PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. THE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL IN ITS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL RELATIONS, 3BY ABRAMI[ S. HIEWITT, United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition at Paris, 867, WASHING TON. BCOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICED 1868. -CO NT E NT S. SECTION I. IRON AND STEEL. IRON ORES, ROLLED GIRDERS, PLATES, ANV-P'RODS.' American iron ores at the Exhibition-Steel of Park Brothers, Pittsburg-Use of rolled girders in Europe-Universal rolling mill-Rolling mill of Petin, Gaudet & Co.-Beams rolled at Trenton Iron Works-Rolled plates-Handling large masses of iron-Rolled wire rods-Bedson's machine-Crank-shafts-Weldless bands of the Bowling and Low Moor Works.-pp. 1-6..STEEL. Tendency to the manufacture of large masses and difficult shapes-Krupp's exhibit and the extent of his establishment-IKrupp's breech-loading steel gun-Armstrong and Whitworth guns-Paliser gun-Steel gun of Petin, Gaudet & Co.-Cast-steel shot-Cast-steel rails and locomotnive tyres-Iron rails with steel heads-Manufacture of steel-headed rails at Crewe-Experience with steel-headed raiis in the United. States and England —Remnarkable steel products of the Bochum Company-Large steel bells and locomotive cylinder — Miachine cut files in the Swiss department.-pp. 6-10. QUALITY OF MATERIAL. Adaptation of special qualities of iron and steel to spe6ial uses-Inferior iron known as American rail —Rails made for European and Indian roads guaranteed for from five to seven years-Ores in Sweden which contain phosphorus preferred for some purposesWillingness of the public to pay an adequate price for skill and quality-Necessity in the United Stales of the enforcement of the law as to the responsibility for the use of interior materials where life or limb is at risk.-pp. 10-12. PROCESSES OF MANUJFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL. Processes Mwhich have not been introduced in the United States-Wrought iron and steel direct from the ore-Exhibits of Mr. Siemen-Siemen's furnace and process for the production of iron and steel-Westman's roasting furnace, Sweden-Erection of Westman's furnace at Ringwood, New Jersey-Product of blast furnaces-Exhibit of iron and steel made by Swedeu —Dannemora irons-Lancashire irons-Lundin's furnace-U-se of sawdust or peat for fuel-Value of this invention to the United States-Iron of the Cumberland reffion —Cleveland irons —Clcining kilns-Zinc in Cleveland ores —Rolling mills and methods of handling large masses of iron-Slotting tool for rails-Siemen's gas regenerative Ileating furnace-Puddle balls firom the Dowlais Works-Puddling at Nortlfield, England, and at Le Creuzot, France-Beard's improvement-Puddled wire rods.-pp 1.2-22. PROCESSES FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL. Substitution of steel for iron-Good steel can only be made from good materials-Steel establislhment of'Thomas Firth & Sous, Sheffield-Relative value of Bessem r steel and crucible steel —Chassepot rifles-Bessemer process-Special report by Mr. Slade —Bessemer process will not supersede the puddling process-The Parry process an adjLunct to the Bessemer pro cess —French processes for making steel in reverberatory furnaces-Armor plates-Martin's patents —Kirkald'y' s experiments.-pp. 22-28. WORKKS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL. Establishment of Creuzot, France-Petin, Gaudet & Co.-Cockerill and others, in Belgium- Krupp's Works, Prussia-Phoenix Works, Ruhost-Establishment in England and Wales-Co-operative system —Relations of capital and labor-Credit banks.-pp. 27-32. PRODUCTION OF IRON. Mineral coal the controlling element in the production of iron-Statistics of the production of pig and wrought iron-Sources of future supply-Sweden and Russia, Austria, Spain, and Algiers —In Wales the local supply not adequate to the present productin-Linmitation to the production of' British iron-Relation of the coal measures of the United States to IV CONTENTS. the ores of iron-Extent of the iron region in the United States-Cost of producing iron in the United States' and in other countries-Average wages at Le Creuzot, in South Staffordshire, England, and in Belgium-Cost of living at Le Creuzot-Intellectual and moral condition of the workmen in France and England-Opportunities for scientific and technical instruction in France-Education of superintendents and engineers-Mining and engineering schools-Need of similar schools of the sciences and the mechanical arts in the United States-Condition of the working classes in Great Britain-The future policy of Great Britain in its administration of its mines of coal and iron-Discussion of protective and restrictive legislation.-pp. 32-48. SECTION II. BESSEMER STEEL-REPORT BY MR. SLADE. THE BESSEMER PROCESS IN ENGLAND. The iron, furnaces and fuel employed for the pneumatic process-Sulphur and phosphorus the most injurious elements-Mixtures of iron of different brands-Cupola furnaces for melting the iron-Material used for lining-Converters and the apparatus for working them by'hydraulic,power —Size of ingots-Classification of the metal-Determination of amount of,carbon-Uses of Bessemer steel in England.-pp. 48-53. MANUFACTURE OF'STEEL RAILS. Substitution of rollin.g for hammering-Usual size of rolls-Reversing rolls-Ramsbottom's reversing mill-Siemen's furnace in stee Iworks-Heating boilers by gas-Sawing, straightening, and punching rails-Tests to ascertain the quality of rails-Steel-headed railsUtilization of "crop ends" and old rails.-pp. 53-56. MANUFACTURE OF TYRES. Ramsbottom's method-Method at Sheffield-Annular ingots-Galloway & Son's tyre mill-' Bessemer tyres much cheaper than those from' crucible steel.-pp. 56-57. MANUFACTURE OF BESSEMER PLATES. Cause of the distrust of Bessemer plates-Substitution of ferro-manganese for ordinary spiegeleisen as a deoxidizer-Tests of the strength of Bessemer plates compared with crucible steel plates-Adaptation of Franklinite iron to the production of superior platesManufacture.of axles for locomotives and railway carriages-Quality of Bessemer steel in England not equal to that in other countries using better materials.-pp. 57-60. BESSEMER STEEL IN SWEDEN. Swedish Bessemer steel superior to English-Nature of the ores and irons used-Stationary converter-Results of experiment by Kirkaldy-Production of Bessemer steel in Sweden. —pp. 60-63. BESSEMER STEEL IN AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA. Conditions of production similar to those of Sweden-Analyses of the irons and slagsMethod of testing the quality-Prices of the steel in various forms. —pp. 63-65. A P PE N D I C E S. A.-Table showing the analyses of the most important ores of Sweden.-pp. 66-71. B.-Results of the working of the sawdust furnace.-p. 71. C.-Tables of experiments made by David Kirkaldy on Bessemer steel and Swedish iron.pp. 72-79. D.-Transcripts of the Prussian, French, and English laws under which co-operative associations are organized.-pp. 79-90. E. F. —Law of livret in France.-pp. 90-96. H.-Poor rates and pauperism.-p. 96. M ESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, TRANSMITTING lteport of the " Paris Universal Exposition." JANUARY 28, 1868.-Referred to the Committee of Ways and Means and ordered to be printed. MARCH 28, 1868. —Resolved, That there be printed of the report of Abram S. Hewitt, Commissioner to the Paris Exposition, eight thousand extra copies, six thousand for the use, of the House and two thousand for the use of the State Department. To the House of Representatives of the United States: In answer to a resolution of the House of Representatives of the 22d instant,. calling for a copy of the report of Abram S. Hewitt, Commissioner of the United; States to the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, I transmit a report from theSecretary of State, and the papers which accompanied it. ANDREW JOHNSON. WASHINGTON, January 27, 1868. DEPARTMENT OF STATE, Washington, January 27, 1868. The Secretary of State, to whom was referred the resolution of the House of Representatives of the 22d instant, calling for a copy of the report of Abram S., Hewitt, commissioner from the United States to the Paris Exposition of 1867, has the honor to lay before the President the report called for, the subject of' which is "The production of iron and steel in its economic and social relations,"' and which is in two sections. It is accompanied by appendices lettered from A to H[, inclusive.* Respectfully submitted WILLIAM H. SEWARD. The PRESIDENT. *Appendices E and G are omitted in this report. 2 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. RE PORT. The undersigned has the honor to submit to the Secretary of State the following report on "The production of iron and steel, in its economic and social relations ": SECTION I. In the general arrangement of the Universal Exposition of 1867, iron and steel, as products of industry, were placed in the fortieth class of the fifth group. In the distribution of the work of the commission of the United States, made in conformity with the directions of the Secretary of State, a committee was constituted on " Metallurgy and the extractive arts in general," and to this committee was subsequently assigned, by resolution of the commission, the duty of reporting on " Minerals as raw materials in the economic arts."~ The committee consisted of Commissioners Hewitt, I)'Aligny, and J. P. Leslie. To Cornmmissioner Leslie was assigned the task of reporting upon i" Mining machinery and processes of mining;" to Commissioner D'Aligny, on " Minerals, as raw materials in the economic arts, arts, and on' the metallurgy of the precious metals;" and to Commissioner Hewitt " On the production of iron and steel in its economic and social relations." In the preparation of this report, in order to bring it within reasonable limits, the general principle has been adopted of attempting only to describe specimens of material, machinery, and processes of manufacture, which differ substantially dfrom the experience of the United States; thus presenting, as far as practicable, a purely differential report upon the iron and steel of the Exposition. The necessity for this course will be apparent from the mere statement that the catalogue,of class forty includes 2,395 entries, of which the far larger portion are produced,in the United States of equal quality, and by processes equally economical. The,exhibition of the United States, however, was of so meagre a character that -foreigners, judging from the lessons of the Exposition, would have come to the:inevitable conclusion that the iron and steel industry of the United States is not entitled to the rank which it undoubtedly occupies in the metallic production,of the world. The various ores mainly used in the manufacture of iron in the United States, were indeed to be found among the minerals exhibited from the primitive regions of Lake Superior, New York, and New Jersey, while the.brown hematites of Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Alabama, together with the red fossiliferous ore of Tennessee and Alabama, and a brochure published by'Mr. Haines, agent of the State of Alabama, were sufficient to call attention to the unequalled resources of the United States for the foundation of an iron industry which, under equal conditions as to the price of labor, would soon be in advance of that any of other nation whatsoever. A single piece of spathic ore, from Connecticut, and a few pieces of franklinite, from New Jersey, alone served to indicate the possession of the indispensable material upon which the production.of Bessemer steel, as at present practiced, is based. A few pieces of pig iron from Lake Superior, from Wisconsin, Ohio, and Alabama, and some inconsiderable specimens of wrought iron, made from the Lake Superior and the Alabama:pig, were the sole indications of an annual production of more than a million tons of iron. The only proof of the existence of any manufacture of steel in the United States was contained in a case of very beautiful specimens contributed by Park Brotheis & Co., of Pittsburg, for which they received a silver' medal. There was no evidence in the Exposition of our large and increasing product of bar iron, of the rolled girders-in the manufacture of which we preceded the world-of the cut nails, of which we enjoy almost a monopoly, and of the infinite variety of wrought and cast iron, in the skilful production of which we are not surpassed by the most advanced nations of Europe. On the other hand, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 3 there was a marked superiority in the products of the European makers designed for uses requiring difficult shapes-a requirement met in our country either by welding or riveting pieces together, and which, in Europe, at the present time, seems to be almost universally supplied by material of such admirable quality, as to admit of being forged or pressed into the most intricate and unusual forms. Such articles as deeply-dished boiler heads, steam domes, tube sheets, and even culinary vessels of every form and variety, and many other articles of fancy, designed merely as tours de force, such as cocked hats, and series of square domes raised from a flat plate, were exhibited, made from a single piece without weld or joint. Nor was this evidence of peculiar excellence confined to any one country. In France the works at Le Creusot, Chatillon, and Commentry, and those of Messrs. Petin Gaudet & Co.; in England, the Bowling and Low Moor Works, and those of the Earl of Dudley; in Prussia the works of A. Borsig, near Berlin, and of Hoerde; and in Austria the imperial works at Neuberg, may be enumerated, among others, as having exhibited material of such remarkable quality as to open an entirely new field for the application of iron and steel. Again, there was unmistakable evidence in the Exposition of the readiness of the European ironmasters to grapple with difficulties in the way of rolling shapes from which at present the American maker would shrink. For example, Messrs. Petin Gaudet & Co. (France) exhibited a rolled beam of the depth of 1 metre, (39- inches,) in length, 9.72 metres, (over 32 feet,) and weighing 2~' tons. They also exhibited another beam weighing 2.3 tons, 12 inches in height, and over 106 feet in length. The works of Chattilon and Commentry exhibited a beam 434 inches in height, and with a 12-inch flange, but of very moderate length; but another beam was exhibited, about 100 feet in length, 9 inches high, weighing about fifteen hundred weight. The Burbach (Prussian) works exhibited a rolled beam 47 feet long and 15 inches in height. A careful observation, however, of the various structures in process of erection on the Continent, failed to show that these remarkable specimens of rolling had yet been brought within such limits of cost as to admit of their use in building. In the Exposition building itself, no rolled beams were to be found of a greater depth than 9 inches, and in the innumerable buildings which are being erected in Paris, and in which iron bearns are invariably employed to the exclusion of wood, 4 inches, 6 inches, and 7 inches are the dimensions most generally employed. Thus far the construction of a fire-proof building in the United States is accomplished with less pounds of iron for a given strain per square foot than in France, and we have nothing to learn from. the Exposition in this respect. But now that it has been found possible to produce beams of such large dimensions by the simple process of rolling, it is but reasonable to expect that the cost will be reduced as experience is gained, and that they will gradually replace the riveted girders, which even in the Palace of the Louvre are invariably employed for spans of any considerable extent. It is proper, however, to call the attention of our American makers of rolled beams to the extraordinary specimens which we have described, and which it is understood are produced by the aid of the "universal rolling mill." Of this two forms were on exhibition, one in the pavilion of Chatillon (France) and the other in the Austrian department. The latter consists of four rolls, in two pairs, working at right angles to each other, a description of which, illustrated by engravings, can be found in Colburn's Journal (Engineering) for May 24, 1867. Of the mill at Petin Gaudet & Co.'s no model was exhibited and no description of it, was given in the documents furnished to the commission. By a personal visit to the works, however, the construction of the mill was seen to be very simple, and not remarkable for novelty. For each size of beam there is a pair of rolls, each having a working face at the middle of its length equal in width to the depth of the beam. The diameter of the roll at this part is very large, say 3 feet 6 inches, the body of the roll for the rest of its 4 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. length being about 22 inches diameter. This formation of the rolls leaves a considerable space between the two except where the working faces come together. In this open space is placed a pair of rollers, working on vertical axes fixed in stout movable frames, by which they can be brought into juxtaposition with that portion of the horizontal rolls which is of largest diameter. The pile used is somewhat thinner than the width of the flange to be produced, and of a width somewhat greater than the depth of the beam, and is so made up as to conform roughly to the final shape of the girder. As the main rolls are brought together, and form the trough in the beam, the firiction rollers at the sides are also pressed towards the centre, and tend by the pressure which they exert to extend the flanges at the same time that the web is being drawn out by the main rolls. An offset is turned in the side of the large portion of the rolls to receive and form properly the flange as it is extended by the pressure of the friction rolls. The latter are worked each by a screw in a horizontal frame bolted to the side of the housing, the screw being provided with a ratchet lever, to be worked by.hand. This enables the thickness of the flanges to be adjusted with precision. With this mill they have rolled girders of 40 inches height, 33 feet long, and feel confident that they could make them 90 feet in length. The essential features, of this mill were all to be found in the first traintor rolling beams erected in 1853 at the Trenton Works, New Jersey, but in that case the axes of the driven rolls and of the friction rolls were at right angles to the mill of Petin Gandet & Co., which is probably a better working arrangeiment than the old train at Trenton, The Universal mill is not yet introduced into England, but forms the subject of an English patent now expired, and is undoubtedly destined to fill a -very important place in the rolling of iron, and the American iron-master cannot too soon avail of its advantages before impediments shall be put in its way by the issue of American patents. Next to rolled girders, or perhaps even more remarkable than these, were the specimens of plate iron contributed fr'om England, France, Germany, and Belgium. John Brown & Co., of Sheffield, exhibited a plate which, after being dressed up to square edges and ends, was 30 feet in length, 2 feet 6 inches in width, and 6 inches thick, weighing 11 tons 5 hundred-weight; and also a piece of a plate which in its original condition was 13 feet long, 6 feet wide, 13A inches thick, and weighed 20 tons. For the production of these enormous masses of iron the machinery is of the ordinary kind in construction, but of dimensions proportionate to the mass of iron to be handled. The size of the rolls is 3 feet, and the handling of the iron is accomplished with facility by the aid of steam cranes and. of iron chains winding upon the rolls themselves, which are reversible by a clutch gearing, and make about twenty revolutions per minute. Other plates of 6 inches in thickness and of various weights up to 5 tons were exhibited by the works of Chatillon and of Messrs. Petin Gaudet & Co., (France,) and of Hoerde, (Prussia.) Generally there may be said to exist a prevailing willingness and practice in the European works to handle iron in larger masses for every purpose than we do in the United States. For example, Belgium exhibited band iron threefourths inches wide by 230 feet in length; Prussia exhibited sheet iron of 21l gauge, 48 by 108 inches, and wire rods are frequently to be found in all the departments ranging from 30 to 50 pounds in weight, rolled in trains of the ordinary dimensions, and running at speeds' no greater than we employ in the Un.ited States, for 15 pound billets. This is accomplished by keeping the billet in many more grooves at the same time than we are in the habit of doing, by an ingenious system of doubling the rods backwards and forwards. This same method is employed at Montataire, in France, and at other works for rolling braziers' rods, and even bar iron; and this not from the necessities of the order, but from choice, as a matter of economy. In this way one-inch bars of 100 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 5 feet in length are regularly produced, and this system, unknown in the United States, can doubtless be introduced with great advantage. But the most remarklable specimen of rolling was in the English department, exhibited by Richard Johnson & Nephew, of Manchester, in the shape of a coil of No. 3 wire rods, weighing 281 pounds, in length 530 yards, rolled from a: single billet. Also a coil of No. 8 wire weighing 200 pounds, 900 yards in length, and a coil of No. 11 wire weighing 95 pounds, in length 790 yards. These wonderful specimens of wire were not, however, produced in an ordinary mill, but were rolled in a machine invented by George Bedson, the manager of the Bradford iron works, in Manchester. This machine consists of rolls in thirteen pairs, placed one behind the other, instead of side by side, as usual, with guides connecting the successive pairs of rolls, and revolving at such relative rates of speed that the billet being rolled receives the compressing action of the rolls all at the same time. The billet is fed from a long feeding furnace at one end of the train of rolls, being charged at the end of the furnace furthest from the train. A Siemen's generator is used to supply the furnace with gas, so as to insure a uniform heat. The average product of the train is eleven tons per day, and the weight of the billets usually rolled is from 80 to 100 pounds. A comparison of the work for six months, with two old-fashioned trains also running in the same works, shows that the waste is reduced from ten and one-half per cent. to six and nine-tenths per cent., and that the consumption of coal is reduced from fourteen hundred-weight, three-quarters, twenty-five pounds, to eight hundred-weight, and eighteen pounds per ton, most of which saving is doubtless due to the use of Siemen-'s furnace, and not to the train; the advantages of the latter consisting in an increase of product of nearly one-half in the increased weight of the billets rolled, and in the economy of the labor employed. A personal visit was made to the Bradford iron works, to see the operation of this ingenious and successful machine. It appears to be all that could be desired, and the action of the rolls upon the iron unquestionably produces a sounder and better rod than when worked by the old process, and this is due doubtless to the higher and more uniform heat at which the rod is finished.* In the use of wire for telegraphic purposes, for wire suspension bridges, an for cables and ropes, the superior value of long lengths is undeniable. Bedson's machine has therefore the double merit of producing a better article, at a lower cost, than has hitherto'been obtained; and it is a matter of regret to those who have become familiar with its novelty and its merits, that it received only the recognition of a silver medal, when it so justly deserved the highest prize. Borsig, of Berlin, exhibited remarkable specimens of gigantic puddle balls, a single one weighing 1,064 kilograms, (more than a ton) and he also exhibited a wrought iron piston without a weld, weighing 590 kilograms, (nearly twelve hundred-weight.) These are not mere tours de force, as he is prepared to take orders at a price which renders it economical to employ his product. In connection with the large masses of iron with which, as demonstrated in the Exposition, modern industry so much occupies itself, it is proper to refer to the crank shafts exhibited by Messrs. Marrel frSres, of'Gier, (France.) Of these one has three cranks placed 1200 apart, and has a length of nearly forty feet, theweight being 30,180 kilograms, or about thirty tons. Another is a four throw crank, say twenty-seven feet in length and twelve inches in diameter. Among the new applications of iron exhibited in the Exposition are the weldless bands made at the Bowling and Low Moor works,'t (England,) employed for uniting the cylindrical sections of steam boilers, covering. the joints and strongly riveted on each side thereof, so not merely as to make a firm union, but greatly to stiffen the boiler when finished. The Bowling ring has a cross * The same principle has been since successfully applied to the rolling of bar iron. t For a description of the process of making iron at Low Moor, Bowling, and Farnuley, the reader is referred to "Percy's Metasllurgy of Iron and Steel," page 732. 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. section like the letter U, with wide flanges, and seems better adapted to stiffen the boiler or flue, and to allow of expansion and contraction, than the flat -ring made by the Low Moor works. The one on exhibition is seven inches in total width, three-eighths thick, the arch in the middle rises two inches, and the width of the flanges istwo and onehalf inches. These bands would appear to be thoroughly well adapted to their purpose, and worthy of immediate adoption in our country. STEEL. In cast steel, by whatsoever process produced, the same tending to large masses and difficult shapes was to be remarked. In advance of all other makers, the specimens exhibited by Krupp, of Essen, (Prussia,) were worthy of the highest admiration. The largest single piece of cast steel was a cylindrical ingot forged at one end into an octagonal shape, 56 inches in diameter, and weighing 40 tons. The grain of this ingot was exposed by the fracture of the forged end, and was uncommonly uniform and free from air bubbles. A piece had also been cut from the portion not forged, which showed at the place of fracture an equally uniform grain. At the English exhibition of 1851, a cast steel ingot exhibited by Krupp, weighing two and a quarter tons, caused more astonishment than the ingot we have just described, because the world has become familiar with metallic masses of enormous size, but the progress made in sixteen years in the production of cast steel is none the less marvellous, especially if considered in connection with the machinery necessary to produce and work the ponderous ingots into shape, and the organization of the labor and skill required for their formation. The establishment of Krupp occupies about 450 acres, of which one-fourth are under roof. The number of men employed in the works is 8,000, besides which 2,000 more are employed in the coal mines, at the blast furnaces, and at the ore mines. The production of these works in 1866 was 61,000 tons, more than the entire production of cast steel in the world at the time of the first English exhibition. The value of this product'was over $10,0C0,000 in currency. It was accomplished by means of 412 smelting, reverberatory, and cementing furnaces, 195 steam engines, ranging from 2 to 1,000 horse-power, 49 steam hammers, in the largest of which the hammer block weighs 50 tons, 110 smiths' forges, 318 lathes, 111 planing machines, 61 cutting and shaping machines, 75 grinding machines, 26 special tools. 1,000 tons of coal are consumed daily in the manufacture of steel alone, and 120 steam boilers are in use evaporating 150,000 cubic feet of water daily. Fifteen miles of rail are laid in the works alone, and 6 locomotives and 150 cars are required for its use within the limits of the establishment. In order to appreciate the eminent justice with which the grand prize of the Exposition was bestowed upon Frederick Krupp, it is not merely necessary to study these marvelous figures but to consider that this establishment, by far the iost extensive ever produced by the energy of man, and these processes, the most difficult ever attempted by his ingenuity, are the offspring of a single life, begun almost by the side of his father's humble forge, and rising through the various stages of poverty, trial, discouragement, and final success, to the very front of the industrial achievements of the world. Such an establishment, such results, and such a man, have special interest for the United States, where the natural resources of the country, the rapid progress of population and civilization, and the genius of our free institutions, all invite a generous emulation in order to equal, and in the course of time even to surpass these magnificent achievements, which, if Krupp, the great captain of modern industry, had not lived in our day and generation, might well have been deemed impossible. Among the other remarkable specimens exhibited by Krupp is a cast-steel tyre, rolled without weld, eight feet in diameter, a cast-steel axle of crucible steel, PARIS.UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 7 with cast-steel disc wheels, neither forged nor rolled, but cast directly into shape, weighing 1,623 pounds; a cast-steel locomotive crank axle, with cast-steel wheels 6 feet in diameter, weighing 3 tons 13 hundred weight; a cast-steel junction ring of angular section, for uniting the courses of steam boilers, made without weld, 8 feet in diameter, weighing 483 pounds; a cast-steel double crank shaft for a screw steamer, 25 feet long, 14 inches in diameter, weighing (finished) 94. tons; forged under'the 50-ton hammer from an ingot originally weighing 27 tons. And this is a proper place to note that cast-steel crank shafts appear to be coming into general use, not merely for locomotive and stationary engines, but for the massive marine engines which are required for the steamers devoted to the business of transatlantic navigatiop. The experience with these cast-steel crank shafts fdr marine engines does not appear to be sufficiently extensive to warrant any positive opinion as to the comparative value of cast steel and iron for the purpose, and it is possible that in cases where great resistance to torsion is required, iron will maintain its place. In any event the attention of engineers has been so called to this subject by the Exposition, that we may expect soon to have all doubts on this important subject removed. The most striking object, however, in Krupp's exhibition, was the cast-steel thousand-pounder rifled breech-loading gun, resting on a cast-steel carriage, intended for the arming of coast batteries for the destruction of iron-plated ships. It consists of an inner tube, upon which are shrunk cast steel rings. This tube was forged under the 50-ton hammer, from an ingot weighing forty and onefourth tons, but reduced in the process of manufacture to twenty tons by the loss of the sinking head, and by forging, turning and boring. The cast-steel rings are three in number at the powder chamber, and two in number towards the muzzle portion of the gun. These rings weigh thirty tons in the aggregate, and were each manufactured from an ingot without welding. The total weight of the gun is 50 tons, the diameter of the bore is 14 inches, and the total length of the gun is 210 inches. It has 40 rifle grooves, in depth.15 inch, and the twist of the rifling diminishes from one turn in 980 inches to one turn in 1,014.4 inches; the weight of the solid shot is.1,212 pounds, and of the shell 1,080 pounds, and the weight of the latter is made up of the cast-steel shell, 834 pounds, the lead jacket, 220 pounds, and the bursting charge, 17 pounds; the charge of powder for the gun is from 110 to 130 pounds. The cannon reposes upon a steel carriage weighing fifteen tons, and the two together work upon a turn-table weightwenty-five tons. The turn-table was not exhibited for want of space, but it was stated that the gun-carriage slides smoothly upon the turn-table to the cheeks at the backstays at each discharge of the gun, and that two men can quickly and easily elevate, depress, and turn the gun so as to follow and cover with speed and certainty any vessel in motion. The price of the gun, which is understood to have been made for the Russian government, is X15,750 sterling, and of the carriage and turn-table X6,000, being about $150,000 in currency. Sixteen months of unremitted labor, by day and night, were expended upon its manufacture, and its transportation from the works to the Exposition required a car made entirely of steel and iron weighing twenty-four tons, resting upon twelve wheels. It forms no part of the purpose of this report to institute a comparison between different systems of ordnance, or even to undertake to decide the relative value of cast and wrought iron and steel, for the manufacture of guns, but it has been deemed best to give a somewhat elaborate description of this monster engine of war, in order to indicate the possibilities of construction in its most difficult and expensive form, in case experience should show that such weapons will hereafter be required in our own country. In this connection a comparison with the largest guns produced in England will be of interest. Sir William Armstrong exhibits a 124-ton 9-inch muzzle-loading rifled gun, constructed on the coil principle, and mounted on a wrought-iron carriage and slide; the weight of PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the projectile is 250 pounds and the charge of powder 43 pounds. This gun is. beautifully made, and is noteworthy from the fact that the compression for check-' ing the recoil is wholly of iron, and is thrown in and out of action by a leverhandle, which is self-acting if neglected. The gun is designed for use on shipboard. The largest Whitworth gun exhibited is a 150-pounder, and is constructed exclusively of mild steel, wrought into tubes, which are forced into each other by hydraulic pressure. But to us the most interesting gun is the 9-inch Paliser gun, made by casting an exterior coating of iron around an interior barrel of wrought-iron, constructed on the coil principle. This gun carries a projectile of 250 pounds, and if in practice it should. be found to have substantial advantages over our cast-iron guns, it suggests a method by which we may apply the principle to the reconstruction of the largd number of cast-iron guns which have been accumulated during the last few years. The gun nov manufactured by the British war department, at Woolwich, consists of a cast-steel tube, upon which rings of fibrous wrought iron, made upon the coil principle, are built up, and the specimen exhibited was a 12-inch muzzle-loader, weighing 470 hundredweight, length of bore 145 inches, having 9 grooves, each 14 inch wide and.2 inch in depth, the spiral increasing from one turn in 1,200 to one turn in 600. The weight of the charge of powder -is 70 pounds, and of the projectile 600 pounds. The only other gun requiring notice was a coiled steel gun, made by Petin, Gaudet & Co., weighing sixteen tons, and intended to throw a projectile of three hundred pounds in weight; but it was quite evident that the manufacture of steel and wrQught-iron guns in France is still in its infancy, and there would seem to.be the same uncertainty in regard to their value as prevails in the United States. But there would seem to be no doubt that within certain limits of size, and perhaps for all sizes of field-pieces, cast steel is regarded as the best material, and Krupp has already produced more than 3,500 caststeel guns, mostly rifled breech-loaders, and at the present time has orders in hand for immediate delivery of 2,200 guns, ranging from four-pounders to three hundred-pounders. Not much accurate information is to be procured in regard to the endurance of the larger-sized guns, but Krupp exhibited a cast-steel rifled four-pounder breech-loading gun, belonging to the Prussian war department, which had been fired several hundred times, with gradually increasing charges up to three and three-quarters pounds of powder and one hundred and twenty-two pounds of shot, without the slightest appearance of injury. Although no evidence was afforded by the Exposition of the. substitution of cast steel for cast-iron shot in the French service, my visits to the French iron works seemed to show conclusively that such is the case, as all the large establishments were actively engaged in the manufacture of cast-steel missiles of all sizes, but more especially of the larger calibre; and whatever the fact may be, it is quite evident that cast steel is regarded by French military engineers as superior to all other materials where penetration is required. Krupp also exhibited a cast-steel rail fifty feet in length and bent double, cold, in the middle, without fracture. HIis engineer in the Exposition stated that their annual product of rails was *about. thirty thousand tons, and that no Bessemer steel was employed in their construction. In the absence of a personal visit to the works, we are bound to accept this statement as true, although it is stated on good authority that as many as nine pairs of converters are constantly employed at the works in the production of Bessemer steel, and there seems to be an impression that the tyres latterly produced at Essen are not quite equal in quality to the remarkable material which was at first employed for this purpose. This may be only the result of rival representations, and it is undeniable that up to the present time Krupp maintains his pre-eminence in the manufacture of locomotive tyres, and is probably justified in the claim which he makes, Lhat his crucible cast-steel coils are superior to those made fiom Bessemer PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 9 metal. -In the year 1865 the sale of cast-steel tyres amounted to 11,396 sets, and the guarantee of their endurance given by Krupp is that they will run 400 kilometres for each kilogramme of weight, (equivalent to 125 miles per pound;) that is to say, a tyre weighing 600 pounds is guaranteed to run 75,000 miles, but their actual performance as a general rule shows a much higher endurance. The results with these tyres and those of other makers-such as Naylor, Vickers & Co., Firth & Sons, the Bochum Company, Petin, Gaudet & -Co., the Bowling Company, and the Monk Bridge Company, and other respectable makers, would seem to justify the broad statement that the day for iron locomotive tyres has passed by, and that it is far more economical, if not more safe, to substitute cast-steel tyres in every case. The same conclusion cannot yet be affirmed of rails, because the interest account, of but little consequence in the case of the tyre, becomes a very serious, and, indeed, controlling element in the case of rails. It may be stated, however, that in all cases whelre iron rails wear out in consequence of hard service within the limits of duration assigned to a steel tyre, it is quite as economical to use steel rails in lieu of iron ones as it is to use steel in lieu of iron tyres. But, assuming the cost of cast-steel rails to be double that of good iron rails, it is quite evident that there must be a limit in the duration of iron rails beyond which it will not pay to substitute cast steel. This calculation is one which must be made by each consumer for himself, with reference to the available capital at his disposal; but it is safe to declare that on all roads where the iron rail has an average life of ten years it would not be profitable to substitute cast-steel rails, and so long as the average rate of interest paid by railroad companies in the United States amounts to eight per cent. per annum it would be found expedient considerably to reduce the limit of ten years above assumed for the duration of iron rails before the substitution of steel'rails could be justified on grounds of economy. Even in England, where capital.is superabundant and the rate of interest on long obligations not over five per cent., and the traffic per mile of very large dimensions, requiring, as a general rule, the renewal of iron rails in seven years, cast-steel rails have thus far not been very extensively introduced; and even on the London and Northwestern railway, which owns a mill devoted expressly to their manufacture from Bessemer steel, and which, from its enormous traffic, has every inducement to make its road as permanent as possible, the money question seems to check the use of cast-steel rails upon any very extended scale. And yet the necessity of more durable rails than those generally in use is so apparent that any attempt to secure greater durability without much additional cost is regarded with great interest, and hence in the Exposition there were many specimens, and from all the leading nations, of iron rails with steel heads. In some cases the material employed for the head was puddled steel, in others cast steel, and in others Bessemer steel. It seemed to be generally admitted that the durability of the steel in the head was in'nowise impaired by its being placed upon a cushion or bed of wrought iron, but the great difficulty appeared to be in securing a thorough union or weld between the two kinds of metal. In the Austrian department, where some admirable specimens of steel-headed rails were exhibited, from the Neuburg Works, the engineer in charge stated that nine per cent. of the heads failed in the weld during the first year, but that subsequently no failures occurred, and that even with this amount of loss the rails were regarded as cheaper than either steel or iron. At Crewe, where the works of the London and Northwestern Company are situated, and where a considerable quantity of Bessemer steel:headed rails have been made, it was.stated that some difficulty had been found at first in making a reliable weld of the steel to the wrought iron, and that as many as five per cent. of the rails first made had failed in consequence of the loosening of the steel top; but as experience was acquired in the manufacture this difficulty had disappeared, and the. percentage of loss had been reduced materially. The practice at Crewe is to 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. place a bar of soft puddled iron between the steel of the top and the old rails used in the lower part of the rail, and as a further protection the steel for the head is rolled in the form of a channel bari with ribs in the recessed portion so as to fold around and embrace, as, it were, the head of the rail. Considerable experience has already been acquired in the United States as to the feasibility of making a sufficiently good junction between the iron and steel for a durable rail, and it may be confidently affirmed that there is no practical difficulty in the way of making an iron rail with a steel head, whether of puddled, Bessemer or cast metal, that will meet all the reasonable requirements of the case, and reduce the failures to less than one per cent. The cost of steelheaded rails is, of course, intermediate between that of all iron and that of all steel rails, and the system possesses the great advantage of rendering all the old rails available for re-manufacture, and of thus renewing the tracks with a bearing surface of steel by gradual steps, and with a very moderate increase of cost. On the London and Northwestern railway, which has had the most experience in the use of Bessemer and steel-headed rails, experience seems to show that the steel headed rails possess all the requirements in point of cost and durability for their general introduction on the line, and the conclusion is irresistible in my own mind, after a careful study of the specimens in the Exposition, that the steel-headed rail will ultimately prevail over all other kinds of rails now known, and that in the United States the facilities for their manufacture are unusually favorable. It is a question in what manner the steel shall be made for the heads, and this point will be discussed when we come to speak of processes, and it is enough to state here that a good steel head can be made firom any one of the kinds of steel above specified. In closing this brief statement of the remarkable specimens of cast steel in the Exposition, the products of the Bochum Company (Prussia) should not be overlooked. An enormous cast-steel bell, weighing 29,500 pounds, remarkable for the admirable proportion which existed between its size and its tone, was not, however, more wonderful than the cast-steel railway wheels made in sets of ten or a dozen, united by a thin shaft of metal running through the centres, thus enabling one sinking head to answer for. the whole quantity, and securing greater density and soundness in the metal. These wheels, when cut apart and turned up, were beautifully sound and clean, and gave evidence of ability to cast steel with asmuch facility as ordinary cast iron. Another evidence of this was to be found in a locomotive cylinder, bored and of such finish and soundness as not merely to excite general admiration, but, induced the belief that possibly it was cast iron which had been deprived of its carbon by being annealed in a bath of oxide of iron, or some other decarbonizing material. In the Swiss department, machine-cut steel files were exhibited fully equal to any cut by hand; and this result is said to be due to the grinding of the blanks across the face instead of lengthwise, a point which may have great value to our own makers of files. QUALITY OF MATERIAL. A careful observer of the iron and steel specimens in the Exposition could not fail to be struck with the varieties in the quality of the metal exhibited and the evident attention paid to the adaptation of special qualities to special uses. In some establishments only a particular quality would be produced, but, as a general rule, all the large works exhibited, and seemed prepared to produce, a quality proportioned to the price to be paid. In the pavilion of Le Creusot, for example, seven different qualities of merchant iron were displayed as examples of the uses to which each quality would be applied, and a personal visit to the works satisfied me that there was nothing,fanciful in these grades. In the Welsh iron works it is notorious that the quality of the article produced is directly proportioned to the price paid for it, and in PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. l1 my visits to those gigantic establishments which have grown up in the mount.ains of South Wales, it was humiliating to find that the vilest trash which could be dignifiled by the name of iron went universally by the name of the American rail. This is no fault of the Welsh iron-master' but has arisen from the almost universal practice of late years, on the part of American railroad companies and contractors, of purchasing the lowest-priced article that could be produced. Of course no iron of this quality was to be found in the Exposition; but if prizes were to be given for mere human ingenuity, I cannot conceive of anything more entitled to it than the production of a well-finished rail from puddled balls, that will not hold together under the alligator squeezer. There is, however, one thing more remarkable even than this low quality of iron; and that is, the stupidity and reckless extravagance of the customers who are found to buy it. To this cause, more than any other, is due the necessity of almost annual renewals of rails in the United States, and of the financial troubles of so many of our leading lines of railway inor is there the slightest excuse for this result, for the Welsh iron-masters, to their credit be it said, make no concealment either of the inferiority of the material or the poverty of the process by which it is treated, and greatly prefer to turn out work creditable to themselves and profitable to their customers. But the inexorable law of competition, and the unremitted cry for cheap iron in America, have left them no choice. For their own country, for the continent of Europe, and for India, no such system is practiced. As a general rule, all rails made for home consumption are guaranteed for from five to seven years, according to the traffic; that is to say, every rail that fails in the slightest degree within the time specified is renewed at the expense of the maker. The extra price paid for a guaranteed rail on. roads of moderate traffic is about thirty per cent., but on roads having a heavy traffic at least fifty per cent. additional is paid. In cases where the guarantee cannot be procured in consequence of the heavy usage to which the line, or any portion of it, is subjected, the conclusion is inevitable that a steel rail should be used. And until a similar system of guarantee and adequate payment therefor is introduced into the United States, shareholders in railway companies can place no reliance on the security of their investment and the permanency of dividends. It is this difference in the quality of iron, and its corresponding money value, which enables particular works and special regions to thrive under local disadvantages as to cost. To some extent the same rule applies in the United States, but it may be affirmed that there is no civilized country in which the discrimination is made to so small an extent, and which loses so much by its indifference. A very remarkable proof of the adoption of particular quantities to particular purposes is to be found in Sweden, which possesses inexhaustible stores of primitive ores, many of them adapted to the manufacture of steel and the very highest grades of bar iron, and yet, for some purposes, ores which contain phosphorus are absolutely preferred to the purer ores, even though procurable at the same price. For tools, such as spades, shovels, hoes, and other utensils, and for roofingsheets, which are to be subjected to severe wear, at least one-tenth of one per cent. of phosphorus in the iron is considered desirable. Again, in France, in order to produce the better grades of iron, ores are brought in large quantities from Elba and Algiers, at a high cost, which is reimbursed by the purchaser. If there was any lesson clearly taught in the Exposition, it was the willingness of the public to pay an adequate price for skill and quality, and this willingness must spring from an enlightened self-interest. There is no difficulty whatever in producing in the United States any quality of iron and steel that mav be desired, for we have an exhaustless profusion of the very best kinds of ore and coal, and, at the present day, so open to eom t12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. munication as to render them available with as little expenditure of human labor as the most favored countries of Europe. But the problem presented for solution to the American iron-master has not merely been to procure this labor at as low a cost as it is obtained in Europe, (a requirement utterly impossible to be met,) but to produce the highest grade of material in competition with the price of the poorest foreign article. For the difference in the price of labor a remedy may be found in the tariff, but for the other exaction there is no remedy but greater intelligence on the part of the consumers, and in all cases where life or limb is at risk, the enforcement of the law as to the responsibility for the use of inferior material. PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE. Having completed a brief survey of'the articles in the Exposition which to the eye of an American would appear remarkable, we come next to the consideration of the processes employed in the'manufacture of iron and steel, which have not yet been introduced, to any considerable extent, in the United States. And first, in the natural order, comes the production of wrought iron and steel by a direct process from the ore. To some extent this branch of industry still continues in the United States, especially in the northern part of the States of New York and New Jersey, where the process employed is usually but incorrectly known as the Catalan method of making wrought iron. But in Europe this -mode of making iron may be said to have died out, although in the mountains of Spain, and some portions of Italy, a few fires still maintain.a feeble existence. The practical mind of Europe and America, however, has never ceased its efforts to produce wrought iron and steel directly from the ore, by some convenient and economical process, and perhaps at no time has this subject received more attention than at the present. Of this interest, however, the Exposition afforded but a single example; —b-nt that example in a quarter so distinguished both for scientific and mechanical knowledge, and for success so eminent in another direction, as to have merited the grand prize of the Exposition, that it seems reasonable to expect the solution of this difficult problem, if it be at all possible, at the hands of Charles William Siemens, whose regenerating heating furnace will be the subject of subsequent consideration. In the exhibition of Mr. Siemens were some small specimens of cast steel, which had been made direct from the ore, but which would scarcely have been remarked but for the eminence of the maker. They were made in conformity to a patent issued to Mr. Siemens on the 2;0th September, 1866, in which he states that his invention has for its object the production of iron or steel directly from the ore, and in a continuous manner, analogous in this respect to the continuous action of the blast furnace; and consists in exposing a mass of ore, which may or may not be mixed with reducing agents or fluxes, upon van.inclined surface, to the surface action of intense heat, and in introducing at the same time a current or currents of combustible gases or petroleum oil in among the mass from below.the inclined surface, so as to percolate through the mass of ore, affecting or aiding in its reduction, and at the same time enveloping its surface where exposed to the flame in a deoxidizing or reducing atmosphere, tending to facilitate its fusion. The fused metal and cinders accumulating at the foot of the inclined surface are from time to time removed, while a mass of ore is maintained upon the inclined plane by its own gravitation, fresh ore being supplied from hoppers at the top of the incline in regular quantities. The intense heat spoken of in this description as necessary for the process is produced by Siemens' regenerative gas furnaces. Mr. Siemens has been conducting experiments upon the red hematite ores at Barrow in Furness, with a view to demonstrate the practicability and economy of this process, but it is yet premature to estimate the measure of his success. If, however, he should succeed in practice, with the magnetic ores of PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 13 the Atlantic highland range stretching from New York to Georgia, and the primitive peroxides extending from the great lakes thi'ough Missouri and Arkansas, with the command of the fuel and the petroleum indispensable for its success, this process will be of incalculable value to the United States. In the preparation of ore for the blast furnace, Sweden exhibits the model of a roasting furnace invented by Mr. E. Westman, and which was adopted in the first place at I)annemora works, and since generally introduced at the other iron works in Sweden. It consists of a vertical furnace which is heated by a portion of the gas drawn from the blast furnaces themselves, and introduced at the bottom of the roasting furnace through suitable flues by the aid of natural draught. The temperature in the furnace is carried to such a degree as to soften the ore, and drive off the sulphuric acid arising from the oxidation of a portion of the sulphur, disengaged by a distillation of a lower temperature from the pyrites, which may be mixed with the ore; a portion, moreover, of the sulphur is oxidized by the oxygen of the ore. Ore thus roasted, however dense when charged into the roasting furnace, is discharged at the bottom quite porous, like a sponge, and almost entirely free from sulphur, if it do not contain more than four per cent. in its natural state. With ore so roasted, and which presents an entirely different appearance from ore prepared in a common kiln, the statement is not surprising that the blast furnace runs with far greater regularity and with much less consumption of fuel. The introduction of this roasting furnace will be of great value when magnetic ores are smelted with charcoal. It is highly probable that even in furnaces fed by mineral coal, it will bring into economic use a great variety of ore now rejected on account of sulphur. So important did this furnace appear, that the undersigned at once engaged a Swedish engineer to proceed to America, where he is now erecting a furnace at Ringwood, in New Jersey, so that at an early date it may be examined by the public. Besides economising coal, the Westman furnace, in connection with other improvements resulting from a more accurate knowledge of the theory of the blast furnace, and a careful study of its operation, has greatly increased the weekly product of the charcoal furnaces in Sweden. The general dimensions of the blast furnaces are from eight to nine feet across the boshes, and from forty to fifty feet in height. The average product of these furnaces driven with a blast heated to 1500 to 200~ Centigrade is about seventy-five tons per week, which is nearly double the product made a few years since, and now made in the United States from the same class of magnetic ores, which must be carefully distinguished from the brown hematites'of Connecticut, and the peroxides of Lake Superior. The charging of the furnace, in particular, is moost carefully attended to; absolute uniformity in the size of the pieces of ore is insisted upon, and the charge is distributed over the furnace by a shovel, in which it is first weighed, and then run on a suspended railway to the tunnel head of the furnace, which is never closed. The most intelligent engineers expressed the opinion that the furnaces would give better resultsif made larger; but as they are, 100 pounds of cast iron are produced with ninety pounds of charcoal, which is as near as possible at the rate of 112 bushels to the ton. To supply this quantity of coal it is estimated that 5,000 square metres (about 6,000 square yards) of wood land are required, and the most vigorous care is practiced in order to insure a perpetual supply of wood to the works. This is not in consequence of any regulation of the government, as is generally supposed, but by a concurrence of action among the Swedish iron-masters, who have an association administered with great vigor and intelligence. For the production of 100 pounds of bar iron from the pig 100 pounds of charcoal are required where the works are upon a scale sufficiently large to work to the best advantage. The English run-out or refinery fire is not in use in Sweden, but the refining is all accomplished in the ordinary forge fire generally in use in Pennsylvania. Various modes of treatment in this fire are employed, but the one most generally 14- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. used is the Lancashire method, substantially the same as the Welsh process generally employed in the United States. At Dannemora the Walloon method is employed, and at Elfsborg the method of Franche Comt6 is in use. At Kihlafors a combination of the Walloon and Lancashire methods is adopted, which is said to produce a very superior quality of iron with a very small consumption of coal. A detailed description of these methods may be found in Percy's Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron and Steel, pp. 591, 604. They all give good iron if they are properly followed. The special interest which these Swedish irons have for us consists in the fact that at this day, as for many years' past, they are regarded as indispensable for the production of the best quality of cast steel by the crucible process. Hence the exhibition made by Sweden was among the most interesting in the Exposition, and it is creditable to that country and its iron-masters that it was not only most complete in all its details, but afforded an opportunity of studying its peculiar process of manufacture, from the ore to its final result in the highest grade of cast steel.' The Swedish exhibition was in charge of a most intelligent engineer, Mr. L. Ruiman, who took the greatest possible pains to furnish whatever information might be desired in regard to the manufacture of metals in Sweden. The Danemora irons have generally a fine grain, but unequal in size, composed apparently of hard and soft particles, but in ductility and tenacity the strength of this iron still maintains its superiority over all others; and it has the remarkable peculiarity that, wheni heated, it becomes very soft and full of fibre, and when cemented and cast into steel the inequalities of fracture entirely disappear. The irons made by the Lancashire fires are generally the most equal in grain, and this is supposed to bb due not so much to the primary process of manufacture as to the peculiar mode of reheating and hammering to which they are subsequently subjected. For reheating, the gas welding furnace, as it is called, is usually employed, by which the bloom is subjected to so high a heat as to become incandescent, so that when subjected to'the hammer all raw iron breaks in pieces, and is thrown off in the forms of small bits and blue sparks. Loops which act in this way are absolutely rejected for commercial purposes, and are only used for the local wants of the works themselves. There can be no doubt in my mind that to the use of the gas welding furnace, and the high heat, coupled with care in the selection of ores, is due the superiority which must be accorded to Swedish over American iron made by the charcoal process. For steel, iron ore containing phosphorus is absolutely rejected, and it is a curious fact that Mr. Le Play, so long ago as 1846, prepared a table of Swedish iron, arranging their rank according to the price which they bore in the steel market of Sheffield, and the subsequent analysis of these irons shows that this value, determined by the practical experience of the manufacturers of steel, is directly determined by the quantity of phosphorus and sulphur contained in the pig iron from which the bars are made. Inasmuch as the consumption of Swedish iron, in the United States is very considerable, and-. the demand for that quality of metal is likely to increase, to be met either by importation or by domestic production, I have deemed it best to append to this report a copy of the table obligingly furnished by Mr. Rinman, giving the names and marks and kind of ore used in all the Swedish iron works; and also to append an analysis of the different kinds of pig iron from which they are' made. A careful study of these two tables (Appendix A) will not only guide the consumer in the selection of the kind of iron which he may require for special purposes, but will enable the American iron-master to select the kinds of ore with which he may hope to replace Swedish iron in our own markets. But let it not be supposed that this last result 6an be achieved by ore alone. The same care in the manufacture and the same severe test which is applied to the loops, heated to the highest point, will be required to insure a uniform and satisfactory result. The best form of gas furnace is probably that of G. Ekman, models of which were ex. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 15 bibited in the Exposition, and a description of which can be found in Percy's Metallurgy, page 716. It is well to note that in the forge, or sinking fires, two tuyeres are generally employed, placed opposite to each other, by which the production is increased anc the consumption of coal diminished, and the iron is generally regarded as more homogeneous. Puddling with wood is also practiced to a considerable extent in Sweden; and, in this connection, although somewhat out of its proper order, it is best to describe the furnace devised by F. Lundin, of Carlstadt Munkfors, designed for the consumption of turf and peat, without drying, and of wet sawdust or other moist fuel; an invention deemed so valuable that the association of Swedish iron-masters.have rewarded Lundin by a gift of $10,000, which, in Sweden, is a very considerable sum In this furnace the fuel is fed by a hopper into a reservoir, resting upon an inclined grate, supplied from below with air from a blower. The products of combustion thus produced pass through a condenser, where all the moisture in the gas is condensed. The gas then passes to the heating furnace, which is furnished with Siemen's regenerators. It is found easy to use fuel containing as much as forty-five per cent. of water, and the resulting gas contains about thirty-three pounds of water to one hundred pounds of dry gas, and the water, after condensation, contains about two per cent. of its weight in gas, or three per cent. of its volume. The condensing apparatus consists of' 3,500 pounds of iron bars piled crosswise on each other, and kept cold by a jet of water from a tuyere. The heat of the gas before condensation of the water always melts lead easily, and sometimes zinc. The expense of the construction of a full-sized furnace in Sweden is about $2,500 in currency, and it is estimated that such a furnace.will utilize 1,700 tons of fuel in a year, at a saving proportioned to the cost of other fuel in the particular locality where it is employed. In Sweden it is estimated that the annual saving resulting not merely from the cost of the fuel, but from the repairs of the furnace and the increased temperature, amounts to over $5,000 per annum on the product of each furnace. In the Ekman furnace dry wood containing eight per cent. of water produces in the generators gas of a temperature of 1,3940, while in the' Lundin furnace the.temperature is 2,6660, the combustion in both cases being produced by cold air. The gas produced by seasoned wood contains more water than that which proceeds from the Lundin condenser. The duration of the furnace is simply surprising, and is to be attributed probably to the fact that there is no cinder. In eight weeks the thickness of the roof, 4 inches, was only diminished from 4-to 3 inch, and the side walls were entirely uninjured. So wonderful is the success of this system of condensation, in connection with the Siemens' regenerators, that, in Sweden, and in fact everywhere where moist fuel is employed, the Lundin furnace will supersede every other. Its great merit is, that it is available for any kind of fuel whatever. In the United States it is believed that this arrangement might be employed advantageously for washing the gas obtained from mineral coal; but its chief merit consists in the fact that in mineral regions, far removed from the coal fields, it is possible to establish iron works, using sawdust or peat with entire success and great economy. In the lumber regions of Lake Superior it will be found to have a special value, because there is an abundant supply of pig accessible to the saw-mills on Green Bay and in Michigan, producing enormous quantities of sawdust, slabs, and waste timber. Although reluctantly I have been compelled to abandon the idea of accompanying this report with drawings, and to rely rather on references to printed publications, the drawings of the Lundin furnace are annexed in Appendix B, not merely because they are not elsewhere attainable, but because the value of the invention is such as to secure its immediate introduction into the United States, in many parts of the country where mineral coal is dear or not attainable. The Exposition presented very complete specimens of pig-iron from all parts of Europe, but the experience valuable to our American iron-masters could only 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. be acquired by actual visits to the works where they were produced. In South Wales the most remarkable feature was the endurance of the furnaces, some of which had been in blast for more than twenty years, and no furnaces were expected to go out of blast under ten or twelve years. As the production of these furnaces varies from two hundred to three hundred tons per week, and the ores and coal are not -less calculated to wear the lining than our own, it would be very desirable to determine the cause of this greater durability. In Wales the heat of the blast is usually about 6000, and its pressure from three to three and a half pounds per square inch. As all these conditions are to be found at particular works in the United States where furnaces continue in blast only from three to four years, it would seem that the quality of the bricks might explain the difference. Another peculiarity of South Wales is the great difference in the product of furnaces liaving the same dimensions and shape and using the same materials, and for which the experience of the iron-masters offered no adequate explanation. Again, at Ebbw Vale, the Sirhowy furnace, 73 feet in height, 18 feet across the boshes, with the hearth seven feet six inches in diameter, and the tunnel head ten feet in diameter, containing 11,900 cubic feet, did not produce as much iron as another furnace seventeen feet six inches across the boshes, forty-eight feet high, with the same sized hearth and top containing 6,590 cubic feet. This latter furnace averaged about 380 tons of iron per week, using about one and a half ton of raw coal to the ton of iron. Its interior section was in the form of two cones meeting at the boshes, and a drawing of it will be found in Percy among the Ebbw Vale furnaces, marked E. V., No. 3, p. 559. The only mechanical arrangement of these furnaces worthy of special notice is the cup and cone device at the tunnel head which is described in Percy, page 470, perfected at the Ebbw Vale iron works, and now generally adopted at all the large iron works in Great Britain and on the continent, except in Scotland and in the Cumberland region, where it is supposed to have an unfavorable influence on the quality of the iron. The object of this arrangement is to throw the small ore and coal against the sides of the furnace, and the large pieces to the centre, and it was stated to be essential that the cone when drawn up to its place should have a space of 1'8 inches between it and the lining of the furnace. From the space thus produced the gas is drawn off for the supply of the hot blast ovens and the boilers, which, in the great majority of cases, were placed upon the ground and not upon piers, and no difficulty is experienced in procuring an adequate supply of gas below by the draught of high chimneys. It was generally stated that the adoption of the cup and cone arrangement had improved the running of the furnaces and diminished the consumption of coal. The Cumberland region has long been remarkable for the large product of iron from its blast furnaces. Even as early as 1862 a weekly product of over 600 tons had been achieved in one furnace, and although the business has greatly extended in that region, and is still characterized by large weekly products, it does not appear that any improvements have been lately made either in construction or in yield, At Barrow-on-Furness there are 6 furnaces 15 feet across the boshes, by 42 feet high; and 5 furnaces of 17, feet across the boshes, and 47- feet high. When working for pig iron designed for the Bessemer process, the smaller furnaces make 300 and the larger 400 tons per week of extra gray pig iron, but this product is very largely increased when the furnaces are running on forge iron, a single furnace having made as much as 700 tons in a week. This remarkable product is due to the admirable character of the ore, which is a red hematite yielding 60 per cent. on the average, and is smelted with a ton of coke per ton of iron, but when the grayest iron is made the consumption of fuel is undoubtedly greater. Admirable as these works are in construction, and. producing annually the enormous quantity of 200,000 tons, there was nothing in the process of manufacture calling for special notice. But at no point in Europe was the lesson of the superior advantage of good PARIS' UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 17 quality more plainly inculcated, for here; on the west coast of England, gray hematite iron was selling'for 90 shillings a ton, while on the east coast of England gray Cleveland iron could be purchased for 40 shillings per ton; the one finding a market in the Bessemer process, where only the very best it-on can be used, while the other had to -be sold in competition with the great mass of inferior pi-, But though the iron of the Cleveland region be inferior, it is there that the American iron-master has most to learn.'the ore of the Cleveland region is of the fossiliferous variety; yielding 31 per cent. raw, and 42 to 43 per cent. when roasted. The coke is extremely tenacious, enduring a heavy pressure without being crushed. The first furnaces built were about 18 feet in diameter and 55 feet high, making a weekly product of about 230 tons, with a consumption of 14 ton of coke to the ton of iron, and a temperature of b!ast of from 600~ to 700~. The excellent performance of the stock in the furnace soon led to an increase in its height, with a corresponding increase in the temperature of the blast, and now there are furnaces in operation in the Cleveland district 102 feet in height, 27 feet across the boshes, and driven with a blast of a temperatutre of from 1,0000 to 1,1000, or at least sufficient to melt pure zinc, back of the tuyeres, in from four to five seconds. The consequence is that the consumption of fuel has been reduced to a ton of coke to the ton of iron, and there has been a gain of 2 per cent. in the yield of the ore, which latter phenomenon is attributed to the use of the Player stoves for heating the blast. In this arrangement the gas is burned in a separate chamber, and only the resulting heat reaches the pipes. Thus all floculent matter is disposed of and the pipes require no cleaning, and their liability to injury is far less than when the flames come in contact with the pipes, subjecting them to the danger of being burned in spots. The pressure of blast is from 3, to 4- pounds to the inch, and six tuyercs of 3, inches diameter usually serve to convey it to the furnace. At the Norton works, where there is a furnace 85 feet high by 25 feet boshes, there were four stoves, containing 60 pipes weighing 126 tons, which heated the blast from a blowing cylinder of 7 feet by 7 feet, making 13 revolutions per minute. The general rule for blast is that there shall be 1,200 square feet of heating surface for each 1,000 cubic feet per minute. The effect of.this change in the size of the furnace and the heat of the blast in the Norton furnace above referred to was to give a weekly product of 365 tons. All these furnaces have the cup and cone arrangement at the tunnel-head, and the gas is drawn off into a great iron flue forming a kind of cornice or moulding around the top of the furnace, but covered with brick so as to avoid radiation. A proper outlet for the gas is indispensable for the larger product and economical results which have been described. rIThe pipe for conducting the gas to the ground must not be less than 7 feet in diameter,- and is lined on the inside with brick. All the ore of the Cleveland region is calcined in vertical kilns, varying fiom 24 to 35 feet in height and from 4,500. to 8,000 cubic feet capacity, charged with ore and fine coal in layers, and consuming about one ton of coal to 24 tons of ore. This calcining might be far better done by the Westman furnace, but unhappily the supply of gas from the blast furnace is not more than sufficient to heat the boiler and stoves. All the usual nlodes of elevating material to the top of the furnace are to be found in this region, but the pneumatic lift more recently introduced merits attention, as working in a very satisfactory manner. It consists of a caet-iron cylinder of the height of the furnace, made in sections bored out -and bolted together, so as to provide a chamber 36 inches in diameter, in which the piston fits loosely, and weighs about half a ton more than the platform and empty barrows. Leather packing is used to render it air-tight. The platform surrounds the cylinder, and is put in motion by the movement of the piston, with which it is connected by wire ropes passing over four eightfoot pulleys at the top of the cylinders. Four barrows of material are raised P E- 2 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. at a time, weighing from one to two tons, and the upward and downward motion is communicated by the alternate exhaustion and compression of air beneath the piston to the amount of from one to three pounds per square inch, according to the load. A pressure of one pound to the square inch is required to lower the empty barrows. For the calcining kilns, a similar arrangement, but of greater power, is employed. The early introduction of the high furnaces into the United States would seem to be inevitable, provided the fuel is strong enough to resist the pressure which is involved. Our magnetic, carbonaceous, fossiliferous, and red hematite ores, except in a few instances, are remarkably well adapted to these furnaces, and if it should be found that our admirable anthracite will not decrepitate when subjected to the incidental pressure, it is not hazarding much to predict that the consumption of fuel can be readily reduced to a ton for each ton of iron made. An analysis of the coke used is subjoined, as a guide to those who employ that fuel: Carbon.................................................... 91.42 Volatile hydro-carbons................................. 0.64 Sulphur, -...........,.............. 1 Ash..........,............................................... 6..66 ]Moisture.....................,.......................,....... 0.28 A'mong the other curiosities connected with the Cleveland iron, is an analysis of the dust which is deposited by the gas in its passage from the furnace through the stoves and under the boilers. Protoxide of iron............................................. 14.22 Oxide of zinc.................. I....-..-.. -.... 10.48 Sulphide of zinc................................................ 13.70 Alumina.................................................... 8.20 Lime...................................... 12.32 Magnesia -.....................,,,.................,5.03 Chloride of silicon........... 4.74 Ammonia................................................. 0.70 Thalium...................... trace. Sulphuric acid.............................................. 3.18 Free sulphur....................... 17 Silica,.................................................. 22.60 Carbonaceous matter........ 4.50 Total........................................ 99.84 So large a proportion of zinc from an ore which contains no zinc is a phenomenon not unobserved at other places, but has as yet received no satisfactory explanation. The Player stove was the subject of commendation in the Cleveland region, and appeared to be as satisfactory a mode of heating the blast as any in use. But it is proper to say that an equally high temperature can be procured in other ways. Its introduction into the United States will certainly effect a large saving of fuel, but the effect upon the quality of the iron must in a great measure depend upon the character of the ores employed. Its combination, however, sWith the high furnaces certainly affords one of the most interesting and instructive lessons in recent metallurgic improvements. In Scotland, where for so long a time the yield of blast furnaces was in advance of all other regions, no progress seems to have been made, the furnaces rarely exceeding 200 tons per week. An attempt has indeed been made at Gartsherrie to increase this amount by the erection of two furnaces 60 feet in PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 19 height, but the consumption of fuel has not been reduced, and the yield of the furnace in iron not materially increased. This is noted here in order to suggest caution in our own progress toward higher furnaces, because the increase in the height of the furnace at Gartsherrie appears to have increased the quantity of solid matter which falls down into the hearth and very much adds to the labor of working the furnace. It has been suggested that a modification in the shape of the furnace might relieve this difficulty, and some new furnaces erected by Mir. D. Adamson in North Lincolnshire are cited as an example of the advantages of bringing down the lines of the furnace almost parallel to a very low point, and then drawing them in quickly towards the hearth. But in the absence of a larger experience it would be unsafe to recommend any other course but extreme caution in departing from successful practice. Passing from blast furnaces to rolling mills, the most striking change presented in the new works is the simplicity of the machinery, its large dimensions and their arrangements for dispensing with labor in the handling of the material. Reversing mills are generally employed in Great Britain in preference to three-high rolls, but in France it is to be noted that at Anzin, in Isere, threehigh trains have been in use for rolling girders since June, 1849. There is also a three-high plate mill at Le Creusot, and the principle of three-high mills appears to be perfectly well understood in Europe, but the reversing mill is generally preferred. MDiect acting engines, that is, engines without intermediate gearing, are generally preferred, but at Crewe in the plate mill the fly wheel was dispensed with; a pair of engines similar to a locomotive engine were used, running at a high speed and geared down so as to give the proper number ot revolutions to the train. At Ebbw Vale there is an engine driving a small train running 250 revolutions per minute. In both these cases the result was entirely satisfactory to the managers. Another striking feature in the rolling mills and in some of the larger steel works was the adoption of the hydraulic crane for moving the masses of metal, and where the hydraulic crane was not used the steam crane often supplied its place. Tlhe ratio between human labor and the quantity of material handled has thus been greatly reduced, and apparently brought to a minimum, and in the United States, where labor is so dear, the introduction of hydraulic machinery as a substitute for human muscles is an imperative necessity. The arrangements necessary for this purpose are not complicated although somewhat expensive. Where an adequate pressure of water, say 300 pounds to the square inch, can be procured, from an adjacent height, as at the admirable works of Naylor, Vickers & Co., in Sheffield, the expense is lessened, but in other places it is only necessary to erect an accumulator and supply the pressure by artificial means; and even the accumulator may be dispensed with by the use of the duplex steam pumps generally employed in America. The steel-rail mill of John Brown & Co., at Sheffield, and the new steel works of Naylor, Vickers & Co., at Sheffield, are admirable examples of the perfection to which this hydraulic system has been carried; and taken as a whole I regard the latter establishment as the best specimen of mechanical engineering at present in existence. Attention should also be directed to a tool for slotting the ends of rails, so that they may be all of exact length, which is indispensable in order to secure a perfect railway joint. The cost of this operation is about two pence per rail, and the machine is not expensive. Another machine for cutting rails cold, at John Brown & Co's., was worthy of observation. It was a circular saw 16 inches in diameter and. of an inch thick, making 20 revolutions per minute and cutting 6 steel rails per hour. Another feature admirable for the order and cleanliness of the mill was the cemetery for rolls not in use, which were all 20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. buried in special tombs prepared for their reception under the iron floor of the mill, whence they were easily removed by cranes. Among the names of those who give dignity to the grand prize of the Exposition stands that of C. W. Siemens for his gas regenerative heating furnace; and although this invention has been long enough in use thus to command the homage of the scientific world, it is only within a few months that it has been introduced for the first time into an iron works in the United States. Its practical success is, however, undeniable, and for the reheating of steel, whether made by the crucible or the Bessemer process, or for the heating of iron, where a clean incandescent heat is required, or for any of those operations in which wrought iron is required to be kept in a melted condition, its necessity is unquestionable. Its merits, however, are not limited by these results, for which it was originally designed, but enable hitherto useless or nearly worthless forms ci fuel to be employed with entire success. At Crewe, where coal alone is used for reheating, five hundred-weight suffices to do the work of ton under the old plan, and at the time of my visit they Were using half sawdust, saving thereby one-fifth of the coal, that is to say, two and a half hundredweight of saw-dust was found to be equal to one hundred-weight of coal. At the wire works of Richard Johnson & Nephew, as we have already seen, the consumption of coal was reduced from about fifteen hundred-weight to eight hundred-weight per ton of billets heated, and the waste from 10~ per cent. to 6.9 per cent. At Bolton the manager assured me that th.e results were equally satisfactory, although he considered it an open question whether, in cases where the waste heat was used for making steam, there would be much economy of fuel by the use of the Siemens' furnace, but he had no doubt whatever as to the saving in waste and the increase of product from the furnaces. Aside fiom the question of the quality of the iron produced, the Siemens' furnace in the United States will be found of most value where coal is dear, and, above all, at works driven by water power and the surplus heat now allowed to go to waste. The. application of the Siemens' furnace to puddling is quite recent. I saw it in operation at Le Creusot, in France, and at Bolton, in England. At the former place the coal, which is an impure kind of anthracite, had required some modifications to be made in the generator, so that the advantages could not be estimated, but at Bolton the furnace worked so much more rapidly than the old furnace that it was necessary to put on three shifts of hands per day, and no difficulty of any kind was found in the operation of the furnace. I regard it, therefore, as one of the most important improvements to be introduced into American iron works at the earliest possible day. The success of Siemens has given rise to. many attempts to improve the ordinary puddling furnace, and at Bolton I found in operation the Wilson furnace, which differs from the common furnace in having the coal fed in from a hopper over the fuel chamber on to an inclined grate, and with a bridge which causes all the smoke to be consumed before reaching the stack. Although this iulnace has been tried previously at other places and abandoned, yet at Bolton it appears to be working well. The consumption of coal was less than a ton to the ton of iron, the number of heats in twelve hours was increased from six to seven, and the waste of the iron was stated to be decidedly less. In case subsequent experience should confirm the promise of the experiment as I saw it, it would seem that in works where the waste heat is required for raising steam, the Wilson furnace could be introduced with more advantage than the Siemens' furnace for puddling. In the Exposition among the articles exhibited by the Dowlais works was a puddle ball of unusual dimensions, made in the mechanical puddling machine constructed by Mr. Menelaus, the able and experienced manager of this extensive establishment. A visit to the works proved that no expense had been spared in order to substitute puddling by machinery for the work by hand. A PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 21 building and engine had been put up expressly for the purpose, and four massive machines erected, capable each of heating a. quantity of iron sufficient to produce a ball of six hundred-weight. The puddling vessel is of a shape that would be produced by revolving the bottom of a puddling furnace, and is caused to turn on a horizontal axis resting on firm bearings. The vessel is first charged with iron, either cold or melted, and then lifted by a steam crane and placed on its proper bearings, and as soon as the metal is melted, thrown into gear and caused to revolve. It was expected that the puddling operation would be accomplished by the simple revolution of this vessel, supplied with the products of combustion from a furnace placed at one end. When the heat was completed, the vessel was lifted from its bearings by the crane, the bridge end turned down, and the ball'dropped out upon a carriage ready to be taken to the hammer. Theie were of course many other details, which it is unnecessary here to descrite, as the results achieved were not such as to encourage imitation. The first difficulty was found in procuring a lining material which would withstand the chemical action of the metal and cinder, and the mechanical action of the iron from the time it came to nature until it was balled up. Ganister was tried and failed, because the iron produced was invariably cold-short. Titanic ore from Norway was found to stand nearly as well as the ganister, and the iron produced was less cold-short, but with neither could a satisfactory iron be produced. Iron linings failed, because the iron under treatment adhered to the sides of the vessels; and Mr. Menelaus makes this important statement, that it is next to impossiblle to prevent puddled iron from adhering to the clean saurface of an iron lining heated to the temperature necessary for puddling, It was also found that artificial blast was necessary, but notwithstanding over 600 tons of iron were made in these vessels, and the highest order of mechanical talent brought to bear upon the process, neither the lining could be made to stand nor the iron brought up to a merchantable quality. The problem of mechanical puddling, therefore, still remains unsolved, but thle manual labor of the puddler can u.ndoubtedly be considerably diminished by the use of puddling tools or rabbles, moved backwards and forwards around the furnace by a series of levers put in motion by steam or other power. At the Noithfield iron works, near Sheffield, such machinery, invented by John Griffiths, was in operation on a single double puddling furnace, in which ten hundred-weight of pig was charged and six heats were made daily by one puddler, and two boys helping'him. It was claimed that 2,400 pounids of puddled iron was being produced with sixteen and a half hundred weight of coal, and there certainly was a saving of one.skilled workman. And yet it was stated that where these machines had been put into the works, and left to the option of the puddler to be used or not, and the same price per ton paid for the result, the puddlers had declined to use'them.. But whether because they were really found to be of no service, or because they feared their use would bring down the rate of wages, it is impossible to say. So far as my judgment goes, I think they could be introduced with great advantage to both masters and men. At Le Creusot, in puddling white pig iron for rails, they make eleven heats per turn, or two and a half tons, in a furnace with one puddler and two helpers, which is a larger yield than I have any knowledge of elsewhere, but it is certainly not due to any peculiarity in the furnace. Player, the inventor of the hot-air stove, has also taken out a patent for what he terms a blooming process, by which the entire heat is removed from the puddling furnace in one mass, and carried to the hammer on a suitable carriage, thus saving the expense of separating the heat into small b'alls. Trials are now being made with this process, but it is yet too early to give any'positive opinion as to the result. Of the value of another improvement, however, made by John Beard, there can be no doubt. This invention consists in placing the grate-bars of the pud 22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION dling furnace upon. two axles, at the front and back of the fire chamber. To these axles a vibrating or rocking motion is given by means of levers, thile effect of which is to raise the grate-bars alternately at opposite ends, so that each grate-bar vibrates up and down in an opposite direction to its adjacent grate-bar. The value of this improvement consists in the facility with which the grates are cleaned and freed from all clinker without breaking up the fire. It was already introduced into the Blaenavon works, in South Wales, and those of John Brown & Co., at Sheffield, where it was stated to give an additional heat from the furnace per turn, and to make a considerable saving in coal. The manufacture of puddled wire-rods is a very extensive business in Great Britain, but no one has succeeded in naturalizing it upon American soil. With the best grades of charcoal iron it is indeed possible to make good puddled wire rods in the Uniter States. but at a cost too high to compete with the foreign article, in the production of which no charcoal is employed. I visited the works of J. C. Hill & Co., near Newport, in South Wales, and those of Richard Johnson & Nephew, at Manchester. In both these works, a mixture of several brands of coke iron is employed, costing on the average about X4 per ton. Single puddlilg furnaces alone are used, the charge of iron is 4~ cwt., and the yield from 31 to 3~ cwt., made up into five balls, and showing a waste much larger than usual. These balls are hammered under a five-ton helve, to a bloom 4 inches square, and this bloom is taken hot to a balling furnace, where it is heated and rolled down to the ordinary 1k-inch billet for wire. The greatest possible care is taken at all stages of the operation, but the result of my observation is, that the puddling furnace is the stage in which the iron receives its proper preparation for a wire rod, and I think I may say that as a general rule, when high grades of iron are to be produced, I remarked a higher standard for the puddled bar than I have been accustomed to see in the United States. The practice of puddling for grain instead of fibre is more general, and I think.I cannot be mistaken in saying that the puddle balls are far more thoroughly cleaned of cinder when puddled for grain. At Blaenavon and at Le Creusot, at which works very superior iron is made, the grain of the puddled iron resembled puddled steel more than iron, and it seems probable that we shall hardly attain to the same regularity of product in America until the same careful attention is paid to the puddling process. The propriety of rerollinig old rails seems to be involved in as much doubt in England as in the United States. The general practice, however, is to sell the old rails and purchase new ones, but at Crewe the London and Northwestern Railroad, Company, and at Swindon the Great Western Railroad Company have mills for reworking their old rails. There was a concurrence of opinion in both establishments that new iron should be used in the head, and at both the steelheaded rail with old rails inthe base was looked upon with favor. At Swindon I saw a beautiful steel-headed rail which had been made by balling up cast-steel turnings in a common balling furnace and placing the resulting bar on top of a rail pile. The fracture was admirable and the weld appeared to be perfect. There seemed also to be a general agreement that the top slab of a rail pile should not be less than 1~ inch in thickness, and 2 inches is preferred. At Blaenavon puddled steel is used for heads with very satisfactory results, but care is taken that the layer of steel on the finished rail shall not be less than 5 inch thick. PROCESSES FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL. By common consent it seems. to be agreed that the most striking feature of the industry of the present day is the marked advance in the manufacture of steel and its progressive substitution for iron in all cases where strength must be combined with lightness. Notice has already been taken of the enormous PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 23 masses of steel in the Exposition, but it was only by observing the infinite variety of forms and purposes to which it was applied, that the intelligent observer was compelled to admit the transition which is taking place from the age of iron to the age of steel. Another conclusion could not fail to be reached from a careful study of the products and processes-represented in the Exposition, viz: that good steel can only be made from good material, no matter what process is employed. For the best steel the crucible process still maintains the first rank, and although the Exposition contains some beautiful specimens of material made by other processes, yet it was quite evident that no plan has yet been made sufficiently practical to infringe upon the domain of crucible steel for the more difficult and higher uses for which this metal is required. The process of making crucible steel is too well known at this day to require description at my hands, but like all other branches of the metal business it has of late undergone an immense extension in the size of the works and of the products. At the establishment of Thomas Firth & Sons, in Sheffield, the old system of making steel is maintained in its integrity, and of a quality unsurpassed by any other maker. And yet here I saw a 12:ton ingot cast for the tube of a ~Woolwich gun, poured from crucibles containing each about 50 pounds. In order to make a solid ingot it is indispensable that the metal should be poured continuously into the mould at a high temperature, inasmuch as any delay in discharging the crucibles would be fatal to the quality. The difficulty of preparing this quantity of metal in such small instalments so as to reach the mould in da'e season, and of organizing the gangs of men necessary' for its transfer, will easily be appreciated by those who are familiar with the magnitude of the task. The only evidence in these works, besides the masses of steel, of the new era upon which the business has entered, was to be found in the enormous steam hammers, furnaces and cranes, which had been rendered necessary in order to fabricate ingots of such massive character. So admirable were these arrangemnents that there seemed to be no greater difficulty in dealing with these heavy masses of steel than with the smallest ingot on the premises. Here the fabrication of cast-steel locomotive tires had just been undertaken, with every possible facility for its successful operation. A cylindrical ingot is first made sufficiently large for six or eight tires; this ingot is then cut in a lathe into sections each of the shape of a cheese, sufficiently large for a single tire. The steel cheeses thus produced are heated and thoroughly hammered under an immense steam hammer, and after being reduced in all directions by this process, are again heated and punched with a conical-pointed punch under another steam hammer. The ring thus produced is enlarged by successive heatings and hammerings until it reaches the size suitable for the tyre rolling-mill, where, after being again heated, it is rapidly finished, producing a ring without weld or joint. Inasmuch as the relative value of tyres made by the crucible process and the Bessemer process is still a subject of discussion, I took special pains to compare the toughness of the crucible steel, as shown in the clippings of the fin on the finished tyre, with the same clippings from the Bessemer tyres, and no doubt was left in my mind as to the superiority of the crucible material; but I do not wish to be understood as saying that the Bessemer material is not good enough for the purpose, and, in view of the relative price, more economical in use, Firth's tyres being sold at C45 per ton, and the Bessemer as low as X28. The mode of making crucible tyres at the works of Naylor, Vickers & Co., was somewhat different, and appeared to be less expensive; and here one could not fail to be strulck with the admirable adaptation of mechanical means to the objects in view, and with the very complete arrangements for the production of large masses of crucible steel.' Here again was presented the perpetually recurring question as to the relative value of Bessemer steel for special purposes, such as crank shafts and locomotive crank axles, which are produced at these works in large quantities and from cru 24 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. cible steel. Of the value of the latter no doubt seems to be entertained, and the makers of the former insist that their work is equally reliable at a far less cost; but I must again acknowlege that I safw no Bessemer steel in England of equal toughness with the product of the best makers of crucible-steel. In the Exposition, on the other hand, there were specimens of Bessemer steel from Sweden and from Austria which appeared to be fully equal in quality to ally crucible steel, and these may be the precursors of the coming day when crucible steel will be a thing of the past, but that clay has not yet arrived. The past year may be said also to have decided the substitution of cast steel for iron in guns of small calibres. The peculiar excellence of the Marshall iron is still admitted, but it cannot be denied that cast steel is freer from "greys" or specks, and in point of tenacity quite as reliable. When steel is employed for this purpose the barrel is not welded, but is generally bored after being forged to the proper length. The Chassepot rifles are all being made in this way, but another method, known as that of Deakin & Johnson, is being introduced, with considerable probability of its general adoption. In this process the ingots, after being ham-, mered to about five inches in diameter, are cut into pieces of suitable weight for a gun barrel, and punched in the same manner as has been described for the punching of tires. The blanks so punched are heated and hammered, and then rolled over a mandril into a cylindrical tube about a foot in length, which is again heated and iolled over a mandril into a gun barrel. This process forms the subject of a patent, although it is difficult to find anything in the process which is novel, except, possibly, in its limitation to gun barrels. It is applicable, however, either to cast steel or to Bessemer steel, the latter being generally employed. The Bessemer process is, of course, the great feature of our day in this department; and.in order that it might be treated in such detail as its importance demainds, it was deemed by the committee best to make it the subject of a special report, and this duty was confided to MIr. Fred. J. Slade, an American mechanical engineer, who had already devoted several months to its careful study, in the interest of the American patentee. His report is hereto annexed, and will be found fully to justify the confidence of the committee in intrusting him with this important duty. I have verified the accuracy of his statements by extended personal examination, and it is only necessary for me to add one or two general conclusions at which I have arrived. The first is that the Bessemer process will not, as Mr. Bessemer originally supposed, supersede the puddling process, which appears to be, as yet, the only method applicable to the conversion of by far the larger portion of the pig iron made into wrought iron; because by far the larger portion of the pig iron made is of a quality not good enough for the Bessemer process, which, in the absence of sulphur and phosphorus, is absolutely exacting. It is true that an antidote may yet be found for these two poisons, in which case the area of the Bessemer process would Le enormously extended. But even then there would be a limitation to its general use (and this is my second conclusion) arising from the uncertainty as to the quality of each particular cast, requiring a special test for each in every case where it is to be subjected to great strains. But even when this precaution is; taken, it is found that in the manufacture of tyres and of' gun barrels there is a very considerable percentage of failure from undiscovered flaws, which show themselves in the cracking of the ingot when subjected to the severe test of the steam punch. Hence, in my judgment, it is not safe to use Bessemer metal in any case involving the security of life or limb, unless, in the process of manufacture, it has been subjected to such tests as will certainly show all its defects. I think it is safe to use it for tyres and for gun barrels that have been made by the punching process, but I should think it unwise to employ it for solid railway axles made in the ordinary way. If punched and made hollow, this objection would not apply, and doubtless it would not be difficult to devise a PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 25 method of making a solid axle from Bessemer steel that would be free from objection. In view of the small amount of Bessemer steel as yet produced in the United States, we are struck in Europe with surprise at the enormous provision made for its supply; and it is quite evident that the business is overdone, and, contrary to all past experience, the inventor and the public at large seem to have profited by its introduction at the expense of the mahufacturer. As an adjunct to the Bessemer process, the Parry process must be mentioned, having for its object the conversion, in a cupola furnace, of wrought iron which had been freed from phosphorus and sulphur by the puddling process into pig iron adapted for the Bessemer process. For this method of operation extensive works were erected at Ebbw Vale, but they have been abandoned, and the patent has been purchased by Mr. Bessemer. This process would have very considerable value if the metal could be tapped from the cupola in the form of steel instead of pig iron; but this does not appear to have been practicable, inasmuch as the product was a white pig iron, containing two per cent. of carbon. A charge of 22 hundred-weight was worked at a time, and required from 55 to 75 minutes for its treatment, which involved a waste of twelve per cent. It might possibly be used advantageously for the conversion of the ends of Bessemer rails into pig, in case they should ever become so' cheap as to warrant the operation. It might also be used for melting down the metallic sponge, which can be made by cementation from our rich ores in America, but certainly without advantage in point of cost, unless the product should have qualities attainable in no other way. The production of steel from the cupola furnace is still a desideratum to be attained, but among the possibilities of the future. A careful study of the Exposition showed but two other processes for making steel worthy of notice, and both French: the one patented by A. Berard and tried at the forges of Montatairie; the other that of Emille and Pierre E. Martin, in operation at Sireuil. In both these systems cast steel is made in a reverberatory furnace. In Berard's process the conversion of the pig iron into steel is sought to be achieved by subjecting the melted metal alternately to a decarbolizing and recarbonizing flame, for which purpose it is necessary to employ blast. He uses a Siemens' furnace, and avails himself of the changes of current required in working the regenerators to effect the changes of flame. The furnace is divided by a bridge into two halves, and he thus operates upon two masses of iron at the same time, one of which is freshly charged, while the other contains material which is nearly decarbonized. Some specimens of Berard's steel were on exhibition, and although creditable in themselves, it was generally understood that he had not yet succeeded in making steel regularly for market. The Messrs. Martin, on the contrary, were not only making steel regularly at their own works at Sireuil, but the process is also in operation at two of the largest works in France-Le Creusot and Firminy, and is in process of erection at various other works in Europe, and arrangements have been made for its immediate introduction into the United States. In this process the pig iron is deprived of its carbon by the addition of pieces of wrought iron or steel either in the form of shingled puddle balls, or of scrap. The quantity, however, of wrought iron necessary to reduce the carbon to the required limits, is much less than would be inferred, from the consideration of the quantity contained in the pig, and does not in practice much exceed the quantity of pig itself. A charge of gray pig or of spreigeleisen is melted in a Siemens'furnace, having a bed hollowed out to contain it, and is allowed to remain about half an hour after fusion to bring it to an intense white heat; portions of malleable iron previously brought to a bright red heat are then added in successive charges of about 200 pounds, at intervals of twenty minutes to a half hour, each charge being4thoroughly melted before the next is added. After two or three such additions, 26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. ebullition commences in the bath of metal, and continues till the carbon is wholly removed from the pig. The exact condition of the metal is ascertained from small proofs taken from the charge, after each addition of iron towards the end of the operation. These are run into a small ingot mould, and when cooled to the proper heat, hammered into a plate, about ~-5- of an inch thick by 5 inches in diameter. When the decarbonization is completely effected these proofs will bend double cold, and show a fracture quite fibrous. A quantity of pig, generally of the same kind as was used for the preliminary charge, is then added in such proportion to the amount of iron in the furnace as to give the desired hardness to the steel, according to the use for which it is required. When this is melted the bath is well stirred to insure homogeneity in its substance, and a final proof taken, which is treated in the same manner as the others and gives reliable evidence as to the state of the metal before pouring, This enables the quality to be very exactly adjusted to the degree of hardness required. Should it be too soft, more pig is added, while if it is too hard, the mere waiting from a quarter to half an hour will materially soften the metal. Arguing from this fact, Messrs. Martin claim that under the influence of such a high temperature, the carbon is to some extent spontaneously disassociated from the iron, and attribute in a measure to this the fact that so small a proportion of wrought iron is required to effect the decarbonization of the pig. The coating of scale formed on the iron in the preliminary reheating which it undergoes'before being charged into the furnace, also assists in the removal of the carbon. When the metal has been brought to the desired condition, it is tapped off at the rear of the furnace into ingot moulds placed on a railway car, and thus brought successively under the gutter. A considerable number of specimens of steel made by this process were exhibited, ranging in hardness from a metal too hard to be touched by a tool to a true wrought iron, intended to be used in the manufacture of armor plates. At Messrs. Martins' works, at Sireuil, the process has been in regular operation during the past two years for the manufacture of gun-barrels, and some remarkable specimens of these were exhibited. Thus there was one that had been tested with very large charges of powder and a heavy weight of shot, which, by very palpable bulging just behind the balls, testified as to the softness and toughness of the metal. In another, which had been burst by a similarly severe charge, the metal had merely torn open for a certain length of the barrel, and the lips so formed were simply folded back 180"', without any sign of cracking. There were also shown specimens of tool-steel, of excellent fracture, castings of pieces of machinery, such as gears and framing, and a large tube for a cannon of extremely soft metal, or melted iron, as it is named. The hardest variety of metal, called by the patentee "mixed metal," is considered suitable for castings which do not require to be worked by tools, but where great strength is required, such as hammer blocks and anvils, large gears, &c. By a subsequent process of annealing or discarbonization, carried on in a gas furnace, under the influence of an oxidizing flame, these castings may be softened so as to be quite malleable and easily worked, and they then retain the advantage of being free from blow-holes. T'his metal is produced by adding to a preliminary bath of say 1,600 pounds of pig 2,400 of wrought iron, and adding at the end 1,200 pounds of pig. For tool-steel, to a bath of 1,600 pounds of gray pig would be added 2,600 pounds of puddled steel from the same pig, and at the end of the operation 400 to 500 pounds of spreigeleisen. For homogeneous metal, the preliminary bath at Sireuil is 1,200 pounds of spreigeleisen, to which 2,000 pounds of soft iron, puddled to grain, from the same pig, is added, and at the end of the process 200 to 300 pounds of the same pig is charged, to give the requisite amount of carbon. The softest metal of all, which, however, has not as yet been made an article of regular manufacture is, made in the same way, with the exception that the final charge of manganifer PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION..27 ous pig is but 5 per cent. of the contents of the furnace. With certain kinds of grey charcoal pig this proportion rises, however, to 20 per cent., since under the influence of the high temperature they refine spontaneously with great rapidity. Messrs. Martins' patents also cover the use of ore either with or in place of the wrought iron or steel used for removing the carbon from the pig, and when this is used the progress of the operation is muclh more rapid. It has the objection, however, that the slag formed attacks violently the bricks forming the sides of the furnace, and therefore requires frequent renewals. This process has the great practical advantage that all the scrap arising in the manufacture of any product, such as the ends of bars, &c., is readily remitted in the furnace and immediately returned to the form of useful ingots. The flame in the furnace is kept always slightly surcharged with gas; an effect which the use of the Siemens' furnace renders easy and certain, and by this means the waste of the metal is always moderate. For the production of soft steel suitable for gun-barrels or for tyres, this metal already enjoys considerable reputation in Europe, and, indeed, were it not for its excellent quality, it would be impossible to sustain the manufacture at Sireuil, where there is neither iron nor coal, the latter being brought from England and the former from various parts of France. The results here stated were verified by a personal residence of Mr. Slade during several weeks at the works at Sirenil, and the regular and commercial success of the process was in that way seen to be fully achieved. It is not asserted that cast steel can be made as cheaply by this process as by the Bessemer; but where a product of definite quality is to be produced day by day, without rejections to any considerable extent, the Martin process has a decided advantage over the Bessemer, and in comparison with th6 crucible steel is decidedly less expensive. Its chief drawback would seem to lie in the difficulty of keeping the furnace in order, and only the most refractory materials will withstand the high heat required for its operation. As much as five tons of steel have been produced by this process at a single heat, and there is no difficulty in combining the product of several furnaces where larger masses are desired, inasmuch as the temper of the heat in each furnace can be brought and maintained to exactly the same standard. It.would seem also to present the best solution yet devised for the difficulty experienced by the accumulation of the ends of Bessemer steel rails, inasmuch as these can be used in lieu of the puddled iron required by the process. It is possible, also, to use old rails in the same manner, and, indeed, any old scrap, but the resulting quality of the steel will, to a great extent, depend upon the quality of the old iron so used. A visit to the works of Messrs. F. F. Verdi6 & Co., at Firminy, showed, in confirmation of facts gathered from other sources, that the steel manufacture of France, instead of being in the advanced degree of perfection, often supposed in our country, has been but very moderately successful. These works were established for the manufacture of crucible steel and forgings on a rather large scale, but to-day the production of steel by this process has been entirely abandoned, and with the exception of some puddling, all the steel now made is by the Martin process, for which three furnaces are now in operation and others in course of erection. The same thing appears to be true at other works, and it is quite certain that no considerable amount of good cast steel is produced in France. In order to enable a comparison to be instituted between a first-class Swedish iron and Bessemer steel, containing various degrees of carbon, I annex (Appendix C) the tabulated results of a series of experiments made by David Kirkaldy, at his well-known testing and experimenting works in London upon eleven bars of billet iron from the Degerfors iron works in Sweden, and twelve hammered bars of Fagersta Bessemer steel of various degrees of hardness, resulting from different percentages of carbon, which are indicated by the stamp on the bars; that is to say, 0.3 means three-tenths of one per cent. of carbon, 1.2 means one per cent. and two-tenths, and in like manner for intermediate stamps. 28 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. WORKS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL. The description of the large masses of steel and iron exhibited in the Exposition has led, incidentally, to an account of the magnitude of the iron works of Krupp. But this report would fail to give an adequate idea of the magnificent scale upon which the metallurgic industry of Europe is conducted at the present day, if reference should not be made to other establishments in other countries. In France the most extensive works are those of Le Creusot, near the centre of the empire, which is especially commended in the report of the jury of recompense for organizations which best develop a good understanding between masters and workmen, and secure the material, moral and intellectual welfare of the operatives. In 1845 the product of Le Creusot was about 60,000 tons of coal and 4,000 tons of iron. At the present time the production is 250,000 tons of coal and 130,000 tons of cast iron and 110,000 tons of wrought iron. The works cover an area of 300 acres, of which more than 50 acres are buildings, in which mechanical operations are carried on. The coal is mined in the immediate vicinity, and the quantity of ore which the region now furnishes is stated to be 300,000 tons per annum, but my impression is that this includes a large quantity brought from Algiers and Elba. There are fifteen blast furnaces of large dimensions, fed by 160 coke ovens, and using the blast of seven blowing machines of 1,350 horse power, and ten other engines for other purposes. The forge contains 150 puddling furnaces, eighty-five heating furnaces, forty-one separate trains of rolls, thirty hammers, eighty-five steam engines of 6,500 horse power in the aggregate. This mill is all under one uniform roof, made of iron, and is about 1,400 feet in length, and is altogether in appearance and construction the most complete rolling mill in existence. And it is a remarkable evidence of the intelligence and courage of AMessrs. Schneider & Co., the proprietors, that within the last few years they have deliberatvly abandoned their old works and machinery, and erected an entirely new establishment, in order to avail themselves of all the modern improvements in machinery and process. The machine shops require engines of 700 horse power for their operation, and contain twenty-six hammers and 650 working tools. The total number of workmen employed is 9,950, being by a remarkable coincidence the precise number of horse power represented by the steam engines in th'e works; that is to say, each man employs a machine power of one horse in addition to his own labor, showing the wonderful extension of human power which in our day has been realized out of the steam engine. Forty.five miles of railway, fifteen locomotives and 500 cars are required for the local operation of the works, and the enormous quantity of 1,400,000 tons of traffic is annually moved at the central depot of Le Creusot. All parts of the works are in communication by telegraphic wire. The total value of the productions is now about $7,000,000 per annum in gold. On the whole these works may: be regarded as the best model offered by Europe for the study of the iron business as it is, and they are not only an honor to the proprietors, but one of the chief glories of France. The works of Petin, Gaudet & Co. are distributed among several establishments, which in the aggregate employ 5,200 men and a steam power of 6,000 horses. The annual production is about 50,000 tons of iron and steel, of the value of $7,000,000 in gold. There are several other establishments in France which approach very nearly to these large proportions, and considering the disadvantages in point of fuel and ore under which the business is carried on, as compared with Belgium and England, the present development of the iron industry of France, amounting to an annual product of 1,200,000 tons of pig iron and about 800,000 tons of wrought iron; is one of the most striking features of the industrial progress of France during the present century. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 29 In Belgium the iron industry has made remarkably rapid strides, the product of pig iron having advanced from 134,563 tons, in 1845, to 449,875 tons, in 1864, and there are many establishments in Belgium organized on a scale comparable to the best works in other countries. That of Cockerill at Seraing, in which the government is directly interested, produces 50,000 tons of pig iron, 26,000 tons of bars, and 5,000 tons of steel annually, consuming 80,000 tons of coke and 1.46,000 tons of ore, and mining 260,000 tons of coal. In Prussia, the works of Krupp have already been referred to, and there are many other extensive establishments organized upon the best principles of modern construction. The Phoenix works near Ruhrort, for example, produced during the last year over 50,000 tons of pig iron and 40,000 tons of wrought iron, with 11 blast furnaces and the corresponding number of puddling furnaces.' The total production of iron ore in Prussia, for the year ending 1865, was over 1,700,000 tons, which represents a production of iron of about 770,000 tons; In England there are many works approaching in capacity to Le Creusot, among whlich may be enumerated the Dowlais and Ebbw Vale in South Wales, those of Bolekow, Vaughan & Co., in the Cleveland region, and of the Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel Company at Barrow-in-Furness, and of John Brown & Co., at Sheffield. A production of 2,000 tons per week is achieved in each of these vast establishments. Large towns are required to house the workmen and their families; hundreds of miles of rails and thousands of cars are appropriated to their special use. The human mind is lost in wonder at the combination of material and intellectual elements required for the organization and conduct of such gigantic operations, and standing in the presence of tools which seem formed to shape the universe, and of an artificial power which, in the aggregate, is too vast for any other estimate than by comparison with the force which moves the earth in its orbit, the triumph of man over matter is realized to an extent making it possible to comprehend in some degree the omnipotence of Deity himself. One striking consequence of the vast size which has been given to particular works is their general transfer from individual ownership to that of stock companies; and although this transfer is not considered favorable to the economy of manufacture, the saving produced by production on so large a scale would seem to counterbalance the advantages in point of cost which are connected with individual ownership. Nor is this feature of association of ownership peculiar to any one country, but may be said to be the general rule in all. In England, owing probably to the business being overdone, none of these companies can be -said to have achieved a pecuniary success, and the shares of all of them are at a considerable discount. This fact, producing profound dissatisfaction on the part of the owners, coupled with the feeling of restlessness and discontent with their wages among the workmen, has paved the way for the consideration and discussion of the problem, whether in these large establishments the true relations between capital and labor have been established, and in what way they may be placed upon a sounder basis, avoiding the ever recurring contention between masters and men, which culminates in strikes injurious alike to both classes. The question has already stepped beyond the limits of private discussion, and governimental commissions are now investigating both in France and in England the facts and the principles upon which the organization of labor rests at this day, the points in which there is a collision between it and capital, the wrongs, if any, upon either side; with a view to such legislation as may render.the march of industry regular, and profitable to all concerned. In some establishments engaged in the mining of coal and other branches of industry, outside of the iron business, the system of co-operation, as it is termed, has been introduced, with manifest advantage. But in all these cases the business is a profitable one, and has never yet been subjected to the strain which will attack the system when it is forced to deal with losses instead of profits. liThe 30 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. general plan adopted in these co-operative establishments, such as Crossley's great carpet factory in England, is to reserve to the capital a fixed rate of interest, as high in some cases as 15 per cent. per annum; next to pay to the workmen a fixed rate of wages, being usually those which were in force at the time of the introduction of co-operation into the works, and to divide the surplus, if any, between capital and labor, on such terms as may be agreed upon, but usually in proportion to the amount of each employed during the year. There is a wide difference of opinion as to the practicability of introducing this system into the iron business, and there is a fear that it would not stand the trial to which it would be subjected in the long periods of depression to which the iron trade has hitherto been invariably subjected, and from which the co-operative system would not relieve it, because there would still be the same competition between the several co-operative associations, and the several nations, as now exists. Under the present system the capital is the first to lose its profits, and then comes the reduction in the wages of labor. Under the new system the reduction would fall first upon labor, or in strict equity there would be the same percentage of reduction upon the earnings of capital and labor. It is feared that the laborer would not look with content upon any reward to capital under such circumstances, and that the old warfare between the two would thus be renewed. On the other hand, it is believed that by the obvious harmony thus established between the interests of capital and labor, the latter would be led to'see that the co-operation of the former is indispensable for the payment of wages at' all, and that any attack upon capital or any diminution of its quantity would be a direct attack upon labor, by depriving it of the fund out of which it is paid, and that the conservation of capital would thus become so apparent as the highest interest of the laboring class that strikes would cease, and even in bad times, from the steady employment thus insured, the labor would be better paid than under the present intermittent system. It is urged, moreover, that the personal interest thus excited in the workman would lead to greater economy in the manufacture, and bring down all waste to the minimum, and that it would be possible to establish such intelligent relations among the owners and workmen of the several co-operative establishments, that over-production would be checked by common consent, in time to prevent the serious losses to which it now subjects the industry of the world. It is quite certain that this latter end is achieved in an imperfect degree even in present practice. In Scotland the number of furnaces in blast during the present year has been very considerably reduced, with a corresponding reduction in the enormous stock of iron which had weighed down the prices below the cost of production. In France, by a resolution of the Ironmasters' Association, a reduction of six per cent. was inaugurated in the early part of the present year, and there is a general recogition of the necessity and wisdom of this course in times of over-production among the iron-masters of Europe. And it is impossible to see that there would be less discretion exercised, or a less prompt remedy applied, if the workmen had such a direct relation to the business as to enable them to feel that it would be better to work less days at the old rate of wages, than more days at a reduced rate, producing precisely the same pecuniary result. iNo intelligent observer can fail to remark the universal cry which comes up from the laboring classes in all parts of Europe for the reorganization of the relations of capital and labor. In England it has shown itself in strikes long continued, and in all branches of business reducing the workmen to beggary, and destroying the profits of capital to such an extent that, in a spirit of self-preservation, it takes flight where it can from the walks of industry, and remains unemployed rather than incur the risks and the anxiety of its uses in active business. In France, where, as will be hereafter seen, the organization of a strike is full. of difficulties, the same longing manifests itself, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 3 1 not merely in the organization of minor co-operative associations for the supply of the necessaries of life, the erection of houses, and the production of goods, but in a literature wlich seeks to analyze the social phases of industrial life and develop some better system for its reorganization. In the course of this almost microscopic examination of the social relations, property has been pronounced to be robbery, comrmunism has been advocated as the remedy. for all the social evils, and the autonomy of the individual lost sight of' in the attempt to promote the welfare of mankind. In Germany, on the other hand, under the practical guidance of Schultze Delitch, there have been established, up to the year 1865, one hundred and eighty associations, with about ten thousand members, for the supply at wholesale prices of the raw material required by the members of the association in their several trades. These associations consist prinlcipally of shoemakers, carpenters, and tailors, and their business amounts to ablJout two million thalers* annually. There were fifty "magazine" unions, comprising about one thousand members, and doing a -business of about five hundred thousand thalers annually, having for their object the sale of goods produced by the members of the association in a common store. There were also twenty-six co-operative associations for the production and sale of finished wares on common account, some of which appear to have been successful, while others have failed to realize the expectation of the members; and as this is the only feature of the Schultze Delitch system which has not proved successful, it is well to note that all the associations were organized independently of any existing business or capital employed in its conduct. They proceed upon the basis of disassociation from capital, as such, in the management of the business, and although the founder still expects to achieve successful results with associations formed on this basis, it would seem to be too wide a departure from the experience of mankind in all times to dispense with the watchfulness and patient scrutiny with which capital guards itself from destruction. Of co-operatlve stores there were, in 1865, one hundred and fifty-seven. Tihese are said to have been of slow growth at first, but are now rapidly extending. But the great success of Schultze Delitch has been in the organization of his credit and loan associations, of which, in 1865, there were thirteen hundred in existence, with more than three hundred thousand members. These " credit banks," as they are commonly called, are formed by the workmen themselves, who are supposed to be without any capital of their own. The capital of the bank is procured by the subscriptions of the members, payable in instalments, and by loans contracted on the credit of the association. Of course the share capital can only be slowly accumulated, but experience has shown that loans made to the association are quite safe, because each member is absolutely liable for all the debts, and the funds of the bank are only loaned to its own members, within limits restricted by the nature of the business to be carried on by the borrower, and after a rigid scrutiny of his character. The cardinal rule in the conduct of these banks is to take the minimum of risk and the maximum of responsibility. This report is not the proper place to enter into the history and details of management in these credit banks, but in order to show the progress of the co-operative movement in Europe, I append a brief statement of the business of 498 of these banks, whose statistics happen to be accessible. These banks had 169,595 members, and the total amount of money advanced to them during the year 1865 was 67,569,903 thalers, or, in round numbers, $50,000,000 in gold. The total income of these banks, mostly, of course, in interest paid by borrowers, was 1,401,896 thalers, of which 699,558 thalers was paid. for interest by the banks on money which they had borrowed, and 316,403 thalers was absorbed by the expenses of management. The total losses were 20,566 thalers, and the net profits were 371,735 thalers. The *Each about seventy-five cents in gold. 3 a PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. share capital accumulated by these banks amounted to 4,442,879 thalers, the borrowed capital amounted to 11,154,579 thalers, and the savings deposits of the members amounted to 6,502,179 thalers, and a reserve fund of 409,679 thalers had been accumulated to meet losses. When it is remembered that these banks were started by workmen without any capital, and it is observed that the accumulations of capital, deposits. and reserve funds, exceed 11,000,000 thalers, or $8,000,000 in gold, the beneficent operation of the principle upon which they are founded will be appreciated, and some conception may be formed of the wonderful economy which will be introduced into the industry of the world when it becomes the interest of. each man not only to produce the best possible result from his own labor, but to see that his fellow-workman does the same thing. In such a reorganization of industry the eye of the owner will be literally everywhere, and the loss either of time or of material will become almost impossible. This topic of co-operation is introduced here because in the Exposition there were constant evidences not merely of its importance, but of its.becoming the leading social question of our day and generation. A special prize was constituted in favor "of persons, establishments, or localities which, by an organization of special institutions, have developed a spirit of good feeling between those who co-operate together in the same labors and have secured the material, moral, and intellectual welfare of the workmen." Although Schultze Delitch was not an exhibitor, and no application for this prize was made on his behalf, and the special jury who had this order of recompense in charge lost the great opportunity of making themselves illustrious by voluntarily recognizing the greatest benefactor of the human race in our day, the labors of Schultze Delitch and the success which has attended his system, based as it is upon a profound knowledge of human nature, and the laws of social science, will survive the memory of the Exposition, and erec this monument in the reorganized structure of modern society. In the United States, strange to say, we lack the legislation, either national or State, which makes it possible to introduce the co-operative system in any of the forms which the experience of Europe has shown to be practicable. In most of the States it is true that there are general laws of incorporation, but these do not meet the case in which a proprietor wishes to divide the profits with his workmen without making them partners, or giving them a voice in the manageinent of the business. It is a subject Which demands immediate attention, if it is expected to prosecute the iron business, or any other branch of industry, without the perpetual recurrence of strikes; and in order that the experience of older nations may be availed of, I have added to this report in an appendix (D) a transcript of the Prussian, French and English laws on this subject. PRODUCTION OF IRON. Originally the geographical position of the ore, and the natural avenues of transportation, determined the establishment of iron works, when the fuel employed was wood, which was to be found everywhere. But the demands of modern civilization soon outran the narrow bounds imposed by the supply of charcoal, and in our day, the controlling element in the production of iron is the possession of mineral coal. And, throwing out of consideration the moderate quantity of iron still produced by charcoal, the iron business in Europe is found to be developed substantially in proportion to the quantity of coal possessed by the respective countries. A glance at the geological map of the world shows that within the limits of temperature favorable to active industry,. the deposits of coal are widely distributed throughout Great Britain and the United States. In France' there is but a limited area, and of irregular formation. In Belgium there is a larger coal field, but in veins of very moderate size. In Prussia, in the neighborhood of the Rhine, there is a small but valuable deposit of coal, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 33 while in Russia there is a considerable carboniferous area, the ultimate value of which is not yet very well determined. The productive powers of these several coal fields are now pressed to limits approaching very nearly, if not quite to their ultimate capacity. In Great Britain the production in 1866 reached 101,630,500 tons; in France, between 11,000,000 and 12,000,000 tons; in Belgium more than 12,000,000 tons; and in Prussia, in 1865, 18,000,000 tons were produced. The statistics procured at the Exposition have enabled me to construct the following table of the production of iron in the world in 1866, and there is every reason to believe that the figures given are substantially correct, as estimates were resorted to in only one or two cases, and those based upon former official returns: Countries. Pig iron. Wrought iron. England.............................................. 4,530, 051 3, 500, 000 France............................................... 1, 200, 320 844,734 Belgium..500, 000 400, 000 Prussia............................................... 800, 000 400, 000 Austria...................................... 312, 000 200, 000 Sweden.... —............... 226, 676 148,292 Russia................................................ 408, 000 350, 000 Spain.................................................. 75, 000 50, 000 Italy............................ 30, 000 20, 000 Switzerland.................................... 15, 000 10, 000 Zollverein-....................,.......... 250, 000 200,000 United States.......................................... 1, 175,000 882, 000 9, 322, 047 7, 005, 026 Allowing for the production in barbarous countries, and something for the use of scrap iron, it may be stated in round numbers that the production, and conses quently the consumption of the world has reached 9,500,000 tons of 2,240 poundeach, or 21,280 millions of pounds; so that if the population of the world has reached 1,000 millions, a consumption of a little over twenty pounds of iron per head. A careful calculation, after allowing for the iron exported, shows that the consumption per head in England is 189 pounds of iron. The consumption in Belgium has reached about the same limits. The consumption in France is 69. pounds per head, and in the United States not far from 100 pounds per head. If the industry of the whole world were as thoroughly developed as it is in Great Britain, the consumption of iron would reach nearly 90,000,000 tons per annum. If brought to the standard of the United States, a little less than 50,000,000 tons per annum would answer; or if to that of France, a littleover 30,000,000 tons would be required; figures: to be increased further by the steady increase of population in the world. It will be interesting, therefore, to inquire into the sources of future supply possessed by the nations upon whom this great demand must come. Sweden possesses exhaustless supplies of the very richest and best kinds of primitive ore, but she has no coal, and a heavy expense for transportation must be incurred in bringing coal and ore together, and, as a general rule, it is found more economical to transport the ore to the coal than the coal to the ore. The limits of the manufacture of iron by wood have long since been reached, and hence Sweden can only be looked to as a source of supply of ore to other countries possessing mineral fuel when their iron mines are too heavily drawn upon.' In Russia,' also abounding in immeasurable supplies of ore, there is a possibility, but not much probability, that mineral coal may be developed to an extent sufficient for its own supply of iron. The production of charcoal iron isalso capable of some, but not of indefinite extension. P F, 34 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The same remark applies to Austria and the states of the Zollverein. In Italy there is no coal, and hence its rich ores are in the same category as those in Sweden, only far less abundant. Algiers abounds in ore, which has to be transported to the coal. Spain is rich in ore, and has a carboniferous formation on its northern borders, but no attempts have been made to render it available for the production of iron. In France the present manufacture of iron is only maintained by the aid of the importation of coal to the extent of over 7,000,000 tons, and of 495,000 tons of iron ore in 1867. In Belgium, the size of the coal-field, the vertical character of the veins, and their small thickness, render it impossible that there should be any very considerable extension of the business, at least if the supply is to endure for any protracted period. Already it is estimated that Belgium produces as much coal as France, two-thirds as much as Prussia, and one-eighth that of Great Britain, out of a coal-field only ninety-seven miles in length and twelve miles in breadth at its widest point, and in veins of from thirty inches to three feet thick. Belgium is already an importer of ore, and although it is quite evident that it will be the seat of a vigorous and possibly increasing metal industry for years to come, it has no resources adequate for serious competition in the supply of the greatly increased quantities which the world will yet require. Prussia has a somewhat larger supply of coal than Belgium, and it is remarkably rich in quantity and quality of its iron ores, but it is scarcely possible that in the future she can do more than supply its own wants. Upon England, then, so far as Europe is concerned, still rests the great burden of supplying the world with iron, if the supply is to come from Europe at all. It has been seen that already nearly one-half the total consumption of the world comes from within her borders. In 1866 she was able to furnish 9,665,013 tons of iron ore, and only imported 56,689 tons. A careful survey of the sources from which her ore is derived leads to the conclusion that in Wales the local supply is not adequate to the present consumption, and large quantities are transported thither from other parts of the kingdom. The natural limits of production have therefore been reached in Wales, although there will probably be a still further extension of the business in that region either with domestic or foreign ores, in consequence of the possession of enormous supplies of admirable coal available for the furnace without coking. The Staffordshire region, by common consent, has reached its culminating point; and a careful consideration of the local supply of carbonaceous ore in Scotland would seem to indicate that not much extension of the business is possible in that region, except at much higher prices than now prevail. The main reliance in Scotland has heretofore been upon its blackband iron ore, "'and the d evelopment of its iron trade has been co-extensive with the exploration of that famous mineral, furnaces following everywhere in the wake of its discovery. The clay bands are in such small seams, and of such irregular character, that the business would soon languish and be greatly reduced if dependent upon them alone. The thickest and best seam of blackband, commonly called the' airdrie,' is now substantially exhausted, and the reliance is on seams of no greater thickness than eight inches. Blackbands are notoriously irregular, and are not found uniform in thickness; for example, the Airdrie blackband occupies but a small portion of the space allotted to it in the Lanarkshire coal-field. A more notable example of caprice of blackband is to be found in the slaty band, which occurs occasionally in patches of irregular thickness, sometimes six inches and sometimes six feet in thickness; but there is always something to mark its position, either a coal or iron stone. Indeed, all the iron stones in all portions of the coal-field are erratic. They are persistent throughout in no field, yet it is a singular fact that we have in all the fields blackband iron stone." This extract from a paper of Ralph' Moon, government mining inspector. in Scotland, is made for the double purpose of showing how impossible it is that there should be any considerable in PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 35 crease in the annual product of Scotch iron unless foreign ores are brought to utilize the unlimited supplies of admirable coal which exist in that country; but with the further object of giving some information, which may be of use in the development of the blackband iron ore which have been recently discovered in Schuylkill county, in Pennsylvania, the value of which to the country can hardly be exaggerated, if it should prove to be in quantity and quality equal to its British prototype. An analysis of the best Scotch ore is here annexed-rather out of place, but too valuable as a guide to be dispensed with: Raw. Roasted. Protoxide of iron............. 49. 82 27. 10 Peroxide of iron...... 60. 1 Lime.......................................................... ] 67 2.7 Magnesia-...................................................... 2.33 3. 8 Alumina......... 1.52 2. 4 Silica............................................................ 2.40 3. 9 Organic matter...0.............. 7.60 Moisture....0. 32 Carbonic acid 3 —--—.............4. 34 100.00 100. 00 Iron, per cent.............................-...................... 38.75 63. 1 Specific gravity.............................. 2. 857 There still remains upon the east coast of England the great Cleveland region, and upon its west coast the Cumberland or red hematite region. The latter is now yielding about 1,400,000 tons of ore per annum, taken from beds of irregular shape and formation, in or adjacent to the limestone. There are certainly no signs of exhaustion yet apparent ih this wonderful district, but all analogy leads us to doubt the permanency of these irregular beds, formed in pockets in the rocks, without any regular walls to indicate their continuity. Besides, the extremely good quality of this ore and the value of the iron which it produces will always restrict its use to those better purposes for which a high price is paid, and naturally withdraws those mines from, any competition in the supply of the great mass of iron required by the world for ordinary purposes. Not so, however, with the Cleveland region, where the ores exist in beds of from eight feet to fifteen feet in thickness, in the lias or oolitic formation, extending over a tract of country forty miles in length and fifteen miles in width. This ore is lean and the quality of the iron inferior, but by the application of a high order of skill, a quality is produced sufficiently good for the ordinary purposes of commerce, and at a cost below that of any other locality in the world. The consequence has been that, since the erection of the first blast furnace in 1850, 125 furnaces have been erected, and fourteen more are now in process of erection; twentyseven rolling mills, and a large number of foundries and iron ship-building yards are in operation, and cities have grown up with a rapidity and to a size that would strike even a western pioneer with surprise. The present production exceeds a million of tons per annum, and it is difficult indeed to assign any limits to its future growth. But there is one limitation which applies to the whole question of the production of British iroh, and that is, her ability to supply coal on the scale of consumption already beyond 100,000,000 tons per annum. This question has received the serious attention of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and Mr. Gladstone, by one of those happy ellipses characteristic of men of genius, has coupled the extinction of the national debt with the exhaustion of the supplies of fuel, evidently acting under the idea that an honest man ought to pay his debts while his capital lasts. It is presumed, however, that there is still margin enough for the addition of the "Alabama claims" to the sum total of indebtedness, without seriously interfering with the means of payment which the coal-fields afford. So far as the production of iron is concerned, and so long, at least, as any human 36 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. being now in existence may have an interest in the question, I see no good reason to doubtwhy England should not maintain her position, as the source from which one-half the required amount will be obtained; but beyond this I do not think that shecan or will go, from the intrinsic difficulties of producing the required supply of materials and labor, without an enormous increase of cost. There will, therefore, remain a very large deficiency, which must be supplied from some other source, and that source can only be the United States of America, for in no other quarter of the globe are the supplies of ore and coal sufficiently large, or so related to each other geographically as to admit of its production, not merely within reasonable limits of cost, but on any terms whatever. The position of the coal measures of the United States suggests the idea of a gigantic bowl filled with treasure, the outer rim of which skirts along the Atlantic to the Gulf of Mexico, and thence returning by the plains which lie at the eastern base of the Rocky mountains, passes by the great lakes to the place of beginning, on the borders of Pennsylvania and New York. The rim of this basin is filled with exhaustless stores of iron ore of every variety, and of the best quality. In seeking the natural channels of water communication, whether on the north, east, south or west, the coal must cut this metalliferous rim, and, in its turn, the iron ores may be carried back to the coal, to be used in conjunction with the carboniferous ores, which are quite as abundant in the United States as they are in England, but hitherto have been left unwrought, in consequence of the cheaper rate of procuring the richer ores from the rim of the basin. Along the Atlantic slope, in the highland range from' the borders of the Hudson river to the State of Georgia, a distance of one thousand miles, is found the great magnetic range, traversing seven entire States in its length and course. Parallel with this, in the great limestone valley which lies along the margin of the coal field, are the brown hematites, in such quantities at some points, especially in Virginia, Tennessee, and Alabama., as fairly to stagger the imagination. And, finally, in the coal basin is a stratum of red fossiliferous ore, beginning ill comparatively thin seam in the State of New York, and terminating in the State of Alabama, in a bed of fifteen feet in thickness, over which the horseman may ride for more than one hundred miles. Beneath this bed, but still above water level, are to be found the coal seams, exposed upon mountain sides, whose flanks are covered with magificent timber, available either for mining purposes or the manufacture of charcoal iron. Passing westward, in Arkansas and Missouri, is reached that wonderful range of red oxide of iron, which, in mountains rising hundreds of feet above the surface, or in beds beneath the soil, culminates at Lake Superior in deposits of ore which excite the wonder of all beholders; and returning thence to the Atlantic slope, in the Adirondacks of New York, is a vast undeveloped region, watered by rivers whose beds are of iron, and traversed by mountains whose foundations are laid upon the same material; while in and among the coal beds themselves are found scattered deposits of hematite and fossiliferous ores, which, by their proximity to the coal, have inaugurated the iron industry of our day. Upon these vast treasures the world may draw its supply for centuries to come, and with these the inquirer may rest contented, without further question, for all the coal of the rest of the world might be deposited within this iron rim, and its square miles would not occupy one quarter of the coal area of the United States. With such vast possessions of raw material, we are naturally brought to the consideration of the elements which enter into the cost of producing iron in the United' States, as compared with the other iron producing countries of the world. And first, the distinction must be drawn between the cost determined by the quantity of labor expended in the production of a ton of iron, and the cost in money as determined by the price paid for the labor. The former is the absolute and natural cost, and is the only just standard of comparison between nations, if national wealth is defined to be the amount of capital in existence, plus PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 37 the amount of labor available for production. The other is the artificial or accidental cost, of which, indeed, we may take advantage in our buying or selling, but forming no just standard of comparison in estimating the relative cost of production in different countries. There is a difference, familiar to all in the United States, between the cost of articles measured by gold or by currency, which makes it, for the time, easy to understand the difference in cost measured by money or by day's labor. England, having the largest and most accessible stores of coal and iron ore, can produce a ton of iron with less labor than any other European nation; and hence it will be most profitable to institute the comparison of cost measured by labor, first, with Great Britain. In the Cleveland region, which is most favorably situated for the cheap production of iron, the cost of producing a ton of pig iron is about forty shillings, which, at the average rate of wages paid around the blast furnace, is equivalent to eleven days' labor-that is to say, the labor of eleven men for one day. It is possible that in one or two works this may be reduced to ten days, but in others it'rises to twelve or thirteen. In the United States, the cheapest region for the manufacture of pig iron, as yet extensively developed, is on the Lehigh river, in the State of Pennsylvania, where, taking coal and ore at their actual cost of mining, pig iron is produced at an average cost of $24 per ton, which represents, at the present rate of wages, the labor of about thirteen days, But when the iron business is established along the great valley which extends from Virginia to Alabama, the labor of bringing the coal and ore together will be considerably less than on the Lehigh river, and it is safe to say that there iron can be made in any required quantity, when the avenues of communication are sufficiently opened, with as little labor, to say the least, as it can be produced in the Cleveland region. In France, Belgium, and Prussia, each now requiring a larger expenditure of human labor to produce a ton of iron than is required in England, there are no such possibilities of reduction, because every year their ore is becoming more expensive, and the cost ot mining coal will increase more rapidly than in England, in consequence of the size and character of the veins. Hence follows the deduction that,- if France, Belguim, and Germany, are to compete with England in the open markets of the world, the competition can only be maintained by the payment to labor of a lower rate of wages; or, to state it in another form, the greater the natural advantages possessed by a country for the production of iron, the larger will be the rate of wages paid to the workman; and this is found to be verified by existing facts. From the statement published by Schneider & Co., at Le Creusot, it appears that the average rate of wages paid in 1866 was as follows: Francs. Ore miners........................................ 3. 33 Coal miners......................................... 3. 25 Blast furnaces............... 2. 95 Rolling mill........................................ 3. 83 Machine shops........................ 3. 40 Miscellaneous............................. 3. 03 And the average price paid for the whole of the ten thousand workmen employed at this great establishment was 3.45 francs per day. Unfortunately the rates paid for the specific branches of work are not specified, but at the iron works at Sireuil this information has been procured in detail: Francs per day. Common laborers........................2........... 2. 50 Puddlers....-.............. 8.00 Puddlers' helpers................................... 2. 50 38 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Francs per day. Puddle rollers........................................ 5. 00 Shinglers....................5............... 5. 00 Heaters............................................. 7. 00:Heaters' helpers........................ 2. 50 Finishing rollers.......................... 6 to 7 Machinists............................................ 3 to 3.50 Blacksmiths...... Masons............. 5.00 In South Staffordshire, in 1866, the following rates were paid, as shown by the official returns published by the government: Per day. Common laborers........................ 2s. 6d. to 3s. Od. Puddlers............................... 7 6 to 7 10 Puddlers' helpers.................... 2 6 to 2 11 Puddle rollers........................... 9 0 Heaters..7 0 Heater helpers............................ 3 6 Finishing rollers......................... 11 0 Shinglers.............................. 9 0 to 15 0 Machinists............................ 4 0 to 16 0 Blacksmiths........................ 4 0 to 5 0 Masons....................... 7 6 to 8 6 A comparison of these two tables will show that, for every franc paid in France, there is more than a shilling paid in England, and this corresponds with the general statement made by M. Schneider to me at Le Creusot. Assuming a little more than a shilling to the franc, 3s. 6d. per day would appear to be the average rate of wages paid in England for labor in iron works of all kinds, skilled and unskilled, and in no part of England does it exceed 4s. In Belgium, according to Creed & Williams, in the coal mines the following wages are paid. Per day. Common laborers...................,.., s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. Loaders of coal............ 2 6 to 2 11 Wood cutters........................... 2 6 to 2 11 Wood or tree setters.................. 3 1 to 5 0 Miners............... 2 11 to 4 2 Exceptional men......................... 5 0 to 6 0 At the blast furnaces: Fillers........................ 1 1 to 2 1 Box fillers....:.-...................... 1 4 to 1 8 Common laborers........................ 1 5 to 1 8 Furnace keepers...................... 2 1 to 2 11 In the rolling mill:' Puddlers.................... 4 2 to 5 0 Helpers,..................... 2 3 to 3 1 Rollers................................... 4 2 to 5 10 Helpers.............................. 3 4 to 4 2 Shearers........ 1 10 to 2 6 Shearers................................ i10 to 2 6 Common laborers....1 5 to 2 1 A comparison of these tables shows that the rate of wages is higher in Great Britain than in Belgium, and in France, being certainly in the order, and probably nearly in the ratio, of the natural advantages of these countries for the production of iron; and this view is confirmed by the selling price of iron in the respective PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 39 countries, at the present time, when it is admitted on all hands that there is no profit to the maker. The price of merchant bar-iron, at the worksIn England, is................. 6 10 per ton. In France..... 8 0 (200 francs) per ton. In Belgium.................... 7 0 (175 francs) per ton. The difference between the cost of French iron and Belgium and English, aside from cost of transportation, which is very light, is compensated by the import duty, which, on iron from England and Belgium, amounts to sixty francs per ton. Independently of this tariff, which admits of a considerable importation of iron into France, it would not be possible for the iron business to be continued on any considerable scale, for the reason, as will be seen, that the \rages are already at the lowest possible point consistent with the maintenance of human life in a condition fit for labor; the average earnings of all the workmen, skilled and unskilled, employed in an iron work being at the rate of 3.45 francs per day, or about 66 cents per day in gold; the great mass, however, of common labor receiving less than 50 cents per day in gold. In order to estimate the purchasing power of this sum, it is necessary to give the prices of the principal articles required for the support of life, and for this purpose I have selected the department in which Le Creusot is situated, as the proper locality foa comparison, with the rate of wages there paid: Wheat bread............ 0.25 francs per lb., equal to 5 cents in gold. Rye bread........ 0.20 francs per lb., equal to 4 cents in gold. Beef -........... 0.65 francs per lb., equal to 13 cents in gold. Mutton................0.75 francs per lb., equal to 15 cents in gold. Veal.................. 0.75 francs per lb., equal to 15 cents in gold. Pork.... 0.75 francs per lb., equal to 15 cents in gold. Chickens........ l.00 to 2.50 francs, equal to 20 to 50 cents in gold. Geese..................3.00 francs, equal to 60 cents ih gold. Ducks............. \. 1.50 to 2.00 francs, equal to 30 to 40 cents in gold. Butter............. 1.00 francs per lb., equal to 20 cents in gold. Dozen eggs.............. 0.50 to 1.00 francs, equal to 10 to 20 cents in gold. Potatoes................ 0.50 francs per decalitre, equal to 40 cents per bushel. Ordinary wine...........0.40 francs per litre, equal to 5 cents per pint. Beer.... -0.25 francs per litre, equal to 3 cents per pint. House rent is cheap; a small, ordinary, but comfortable house, with a garden, renting for $16 per year in gold. Clothes are also cheap, costing not more than half the price of similar articles in the United States; but fuel is rather dearer on the average. It does not require any very extensive observation in order to verify the obvious conclusion deducible from the above figures, that the general condition of the working classes in France, from a material point of view at least, is simply deplorable. It requires the utmost economy on the part of a laboring man, and the united labor of his wife and his children, to keep his family in existence; and it is the accepted rule and practice for such a family to have meat but once a week; and any change in this condition of affairs, involving a change in the remuneration paid to the common laborer, would put it out of the power of the iron-masters of France to carry on their business, in competition with Belgium and England, in the absence of a higher tariff on imports. The existence of the iron business in France, therefore, as a national branch of industry, may be said to rest upon the elementary condition of giving meat once a week only to the great mass of laborers who are engaged in its production. In Belgium, substantially the same state of affairs prevails. In the despatch of Lord Howard de Walden, the British minister at Brussels, to Lord Stanley, dated February 11, 1867, on the subject of Belgian industry, he says: "The characteristics of the Belgian workmen are steadiness ana perseverance, 40 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. combined with great intelligence in working after models; their habits are not so expensive as those of English artificers; their diet is more humble, they consume less meat, and their bread is seldom purely wheaten or white in quality; rye, and the cheaper quality of wheat called' epeautre,' enter in great proportion into the composition of the loaf; beer and spirits are both lower in price than in England; they seldom use tea, and the chiccory root constitutes a very economical and wholesome substitute for coffee. * * * * The system of schools for infants from two to seven years, and from seven to twelve years, is very general, and affords great facilities —the children being cared forto both their parents to occupy themselves in daily service, and by combined industry to ameliorate the condition of their family. In all these respedts, therefore, the necessaries of life being the base of wages, the Belgian enjoys advantages over the British workman." From our American point of view, these " advantages over the British workman" in dispensing with meat and tea, and in substituting chiccory for coffee, and in appropriating the labor of both parents for a mere existence, are not so apparent. But we are naturally brought by it to consider the condition of the British laborer. It has been seen that the natural advantages of Great Britain, in the possession of its vast stores of coal, afford a fund for the payment of better wages to the laborer in England than on the continent, and the British workman has not been slow to assert his rights to all he can get, and his physical condition is undoubtedly superior to that of his French and Belgian' neighbors. If he is not better lodged, he is at least better fed, and in the iron works it is probable that the workmen generally get meat once a day. But, as a general rule, the labor of the women and children is required in order to eke out the subsistence of the family. In Wales women are extensively employed in the works, doing the labor for which a man would be required in America, and earning from tell pence to one shilling three pence per day, or rather less than half the wages that would be paid to a man for the same labor, which they perform equally well. In Staffordshire, and in the north of England, and in Scotland, women and children are still extensively employed above ground about the mines, and around the coal heaps at the mouths of the pits, the substantial result of which is that the labor of the whole family is procured for the sum which would be paid to its male head, if he alone labored for the support of the family, of course at a far lower cost in the resulting production of iron than would otherwise be possible. Restraining laws have been enacted in England of late years in regard to women and children, limiting the number of hours during which they may be employed, and also providing that they shall not be, employed during the night, except in certain specified cases. But if the women and children were altogether withdrawn from those occupations, as they are in the United States, it would not be possible to produce iron, except at a considerable advance on its present cost. Passing from the material to the intellectual condition of the workmen in France and England, the provision for the education of the children is upon a very limited scale indeed, and although there are creditable exceptions in particular localities, mainly due to the enlightened conscience of the proprietors, the great mass of the working classes out of the large cities are deplorably illiterate. In the department of Sao'ne et Loire, where the works of Le Creusot are situated and where the most commendable efforts are being made by Messrs. Schneider & Co. to educate the rising generation, it appears that 36.19 per cent. of those who were joined in marriage in 1866 could not write their names, and of the conscriipts drawn for the army from the same department, in the same year, 24.51 per cent. were unable to read. And the same statistics show that, taken as a whole, in nearly two-thirds of France the number of those who cannot write their names on marriage is between the limits of thirty and seventy-five per cent. of the total PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 41 number. This deplorable state of affairs has, of late, led to the establishment of schools for the instruction of adults, mostly voluntary, upon which there were in attendance during the present year 829,555 adults, of whom 747,002 were men and 82,553 were women. Of 110,503 who could neither read nor write on entering the course in October, 1866, 87,211 had learned to read by the 1st of April, 1867; 12,632 instructors have given their services gratuitously, and the whole movement, and the statistics above given, prove both the depth of ignorance into which the working classes have been plunged, and their earnest desire to emerge from it. (See Appendix E.) Surprise may be expressed that in view of the inadequate reward for labor in France, there has not been a larger emigration to our own country, where labor is so much better paid. The difficulties arising from the difference in language would of themselves be a great impediment to any extensive emigration movement; but there are impediments of another kind, not generally understood, which tend to prevent any relief to the laboring classes from this source. The law of {" livret," as it is called, is peculiar to France. By its terms every workman is compelled to obtain from the police a kind of pass-book or register, in which his name, age, and occupation are inserted, and which he must show to an employer before being taken into his service, and no employer is permitted to receive into his works any workmen upon whose "livret "' is not indorsed a full discharge from his previous employer. Provision is also made for the indorsement upon the livret of any indebtedness which may be due from the workman to the employer, and his debt therefore follows the workman as a mortgage upon his labor fiom place to place. Although in express terms there is nothing in the law which would warrant the employer in withholding an indorsement on the livret, yet in practice it is a restraint on his freedom of action to such an extent that workmen employed in the large works usually remain there permanently, so that there is but little change, and no opportunity whatever for practical combination in strikes and turnouts. The whole of this system is so peculiar, and throws so much light upon the power it gives to produce iron at a cost which would not be possible if the workman were a free agent, that I have deemed it best to annex to this report in an appendix (F) a translation of a circular which was obtained from the prefecture of police. The moral condition of men is so dependent upon their physical and mental status that it is probably unnecessary for me to enlarge upon the obvious conclusions that might be inferred from the facts above recorded; but the conviction in my own mind was so profound, after a very careful survey of the whole field, that I deemed it my duty to accept an invitation to testify before the Trades Union Commission in England, in the hope that a full discussion of the physical and moral elements involved in the organization of industry would result in the ultimate elevation of the working classes of Europe to such a standard, at least, as would render the conditions of competition between our own- country and Europe more just and equitable. It is quite evident that in the effort to produce cheap commodities, and to undersell each other in the markets of the world, the rightful claims of humanity have been disregarded to such an extent that the reorganization of labor, in its relation to capital, is felt by all thoughtful men to be an imperative necessity. It cannot be that the aim of society is only to produce riches. There must be moral limits within which the production of wealth is to be carried on, and these limits have been and are being so obviously transgressed that a spirit of discontent pervades the entire industrial world; and in the very countries where this competition has been pressed to its utmost limits capital has ceased ) become remunerative, although humanity itself has been sacrificed to its demands. The'evidence which I gave before the Trades Union Commission was delivered in this spirit of deep concern for the welfare of the working classes; and inasmuch as a few incidental sentences repeating statements which had been 42 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. made to me in regard to the Pittsburg strike, but of no consequence in reference to the main question, were seized upon by the London Times as a groundwork for characteristic unfavorable comment on American institutions, and some feeling was excited among the working men in the United States in reference to these misrepresentations, against which, it will be seen, I took occasion to protest on my second hearing before the commissioners, long in advance of any knowledge on my part of the effect produced by them at home, it is deemed proper to state that the evidence so given, in Europe at least, was universally regarded as an appeal in behalf of the working classes, not in defence of any violation on their part of the fundamental principles of social science, but in assertion of their just rights to education, domestic happiness, and adequate remuneration for labor. There are some statements made thereon, of no great importance in themselves, based upon information derived from other parties, on whom I had reason to rely, which may have been erroneous; but in all such cases, where I did not speak of my own knowledge I expressly so stated, and this was particularly the case in regard to the Pittsburg strike, where the evidence shows that I expressly disclaimed personal knowledge of the facts; but I desire now to state that the information was derived from a resident of Pittsburg in whom I had reason to feel entire confidence. In my second evidence before the commission, it will be seen that I took occasion to correct some errors of this kind, having in the meantime received more correct information. There are also some replies bearing on the nationality of workmen, elicited in answer to questions over which' had no control; but in so far as they may appear to be invidious to any one nation, there is no real cause for complaint when the answer is understood. For example, the statement that the Irish are rarely first-class puddlers was made as a matter of fact in nowise depending on the land of their birth, but because they do not begin to learn the business until they arrive in America, full grown adults, whereas in England the education of the puddler begins in boyhood, and is pursued for many years before he takes a furnace. The same answer would, therefore, have been given to the same question, if asked with reference to the natives of any other country who had not learned the business from boyhood. But if, in comparison with the ample provision made in our country for the education of the masses, the. arrangements in France and England are upon a meagre scale, the opportunities for scientific and technical instruction, in France especially, are of a far more complete and generous character. For the governing classes, or for those who, rising out of the lower ranks, are educated to fill positions of trust and responsibility, there exist a series of educational establishments of so thorough a course in their respective departments as to exhaust all that experience and science can do for the preparation of engineers and conductors of industry. The Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures at Paris, the Conservatoire Imperiale des Arts et Metiers, several large agricultural schools, L'Ecole Imperiale des Ponts et Chausees, L'Ecole Imperiale des Mines, L'Ecole Imperiale de Commerce B Paris, the three schools des Arts et Metiprs at Chalons, Aix, and Angiers, the School of Mines at St. Etienne, the School of Watchmaking at Cluses, of the Mining Classes at Alais, the Naval School at Marseilles, are all sustained by the government in the interests of industry and commercd, and give to French industry that intelligence, science, and skill, which, in the Exposition, extorted universal admiration, and the general confession that its products, even in machinery and metals, were up to the highest standard of excellence. Similar schools in the United States ought to be the fruit of the great endoAment of lands given to the States by Congress for the establishment of institutions designed to teach mechanical and agricultural science and art; but it is to be regretted that, at the present time, the application of this grant has not'been so directed as to secure such a result, and we must console ourselves with the reflection that, if we are deficient in the higher education necessary for the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 43 best industrial development, we have in a measure supplied its place by a general diffusion of knowledge, which, evoking the ingenuity and individuality of each workman, has rendered it less necessary than in countries where the masses are in ignorance. But it cannot, be disputed that this individuality and ingenuity in our American character will be more valuable and powerful when directed by the highest order of intelligence and thoroughly trained scientific leaders. It is obvious that the abnormal rates for labor which we have been considering cannot prevail in any one branch of industry alone, but must extend to all, as labor, like water, must seek a general level in each community governed by the same laws, and subjected to the same influences. All articles of commerce are, therefore, produced below their normal cost-that is, the cost which would be possible if the fundamental laws of humanity were not violated in the employment of women and children, and the payment of a rate of wages to the common laborer inadequate for the proper support and culture of the family. In those commodities which require in the United States more human labor for their production than is necessary in Europe, where labor is so inadequately paid, we have, perhaps, no other interest than a general concern in the welfare of the human race; but so far as iron is concerned, from the fact that we can produce it with as little consumption of.human labor as any other nation in the world, the case is different, because there is no absolute loss of wealth, and no misapplied power in its production; and the only question to be discussed is, whether it shall be taken out of the general category of manufactures not so favorably placed as to the cost of production, and by positive legislation placed in the same condition as it would have occupied with reference to foreign competition, if the rate of wages in other countries had never been reduced below their normal standard. We have seen that the cost of making iron in England, Belgium, and France, at the present time, varies from X6 10s. to XC8 per ton, and;el additional suffices to pay its cost of transportation to the seaboard of the United States. At these ports American iron cannot possibly be d6livered at a less cost than $60 in gold, against $40 in gold for the foreign article, and the entire difference consists in the higher wages, and not larger quantity of labor required for its production in the United States, where the physical, mental, and moral condition of the working classes occupy a totally different standard from their European confreres, and where the wages cannot be reduced without violating our sense of the just demands of human nature. At the same time it is to be observed that the business is so far overdone in Europe that no profit can be realized by the capitalist, except in special cases, for which adequate reasons can be given. The actual remedy for this over-production would be to withdraw the women and children, as we do, from this class of industry, whereby the production must be reduced, the rate of wages raised, the cost and the selling price increased, capital become remunerative, and the ability to procure iron, made cheap by its adulteration with the violated laws of humanity. he forever extinguished. To what result the general discussion which this subject is now receiving in Europe will lead it is not easy to decide; but it is a curious phenomenon to listen in France to the loud complaints which are made against the competition of Belgium in the manufacture of iron, and stranger still in England to the same complaint, and the broad declaration that it will not be possible to do anything for the education and elevation of the working classes without exposing their manufacturers to ruin in consequence of the competition with the worse paid and worse fed labor of Belgium. The truth is that the whole system is false, and now, when pressed by the energy, enterprise, and competition of the age to its legitimate results, humanity is in rebellion, and there is a general cry from all classes, laborers, employers, philanthropists, philosophers, and statesmen, alike for relief. The necessity for this relief becomes painfully apparent when the poor-law returns made in England are carefully examined, from which it isevident that there is an army of paupers pressing upon the occupations of 44 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the common laborer, and striving to push him over the almost insensible line which divides these two classes from each other. It is not possible that the laborer should receive more than bare subsistence wages, and there can be no relief for his patient suffering, so long as there are thousands who, unable to earn any wages at all, stand ready to fill up every gap in the ranks of-industry; and to the honest laborer himself, standing on the edge of this line, over which he is liable at any moment to be forced into the ranks of pauperism, the anxiety and miserable state of. uncertainty for himself and his family, must be fatal to all rational happiness, and is well calculated to drive him into vicious indulgences and temporary excesses whenever a transient opportunity is afforded, as a momentary relief from a condition of hopeless misery. From the returns made to the British Parliament as to pauperism in the month of September, A. D. 1867, it appears that out of a population of 19,886,104, dwelling in the area for which the returns are made, 872,620 persons were on the list of paupers, supported by public charity, of which number 129,689 were in the workhouses, and 738,726 were relieved in their own houses. This latter portion constitutes'the army which substantially regulates the rate of wages for labor, as they are ready, to a greater or less extent, to take any vacant place which may offer'itself. And this state of the case exists not in mid-winter, but just after the close of the harvest, and the returns show that the evil is an advancing one, as there is an increase of 27,521, or 3.3 per cent. in 1867 over the corresponding week in 1866. And a study of the tables which are hereunto annexed (Appendix H) shows the largest rate of pauperism is in the manufacturing, and not in the agricultural districts. By another parliamentary return, which is also annexed, (Appendix I,) it appears that the average number of scholars attendant upon the schools under government inspection in the year 1866 was 871,309 in England and Wales, showing this suggestive fact, that the paupers receiving public relief, and the children receiving instruction in schools aided by the public funds, were about equal in number. This statement alone, if other evidence were lacking,: would serve to prove that the working classes of Great Britain have not yet achieved the position in point of education and social comfort to which humanity is entitled. Nor can it be alleged that this is due to any deficiency in the resources provided by nature for the reward of industry. The coal and iron ore mines of England afford the most magnificent fund to be found on the face of the globe for the abundant remuneration of the capital and labor engaged in their development, and every class in the community, except the operatives themselves, have enjoyed a bountiful return for their interest in this national endowment. The landowner has been largely paid, not only by the royalties derived from the minerals, but in the enormous increase in the value of the soil by the rapid growth of population engaged directly and indirectly in the manufactures based on their consumption. The capital invested in manufactures in Great Britain has, in the main, reaped a most abundant reward, and the general result has been an accumulation of capital in the hands of the higher and middle classes tnequalled in the history of mankind. That the working classes have not been equally well rewarded is due simply to the improvident and even reckless manner in which these great natural resources have been employed, giving rise to a competition unlimited by any other consideration than the immediate profit to be derived by the capital invested in the business. Of course, the less the rate of wages, the longer the number of hours of work to be got from the laborer, the greater the number of women and children that could be employed, the lower will be the cost of the product, and the more decided the ability to undersell all foreign competitors in the markets of the world. Hence, in the absence of restraining laws and an enlightened conscience on the part of the operators and manufacturers, and in the presence of a large population in a restricted area, governed in the interests of special PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 45 classes, it was inevitable that the superior natural resources of Great Britain should be used, as they have been, rather to crush out foreign competition than to elevate the working classes; and this very attempt to undersell foreign nations in their own markets necessarily involved the lowest possible rate of wages in those countries consistent with mere existence; reacting, in turn, upon the English labor market, and compelling lower rates of wages than would otherwise have been required, if the aim of the nation had been directed to the payment of the largest possible compensation to its own working classes, rather than to the'ontrol of the markets of the world even at the expense of humanity itself. The possession of these wonderful deposits of coal and iron, as a fund for the payment of adequate wages to labor in Great Britain, is equivalent to our virgin soil in the United States, enabling both nations to pay the highest possible rate of wages consistent with the conservation of capital; but this advantage in Great Britain has been deliberately and recklessly thrown away by a competition between the English manufacturers themselves, resulting in an over-production, and compelling a steady pressure upon the wages of labor, in order to keep up the production andsecure larger consumption by lower prices for the commodities. It is a mistake to suppose that this reduction in price has been caused by the competition of foreign nations with Great Britain, for we have seen that France cannot produce enough iron for its own consumption, and that Belgium only turns out one-tenth as much iron as Great Britain, and is therefore governed as to price solely by the rate at which Great Britain is willing and able to furnish the remaining nine-tenths. If it were possible for Belgium to alter the ratio of production, she might in the long run make the price for the total product; but it is simply ridiculous to apprehend, in view of the natural resources of the two countries, that any such change can ever be effected. The most interesting industrial and social question of the age is, therefore, the policy which will be pursued by Great Britain in the administration of its mines of coal and iron. And the royal commission, now making an official inquiry into the exhaustion of the coal fields, will stop far short of the real scope of the question if it fails to investigate whether, by wise and suitable regulations, the annual product of coal cannot be so regulated as to secure a far better remuneration to the labor engaged in its production than it has heretofore received. I ant perfectly aware that such regulations must necessarily be restrictive in their character, and, at the first glance, will appear to be at war with the commercial policy of fiee trade advocated in Great Britain. Very little reflection, however, is required to show that by far the greater portion of the legislation of all enlightened nations is necessarily of a protective and restrictive character; and at this day no enlightened statesman would advocate the deliberate sacrifice of local advantages for the sake of any mere abstract theory, which might be ever so well founded in reason, but fails to be applicable in the presence of exceptionable facts and resources. The protection of life, liberty, property, and social order, the title to lands and personal property, rest entirely upon protective laws; and'all provisions for the protection of(capital and health and the establishment of police are so many restraints upon the natural freedom of the individual; and surely legislation looking to the wisest possible use of national resources and the prevention of the waste or misapplication of the raw material upon which the.structure of the national industry and prosperity and the welfare of the working classes rest, is not merely a natural but a necessary step in the progress of industry and the development of civilization. In no country in the world are so many proofs of the wisdom of this course to be found as in the history of British legislation in reference to the working classes during the last thirty-five years. The repeal of the corn laws.was a measure of eminent protection to the working classes, relieving them of the taxes imposed upon food for the benefit of the landowner, and of the landowner alone; because 46 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the condition of the agricultural laborer could not be made worse, but could only be improved by any change. The series of laws regulating the employment of women and children in factories and mines are not merely highly restrictive, but by common consent have produced the happiest results on the moral and physical condition of the working classes. The laws recognizing the legal existence of friendly societies; for the encouragement of building associations; the conversion of the post offices into savings banks for the. working classes; for the granting of annuities and life assurance guaranteed by the government to the working classes, on the payment of small periodical instalments; for the encoutagement of co-operative stores and associations; for " partnerships of industry" in which the workman is allowed to have an interest in the profits of the business without becoming liable as a partner for the debts; the statutes authorizing the establishment of free reading rooms, libraries, and museums, by a vote of the rate-payers in any borough, town, or city, constitute a course of wise legislation unmistakably protective, restrictive, and enabling; persistently advocated and successfully established by the most sagacious, liberal, and philanthropic statesmen of the present age, and resulting in so marked an improvement in the condition of the working classes, accompanied with so decided an advance in the rate of wages, that it is scarcely possible longer to deny, that the first step towards securing to the working classes an adequate reward for their labor is such legislation. as protects them from the evils which seem to be inseparable from the spirit of unrestrained competition between nations and between men, which experience has shown to result in the utter disregard of the mdral and physical condition and social welfare of the working classes, unless regulated by positive legal enactment. * This wise course of legislation may be said to be but fairly initiated in England, but the intelligent observer cannot fail to be convinced that it will be persisted in until all special privileges which interfere with the normal distribution of the proceeds of labor and capital will be removed. The effect will undoubtedly be a rise in wages, already apparent; and this result is unquestionably a matter of deep concern to the manufacturers and capitalists of Great Britain, who fear that it will deprive them of their ability to control the markets of the world, as they now do, with the products of their mills. But there is in reality nojust ground for this apprehension. The distribution between capital and labor may, and must, undoubtedly, be changed, but the aggregate income will not on the average of years be reduced, because the control of the fuel of the world, that is to say, of the condensed power which has been stored up by Divine Providence for its use, is in the hands of the Anglo-Saxon race in Europe and America, who alone have reduced prices by a competition with other nations, impossible but for the possession of the mineral fuel in such vast quantities, and for the violation of the natural laws which should govern the employment and the compensation of labor. The transition to a more equitable basis of production will simply enable other countries, who, as we have seen, cannot do more than supply themselves with coal and iron, to raise their laboring classes out of a condition still more deplorable than exists in England, without by any possibility enabling them to keep up any effective competition in the markets of the world, for the supply of the iron required for the future progress, development and civilization of mankind. A rise in wages in England, therefore, will not only be a blessing to the workmen of that favored country, relieving it of pauperism, so far as it may be possible to extinguish poverty at all, but will be a harbinger of light to the unpaid, unfed and unhappy operatives throughout all lands in which human industry is now weighed down by the effects of * Readers desirous to investigate the effect of protective, restrictive and enabling legislation on the condition of the working classes, are referred to the very able treatise on " The Progress of the Working Classes, 1832-1867," by I. M. Ludlow and Lloyd Jones, published by Alex ander Strahan, London, 1867. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 47 British competition, based upon superior natural resources. And to me it is a suggestive, and for humanity an encouraging fact, that the agitation and restlessness which characterize the working classes of our age are mostly apparent in Great Britain and the United States, who are not only so far in advance of all other countries in the possession of natural industrial resources, but who, from the habit of free discussion and prompt obedience to the popular voice, (the result of constitutional government long in force,) will be most ready to accept the conclusions deduced by the stern logic of experience and facts, and modify their legislation so as to conform to the just demands of humanity whenever the proper course is discovered and made plain to the common sense of the people. When, by reason of such legislation, the wages of labor in Great Britain have reached their normal condition, there will no longer be any occasion for us to consider the question of protective or prohibitory tariffs; but in the mean time, to the people of the United States, who, in consequence of the possession of a virgin soil, have in comparison with their European neighbors suffered but little from violations of the fundamental principles of social science, two courses are open. We can either take advantage of the unnaturally cheap rate at which our wants can and will be supplied from abroad, while the present system lasts, and, by throwing open our ports to foreign iron, purchase foreign labor at a far lower rate than we are willing to sell our own, and thus abandon a business which, so long as our present rates of wages are maintained, cannot be conducted in the United States even without profit; or we can impose such a duty on foreign iron as will make up for the difference in the amount of wages paid for making a ton of iron in Europe or in this country, less the expense of transportation. The decision of this question is mainly of interest to the working classes themselves, and to the great body of the farmers, because if the iron business is abandoned for the present in the United States, the labor now employed in it must in the main take to the soil, and a larger yield of agricultural products be insured. The surplus so produced must seek its market in the open marts of the world, and the mouths that would have been fed on this side of the Atlantic will simply be fed elsewhere, although not so abundantly and so generously. But it must be remembered that whatever may be the price of bread in Europe at the works where the iron will be made, would be the price which the same operatives could afford to pay if the iron works had been placed where the grain is grown, and that the cost of transportation thence is just so much deducted from the price which the farmer would have received if the grain had been consumed at home. The question-is one, also, which more concerns the west than the east, because the loss caused by transportation from the west is greater; and the final decision of this great queftion should therefore be well considered, especially with reference to the point whether the saving produced by the purchase of cheap iron and other articles will compensate for the loss entailed by the transportation of the grain. It forms no part of the purpose of this report to deduce any conclusion on this subject, but only to state the facts in such form as will enable intelligent legislation to be enacted, keeping in view the interests of all classes, and above all tile considerations of independence, essential to the dignity of the American republic and the welfare of mankind. But in the discussion of this question, and in the legislation which may be proposed to meet the best interests of the nation, in regard to a supply of iron and steel, the broad distinction which exists between the nature of the question in Europe and the United States must never be lost sight of. On the continent, protective duties on iron are imposed in order to counterbalance the superior natural resources and advantages of Great Britain for the production of iron, and not to secure higher wages to the 48 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. laborer; whereas, in the United States, protective duties, if imposed at all, are not necessary because our natural advantages for making iron are inferior in any particular to those of Great Britain, but simply because the wages of labor are fixed upon a more just and liberal scale to the workmen in the first instance, and by the law of equivalents to the whole industrial force engaged in the great work of production, of whatever form and nature. If the facts and suggestions contained in this report, the result of half a year of careful study of the Exposition, and the knowledge which it enabled me to acquire in reference to the social condition of the working classes in Europe, shall in any way aid Congress in arriving at a judicious solution of these grave questions, involving so many and such varied interests, and if, as I hope, the terrible evils of pauperism shall be even for a time, and possibly forever, averted from our own country by legislation based upon sound, social, and economical principles, I shall cease to regret the strange and cruel misrepresentations to which I have been subjected among the working classes, in whose behalf mainly the duty confided to me was undertaken. Whatever policy may be finally adopted with reference to American industry, it is a source of profound satisfaction, and should be a subject of general congratulation, that a careful survey of the natural resources of those nations who stand in the van of European progress and civilization justifies the declaration that the great problem of democratic institutions is being solved in a land having, in addition to a fruitful soil, the largest and best supplies of the fundamental elements upon which industry, progress, and civilization are based; and that there is good reason to hope that here it may be shown how wealth may be created without the degradation of any class which labors for its production, the only advantage (if advantage it may be termed) possessed by Europe over the United States, for the cheap production of iron and steel, being in the lower and inadequate rate of wages which there prevails, and not in any superior natural resources in ore, fuel, or geographical position. ABRAM S. HEWITT, United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition of 1867. Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State. PARIS, November 30, 1867. SECTION II —BESSEMER STEEL. PARIS, June 22, 1867. To tie Commissioners of the United States for the Uhiversal Exposition of 1867: The undersigned has the honor to submit a special report upon " Bessemer steel," prepared under his direction by Frederick J. Slade, scientific assistant to Committee No. 6, and duly approved by the committee and ordered to be laid before the commission. ABRAM: S. HEWITT, U. S. Commissioner and Chairman of Committe No. 6. THE BESSEMER PROCESS. The Paris Exposition affords valuable information in reference to the capabilities of the Bessemer process for the production of all grades of metal, from a near approach to wrought iron to the hardest and finest kinds of steel. A comparison of the specimens sent from the various countries shows that the quality of the metal produced depends chiefly upon the nature of the raw ma PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 49 terials used, and accordingly it is only in those countries where the very best ores and purest coals are employed that we find the finer grades of steel produced. It will, perhaps, be most instructive, therefore, to examine the manner in which this process is conducted in each country separately, and to trace, if possible, the relation between the nature of the finished products and the materials and modes of working employed in their, manufacture. We begin naturally with ENGLAND. The iron almost exclusively employed in England for the pneumatic process is obtained from the Cumberland district, and is derived from red hematite ores. Dr. Percy, in his well-known work on metallurgy, gives as the analysis of two specimens of these ores: I. II. Sesquioxide of iron........ 95.16 90.36 Protoxide of manganese....0.24 0.10 Alumina,........................................... 0.37 Lime......................................... 0.07 0.71 MIagnesia...0.... 0.06 Phosphoric acid............... trace. trace. Sulphuric acid...................... trace. trace. Bisulphide of iron........ trace. 0.06 Ignited insoluble residue............. 5.68 8.54 101.15 100.26 Silica.............. 5.66 7.05 Alumina..........................06 1.06 Sesquioxide of iron....... 0.19 Lime......................................... trace. 5.72 8.30 Iron, total amount........... 66.60 63.25 The blast furnaces in which these ores are smelted average about fifty feet in height and fifteen feet diameter of boshes, and are in most cases open-topped, the opinion among the iron-masters being that the quality of the iron is injured by any attempt to draw off the gas. At some firnaces, however, this notion is abrogated, and the waste gases are utilized for heating the blast. Among these are the furnaces of the Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel Company, the West Cumberland, and -the Wigan Iron and Coal Company's furnaces. The quality of pig produced at these latter works does not perhaps standinvariably as high as that of the Whitehaven Hematite Iron Company, (Cleator,) the Workington Iron Company, or the Harrington, but if there is a difference it is easily accounted for by the quality of the materials used, without the necessity of resort to the supposition of an injurious effect from utilizing the escaping gas. The fuel used at the furnaces in the Cumberland district is the best Newcastle coke, which is remarkable for its hardness and freedom from sulphur. Dr.y Percy gives the percentage of sulphur as 0.S and of ash 4.45. No charcoal pig is made in England for the Bessemer process. The fluxes employed are a limestone quite free from phosphorus, and a portion of black shale from the coal beds, consisting of clay and carbonaceous matter, without any appreciable amount of sulphur. The percentage of iron indicated by the above analysis. viz., from 60 to 70, appears to be a fair average, and the ores are not calcined, PE4 50 PARIS UNIVERSALt EXPOSITION. As it is necessary that the iron should be as gray as possible, not less than thirty hundred-weight of coke are used per ton of iron produced, and a charge is about fifty hours in coming down through a furnace of the dimensions given above. The yield from such a furnace is 250 tons per week. The blast is under a pressure of three and three-fourths pounds, and is heated to from 6500 to 7500 Fahrenheit. From four to six tuyeres are. usually employed. No. 1 iron for the Besemer process from these furnaces brings ninety shillings per ton at the works, and No. 2 ten shillings per ton less. The Wigan Iron and Coal Company, Lancashire, produce an iron which is used to a cohsiderable extent for the process, but does not rank as high as the Cumberland irons. The coal as mined would be quite unfit for use in the production of such a grade of iron, as it is materially contaminated with sulphur, but this is almost entirely removed by washing the fine coal, the pyrites settling by their superior weight, while the pure coal is carried on to receiving leds by the current of water, and the purified residuum is then converted into coke, yielding a tolerably strong product. This company have just erected a number of new furnaces much above the usual size for this kind of iron, viz., eighty feet high and twenty-four feet diameter of boshes, and these are provided with a cone and bell arrangement for taking off the gas. Forest of Dean iron, made from brown hematite ores, is fiequently used in small quantities in admixture with other irons for the purpose of maintaining the heat of the charge, which it tends to do. It is apt, however, to contain too large a percentage of sulphur to work well alone. Another brand which is said to work well is Weardale, an iron made from spathic ores. It is unusually rich in manganese, and owes its excellence chiefly to that fact. The following analyses exhibit the characteristics of somne of the more usual brands of iron employed: Cleator. Workington. Weardale. Forest of Dean. Carbon, (graphitic). -.-...... 4. 007 3.14 3.24 3. 25 Silicon. -...................... 1. 752 3. 12 1. 80 1. 36 Sulphur.. —.. -----.-........ 0. 05 0 04 0. 037 Phosphorus 0. 049 0. 03 0.19 0. 000 Manganese...... 0.02 1.45 The analysis of Weardale is taken from Percy's Metallurgy; the others were furnished to the writer from different sources in England. The presence of silicon in the iron causes the, charge to work hot in the converter, and it is usual therefore to mix an iron rich in this element with others containing a less quantity, and which have a tendency to work cold and become pasty. As a rule Workington iron contains more silicon than any other in use for the process, and being moreover an excellent iron is largely used. It is, however, from the very fact of its working so hot, seldom employed alone, as it cuts the moulds badly in pouring. Sulphur and phosphorus are the most injurious elements found in the pig, because the pneumatic process is powerless to remove them, and the quality of the steel is materially affected by their presence. An effectual means of eliminating these substances, in the process of conversion, would be one of the most valuable discoveries of the times. It is usual among. all the steel makers to mix several different brands of iron where a uniform and good quality of steel is desired, but there seems to be no definite mixture which is agreed upon as best. The principle appears to be to form the larger portion of the charge of the better brands of Cumberland PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 51 hematite, and to add as correctives smaller percentages of other irons.'The following will serve as examples, the first having been given to the writer by MUr. F. Preston, late managing director of the Lancashire Steel Company, and the other being from the books of another large firm: I. II. Workington................. 45 Cleator.................... 40 Harrington........... 40 Workington................. 20 West Cumberland............. 1 a0 Harrington, (No. 1)......... 15 Wigan.................. 20 Harrington, (No. 2).......... 5 Weardale.............. 7 Forest of Dean............ 10 Forest of Dean...... 3 Wigan..................... 3 120 93 Spiegel................... 7 Spiegel............... 61 or 61 127k For forgings such as axles, tires, locomotive crank shafts, &c., none but No. 1 iron is commonly used, but for rails a greater or less amount of No. 2 is added, in order to reduce the cost as faras possible. The amount of this quality that may be used will of course depend on the character of the iron. The iron as a rule is melted in reverberatory f'urnaces, but at five works, cupolas have been substituted with apparently good results. These areThe Manchester Railway Steel and Plant Co.; Messrs. Chas. Cammell & Co., Penistone; The Bolton Iron and Steel Co.; The Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel Co.; The Mersey Iron and Steel Co., Liverpool. At the latter a cupola is also employed for melting the spiegeleisen. At the first-mentioned works Woodward's patent steam-jet cupola is employed, it is stated with a consumption of coke as low as one and one-fourth pound per hundredweight of iron. At the others, Ireland's upper tuyere cupolas are employed. These cupolas melt very rapidly, and are sufficiently capacious to hold an entire charge in the portion below the upper row of tuyeres. The size erected for a fiveton plant is seven feet in diameter, and will melt five tons of iron in three-quarters of an hour. In working, the charge is weighed when it is put into the cupola, and, as it melts, remains in the bottom till the whole has been fused, when it is tapped off into the converter. They generally require cleaning once in twenty-four hours. Of course where cupolas are used, much greater care has to be exercised in the selection of the coke, as fuel which might be used in the air furnaces would destroy the quality of the iron if burned in contact with it. The opinion among those who employ the cupolas is, that it is quite possible to find a coke suiciently free from sulphur to yield a satisfactory result. At the Barrow works, preparations had been made to convey the molten metal directly from the blast furnaces to the converters, but after a number of trials it was found that the uniformity of the metal could not be relied on, and, in consequence, the attempt was abandoned, and cupolas erected instead, to remelt the pigs. The converters at the majority of the works have a capacity adequate for a yield of five tons of steel, or allowing one-sixth for waste, which may be taken as a fair average, for six tons of molten iron. At Barrow, however, three seven and a half ton vessels have been erected, besides their five-ton plant, and at Messrs. John Brown & Co.'s a pair of ten ton vessels have been in use more than three years. The material commonly employed for lining the vessels is ganister, a highly silicious substance, found at Sheffield. Other materials have been tried at some works, as 52 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. for example, at Dowlais, with apparently great success. A pair of vessels, at the works just mentioned, had recently stood 300 blows each, without relining, and were still apparently in good condition. This is mranch above the average endurance of the refractory linings. T'he destruction of tuyeres is an important item in the expense of the process. The average life of these is seldom over five blows, and the failure of one during a blow is often the cause of considerable loss, either by damage to the vessel or by injury to the contained charge. In the general arrangement of the Bessemer plain, very few changes have been made from that planned by Mr. Bessemer and contained in the drawings supplied to his licensees. A pair of converting vessels usually placed opposite to each other, but in some cases side by side, stand at the side of a casting pit, sunk a few feet below the general level of the floor. These vessels are mounted on trunnions, and are revolved on them by means of a, rack and pinion operated by hydraulic pressure. The melting furnaces are placed in a room having a considerably higher floor level than the converting room, so that the melted metal may be run by its own gravity into the mouth of the converter, when the latter is turned down suitably to receive it. In the centre of the pit is a vertical hydraulic piston or crane, carrying at its upper end a piatform, at one end of which is a ladle sufficiently large to hold the contents of the converter at the end of the operation. The platform is furnished with gearing, so that it may be easily revolved to bring the ladle over each ingot mould successively, the latter being arranged accordinlgly in the are of a circle near the side of the pit, which here has the same form. The ladle is provided with a nozzle and stopper in its bottom, by imeans of which the flow of the steel is regulated. Two hydraulic ciranes, consisting simply of vertical pistons, carrying a long horizontal jib with a rolling carriage, to which a chain and hook is attached for lift;ing the ingots, are placed near the edge of the pit, about opposite the. centre of the converters, and serve also to lift off the various parts of the latter when required for repairs. The blast valve and hydraulic apparatus pertaining to the converters are worked from a valve stand, placed at a suitable distance fiom the pit, the cranes being operated by a valve directly attached to them, so that the attendant boy may the better see what he is required to do, and the whole of the manipulation of the vessels, ladles, and ingots, gives an ease of working and a perfection of control, with economy of labor, which should lead to the more general application of hydraulic power to other departments of industry in which large masses have to be dealt with. The water pressure used for the purpose is about 300 pounds per square inch. The sizes of ingots most commonly cast are, for rails, about 10 inches square, for locomotive crank shafts, ingots of a rectangular section, say 22 inches X 16 inches, and for other forgings according to the size and nature of the work, the moulds having a weight about equal to that of the ingots. At some works, the plan is adopted of testing a sample of each blow for carbon, and classifying the metal according to the result of this test. By this means much greater uniformity in the finished work is obtained, and in the present state of onr knowledge of the process, this is a very necessary means to secure this end, and should be more generally adopted. The process employed was introduced from Sweden, and is exceedingly simple in its nature. It consists in dissolving a known weight of metal in the form of drill chips, or some other finely divided state, in nitric acid, of the gravity 1.2. The solution will have a brown color, more or less deep according to the percentage of earbon contained in the metal. A standard color, corresponding to a known percentage of carbon, as determined by direct analysis, is first established, and the color of the solution to be tested is made to agree exactly with this by the addition of a certain quantity of acid or water. That this, which'is the readiest method of producing agreement, may be employed, the color of the standard solution must be light. The water is added to the solution in a graduated test tube, so that the exact proportion of water relatively to the original solution may be read off with ease, and if, for example, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 53 an equal bulk of water requires to be added to make the color the same as the standard, the percentage of carbon in the specimen under test must be just double that of the standard. As a solution of steel in acid would in the course of time change its color, an exact imitation of it is made by dissolving burnt sugar, and this is kept hermetically sealed for comparison. To secure a light standard color, it is not necessary that the piece of steel dissolved should contain a small percentage of carbon, but a larger quantity of acid may be used in a known proportion, say twice, or three times the required amount, and the corresponding percentage of carbon will be equally well ascertained. This test is easily and quickly applied, and the variation of color being considerable, gives results sufficiently accurate for the purpose of a proper classification of the ingots according to the purposes for which they are suited. The principal uses to which the Bessemer metal is put, in England, are the manufacture of rails, tires, axles, machinery forgings, and boiler plate. The total amount produced may be judged from the fact that the quantity made per week at the works of Messrs. John Brown & Co., limited, and Messrs. Chas. Cammell & Co., limited, is stated to be 600 or 700 tons each. rThe number of establishments at which the process is in operation is about fifteen, and the number of converters employed upwards of fifty. The chief market is for rails, and a large proportion of the orders are for American roads. In England, not much ordinary line has been laid with steel rails, but on most roads those portions which are exposed. to excessive wear, such as stations and inclines, are being relaid with steel. The public are already familiar with the vastly superior endurance of steel in such situations, and nothing, need therefore be said here on that point. MANUFACTURE OF STEEL RAILS. It is usual, as already stated, to cast a 10-inch square ingot for rails. At most works, this is reheated in a reverberatory furnace and hammered down to 7 inches square. At some prominent establishments, however, this process is dispensed with, and a 10-inch ingot is taken directly to the rolls and rolled down to 7 inches., At Crewe, [Mr. Ramsbottom employs a heavy cogging machine for the same purpose. This is simply a form of reversing rolls made exceedingly large, and only performing a part of a revolution at each pass of the ingot. I t is stated that the rails made from unhammered ingots stand equally good tests with those which have first undergone hammering. The substitution of rolling, of course, cheapens the manufacture, and reduces the amount of plant necessary, as well as the number of hands Fequired. It is usual after the ingot has been brought from 10 inches down to 7 inches to putitback into the treating furnace for a short time, to bring it up to a heat sufficient to carry it through the remainder of the process. With hammered ingots it is usual to allow them to become cold after hammering, and to reheat them entirely anew, since it is not easy to regulate the heats so as to have the hammer supply hot ingots to the furnaces for the rolling mill. This, of course, involves a further additional expense in the use of the hammer. In heating the ingots care has to be taken that the heat is not forced so as to burn the steel, and ample time must be given for it to "soak." Practically about four heats are obtained in twelve hours, where with iron seven or eight could be got. When the ingots are rolled from the cast size, it is usual to provide larger furnaces and a greater number for the first heat than for the second, as the fewer and smaller ones will work off the same number of ingots, on account of the shorter time necessary to bring them to the required heat. At the Dowlais works, for example, there are seven furnaces holding seven ingots each for the first heat, and but. four holding four apiece for the supplementary heating. The usual size of rolls for steel rails of the English, (80 lbs per yard,) or other pattern is from 22 inches to 24 inches diameter. In some cases, however, smaller 54 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. sizes are in use as at Crewe, and at the Mersev iron and steel works, atthe letter of which only an 18-inch train is employed. These, however, are trains which were originally intended for rolling iron rails, and have been compelled to do service for steel. The speed with rolls of the first mentioned sizes varies from sixty to forty revolutions per minute; the former extreme, however, seems preferable. The drafts on the rolls are made somewhat lighter and more numerous than for ironsay two more grooves for finishing. At several works reversing rolling mills have been erected, to avoid the necessity of liftipg the ingots in returning, and also to save time by operating on the ingot when moving in either direction. The usual plan has been to effect the reversing by engaging by means of a clutch gears running in opposite directions. This necessarily brings a severe shock on all the machinery, especially at high speeds, and in some cases where the arrangement has been introduced it is not used, the mill always running in one direction, and the rolling being carried on in the usual way. Mr. Ramsbottonm has constructed and patented a reversing mill, which he uses for rolling locomotive frame plates, at Crewe, which is free from this objection. Hie drives his rolls by a pair of engines, resembling a set of locomotive engines in most of their details, and without any fly-wheel. These work at a high speed, and are geared to the rolls in such a manner as to reduce the speed to the required amount. The link motion is thrown up or down in reversing by a hydraulic piston, easily set in motion by the attendant, and by these means the engines can be reversed seventy times per minute -and entirely without shock. This principle for reversing would appear mnuch preferable to the use of a clutch. The employment of'a fly-wheel is not found necessary, as the engines, in virtue of their high speed, contain power sufficient to overcome any obstacles within the limits of safety to the rolls, beyond which it is better that they should stop. Mr. Ramsbottom has adopted in this set of rolls a thorough application of hydraulic power for all the operations of manipulation, and has thereby obtained great facility of working and economy of labor. Instead of the reversing principle, a steam or hydraulic lifting gear is used at some works for raising the ingot to the level of the top of the upper roll, and by many this is preferred to reversing. The Siemens furnace is coming extensively into use in steel works for heating ingots. At present they are in operation at Crewe, Bolton, Barrow, the MIersey works, and some other places. They require a certain amount of care in their management, but yield very satisfactory results in their working. They are expensive in first cost, but in districts where coal slack is abundant they are exceedingly economical in respect of fuel, since they allow of the use of this cheap material instead of better and more expensive coal. But even where good coal must be employed in the gas producers, the utilization of all the heat produced by combustion renders the saving of fuel very considerable as compared with the ordinary reverberatory furnace. For steel an excessively high temperature, such as is required for some operations, and which alone the Siemens regenerators are able to give, is not necessary, and where much steam power is required it may be quite as economical to employ the waste heat from the furnaces for heating the boilers as to pass it through regenerators for the purpose of heating the incoming gases for the furnaces themselves. In such a case as much and more expensive fuel might be required for generating steam under independent boilers as would be saved at the furnaces by the use of the regeneratot s. In this connection may be noticed a plan that has been adopted at the Bolton works with good results, viz., the heating of boilers by gas drawn directly firom the gas producers. This, of course, gives the same economy in respect of the use of slack as already referred to. Where sufficient steam is already obtained or is not required at all, the regenerative furnaces are of undoubted advantage. Mr. Webb, at Bolton, states that it is still an open question with him PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 55 whether it is preferable to heat his boilers, as already mentioned, by gas, or to place them over furnaces fired in the ordinary way with coal. The sawing, straightening, and punching of rails are conducted in general as in America, with the exception that a single saw, or a pair side by side, instead of two separated by the length of the rail, is used: The length of the lailis regulated by stops on the carriage, one end being sawed off and the rail then passed along on the friction-rollers in the carriage till it reaches the stop, when the other end is cut off. The use of a single saw, it is claimed, enables the cut to be made at the most suitable point, as indicated by the appearance of the end, and also gives greater facility in varying the length of the rail as required for different orders. At Barrow, the rollers in the saw carriage are driven by friction gearing from the saw engine, so that the rail is passed along automatically; the carriage is also drawn up to the saw by a number of racks and pinions at intervals along its length driven in a similar manner. At some works, severe tests are adopted for ascertaining the quality of rails, and until more accurate knowledge of the nature of the Bessemer ingots is obtained some such tests would appear to be very necessary. The usual method of procedure is to place a rail from each lot made from one mixing of metal, on supports three feet apart, and let fall upon it midway between them a weight of one ton from heights varying from ten to thirty feet, and observing the deflection' produced. It is considered that good rails should not break under this test, though they may bend considerably where great height of fall is employed. The use of steel-headed rails is -a point of great importance, but one on which at present little that is conclusive can be said. They have been made to a considerable extent at the Crewe works of the London and Northwestern Railway Company for use on that line, and Mr. Webb (formerly of Crewe) has patents for forms and materials of piles for their production. One of the points which Mr. Webb claims is interposing a layer of puddle bar between the steel face and the fibrous iron, for the purpose of making a more gradual transition between the crystalline anid fibrous metals, and thereby securing a more perfect union in the successive layers. The same thing has been done for many years in the United States. In the Exposition, specimens of steel-headed rails of French manufacture are shown, which have been struck on the top of the head with a steam hammer, cracking vertically through both steel and iron, and buckling up the web without any appearance of separation between the steel face and the iron beneath it. Although the specimen gives no evidence of being a selected one, (the line of the weld being plainlymarked on the external surface,) yet it is clear that no such test can decide a question which can really only be properly solved by experience under the conditions of regular working. A sudden blow may be incompetent to produce effects which may follow prolonged and irregular hammering under the wheels of railway trains. While, therefore, steel-headed rails cannot be pronounced an absolute success, there is every reason for prosecuting the experiment, and reasonable grounds for anticipating a perfectly successful result.* As the production of rails is at present the largest branch of the Bessemer steel manufacture, the disposition to be made of the crop ends becomes a question of immediate importance, and that to be made of the worn-out rails one of future moment. As the metal, when it contains any material proportion of carbon, is unreliable when welded, it is not so easy to decide to what use the large amount of ends sawed off from the rails slhall be put. At present it must be admitted they are rather a drug in the market. When an iron that works hot in the converter is used, a certain quantity of these ends may be remelted in the vessel without injury to the steel. About four hundred weight per charge of five tons is considered admissible at the Dowlais works, the scrap being first heated to a red heat in a furnace placed near the vessel, and thrown into the latter before'Experiments made in the United States, after a trial of two years, have demonstrated that a perfectly sound weld of the steel to the iron can be secured in -the head of the rail. 56 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. running in the molten iron. It is difficult, however, to dispose of the whole amount in this way. As large a portion as possible is sold to the Sheffield crucible steel makers, who remelt them, and sell them at a greatly advanced price. At some works, again, they are rolled into small plates, and in this form they may be used for the manufacture of plough shares and other kindred objects; or in some cases they may be rolled and drawn into telegraph wire; it would be impossible, however, to make fine sizes of wire from them. If the difficulty of disposing of the steel scrap is to continue, it forms another argument in favor of steel-headed rails, since these, when worn out, would contain but little steel and could be readily piled and rerolled, the pile being so arranged as to bring the steel in the least vital parts of the rail in case its presence should lead to any unsoundness of the welding. It would appear, however, that an adequate market for old rails could be formed by rerolling them into the form of bars for machinery and other purposes, for which, by reason of their superior strength, they should be more valuable than wrought iron. MANUFACTURE OF TIRES. Next in importance to the manufacture of steel rails is that of tires for locomotive and railway carriage wheels. Four years ago it was attempted to weld these up, as in the case of iron from straight bars, but the unreliability of all tires so made was soon apparent, and the. attention of manufacturers was directed to discovering some practicable means of producing them without welds. With the exception of the form of the ingot cast for the purpose, the mode of manufacture adopted at all the English works has attained a remarkable degree of uniformity. Mr. Ramsbottom casts his tire ingots in the form of a truncated cone, a usual size being two feet diameter at the bottom, six inches diameter at the top, and thirty inches height. This he hammers on its ends and sides till it.assumes the shape of an ordinary flat cheese, with a thickness of about twelve inches. Another heat is then taken on it, and it is thenr placed under a steam hammer furnished with a pointed conical tool, and by successive blows with this on both sides a hole is forced through the centre of the disk, and this again expanded as the hammering proceeds, till the.upper part of the tool, which is flat, comes down upon the tire and consolidates the metal by reducing its thickness. A third heat is then taken, and the ring so formed is placed over a stout beck projecting fiom the inclined side of an anvil, which maintains the ring in such a position as to give a suitable bevel to the outer face when struck by the hammer, while at the same time its diameter is considerably.increased by the operation. After this third hammering it is ready for the rolls, and a fourth and last heat is taken for that purpose. Mr. Ramsbottom holds a patent for the method of punching the tire blocks by a sharp-pointed conical tool without the removal of any of the metal. The form of rolling mill employed by Mir. Ramsbottom is exceedingly complicated, and is the only one of its kind, as far as the writer is aware, which is in use in England, unless it be at the works of the patentee, AMr. Jackson, at Manchester. At Mr. Allen's works, Sheffield, (H. Bessemer & Co.,) the cheese-shaped blocks are produced from an ingot of the ordinary square form, this being cast sufficiently large to form a number of tires, say four, and then hammered round and cut up into sections, each of a weight suitable for one tire. The central hole is punched by flat-ended punches about eight inches in diameter at the lower end, and perhaps nine inches above, driven in from both sides successively, and knocking out a circular disk about'two inches thick as scrap. The blocks used with this process are of less thickness, say seven inches. The hole so formed is slightly enlarged by forcing the ring down over a truncated conical block which is placed on the anvil for the purpose, and subsequently another heat is taken, and the hammering continued on the inclined beck of an anvil, as already described. The weight of the block can be accurately adjusted by varying the thickness at PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 57 the time of punching out the central disk, by which means the amount of metal removed will be effected. Another plan adopted by Mr. Allen is to cast annular ingots, sometimes a number one above the other, fed from one gate. These are cast with considerable depth, so as to allow of sufficient hammering to thoroughly consolidate the metal, and the weight is regulated by the size of the central core employed. For rolling the tyres from the hammered rings he employs the tyre-mill, constructed by Messrs. Galloway & Sons, of Manchester, which is the simplest one in use, and gives results probably not at all inferior to those of other more complicated forms. It is the one most generally adopted in England. The only other variation in the tire-making process is, that at some works, for the purpose of avoiding the severe one-sided strain brought upon the hammer by the use of the inclined beck for bevelling the rings, the ring is placed on a stout mandrel supported on a bifurcated anvil, and the necessary bevel is given by a tool of the proper shape with which the hammer is furnished. In Galloway's and most other tyre-rolling machines the roll spindles are placed vertically and extend to a considerable. distance below the horizontal bed of the machine. The rolls themselves are situated just above the surface of the latter. with no bearing above them, the spindles being long and st;ff enough to resist all the strain coming upon them. The tire is thus readily dropped over the ends of the rolls and removed when finished. Its diameter is determined by a simple sliding gauge, measuring from the centre of the internal roll to the inner face of the tire at its greatest distance from the former. Bessemer steel tires by the above processes are now made in great numbers and give good satisfaction in use. There are some who still prefer the crucible steel for this purpose, but the difference in cost is so largely in favor of the Bessemer metal that it is probable the former will eventually cease to be made. MANUFACTURE OF BESSEMER PLATES. The application of the Bessemer process to the production of plates either forboilers or for ships, girders, &c., is one of the most important that could be made. Nevertheless the amount of metal used for this purpose in England falls much below that employed for other purposes. This is due to a certain amount of distrust of steel plates, doubt as to its reliability under varying strains of tension and compression, its capability of being punched and sheared without injury to itself, and of its action under the influence of heat and water as in the fire-box of a boiler. In other countries, as for example Austria, as will be shown when we come to speak of the manufacture as carried on in that country, this has not been the case, and large quantities of plates have been produced and successfully applied to a variety of uses. The secret of the distrust in regard to Bessemer plates in England is that in nearly all cases the percentage of carbon contained in the metal has been too large. The spiegeleisen used in England is not particularly rich in manganeseseldom exceeding nine per cent. of that element, while it generally contains from four to four and a half per cent. of carbon. It is difficult, therefore, with such materials to deoxygenate the metal sufficiently without introducing also a considerable percentage of carbon. About 0.4 per cent. of the latter is as large an amount as is proper for plates which are to resist severe strains, and though a greater proportion adds materially to the tensile strength of the metal when measured simply by a direct pull, it renders it also much harder and more liable to crack under the treatment to which it is exposed in the ordinary methods of construction. The difficulty in the way of producing good soft plates for boilers or other uses appeared at one time to have been satisfactorily overcome by the substitution of ferro-manganese in the place of the ordinary spiegeleisen. The manufacture of this substance was commenced by a firm in Glasgow as a branch of another business in which they were engaged, and plates made with it as a deoxygenator gave most excellent results. Unfortunately, however, the firms 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. who had undertaken the manufacture shortly afterward became insolvent, and the patentee of the process has not as yet re-established the manufacture (which requires a considerable expenditure for suitable furnaces) elsewhere in England. Had the use of this substance continued for a longer time, so as to make the,excellence of the steel produced with it fully appreciated by the public, there would have been a demand for plates urgent enough to have immediately secured the re-establishment of the manufacture; but in the present state of feeling it may not be so easy to induce the necessary primary outlay, especially as a certain amount of ill feeling is said to exist between the owners of the ferro-manganese patent and the Bessemer interest. The percentage of manganese contained in the alloy produced by the process referred to varied from fifteen to twenty-five. Another kind of ferro-manganese, containing a much larger percentage and produced in Germany by a different process, also the subject of a patent, has been offered in the English market, but at such an exorbitant price that nobody has ventured to buy it. Still, notwithstanding the absence of ferromanganese, good soft plates are produced at some works, especially those at Bolton. Messrs. Charles Cammell & Co. also make a large number of plates of.good quality. The following tests, which they guarantee all their plates to stand, are interesting. Tensile strain per square inch —thirty-three tons: Forge test, (hot.)-All plates one inch thick and under to bend hot without fracture to an angle of 180~, both lengthways of the grain and across. Foge test (cold.) —All plates will admit of bending cold without fracture as follows: BESSEMER PLATES. With the grain. Across the grain. 1 inch............... 45~ 25~ } inch............ 50 30 -inch....................... 60 40 4 inch.............. 6.0 40 ~inch.... 70 50 inch.................. 80 60 w76incl...*... ~90 70 inch. 110 80 -6 inch......................... 120 90 inch and upwards................ 120 1.00 To show the comparison of this steel with the regular crucible steel, the guar-;a"ntee for plates of the latter is also given. CRUCIBLE STEEL PLATES. Tensile strain per square inch thirty-eight tons. With the grain. Across the grain. 1 inch......so.,,......,....* *. 50~ 30~ iinch...........*............. 60.35 incl.............. 75 50 - inch.................................. 90 70 -- inch..110 90 -1 inch....................... 130 100... Twincli.130 100 inch........ * ~............... 150 11 3inch.150 1ie,- inch.. 180 120 j inch and upwards....................... 180 120 Probably the spiegeleisen used for this purpose is selected with especial care and may contain as much as eleven per cent. of manganese without an increased proportion of carbon. By a proper system of testing the ingots, as described PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 59 above, there should be and is no difficulty in ascertaining just what percentage of carbon is contained in the metal, and so selecting ingots that are suitable for this purpose. With the superior franklinite that we possess, together with the purer irons, there is, apparently, no reason why we should not produce most excellent plates in large quantities, as is already done in Austria. The manufacture of axles is carried on to a considerable extent, both for locomrotives and railway carriages. Locomotive crank shafts are now more frequently made of this material than any other, and with a far greater exemption from breakages. These are usually forged from large rectangular ingots, and twisted to the proper angle as in the case of iron. To bring these large masses down properly with economy requires very heavy hammers, and to meet this want Mr. Ramsbottom has erected at Crewe a thirty-ton hammer, on his patent duplex principle. In order to dispense with the costly foundations necessary to sustain the impact of the falling tup in large hammers, Mr. Ramsbottom designed about five years since a hammer in which the blow should be struck by two heavy masses mounted on wheels, and moving horizontally in opposite directions, so that their momentum should be annihilated in striking the ingot placed between them. In the first of these hammers, in which the weight of each tup was ten tons, the cylinder was placed vertically in a pit beneath the hammer and the piston, connected by inclined links to each tup, so as to communicate motion to them on the rails. The ingot was supported on a suitable table, or between a pair of stout centres, which again rested on a platform capable of being rocked slightly to maintain the ingot always exactly in the centre of the motion of the tups. A number of these hammers are at present in use, and though they constitute the first development of a new idea, they do their work tolerably well, though they need a greater amount of care than an ordinary hammer. In the thirty-ton hammer which'has been more recently built, the design has been somewhat modified, and greater simplicity obtained. In this the steam cylinders are horizontal, and placed directly behind each tup, the piston rods being secured to the latter by an elastic packing, so as to relieve the piston from the shock of the blow. To control the motion of the two tups, so that they shall always meet at the same point, a five-threaded screw with a diameter of six inches and a nine-inch pitch, or once and a half its diameter, is placed beneath them, the thread being cut left handed at one end, and right handed at the other. A nut secured to the bottom of each tup works on the portion of the screw beneath it, and as the screw revolves in its bearings each tup advances by the same amount. This arrangement is found to work with but little friction, and is not liable to derangement. The valve' gear is made to be worked by hand in the ordinary way. The size of the cylinders and pressure of steam are so proportioned as to make the pressure on each tup the same as its weight, and the blow struck by this hammer is therefore the same as would be given by one of the tups falling by gravity through a distance equal to the combined stroke of the two tups, or seven feet. These hammers have been constructed by Messrs. Thwaites & Carbutt, of Bradford, who have had great experience in this line of business, having perhaps supplied more hammers to the steel makers than any other firm. With the heavy hammers just described, the large ingots for crank axles are brought down to the required size and shape in a very short time. At Crewe it is usual to put two of these ingots into the Siemens furnaces in the evening, and allow them to heat slowly during the night, but one manl being required to be in attendance, and then to work them off under the hammer in the morning. before breakfast. In sawing off the ends of his finished axle forgings, Mr. Ramsbottom employs a saw seven feet six inches in diameter, running at about nine hundred revolutions per minute, or a speed on the edge of four miles per minute. The cheeks are also sawed out preparatory to turning the crank wrists. In concluding the account of the Bessemer manufacture, as at present conducted in England, we may observe that while the amount produced is far in excess of that to be found elsewhere, yet from the close competition between the different makers 60 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. tending to favor the use of the cheapest materials, and from the naturally rather inferior character of the native iron employed, the quality of the metal is not equal to that produced ill countries using better materials. Accordingly the uses to which it has been chiefly devoted have been rails, titres, and axles, together with a certain amount of plates. Notwithstanding this there have been produced, when proper substances have been employed, specimens of the metal which seemed able to undergo almost any test that could be devised. It has been spun into ornamental vessels of shapes such as would bring the most severe strain on the metal without exhibiting any sign. of cracking, or bent into the most crucial shapes, with equal evidence of its toughness. We shall see on examining the product of other countries that such qualities in the metal are not at all exceptional, but that when steel of great hardness is not intentionally produced, they always exist. SWEDEN. All examination of the specimens of Bessemer steel from Sweden in the Exposition shows us that the metal there produced is of a far superior character to that made in England, and naturally leads to inquiry as to the cause of the difference, and whether we mIay hope to attain the same success in the United States. First we observe coils of wire of all sizes, down to the very finest, such as No. 47, or even smaller. This they have not been able regularly to produce in England. In the next place we'notice a good display of fine cutlery, and the writer is informed by a competent authority that this metal answers so well for this purpose that it is now used almost to the exclusion of any other. This statement is corroborated by the fact that in the miscellaneous classes of the Swedish department, where cutlery occurs not as an exhibition of steel, but merely as a display of workmanship by other parties in the same manner as other articles of merchandise, cases of razors are exhibited with the mark of the kind of steel of which they are made stamped or etched upon them as usual, and these are all " Bessemer," but from a variety of.different works, viz: Hogbo, Carlsdal, Osterby & Ssderfors. The ore used in Sweden for producing iron for the Bessemer process is exclusively magnetic, and of a very pure quality. An analysis of a mixture of those used for the iron employed at tlie Fagersta works before roasting gives the following composition: Carb. acid............................ 8.00 Silicium...17.35 Alumina..................... 0.95 Lime...-..............-...........3.....-... 6.50 Magnesia... 4. 35 Protoxide of manganese...3.35 Magnetic oxide..................... 32. 15 Peroxide of iron.......... 27.40 100.05 Phosphoric acid......... 03 All the pig made from this mixture of ores the exhibitors state will give a steel without the use, of spiegeleisen, which is not at all red short. The analysis of gray iron from the same works, used for the Bessemer process, is given as follows: Carbon combined.................................... 1.012 Graphite................................... -........ 3.527 Silicium.................... 0.854 Manganese... 1.919 Phosphorus.................... 0.031 Sulphur.................................................... 0.010 PA1IS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 6 1 The cinder, produced at the same time as the gray iron, shows on analysis a composition ofSilica........................................................ 53.30 Alumina.................................................... 3.00 Lime........-.................................. 21.10 Magnesia -13......-..................95 Protoxide of manganese................................... 7.85 Protoxide of iron............................................. 0 90 1 00.10 The analysis of mottled pig, (la fonte truite,) consistinlg of two-thirds gray and one-third white, isCarbon combined......................................... 2.138 Graphite........................................... 2.733 Silicitum.............................. 0.641 Manganese.................................................... 2.926 Phosphorus.................................... 0.026 Sulphur. 0.........0............................. 0.015 Of each of these it is stated that the steel produced without the employment of spiegeleisen is not at all red short, (cassant a chaud.) The most noticeable feature in the composition of these irons is the large percentage of manganese which they contain, together with the extremely minute proportion of sulphur. The latter quality is due to the -exclusive employment of charcoal in the blast furnaces, together with the adoption of a very high temperature in the roasting kiln. These latter are constructed on Westman's patent, and are made very high and heated by the waste gas drawn from the blast furnaces. The heat is carried as high as is possible without agglomerating the materials, and by this treatment the ore is changed from a hard and compact substance to a very porous one, while at the same time it is stated that any percentage of sulphur less than four per cent. is driven off. The blast furnaces are very small, being generally but eight feet in diameter at the boshes and about three feet at the hearth, with a height of forty feet. With these ores prepared in this manner, such a furnace will yield from seventy to eighty tons per week. It is thought by the best informed engineers in Sweden that these furnaces should be made larger, and in future they probably will be so; but these dimensions represent the furnaces that now exist, and with which the iron in use has been produced. In the process of conversion, from motives of economy, a fixed form -of vessel is employed, instead of one mounted on trunnions, as in England and elsewhere. The tuyeres, about nineteen in number, are placed horizontally just above the bottom of the vessel, and are inclined a little from a, radial direction so as to give a rotary motion to the mass of molten metal. An air passage surrounds the vessel at the back of the tuyeres, with a movable plate opposite each to allow access to them. The upper portion of the vessel, from the line of the top of the blast passage, is made removable, for lining, &c.; the bottom of the vessel is slightly inclined towards the taphole, so that the whole of the metal and slag may run off. The metal is run in at a spout in the upper portion of the vessel, and from the fixed position of the vessel it is of course necessary to have the blast on all the time that the metal is being run in and drawn off, to prevent its flowing into the tuyeres. This fact must make it more difficult to regulate the exact aimount of decarbonization of the metal, and tend to render the last portion drawn off overdone. The removal of the cinder remaining in the vessel after a blow is not so easily accomplished in the fixed vessel as in the revolving one, as ordinarily used. Accompanying the analyses of ores and irons, given above, the Fagersta 62 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSI'IlOJN. works exhibit an analysis of the slag from the converter, taken at the close of the process, and it shows the composition to be,,s follows: Silica................................. 44.30 Alumina......................... 10. 85 Lime................................. 0.65 Magnesia................................................. 0.45 Protoxide of manganese......................................... 24.55 Protoxide of iron...................................... 19.45 100.25 The case of specimens exhibited by these works is the most interesting by far in the Exposition. It contains a most extensive collection of pieces of various forms, with which a very elaborate set of experiments has just been made at Mr. 1D. Kirkaldy's testing works at London, the results of which will be found in Appendix C. The samples are classified according to the percentage of carbon which they contain, and have been tested to show their action under strains of tension, compression, torsion, bending, and, in the case of plates, bulging. The amount of carbon contained in the steel varies fiom 0.1 to 1.50 per cent., though most of the experiments were made between the limits of 0.3 and 1.20 per cent. In addition to the large collection of test pieces, they exhibit some railway carriage axles containing 0.3 per cent. of carbon, one being bent double with a radius of curvature at the bend of about 5 inches; a locomotive axle containing 0.4 per cent., and a tyre having 0.5 per cent. of carbon. There is also, as already mentioned, a fine display of cutlery, razors, some beautiful hand mirrors containing 1.0 per cent., a small drill containing 1.50 per cent., with a plate beside it containing 1.00 per cent., through which it had drilled several holes; a number of long turnings taken off in a lathe, showing remarkably the absolute continuity of the grain-one of 0.3 per cent. of carbon measures 36 feet in length, and is closely coiled with a diameter of about -12 inch; another of 0.9 per cent. is 27 feet long and slightly less in diameter. There are also a large number of files, and, as previously mentioned, coils of wire of all sizes, and apparently any required length. A very interesting table of results was obtained from a series of eleven small square bars containing varying percentages of.carbon, as follows: No. 5 o.~ ]'-,.1 51 0.35.233 16,262 69,730.0814 36.65 19,250 12.0 2O. 45. 14,663 00,800.09 68.5 14,160 10.3 3 0.45 [.139 14,663 104,300.1150 81.9 130,300 9.2 6 0.70.15~1 19,841 131,400.1400 92.05 141,660 5.4 7 0.70.1485 17,016 114,100.120 82.55 138,240 5. 8 8 0.90.1466 19, 935 35, 400.1189 80.80 167,500 6.7 9 1.00.2338 30,012 128,000.2242 95 69 133,800 2.3 10 1.00.1516] 20,218 132,700.1400 91.93 1441,300 6.6 1 0.35.2323 16,262 644, 800.0144 93. 3165 190, 120 4. 0 11 1-1. 00.1494-'f21,7r26 144) 800.1400 93. 31 155,1120 4. 0 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 63 The cost of steel for the more delicate uses, such as razors, &c., is very much less by the Bessemer process than by the old method of remelting in the crucible. The materials in ordinary use are sufficiently pure to give such a steel, and the only special precaution which has to be observed in producing these qualities is to add a sufficient amount of recarbonizing pig to give the required per cent. of carbon, and then in the process of tilting the bars to carefully reject any piece which may show sign of flaw, as would of course be necessary under any circumstances. The total production of Bessemer steel in Sweden in 1864 was 3,178 tons; that of crucible steel exceeded 4,500 tons. AUSTRIA. The conditions under which Bessemer metal is produced in Austria are in many respects similar to those existing in Sweden. The iron employed is smelted with charcoal, is nearly free from sulphur and phosphorus, and contains a large percentage of manganese. There are differences in the manner of conducting the process, but these important conditions insure the production of a metal of similar excellence to the Swedish, and, like this, much superior to the ordinary metal produced in England. The principal works in Austria are at Neuberg, in the province of Styria, and are carried on by the government. The iron is obtained from spathic ores smelted in two furnaces 43 feet high, and yielding from 100 to 150 tons per week. The iron produced is found by analysis to contain 3.46 per cent. of manganese, and, as in Sweden, it is used for recarbonizing in the place of the usual spiegeleisen. Originally a fixed vessel was erected at these works similar to those used in Sweden, but this has been superseded by a pair of three-ton vessels of the ordinary construction. Fixed or Swedish vessels are, however, still in. use at other Austrian works. The metal is run directly from the blast furnaces into the converters. Very interesting tables are exhibited by these works, giving analyses of the iron and slag at five periods in its conversion from its condition as tapped from the furnace to its final state as Bessemer metal. These are extremely interesting from the light which they throw upon the relative rapidity with which the components of the pig iron are attacked by the blast, and the permanency of some ingredients, such as phosphorus and copper, during the entire process. The results are as follows: 0 O F.'.... - _... _ IRON. Graphite.. 3. 180 Carbon combined............... 0.750 - 2. 465 0. 949 0. 087 0. 234 Silicium...................... 960 0. 443 0. 112 0. 028 0. 033 Phosphorus.................... 0. 040 0. 040 0. 045 0. 045 0. 044 Sulphur................... 0. 018 Trace. Trace. Trace. Trace. Manganese......-............ -3. 460 1.645 0.429 0. 113 0. 139 Copper. -.... 0. 085- 0. 091 0. 095 0. 120 0. 105 Iron.......................... — ---. 90. 507 95.316 98.370 99.607 99. 445 SLAG. Silica......................... 40. 95 46. 78 51.75 46.75 47.25 Alumina....................... 8.70 4. 65 2. 98 2. 80 3.45 Protoxide of iron............ 0. 60 6. 78 5.50 16. 86 15.43 Protoxide of manganese......... 2.18 37. 00 37.90 32.23 31.89 Lime..................... 30.35 2. 98 1.76 1.19 1.23 agnesia...................... 16. 32 1.53 0. 45 0.52 0. 61 Potash....................... 0. 18 Trace. Trace. Trace. Trace. Soda --------------—................. —----- 0.14 Trace. Trace. Trace. Trace. Sulphur ----------------------- 0. 34 Trace. Trace. Trace. Trace. Phosuphorus 0. 01. 0. 03 0.02 0.01 0.01 64 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. From each charge blown at tlhese works a small test ingot is cast, and this is immediately reheated and subjected to a number of tests to ascertain the quality of the steel; and according to the results of' these trials, all the metal produced is divided into seven grades of varying haldness, No. 1 being a blue steel, containing from 1.12 to 1.58 per cent. of carbon; and No. 7 a soft iron, with from 0.05 to 0.15 per cent. The test employed consists in hammering the little ingot into a bar, and subjecting it to severe working on the anvil, in a way which would tend to crack it if of a red, short nature, or of inferior quality. It is then heated and plunged into water, and the amount of hardening produced proved by striking it with a hammer, and observing the amount of flexure.produced. It is then heated again and bent over upon itself and welded into an eye, the welded portion being drawn out to a small section and broken off. These tests take but a short time, and the expense of making them is insignificant in comparison with the accurate knowledge thereby obtained of the nature of the steel and the purposes for which it is suitable. As a rule, the steel produced at the NEeuberg works welds with great facility, and, in fact, all the tires produced here are welded as in the case of iron. A table of the tensile strengths and other properties of steel, of the various classes below No. 2, is exhibited, and is as follows: No. 3. No. 4. No. 5.' No. 6. No. 7. Percentage of corn- 0. 88 0.62 0. 38 0. 15 0. 05 bined carbon. to to to to to 1.12 0.88 0. 62. 0.38 0.15 Tensile strength, tons 63. 13 51. 65 40. 17 34. 43 28, 69 per square inch. to to to to to 74.61 63. 13 51.65 40. 17 34. 43 Extensibility...05 o. to'. 05.20 to. 10.25 to.20.30 to. 25 Hardening........... w ith care. very well. very well. feebly. not at all. Welding.. —-- -...-. very well very well. very well. very well. very well. as hard cast steel. The softest grade is used for wire, sheet steel, &c., and the higher numbers for boiler plate, gun barrels, axles, tires, tools, and cutlery, according to the hardness required. A printed list gives the price of the steel in various forms delivered at the works, which, reduced to gold dollars, is as follows: ingots, $77 50; bars, $138; boiler plate, $145 50; tires, $155 50. These prices are little above those charged in England, where coal is abundant and an inferior quality of metal produced. In other countries than Sweden and Austria, we find nothing that presents any remarkable feature not to be found in English practice. Of course, Krupp is far ahead of all others in respect to the size of the masses that he casts. He exhibits in the Exposition a 40-ton (40,000 kilograms) ingot, intended for a crank shaft, which he states was cast from crucibles. His process of making tires is similar to that in use in England. He first makes a bloom about 6 feet long and 13 inches by 10 inches, and then cuts this up-into sections of the required weight. A slit is' cut through the middle of these, and they are then worked out into an annular form, and afterwards rolled on a mill of a construction similar to those in use in England, with the exception that the bed, instead of being horizontal, is vertical, as if one of those machines were turned up on its edge. Two mills, one for roughing and one for finishing, are employed. His tire-heating furnaces are placed in a pit at the side of the mill, and are similar to the furnaces of a brass foundry, the tires being laid on the fire by a, central crane. The French also exhibit good specimens of Bessemer metal, but, as already PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSLITON. 65 stated, there ee/mns to be no marked advance on what has been accomplished in England, and it will not be necessary, therefore, to notice in detail the articles they have brought forward. The manufacture has been established at six works, arid the production, in 1866, was as follows: Tons. Compagnie de Terrenoire...................... 1,537 Oie. de Chatillon, Commentry........... 59 Societe d'Imphy, St. Seurin, (Jackson's)............ 4,858 S. Menans & Cie............... - 00 De Dietrich & C(ie................ -. 4f Petin, Gaudet & Cie................................ 3,851 otl r o.............. 10,791 Of this product, 3,687 tons were in the form of rails. In 1863 but three works were in operation, with a total p'roduct of 1,857 tons. At the present time the metal produced in France by this process does not stand as high in tbhe opinion of iron-masters as puddled or other steel. It may be that this is due to the nature of the pig iron employed, or it may be due to a lack of experience in the manufacture as compared with other nations. At the works of Messrs. Petin, Gaudet & Co., near St. Etienne, a pair of six-ton convertersi have been erected, and a single vessel, capable at present of producing a charge of eight tons, and in which it is expected to make twelveton charges when the lini:g becomes redaced in, thickness. This is the largest Bessemer apparlatus in Fratnce. Submitted by PFiLEDERIC J. SLADE, 8,%ientifzc Assi.salnt to (Committee NAo. 6. PAtIS, JuM.e 15, 18;GT. ng5 APPENDIX A.- Table showing the analyses of the most important ores of Sweden.' The specimens for analysis represent usually the mass of the ore, If a small number of unroasted pieces have been takenthe mark t is affixed; + signifies roasted;' unroasted. I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~Percentages of constituents of earthy CC. Percentagesof constituents. of earthy m c matters,. Ib I a, ~~s~!. F ~~~~O uO).2.'1 ~ - C PROVINCE OF NOIRRBOTTEN. Gellivare: Z Fredrika* -------— 1862 L. Rinman - 66. 8 92. 3 7. 7 0. 019 0 ----— 75.5.2.1 11.5 22.9 Trace -------- 37. 7-72. 52.O 7 Hertigen af Upland* --— 1862....do -----— 66. 7.92. 1 7. 9 0. 74 037. 5 12. 5 37. 5 12. 5 -- -----— 25. 4-15. 7=1. 6 Robsahm* -------— 1862 --— do - 63. 6 87.6 12.2 0.038 0 - 50. 0 8. 8 20.2 21.0 -- -----— 30.1-14. 1=2.1I Tingvallskulle*-......1862 -....do -.......65. 7 90. 7 9.'3 0. 512 0 ----— 44. 3 12. 2 33. 5 8. 6 -....Be: 1. 4 28. 7-13. 7 =2. 1 Td~refors et Gyljon*-....186-2 —-— do -----— 68. 1 94. 0 6. 0 0.02 0 ----— 55. 2 14.6 7. 8 22.4 -- -----— 35.6-11.12m3.2 Viilkomma* ------— 1862 --— do -..... 64.0 88.4 116 0.394 0 ----— 69.7 2. 7 28. 0 6.6 -- -----— 33.9-10. 7=3. 2 ~~~- cC~Be-. Routivare*- --------— 186-2 —— do -----— 54. 2 74. 9 25.1 0. 004 Trace -----— 12.4 2-5. 2 5.4 18.3 1%9T 5 5 ~1g. 2-!21. 4f0. —.8 Th 17.2c a)q) Lousavare* ---------- 1-861 --— do -----— 71. 3 96.5 1. 5 0.105 0 ----— 50. 0 1.6.0 1. 0 5.2 0.4k -------- PROVIaCa OF GEFLEBORG.'' Thorenker: Nydng* ---—.....1860 0. Troili.......47.50- 0.002 (0. 09)ae., —---—. —- ----------- I- -5 P.et. of lime. Erik Ers*-.........1863 L. Rinmau......56.4 77.8 18.8 0. 008 Cu. 0. 3 C: 3.40 32.2~ 5.2 29.5 13. 3 19.8 ---— 19. 2-18. 2=1. 05Z Afe*...........1863 H1. Liinnelius. —— 18.8 26. 0 52. 0 0.01 0.06 -C: 22. 0 15. 7 8.1 59.0 6.4 10.8 ----- 12.0-21. 9=0. 6 Penniug*..........1863 -.L etra. 46. 1. 63. 7 36.3 0. 002 (0. 04) -......22.3 3. 7 16.0 9. 4 48. 6 ---— 13. 3-19. 3=0. 7 Gymas......1859 D. A. Kruhs ---— 36. 1 49. 9 50. 1 0. 061 (0. 10) —--— 83. 5 4. 6 7. 9 3. 3 0. 7 ---— 45. 6-3. 7=12. 3 PROVINCE OF UPSALA. i Dannemora: A mixture of 4 of the middlea field in 1 of the north fieldl. 1859 Cl. U~llgren..... 50.7 69. 2 30. 8 0. 005 0. 07 Cu. 0. 2 45. 0 1. 0 26. 5 21.3 6.2 -.....23. 8 -17. 5=1. 4 of the south field.....18.9. —— do........52.3 71.7 28.3 0.008 0.138 *Cu. 0. 16 48. 3 1.4 23.8. 20.8 8.7 ---— 25.7-16.2=1. 6 Norra, Kungs*-......1865 1B. Feruqvist.....51. 2 70. 7 21. 7 0. 0026 0. 08 C: 7. 6 30. 3 3. 0 27. 4 30. 0 9.3 3.....17. 1-21. 3-0. 8 Jord'r.18........ 65I....do- -......56. 1 77. 4 18. 0 0. 0026 0. 033 C: 4.6 33. 3 2. 9 23. 0 31. 6 9.2 -.....19. 0-21.0=0 —. 9. Sbdra ilerg*.. 1865 I...do.. 62.1 85.8 11.7 0.0033 0.013'C: 2.5 35.2 6.5 23.5 217 13.0. 21.3-18.31.1 Gellivar: Salta. 163 L.Riman..5 1.2 19.8 0.015 0.05 C trae - 68.8 9.1 9.1 12. 0.8. 40. 17. 7 2 -— I 668 92.3.7 0.01 0 [...'....'.5 1.5 2~.9 Trace.,...... 37.7-'7'2.5 =~. 7 ]~ertigonasf Upland'"......118621......do.,-..._.,j....66.7 r92. i 7.9 0). 74 I o... —.....:.5 i 37.5 12.5........ 25. 4-15. 7r1. 6I Robsahm". -,.......... 1862 ].....do,.,,..,...... 63. 6 ]87. 8 19. 2 0. 018 ] 50......., 0 20. 2 21.0 /....... 30. 1-14.1 —~. 1] Tingvallskulle~-...... 1862{......,do,.......... 65. 7 90, 7 9, 3 ]0. 512 I 0...... 3 I2 33. 5{ 8. 6._.....B m 1 4 I 8- 7-13, 7-2,-1 Torefors et Gyljen -.-.....186~2 1......do............{ 68.1 94.0 6.0[ 0.0 Ia 0 {.~._.r-.5.' 1..... I 7822'41...5..{....... 5~: Valkormma`~,,_.,..,. 8.-.-~d.,.-..*.. 4 8.4 l,346. d,72,o 6 3........*..., Routivare"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~.,,..,..,......I 8~ 4'~ 74.o 9 ~'~/ 04Trc..-..-. —1. 42,2 5 8 Pi: 5 11. 2. 4.....io Be' o. ['q R yn".~..~.... 116.Touirate*~..,. 4751- I- i00~ (.0),..~.~....~.../..~.. c. tm. ] Strad~j. —,..,,'. {,. 1186 2......do..........,. 4.8,sl-Irc, 0 9 Gya:.,,,,.,, 8 D............- 3. 14,95. 1 0 6 0 0,-. — 3.6.....3. 7........... 0'9 }l-i; 17[ 2 / A mixture of 4 of the middle~of....... Nyrr Rngs'......,, l 85. euvs....,. 5 7. 2,. 01,0. 3.. 2.4 3,0 t..,-.11.-13~ I~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~7, 186O0, [02 O 0 C.'6 3,3 2 Tri......0 16 9,.,,.10-5 O.[ - SEtail'ik ers*........... 8i...d.. 5.4..., 21 8 s.8 81~ 0.00s1<~.0.3/.C: 2 3 5,2 6 352.40 13.~/ I~O..~lt.i 31.-8 4;en: Salsta..,-.,,,.., I 1863 ] L. Rinman. i........] 5.2'80, 19 0 1 5 ta. 6 89 1 0 8,........ 19., -18. 2~~-~10 PROVINCE OF STOCKHOLM.!' Wahm: Wigelsbo~............. 1862 S. Sj~bbrg......... 51.3 70.9 9 1(.0) 004 Cu(03) 56 1. 190 19.2 033.91.22 Bbrsil: aggz~f..........1861I J. O. ]3j6rck —-— 47 - - 002) 003........ Sands.................... 1861. R. v. Stockenstr~m.I 55.1 76.1 23. 9 (0.026) (0.03) ICu. (0. 052) 55. 7 "9-3''27:()' "732' "()8'[ / ----— )~7-L'- 2 Hq-ifver8: Herr5ing*....... 1863 IJ' F. Lundberg.....[ 50. 0 -- - (0. 014)[ (0. 04) IMn. 0. 28 ---- 15.t..... Broby*....................... 1864 S.'Cleophas........ 50.1 69.2 30.8(0.[0....0.3)..........46.3.7..t12.7.31.3............. p7.7t16of qt1. Urb+.................... 1820.A.oKlsrm.... 5 20. 47o (0.1.5 o2. ~ 4)i C.(.0)87~1 42 4'~~ ~3'8 144.3-81 Do~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~- - (. 1780.3) Mn L. 47lge.....................0................2 x.o ie Brby...................16. F udeg... 45.5 3..3... Lekand -Srshg*........1859 C. S.'Cleopa........I 43.4 59.9 40.1 (0.01) (0.35) I.......... 463.4 7. 23 5.4 3........ 7.-16.5=3. 7 J Qva~nbact........... 161 A R. oren.......5 2.'5 - - 0047. (0.063)..........0.... 3..8.............. 0~folm Ut:BlcbrgS +,88. ndbck.__ 4.2 5.7 4... (,0.02) u (0. 02)] 7.1.2........ _5.3 47.5 3-2.36. 9 [.0 —-— 3 Wa:rseg............ 185 A bs........ 39822 54.2 4A.8.ul.....8....6.1 25 2 0Trc 14.....3 0973 46 Do-rav*........]860 OJ rol!. Ludeg........ 50 —-- ---- T0.1ce (0.04) I~.0...I...... ]....... —-!........[......:......... 10 p. et. ofnlme.c [~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~&0~tqz t Io Harmsarf,+~~~...16.Crsn....... 55I 77. 228 0065.. 38 81. --— 3.-..= [~~~~~~~~~~~~~&1 p...t... Sather:,Bispber*....... - i 43.4 59.9 40.1I 0.005 (0.05)......14 9 52. 05 276 —— 274 2 921 Qva~~~~~~~1600 rnback........ Engelsfr, -----------— 1859 GA. H. Torenaf.... —-t 55.3 ---- ---- (0.025 (0.02)1 10.t.o m........ Ahl: lackberg$....... 185I.9 LE ldeminesbk 6..... 843.2 59.7 40.3 (0,04) (0.02) [.......... 14.1 9[335 1.0 2.6 —1 — 0.913 =2. 3.[ Walarfsnberg:....... 59. is. 03..01.... Langik -----— 1861 J. F~s. Ludbrg...... 439.6 605.2 39. 8 1 -0 02 --.........., 6.1.5 2.3. 406 16rcl1.5 22.1...... —-- 10-. 7-23. 4=O 05 Hom......18614 —-- Adeson......... 4. 4 65.5 34.5 1(0.03)[ (0.04)]..........371 19 126 153 31 —-— 02178 t Axberg'.1................ 1858................... 4. 9 66.1 3. 7 0.013 0 IS C:.1.2 61.[6.B....3[ 7.......9[ —--—.3.7.9.3..3. Folkrna:Knutbo........ 18601O T~l...... d.-4.5 6.8. 3.8 ---— 1.0p6.c9. of ie SjS-grafva*... ~ ~........... 3755:O-02 0.03 ---— 7.6.4..... By: Wetersj~t............ 189 W. amin 4.5 57. 42.7 Trace.[ (0.04) ------'-. 2. 3 3.2 1.0.83.'01.2= Lilla ickgrfv 118601AL. Carlson.........t67.6 96. 37.4 02.06 0.0226 —--— 5. 98 7.9 5 015 =6 Abrahams* ~~~....../......... 16...5..,do8.8 —— 3.81 84.1 15 1.27 (.1l........3..61 9 4420.52....Ctr 679 =4.4 0 Skumatel*............ 1861..... Ludber.... - I4.0.......5. 3 8.9 1..12 (0.03) ------.04) 22.9 14.3 3.;.. ---: 9.14.34.3=..7 Bredsjbbrottl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~'......I....../.. 16 -— d;....l......6.1 8.9 1.1 0.52 0.0) —--— 3.2 2.1 4.1 2.6...... C: 3.71.82 Tu a: thaistberg..............[ 18561 C...... dao.-so... [ 590 8.6 14. 4 30. 13 0.035)uu~..........I 805.70 3 4.8 23 4.8 ------ Trac -....3.4-7.8-3-.7 1=5[ Enkulle*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ —..................186......[ do.'.7.7 2.['5 1....1.2 7.[3Tae —-- 4.9-........... G ~guv+ 182 RK~eg- — 5A 7. 04'.0.....I.... 7.8 1.4 5 4r 1. ----- 4523.=1 7 Faboac --------------— 18360 A. Lundbeg. 3ma —-nn — 00)..............................................8petofqz Fra mhr: isunberg*T s 182....d/...... 524 7.4 27.61i 1 0.005 (0.04) [........... 47.8 23.4 8.2 10.7}I. 9........ 35. 8-lZ9 =3. nesfrf........... 189[O j r a r (s.. 53...[... 0.075 (0.31) ----—. —------------......_1..........,...................!........ 0~t fie Leonm+.................... 1860 C. H......do r 5........ 73.4 26.564. 0.034 1 (0.059........... 737.4 1.9/4.3115.3/23.7.......[40.2d2.8 —. 7 Tabletit sliowi-wg the ctjs cS a, e~ most i'mijpb7~tant -0s J S'1'LO~i''d Tal~ie8Itow1~g Ik aaasses Vp floe moti~2rt1 es of Sweden- Continuted. Percentagce cf constituents. Percentages of constituents of earthy.2 matters. 0 cc F 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00 Name of the mine. i me f chorst. 8_I 4IS 0 PROVIN'CE OF STORA-KOPPAltII 0!2.-~ _ I1EIIG-CoutiUled. P 1iaeugo. 1861I J. N. Bj~rlingsonr..454 62.6 37.4 0.04 (0.03)..... 77.2!10.0 8.9 1 51 2 4 44.8-3. =-12. 3 Ilakaberg5. 1861 CO-l~~~kutan... —.. 47.8!...... (0010) (003)..............0... Grsbrg......... 1661 C. G~. Bkioniogon..OL' u 0IL) C",~eofm Dot.~~~~- 18691 J..1Mlignmau 5L 82 0 0.043 (8.021) 831' --- 27 -. M 78- -413 11 Gon tiberg md........ 1861. —-— nman...5 640-38-301 —-06-710-7 142 s4t0470=08 tist nbrg on c Lag5 8)9 1 ortaf.r..... 40. 3 2 3.0...'1.c (0. 7)......8. I07 7 8 4p 1t3oflimel 2 Hemgrlva51869 A. W. Lituri. 4.8. 0.0).0.0)....p...oflmo PROVINC OF~ WESTERAS, I. INorrbprge 1 I Tstaberg-Fnredms....... T. U. Fiuager.o.....!5.3 7. 251(0 (.3). 93 27 16 18 1.640.3-. —1.=15.8 6. oar. 1861 L na. 49.15 70. 2 29.8 3.022 0.003 I. 75.9 3.04 194 3 74 0.40.75.7. unre, Lgg. 186159 G. Hoa Ludbrgd...49.6732.3.......Trc (0.03 (.0)..81.1. 3.2 9:8 5...1.... 4...= lilia 5 1864 P..... Edman. 31..7 2. 4.8.. 56..2(. 2) (0).. ----........ litliphers. ~~~1 8 64 A. WesLirt g.8t96. 2.5(0. 05) (0.04S) -. 89.-0 4.-5-0 2 —-5..1.1. 2..48. —---— =20 - 11 0.e.b lm~ PBLOVINCE OF WESTERAS, II1 Flik.18 A Fb.rg-F 3reum. 8 G-, T. F elrotm. - 548. 74 6. 3 32. 7 0.01 (0.01) I.87. 9 Tra 7. 2 0. 8 4. 1..6 45. 7.3. 3=13. 9 rantro5*.................. 186 L Ritnan. 51.7... 49.1 710. 217.4 Trace 0. C:0 11.2...... 21.6 1. 0 219.0411 3 8.6.. —— 4.2.=0.57 Gs~~~~~~~~~~ndal5.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1863 EP. Dundbvga. 690. 83.67 16.4 (0.01) (.0.6).. 35.1 6 7 17.6.1:37 2.. 241.=. Spetals5.. 1864 B. Kernqlt. -— 49.9I 71.45 28.6.0.0. 8)5 17 79 04 054.251. Sv~~~~artberg*- (0.09)sc.. 31.f; a 0 (0.03(j)..........i. 89 —. 4 4 5 2. 94 10 —----- 48.0-,2.3=2-1. 3^-.-_-..., 0 ~c~o~ie I la Y 1864 P. Edmaizi --- ------ 31. 7 43. 8 56. 2 (0. 62) (0.0 3) ---------- + —-~ —~ —-~ —---- -.......... I568. 5 S. 5 22 5 7.533. 4911. 5=... 7ir phberg.1.......... 864 A..doter.30,1 —-- 48. 9 641.75 38.2 0.018 0. C: 20.1- 82. 0 1:0 15 O 2 11. 3. 1.1 44-2.74.22. 5 ot....l.d.a r yt........... 1859 A. F. Grtnd —— r-. — 4.76 3 1 34.2 0.00 01 (0. 02.81) 8 4.9 1 4.3 4.5 Trace- 7.24.1. —------- 47. 23.3= 135 7 G dla:6ndal —............ 18657 E. do.5 69.3a.27....6 0.01 60.0.075 C:6 45.10 0) (0 63.) 351 1. 20.6 4.7 269..... 36... 12 4.4 16, 6 4I PROVINCE OF tIltEOTtO. 1 I i LSmberegta. torba.te........ 864.B T. Lrnqvstxm.......49. 9 71.4 28.7 0.06 3 0.045 89. 5 1.4 7 3.9 2.04 0.35 —--—. — 48.3-2.25 1. 8 IN it -erg*.............. 1864..... (o.......... 0,1 C.7 38. 2 0.018 0(t. 23 C:'20..~. 1'23 6 1 0 60.1. 9 0. 4 ---- 12. 7-225. 5Q. 6 3vnrtRik i. d..,dab 19 A do.I 48.0 66.5 32.9 0.610 (0 0.0 87C:1 3 Trac6.8 36.327.8 2.9 7 1.0.-3. O17 -1. 3 Bastryd + $59 J. P. LundbergL..r~mn~.-..., 5., 2) ---------.112 1,0/8.8 8,6/-..... 1.-2. —...53.2 73.6 21. 0 Trace.! 0043: 5.4 39.1 4.6 19.4 19. 7 17.212 —------ 2.5-13.7=1.6.... ~~~1862 ILB. umanqr~t. — 9 1 8.03 8 0'i —... 9 i 17 9,4,5. 22.5-17,3.7=1.6 Ramsberg: ]3 lanka -........... 1860....o(.....I 0, 014 t..-I.............. s~,,~..................... -----......o............ Linde: CGransbyttle Moss*... 1862...... do ------------ 5.5.7 77 0 [23. 0 0.'Oil Trace........... 90. 8 4. 0 3. 0 2.2Tracel -------- 49. 0-1. 7= —8 Stria" --------------- 1862...... do ------------ 59. 0 82 9 [17.1 0. 005 Tracel -..........- 78. 9 2% 8 8.9 9. 4 9 Tra,-c e I........ 42.,,0-6.......7 Fanthytte: Johannisberg*. 1854 J. P?. Baer ---------- 44. 0 60 8 35. 8 0. 0 19 0. 85 IC: 3. 4 I52. 4 3. 6 14. 3 26. () 2. 7 -------- 28. 9-15. 3 —l. 9 D= 5i. ag* —-------- 18629 L. Rinman —......... 30. 9 42.t7 34. 6 0. 015 0.!3 C C:2 22, 7 1 3, 3 5. 5 3'. 3 0 --— 9516 _O Hellefors: Bjar-nh~jde*.....[89 C.I.Ln rm._ 50.1 691 30. 9 0910 0.06 ----------- 509 11. 5 834:;3 1.....3.-12. 0 —. Smalkgmr................- 1863.'...do ---------—.... 67 87.6 9 I ]2. i 01.2> 0. 04 I )> 4 ]'12 0 17. 8 A 186.2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. KR1nrn.......- 5. 36 9-8. 2 198- ------- Grythytte: H~gborn*, ---- 1 - --- 5.4 1 2.7 1....... 583.1 75 o3 6 oS Nora: Dalkarlsberg — FKett&...................189 d —---— 6. 4 8.9 1.1.03.........4.5.7 1 1.9.7.....3.7 1 =2 6stery ing* —------— 18596 -— d —---- 6. 2 8. 6 1.4.0 0..3..........14.9 620. 8 7i9 13 2.1 9'38 20.14 ~~~~~~~~~~~'I I...... -4,719_i.0 Fvd-1 No. 1 ---------------- 1859 J.,P. Lundbo g 67 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 23. 0 3. 8 ------- 13(. 0 —o~ (.0 ----— 5 —- 1~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~.07 o I ----—! ------ --—'2 —------- Wierr.................... 1861 L. R~inman 4....... 463.1. 623 04: I 411.574 29. 6 14......... 2. 941. 3 1.8 5 Ketril*g' —------- 86 —- o.. 500 7.4 28.6.01. 019. 1.4..I......... 4.-. 1;91. ~iva-rterg —~_1866......d.......65l951 0.003 1 0 i0..........t49. 5. 1 6.1 Klacka, and Lerberg~~~~~~~~~~~~., 05 3. 6-.=7. 7 Osterr y ~ ~ 86 L.ming*...........; 60. 7a.....9 1.11. C) 0 ----— 7.6 S. 55.1 9. 7.1 ----- 3 F-Pptd l. o.dak ---- 186 C........ 1859J.. Lun dsber 5. 8 7. 2.9.. 67. 82 i' -------. 0 43) 7 0. 026.....2 —-— 3.71.!.......... B tfokrs*.................. 18613 L. Rinman.......... 49. 8 8.6 16' rc,1 C 67 4'. 1'2,8 13 4' 0.0.1 —--— 0. 4010.52 Asbberg*................ —-— 6C.3 7f. 7udtrm. 60. 2 3 1 0. 0193 0. 05......~. 60 571. 4 70. 5l 90. 4....... 41.4)3')-. 7 ==2. 2 Striberg'~................. 1863....do ----------—. 0I ~86 008I 0.045 2...... 9[1 -1. 5. Eng* —-------------— 1862 ------— do ----—.......1 57. 6 7 82 I21). 6 0. 007 0.045 C.-. 21(..L26....... 73. 2 27 5.3= I. Age'r ----------- 1856 C1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~. 5l- i —---'......... 29.3.08 02 4-. 5 71 25 4....30 4- 1-~3. 5=. 74 rsbrg:Stu, - ---- --— ]863 L. Sinanbr )...... 39 73. 26 1. 6 0. 003 0..........- 57. 6 IL 8. 595 1 9. 6!. 1-.......43 3 -5. 7-11. 2 7. al0lar:''............. —---- 1865 ]C. Feno,....I -L, 05 C. C, 55 2 17. 2 7, 9.8.... 1 andstr~~6, 53.3 7. 6610.'51 5 Trace1.0 2; 3 O 7 1865 ------ - I 57. 1 78.6 21.4'7 0.0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~36C. 7-9. 853 7:. 1 FiistJ ord mar k* ------—...- 1863 L.. Lunm str —. —- 59. 982) 77 16. 0.002 0.0.16.: 55. 0 640 2.. 2.6 —--- 10-.!62. 3. -nbr atto* ------------—..S...163 2 L. —-d ---------- 6......6 89.4 16. 6 r c 0. 017' CA06 56.9 7. 9.. 13 3.a0.......];4. 64-t.5-,-2. 5 C T'a rbergli~........ 863 C...~....... 1.. }7. L. 0.1 0.05 CI O. m 0.1 59. 1~ 80.9 00. r ~_~......do............3 C. 0~1 4. 6 -. 8' ~. o o1:!o7,o3.4~ OVI.NCE, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ OF NII6UG ---------- ---------- 1859 L.A.. v. C e siug 40. 55.4 15. 0........ --------- 78. 3.1 (3. 8 59 2.9.......43-16.. 2===..3 Shlnrd- fl h! ix ---- 85 C I, bl..........8.0,,2o9.8. 02..........90......9 5True L! T 543 23. =1, Eng *....., ~. ~. ~~~~~~~~).,3 -=r. Elg............... ------- 1862 J.,5~,1ge --- 10. 269. 30. 72:, 0. 0).tae 8. [ 4. o 4< 174. 2'2.5.....4 3 s -! 2. Age*a --------..........._... 1858 C,!. UTlg:etrn i...... 5[. 7 76. 9 23.1, 2.0 1...... 5-,) 1 J.5 41 27. C, 0.4 2. 2....... [3. 49 -t3. 4 —93. 2 Natorp*. ~~~1860 A. Fvanbrgi........5. 3 4 7.`25 6 3.9 0. 0036 (o 0[ 3!2. 21. 1. 0...... Pet at) g 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~57.!I-O - -— i r. 4 4.155 I.. St:-O,n -— I~3 TN jjkpL --— ~7 0 iQ..................t-). 2....5o........ ~. 33']7. 4,.:: 3~ ~..~o. o oo'~1oo:~ ~?. ~;. ~s 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-Di~~ Table sho/wing the analyses of thze most important ores of Sweden-( Continued. i............ Percentages of constituents. Percentages of constituents of earthy matters. -- _bb~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~ _i:~~~~~~~~~ i-~~~~~~~ -I i'F lI O a e Name of the mine. Name of chemist. Cd.Oa....... i i.......... PROVINCE OF JONKOPILNG. Taberg+-.-..-..-.......... 1864 B. Feenqvist..... 31. 43. 545.0 0. 013 Bitumen 33. 8 10. 4 3.1 34. 2 0. 7b Ti: 11. S 28. 1-14.3-. 312K4. 2. 61 PROVINCE OF KRONOBEO G. t IlrvLnghuztt~. —---.,___.~_~.. 1865 B. Pernqvist....... 41.1 56.7 43. 3 Trace.47. 1 18.5 1.9 11 e 0 5 i 20 4 a The parenthesis signifies that the analysis for the per cent. of sulphur or phosphorus is made with the regulus of cast-iron, obtained in the small crucible of Sefstrom's furnace. b Other specimens contain more manganese. frz~ PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 71 APPENDIX B. Table showing the results of the working of the saw-dust furnace at Munlfors during the year 1866, comparatively, with the results obtainredfrom the charcoal furnaces of t]&e Society of Uddcholm.'_o -....Consumption, per ton.. Sawt furnace a Mlnlors.... t.206.1! 1,839. 96l 10,4 99 1,532. 30-11. 77; 274 t...... 836: n.31:57.59 Year of operation,1866.Id. 2 charcoal fnaces at unkfors 47.2 325. 62 8.20 269. 94 12.19 133 2134 0 83 20. 64 Charcoal-furnace at Stjernfors.. 263.Z8 1,024. 08 54 12 885.90.12. 18. 157 2, 30 0 75 23.29 Charcoal furnace at Gnstafsfors. - 284. 4 1,076. 77 46 68 893. 53 13. 26 - 1 82 6 0 73 22. 522 Charcoal furnace at Munkfors- -. 274.21 30. 72 54 35 889.87 12. 19 133 2,134 0. 75; 23. 34 Charcoal furnace at Stjernfors... 259.1' 949. 35 41 22 793. 08 12.. 66. 166 2, 66 0. 78 23. 04 Charcoal furnace at Gustafsfors 264. 9 1,008. 65 47 80 836.. 97 12. 89 157 2, 530 0. 75 22. 66 The table shows the results for the first year of working of the saw-dust heating furnace. The two coal furnaces served at the same time as reserves, and have only been worked when the other was under repairs. During the first six months the yield was 789 tons of bar-iron, and in the last six months 1,013 tons of which 557 tons was during the last three months, or at the rate of 2,229 tons per year. The column containing the consumption of carbon of wood not coked per ton is calculated on the assumption that.a cubic foot of charcoal contains eight pounds of pure carbon, and that 50 per cent. of thq richness of the wood in carbon is lost in coking. The column shows, therefore, the real consumption of carbon per ton of irGon made. All the parts of the furnace are easy to manage, and all the work is regular and solid. The reheating furnace is rarely repaired oftener than dvery five or six weeks; the repairs only require one or two days at most. The most frequent are only the upper portions of the regenerators, which require to be changed. The condenser is only opened and examined two or three times per year. The gas generator is not cleaned during'the week uenless this precaution is rendered necessary by the use of impure saw-dust, or dust mixed with sand; and, in any case, this presents no obstacle to the work. Usually the cinders formed during the week are piled at the side of the neighboring wall every Saturday evening when the work is finished, and it is not necessary to undertake a careful cleaning or to remove the refuse, except when the generators are prepared. The tube of the conduit between the gas generator and the condenser requires to be cleaned every.week; but this cleaning, which can be easily made during the working of the furnace, does not prevent the heating. Also generators of a larger size require cleaning much less often. In comparing the consumption of fuel in the saw-dust furnace with that of the charcoal furnaces, it will be seen that the first was able to heat 3 cwt. of iron with the same quantity of combustible that the latter would have required for 1 cwt, and this though the former works with wet fuel. The latest results of the saw-dust furnace are as follows: From November 10, 1866, to April 18, 1f67, or during 105 days of 24 hours, a yield of 926 tons of bar-iron, with a waste of 12. 04 pei cent., and with 268 cubic feet saw-dust per ton of iron. One week showed a yield of 56.18 tons, with 219 cubic feet per ton, thb waste being only 9. 9 per cent. At present the waste does not exceed 11 per cent. APRIL, 1867. 72 PARIS UNIVERSAL, EXPOSITION.e APPENDIX C. TABLES OF EXPERIMENTS MADE BY DAVID KIRKALDY ON BE3SREMEIR: STEEL AND SWEDISH IRON. Genera abs/sract (f t'he re IS S of eapyeirlents to ascertain te mechanicza lnoperties (f (leven bars of billet-iron. fom I te Dcgerfors ron TWorks, Swedn. PULL 1' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T1INGST1:SRESS: LENGT - NINE DIAMTE PULIMNG TSTRELESS: IENGTH.'NI- DIAMEERS TONE DIAMETER. Brand. ~. _ 0 ~ c' ", a''DO' 8,-o a~a al l a~' I: I mi 1 8~ ~' ||. - _ E^' _ P.P + B Lbs. Lbs. P-.ct. Pr.ct. -ct. B L bs. Inc. Pr.ct H.....1617 20, 500 43, 032 47.6 71.7 4r. 0 Plractured 159 100,000.323 28.6 Bulged, unvery slowly.I cracked, Ditto.. 1597 19,500 42,624/ 45.8 73. 6 42.7....do. 608 1 C,O^020.27 29.0 Dtcto. Ditto.. 160(7 19,000 44,:-,28 - 44.7 72. 7 40.5...o..do. 1618 100, W.329 29. 2 Ditto. Ditto.. 1622 19,()000 41,548 45.7 73.6 41) 2....do..... 1623 10), 000.335 29.7 Ditto. 19, 500 41, 433 45 9 72. 9 4(). 8 1(, oCO.328 2..1 AW.. 1323 18,500 41,832 44.2 69.8 40.8....do.. 1324 100,000.328 29.1 Ditto. Ditto..{ 1313 18,000 41, 924 43. ) 67. 8 38. 1.....do-. 1314 100,000.347 30. 7 Ditto. 18,250 41, 878 43.6 68.8 39.5 00, COO. 3:38 29. 9 WC.. 1293 20,0(0 44, 532 44.9 55.8 31.5...do —- 1299 100, 000.320 28.3 Ditto. Ditto.. 1298 19, 750 4:3, 780 4.5.1 75. 4. 0..do.- 1294 10, 000.328 29. 1 Ditto. Ditto.. 1303 18,000 40,048 4'2.8 773. 6 41.2 -. do.. 1:304 1)0, 000. 348 30. 8 Ditto. Ditto.. 1288 18, 500 40, 272 45.9 74. 5 39.6. -do-. 1289 100,000.351 31. 1 Ditto. Ditto.. 1308 17, 750 40), 96 44.2 6fi6. 8 36. 4..do... 1309 100,()10. 370 32.8 Ditto. 18,800 42,145 44.6 6902 37.7 i1Co,UO.313 30.4 General abstract of tite results of experiments, 4-c.-Continued. BENDING STRESS: DISTANCE BETWEEN SUPPORtS — TWENTY INCHES. Bran d. inches. Ditto.. 1616 7,250 1.5,412 47.0 2.32 1, 057 2,247 11,235 Ditto. Ditto.. 16(06 7,10 15,110 46.9 2.58 1,034 2,203 11,015 Ditto. Ditto.. 1596 6, 950 14,890 46.7 2.66 1,013 2,176 10,855 Ditto. 7,138 15, 2)4 46. 9 2.46 1, 049 2,217 11,084 AW.. 1312 7,200 15,616 46. 1 2.15 1,049 2,276 11,80 Ditto. Ditto.. 1322 7 050 15, C60 46. 7 2.44 1,028 2, 196 10, 980 Ditto. 1 7,125 15,338 46.4 2.30 1,038 2,236 11, 183 WC..- 1287 7,200 15, 728 45.8 1.88 1, 049 2,293 11,465 Ditto. Ditto.. 1292 6,780 15,320 44.2 2.37 988 2, 234 1, 170 Ditto. Ditto.. 1297 6,590 15,256 43.2 2.45 947 2,224 11,120 Ditto. Ditto.. 1302 6,400 15,020 42.6 2.50 9.33 2,189 10, 945 Ditto. Ditto.. 1307 6250 14,318 43.6 3.14 911 2,08 7 10,435 Ditto.. 6,626 15,128 43. 8 2.47 965 2, 20 11, 06 DAVID KIRKALDY. GROVE. SOUTHWARK STREET, LONDON, S.E., JzYey 20, 1867. Messrs. A. FRODING & Co., Gotetburg, Sawd'., Per Mr. S. H. LUNDH, 9B, New Broad strset, Loudo. JResults of experiments to ascertain the resistance to extension, set, and rupture, under a pulling stress, and to permanent depression under a thrusting stress, of four Fagersta steel wire billets, manufactured by Christian Aspelin, esq., Sweden. PULLING STRESS. "''.ORIGINAL' STRESS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.-EXTENSION AND SET, INCH. c,,2 j c2 c ~' c, I o I I Co CD o; Cs > C, "m~~~~~~~~~~ ~D,' C. -' o,~~~~~ a. 6 a. 6 a~~~~~~~~~~~a. I a. 6 5 a. 6'~~~~~~~~~~~~I a,~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ o ISgdc.010) 0) 0) 0) 0) a. a. a. 00) 0)CaC C> CD CD C ( HI - B I 1405-. 1. Turned down 1.108 1. 0000.040.('41. 043..244.045. 047.048 050 0 52 0. 54.056 07.058 059 060.062 063.064 066.067 and polished. I Set. 1404 -.-..1.. I. do... 1.128 1. 0000.040. 04i.043.044.o046.047.048 049. 050 052.05. 057 058 (60 062 04.071 084.1 S0et. 70.018 051.058 065 0 (.O?.68/ 051 j 18 2. G 303. 332 391.484 1403-. — 0. 1 do. —-.- 1.128 1. 000.040.042.046 048.0 076 087.108 143 3 1.0000.06I03.08.4 00 0007 088 100 a.038 015 O09I 504 2':..503 1 3Q8.429.500.542 ooJ Nd. 01 - do...0101 0.1:18.6 CoO~~ ~ loS2,.1 O 0st5238 324 1403.............. T do. —-.. 1.128 i. C 0 0. I03 H 0 03-R 042 048 0NSO 07 AND 0 S07N18 R1A8 16 15C 303 3323 X 4E O 2~1 -5 -, S.....,0 i *I.1 2P.s.3."2 *9'~2;3.4 3 Set. aSet. ). olo I ~~10.010.051! 0-.080 j.0.5.2 I38!8 ~ 324 1405. 069.070 071 07.. 2 O. 19 1 03.'66. 021.0L I 91.. 80..0 532 5-4 61.2922.7078 70 8 e84 5 8.446.576.768.1.1 1406. 650~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i05.72 0.83.935 101.312'4.52 ]. O ~~~~~~mO~ STRESS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE 4NCH. —EXTENSION AND SET, INCH. 5.C FRACTURED. 7 13 XTENSION. ~'"~"~ ~Difference. — Y, —f fI0 P t Aroa. Per cent. B - I v -n.... 140;1._. —..09.O0.rl 072.073. 139.150.166 -L.191 d.Pnc. ~. 37C.21~7~ ilC~rs.26 ~1.29 ______05_.___. O.__O].3_0.401 53, 924.61.222.7078 70. 78 184, 545 1. _ 08 1. 8.u59.073.1!. 173.261 1404..............166.196.220.254.293.347.380 i.458.52..666 86 ----- 51,640.57'25 17'48 74. 4 002 351 1.615 16.7 070..124c.176. 9638.376.577 1403.........518.568.653.748.868 t. 04l j1. 25 1. 5 ----—.....J. 47, 39.58.264g'7358 73. 58! 179, 380 2.!0 21. 0 ~446.576.78 8 1. ]5 14M~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~........60 72 82 95.1 I2.1 2.1 -0... 650.7~1).832 9Y35 1. l0 1.:31 i. 65....- i..... 46, 896 57 2552.7448 74. 48' 183, 76! 2 51.577.7 5 j!. 02'. 56 f i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ j l~~_~_... 56_ —-^e_-._~.i.-~~-~rc — ~l — l'..i- ~c~. ~~ Results o/ experiments to ascertain the resislaiice /o exlens'ion, set, and rupture qfi a pulling stress, ~c.-Continued. THRUSTING STRESS. ORIGINAL STRESS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.-PERMANENT DEPRESSION, INCH. Test number. Description... t LO I~~~~-.0 5 B In c h. Inch. Square inch. 1401. 0.1 Turned down and}polished.. 1.127 1.1.28 1.0000 000.022 049 079.124.168.208.242.280.320 I402~~~~~~0._-o —--—.o........... 1.1000.164 [ 032 1402.....do.......126 1. 128 1. 0000.008.029 054 086.128 164.203 236.276.317 1399 do..............-01 1....do.......... 1 127 1.128 1. 0000.009.030.059.089.131 169.209.250.290.328 1400. —-----------— 01 -...do ----------— do- 1.124 1.128 1. 0000.010.031 063.097.141 182.222.260 300 340 STRESS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.-PERMANENT DEPRESSION, INCH. Ultimate Stress Ultimate permanent Tes't number.pesqaeRmr. 6 5 per square depression. C~~~~~~~~~~~~~-. B Pounds. 1ach. Per cent. 1401.................360.392.420.442.466.488.505.528.546 560.578 200, 000.580 51.4 Uncracked. 1402.. 356.385 412.436.460.482.500.519 535 550 568 200, 000.570 50.6 Ditto. 1399 - - 367.394 42L.452.476 500 5'20.543 558.572.590 20, 000.593 52.6 Ditto. 1400.................378.413.440.462.487.502.522.545 558 571.589 200, 000.592 52.7 Ditto. DAVID KIRKALDY. GROVE, SOUTHWARK STREET, LONDON, S. E., June 1, 1867. CHRISTIAN ASPELIN, Esq., Norberg and Fagersta, Ssweden. Agent, Mr. S. H. LUNDH, 9B, _New Broad Street, London. PARIS UNIVERSAL'EXPOSITION. 75 General abstract of the results of experiments to ascertain ithe mechanical iproperties, S c,,of twelve hammered bars of Fagersta steel of various degrees of hardness, manufactured by Christian Aspelin, esq., SiWeden. PLTHRUSTING STRESS: LENGTH —-N ONE DTAM. PULLING STRESS: LENGTH-.= NINE DIAMETERS E EDAMETER. R 3 P P o ~d ~~3m rao d ~ U E ) a, F Os) an E " ~~~~~~~~~O ~.d ~.,., g. 3.. 2 -O 1. D. 0c~~~~% U" On P 3 ~r U *- IE";F l-i~~~~c.... - B 2Lbs Ls 20Per c7.3 Pe2 6 1.Per 6 B Lbs Lbs2 I0ch 2 P62c09 1.2 1068 63,000 81, 952 76. 8 3. 23 1. 7 Fractured 1070 65,000 200,0010 278 124.6 Bulged. suddenly. 1.2 1078 60 000 81, 42-4 73.7 1.48 1.4.9-.do...... 1080 63 000 200 e00. 15 19.0 Ditto. 1.2 1088 63, 500.92, 224 68. 8 3.23 9 2.2 -..do.... 1090 64, 000 200, 000 216 19. 1 Ditto. 62,167 850, 200 973. 1 2. 65 1. 81 64,000 6 200, 000. 236 20. 9 0.6 19098 63, 000 112,976 55. 8 4. 97 3. 7...do.... 1100 65, 000 200, 000. 222 19. 7 Ditto. 0.9 1108 63,000 1109,952 57.3 8. 39 7.9.... do 1110 63, 000 200, 000. 265 23. 5 Ditto. 0.9 1118 6:3,000 96,912 65.0 4.97 3.6...do... 1120 60, 000 1200, 000.270 23.9 Ditto. 63, 000 106, 613 59. 4 6. 11 5. 1 62, 666 ]200, 000. 252 22. 4 0.6 1128 63,000 101,232 62.2 21.46 5.5.- do.... 1130 62, 000 200,000.290 25. Ditto. 0.6 1138 53,000 97, 968 54. 1 10.08 5.7...do.... 1140 56, 000 1200,000. 314 27. 8 IDitto. 0.6 1148 58,0001108,696 53.44 11. 75 8.7....do.... 1150 62,000]200,080.278 24. 6 Ditto. 58, 000 102, 632 56. 6 14. 43 6. 6 60, 000 1200, 000. 294 26. 0 0.3 1158 45,000./61,288 73.4 61.52 22.1 Slowly... 1160 38, 000 200,000.546 48.4 Ditto. 0.3 1168 4!.,000 63,120 64. 9 60.42 16.2. —...do.... 1170 41,000 200,000.5 22 46.2 Ditto. 0. 3 1178 43,000 59, 528 71. 2 62.61 11. 2....do.... 1180 38, 000 200,00. 562 49. 8 Ditto. 43,000 61,312 70.3 61.52 16.5 39,000 200,000.543 48.1 General abstract of the results of experiments, 4c.-C-0ontinued. STRESS. LENG'H TWO DIAMETERS. TEHRUSTING STRESS: LEGTH FOUR DIAIIMETHRUSTING sTREss.: LENGTH-= TWO DIAM~ETERS. TES:TE)RS... I __. _ _ _. __ _ o 0 1.219 /63 000 176,1000 /.775134. 4'lSkewe'd.../ 1092 61,;000I 135, 6101.;492) 10.9/ Ditto. /63 333 169, 907 / I II 62,333t 133,3331. 400 8.9!: 0.9 110 /58,000 184',000 /.7021 31.2/....do.....1102 57'0001135,'8001. 4101 9.0 Ditto. 0.9 11 159 000 179, 860 t.......2Detruded.. 1112 59,'000t115,880f.3901 8.7 [Ditto. 0.9 1121 59 000 156, 000/. 410 18. 2 ISkewed —.l 1122 69,;000 100,000i. 1021 2.5 1Ditto. /58 666 173, 287 / [ [58, 666 { 117,560 |. 304 {6. 8/ 0. 6 1131 60 000 156, 000 [. 470 J20. 9 [....do.... 1132 55, 000! 100', 000..143 t3. 2 [Ditto. 0. 6 1 14 5, 000 156, 000 [. 638 I28. 4.'.. do..1142 50, 000 100, 01)0 [. 180 I4. 0 /Ditto. 0.6 115 60 000 1.56, 000..442 ]19.7.1'..do..1152 55, 000I 116, 000].422 9.4 IDitto. |57 330 156, 000 |. 517 /2:3. 0 /53, 333 I105, 333 ]. 248 /5. 5 0.3 116 43, 00 140, 00 1.02 5.3... do 1162 40, 000 I82, 260 /.0931 /20. 7 /Buckled. 0.3 117 [43 000 124, 000 0. 92 40. 9 [... do.... 1172 40, 000 ]71, 920/. 500 / 112 |Ditto. 0.3 118 40 000 100, 0)00.547 24.3.'..do..1182 43,;000 91,101 I1.10 t24.4 [Ditto. /42 000 121, 333 {. 819 36. 8 ]41, 000 81, 760.' 844 I18. 8{ C, ct~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,E A )aa B bs bs zch Pret B Ls Lb rh.Pr t 0.9 1111 5, 000 79, 86 --------- erdd.1J 1 9 0 15 8 30 B itE0' 0.9 12 5, 00 15, 00 41 1. Sewd — 1112 0,00 10,00.12 2.5 ito 0. 6 1131 60, 000 156, 00 40 20,,. 9 -,.. dot~ued 1132 55, 000 100, 000.143 3. 2 Ditto. 0. 6 1141562, 000 156, 0800 638 2. 4 -.,.'.,.do 114.1102 50, 000 100, 000.180 4d. 0 Ditto. 0. 6 1151 60, 000 1.56, 000..442 19. 7....do 1152 55, 000 116, 000 4292 90. 4 Ditto. 57, 333 156, 00.51 2. 5, 333 105, 333 2408 5. 5 0. 3 116L 43, 000 140, 000 1. 02 45. 3. —.do~., 11 6- 40,000 825, 260 931 20. 7 Buckled 0. 3 1171 43, 000 1,24, 000 0. 92 40. 9 _.do.1172 40, 000 710, 920 50 2. 2 Ditto. 0.36 1181 40, 0!00 1.00, 000 547 1 24. 3 -.do.., 1182 43, COO 91, 1,00 1. 10 2. 4 Ditto. 42, 11 ~ 000 121, 333 80.29 36. 8.-.o..-.117 41 000 81, 760. 844 18. 8 it 76 PKPARI.S UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. General abstract of the results of experimnents, 4c. — ontinued. TIRUSTING STRESS: LENGTHI - 110HT DLAOIE- SHEARING STRESS: ON EACH END OF SI'ECOTERS. I EN. 8 e VaQt I 1 a.~t A n mi S> >1 a. t7 rn t2 __,. 1. t 17 Hj 1. 0 Is B Lbs. Lbs. In ch. Pcr ct. B Lbs. Pe ct linch. 1.2 1073 60, )00 94,2( 0. 325o 3. 6 BucklecL 1. 2 1074 62, 425 81,952) 76. 2. 192 Fractured 1.2 1083 63, 000 1 2,3 0... — Buckled and 1.2 118f4 5o, 0OO 81,424 71.3.179 Ditto. then snap- 1.2 109.4 6:3, 760 92,24 69. 1. 208 Ditto. ped.. 1, 4 2 85,200 73. 3.193 1.2 1093 62, 000,100,000.164 1.8 Buckled. 0. 9 1114 82, 250 11 2.976 72. 8. 286 Ditto. 61, 666 1)2,17:3 0.9 1114 82.140 10,9582 75.6. 22 Ditto. 0.9 1103 57, 00 97,100. 418 5.0 Ditto, 0.9 1124 74, 880 96.912 77. 2. 240 Ditto. 0.9 1113 58,000 92,300.312 3. 5 Ditto. 79.7:37 1)6,613 75.2.249 0.9 1123 59, 0:0| 96,2 3. 212 2.4 Ditto. 0. 6 1.134 7:3, 91( 101,232 73. (0.280 Diltto. 58, 00 0 95.207.321 3.6 0.6 1144 69,85 97,968 70.0. 275 Ditto. 0.6 1133 5.t, 000 83,00().342 3.8 DDitto. 0.6 1154 71, (54( 1(0,06 65 4. 288')itto. 0.6 1143 53,003 t8 2,5(). 38:3 4. 3 Ditto. 71,648 102,632 69.5.281 0. 6 1153 54,000 88,981). 340 3. 8 Ditto.. 3 1164 43, 110 61,288 70.3.:328 Ditto. 52, 666 84,827.315 4. 0 0.3 1174 49, 17) 63.120 77.8.341 Ditto, 0.3 1163 37, GJO 4 7,)20.4.1) 4. 5 Ditto. 1.3 1181 4:3, 910 0 58,578 73.8. 3t10 Ditto. 0.3 1173 4:3,0 0 45,500. 442/ 4. 9 D itto, 451), 61,31-2 74. 0.323 0. 3 1183 4'2, 003) 49, 12, ). 46) 3 5. 1 | itto. 40, 6,6 47,5t3.435 4. _8_ _ _ _1 Gene-al abst iact (J te resul/s jg exjzeri-medts,.c. —)on tinuti. TWISTING s'rIES: LE.NGT OF LEVEt'R- T'VELVF INCI-IES.-LNGOTH FOi. TROISION —-'EIGTT DIAMETEiLS.'rest nun- ElaQtic stress per Ultimate stress per Ratioofelasticto Ultihate torsion.....ects. ber. square inch. square inch. ultimate B Lbs. Lbs. Per cent. 1 trn 1.000. 0. 2107 One end fractured. 1069..... 1 O 1,84. 58 1, 0. 220 Other end fractured. ~1079.)~ 1 ~15:) 2, 165f 51. 3~ ~ 0. 228 One end fractured. 1079.l...... 15 9 2,165 5.329 0. 377 Other end fractured. 0. 375 One end fractured. 1119 1,108 2,205 59. 4 0 L One end fractured. 1,, 1[5 2, 336 5. 2 0. 793 0. S0 Otne end fractured. 1129.- 1,075 2,188, 9. 1 77 Other end fractured. 1,139 1,050 2, 33 47.0 0 ] (t3. 0` One end fractured. 1109.... 1,1 5 - 9,2478 47. 4 0. 9730 Other end fractured. 11409..'1,125 02l,5362 48. 7.953 Other end frarta42r7ed. a1150 3'750 1, 45 | 501.7 0 3 03 8 One end fractured... 7.550 Other end fractured. 1. 750 OGne end fractured..1.50 2, 0 8 0 50 47. 938 3. 140 Other end uncracked. 1. 013 Other end fractured. 1,083 2, Q6648. 2 0. 793 3. 055 O One end fractured. 11690........ 1, 53>8 50,7 2.735 One end fractured. 3.140 Other end fncracted.. 75028 One end fractured...1559-3.72 Other end partly free7 e 50tured. 1,03 2, 20 8.3 13.0219 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSI'TION. 77 General abstract rf' the results ef.experiments, 4.-C ontinued. BENDING STRtESS: DJ3TANCE BI3;T, VEEN SUPPORTS=T-T -ENTY INCHES. [ I3 L-S. Lbs Percen t Inch.' 1.2 1075 2, 400 30.496 66. 9 0. 75,974 4 446 22, 39;Fractured. 1.2 108l5 21, 200 3, 89 69.5 0. 72' 3, 091 4, 79.23, 980 Ditto. 1.2.1095 21 80) 0 35 376 61. 0.7- 3, 178 5, 157 25, 785 Di)tto. 1, 133, 589 66. 0 0. 78 3, 00 24, 000 0.9 1105 2 1, 80 41, 820 50. ( 1. 46 3, 178 6, 3a 31, 940 Dtto. 0.9 1115 21 200. 44, 55-2 47.6:1. 6 3, 091 6,495 32,475 Ditto. 0.9 1125 2, 100 43,128 {. 2 1. 38 3,222 t6, 288 31,440) Ditto. 21, 00 43, 833 49. 6 1.49 3,164 6:390 31, 9.50 0. 6 1135 1 8,00( 4, 40,260 46.7:3.15 2,741 5, 87( 29, 350 Ditto. 0. 6 1115 17, [800 3, 49. 1 3. 1 56 2,595, 26, 385 Uncrackedt -emoved. 0. 6 1155 8, 40 303, 120 48.2 3. 22 2, 682 5, 55 27, 79)0 Ditto. 18,i 3:3 81, 345 48. 3.:..31, 673 5,.56. 27, 840 0.3 1165 1t, 700 24, 420 56. 1 5. 22 2, 000 3, ). 17, 800:Ditto. 0. 3 1 75 15, 200, 28 65.3 5. 05 2. 216 3,394 6, 1970 DIitto. 0. 3 1185 18, 4()0 28, 15' 65.4 5. 0.1 2,832 4, 104 20, 5)0 IDitto. 15,767 25, 283 69.. 11 2, 259 3, 686 ] 28,4308 DAVID KIRIKALDY. GROVE,.SOUTHWAI STREET, S LONDON, S.EE, LeN8, J 1, 1867.t CHRISTIAN ASPLIN. Esq. orr d, Swoer d et, eden. Agent, Mi'. S. H. LUNHj, 9 B1, N]w Broad Wreet, Lowdn. Results of experiments to asc rtain tiAe mech anical ppr~oerties (f ni7w ro leld 7lces of Fagersta steel (f various degrees?f o ardwess, ma.aufttrured by C tris tian.Aspe/in, esq., Sweden. P'ULLIN G STI-ESS, R.nch. 9.in. Lbs. Lbs. 0,0chq.n... Pr. ct0 O. 9 1198 2.50 X.28.700 76, 800 109,4 1 9 X 2. o 15418 l153 21.7 13),000 1. 57 15.7 0. 9 119 2 5o X. 28.7o0 74, 250 l(0i, C? I 2. 3i X.26 o614..846 12.3 I3(,00 CO. 086 8.6 0. 9 189 2. 52X.27.6801 7, oto0 102, 972 2.35 X.25.587 9:3 1.3.7- 12t, 4'75 0.92 9. 2 0. 9 1 188 25! 27.680 8. 010 1 0 2.25o X 24.540.40() 20.6 122, 4 5 1.35 1 ]3.5 0. 9 1194 2.50X.27.675 65, 160 96,533 2.44 X.26 [ 6:34..01 6.1 100, 480 0, 47 4 7 0. 9 l 193 250 X 27 673 60, 530 9U 6 2.45 X o26 oG37.038 5.6 10, 48) 0.41 4. 1 8 131, 3'8 1:..3 117,63 9. 3 0. 6 1213. 50 X.227 76,O 70, 60 100,936 2.29 X. 25.573.127 18.1 1 27, 5l 1.24 12. i 0. 9 1214 2. 5 X.28.70U 7i3, 4411 100, 630 2. 24 X..4.5:48 1643 2:3. 1 12, 012 L 11 1L I 0. 6 12014..50 X.28.70 73, 283 100,469 2.40 X. 26.614.076 10. 120,540 0.68 0. 4 0. 6 1233 2. 50 X.28.700 6-7,450 9 6, 357 2.16 X.23.497 10 14. 7 121, 54') 1.64 16.4 0. 6 1218 2.48 X. 28.694 66,910 96,412 2.20X.24.5 16 24. 0 X1* 5, 2 42 14.2 0. 6 1209 2.48 X.28.694 60, E83 87,240 2.39 X026 6.073 10). 5 1 1l, 218 O. 6 6. 9 97, 0.11 16.9 121,2.)7 11.3 0. 79, 650 2.03 X.17.345 282 4. 0 126, 484 1. 29 12. 9 0.3 1639 2. 5 X.25.627 46, 80 74,637 2.10 X.20.420.207- 33. 126. 484 1. 9 19. 2 0.3 1649 2.l X. 7.6 7 47, 440 7(, 074 2.-07 y. 15.310 o367 54. 2 138,5 54f 1.91 19.1 0.3 165) 2.51 X.27.677 45,30. 67,553 2.12 X.17.361 316 46.7 138,54 1.0:) 10.3 1645 2.51. X.5.627 43,415 60,2 4 2.00 X.17 3. 0. 45. 8 125, 1.7 12. 7 1644 2.51 X.25.67 41,055 6, I3,84 2.0)2 X.17 31.304 48. 5 12.5,00 1.94 19. 4 o. 3 70,790 43. 5 130, 313 15.5 78 PARIS' UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Results of experiments to ascertain the mechanical properties, tc.-Continued. BULGING STRESS. a o Stress in pounds.-Bulged, inch. Ultimate. Z Z 00,__. Bl ge. _. O e. 5,000. 25,000.- 50,000. 75,000. 100,000. Bulge. Stress B 0. 9 1202 0. 28.123.756 1. 25 1. 60 2. 00 2. 00 100, 000 0. 9 1197 0. 27.149.846 1. 42 1. 81 2. 22 2. 59 120,000 2.30 111, OCO0 0.6 1212 0.28.145.759' 1.31 1.73 2.14 2.52 20, 000 0.6 1207 0.28.153.812 1.37 1. 80 2.23 2.61.120, 000 2. 57.120, 000 0. 3 1643 0.25 -208.987 1. 74 2. 39.... 3. 68. 99, 760 0.3 1648 0.25.211 1. 03 1.77.242 4..... 4 40 98, 432 4.04 99,096 PUNCHING STRESS. Test No. Thickness Ultimate stress per square timato.stress per square _a Tt.h n Test No. Thickn__ _ inch. inch. B. B 0. 91 1201 0. 28 78, 200 76,.320 0. 6 1205 0. 28 72, 200 70, 350 0. 9 1200 0.28 77, 200 76, 940 74, 217 0. 9 1191 0.27 75, 290 74, 380 0. 3 1651 0. 27 53, 900 53,150 0. 9 1190 0. 27 74, 330 73, 360 0. 3 1652 0. 27 53, 000 52, 980 75, 752' 0. 3 1642 0.25 49, 860 49, 840 0. 6 1216 0.28 77, 830 77,220 0. 3 1641 0. 25 49, 420 49, 2 0.6 1215 0. 28 75, 620 75, 100 51, 426 0. 6 1206 0.28 73,150 71,270 DAVID 1KIRKALDY. GROVE, SOUTH~WARK STREET, LONDON, S.E., Juse 1, 1867. CHRISTIAN ASPELIN, Esq., Norber,' and.Fagersta, Sweden. Agent, Mr. S. 1-I. LUNDH, 9B New Broad street, Loedon. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 7 9 APPENDIX D. TRANSCRIPTS OF THE PRUSSIAN, FRENCH, AND ENGLISH LAWS, UNDER WHICH CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS ARE ORGANIZED. Prussian laow granting corporate rights to co-operative associations. We, William, by the grace of God King of Prussia, &c., enact, with the consent of the two houses of our Landtag, as follows: PAR'r I.-Of the formation of the association. SECTION 1. Societies with unlimited membership, whose object it is by the transaction of business in common to enlarge credit, increase the trade, profits., and further the household economy of their members, viz: 1. Loan and credit unions; 2. Raw material and store unions; 3. Unions for the production and sale of finished wares on a common accoanti, (productive association;) 4. Unions for the purchase of the necessaries of life wholesale and the selling them retail, (consumption associations;) 5. Unions for providing members of such unions with dwelling houses; Acquire under the conditions hereinafter described the rights designated in the present law as those of'" registered associations." SEC. 2. The requisites to the constitution of such associations are.1. The drawing up of the statutes in writing. 2. The assumption of a common name, (firma.) The name of the association must be derived from the object of the undertaking, and have affixed to it the title "registered association." Neither the names of the members, (associates,) nor those of any other persobts, must appear in the name of the association. Every new name must be clearly distinguished from those of any previously existing registered association ine the same locality. SEC. 3. The statutes must contain — 1. The name and seat of the associatiorn. 2. The object of the undertaking. 3. The duration of the association in the event of the same being established tor a limited period only. 4 The conditions under which members join and leave the association. 5. The amount of the shares of the several associates,. and the way in which these shares are paid up. 6. The principle upon which the balance sheet is drawn up and the profits %re reckoned, and the way in which the balance sheet is audited. 7. The mode of election and the composition of the managing body, and the forms under which the mnembers of this body are invested with their fall powers. 8. The forms used in convoking the associates. 9. The conditions under which the associates exercise their votes. 10. The subjects which -are not decided by a simple majority of the associates present at a general meeting, but which require a larger proportion of votes oi other conditions. 11. The forms used by the association in making its announcements, and the public journals in which these announcements are made. 12. The condition that all the associates are jointly and severally liable for the debts of the association, and that this liability extends to the whole of their private estate. PARIS UNIVTERSAL EXPOSITION. SEc. 4. The statutes of the association must be deposited with the commercial tribunal of the district in which the association has its seat, and be entered in the register of associations, which shall form part of the getnerml commercial register. An extract of the statutes must be published contaiuing the following points: 1. The date of the statute. 2. The name and-seat of the association. 3. The object of the undertaking. 4. The duration of the undertaking, if limited to a definite period. 5. The names and domiciles of' the nlanaging body. 6. The form in which the announcements of the association are made, and the public journals in which they are made. At the same time public notice is to be given of the fact that the list of the associates is at all times open to inspection at the tribunal of commerce. If the statute determines the form in whichl the managing body gives expres-;sion to its resolutions and signs on behalf of the association, this provision is likewise to be made public. SEc. 5. Before the association has been entered on the register it cannot enojoy the rights of a registered association. SEC, 6. Every alteration in the statutes must be committed to writing, and,notified to the tribunal of commerce by the transmission of a duplicate copy of the resolution passed to that effect by the association. The same process takes place in regard to a statnte when altered as that which took place in regard to the original statute. Its publication is only so far necessary as alterations have been made in the points originally published. The resolutions of the association have no legal force until they have been entered in the register of the commercial tbibunal of the district in which the association has its seat. SEc. 7. At every commercial tribunal in wh6se district the association has a branch establishment, the latter must be entered on the register of associations, and the procedure described by sections 4, 5, 6, for the parent association be observed. PART II.- Of the leogal "statas" of hf'e associates, " inter se," and of their legal status and of that of the association towards other persoms. SEc. 8. The legal " status" of the associates, "inter se," is determined in the first insta.nce by the statutes. The latter, however, can only in so far deviate from the printcples laid down in the following sections as such deviation is expressly declared to be allowable. In the absence of other stipulalions in the statute, gain and loss will be divided armongst the associates per lheaid. Sc. 9. The rights which the associates enjoy with reference to the affairs of the association, more particularly in regard to the conduct of its business, the examining and auditing of,tlhe balance sheet, and the determining the'distribution of the profit., are exercised [by the totality of the associates in general meeting assembled. Each associate has a voice at such meetings unless tlhe statutes stipulate to the contrary. Sac. 10. The registered association can acquire rigihts and enter into binding engagements; it can become possessed of landed property, or acquire other'real rights on such property; it can sue and be sued. The association is under the ordinary jurisdiction of the tribunal of the district in which it has its seat. The provisions of the general Germian Mercantile Code and those of the introductory latw of 27th June, 1861, with reference to merchants, apply in a PARIS UNIVERSAtL EXPOSITION. 81 similar manner to the associations in so far as the present law does not constitute exceptions. SEc. t11. The associates are jointly and severally liable with their entire estate for the debts of the association in so far as, in the event of liquidation or bankruptcy, the property of the association is not sufficient to cover the liabilities. Whoever enters into an existing association is equally with the other members liable for the engagements entered into by the association before his becoming a, member. Any stipulation to the contrary has no binding force against other persons. SEC. 12. Private creditors of associates have not got the right to claim, for the satisfaction of their debts, effects, claims, or rights which belong to the estate of the association. Such creditors can only put in an execution, attachment, or distraint upon that which the associate himself has a claim to in the shape of interest or profit, and that which falls to his share upon the winding up of the association. SEc. 13. The provisions of the foregoing section apply equally to private creditors in favor of whom a mortgage or lien on the property of an associate has accrued in virtue of legal proceedings; such mortgage or lien not extending to the effects, claims, or rights which form part of the estate of the association, but being confined to that which was specified in the last paragraph of the foregoing section. Nevertheless, any rights or claims which may have been in force against such effects before they became part of the property of the association are not invalidated by the foregoing paragraphs. SEc. 14. As long as the association exists, claims of the association cannot be compensated, either in their whole extent or in part, by the private claims which the person indebted to the association carl: raise against a member of the association. SEC. 15. If the private creditor of an associate, after fruitlessly distraining upon the privant -uroperty of such associate, obtains a right of execution upon the share which would accrue to the associate upon the winding up of the concern, he can, whether the association be founded for a limited or ulimited period, demand for the satisfaction of his debt that the associate leave the association. Notice to that effect must, however, be given at least six months previous to the close of the financial year. PART II.-Of the managing body, the council of supervision, and thLe general meeting. SEC. 16. Every association must have a managing body elected from amongst the associates. By it the association is represented judicially and extra-judicially. The managing body can consist of one or more members, who may be salaried or not. It is at all times removable, with a claim, however, to cornpensation if such arise out of existing contracts. SEC. 17. The names of the managing body must immediately on their nomination be notified to the commercial tribunal and be entered on theregister, and the tribunal must be made acquainted in an official form with their signature. SEC. 18. The managing body sign for the association. If the statute contains no particular stipulation on the subject, the signatures of all members of the managing body are required. SEC. 19. The association obtains rights and is subject to obligations in all legal matters entered into by the managing body on their behalf. It is matter of indifference whether such business has been concluded expressly in the name of the association, or whether circumstances prove that it was the will of t.hd contracting parties that it should be concluded for the association. The. competency of the managing body, in representing the association, ex PE6 82 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. tends to those affairs and legal proceedings for which the law requires special full powers. To legitimate the managing body in all matters concerned *vith the registry of mortgages, a certificate of the commercial tribunal, to the effect that the persons designated are the managing body, suffices. SEC. 20. The managing body is bound to observe the limits placed to its functions by the statutes or by the resolutions of a general meeting. This limitation of the powers of the managing body, however, is not valid as against other persons. SEC,. 21. Oaths can be taken by the managing body in the name of the association. SEC. 22. Changes in the members of the managing body must be notified and entered on the register. SEC. 23. In serving writs on, or giving legal notices to, the association, it suffices that this should be done upon, or to, a member of the managing body who is empowered to sign on behalf of the association. SEC. 24. The managing body is bound, at the end of each quarter, to notify to the commercial tribunal the names of the members who have joined, and of those who have left the association during the quarter, and once a year, in January, to give an exact alphabetical list of all the members. The tribunal rectifies, by these lists, the original list deposited with it. SEC. 25. The managing body must, within the first six months of each financial year, publish the balance-sheet of the preceding year, and the number of the actual members of the association. SEC. 26. Members of the managing body who have in that capacity acted beyond the limit of their powers, or against the provisions of the present law, or of the statutes of the association, are liable, with their whole estate, for the losses which may accrue out of such acts. If they busy themselves with other objects than those specified in the present law, (section 1,) or if they allow, or do not prevent, the discussion of subjects at; the general meetings which have no reference to the business of the association, but are concerned with public affairs, (see section 1 of the law of March 11, 1841, for the prevention of the misuse of the right of meeting,) they incur a fine of 200 thalers. SEC. 27. The statutes can provide for the creation, side by side with the managing body, of a council of supervision. This council superintend the administration of the managing body, in all its branches. It acquaints itself with the state of its affair,, inspects the books and the cash-balances, and can convoke general meetings. It can, pending the decision of the general meeting, and if it should seem necessary, depose the managing body, and take the necessary measures for the provisional transaction of the business. It must examine the yearly accounts, and report thereon to the general meeting. SEC. 28. The council of supervision is charged to bring actions at law against the managing body, if the general meeting has resolved on such action. If the association has to bring actions against members of the council of supervision, it must, by the vote of a general meeting, name persons, with the necessary full powers to carry on the suit. Every member of the association is authorized to intervene in the suit, at his own expense. SEC. 29. Full powers can be given by the association, ad hoc, to other persons than the members of the managing body, or the council of supervision; the exact extent of the functions thus vested in these persons being exactly specified in the full power. SEC. 30. The general meetings are convoked by the executive body, unless otherwise specified in the statute. General meetings, besides the occasions for such meetings specified in the statute, are to be convoked whenever it appears in the interest of the association to do so. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 83 SEc. 31. The convoking of the general meeting must take place according to the forms fixed by the statutes. The subjects for discussion must, on every occasion, be notified simultaneously with the convoking. No resolutions can be passed upon subjects of which notice has not thus been given. For the mere proposing of resolutions, and for discussions not ending with a formal resolution, no such notice is required. SEC. 32. The managing body is bound to observe and execute all the provisions of the statutes, as well as the resolutions of the general meetings passed conformably to the said statutes. The resolutions of the general meetings must be entered in a register of protocols, which must be open to the inspection of every associate, and of the organs of the government. PART IV.-Of the dissolution qf the association, and the leaving it by individual associations. SEC. 33. The association is dissolved1. By the conclusion of the period for which it was formed; 2. By a resolution of the association; 3. By a declaration of bankruptcy. SEC. 34. If an association is guilty of illegal acts by which the welfare of the community suffers, or if it pursues other objects than those business objects specified in the present law, (sec. 1,) it can be dissolved without claim to compensation. In such a case the dissolution can only take place upon the passing of a judicial sentence on the prosecution of the district authorities. The competent tribunal is that to whose ordinary jurisdiction the association is subject. The sentence of the tribunal is to be communicated to the tribunal which keeps the register of the association, that it may be entered therein and published, according to section 36. SEC. 35. The dissolution of the association, if it does not take place in consequence of a declaration of bankruptcy, must be notified by the man aging body for entry in the register of the association, and must be announced three times consecutively in the public journals. This announcement must besides call upon the creditors of the association to send in their claims to the managing body. SEC. 36. The declaration of bankruptcy is to be officially entered in the register by the tribunal charged with the bankruptcy proceedings, and notice of the same is likewise to be published in the public papers. SEC. 37. Every associate has the right to leave the association. If there are no express stipulations in the statutes on the subject, the associate can only leave at the close of the financial year, and must give a four weeks' notice at the least. Membership, moreover, ceases with death, unless the statutes contain stipulations carrying such membership on to the heirs at law. The association can, on grounds which must be specified in the statute, exclude members from the association. SEC. 38. The associates who leave, or who are excluded from the association, as also the heirs of deceased members, remain liable for all debts of the association contracted before the date of the cessation of membership, until the period of limitation. Unless the statutes contain stipulations to the contrary, such-persons have no claims on the reserved fund, or the corporate property of the association, and can only demand the repayment of their shares with the dividends accrued upon them, such repayment to be made within three months of their leaving the association. The association can only protect itself against such a claim, even if the property of the association should have diminished at the time of such cessation of membership, by dissolving itself and proceeding to wind up the business. 84 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. PART V.-Of the winding up of t/he association. SEc. 39. After the dissolution of the association, except in the case of bankruptcy, the winding up of its business is undertaken by the managing body, unless the statutes or a resolution of the association designate some other persons forthat purpose. The appointmentof the liquidators is always revocable. SEC. 40. The liquidators must be notified to the tribunal of commerce, and their names entered on the register. If a liquidator vacates his office, or if his power of attorney expires, notice must likewise be given. SEC. 41. The relations of the liquidators towards other persons are determined by sections 25 and 40 of the General German Commercial Code.'If there are several liquidators they can only legally transact business by doing so in common, unless it be specially stipulated that they can do so individually. SEC. 42. The liquidators have to wind up the current business, to fulfil the engagements of the dissolved association, to call in outstanding claims, and to convert the property of the association into cash. They have to represent the association judicially and extrajudicially; they can compound and make compromises. To wind up current business, they can enter into fresh engagements. The liquidators can only effect the sale of real property by auction, unless there be stipulations to the contrary in the statute or resolutions of the association. SEc. 43. The limitations of the functions of the liquidators as against other persons has no legal force. SEC. 44. The liquidators have to give theirsignature in such a manner that they affix their names to the former name of the association which is now to be designated as the name of the union to be wound up. SEC. 45. The liquidators have, in the management of the business committed into their hands, to conform the'mselves to the resolutions passed by the general meeting. SEC. 46. The moneys in the hands of the association at the time of dissolution, and those which during the process of winding up flow into the hands of the liquidators, are to be applied as follows: (a*.) First, the creditors of the association are to be satisfied as the money owing to them falls due. (b.) From what remains, the shares, with the dividends accrued upon them, are to be repaid to the associates. If the assets are not sufficient to pay these in full, the distribution takes place according to the relative proportions of the shares. (c.) From what remains after paying the debts of the association and the shares of the members, there will, in the first place, be distributed the profits of the last year as prescribed by the statutes. If any property should then remain, the same, in the absence of special stipulations to that effect, shall be distributed amongst the members per head. SEC. 47. The liquidators must begin by drawing up a balance-sheet. Should the result of this balance-sheet be that the property of the association (inclusive of the reserve fund and the share capital) does not suffice to cover the debts of the association, the liquidators have at once on their own responsibility to call a general meeting, and hereupon, if within eight days the associates have not contributed sufficiently to cover the deficit, they have to apply for the opening of the commercial bankruptcy in regard to the assets of the association. Sec. 48. Notwithstanding the dissolution of the association the legal status.of the associates inter se, and towards other persons, remains until the close of the liquidation the same as that laid down in parts II and III of the present law. In the event of the dissolution of the association, no member can be made liable by means of regress on account of the smaller amount of the calls on shares which he may have paid according to the statutes, by the other members of the association, who have paid up more on their shares. The jurisdiction under which the union was at the time of its dissolution remains in force for the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 85 union which is to be dissolved, till the close of the winding up.' Citations addressed to the associations can be delivered to the hand of one of the liquidators. SEC. 49. After the conclusion of the winding up, the books and papers of the late associations are to be given into the custody of one of the former associates, or of a third person. If agreement cannot be come to as to who this person should be, the tribunal of commerce determines. The associates and their heirs retain the right of examining and using these books. SEC. 50. Besides the case provided for by section 47, bankruptcy is declared whenever the association, either before or after dissolution, has stopped payment. (See section 281, No. 2, of the bankruptcy law, &c.) The notice of such stoppage of payment, if before the dissolution of the association, must be given by the managing body; if afterwards, by the liquidators. The association is represented in the one case by the managing body, in the other by.the liquidators. Such representatives have to appear personally to give the necessary information, as in the case of an ordinary debtor. A concordate cannot take place. The declaration of bankruptcy in regard to the corporate property of the association does not involve a declaration of bankruptcy in regard to the private property of the associates. The decision in regard to the opening of bankruptcy must not contain the names of the members who are jointly and severally liable. As soon as the bankruptcy proceedings are ended the creditors have the right to recover their claims (only in so far, however, as they were put in and verified during the bankruptcy proceedings, but inclusive of interests and costs) on the private property of the individual associates. PART IV. —Of the limitation of claims against associates. SEC. 51. The limitation of claims against an associate for debts incurred by the association during membership comes into force two years after the dissolution of the association, or after the date of his quitting the association or being excluded from it, in, so far as the peculiar character of the claim does not involve a shorter period. The two years are reckoned from the day on which the dissolution of the association was entered on the register, or the cessation of membership was notified to the tribunal of commerce. If the claim became only due after this date, the time is reckoned from the date at which such claim became due. If there remain undistributed assets, the two years' limitation cannot be enforced against the creditor in so far as he founds his claim only on the corporate property of the association. SEC. 52. The limitation in favor of a member who has quitted it or been excluded is not interrupted by legal proceedings undertaken against another member of the association, but by legal proceedings undertaken against the still existing association. The limitation in favor of a member of the association who belonged to it at the time of dissolution is not interrupted by legal proceedings undertaken against the liquidators or the bankruptcy. SEC. 53. The limitation runs likewise against minors and persons under guardianship, as well as against corporations which legally enjoy the rights of minors, without admittance of the restitutio in integrum, but with the proviso of redress against the guardians and administrators. Concluding provisions. SEC. 54. The commercial tribunal holds the managing body to the observance of sections 4, 16, 17, 22, 24, 25, 32, 35, 40, by the infliction of fines and 86 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. penalties, as provided in section 5 of the introductory portion of the General German Commercial Code of 24th June, 1861. Inaccuracies in the notices given by the managing body are to be fined 20 thalers. SEC. 55. Section 55 does not exclude more rigorous measures, if they are enjoined by other laws. SEC. 56. The registrations take place free of cost. The details respecting the way in which the registers shall be kept will be given in a general instruction, to be drawn up by the ministers for commerce, industry, and public works, and justice. The ministers aforesaid are charged with the enforcement of the present law. [Extract from the French law of "Companies," of 24th to 29th January, A. D. 1867.] TITLE III.-Particular provisions for societies with variable capital. ART. 4. It may be stipulated in the by-laws of any society that the capital of the society will be susceptible of augmentation by successive payments made by the members or the admission of new members, and of diminution by the withdrawal, total or partial, of the payments already made. The societies whose by-laws shall contain the above stipulation will be subject, independently of the general rules which apply to them according to their particular form, to the provisions of the following articles: ART. 49. The capital of the society may not be fixed by the constituting laws of the society above the sum of 200,000 francs. It may be augmented by the deliberations of the general assembly held from year to year. Each augmentation may not exceed 200,000 francs. ART. 50. The shares or coupons of shares will bear the name of anl individual. Even after their entire liberation they may not be less than 50 francs. They will only be negotiable after the definite constitution of the society. The negotiation can only take place by transfer on the register of the society; and the by-laws may give either to the executive. council or to the general assembly the right to oppose the transfer. ART. 51. The by-laws will determine a sum below which the capital may not be reduced by the withdrawals authorized by article 48. The sum shall not be less than one-tenth of the capital of the society. The society will be definitelv constituted only after the payment of the tenth. ART. 52. Each member shall be able to retire from the society whenever he may think proper, except by contrary agreement, and except as provided by the first paragraph of the preceding article. It may be stipulated that the general assembly shall have the right to decide, by the majority necessary for the mddification of the by-laws, that one or more members shall cease to form part of the society. Members who cease to form part of the society, either by their will or by the decision of the general assembly, will remain bound to the society and to third parties, during five years, for all the obligations existing at the time of their withdrawal. ART. 53. The society, whatever may be its form, shall appear in court by its officers. ART. 54. The society will not be dissolved by the death, withdrawal, suspension, failure, or bankruptcy of one of the members; it will continue in full force between the other members. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSrrION. 87 ANNO VICESIMO QUINTO & VICESIMO SEXTO VICTORIE REGINJ, CAP. LXXXVI. —An act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to industrial and provident societies.-7th August, 1862. Whereas by the industrial and provident societies act, 1852, it is enacted, that it shall be lawful for any number of persons to establish a society under the provisions thereofand of the therein-recited act, for the purpose of raising by voluntary subscriptions of the members thereof a fund for attaining any purpose or object for the time being authorized by the laws in force with respect to friendly societies or by the said recited act, by carrying on or exercising in common any labor, trade, or handicraft, or several labors, trades, or handicrafts, except the working of mines, minerals, or quarries beyond the limits of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and also except the business of banking, whether in the said'United Kingdom or elsewhere, and that the said act shall apply to all societies already established for any of the purposes herein mentioned, so soon as they shall conform to the provisions hereof; and whereas by an act passed in the seventeenth and eighteenth years of her present Majesty, chapter twenty-five, various provisions were made for the better enabling legal proceedings to be carried on in any matter concerning the societies formed under the said act of 1852; and whereas the last-mentioned act was amended by an act passed in the first session of the nineteenth and twentieth years of her present Majesty, chapter forty; and whereas various societies have been formed and are now carrying on business under the provisions of the said recited acts, and it is desirable to consolidate and amend the laws relating to such societies: Be it therefore enacted by. the Queen's most excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords spiritual and temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: 1. The industrial and provident societies act, 1852, and the said recited acts for the amendment thereof, are hereby repealed from the passing of this act. 2. All societies registered under the industrial and provident societies act, 1852, shall be entitled to obtain a certificate of registration on application to the registrar of friendly societies, and for which certificate no fee shall be payable to the registrar. 3. Any number of persons, not being less than seven, may establish a society under this act for the purpose of carrying on any labor, trade, or handicraft, whether wholesale or retail, except the working of mines or quarries, and except the business of banking, and of applying the profits for any purposes allowed by the friendly societies acts, or otherwise permitted by law. 4. The rules of every such society shall contain provisions in respect of the several matters mentioned in the schedule annexed to this act. 5. Two copies of the rules shall be forwarded to the registrar of friendly societies in England, Scotland, or Ireland, according to the place Where the office of the society is situate, and shall be dealt with by him in the manner provided by the friendly societies act, 1855; and he shall thereupon give his certificate of registration, and such certificate shall in all cases be conclusive evidence that the society has been duly registered, and thereupon the members of such society shall become a body corporate, by the name therein described, having a perpetual succession and a common seal, with power to hold lands and buildings, with limited liability. 6. The certificate of registration shall vest in the society all the property that may at the time be vested in any person in trust for the society; and all legal proceedings then pending by or against any such trustee or other officer on account of the society may be prosecuted by or against the society in its registered name without abatement. '88 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 7. A copy of the rules shall be delivered by the society to every person, on demand, on payment of the sum not exceeding one shilling. 8. No society shall be registered under a name identical with that by which any other existing society has been registered, or so nearly resembling such name as to be likely to deceive the members or the public, and the word D"limited" shall be the last word in the name of every society registered under this act. 9. No member shall be entitled, in a society registered under this act, to hold or claim any interest exceeding the sum of two hundred pounds. 10. Every society registered under this act shall paint or affix, and shall keep painted or affixed, its name on the outside of every office or place in which the business of the society is carried on, in conspicuous position, in letters easily legible, and shall have its name engraven in legible characters on its seal, and shall have its name mentioned in legible characters in all notices, advertisements, and other official publications of such society, and in all bills of exchange, promissory notes, indorsements, cheques, and orders for money or goods purporting to be signed by or on behalf of such company, and in all bills of parcels, invoices, receipts, and letters of credit of the society. 11. If any society under this act does not paint or affix, and keep painted or affixed, its name in manner directed by this act, it shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for not so painting or affixing its name, and for every day during which such name is not so kept painted or affixed; and if any officer of such society or any person on its behalf uses any seal purporting to be a seal of the society whereon its name is not so engraven as aforesaid, or issues or authorizes the issue of any notice, advertisement, or other official publication of such society, or signs or authorizes to be signed on behalf of such society any bill of exchange, promissory note, indorsement, cheque, order for money or goods, or issues or authorizes to be issued any bill of parcels, invoice, receipt, or letter of credit of the society, wherein its name is not mentioned in manner aforesaid, he shall be liable to a penalty of fifty pounds, and shall further be personally liable to the holder of any such bill of exchange, promissory note, cheque, or order for money or goods, for the amount thereof, unless the same is duly paid by the* society. 12. Every society under this act shall have a registered office to which all communications and notices may be addressed. If any society registered under this act carries on business without having such an office it shall incur a penalty not exceeding five pounds for every day during which business is so carried on. 13. Notice of the situation of such registered office, and of any change therein, shall be given to the registrar, and recorded by him: until such notice is given, the society shall not be deemed to have complied with the provisions of this act. 14. The rules of every society registered under this act shall bind the society, and the memubers thereof to the same extent as if each member had subscribed his name and affixed his seal thereto, and there were in such rules contained a covenant on the part of himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators, to conform to such rules subject to the provisions of this act; and all moneys payable by any member of the society in pursuance of such rules shall be deemed to be a debt dlue from such member of the society. 15. The provisions of the friendly societies acts shall apply to societies registered under this act in the following particulars: Exemption from stamp duties and income tax; Settlements of disputes by arbitration or justices; Compensation to members unjustly excluded; Powers of justices or county courts in case of fraud; Jurisdiction of the registrar. 16. The provisions of the friendly societies act, 1854, whereby a member of any society registered thereunder is allowed to nominate any person to whom PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 89 his investment to such society shall be paid, shall extend, in the case of societies registered under this act, to allow any member thereof to nominate any person into whose name his interest in such society at his decease shall be transferred; provided, nevertheless, that any such society may, in lieu of making such transfer, elect to pay to any person so nominated the full value of such interest. 17. Any society registered under this act may be wound up either by the court or voluntarily,'in the same manner and under the same circumstances under and in which any company may be wound up under any acts or act for the time being in force for winding up companies; and all the provisions of such acts or act with respect to winding up shall apply to such society, with this exception, that the court having jurisdiction in the winding-up shall be the county court of the district in which the office of the society is situated. 18. In case of the dissolution of any such society, such society shall never, theless be considered as subsisting, and be in all respects subject to the provisions of this act, so long and so far as any matters relating to the same remain unsettled, to the intent that such society may do all things necessary to the winding up of the concerns thereof, and that it may be sued and sue under the provisions of this act, in respect of all matters relating to such society. 19. The provisions of the joint stock companies acts as to bills of exchange and the admissibility of the register of shares in evidence shall apply to all societies registered under this act. 20. In the event of a society registered under this act being wound up, every present. and past member of such society shall Be liable to contribute to the assets of the society to an amount sufficient for payment of the debts and liabilities of the society, and the costs, charges, and expenses of the winding up, and for the payment of such sums as may be required for the adjustment of the rights of the contributories among themselves, with the qualifications following-that is to say: 1. No past member shall be liable to contribute to the assets of the society if; he has ceased to be a member for a period of one year or upwards prior to the commencement of the winding up. 2. No past member shall be liable to contribute in respect of any debt or liability of the society contracted after the time at which he ceased to be a member. 3. No past member shall be liable to contribute to the assets of the society unless it appears to the court that the existing members are unable to satisfy the contributions required to be made by them in order to satisfy all just demands upon such society. 4. No contribution shall be required from any member exceeding the amount (if any) unpaid on the shares in respect of which he is liable as a past or present member. 21. Any society registered under this act may be constituted a company under the companies acts, by conforming to the provisions set forth in such act, and thereupon shall cease to retain its registration under this act. 22. Every person or member having an interest in the funds of any society registered under this act may inspect the books and the names of the members at all reasonable hours at the office of the society. 23. The sheriff in Scotland shall, within his county, have the like jurisdiction as is hereby given to the judge of the county court in any matter arising under this act. 24. A general statement of the funds and effects of any society registered under this act shall be transmitted to the registrar once in every year, and shall exhibit fully the assets and liabilities of the society, and shall be prepared and made out within such period, and in such form, and shall comprise such particulars as the registrar shall from time to time require; and the registrar shall have authority to require such evidence as he may think expedient of all matters required to.be done, and of all documents required to be transmitted to him 90 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. under this act; and every member of or any depositor in- any such society shall be entitled to receive, on application to the treasurer or secretary of that society, a copy of such statement, without making any payment for the same. 25. All penalties imposed by this act, or by the rules of any society registered under this act, may be recovered in a summary manner before two justices, as directed by an act passed in the eleventh and twelfth years of the reign of her present Majesty Queen Victoria, chapter forty-three, entitled, "An act to facilitate the performance of the duties of justices of the peace out of sessions within England and Wales, with respect to summary convictions and orders." 26. This act may be cited as " The industrial and provident societies act, 1862." SCHEDULE OF MATTERS TO BE PROVIDED FOR IN THE RULES. 1. Object and name and place of office of the society, which must, in all cases, be registered as one of limited liability. 2. Terms of admission of members. 3. Mode of holding meetings and right of voting, and of making or altering rules. 4. Determination whether the shares shall be transferable; and in case it be determined that the shares shall be transf'erable, provision for the form of transfer and registration of shares and for the consent of the committee of management and confirmation by the general meeting of the society; and in case shares shall not be transferable, provision for paying to members balance due to them on withdrawing fiom the society. 5. Provision for the audit of accounts. 6. Power to invest part of capital in another society; provided that no such investment be made in any other society not registered under this act, or the joint stock companies act, as a society or company with limited liability. 7. Power and mode of withdrawing from the society, and provisions for the claims of executors, administrators, or assigns of members. 8. Mode of application of profits. 9. Appointment of managers and other officers, and their respective powers and remuneration. PROVISION AUTHORIZING INDUSTRIAL PARTNERSHIPS. Extract from the " act to amend the law of partnership," 28 and 29 Victoria, chap. 86, (July 5, 1865:) " No contract for the remuneration of a servant or agent of any person engaged in any trade, or undertaking by a share of the profits of such trade or undertaking, shall, of itself, render such servant or agent responsible as a partner therein, nor give him the rights of a partner." APPENDIX LAW OF LIVRET IN FRANCE. Instructions as to the livrets of workmen. PREFECTURE OF POLICE, 1ST DIVISION, 4TH OFFICE, 2D SECTION, Paris, October 15, 1855. GENTLEMEN: In order to respond to wants strongly felt in the industry of the country, the government of the Emperor has presented and had adopted by the legislative power a law as to the discharge of workmen. This law was promulgated the 22d of June, 1854, and was followed by an imperial decree PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 9 designed to regulate its application, and bearing date the 30th of April, 1855. I have prescribed by an ordinance of police, dated this day, the publication in the department of the Seine of these two acts of the sovereign power, of which I have to enforce the execution, with your assistance. It is my duty, in notifying you of the new regulation, to make you appreciate its full importance, and to facilitate your study of it by a few general instructions. The livret, which the ill-disposed have sometimes sought to discredit and render unpopular, is an institution beneficial and protecting to the workmen. It assures to him the support of authority, and becomes for him an incontrovertible title to confidence and esteem. Far from being an assault on his liberty and dignity, it has marked the emancipation of industry, of which it has been the consequence, and, as it were, the declaration. The law of the 22d germinal year XI, which created this institution, at least in its present form and effect, is due to the genius of the First Consul and the collaboration of Chaptal. This law has remained as the true code of labor, which it has regulated wiih a profound understanding of the wants and conditions of modern industry. However, time had revealed certain deficiencies in this first regulation; hnd, on the other hand, the rapid development of French industry had brought new wants, for which the last government had tried to provide by presenting various projects to the chambers, none of which have become a law. It remained for the Emperor Napoleon III to complete the work of the First Consul. It is this which he has now done in endowing the national industry, which already owes so much to his reign, with a legislation vainly demanded for twenty years. Faithful to his constant solicitude for the laboring classes, the Emperor has been pleased to attach new favors to the institution of which we speak. Henceforth the livret will take the place of passport in the interior. It will be a necessary title to participate in the election of the consul des prudhomnmes; in short, it will remain in the possession of the workman and serve as permit of residence and for all other papers of surety, instead of being deposited, as formerly, in the hands of the chief of the establishment. By the last innovation, of which he has personally taken the initiative, the Emperor has wished to honor the position of the workman, and to give to his relations with his employers that character of equitable equality which, hitherto, they have not had. One cannot doubt that such proofs of interest will touch those who are the object of them. I owe you, gentlemen, these preliminary explanations, which will serve to make you grasp the spirit, general tendency, and liberal character of the new law. They are, moreover, the natural prelude to the examination which I have to make with you of the provisions, purely administrative, of which you are to second the application. I now enter on this examination, which, for greater clearness, I will divide into a certain number of paragraphs. 1.-PROFESSIONS AND WORKMEN TO WHOM THE USE OF THE LIVRET APPLIES. The first article of the law of the 22d of June has for its object to generalize the usage of the livret without making it go out of the circle purely industrial. It extends the application of this institution to professions which had remained outside of the prescriptions of the law of the year XI. The terms of this article are clear and precise. A few explanations, however, will not be improper. For example, it mentions, as under the obligation of the livret, the work people of both sexes. This provision is new and delicate. It should be applied with a wise reserve, and confined within the limits fixed by the legislature itself. Observe here how the government explains itself in this particular in the statement of the motives of the law. "Since the year XI the large manufactures have very greatly multiplied, and 92 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the employment, every day more extended, of mechanical means, has permitted women to accomplish in these establishments tasks which, before, were interdicted to them. In this respect, moreover, it is not a novelty which the law proposes. There exists a certain number of factories where women have a livret as well as the men, and practice has shown that this usage presents only advantages." On his part the reporter of the commission thus expressed himself before the Corps Legislatif: " Your commission has rejected a provision which would have extended to domestics, day laborers, dressmakers and seamstresses, working by the day, and all persons in respect to whom the execution of the.law would be, so to speak, impossible, and whom it was not the intention of the government clearly expressed by its statement of motives to make subject to it." These observations determine the sense of the law. To speak properly, the legislature has wished, with regard to women, merely to sanction the pre-existing usages, and all shows that it had particularly in view the work people of factories, and those who exercise an industrial profession, properly so called. It is within this limit, for the present, at least, that I-shall cause the law to be executed. It will be proper, therefore, that you abstain from all initiative in regard to female operatives hitherto not subject to the use of the livret, limiting yourselves to facilitating the procuring of this title by those who seek it voluntarily. It will only be after a certain time of experience that the administration will be able to fix its jurisprudence on this point. There are certain professions which resist the adoption of the livret by claiming for those who exercise them the quality of artists. The law furnishes on this pretension a very simple means of solution by making the livret an electoral condition for the formation of the consul des prudhommes; every individual who will have or would like to take part in this election will be held to the obligation of the livret. On the other hand, some have submitted at times to this obligation under pretext that they have no patentes-persons working directly for the consumers without intermediates. This is an error; these persons are not operatives; they are manufacturers, patented or not. 2.- OF THE GIVING OF THE LIVRETS. In future the livret may not be obtained except on the production of an act certified by you conformably to the 2d paragraph of the 4th article of my ordinance. You will have, therefore, in the delivering of the livrets an essential partto perform on the subject of which I should enter into some details. For a long time complaints have arisen about certain frauds which reduced the livret to a useless formality; these frauds arose from the facility with which the unfaithful workman could obtain a new livret after having left a previous one in the hands of an employer whom he had cheated. To put an end to this manceuvre the various projects presented to the chambers had surrounded the delivering of a livret with along series of justifications in some respects fortified by the sanctity of an oath, by means of which it was hoped to assure at last the right of this title. This was an error. For all that they were so minute, such precautions remained always impotent to prevent all the frauds, and they had the serious inconvenience of multiplying the formalities to the extent of becoming arrogant and vexatious for the mass of honest workmen. The new law proceeds by quite different means and infinitely more equitable and worthy. Instead of detailing a series of requisites, narrow and exclusive, it confides in the prudence of the administration as to the guarantees to be required; it supposes the good faith of the workman, and gives him every facility for obtaining a livret; but it punishes bad faith and visits with a correctional penalty manoeuvres and false PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 93 declarations, of which, moreover, it secures the evidence. It- follows from this system that in the exceptional cases where the workman is not in a position to conform to the usual requirements he can obtain a livret by a simple declaration signed by him, but at his risk and peril, and under the sanction of article 13 of the law of 22d of June, which/ should be read to him beforehand. Such is the provision of article 3 of the decree of the 30th of April, to which I invite you to refer each time that you may have to make application of it. In prescribing the reading of the penal text, the decree has sought to prevent a provision altogether benevolent toward the workman from becoming a snare for his inexperience. This formality is therefore an act the omission of which would involve your conscience and your responsibility. You will remark that the provision which I have just mentioned is in nowise intended to set aside the conditions and guarantees hitherto required. It will only be under rare circumstances that it will be necessary to rest on the simple declaration of the candidate. But in ordinary cases you will have to require of the workman who solicits the certificate required by article 4 of my ordinance, the proof of his identity and of his industrial position. This last proof will be given in future before you; it consists in general of the production of a discharge from apprenticeship, of certificates of labor given either by the former master or by the one who desires to employ the candidate, or, in short, of other similar documents. Supposing the seeker to produce proofs of this nature or to demand the benefit of article 3 of the decree of the 30th of April, it will remain for you to fulfil his demand. I have had printed a form of certificate which it will be your duty to deliver, and copies will be furnished to you provisionally by my prefecture. This will be filled out by the commissioner of police of the place of reszdence of the wowkman. As I have said, it will be indiscriminately required of all workmen who demand a livret, be he even a native of Paris. As to the documents of proof and the certificates of labor, they will continue to be legalized by the commissioner of the place of delivery, and they will be presented to the functionary who receives the request for the livret and who gives the certificate. 3.-REGISTRATION AT THE PREFECTURE OF LIVRETS OBTAINED IN THE DEPARTMENTS. Article 2 of the decree enacts that there will be kept in each commune (at the prefecture'of police for the department of the Seine) a register on which will be recorded at the time of their delivery the livrets and visas of travelling. This is a measure which interests the good direction of the service; but it would remain ineffectual in a centre like Paris if it limited itself to the recording of livrets obtained at the prefecture of police; also by the terms of a very old provision, reproduced in article 6 of my ordinance, the livrets delivered in the provinces must be equally registered at my office before they can be made use of in the province of the prefecture of police. This formality is shown by a special visa. I recommend you to see carefully to its execution. 4.-USE AND VISA OF THE LIVRETS. The new regulation makes no change in the jurisprudence followed at Paris as to the use and visa of the livrets. You will have'therefore merely to follow in this respect the established traditions which are specially mentioned in articles 6, 7, and 8 of my ordinance. Thus the workman cannot be admitted into an establishment except on the presentation of a livret. He cannot leave this establishment except afJer having obtained a regular dismissal, and he must within the twenty-four hours of his leaving submit this dismissal to your visa. It is only after this formality that he can be received by a new employer under penalty of prosecution of the latter, except in the case that will be mentioned hereafter, of home workmen. On his -94 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. part, the employer cannot receive a workman unless as the latter is furnished with a livret in proper condition. He vises this livret at the entry of the man, records it on his register, and submits it within the twenty-four hours to your own visa. After such visa given by you, you are to address to me an abstract in the form of a printed bulletin, of which you will continue to demand frlom my office the blanks which you may require. The sending of this bulletin, neglected of late, must be recommenced. I attach a real importance to it. I shall take care that this measure be strictly executed, and I count on all your vigilance in this respect. You will notice that the bulletin of which we speak should relate the advances with which the livret may be charged. Please recommend this detail to the attention of employers. 5.-DISTINCTION OF THE Two CATEGORIES OF WORKMEN SUBJECT TO THE LIVRETS. I come now to one of the most important provisions of the law, and one at which it is the more necessary to stop, as it is new and of a complex application. Hitherto the majority of artisans workinj at home and known under the name of home workmen, (ouvrzers.en chambre,) have remained without the use of the livret. This was a deficiency to be fille1 up; but there arose difficulties of which the former laws failed of the soTi.on. Of the home workmen, there is no hesitation as to those working for a' single establishment, to which they are really attached. They should be subject to the livret. But others, working simultaneously for several employers-how can the ordinary obligations which the use of the livret entails'be reconciled with such a situation. The legislature of 1854 has not allowed itself to be hindered by this objection. It has considered that the benefit of the livret consisted before all in its very existence. Consequently, it has prescribed the employment of it indiscriminately for all workmen, dispensing, in favor of those working for several masters, with formalities incompatible with their position. The law distinguishes, therefore, two classes of workmen subject to the use of the livret, but with different obligations: 1. Those attached to a single establishment and employed only by it, whether they work in this establishment itself or outside. 2. Those working habitually for several establishments and employable by more than one master at the same time. Tize first can only be admitted into a new establishment on proving their integrity by a dismissal or certificate of departure from their previous employer; the others are relieved of this formality, and obliged simply to have their livret vised at the commencement by each employer who hires them for thzefirst time. You will find these distinctions clearly defined in acts 7 and 9 of the decree of the 30th April. By the terms of the second paragraph of the first article of the same decree, the livret must state to which category the workmnan belongs. Again, article 9 obliges the chief of the establishment who receives a workman to mention, as well on his register as on the livret of the said workman, in what capacity he employs him. Thus the character or category of the workman is determined by the visa qf entry which the employer of the two categories is obliged to enter on the livret at the time that he employs this workman; and since the obligations and rights of the workman and employer vary according to the category to which the former belongs, it is of the last importance to observe in the visas the fundamental distinction which has just been indicated. To render this distinction more apparent, I have ordered forms of visas which I invite you to have adopted by the chiefs of establishments. They are as follows: PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 95 1. —Visa of entry for the workman of the first category. "Admitted by me as workman attached to a single establishment. PARIS, the, 18-." (Signature and residence of employer.) 2.- Visa of entry for the workman of the second category. "Employed by me as workman working habitually for several establishments. PARIS, the, 18-." (Signature and residence of employer.) 3.-For the dismissals or certificates of departure. "Discharged, free of obligations, the PARTS, the, 18-." (Signature and residence of employer.) You have already understood, gentlemen, that that which I have now said of the indication in the visas of the category to which the workman belongs, applies to the certificate which you have to deliver for the procuring of a l'vret. Finally, it is evident that the wo6ckman of one category can pass into the other with the same livret. This change is shown in full force by the visa of entry. But here there is a remark t- -ake: if the workman pass from the first category into the second, he must in U. first place prove the accomplishment of his engagements towards his last master, while he is held Lo no proof in order to pass from the second category to the first. 6.-REGISTER TO BE KEPT BY THE CHIEFS OF ESTABLISHMENTS. The law of the 22d of June contains still another innovation, of which you will easily understand the importance; it prescribes to the chiefs of establishments the keeping of a special register, in which he shall enter the name and position of each workman whom he employs. Conformably to article eight of the imperial decree, and of the delegation contained in article ten of my ordinance, this register will be numbered and countersigned by you; but you will address to me for each countersigned register a bulletin, bearing an abstract of your minutes; printed copies of these bulletins will also be supplied to you from my prefecture. You will open with each of your commissariates a registerl, in which you will enter the chiefs of establishments whose private registers you have countersigned. These latter registers are not subject to any periodical visa; still they will be communicated to you upon requisition, without being removed from the establishments themselves. It has appeared to the council of state that this provision will sufficiently facilitate the exercise of your supervision. 7.-PENAL SANCTION-EXECUTION OF THE LAW. Having fixed all the points of this important regulation, the legislature has wished to insure the execution of its work by attaching a penal sanction. The penalties which it has ordered are moderate, in view of the nature of the things, but sufficient in the hands of a vigilant administration. Henceforth, every infraction, either of the law itself or of the legal regulations on the matter, will constitute a punishable opfence. Thus a deficiency is filled up which compromised seriously the preceding legislation. I have only, gentlemen, to appeal to your zeal and experience to insure the reorganization and regularity of a service which I consider among the most important. I have reason to believe that, by means of the influence which the confidence of your people gives you, you will succeed in general in the usual way in obviating offences and prosecutions. It is my desire; but 9 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. when, thanks to your counsels and your benevolent directions, the law shall be known and understood, you will have to search attentively, and report to me the infractions which may be committed against these wise provisions. The multiplicity of our relations with the industrial population, the keeping of the register of the employers, the visa of the livrets, their usage as papers of surety, will he to you so many opportunities and means to exercise a control, which ought not to permit any violation, if it is done with the perseverance which I expect from you. After having excited your zeal and your ordinary devotion, I conclude, gentlemen, by making an appeal to your prudence. You have to make the application of delicate measures; some of them excite susceptibilities, which it is necessary to allay or avoid; others are new, and will permit, especially at first, a wise reserve; all require tact and moderation. I hope that under these circumstances you will know as usual how to ally, in a just measure, prudence to firmness, and that you will contribute powerfully to assure the success of a regulation which ought to be a new title for the government of the Emperor to the recognition of the country. I beg you to acknowledge the receipt of this circular. Receive, gentlemen, the assurance of my perfect consideration. PIETRI, The Prefect of Police. By the Prefect: A. DrE LAULXURES, The Secretary General. APPENDIX lH.* POOR RATES AND PAUPERISM. Return (in part) to an order of the honorable the House of Commons, dated 9th July, 1867, for return of I" Comparative statement of the number of paupers of all classes (except lunatic paupers in asylums and vagrants) in receipt of relief on the last day of each week in the months of April, Nay, June, July, August, September, October, November, and December, 1866 and 1867, respectively; also for the months of January, February, and March, 1867 and 1868, respectively;" " statement of the number of paupers, distinguishing the number of adult able-bodied paupers relieved on the 1st day of July, 1867;" " similar statement for the 1st day of January, 1868;" " statement of the amount expended for in-maintenance and out-relief only, for the half year ended at Michaelmas, 1867;" " similar statement for the half year ended at Lady day, 1868;" " statement of the amount of poor-rates levied and expended during the year ended at Lady day, 1867;" " and of the number of insane paupers chargeable to the poor-rates on the 1st day of January, 1868." FREDERICK PURDY, Principal of the Statistical Department. POOR-LAW BOARD, Whitehall, July 9, 1867. Quarterly statem,ent as to pauperism, Michaelmas, 1867. (Paupers in lunatic asylums and vagrants not included.) The present return completes the monthly series for the quarter ended at Michaelmas, 1867. The four, following tables are given in continuation of those prefixed to the monthly publication for June last. * Appendix G omitted. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 97 The tables are1. England and Wales;' the pauperism in the consecutive weeks of the quarter. 2. (England and Wales;) the comparative pauperism of the quarter. 3. North 3Midland, Northwestern, and York divisions; the comparative pauperism of the quarter. 4. The Metropolis; the comparative pauperism of the quarter. 1. In the first table each week is compared with the one immediately preceding it; 884,829 were the numbers relieved in the last week of June (m dsummer;) but in the fourth week of September (Michaelmas) the numbers were 872,620, which is a decrease of 12,209, or 1.4 per cent. less at Michaelmas than midsummer. TABLu I. —Egland, and TVales-Consecutive statement. Difference between the Number of part~ulllber of pall- proximate weeks. pers on the last proximate weeks. day of each i week. Increase. Decrease. 1867. June: Fourth week............................... 884,829. -—................ July: First week. 878, 879.. 5, 950 Second week-..-................ —-—. 876, 670 —... 2,209 Third week.....-...-. —. —. —-—.. ——. 877,531 j 861 Fourth week. ——. ——.. —---. —--- 876,998 - -- 533 Fifth week. —-....- -—... —... -—... - 877,020 2 2 August: First week................. 875,767..-.- -—. 1, 253 Second week......... 874,211.1,5....., 56 Third week...-............-....-...-.... 870, 978...... —- 3, 233 Fourth week. —..-......-.... 8711, 572 594. September: First week.-.....-.. -.... 8.68,415 ----- 3, 157 Second week.-....-................-. 869, 067 652... Third week.-......-..-..-...-.. 869, 992 925. Fourth week ——. —.-..-..-i. 872,620 - 2 628. II. rThe next table exhibits the comparative pauperism during the 3Michaelmas quarter of 1865, 1866, and 1867. The paupers in receipt of relief on the last day of the last week of September were — In 1865.... 835, 005 In 1866.... 842, 860 1n 1867.........872, 620 The paupers in 1867, as compared with those in 1866, have increased 2'9,760, or 3.5 per cent.; but compared with 1865 the increase was 37,615, or 4.5 per cent. 7 P u PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSiTION. TABLE 11.-England and TWales-COomparative statement. aupers in receipt of relief on Difference per cent, in the numbers in Paupers in receipt of relief on the lt day of eac week. column (c) compared with each of' the the last day of each week. two preceding years. Periods._ 1 ~65. 1866. 1867. Last year but one. Last year. (a) (b) (a) (b) (C) Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. June: Fourth week............ 853, 073 841, 489 584, 829......................... July: First week................... 846, 082 835, 507 878, 879 3. 9 5. 2.......... Second week...- -......... 842, 469 833, 977 876, 670 4. 1 5. 1 ---- Third week.................. 841, 567 833, 738 877, 531 4. 3 5. 3.......... Fourth week........... 840,131 833, 874 876, 998 4. 4 5. 2 ---- Fifth week.................. 837, 991 836, 486 877, 020 4. 7 4. 8 ---- August: First week............... 836, 580 839, 493 875, 767 4. 7 4......... 3 Second week............... 834, 758 840,146 874, 211 4. 7 4.1 Third week.................. 833, 758 839, 278 870, 978 4. 5..... 3....... Fourth week................ 833, 042 840, 388 871, 572 4. 6 7.... 3........ September: First week.................. 832, 293 840, 894 868, 415 4. 3 3. 3 Second week............... 832, 443 840, 9:3l 69, 067 4. 4..3. 3.......... Third week................. 832, 705 843, 452 869, 992 4. 5..... 3. 1...... Fourth week................ 835, 005 842, 860 872, 620 4. 5....... 3. 5 III. The third table comprises the three divisions of England and Wales, in which the principal manufactures are carried on. Taking tile returns of paupers zelieved on the last day of the last week of September the numbers were — In 1865. 206, 076 In 1866..... 196,747 In 1867..... 202, 853 The increase in 1867, compared with 1866, was 6,106, or 3.1 per cent., but in comparison with 1865 there was a decrease of 3,223, or 1.6 per oent. TAnBLE II. —Nortl Midland, Northwestern, and York divisions —Comparati;e statement. Paupers in receipt of relief on Difference per cent. in the numbers in the last day ofeach week. column (c) compared with each of the two preceding years. Periods..... ~1865. 1866. 1867. Last year but one. Last year. 1 16 187(a) (b) (a) (b) (c) Ifzcrease. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. June: Fourth week................ 217, 276 198, 360 206, 084 July: First week.......2....... 213, 819 197,027 204, 569-.-. —- 4.3 3. 8 Second week................ 211, 013 196, 246 203, 648.... 3. 5 3. 8 Third week....20,.981.... 9,. 195,887 23,5 2. 7 4. 1......... Fourth week.281....... 28,517.95,841 203, 424.......... 2. 4 3.......... Fifth week................ 207, 513 195, 753 293, 427...... 2. 0 3. 9.......... August:. First week..207,346 195, 872 203,011...... 2. 1 3. 6 Second week...,............. 206, 864 195, 733 22, 701.. 0 3.6..........'Third week................ 206, 618 195, 508 22, 195.......... 2. 1 3. 4 ---- Fourth week —-—.......206, 369 196, 407 202, 081.2.1 2. 9.... September: First week.. —------------ -205, 954.195, 989 201, 956 1. 9 3. 0... Second week ------ - 206. 299 196, 03 201....... 2. 3 2.8...... Third week.....2........ 205, 994 196, 44 202, 498....... 1. 7 3. 1.......... Fourth week........... 206, 076 196. 747 202, 583...... 1. 6 3.1 ---- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 99.' IV. According to tile last returns for the month of September in the three years last past, the number in the metropolis wasIn 1865.............................. 91,022 In 1866...... 105,827' In 1867........................................... 117,849 In 1867 the increase in the paupers, as compared with those in 1866, was 12,022, or 11.4 per cent.; and on a compar.ison with 1865, there was an increase. of 26,827, or 29.5 per cent. TABLE IV.- The metropois — Coparative statemernt. Paupers in receipt of relief on Difference per cent. in the numbers in the last day of each week. column (c) compared with each of the two preceding years. Periods. 1865. 1866. 1867. Last year but one. Last year. (a) (b) (a) (b) (c) Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decres Jun e: Fourth week................. 90, 72,2 98, 308 118, 982.....-............. July: First week................... 90, 004 98, 455 117, 738 30. 8.......... 19. 6... Second week................ 89, 937 98, 778 117, 880 31.0 - -. 19. 3.... Third week.............. 90, 109 99, 400 118, 206:31.2.......... 18.9. Fourth week............. 90, 218 100, 488 118, 299 31.1... 17. 7...... Fifth week.................. 90, 232 102, 960 118, 046 30. 8 1...... 14. 7 August: First week................. 90, 686 105, 197 118, 347 30. 5...... ] 2. 5 Second week. -............ 91,190 106,100 117, 547 28.9......... 10. 8......... T'hird week.-.-.-.......... 91, 317 1-06, 499 117, 653 28. 8. —---—.. 10. 5 Fourth week.............. 90, 963 106, 623 117, 523 29........... 10. 2....... September: First week.................. 91, 058 106, 664 116, 983 28. 5........ 9. 7.... Second week.-......... 90, 588 105, 624 116, 457 28. 6...-... 10.3...... Third week.................. 90, 696 106, 012 116, 417 28. 4 -........ 9. 8.. Fourth week............... 91, 022 105, 827 117, 849 29. 5.......... 11. 4 FREDERICK PURDY, Principal of the Statistical Department. POOR-,LAwV BOARD, WrHITEHALL, N2avenber 14, 1867. MEMORANDUM. As to the arrangement of the weekly returns of pauperism. The returns of the number of paupers relieved on the last day of each week do not include the "lunatic paupers in asylums and licensed houses;" nor the number of vagrants relieved. These classes form only a small portion of the entire pauperism of the country. According to the latest returns, (January 1, 1866,) the number contained in the two classes was 3.0 per cent. of the total, pauperism. The pauper lunatics in asylums are not generally subject to variations in-, number, to the same degree, as the other classes of paupers; and the number, of vagrants relieved by the unions throughout the country has become too small' to need a return so frequently as once a week. These considerations led to the, exclusion of the two classes. There are at present 14,886* parishes, inclusive of the Scilly islands, in EngMany places, not heretofore liable to maintain their own poor, are becoming parishes under the operation of the extra parochial places act; to what extent this will ultimately. increase the number of parishes in England and Walales cannot at present be stated. i00 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION land and Wales, maintaining, or liable to aiaintain, their own poor; returns of pauperism are received weekly in respect of 14,695 of that number; 191 parishes, incorporated under Gilbert's act, or still under the provisions of the 43d Elizabeth, make no return of the number of paupers which they relieve. The returns are arranged under eleven divisions. The union-counties which fall under each are shown in tl-le following view I. The Metropolis. IV. Eastern. VII. North -iidla d. 1.*Middlesex, (part of.) 14. Essex. 28. Leicester. 2.* Surrey, (part of.) 15. Suffolk. 29. Rutland. 3.*Kent, (part of.) 16. Norfolk. 30. Lincoln. 31. Nottingham. 32. Derby. 1I. Southeastern. VII]. (iTort/jwester n. 1.*Middlesex, (part of.) V. Southwestern. 33. Chester. 2.*Surrey, (part of.) 17. Wilts. 34. Lancaster. 3.*Kent, (part of.) 18. Dorset. 4. Sussex. 19. Devon. IX. York. 5. Southampton. 20. Cornwall. 35. West Riding. 6. Berks. 21. Somerset. 36. East Riding. 37. North Riding. X. Nortfern. 38. Durhanm. IlL South Midland. 39. Northumberland. 7. Hertford. VIY. MWest Midland. 40. Cumberland. 8. Buckingham. 22. Gloucester. 41. Westmoreland. 9. Oxford. 23. Hereford. 10. Northampton, 24. Salop. XI. telsh. 11. Huntingdon. 25. Stafford. 42. Monmouth. 12. Bedford. 26. Worcester. 43. South Wales. 13. Cambridge. 27. Warwick. 44. North Wales. The following is a tabular statement of the number of unions and parishes; and the area and population ascribable to each division; but so far only as represented by the weekly returns: Divisions. Number of Number of Area in statute Population in unions,&c. parishes. acres. 1866. 1. The Metropolis.................................. 39 190 77, 944 2, 802, 367 2. Southeastern................................... 97 1, 426 3, 922, 839 1, 805, 534 3. South Midland............................ 64 1,447 3,198, 570 1,295,152 4. Eastern.................. 56 1, 644' 3, 209, 894 1,142, 230 5. Southwestern........ 80 1, 792 4, 989,180 1, 833, 074 6. West Midland.................................. 82 1, 667 3, 851, 187 2, 434, 614 7. North Midland............................ 45 1, 750 3, 533, 919 1, 287, 972 8. Northwestern.................................. 40' 923 1, 911, 616 2, 923, 487 9. York.5.0..................... ) 1, 464 3, 411, 825 1, 899, 233 10. Northern........3....................... -6 —- - - 1, 173 3, 492, 322 1, 151, 332 11. Welsh.............. 53 1, 219 5, 210, 747 1, 311, 109 England and Wales, (so far as returned).......... 655 14, 695 36, 810, 543 19, 886, 104 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 101 The absolute, as well as the proportional numbers of the adult population under six industrial classes, are shown in the subjoined table for each division: Persons aged 20 years and upwards. Classes. |'1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Divisions. 0, | E E, E-4 1. The Metropolis... 95, 925 665, 168 135, 846 25, 260 584, 787 110, 944 1, 617, 930 2. Southeastern...... 90, 086 413, 256 37, 907 187, 250 227, 043 65, 687 1, 021, 229 3. South Mildland... 22, 571 243, 351 16. 571 169, 853 202,169 40, 852 695, 364 4. Eastern............ 21, 245 239, 981 19, 883 164, 577 144, 230 29, 082 618, 998 5. Southwestern...... 46, 622 364, 951 29, 626 215, 503 285, 528 57, 484 999, 714 6. West Midland...... 35, 203 487,112 44, 030 186, 661 487, 365 76, 832 1, 317, 203 7. North Midland..-.. 16, 930 244, 257. 16, 311 150, 417 241, 153 29, 984 699, 052 8. Northwestern...... 36, 290 549,109 101, 295 124, 838 715, 542 75, 757 1, 062, 831 9. York.-... —. 24, 804 393, 346 38, 661 143,508 446, 765 42, 451 1, 089, 535 10. Northern.......... 13, 282 240, 865 35, 853 82, 488 207, 794 32,160 612, 442 11. Welsh........... 15, 941 262, 649 24, 640 155, 151 204, 412 46, 467 709, 260 I _ _ England and Wales. 418, 899 4, 104, 045 500, 623 1, 605,503 3, 746,788 607, 700 10, 983, 558 To every 100 persons, aged 20 years and upwards, of all occupations, the proportional number of each class.'JasHes. 1. 2. 3. 4... Divisions. C, 1. The MIetropolis.. 5. 9 41.1 | 8.4 1.6 36.1 6.9 100.0 2. Southeastern...... 8.8 40. 6 3. 7 18. 3 22.2 6.4 100. 0 3. S M d an. SouThe Metropoisdla 5. 3.2 35.0 1 8.4 24. 4 36. 1 6.9 100.0 2. Southeastern 8.8 40. 6 3. 7 18. 3 22. 2 6. 4 100. 0 4. Eastern......... 3.4- 38.8 3.2 26.6 23. 3 4.7 100.0 5. Southwestern...... 4. 7 36. 4 3. 0 21. 6 28. 5 5. 8 100. 0 6. West Midland...... 2. 7- 37. 0 3. 3 14. 2 37. 0 5. 8 100. 0 7. North Midland.... 2. 4 35. 0 2. 3 21. 5 34. 5 4. 3 100. 0 8. Northwestern...... 2.3 34. 3 6. 3 7. 8 44. 6 4. 7 100, 0 9. York.............. 2.3 36.1 3. 5 13. 2 41.0 3.9 100. 0 10. Northern.......... 2.2 39. 2 5. 9 13. 5 33.9 5.3 100.0 11. Welsh....2.... 2. 2 37. 0 3. 5 21. 9 28. 8 6.6 100. 0 England and Wales. 3. 8 37. 4 4.6 14. 6 34. 1 5. 5 100. 0 The numbers in the last table represent complete divisions; as it was impossible, from the manner in which the census of occupations is compiled, to make the same adjustment in respect of the unreturned parishes as that effected for the first table. F. P. 1'02 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Comparative statement of the number of paupers (except lunatic paupers in asylums, and vagrants) in receipt of relief on the last day of the first week of September, 1866 and 1867. Difference between Number of paupers relieved- the corresponding Difference per cent. weeks. Divisions. Year. In-door. Out-door. Total. Increase. Decrease Increase Decrease. I. The M1etropolis.. 1866 29, 758 76, 906 1061 10........... 1867 32, 054 84,929 116,983 0,9 II. Southeastern. —--- 1866 14, 099 71, 006 85, 105 744......... 0. 9 i........... 1867 14,421 71,428 85, 849 III. South Midland.._. 1866 7, 511 59, 882 67, 393 1, 314 - -------- 1. 9 —......... 1867 7, 647 61, 060 68, 707 IV. Eastern......... 1866 7, 827 60, 299 68,126 39...... 0.6 1867 8, 399 60,121 68,520 V. Southwestern... 1866 10,149 90, 696 100, 845 1. 1867 10, 831 91,967 102,798 VI. WestMidl and...... 1866 13, 048 83,582 96, 630 1,177.... 1867 14,132 83,675 97, 807. North idlad..... 186t 5, 579 44, 317 49, 896 494...... 1. 0 V NtM a 1867 5,802 44, 588 50, 390 VIII. Northwestern... 1866 17, 660 69, 460 87, 120 1867 19,172 71,465 90 637 3,517. 4.0 IX. York............. 1866 7,159 51,814 58,973 1,956.. 3.3 1867 7, 755 53,174 60, 929 X. Northern.......... 1866 4, 761 39, 835 44, 596 2,I78 6. 2 1867 5, 062 42, 312 47, 374 2... XI. Welsh............ 1866 3, 931 71, 615 75, 546 75 3. 8 1867 4,414 74,007 78,421 83.Englmad and Wales, (so 1866 121,482 719 412 840 894 7 521 3. 3 ifar as returned.) 1867 129, 689 738, 726 868, 415 Comparative statement of the number of paupers (exce2pt lunatic pauypers in asylums, and vagrants) in receipt of relief on tJhe last day of the second week of' Se2ptember, 1866 and 1867. Difference between Number of paupers relieved- the correspuonding Difference per cent. wveeks. Divisions. Year. In-door. Out-door. Total. Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. 1. The Metropolis... 1866 29, 877 75, 747 1 05' 0, 3....... 3.......... 1867 32, 057 i 84,400 116 457 IL. Southeastern...... 1866 13, 886 70, 854 84 740 86, 401 ------ 1,401.......... 1867 14, 216 71, 925 86,141 III. ~South Midland.. 1866 7 566 59, 960 67, 26 1867 1 7, 705 61,046 68,751 1,225... 1. IV. Eastern........... 1866 7, 954 i 60, 392 68, 346 35 ------- 0. 1867 1S, 484 60,237 68, 721.... V. Southwestern. 1866 10, 284 I 91, 048 101, 332 1, 865.... 1867 10, 910 { 92, 287 103,197 1... 1........... VI. West Midland... 1866 13, 127 83, 697 96,84 - 4 1, 1412 I~~~. 2..... 1867 14,095 83,871 97, 966 1,4 --. VII. North Midland... 1866 5, 619 44,116 49,735 599...........2 1867 5, 842 44, 492 50, 334 VIII. Northwestern. - 1866 17, 883 69, 44 87, 328......... 3. 4 1867 19, 122 71, 200 90, 322 2,994 IX. York..-........... 1866 7,178 51, 812 58, 990 1 909 1867 7, 758 53, 141 60, 899.199..... 3. 2 4 X. Northesern.......1866 4, 787 40, 053 44, 840 633 5. 1867 5, 112 42, 361 47 473 235 XI. Welsh.-,.-........1866 3, 91S 71, 731 75, 646 3 160 4. 2......... 1867 4,405 74,401 78, 806 England and TWales, (so 1866 122,076 718, 855 840, 931 28,136.......... 3. 3 far as returned.) 1867 129, 706 739,361 869 067, ----- ___________~~~~~~~~~~~~~ __o ___....... 5._ 9__.........._ PARIS UNIVMERSAL EXPOSITION. 103 Comparative statement of the number of paupers (except lunatic paupvers in asylums, and vagrants) in receipt of relief on thle last day of the third week of September, 1866 and 1867. Difference between Number of paupers relieved- the corresponding Difference per cent. weeks. Divisions. Year. In-door. Out-door. Total. Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. I. The Metropolis.. 1866 30,105 75, 907 106, 012 1.......1 9. 8 1.867 32, 313 84,104 116,417... 11. Southeastern...... 1866 13, 921 70, 953 84, 874 1. 3. { 1867 14, 326 71,632 85, 958 0... III. South 3idland.... 1866 7, 718 60, 350 68, 068 1, 1. 8 ~~~~~~~~~~186 ~,43I 1 8 ] 1867 I7, 766 61, 545 69, 311 2... IV. Eastern........... 1866 8, 021 60, 816 68, 837 119.... —. 0. 2 % 1867 8,623 60, 333 68; 956 V. Southwestern...1866 10, 427 91, 280 101, 707 l 1~~~~~'1496...... {........ 1867 10,961 92,242 103,203J... VI. West Midland... 1866 13, 242 83, 520 96, 762 If..... I.. 1867 14,135 83,921 98,056 12... VII. North Midland..... 1866 5, 663 44, 072 49, 735 700...... 1. 4 1867 5,879 44,556 50,435 VIII. Northwestern...... 1866 18, 0261 69, 427 87 453, 511 I4. 0 1867 19, 281 71,683 90, 964 IX. York............. 1866 7,186 52, 050 59 236. 1 1783........, —-.......... 1867 7,741 53, 358 61, 099, X. Northern......... 1866 4, 742 39, 916 44, 658 27 686...... 6 0 1867 5, 096 42, 248 47, 344. 6. XI. WVelsh.......... 1866 3, 956 72,154 76, 110 2, 139 1867 4, 413 73, 836 78, 049- - England and Wales, (so 1866 123, 007 720, 445 843, 452 26, 540.......... far as returned.) 1867 130, 534 739, 458 869, 992 26.. —- 1Comparative statement of the number of paupers (except lunatic paupers in asylums, and vagrants) in receipt of relief on the last day of the fourth week of September, 1866 and 1867. Difference between Number of paupers relieved. the corresponding Difference per cent. weeks. Divisions. Year. In-door. Out-door. Total. Increase. Decrease. Increase. Decrease. I. The Mietropolis.. 1866 30, 301 75, 526 105, 827 1,) 022.. 11. 4 1867 32, 637 85, 212 117, 849 11. Southeastern. —-..- 1866 13, 945 70,573 84 518 2, 283.....2. 7 1867 14, 516 72,285 86,801 III. South Midland..... 1866 7, 799 59, 923 67, 722. 1867 7; 852 61,578 69, 430 1,708.. 2.5.......... IV. Eastern.......... 1866 8, 085 60, 047 68,132... 1. /1867 /8,717 60, 515 69,232 1 01.6 V. Southwestern..... 1866 10, 548 91, 545 102, 093, 1420........... 1867 11, 064 92, 449 103, 513 1. VI. West Midland..... 166 13, 293 83, 382 96, 675 1 1867 14,196 83, 512 97, 708. 033.... 1.1.......... VIL. North Midland..... 1866 5, 714 43, 958 49, 672 914.. 1. 8 1867 5, 884 44, 702 50, 586 1.8.......... VIII. Northwestern....... 1866 18, 176 69, 512 87, 688 [. 3[ 1867 19,479 71, 447 90,926.. 3. IX. York............. 1866 7,248 52, 139 59, 387 1, 954..... 3. 3 1867 7,771 53,570 61, 341.. X. Northern.......... 1866 4, 759 40, 131 44, 890 0373... 3 5, 0 1867 5,107 42,156 47, 263 XI. Welsh.........-.. 1866 3, 997 72, 259 76, 256 1 1867 4, 398 73,573 77,971 1715.. 2.2 England and Wales, (so 1866 123, 865 718, 995 842, 29,760......... 3. 5 far as returned.) 1867 131, 621 740, 999 872,620.. 104: PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. APPENDIX I. EDUCATION. JReturns for the years 1859-'66 ofI. The number of grants made in each year for building, enlarging, or improv ing elementary day schools in England and Wales, in Scotland, and in Great Britain, with the total amount of such grants. 2. The number of schools inspected, distinguishing schools from departments of schools. 3. Th.e average number of scholars attending the schools inspected and the number of scholars present on the day of inspection. 4. The number of certificated teachers acting in the schools inspected. JPresented to'both woues of Parliament by command of her Majesty. I. -ENGLAND AND WALES. Years ending 31st DeY earlsbe r. nding1stDe. Years ending 31st August. cember. Grants for building, en-. larging, and improv- Number of scllools inspected... ing schools. Year. Number of scholars. * ~. gDepartments.. c aD | Total amont. ol..In average Present t at O Boys. CGirls. Infants. Mixed. Total. attedance. ns,I _ _ _. _ a. _ _ ~ s.d.! 1859- 434 124 820 9 10 5, 531 2, 024 1 958' 1,28 3, 021 8, 283 (74,602 757, 082 5, 22 1860.. 388 111,274 14 2 6,012 2 13('2 048 1,414 3,388 9,012 751,325 830,9711'6,342 1861 310i 92,293 4 0 6, 259 2,. 014 1, 5371 3, 604 9, 317 773, 831 879, 884, 6, 758 1862 223 58, 389 17 0 6 113 2, 090 1924 1, 5261 3, 533 9, 073 799, 056 889, 994 7, 475 1863 163 34, 425 1 11 6, 188 2, 430 2, 120 1, 5111 3,171 9, 232 825, 691 911, 287 7, 875 1865.. 101 17,759 13 0 6, 815 2, 211 1, 787 1, 605 4, 336 9, 939 860, 370 1, 042,766 9, 429 1866.. 10 23, 250 2 5 7 081 2, 243 1, 841 1 651 4, 550 10, 285 871, 309 1, 086, 812 9, 905 II.-SCOTLAND. s i 1859 — 43 9, 378 16 7 1, 055 81 17, 58 957 1, 72 126 799l 123 0491 997 1860.- 28 5, 828 12 6f 1,260 98 1661 63 1,064 1, 391 132, 909i 131,961 1,170 1861.. 31 7, 213 11 4 1, 446 11 246 83 1,135 1, 583 146,'1041 148, 806 1, 311 1862.. 28 5,598 9 9 1,456 8 193 1 71 1, 231 1,-84 149, 573 150, 316.~ 1,424 1863.. 12 2,25 17 6 1551 119 2371 98 1,260 1, 714 166, 4941 165,145 1, 606 1864.. 7 976 4 4 1,463 192 258! 102 1,111 1, 663 153, 539! 155,178 1, 606 1865.. 10 1,123 3 0 1 623 71 101 102 1, 522 1,796 161,529 171, 504 1,837 1866.. 1G 972 0 6 1, 672 89 126 100 1,530 1,845 167, 8741 178, 017 1, 966 IILL-GREAT BRITAIN. 1859.. 4771 134,199 6 5 6, 586 2, 10. 2,134 1, 338 3. 9781 9, 555 801, 401 880,131 6, 5?22 1860.. 416| 117, 103 6 8 7,272 2,260| 2,214| 1, 477 4, 452 10,403 884,234 962,932 7, 512 1861 - 341 99, 506 15 4 7, 705 2, 2811 2, 260 1, 6201 4, 739110, 900 919, 935j 1, 028, 690 8, 069 1862.. 251 63,988 6 9 7,569 2,179 2,1171 1 597 4 764 10, 657 948, 6291 1,040,310 8, 899 1863.. 175 - 36, 681 19 5 7, 739 2 5491 2, 3571 1, 609 4,431 10, 946, 992, 1851 1, 076, 432 9, 481 13 26 305 16 10 7,891 2,231( 2,00 1,550 5,13910, 9281 982, 485j 1,110,357 10,193 1865.. 111 18,882 16 0 8,438 2, 282 1, 88'81 1, 707 5 85811 7331 1. 021, 81 78, 270 1,966 1866. 130 24, 62 2 11 8, 7531 2 33 1 96 71 1, 751 6:, 089 2'3 1 03 1,83 1 4,2 82 11, 871. ]s4.,~I ~.~, ~ ~ ~~ ~o~,~,= 0,