the same thing, than the word strictly denotes. 679. Personification represents as persons, or as rational or living beings, objects that are not such in reality. Ex. -" There Ionor comes a pilgrim gray." - Collins. When the grammatical properties of a word are changed by personification or metonymy, the figure is sometimes called Syllepsis; as,''The ship, with her snowy sails." "Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them." 680, Antithesis is the contrasting of different objects, actions, qualities, or circumstances. Ex. - Virtue ennobles, and vice debases. "They heard the clarion's iron clang, The breeze which through the roses sang." — Croly. 681. Irony is the sneering use of words with a contrary meaning. To call a fool a Solomon, or to praise what we mean to disparage, is irony. The expression becomes more sarcastic when the speaker seems to adopt the real thoughts or feelings of the person attacked, 682, Paralipsis is the pretended omission or concealment of what is thus really suggested and enforced. Ex. - " I will not call him villain, for it would be unparliamentary."- Grattan. " Let me not think - Frailty thy name is woman." - Shakespeare. 683. Hyperbole is exaggeration. It usually represents things as greater or less, better or worse, than they really are. Ex. -"Here Orpheus sings; trees, moving to the sound, Start from their roots, and form a shade around." -Pope. FIGURES. 823 684. Climax means ladder. It is a gradual climbing, or rise of thought, from things inferior to greater or better. When reversed, it is called anticlimax. Ex. -" A Scotch mist becomes a shower; and a shower, a flood; and a flood, a storm; and a storm, a tempest; and a tempest, thunder and lightning; and thunder and lightning, heaven-quake and earthquake."- Wilson. Anticlimax: "Great men, - such as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Aaron Burr, Stephen Arnold, and the worthy friend of my opponent." 685. Allusion is the use of an expression that recalls incidentally some interesting fact, custom, writing, or saying. Ex. -" Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, Close at my elbow stir their lemonade." - Holmes. Parody is a continued allusion or resemblance in style. "'T is the last rose of summer left blooming alone; All her lovely companions are faded and gone." TPARODY: "'Tis the last golden dollar left shining alone; All its brilliant companions are squandered and gone." A Pun is a play on the sound or meanings of a word. Ex -" The sutlers," says a newspaper, " are about to be organized into a military company. We rejoice to hear it; for we think if they were thor. oughly organized in one body, no enemy could withstand their charges " 686. Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest language. Cushi did not say to David, Absalom is killed"; but, " May all the enemies of the king be as that dyoung man is." 687. Interrogation is a mode of strengthening a statement by an appeal in the form of question. Ex. - Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? 688. Exclamation is usually an abrupt or broken mode of speech, designed to express more strongly the emotions of the speaker. Ex. - How glorious, how majestic, yonder setting sun! 824 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 689. Apostrophe is a sudden turning-away, in the fullness of emotions to address some person or thing. Ex. -" Death is swallowed up in victory. I O Death! where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory? " - Bible. 690. Vision represents something that is past, future, absent, or simply imagined, as if it were really present. Ex. -" Soldiers! from yonder pyramids, forty centuries look down upon you I" - Bonaparte. 691. Onomatopoeia is such an imitation in the sound of the words as may correspond with the sense, or suggest it. "The sound should seem an echo to the sense." - Pope. Ex.- "Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild buffalo, wild horse, wild huntsman, with clang and clatter, and whoop and halloo, that made the forests ring." - Irving. To this figure may also be referred such new-coined expressions as bamboozle, skedaddle, and circumbendibus. Sometimes two or more figures are involved in the same expression; as, " Here the sword and sceptre rust; - Earth to earth, and dust to dust "; netonymy and metaphor. In the use of rhetorical figures, there are four very common species of error that should be carefully avoided. 1. Figures should be well-founded or becoming, and more suitable than plain langu.ae. " The liberties of rising states were shackled by paper chains." - Bancroft. The phrase paper chains suggests nothing formidable. 2. Figures should not be too numerous, nor carried too far. 3. Figures should not be improperly mixed, or incongruous figures should not be made parts of the same picture. " I bridle in my struggling muse in vain, That longs to launch into a bolder strain." - Addison. That is, his muse is a monster, partly horse and partly ship. 4. Literal and figurative language should not be mixed. [Jefferson. "The colonies were not yet ripe I to bid adieu to British connection." - CT Many of the meanings of words are but faded figures. VERSIFICATION. 325 VERSIFICATION. 692. Versification is the art of making verse. 693. verse is the musical arrangement of words, according to some regular accent. Also pauses and rhymes are generally used as elements of verse. Verse is to prose as dancing is to walking; and the accent in verse corresponds to the beat in music. The word verse is sometimes applied to a single line of poetry, sometimes to a stanza, and sometimes to lines of poetry collectively considered. The accent which runs through verse, affords pleasure to the mind by the regular pulsations; this pleasure is increased by final and cxsural pauses, which divide the verse into lines and shorter divisions by agreeable suspensions; these parts or lines are frequently made further agreeable by terminations similar in sound, which are called rhymes; and the pleasure of rhyming lines is enhanced by combining them into harmonious groups called stanzas. The language itself is colored, vivid, and striking, by being *the language of passion or imagination as well as of good common sense. Such is, in a nutshell, the verse-making art. To show the various elements of beauty to the best advantage, verse is usually arranged in lines, as in the following specimen: - " Kn6w ye the Iand I where the cypress and myrtle I Are emblems of deeds I that are d6ne in their clime; I Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime? Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine " 694. Versification is comprised under the following heads: - 1. Poetic Accent and Feet. 2. Poetic Pauses and Lines. 3. Rhymes and Stanzas. 4. Poetic Licenses. 1. POETIC ACCENT AND FEET. 095. Poetic Accent is the accent which divides lines of poetry into small parts, called poetic feet. 826 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Poetic accent passes through lines in four different ways, or rests on syllables as shown by the following numbers:Iambic. 2 4 6 8 10 12 Trochaic. 1 3 5 7 9 11 Anapestic. 3 6 9 12 15 18 Dactylic. 1 4 7 10 13 16 Iambic: " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." Trochaic " Rodnd us r6ars the tempest lodder." Anapestic: "At the close of the diy, when the hamlet is still." Dactylic: " Bachelor's hall, - what a queer-looking place it is! " 696. A Poetic Foot is a part of a line that consists generally of two or three syllables, one of which is accented. 697. There are four principal feet: — 1. The Iambus; a foot of two syllables, accented on the second; as, enrdll. 2. The Trochee; a foot of two syllables, accented on the first; as, gdlden. 3. The Anapest; a foot of three syllables, accented on the last; as, entertdin. 4. The Dactyl; a foot of three syllables, accented on the first; as, durable. 698. There are three secondary feet:1. The Spondee, a foot of two long or accented syllables. 2. The Pyrrhic, a foot of two short or unaccented syllables. 3. The C su'ra, a long or accented syllable used as one foot. Ex. - " Near the lake where drooped the willow Long time ago." Spondee. "Of thb 1 loe simset clouds, lnd the I blue sky." Pyrrhic and Spondee. Sometimes the accent, in iambic verse, to avoid resting on a short syllable, passes to the first syllable (if long) of the next foot, making this foot a spondee, and the preceding one a pyrrhic. Spondees and pyrrhics are not always produced in this way; but they are generally best when made on this compensation principle. VERSIFICATION. 327'"Thou wast that all to md, love, (Ceesura.) For which my sdul did pine." -Poe. " G6ld! g old g6ld! g6ld! 4 feet time equ Heavy t6 gdt and light t hold." - Hood. 4 feet ) 699. The secondary feet are sometimes allowed to break the regular measure, in order to avoid a tedious sameness in the rhythm, or to secure onomatopoeia. 700. The iambus and the anapest are kindred feet; and hence they are sometimes used promiscuously. Ex. — " I come! I cdme ye have called me long; I c6me o'er the modntains with light and song."- Iemarns. A pleasant rhythm is sometimes produced by throwing an anapest, or even two, into each iambic line. 701. The trochee and the dactyl are kindred feet, and hence they are sometimes used promiscuously. Ex. - Boinding away 6ver hill and valley. 702. Any word or syllable can be brought under the poetic accent, when there is no prevention from quantity or word-accent. Quantity. - The quantity of a syllable is its relative quantity of sound, or it is the relative time occupied in uttering the syllable. In regard to quantity, some syllables are long, some are short, and some are vari.ble. Ancient verse was made chiefly according to quantity; but modern verse is made chiefly according to accent. 703. It is sometimes inelegant or improper to make the poetic accent rest on a short syllable, especially when this syllable stands next to a long or accented one. And it is also inelegant to make the poetic accent conflict with the emphasis of ordinary discourse. We can not read, " As a friend thank him, and with j6y see him." But we may read, " See him with joy, and thank him ds a friend." 704. A word of two or more syllables can be admitted into the verse only when the poetic accent takes the place of the primary or secondary accent of the word. 828 ENGLISH GRAM.IMAR. 2. POETIC LINES AND PAUSES.* 705. Feet are formed into lines of various length; and the lines are then called iambic, trocThaic, anapestic, or dactylic, according to the kind of foot which prevails in them. Lines are also named according to the number of feet composing them. M1onom'eter, a line of one foot. Pentam'eter, a line of five feet. Dim'eter, a line of two feet. lIexam'eter, a line of six feet. Trim'eter, a line of three feet. Heptam'eter, a line of seven feet. Tetram'eter, a line of four feet. Octom'eter, a line of eight feet. Iambic Lines.., iambus; t, trochee; a, anapest; d, dactyl; c, caesura +, syllable over.!i. Refrain. 2i. The pitbroch rang. 3i. Beyond the ocean blie. 4i. The freighted clouds at anchor lie. 5i. The curfew tolls the knell of parting daiy. 6i. When thou art nigh, it seems a new creation round. 7i. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year. An iambic line of seven feet is sometimes broken, at the end of the fourth foot, into two lines. 7069 Sometimes a line has a regular number of feet, and a part of another foot at the end. Such lines are called ]lyper'meters. Iambic lHypermeters. li+. The losses. 2i+. To halls of splendor. 3i+. From Greenland's icy mountains. 4i+. Her heart is like a faded fliwer. 5i+. The deer, half-seen, are t6 the covert wending. 6i+. I think I will not go with yoti to hear the toasts and speeches. Trochaic Lines. It. Turning. 2t. D:rkly waving. 3t. tarly birds are singing. 4t. Never wedding, ever wo6ing. * Strict adherence to truth probably requires that we should consider the poetic pauses - the final and the cesural - as producing poetic lines and cesural divisions; but to mtike tlie subject easier to the learner, we shall treat of lines first, and then regard them simply as having these pauses. VERSSIiCICATION. 329 5t. See the distant forest dark and waving. 6t. Up the dewy mountain, Health is bodnding lightly. 7t. Then in thee let th6se rejoice who seek thee self-denying. 8t. Beams of no6n, like burning lances, through the tree-tops flash and glisten. Trochaic Hypermeters. t+-. Over woods. 21+. Days of s6rrow came. 3t+. Restless mdrtals t6il for naught. 4t-t. Then, methought, I heard a hollow sound. 5t+. Falins and dryads nightly watch the starry sky. 6t+. Softly bl6w the evening breezes, softly fill the dews of night. The long or accented syllable which sometimes ends a trochaic or dactylic line, is so nearly equivalent to a foot, that it should rather be considered a ceesura than a mere hypermeter syllable. Anapestic Lines. la. Far away. 2a. Far away in the Sodth. 3a. I am monarch of all I survey. 4a. B'ar away in the South is a beautiful isle. Anapestic Hypermeters. la+, Strains entrancing. 2a+. He is g6ne on the mountain. 3a+, On the kn6lls the red cl6ver is gr6wing. 4a+. Through the courts at deep midnight the torches are gleaming. Dactylic Lines. 2d. Land of the Pilgrim's pride. 2dt. C6me to the mountain of Zion. 3dc. Shrotdless and tombless they sunk to their rest. 3dt. Pause not to dream of the future before us. 7dc. l\imrod the hunter was mighty in hunting, and famed as the ruler of cities of y6re. Composite Verse. - Sometimes different kinds of feet, or different kinds of lines, are combined in the same poem. Such verse is called composite; and it is most frequently found in odes and songs. See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, pp. 329, 330, 331* 330 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. POETIC PAUSES. 797. To improve the rhythm or verse, there are two pauses; the final and the ccesu'ral. 708. The Final Pause is a slight pause made at the end of each line, even when the grammatical sense does not require it. Ex. - Ye who have anxiously and fondly watched I Beside a fading friend, unconscious that l The cheek's bright crimson, lovely to the view, Like nightshade, with unwholesome beauty bloomed. 759. The Cesural Pause is a slight pause made within the line, most frequently about the middle of it; and it belongs chiefly to long lines. Sometimes a line has two or more csesural pauses, one of which is commonly greater than the rest. The secondary pause may be called a demi-ccesural pause. Ex. - Warms I in the sun, ] { refreshes I in the breeze, Glows I in the stars, I [ and blossoms I in the trees." -Pope. " No sooner had the Almighty ceased, I than all The multitude of angels, I with a shout Loud I as from numbers without number, I sweet As from blest voices I uttering joy," etc.- ~lMilton. This versification is admirable. The caesural pause after loud, and that before sweet, and the final pause after sweet, make us halt in reading, to enjoy the exquisite luxury of the sense. Long lines can sometimes be divided at the caesural pause into two lines each. 3. R-IYMIES AND STANZAS. 710 Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the endings of poetic lines. Also verse that consists of rhyming lines, is frequently called rhyme. Sometimes the first half of a line rhymes to the second, and sometimes rhymes occur in immediate succession. 711. Rhymes must begin with different letters, and end with the same sound, or with nearly the same sound. VERSIFICATION. 831 Rhymes that are not exact, yet authorized, are called allowable rhymes. 712. Rhymes may run back into lines one, two, or three syllables; and hence they are classified into single rhymes, double rhymes, and triple rhymes. The rhyming part of each line must always be accented, or begin with an accented syllable. 713. Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. Most of our blank verse consists of iambic pentameters. 714. Heroic Verse is verse that consists of iambic pentameters. This verse is called so because it is chiefly used in epic poetry, or in poetry that relates the exploits of heroes. It allows greater license of versification than any other kind of verse, in the way of admitting other kinds of feet, as well as hypermeters. - See Milton and Shakespeare. An iambic hexameter is usually called an Alexandrine. 715. A Couplet consists of two poetic lines that usually rhyme together. A triplet, of three. 716. A Stanza is a combination of three or more poetic lines that usually make a distinct chime of rhymes, and. a regular division of the poem. A stanza generally consists of four, six, eight, or nine lines. The most common stanzas are the common-metre, the long-metre, the short-metre, the elegiac, and the Spenserian. Common-Metre Stanza. 4i. When all thy mdrcies, 0 my God, 3i. My rising s6ul surveys, 4i. Transp6rted with the view, I'm lost 3i. In w6nder, love, and praise. Shortl-Metre Stanza. 3i. The daiy is ptast and g6ne; 3i. The evening shades appear; 4i. 0 may we a11 remember wdll i. The night of d6ath draws ndar. 332 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. Long-Metre Stanza. 4i. So blue yon winding river flows, 4i. It seems an outlet firm the sky, 4i. Where, waiting till the west-wind bl6ws, 4i. The fieighted clouds at anchor lie. Elegiac Stanza. 5i. Here rests his head, up6n the hlp of Earth, 5i. A yotith to Fortune and to Fame unknown; 5i. Fair Science fiowned not on his humble birth, 5i. And Melancholy marked him for her 6wn. Scanning. 717. Scanning is the dividing of verse into its feet. Each line is usually scanned by itself; but it seems best to scan continuously from one line into another when we can thus avoid irregularities. Ex. -'T is the last rose of summer, Left blooming alone; 4 feet. All her lovely companions Are faded and g6ne. 4 feet. Sometimes more than one mode of scanning can be applied to the same poem; but that mode should always be preferred which is most simple and musical. For the various specimens of stanzas, and the modes of scanning them, see Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar. POETIC LICENSES. 718. A Poetic License is an allowed deviation from the correctness of ordinary prose, or from the regular laws of versification, in order that the poet may be enabled to reach the requirements of verse. Poetic licenses are allowed, - 1. In Spelling. Poets frequently shorten words by the elision of some letter or syllable. - See p. 318. 2. In Pronunciation. Poets sometimes change the accent of a word; and sometimes they adopt some old pronunciation, in order to make a rhyme.- See pp. 58, 59. 3. In the Choice of Words. Poets have gradually gathered and manufactured for themselves a little extra vocabulary of words. These VERSIFICATION. 833 consist of antiquated words, foreign words, and common words shortened or lengthened. The following are specimens: Ken, wend, ween, trow, rife, yore, lone, guerdon, welkin, wlilom, albeit, eyne, brand (sword), sylvan, steed, swain, morn, eve, fount, plaint, ope, meed, fane, yon, darksome, stilly, vasty, evanish, bedimmed, bewept. 4. In the Meanings of Words. Poets sometimes vary the meanings of words, or employ a less appropriate word. Ex.-" Chill Penury repressed their noble rage." - GRAY. (For zeal.) A license in regard to the meaning or pronunciation of a word is always a blemish, rather than a beauty. 5. In Idioms. Poets sometimes use uncommon native idioms, and frequently borrow idioms from foreign languages. Ex. — " Who would not sing for Lycidas? he knew Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." - See p. 223. 6. In Syntax. Violent inversion. Violent ellipsis. Violations of the minor rules or principles of grammar. In general, any inversion or ellipsis is allowable that will preserve the sense. Omission of Article. "The why is plain as, way to ^ parish church." Omission of Pronoun. "It was a tall young oysterman ^ lived by the riverside."' - Holmes. * (Omission of It.) " Suffice,, to-night, these orders to obey." Omission of Verb. " Sweet A the pleasure, rich ^ the treasure." (is) Omission of Principal Verb. " Angels could A no more." (do) Object before its Verb. " Hinm well I knew." Subject after the Verb. " Echo the mountains round." Auxiliary after Principal Verb. " Nestled at its roots is beauty." Adjective after its Noun. " Violets blue and daisies white." Predicate Adjective before its Verb. " Purple grows the primrose pale." Pronoun before Antecedent. " Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath." Relative Clause severed from Antecedent. "From things too low that lie." (Inelegant.) Adverb between to and the rest of the Infinitive. " To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes." Preposition after its Object. " Birds sang the leafy dells within." Adjuncts, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adjective phrases, are frequently transposed. Self added to a Noun; "Bewept till Pity's self be dead." Pleonastic Pronoun added to its Antecedent. " My banks they are furnished with bees." < Simple Pronoun for Compound. " I laid me [myself] down on a green bank." Adjective used for Adverb. " So sweet she sung." (sweetly) Adjective for Noun. " O'er the vast abrupt." Intransitive Verb made Transitive. " To meditate the blue prfound."' :334 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Past Tense for Perfect Participle. "The idols are broke." - Byon. First or Third Person Imperative in stead of Let. "' Turn we to survey,'- etc. Or -- o, nor —nor, for either - or, neither - nor. "Nor in sheet nor in shroud we wound him." 7. In Figures. Poetic style abounds in figures, and is frequently set all aglow by the creative power of the imagination; as, " The native hue of resolution is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought." - Shak. 8. Inl Versification. Variations in the position of the poetic accent, or in the number of unaccented syllables, are allowable where the chief poetic pauses occur, -the final and the ctsural. " Ye've trailed me thro6gh thefodrest; I ye've trailed me 6'er the strdam; And strfggling thro6gh the dverglAde I your bristling bayonets gl6am." Observe thatforest makes here a syllable in excess; but the irregularity, occurring at the csesural pause, is little noticed. It is just so in music: variations or extra flourishes can frequently be made where pauses occur. A distinguished poet, in speaking of licenses in versification, says, "To prevent metrical harmony from degenerating into monotony, occasional roughness must be interposed. The rivulet is made musical by obstructions in its channel." Iambic or anapestic lines sometimes end with one or two extra unaccented syllables. - See Rogers's Ginevra. Iambic lines may occasionally begin with a trochee, a dactyl, or a spondee; or admit a trochee, a spondee, or an anapest within, especially where the cssural pauses occur. Ex. -" Bur'sts the I wild cry I of tCrror and dismay." - Campbell. " Libecdl, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." - Beattie. " Wi2p, wjeep, and rend your hhir for those who never shall return." "' Of g6odliest trees I &lad0n with fairest fruit." - Milton. " And mnfly ad youth and mahnj a madid." - Id. " With Heaven's cirtil I leyjifraght, come rattling n." - Id. It is generally better to contract an excess of short syllables by synaeresis, or by hasty pronunciation, than to reject any of them by elision. Anapestic lines may occasionally begin with an iambus or a spondee; or admit a spondee or an iambus within, especially where the coesural pause occurs. EL.-" The poplars are felled, I fdrewell to the shade, And the whispering sounds of the co6l colonnade." - Cowper. UTTERANCE. Utterance comprises, - 1. Articulation; 2. Degree of Loudhess; 3. Degree of Rapidity; 4. Inflections; 5. Tones; 6. Emphasis; 7. Pauses. 1. Good articulation requires the words to be uttered with their proper sound, fully in all their syllables, and distinctly from one an UTTERANCE. 335 other. It is opposed to mumbling, mouthing, mincing, muttering, slurring, drawling, clipping, lisping, hesitating, stammering, miscalling, and recalling. "Words should drop from the lips as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, - deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight." - Austin. 2. and 3. The degree of loudness or rapidity must depend on the speaker, the hearer, the discourse, the place, or other circumstances. Scarcely any thing else is so disagreeable as utterance too rapid, low, and jumbled to be intelligible, and rather suggesting that the speaker is ashamed to let others know what he is saying. 4. Inflections refer to the passage of the voice from one key or pitch to another. There are three: the rising inflection, which implies elevation of the voice; the falling inflection, which implies a sinking of the voice; and the circumftex, which combines the other two. "Was it you, or he " "Madam, you have my father much offended." 5. Tones are voice as modulated by feeling. They should be adapted to the general discourse, and also to its distinct sentiments. Tones aim to awaken, by sympathy, the intended emotions in the hearer. " In exordiums, the voice should be low, yet clear; in narrations, distinct; in reasoning, slow; in persuasions, strong: it should thunder in anger, soften in sorroz, tremble in fear, and melt in love." - Hiley. 6. Emphasis is an elevation of the voice on some words, word, or part of a word, by which the meaning is brought out more precisely or forcibly. Emphasis, properly used, adds greatly to the vigor of discourse. Emphasis relates to words; and accent, to syllables. 7. Pauses are of three kinds: sentential or grammatical pauses, which show the grammatical sense; rhetorical pauses, which are used for emphasis, or for effect on the hearer; and harmonic or metrical pauses, which are used in poetry. The pauses are relative rather than absolute. The semicolon requires a pause double that of the comma; the colon, double that of the semicolon; and the period, double that of the colon, and sometimes even longer. Most of the other points require pauses that depend chiefly on the sense. Grave or solemn discourse requires longer pauses than that which is lively and spirited. 336 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PUNCTUATION. 719. Punctuation treats of the points or marks used in writing and printing. Punctuation shows the joints or interruptions in the flow of sentences, and helps to bring out the meaning to better advantage. It is based almost wholly on grammatical sense, and is seldom influenced by delivery. The principal marks of this kind are the following — ~ The Period; which denotes the longest pause or a full stop.: The Colon v which denotes the next shorter pause.; The Semicolon; which denotes the next shorter pause., The Comma; which denotes the shortest pause. T The Interrogation-Point which is placed after every direct question. I The Exclamation-Point; which denotes great surprise, joy, or other emotion. Hence it is generally placed after interjections or unusually earnest addresses. - The Dash; which denotes emphasis or abruptness. ( ) The Curves; which enclose some explanation or remark that can be omitted. [ ] The Brackets; which enclose some correction or explanation that is generally inserted by another person. "" The Quotation-Marks; which enclose words taken from another person.'4 "Single Quotation-Marks enclose'a quotation within a quotation."' When a piece is quoted in paragraphs, quotation-marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph, and only at the end of the last paragraph. Thle Apostrophe; which denotes possession, or the omission of some letter or letters. Page 52. The Hyphen; which joins the parts of most compound words, and is placed at the end of a line when a part of a word is carried to the next line. The Acute Accent; which marks stress of voice. The Grave Accent; which shows a sinking of the voice, or brings out a syllable. ^ or v The Circumflex Accent; which is a union of the other two accents. It sometimes denotes an unusual or long sound given to a vowel, as in tete-i-tdte. - The 3Macron 3 which marks a long sound, as in live. v The Breve; which marks a short sound, as in live. [lenelaiis. o, The lDier'esis 9 which separates two vowels into two syllables, as in The Cedil'la; which is a French mark joined to the lower part of c, to give this letter the sound of s, as infacade. PUNCTUATION. 337 fi The Til'de; which is a Spanish mark, placed over n, to annex to it the sound of y; as in canon, a ravine. ^ The Caret; which is used in writing, to show where words or letters are to be inserted. The Brace; which serves to connect parts. Q The Section; which is sometimes used to mark the smalldivisions of a book. ~ The Paragraph; which shows where a new subject begins, or denotes a paragraph. *, t, The Star, Dagger, and Double Dagger which are used as marks of reference. Letters or figures are sometimes used for the same purpose. *, —- -, Xor.... Stars Double Dash, or Periods; which denote omission or suppression. 4 or, The Ditto; a mark used in stead of repeating the word or expression above it. tj~ The Hand; which directs special attention to something. *** The Asterism, or Three Stars; a mark sometimes placed before a note that has a general reference. ~........ Leaders; which are periods that lead the eye from one part to another over a blank space, as in indexes. _______ The Underscore; which is a line drawn under words in writing, that are to be printed in Italics or capitals. Also va;ious marks are used to show the sounds of letters as ia Webster's or Worcester's Dictionary. PERIOD. 729. The Peinod is put at the end of every word, phrase, or sentence, complete by itself, and not interrogative or exclamatory; also after abbreviations. Ex. - John W. Ringgold, Esq., addressed the assembly. The abbreviating period supersedes no point except itself. Exceptions. -Such abbreviations as Tom, Ben, and per cent do not take the abbreviating period, for they have themselves become words; and such expressions as 1st, 2,2 21ly, 4th, etc., do not take the abbreviating period, for they are not so much abbreviations as they are cardinal numerals made ordinal. Other Uses. -To separate decimals from whole numbers; as, $ 5.055 +. After enumerating figures or letters, as, " I have two good reasons: 1. I can not give my at. tention to the business; 2. I have no money to invest in it." COLON. 721. The Colon is used,1. As an intermediate point between the semicolon and the period. 6 t 888 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ex.- Powers depart, Possessions vanish, and opinions change; And passions hold a fluctuating seat: But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken, And subject neither to eclipse nor wane, Duty exists. 2. After words that promise a series or statement, or something important. That is, after a statement that ends with as follows, the following, thus, these, or other words suggestive of the same meaning; also generally after a formal address that begins a discourse or letter. 3. Before an important remark added to a sentence, especially when it sums up the sentence, or presents the meaning in another form. Ex. - The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour: The paths of glory lead but to the grave. The colon, in this sense, is frequently used in stead of a semicolon and conjunction. SE ICO L ON. 722. The Semicolon is used, - 1. To separate parts that have the comma, or parts that require a point greater than the comma and less than the colon. Ex. - Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. Obs. - Hence the semicolon is frequently placed before and, but, for, though, yet, nor, nay, hence, therefore, or a similar connective, when this unites two clauses that are rather long, and make but one sentence; and it is also frequently placed before an appositive phrase that is subdivided by the comma. 2. To separate the parts of a loose series. Ex.- Every thing has its time to flourish; every thing grows old; every thing passes away. Such a series may consist of clauses, subjects, predicates, or modifiers' PUNCTUATION. 889 COMMA. Serial 723, The Comma is used, Part 1. To separate the terms of a closely related series, or two such terms when the connective is omitted. Ex. - Hedges, groves, orchards, and gardens, were in bloom. It was a dark, desolate region. Our captain then went to the camp, called upon the officer in command, and informed him who we were, whence we had comes and whither we intended to go. 2. To separate terms that are contrasted or otherwise distinguished, and terms of which a part in one might be referred improperly to the other. Ex.- He is poor, but honest. Now a peal of gunpowder was heard, and another, and another. The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. "The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians," has a different meaning. Ohs. - When a term relates to each of two or more separated terms, it must generally be set off to show its common dependence on them all; as, " The water was as bright and pure, and seemed as precious, as liquid diamonds." " The classics have been the models, I might almost say the masters' of composition and thought in all ages." Parenthet- 3. To set off a word, phrase, or clause, that is ic Parts, parenthetic, or that comes between other parts and breaks their connection. Ex. -You will then, however, be in no better condition. Moral culture, especially in youth, is of the greatest importance. They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, reached the place. Columbus, who was a Genoese, discovered America. Modifying 4. To set off a modifying word, phrase, or Words, clause, that is not closely connected with what Phrases, and it modifies, or that is removed from it by inClauses version. This is a very comprehensive rule, and partially includes the preceding rule. Ex. —"In a central region, midway on the continent, though somewhat nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic ocean, at an elevation 340 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of nearly seven thousand five hundred feet, lies the remarkable valley of Mexico, encircled by a colossal rampart of the hardest rocks, and forming a circumference of about sixty-seven leagues, with a sky of the deepest blue, a serene atmosphere, anl a nmagnificent landscape." - Prescott. (Lies where? What kind of valley?) Obs. — Hence, also, an appositive word or phrase that is parenthetic rather than restrictive, or that produces a separate impression on the mind, is generally set off b the comma; as, "The greatest Roman orator, Cicero, was distinguaished for his patriotism." " Such was Tecumseh, the celebrated In. dian warrior." In:.lepnn- 5. To set off words or phrases used indepeneat Parts. dently or absolutely. Ex. - This book, Mary, is yours. 0, yes, sir, I do know. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. - See Note V. Snoj ct 6. To separate the predicate from its subject, Predicate. when the subject is very long, has a clause, or consists of punctuated parts. Ex. - That one bad example spoils many good precepts, is true. lie who falls in love with himself, will have few rivals. Neither time nor distance, neither weal nor woe, can separate us. Ols. 1. — A predicate consisting of two parts that are rather long, or equivalent to two clauses, generally needs a comma between them; as, " The prairies of Iowa are covered with a rich coat of grass, and not unfrequently spotted with hazel thickets." Obs. 2. - A clause or long infinitive phrase, that is used in the sense of a predicate-nominative, is generally set off by the comma; as, "The unanimous decision of this little party now was, that a desperate effort should be made to reach the ship again before the approach of night." Clauses. 7. To separate clauses that are neither very closely nor very loosely connected. Ex. - There mountains rise, and circling oceans flow. If Homer was the greater genius, Virgil was the better artist. We next went to London, which is the largest city in the world. No Point. 8. Short simple sentences or clauses seldom require a point within them; and phrases or clauses that stand in close connection with that on which they depend, seldom require'a point before them. PUNCTUATION. 341 Ex. -" And the deep-pealing organ rolled Contrition from its lips of gold." - Funeral of Lincoln. " Tell me when it was that you saw him after he returned." Other Uses. - The comma Is generally placed between a word and its repetition; as, " Sweet, sweet home " It is placed after a surname when this is put before the given name; as, "Tyler, George \V. It is used to separate numbers into periods; as, -' Population of the.United States," 31,443,790. And it is sometimes used to supply the place of an omitted verb or conjunction; as, " Indolence produces poverty i and poverty, misery." INTERROGATION-POINT. 724. The Interrogation-Point is placed after every complete direct question, whether it forms a complete sentence or only a part of a sentence. Ex. - Shall we never have any rest What have you to say, Charles? for I am waiting. " Will you go " said he, "or will you stay? Is my name Talbot? and am I your son? and shall I fly r Which are the interjections of joy T- of grief? - of wonder t When a sentence consists of interrogative parts, it is sometimes very difficult to decide whether only the comma or semicolon should be used within the sentence, and the interrogation-point at the end, or whether the interrogatiou-point should be used after each interrogative part. The following direction may afford some assistance in doubtful cases. Obs. 1. - When each of the interrogative parts requires a distinct answer, or when the interrogative nature of the parts is not sufficiently obvious without the point, the interrogation-point is placed after each of the parts. (See above.) But when only one answer is needed, or when the question is not complete before the end is reached, the comma or semicolon is used within the sentence, and the interrogation-point at the end; as, " Will you go, or stay? " "Which is more, - six inches square or six square inches? " Obs. 2. - A question that is merely mentioned, and not asked, is called indirect, and does not admit the interrogation-point after it; as, "He asked me,' Wliy do you weep?'" Direct. " He asked me why I wept." Indirect. Hence the following sentence from Dr. Johnson is punctuated incorrectly: "' When Diog'enes was asked what wine he liked best? he answered, That which is drunk at the expense of others." CORRECTED: " When Diogenes was asked what wine he liked best, he answered," etc. EXCLAMATION-PO INT. 725. The Exclamation-Point is placed after a word, phrase, clause, or sentence, that indicates great surprise, grief, joy, or other emotion in the speaker. Ex.- O home! magical, all-powerful home! how strong must have been thy influence, when thy faintest memory could make these bronzed heroes of a thousand battles weep like children i 342 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Obs. 1. - The exclamation-point is frequently placed after interjections; as, "Fie! such a man!" Obs. 2. —The exclamation-point is placed after unusually emotional or earnest addresses; as, " 0 Absalom, Absalomn! my son, my son! " Obs. 3. - The exclamation-point is sometimes repeated, for greater effect; as,' Selling off below cost!! great sacrifices!! " Obs. 4. - The interrogation or exclamation-point is sometimes used sneeringly to express the disbelief of the speaker; as, "The measures which he introduced to Congress, and which ought to have been carried by overwhelming majorities (?), proved him to have been in every sense a great statesman (!)."' A sentence that is interrogative in form but exclamatory in sense, is followed by the exclamation-point i as, " What business could the honest man have in my room' "- Shak. DASH. 72I. The Dash is used,1. To show omission caused by interruption, Ex. -- HE-REE LIES THE GREAT -" False marble! where? 2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, or to show an unexpected turn in thought or style. Ex.- The pulse fluttered- stopped - went on - throbbed - stopped again - moved - stopped. This world,'t is true, was made for Caesar but for Titus too. 3. To set off a parenthesis, especially when emphatic, or when there are other points within it. Ex. - He was dressed - and, indeed, so were they nearly all - in coarse homespun. If the separated parts require a point between them, this point is usually placed before each dash. 4. Before echoes, or where that is or namely is understood. Ex. - They were governed by the worst passions, - malice and revenge. Oth er Uscs. - The dash is generally used after side-heads, and also before authorities when in the same line with the end of the paragraph. It is sometimes added to the common points to lengthen the pause or supply the want of an intermediate point, to show emphasis, or to mark transition. In dialogue that is not paragraphed, it is now commonly used when the speakers' names are omitted. It is generally userd in composite hceailings, as in newspapers. It is often used where a line is broken off, and the subject is rlesumed in the next line. It is sometimes used to show omission of letters or figures And it is often used at the left of newspaper extracts, to show that they are such, or as a more mtodlest request to notice than the I. (The teacher should explain what is meant. - Sae Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar.) PUNCTUATION. 348 CURVES. 727. The Curves are used to enclose some incidental remark or explanation that breaks the regular construction of the sentence, and can be omitted without injuring the grammatical sense. What is enclosed, is properly called a parenthesis. Ex. -" Ortwoepy, a word derived from the Greek orthos (correct) and epo (I speak), signifies the right utterance of words." - Sargent. " Know then this truth (enough for man to know): Virtue alone is happiness below." -Pope. Obs. - If the parts separated by the parenthesis require a point between them, this point is frequently placed before each curve; sometimes it is placed only after the latter curve, especially when the parenthesis is more closely related to the first part than to the second; and it is placed only before the first curve when the parenthesis requires a different point at its end, which point is then placed before the latter curve. The parenthesis, within, is punctuated as if it stood alone.' Ex. -" I gave (and who would not have given?) my last dollar.' "The Frenchman, first in literary fame, (Mention him, if you please. Voltaire? - The same.) With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied, Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died." - Cowper. " At the opening of a new year it is pleasant - (ling-a-ling-a-ling, rings the front-door bell; and Bridget breaks upon our privacy with,' Plase, Sir, it's the butcher's boy with the bill.')- it is pleasant- (tling-a ling:' Plase, Sir, it's the baker's bill.') - it is pleasant, we sa, to dwell upon the delightful memories of the past,- (tling-a-ling-a-lin.-a-ling:' Plase, Sir, it's the milliner's girl left mistress's bill!') and - and - What? " Harper's Weekly. BRACKETS. 728. The Brackets are properly used to enclose what one person puts into the writings of another. Explanation: " Yours [the British] is a nation of great resources," etc. Correction: "Do you know if [whether] he is at home? " Omission: "Abbotsford, May 12th, [1820]." 729. The writer himself may sometimes use the brackets to enclose a detached explanation or remark, or some digression or apparent interpolation. 344 ENGLISH GRAMMARB. Ex. —"DIssMISIoN (-mishr-un), n. [Lat. dismissio.] " -. Webster "I never liked him, never, in my days! " j" 0, yes! you did," said Ellen with a sob.] "There always was a something in his ways" - [" So sweet - so kind," said Ellen with a throb.] - Hood, HYPHEN. 739. The Hyphen is used, 1. At the close of a syllable that ends a line, when the remaining syllable or syllables of the word must be carried to the next line. 2. To join the parts of most compound words. Ex. - There is pretty, ten-year-old, rosy-cheeked, golden-haired Mary." - Wilson, Compound Words. 731. A phrase is generally made a compound word when it expresses a complex idea rather than two or more distinct ideas, when it is used as one adjective, when it has become the common name of an object, or when it differs in meaning from that of the separated words. Ex. - The tree-and-cloud-shadowed river; a ten-dollar note; 7umming-bird, honeysuckle, apple-orchard; the live-oaks of Texas. " Time-tutored age and lovp-exalted youth" is very different from " Time tutored age, and love exalted youth " To-night has not the meaning of to and nigiht. A paper-mill is not made of paper, nor is a tin-peddler made of tin. Boston-Neck MeatMarket is a more definite expression than " Boston Neck Meat Market." - Bee p. 56. Obs. 1..Phrases in which the words are separately significant, are usually not compounded; as, "b brick wall," "gold cip." Phrases made proper names, -when sufficiently distinguished by having each principal word commenced with a capital letter, are usually not compounded; as, "Uniont Square," "Baffin's Bay." Idiomatic phrases are usually not conpounlcod; as, to and fro, by and by. Cardinal numerals are compounded from twenty to hundred, as twenty-one; but not above, as "five hundred and twenty dollars." Can not and in stead of have as good right to separation as may not and in lieu of. Obs. 2. - A part common to two or more consecutive compounds, should either be left separate, or be made a part of each. Ex. - " Riding and dancing schools;" or, "Riding-schools and dancingschools;" not,' Riding and dancing-schools," nor, "Riding- and dancingwohools." "Six and seventeen" 23; " sixteen and seventeen" 2a3. PUNCTUATION. 345 Hyphened. 732e A compound word is generally hyphened when it is first formed, when it has been but little used, when its parts are rather long, when each part retains its own accent, when some letter of one part might be improperly referred to the other part, or when the parts do not coalesce as smoothly as syllables of one word. Ex. Zephyr-haunted, festal-sounding, knitting-needle, ant-hill, red-hot. Unhyphened. 733. A compound word is generally not hyphened when it has been long or much used, and when its parts are short or coalesce as smoothly as syllables of one word under one chief accent. See ~ 156. Most compound words that are used as adverbs, prepositions,. or conjunctions, are not hyphened; and prefixes are very seldom set off from tile remainder of the word by a hyphen. A hyphen should be placed after a prefix, when two vowels come together that might be mistaken for a diphthong; as, Ire-elect. UNDERSCORE. 734, The Underscore is a line drawn under words in writing, that are to be printed in Italics or capitals. One line is drawn under a written word, to denote slanting or Italic letters; two lines are drawn under, to denote SMALL CAPITALS; and three lines, to denote CAPITALS. 735. Italic letters, and sometimes small capitals, are used for emphasis or distinction. Ex. -" Here I reign king, and, to enrage thee more, thy king and lord." - Milton. 1. Italics are generally used to distinguish foreign words, and also common words when we speak of them merely as being words. Ex. - " He was secretary pro tempore." " Secretary is a common noun." 846 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Italics are frequently used to distinguish the names of boats, ships, newspapers, and magazines. Ex. -" The Neptune sailed yesterday." "This article appeared in the Atlantic Monthly." In the common version of the Bible, Italics show what words were supplied by the translators. O For exercises in punctuation, let the reading-books be used. The pupil may give rules for the points which he finds; and he may also be required to capitalize and punctuate paragraphs transcribed without capitals or points. OBSERVATIONS. Poetry.- Poetry, in its highest perfection, is thought, feeling, imagery, and music, expressed in language. It should possess the accuracy, the solid sense, and the other good qualities of good prose; and all deviations should be such as tend to make it poetry, or to elevate it above prose. Care should always be taken to select that mode of versification which accords best with the spirit of the intended poem; and when a certain stanza, or a certain mode of versification, has been adopted, there can seldom bo allowed, throughout the same poem, any departure fiom it. Regularity in versification is one of the chief beauties of poetry; and deviations are allowable only when they would not be noticed, or when they serve to produce a better harmony than unvaried regularity could afford.. Punctuation. - The punctuation of standard English literature, as well as of our newspapers and other journals, is one of the most chaotic subjects that ever perplexed investigation. As an art, punctuation is one of the nicest; and long experience is needed to secure a reliable amount of skill. That most people know so little of this art, is because they are too ignorant of grammar, of the construction of sentences, and of the niceties of syntax and thought; for without a thorough knowledge of these things, rules of grammar are unavailable, or can not strike root in the mind. So far as there can be a difference of opinion in regard to the meaning of what is written, there will always be room for diversity of punctuation; but punctuation, as a science, can never rest on any firm basis except the principles of grammatical "Analysis." There are two modes of punctuating, called close punctuation and free punctuation. The former is the older system, and it consists in the use of many points; the latter is the later system, and it consists in the use of but few points. CLOSE PUNCTUATION: " To carve for others, is, to starve yourself." - G. Brown. "So that the term, language, now signifies, any series," etc. - Id. In free punctuation, the foregoing commas would be OBSERVATIONS. 347 omitted; as, "To carve for others is to starve yourself." " So that the term lanr uage now signifies any series," etc. The two modes of punctuation differ chiefly in regard to the comma. Free punctuation is preferred by the best printers; and it has become so far established that much of the punctuation now taught in most of the school grammars is rather obsolete. In punctuation, the elements of sentences are clauses, phrases, and words; and the kinds of sense which must be regarded, are serial sense, modified sense, and broken sense. The points mostly used are the comma and the semicolon. Simple Sentences. - Most printers now hold the opinion that no comma should be inserted between the subject and the predicate, and that Mr. Murray took the wrong end of the principle for his rule. A comma may be inserted between a series of nominatives and their predicate, to show the common dependence of the predicate on all the nominatives; though many printers omit the comma when a conjunction stands before the last nominative. To show whether a dubious word or phrase belongs to the subject or the predicate, a comma must be inserted; and sometimes a comlma is admissible after a long subject. When the subject or the predicate consists of two parts that suggest the idea of two clauses, the parts are separated; as, " lHe, as well as I, was deceived." "Overhead the branches arch, and lmake a pleasant bower'." An object or a predicatenominative, closely depending on its verb, is not set off. Any phrase that makes a separate impression on the mind, rather than combines with some other part to make a whole with it, must be set off by the comma; as, " And then the flowers, so modest, so lovely, of such exquisite hue, enameled in the grass, sparkling amidst it,'a starry multitude,' underneath such awful mountains and icy precipices - how beautiful! " Any phrase that is equivalent to a clause which would require a point, is set off as if it were the clause. When an infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or an adjective phrase, that makes a part of the predicate, stands before the subject, it is set off by the comma; as, " To be rilqhtly estimated, he must be judged by the times in which he lived." When such a phrase is placed between the nominative and the verb, and is parenthetic rather than restrictive, it is also set off. When it holds its proper syntactical position, it is not set off by the comma if it stands in close connection withtihe word on which it depends. But if somewhat removed from it, it is set off. An emphatic adjunct, at the beginning of a sentence, is set off by the comma. A forcibly parenthetic adjunct must also be set off. An adjunct that follows another, but depends on a preceding word, must generally be set off by the comma. An adjunct that is very long, or that has the force of a clause, must generally be set off by the comma. Two words in close apposition, especially when. they consist. of a pronoun and a. noun, are not 348 ENGLISH CGAMMAR. separated by the comma. When or annexes an appositive or explanatory nou)n, a comma is inserted; as, " The skull, or cranium." But when or joins equivalenlt adjectives or adverbs, they are not separated; as, " In a cureless or itdi/flrent nanner." A point is seldom used between the word price and the number; though the strict sense requires the comma. A term immediately preceded by two or more others that govern or qualify it, is generally not set off by the comma; as, "-Lend, lend your wings." "It was a bright, lovely day." But in other cases, and when there is something of suspense or contrast, the part is set off; as, " The liberties, the rights, of our citizens." "The former are called voluntary, and the latter involuntary, muscles." Parts that are compared or slightly contrasted, and depend closely on something after them, are seldom separated; as, "It is a smalll but thrifty tree." But an intermediate phrase that begins with if rot, is always set off. When two or more adjoining modifiers are parenthetic, the less coalescent one is set off; as, " And her eyes, on all my motions, with a mute observance hung." A word is fiequently set off by the comma, or not set off, according as it has the sense of a conjunction or that of an adverb. " You did not see him, then?" "You did not see him thel?" ":owever, I will not shrink, however great the responsibility may be." The pointing sometimes depends on how smoothly the words of the sentence flow together; as, " Perhaps we shall never see him again." " We shall perthaps never see him again." " We shall never, perhaps, see him again." Wlien two phrases of moderate length are united by both -and, eitheror, or neither-nor, they seldom need the comma between them. A comma should be inserted before and, or, or nor, that is used only before the last term of a series; as, " A, B, and Co." "John, James and William are studying," implies that I am telling John wliat the other two boys are doing. Insert a comma before and and the sense is clear. When a conjunction is repeated throughout a series of terms, it is generally better to insert the comma; as, " The health, and strength, and freshness, and sweet sleep of infancy, are yours." - R. G. Parker. But when no greater point than the comma can be used at the end of the series, the comma within may be omitted; as, " Dividing and gliding and sliding, and falling and brawling and sprawling," etc. —Southey. Indeed, the comma is sometimes excluded within, because no greater point can be admitted at the end. But sometimes the comma must be used within a part that is itself set off only by the comma; as, "And therefore will I take the Nevil's part, and, when I spy advantage, claim the crown." - Shakespeare. But when the nominative is repeated, the semicolon should be used. Between tile nunlber and the name of a street, the comma is generally needed; as, " No. 75, Spruce Street." The comma is, however, frequently omitted. (Sec Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, p 371.) Any element of a simple sentence can OBSERVATIONS. 849 sometimes run into so long and loose a series of particulars that the semicolon is allowable between them. Complex Sentences. - When the dependent clause of a complex sentence is used as a subject-nominative or a predicate-nominative, it is set off by the comma. When it is used as a noun in any other relation, a comma is seldom needed. (See pp. 246, 247.) When that begins a clause which depends closely on it, preceding it, or on a governing or controlling verb, or on so or such, the clause does not require the comma; as, "It is reported that he is coming." "I know that he is honest." "It was so heavy that I could not carry it." When such or so begins the previous clause, a comma must be inserted between the clauses. When an objective clause is a quotation, it must generally be set off by a comma; as, " Seneca says,'Life is a voyage.'" When a relative clause is restrictive, it is not set off by the comma; but when it is simply explanatory, it is set off. "The great principles of government which are easily understood, are known everywhere," implies that only some of the great principles of government are easily understood. " The great principles of government, which are easily understood, are known everywhere," implies that all great principles of government are easily understood. A clause that begins with as, because, how, if, than, that, when, where, whether, while, why, or a similar word, and depends closely on a preceding clause, seldom needs a point before it. But when such a clause stands before the principal clause, it must be set off by the comma; as, "I will go when he comes "; " When he comes, I will go." Sometimes even a semicolon or a colon can be used between the principal and the subordinate element of a complex sentence. When the dependent element of a complex sentence is extended into a series, sometimes the comma is used, and sometimes the semicolon. The latter point implies greater deliberation. Compound Sentences. - The clauses or members of compound sentences are sometimes separated by the comma, and sometimes by the semicolon. (See pp. 338, 340.) In stead of the semicolon, the period can also be used, when there is a design to give still greater importance to the particulars. When the verb of one of the clauses is omitted, a comma must generally be put in its place; as, "Industry produces wealth; and wealth, corruption." When the name of a person, and a complimentary address, are both used at the beginning of a letter, a period is placed after the name, and a comma or a colon after the address; the comma in the familiar style, and the colon in the solemn or formal style. When the letter begins in the line below, a dash may be added to the point above. 350 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 1. Into what four great classes can all 14. What is apheresis? - syncope? - the errors in the use of language apocope? - prosthesis? - parabe divided? goge - tmesis? 2. What is the first General Rule 15. Mention the figures of syntax. 670 3. What is said, in the special rules, 16. What is ellipsis - aposiopesis?about superfluous pronouns?- zengmna - pleonasm? - enaltwo negatives - double cor- lage? - inversion, or hyperbaton? parisol' - too many articles? 17. What is an archaism?. 671 superfiuous prepositions? - pov- 18. What is mimicry?.. 672 erty of languagfe? 19. Mention the figures of rhetoric. 673 4.'What is the second General Rule 20. What is a simile? -a metaphor? 5. What is said, in the special rules, -an allegory? - a metonymy? about the insertion of articles? - -a synecdoche? - personifica. improper comparison? - parts tion? - antithesis? - irony? - emphatically distinguished? - paralipsis? - hyperbole? - cliserial parts? - nominatives im- inax? - allusion? - euphemism? properly omitted? - participial interrogation? - exclamation? - nouns? apostrophe? - vision? - onoma6. What is the third General Rule? topoeia? 7. Repeat the Rules of Syntax,- the 21. What is parody? What is a pun? Notes, 22. What is Versification...692 8. VWhat is said, in the special rules, 23. What is verse?. 693 of hesm used for those?- of ad- 24. To what four heads is versification verbs and adjectives? - of two reduced?. 694 objects compared? -of the lead- 25. What is poetic accent?. 695 ing term, in comparison? - of 26. What is a poetic foot?.. 696 compared adjectives and plural 27. Mention and define the principal nouns, improperly expressed? - feet. 697 of words that should not be cor- 28. Mention and define the secondary pared, or made plural? - of a feet. 698 and an? - of a orn an nd kte? - 29. What is said of poetic lines?, 705 of the subject of passive verbs?- 80. What is an hypermeter?. 706 of the possessive apostrophe?- 31. What pauses are peculiar to verse? 707 of a compound word or a complex 82. Define them.. 08, 709 term expressed in the possessive 33. What is rhyme?.. 10 case? of a pairor series of nouns 31. Describe rhymes.. 711,712 expressed in the possessive case? 35. What is blank verse? - heroic — of harsh or inelegant pos- verse? - a couplet?-a stanza.? sessives? - of ambiguous pro- - canning? nouns?- of relative pronouns? 35. What is a poetic license?.. 718 -of mixing different pronouns, 37. Mention the eight principal kinds. or different forms of the verb? - 38. \What does utterance comprise of shtll and wiill? - of past tense 39. What is said of articulation? - and peri;wct participle? — of im- the degree of loudness or rapidproper passive forms?-of the ity? - inflections? - tones? -- indicative and the subjunctive emphais?-pauses? mood? -of the tenses? -of the 40. What is Punctuation?... 719 infinitives? - of clumsy partici- 41. HIow many of the points and marks pial forms? can you mention? 9. What is the fourth General Rule? 42. What is said of the period? - the 10. What is said, in the special rules, colon? - the semicolon?- the of the position of nouns and pro- interrogation-point? - the exclanouns? - of the position of ad- mation-point? -the dash? - the jectives, adverbs, and adjuncts? curves? - the brackets? - the -of adverbs that modify infini- hyphen? - the under-core? - tives? - of a part of a sentence Italics? that relates to each of two or 43. What is said of the couumma in remore other parts? gard to series of terms? - paren11. What is a Figure?...667 thetic terms? - loose modifiers? 12. Into what classes are figures di- - independent words? - sutject vided?.. 668 and predicate? - clauses - 13. Mention the figures of orthography. 661' simple sentences?