VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. REPOIRT ON VIENNA BREAD. BY MEMBE OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES. ME-NBER OF THE SCIENTIFIC COM' HSSION OF THE UNITIED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNiENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1875. 1 A... . 04w). A, I TABLE OF CONTENTS. ( CHAPTER I. THE GRAIN OF WHEAT; ITS CHARACTERISTICS. Art. 1. The Kaiser-Semmel; characteristics.................................... 2. Manufacture of Vienna bread............................................ 3. Scope of the report............................................. a 4. Description of the grain of wheat......................................... 5. True bran; composition.,.- -......... 6. Composition of inner layers. —------------------------------------------ 7. Illustration of structure of bran.......................... 8. The several coatings of the grain —-----—.-..-..... 9. Chemical composition of the berry..........................,...... 10. Table of analysis-.................................................... 11. Distribution of material in the ash........................... 12. Phosphoric acid in the ash................................................ 13. Constituents of the ash.......................a.., i.,, 14. Proportion of ash........................................., 15. Source of mineral ingredients of flour..................................... 16. Proximate chemical ingredients of the berry.-..................... -........ 17. Gluten....................................................... 15. Starch ------------------ -------- --------------------- 18. Starch,............................................................... 19. Vegetable albumen....................................................... 20. Sugar and dextrine...................................................... 21. Vegetable fibrine and caseine..... —.-.................... 22. Gluten......,........................................ 23. Oil........................... - -...........................9 24. Cerealine................................................................ 25. Water.............................,............. 26. Proximate analysis....-......................................... 27. Effect of climate and other influences................................. 28. Nitrogenous bodies; their composition.................................... 29. Sulphates and phosphates................................................. 30. Gluten; percentage in various flours..................................... 31. Gluten; its chemical constitution......................................... 32. Dextrine and its homologues............................................. 33. Condition of phosphorus in the grain..................................... 34. Varieties of wheat ---------—...................................... 35. Peculiarities of various flours.............................. 36. Hungarian wheat............................-.. —.......................... —-- 37. Nitrogen; its proportion affected by climate....-........................... 38. Climate of Hungary...................................................... 39. Phosphoric acid varies with nitrogen...................................... 40. Comparison of Victorian with Hungarian wheat.........i.......... 41. Redness of color in wheat; its cause...................................... 42. Hungarian grain; its characteristics........................ -............... 43. Table of varieties of Hungarian wheat.................................... Page. 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 5 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 16 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. 44. Kinds of wheat generally sown; its color.................................. 45. Results of harvesting and grinding Banat and Australian.................. 46. European varieties....................................................... 47. Structure of the plant................... -................................. 48. Prevention of heating................................... 49. Method of thrashing. —................................................... 50. American devices used in Austria......................................... 51. Diseases and enemies of wheat............................................ 52. Impurities................................................................ 53. Winnowing and separating............................................... 54. Removal of oats.......................................................... 55. Separating light grains.......................................... 56. Separating round seeds.................................................. 57. Another method...................................................... 58. A third device..................... —...................................... —------------ 59. Inspection of wheat...................................................... 60. Removal of smut and dirt................................................ 61. Removal of beard and bran; Bentz's method.............................. 62. Smut-machines........-:-....................; 63. Scourer................................................................. 64. Hardiness of Hungarian wheat........................................... CHAPTER II. THE ART OF MILLING. 65. Effect of blows and of pressure on the grain...-..-.*................... 66. Older methods of milling................. -................... 67. Origin of high milling; Viennagrits ------------—,,3 68. Ignaz Paur; his method.......................,,,.................... 69. Paur's apparatus.................,...,..,..,.....,....,..... 70. Difference between high and low milling.................................. 71. Jury classification...................,................................... 72. High milling; detailed description..................,.......,,,, 73. Grades of product........................................................ 74. The characteristic of high milling........................................ 75. Unpurified grits or middlings............................................ 76. Finer products of grinding................................................ 77. Low milling; its product................................................. 78. Bran.................................................................... 79. Constitution and peculiarities of the flour................................. 80. Effect of sharpness of cutting edges....................................... 81. Apparatus required in the process...............................,.,,.,. 82. Millstones................................................................ 83. Motion of the stone...................................................... 84. Description of the stone.................................................. 85. Arrangement of lands and grooves........................................ 86. Use of the grooves....................................................... 87. Form used in the United States........................................... 88. Heating................................................................ 89. Various forms of grooves................................................. 90. Influence of form and arrangement ------------------...................... 91. Dimensions adopted............... ---'.4 92. Broklyn milstone -------------------------------------------— 4 92. Brooklyn millstones..........-.,.,................................ 93. The Thilenius millstone................................................... IV Page. is 18 19 19 1 tIo 20 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 .27 28 28 30 30 31 31 31 32 3 32 33 33 34 34 34 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 4-0 40 40 ,4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. 94. The grain in the mill............................................ 95. Ventilation............................................................. 96. Cooling —.. —----------- -.......... 97. Cooling indispensable in low milling.............................. 98. Cylinder-milling; the method........................................... 99. Illustration of cylinder-milling,.......................................... 100. Effect of distance of rolls apart.......................................... 101. Advantages of cylinder-milling.................................. 102. Wegmann's walzmuihle................................................. 103. The porcelain cylinder-ill............................................. 104. The St. Gallen mill..................................................... 105. The disintegrator..................................................... 106. Summary..................................................... 107. Sifting or bolting................................................ 108. The bran-duster...............,............................ 109. Proportion of flour attaching to bran.................................... 110. The flour-bolt.......................................................... l111. Purification of grits............................................ 112. Paur's purifier.-.................................................... 113. Purifier used at Pesth................................................... 114. Another device..................................... —---------------------------------- 115. Products of the two processes of milling.................................. 116. Physical differences in wheat............................................. 117. Advantages of high milling............................................... 118. Necessity of preserving gluten-cells................................. 119. Half-high milling. v.................................. 120. Proportion of grades yielded by the two methods......................... 121. The low-millingprocess..... — -..................... 122. Purification....................................................... 123. Minnesota "Fife" wheat —-------—........- 5 124. Process of milling Fife wheat......................................... 125. High milling..................................................... 126. Products of Hungarian high milling......................................... 127. Details of Hungarian milling process............................ 1-28. Grades by numbers.........,..................................... 129. Comparison by the International Jury... —................................ 130. Flour for Vienna bread................................................... 131. Grades made at Prague and other mills............................. 132. Products of the Prague mill..........-..........,................ 133. BuchhoIz cylinder-mills................................................. 134. Average product of the Hungarian mills...-.............................. 135. Products of low milling ---------------------.............:..... 136. A congress of millers desirable............. —............. 137. Advantage of slow reduction......-............................ 138. American methods..................................... —---------------------------------------—.. 139. Southern flour...................................................... 140. Impurities in American wheat.................. —......... 141. Purification................................................. 142. Jewell Brothers' practice.-................-i,6 143. Characteristics of flour.............................................. 144. Varieties of starch-granules.................. 145. Structure of the granule....................................,,........... 146. Characteristics of various starch-granules............................. 147. Gluten-cells illustrated....................a.@........................... .V Page. 41 42 42 4X2 43 42 44 44 44 44 46 47 48 48 48 49 49 50 50 51 52 53 54 54 55 55 55 55 56 56 56 57 57 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 63 64 65 65 66 66 67 67 67 68 68 68 69 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. 148. Structure of edible grain................................................ 148.Strctue ofedile rai —------------------------------------------ 149. Effect of milling on the grain........................................... 150. Hungarian prize-flour................................................... 151. Its characteristics...................................................... 152. Distribution of nitrogen................................................ 153. Dempwolff's analysis......................................... 154. Percentages of products by volumes..................................... 155. Size of starch-grains and gluten-cells.................................:. 156. Composition of 0 flour and A grits....................................... 157. Comparison of low and high milled flour................................. 158. Nature and cause of grits................................................. 159. Mode of testing flour.............................................. 160. Aroma of flour.......................................................... 161. What causes the dough to "run"........................................ 162. Chemical examination of flour........................................... 163. Determination of nitrogenous constituents by specific' gravity. 164. Hungarian mill-industry............. 165. Conclusion.............................................................. CIIAPTER III. MAKING YEAST-BREAD. 166. Signification of the word" bread"..................................... 167. Leavened and unleavened bread, pastry, and cake........................ 168. To secure porosity to the bread........................................... 169. Fermentation......................................................... 170. The yeast-plant......................................................... 171. Size of yeast-cells................................................ 172. Blondeau's view of yeast-cells.......................................... 173. Mitscherlich's observations on growth of yeast-plant, with outline diagrams. 174. Cavities in yeast-cells................................................... 175. Effect of heat on cells; effect of solution of sugar....................... 176. Cells having cavities convert sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid; charac ter of product dependent on strength of sugar-solution................. 177. Illustration of growth of yeast-plant................................' 178. Views of Hassall, Blondeau, Pasteur, and Wiesner........................ 179. Theories of fermentation.......................................... 180. What is a ferment...................................................... 181. Different yeast-plants required for different products, according to Pasteur. Liebig's view. Manassein supports Liebig............................. 182. Alcoholic fermentation dependent on dynamic condition.................. 183. Brefeld's results of research upon alcoholic fermentation.................. 184. Effects of fermentation................................................. 185. Why Hungarian flour will make light bread; why oat, rye, and barley bread is heavy.............................................................. 186. Action of lime-water in improving texture of rlough..................... 187. Problem of a yeast-bread................................................ 188. The press-yeast of Mautner............................................ 18. Production of press-yeast from 1846 to 1872.............................. i9. Preparation of press-yeast.............................................. 191. Several modes of preparation........................................... 192. Zettler's mode............ —----------------------------------------------------- 193. Pumpernickel of Westphalia............................................ 194.Pairs wheat-bread...................................................... VI. Page. 70 71 71 71 72 73 - 73 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 75 75 76 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 79 79 80 I 80 81 82 82 83 83 83 84 85 85 86 .86 86 87 87 87 88 88 89 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. 195. Mege Mouribs's method.................................................. 196. Mouries's grading of products of grinding............................... 197. Method of London bakers............................................9 198. Substitutes for ferment................................................. 199. Tartaric acid in self-raising flour........................................ 200. l)auglish's aerated bread..................................... 201. Phosphatio bread....................................................... 202. Changes of flour in becoming flour......................................... 203. Changes of starch and gluten............................................ 204. Changes in crust; conversion of starch to dextrine........................ 205. Thickness of crust in large loaves......................................... 206. Coagulation of vegetable albumen in baking............................. 207. Test for phosphoric acid shows it everywhere in crust and crumb.......... 208. Advantage of small over large loaves...........-................ 209. Use of steam to prevent formation of thick crust..................... 210. Object of keeping bread till it becomes stale. -... —----------------------- 211. What is stale bread..................................................... 212. Results of author's experimental research................................- --------------- 213. Proportions of ingredients in crust and crumb.................. 214. Loss of water, as determined by von Fehling......-.......... 215. What is pile?........................................................... 216. Loss due to fermentation........................,,.-................. 217. Question of size of loaf...................................... (CHAPTER IV. PROCESSES IN THE VIENNA BAKERIES. 218. Preparation of the roll................................ 219. Kaiser-Semmel......................................... 220. The dough-room................................................. 221. Preparation of dough............................ 222. The oven................................-..................... 223. Illustrationis of Kaiser-Semmel......................................... 224. Advantages of Vienna bread................................a.,..,,... 225. How to secure large-sized loaves with thin crust.....-............ 226. Advantages to consumer of rolls rather than loaves......... —-----------------—. 227. Can we have Vienna bread in America?..................................228. How to make the dough................................................ 229. Oven and size of loaf......................'...................... APPENDIX A. 230. Dempwolffi's investigation of Hungarian wheat and wheat-flour from the ~Pesth walzmUhle...................................................... 231. Products of milling. -—.... —-... -.. —....................... 232. Analyses of wheat-flour and ash......................................... APPENDIX B. 233. Phosphatic bread.................................... 234. Author's analysis of prize-flour of Pesth walzmiilhle....................... 235. Liebig's comparison of meats with grain...................... 236. Experiments of Magendie and Chossat..-...................... 237. Black bread more nutritious................................ 238. Nutritive value of oat-meal porridge aqd groats; of-pumpernickel and rice; of Indian corn, and relations to phosphoric acid..i.............. 239. Phosphates indispensable to vital tissues...................... 240, 241. Meyer's experiments with phosphatic bread.... -.......... vii Page. 90 90 90 91 1 91 91 . 92 92 92 93 93 93 93 94 94 . 94 95 96 96 96 96 97 . 97 98 98 99 99 100 100 100 102 102 103 103 103 104 104 105 109 109 1-10 110 ill ill ill ill TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. 112 112 113 113 114 114 Art. 242. Changes produced by fermentation compared with those produced in the phosphatic process....................................... —----------------------------------------—........ 243. Advantages of phosphatic bread................... —--------------------------------- 244. Introduction of phosphatic bread into Europe............................ 245. Phosphatic bread made at the Vienna bakery............................. 246. Phosphatic bread from Vienna flour.-..................................... 247. References.......................................... —------------------------------------------------—........... ERRATA. Page 9, line 39: For "hydroscopic" read "hygroscopic." Page 14, line 31: For "that" read "which." Page 17, line 1: For "WalzenmUhle" read "Walzmiihle." Page 38, line 2: For " lower " read " upper or running." Page 38, line 3: For "upper or running " read "lower." Page 38, line 4: For "'curves" read "grooves." Page 44, line 16: For "Walzenmiihle" read "Walzmiihle." Page 49, line 16: After "diagrams" insert " from Kick." Page 86, line 25: For " acetic and "read "acetic or." Page 86, line 27: For "-any " read "in the presence of." Page 86, line 28: For "so also" read "so is also." Page 105, line 20: For "ash" read "total wheat;" and over " lime" insert "The total ash contains." VIII VIENNA BREAD AT THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. CHAPTER I. THE GRAIN OF WHEAT; ITS CHARACTERISTICS. 1. Foreigners visiting the Austriau capital find at every hotel and restaurant the Kaiser-Semnmel, a smooth, irregularly-rounded, small, wheaten-flour loaf, or roll, of uniform weight, and always fresh, but not warm. It presents a rich, reddish-brown crust, and a delicately-shaded, yellowish, almost white, interior. It is always light, evenly porous, free from acidity in taste or aroma, faintly sweet without addition of saccharine matter to the flour or dough, slightly and pleasantly fragrant, pal. atable without butter or any form of condiment, and never cloying upon the appetite. 2. This wheat-bread of Vienna has long been famed for its excellence. As produced at the Paris International Exposition in 1867, it elicited universal admiration. The products Of the French bakery were, at their best, plainly inferior to the steady, uniform achievements of the Vienna bakery. The proprietors of the latter, when asked what was their secret, replied: "We have none; we use Hungarian flour and pressyeast, and these constituents are manipulated with cleanliness, care and intelligence." The uniformity of the product demonstrates that the problem of making good bread has been solved. One wonders why such bread cannot be elsewhere obtained. It is known that efforts have been made to introduce the production of the Vienna bread to the public of other countries, but with indifferent success. The trained journeymen-bakers of Vienna are sought for and obtained to serve in other capitals; but the bread they produce is inferior. Why have these efforts failed e? Why cannot so apparently simple a process be communicated to others in such terms as to be followed? To answer this question, the bakers of Vienna determined to give' every facility to the visitors at the Exposition to see, if they desired, all the processes essential to the production of their bread. To illustrate the art, they caused a comprehensive bakery, with all needed appliances, to be set up within the grounds of the Exposition, and maintained in full operation from the opening to the close, turning out, day by day, the Semmel-Brod, (table-rolls,) loaves of wheat-bread, rye-bread, 1 v YB VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. mixed wheat and rye bread, and numerous forms of biscuit, pastry, cake and confectionery having a basis of flour. The shelves of the show-room presented the peculiar styles of products to be met with in the different districts of the Austro-ilungarian empire. This extensive bakery was intrusted to the direction of Roman Uhl, of Vienna, court-baker, and the author of various papers on flour, bread and baking. 3. In the study of the processes which, in all their detail, were here laid open to the international jury, as well asto all others interested in the manufactured products of flour, it became apparent that an intelligible report upon the Vienna bread must include a report upon the art of milling as practised under the improved methods now pursued in Austria and lHungary, from which latter country the finer Vienna flour is for the most part drawn; and this must be preceded by an account of the structure of the grain of wheat, upon which the philosophy of the improved milling rests. The report must also contain an account of the chemical composition of the grain and flour, and their susceptibilities to climatic influences and to the various agencies of deterioration, and an account of the methods of purification and preservation, upon a knowledge of which the production of the uniformly excellent flour in a large degree depends. - It must consider the peculiarities of Hungarian wheat. It must also embrace the history of the improvements in the agencies for rendering the bread porous and free from acid taste or odor, and lastly, present what is essential in the art of baking., These necessities being recognized, no apology will be required for the attempt to present any details that may enable us to profit by the Vienna exhibition of the art of making bread. They will be confined to the art of making white porous bread from wheat. 4. THE GRAIN OF WHEAT.-The grains or kernels or berries of different varieties of wheat vary from each other slightly in form, but are in general irregularly oblong oval, having a deep groove extending from end to end on one side, which gives to a cross-section a surface bounded by three rounded angles. At one end of the berry is the brush of vegetable hairs; at the opposite extreme, under an irregularly-curved surface-layer of bran technically called the shield, is the embryo. In the accompanying cuts we have, in Fig. 2, at the left, the Fig. 1. average normal size of the berry, and, in Fig. 1, the same under a power of six diameters, which illustrate the parts referred to. If the blade of a sharp knife be passed through the berry midway between the two ends and perpendicularly to the axis, there will be presented a section, which, under the microscope, will show an exterior envelope of several layers; an interior envelope, consisting of cells, and their contents of gluten and phosphates, constituting the most nutritious portion of the berry; and a mass of white, consisting of loose cellular 2 THE GRAIN OF WHEAT. tissue supporting a vast body of of albuminoid matter, extendin accompanyi n g di agram,* at the right, which is a cross-sec-' tion magnified to eighteen diameter s exhibits the relative I~~~~~~~~~ Fig. 2. thickness of the outer o coats, the gluten and ) phosphate coat, and the mass of starch and; y;, albuminoid cells within, and also the peculiar looped outline of ig. 2. the longitudinal groove on one side of the berry. 5. TRUE BRAN.-If grains of wheat be moistened with water, and rubbed between the folds of a rough cloth, the outer covering may be readily detached. This is composed of two layers, constituting about 3.5 per cent. by weight of the plump unbranned berry. To these layers are attached the vegetable hairs, or beard, at the end of the berry, opposite the embryo. When the dried hulls separated by the rough cloth, are burned, they yield 6.64 per cent. of ash, in which I have recognized, besides the phosphoric acid, notably silicic acid, iron, line, magnesia, and potassa; of the ash, 7.70 per cent. is phosphoric acid. 6. If the berry, after having been thus hulled, be treated with a solution of alum and then with weak acetic acid on opening it with a sharp knife along the curved surface on the side opposite the groove, digesting with warm water and subjecting to gentle pressure, the starch and imbedded albuminoid( bodies may be quite wholly separated, leaving a layer of cells containing gluten and phosphates, attached to or constituting a part of the inner bran-coat. These inner bran-coats may then with care be successfully freed from the gluten by maceration and gentle pressure. They consist of the honey-combed frame-work of cellular tissue, from which the cells, or sacs, containing the gluten and phosphates have been removed, and the outside layers of envelope not separated with the rough cloth. The weight of these together, including that portion of the outer coats of bran lying within the loop of the groove, shownii in Fig. 2, dried at 2120 Fahrenheit, is about 12.5 per cent. of the weight of the whole berry. In the ash of all these coats, phosphoric acid, alkaline earths, and alkalies are recognized. 7. In the accompanying diagrams, Fig. 3 illustrates the relative positions of the several layers of the investing coats of the berry, as seen from without; Fig. 4, as viewed in a section transverse to the greater *An absolute portrait, prepared by Mr. Thomas J. Hand, of New York, to whom I am indebted for most of these drawings illustrating the structure of the wheat-grains. 3 cells The VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXIIIBITION, 1873. length of the berry; Fig. 5, as presented in longitudinal section. 1, 1 are the outer coats of the bran proper. They are made up of two.layers of flattened longitudinal cells. Mege Mouries includes both under the name sarcocarp, giving to the cuticle or outer wall of the outer layer the name epicarp. 2 is the inner coat of bran proper. It is made up of trans I5- -:- - v ~~~~~~~~~"~~~~~~~~ jm II <~ i I f iii i~~~~~~~ i: -4~~~~~~ Fig. 4. i> - - ;oo~~~~~~~~~~m~~~~~o~~~~~~~~Gr~~~~ ff~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IiH _' Fig. 3. Fig. 5. verse tubes, which, from their arrangement side by side, have sug gested the convenient name of cigar-coat. The tubes .' -... of which this coat is made up have been found by Mr. t,,,; land, in an examination of the residuum of bran af = -3'~' -ter passing through the alimentary canal of a heifer, -A_ — = — to be spiral vessels. It is the endocarp, or fruit-coat of j:, and bits of bran of the same size, which go through the sieve with the grits. A product corresponding with this somewhat, used to be called connell," and is now known as "middlings." 73. The groats freed from the finer particles will be again ground, and this produces a second groats, grits, and flour; the second groats yield also groats, grits, and flour. Particles which are smaller than groats and larger than grits are called "solutions;" such as are between flour and grits are called " dust;" and these must obviously be produced by cracking. By each succeeding cracking, the flour and grits produced will consist more of particles from the interior of the kernel of wheat, and as the interior cells, that is, the starch-cells, yield a whiter product, so the flour and grits will become more and more fair and white; and this, until the groats after the fourth grinding will possess the form of disks, having only a thin layer of starch-cells. In flour, this phenomenon is very striking. The flour from the third groats is much fairer than that from the second or from the first groats; this is less striking in the grits, in that it is still largely mingled with particles of bran. The bran-particles are much lighter than the grits, and this property is taken advantage of to purify the grits by means of a current of air directed upon a thin sheet of falling grits. This work is accomplished by the grits-purifying machine, in which the air operates either by blast or suction. 74. In the gradual grinding and purification of the grits lies the essence of the high or grits milling. This can be effected by various modifications. The wheat may be three, four, or five times cracked or bruised;the grits, which have been separated according to their size, may be more or less purified; and finally the purified grits may be either rapidly or slowly ground to flour. 75. In the unpurified grits, which correspond more nearly with American middlings, there is not only bran, which falls with it through the sieve but there is a part of the grits, namely, the coarser, consisting of such granules as contain broken fragments of the outer part of the grain, and as such have firmly attached portions of the hull. These particles of the hull cannot be separated by the middlings-purifying machine; and, if this is to be done, such grits must be reduced to smaller particles by passing them through properly-adjusted stones. From the product of milling thus obtained, the flour will be bolted, and the grits subjected to a further purification. When the last traces of bran have been separated from the grits and the still finer dust, one obtains, by grinding the pure grits and dust, the fairest, whitest flour, a product which it is impossibie to obtain 34 LOW MILILING. in any other way. Of this product, there are several grades. These flours bear the name of "extract flours,"' (selected or extra flours; and as they are obtained from the purified grits and dust of the best quality, they are also called "extract grits" and'- extract dust;" and since they come from the inner parts of the grain, they bear also the name of "core grits." 76. The grits-inilling seeks to attain slowly to the pure core-grits in that at the first the outer layers are partially separated by pointing or clipping; then the clipped grains are gradually more and more reduced by bruising or cracking. In this way is obtained, as the finest product, the flour; as less fine the dust; after this the grits, solution, and groats are obtained. In all these, in relation to the size of the parts of the different products, all the elements out of which the kernel of grain is constructed are again found; all these products contain particles of the hull-bran. The fine particles of bran in the flour which give it a dark or grayish-yellow white color cannot be separated by any means. But the case is otherwise with the grits and dust which have been purified with the grits-purifier. The larger particles remaining in the last cracking process are disk-shaped, fiat, and have no longer the name of groats, but are called scales, or white stripes. They are, or should be, mainly the honey-combed coat from which the sacs of gluten and phosphates have been more or less emptied out. The starch-cells still clinging to them will be ground off in further operation, by which finally are obtained so-called black flour and coarse bran. The last results of milling are several kiinds of flour and of bran, with which is often a part of grits, particularly finely purified, and called farina. 77. Low MILLING.-To this process of milling stands opposed the socalled process of low milling, in which the method of production is much simpler, but the flour obtained lacks the whiteness and excellence attained by the Vienna process, or grits-milling. In low ihilling, the pointed or clipped grain is passed through stones at the nearest adjustment, by which it is at once and most perfectly ground to the finest flour. It is practicable, however, by careful management of the working between the stones, to obtain a large part of bran and gluten-coats without disintegration, and to separate- them from the flour by sifting, and this the more perfectly as by this process of milling finer sieves are employed. Still, it is not possible, at least it has not yet been shown, that this separation of the bran can be carried out so perfectly as to yield an "extract flour " of such fairness as is ordinarily obtained by the process of high milling. 78. In the reduction of the wheat by grinding, the end products are always flour and bran, by whatever process the milling is carried on. The bran contains the fragments of the outer and inner bran and t 35 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the gluten-coat in more finely divided form and with the least possible quantity of adhering starch-cells such bran is called thoroughly-milled bran, and when obtained from the grits-purifying machine is called floc-bran. 79. The flour consists of starch-grains, fragments of starch-cells, with more or less splinters of the outer coats, or shell, together with the nitrogenous cells of bodies imbedded in the body of the starch. This result obviously, with numerous differences, according to quantity and excellence, is obtained both by the high and low milling, and whether the mechanical reduction is effected by stamnping, by squashing, or by friction. As, however, the outer layers are more coherent and tenacious than the farinaceous interior, held together in thin-walled cells, the reduction of the starch-tissues will be far advanced, while the outer portions are still in large scales. The flour produced, forming a soft medium, protects the outer parts against extreme friction, and it is for this reason impossible, by any mechanical means, to reduce the outer parts as a whole to as fine a condition as the interior mealy part. There will always be found, in the product of the mill, large scales, which, as bran, may be- separated by sieves from the flour. 80. The rougher and sharper the rubbing surfaces which reduce the grain are, the more rapid and extreme is the division, as in low. milling; and for this reason more of the very fine splinters, or fragments, of the outer coats are found in the product, cannot be separated by the sieve, darken the color of the flour, and make the food prepared from it less palatable. If, on the contrary, the means for reduction are not rough, and act mnore by bruising, as is the case with the cylinder-mills, than by tearing, or if the common means of dividing the millstones-are worked step by step in reduction, as takes place in the Austrian, or high-milling process, then there will be a far better and more perfect separation of the coatings possible, and the flour so produced will be finer and whiter. 81. It is obvious from what has been said that the mechanical devices for the production of flour which must be employed in every mill, group themselves in mieansfor division and mneans for grading. To these must be added the machines which are designed to purify the wheat that is to be ground, such as are employed in the separation of all foreign seeds, shrunken grains, chaff; straw, sand, and smut, the hulling or clipping machines already described, the highly important grits-purifying machines, employed in the grits or high milling, and which, as employed in the low milling or half-high milling in the United States, are known as the middlings-purifiers; and finally certain other co-operating devices for the cooling and preservation of the product, and for facilitating its transportation. 82. M[LLsTONES. —There were, on exhibition at Vienna, millstones in great number and variety; some of them were of single blocks or hard stones, including sandstones, basalt, and lava, porphyry and granite. 36 EYE, BOSOM, SKIRT, LANDS, AND FURROWS. There were, besides, the burr or French stones composed of fragments of siliceous sinter of varying compactness or porosity, cemented together, which, on account of their hardness and the sharpness of their angles and their porosity yielding sharp edges, are universally preferred to all others, both in Europe and America. 83. Invention has been directed with more orless success in recent times to effect the grinding by the rotation of the lower stone only, and by the rotation in opposite directions of the lower and upper millstones; but, on account of its convenience in facilitating the sharpening of the grooves, the almost universal practice is to confine the movement to the upper stone. 84. The surface of the stone is technically made up of the eye, the bosom, and the skirt; the eye being at the center. The accompanying diagram exhibits the several parts. Fig. 23. Surface of stone, with firrows in ten quarters, fo'r high milling. The furrows in dotted outline, a a, indicate the upper or runnin stone; A, the bosom, which is slightly dished toward the eye; B B, the finely-grooved surface of the lands of the skirt of the under stone; C C, the grooved lands of the running stone. 85. The action of the grooves and lands of the upper and lower stones upon each' other may be illustrated with the aid of the dia 37 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. gram, (Fig. 23.) The dotted diagram may represent the surface of the lower stone, while the diagram of continuous lines will represent the upper or running stone. It will be seen now, as the eye follows the intersection of any two curves, that the movement of the upper stone will carry the point of intersection to the circumference of the lower stone, as the point of intersection of operating shears is carried from the hinge to the point. The accumulated meal will be continually pushed forward and outward by the joint action of the upper stone upon the lower and the centrifugal force. It will be noticed that the grooves, or furrows, which, with the lands, occupy the bosom and skirt of the stone, are of two kinds, long and short. The long ones are not sections of radii from the center, but are tangents from the circumference of interior circles; the short furrows areparallel to the long furrows. The chief grinding surfaces lie in the outer half or skirt; the area of the lands equals or somewhat exceeds that of the furrows. The furrows, instead of being straight, are sometimes curved, as in the following figures: Fig. 24. These curves are & V / 0r — \ rsometimes sectors of circles, sometimes ;;\;j~~~j;~~\; cuttingl the eye of the stone, and some times tangent to it, _( and in the more /XXI/,/' X~,/~kk recent and improved curved grooves they are sections of loga. rithmic spirals. 86. The object of Sketch sbowing circular grooves of recent (levice. the furrows is two fold: first, to provide rough surfaces for the disintegration of grain, tearing or cracking or rubbing; and, secondly, for providing channels for the movement of the crushed grain toward the circumference. The finer grooves on the lands facilitate the detaching of the friable interior portion of the fragments from the tougher shell. They also serve in giving rotation to the fragments, and thus expose the pro 7- ~~~~~tearinig or crac ing or rub ing; and j V////t4 ~~secondly, for providing channels for jecting points to the abrasion o f th egrain The Evans grooves; logowarid thmic spircumfals. revolving stone. v ~~~~~The finer grooves on the lands I Pi / / / ~~~facilitate the detaching of the fri \able interior portion of..the frag' 12//t\ \ \ ~~ments from the tougher shell. They, Ax,>\\ \ \ \ \ ~~also serve inl giving rotation to the, I,/,-a\\\>\ \ A + l ^fragments and thus expose the pro'' — at ~~~~Jecting points to the abrasion of the. The Evnals grooves; logarithmic spirals. revolvning stone. 38 Fig. 25. GrINDING-,URiFACES OF STONES. 87. The accompanying diagr(tin (Fig. 26,) from Kick, illustrates an approved forii of the groove; the arrow gives the direction in which the uppler stone moves. The (Iel)th and widthl of the furrows are those of the stones in the Tlileuius Mill of Cape Girardeau, Missouri. Fit,. 23. It will be seen that the pulverized grain as it accumulates in the trough a b c, will be pushed up along the surface b c to the summit of the finely-grooved( land beyond, where it will be subjected to trituration till it reaches the next furrow, from which it will,, as the furrow fills, be forced out on to the succeeding land. 88. The pulverized or ground grain is discharged from the skirt under the influence of the centrifugal force; the -velocity of its movement increasing with the distance firom the center. This velocity may be checked by nearing the stones to each other, or it may be checked by the conformation of the furrows toward the periphery. In low milling, with a given velocity of the running stone, the centrifugal force will obviously be antagonized by friction more than in the high milling, and the heat consequent upon the friction will be greater. The temperature of the flour issuing from the stones in ordinary low milling is found to be in the total flour about 1200 Fahrenheit. It is manifest that inasmuch as some portion of the flour, tlfe fine particles for example, are less subjected to friction, other portions, as the gluten-cells, which are larger, must be heated to a very much higher temperature than 1200. To this heat is largely due the vapor of water, which is known to be disengaged in the process of low milling. This doubtless comes from the gluten, which is known to be a hydrate, which parts with its water at a temperature considerably below the temperature of boiling water. This suggests that possibly the accepted superiority of the extract flour by the high-milling process is due to the circumstance that the gluten which it contains has been subjected to less heat and less consequent deterioration than the gluten of the flour produced in the low-milling process. To this point attention will be further directed in considering the adaptation of different grades of flour to the production of breati. 39 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHlBITION, 1873. 89. The following diagrams (Fig. 27) exhibit various forms of furrows that have been produced in the development of the art of milling. Fig. 27. =f 90. The outline of the furrows in their length and section, the comparative breadth of the furrows and lands, the depth of the skirt, and the fine grooving of the lands, the dishing of the bosom, the distance apart of the stones, and the velocity of the runner-all have relations, independent and combined, to the qualities of the grain to be ground; on the most careful attention to which and to the condition of the moist. ure or dryness of the air depends the successful prosecution of the art of milling. In no other country has such au amount of scientific research been given to this subject as in Hungary, and there very extraordinary results have been obtained. 91. In different mills, these elements are variously combined, sqme holding tenaciously to the logarithmic spiral, others insisting upon the superiority of the straight furrow, some giving only the faintest dishing to the bosom or none at all, and others limiting the grinding surface to less than the outer half of the milling surface. In the Istvan steam-mills at Debreczin, under the direction of Prof. E. Peklr, with the stones 54 inches in diameter, and skirt or grinding surface but 9 inches in width, measuring from the periphery along the radius, the very highest order of results has been obtained. 92..In a well-appointed fiouring-mill in Brooklyn, N. Y., where low milling is practiced, in which high grades of flour are produced, the furrows have a depth of from three-sixteenths to a quarter of an inch, and are 1~ inches wide; the stones are 4 feet 4 inches in diameter. The long lands are 13 inches wide at the circumference, and the short lands 2a}.* The curves of the principal furrows are logarithmic spirals. 93. The following diagram (Fig. 28) is a copy of the face of the stone of the Thilenius Mill at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, which produced the flour exhibited at the Vienna Exposition. It has been furnished, together with details of the process, in reply to questions addressed to Mr. Thilenius by me. The dimensions are as follows The furrows are 1l inches wide and * The areas of filrrows and of lands are about equal; the lands being perhaps a little larger. The top stone corresponds with the lower exactly in its dressing 40 .:..';fir.,/,,.... SUIRFACE OF STONE OF THILENIUS MILL. 4 of an inch deep. The small lands are 24 inches, the others 2 inches wide. The fine grooving of the lands extends from 10 to 12 inches from the periphery toward the center, and has from 30 to 35 creases or fine glooves to an inch. The bush is 10 inches square and the spindle 4 Fig. 28. ,I v'2A x 1 2 Stone 4 feet in diameter; cutting surface, 13 quarters; fine grooving (skirt) extends from 10 to 12 inches fronm the periphery and has from 30 to 35 cracks to l inch; bush 10 inches square; spindle 4 inches. inches in diameter. The bed-stone and runner are dished 4L of an inch toward the center. The stones are 4 feet in diameter and make 160 revolutions per mninute. The flour as it issues has a temperature of from 110~ to 126~ Fahrenheit. 94. The next figure (29) exhibits a grain of wheat about to be cracked and crushed by the movement of the upper stone. The motion from left to right Fig. 29. will carry the fragments up the inclined plane to the land, where they will be reduced to a size deapart ofermined the distones. apart of the stones. 41 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 95. VENTILATION.-The passage of the wheat from the eye to the grinding-surfaces has been facilitated by a blast of air accompanying the falling grain from the hopper, which serves also to cool the product in the process of grinding. It tendls, however, to accumulate the pulverized grain in the path of the blast, and so, by increasing the friction, to neutralize the cooling effect. The quantity of flour produced in a given time is, nevertheless, largely increased. An experiment is recorded in which, without ventilation, seven pairs of millstones ground hourly fourteen hundred and forty-eight pounds of wheat, while with ventilation two thousand and seventy-eight pounds were ground with four pairs of stones in the saime time, a ratio in favor of ventilators as nearly 5: 2. The coal consumed by these two processes showed a saving with ventilation of 23 per cent. The trustworthiness of these results is questioned by Professor Kick. The ventilation may be effected either by a blast from compressed air; by suction-drawing the air from the eye to the circumference; by a combination of blast and suction; or by the introduction of air between the grinding-surfaces through openings in the running stone. This expedient is not resorted to-as it is not needed-in the Hungarian milling. 96. THE COOLING OF THE FLOUR.-The temperature of the pulverized product as it issues from between the stones has already been alluded to as a consequent of the friction attendant upon the process of grinding. The ventilation, mingling a current of air with the pulverized grain, tends to restore the normal temperature. This principle is applied on a larger scale after the grinding, where mechanical appliances are introduced to stir the meal, and continually bring fresh surfaces in contact with the air. The familiar hopper-boy, which is a sort of great rake, so operated as to stir up a layer of meal of moderate depth, has been adopted from America into Germany. 97. As the friction is greater and the temperature higher in the lowmilling than in the high-milling process, the necessity of cooling the product of the former is greater. Indeed, such cooling has been deemed indispensable to the preservation of the flour. In the high-milling process, where the quantity of flour produced to a single pair of stones is relatively small, no special arrangement for cooling is necessary, since the alternate grinding and bolting, as the successive steps of the process advance, prevent the temperature of the product-from rising above the margin of safety. 98. THE CYLINDER-MILLING.-This is more especially true of the cylinder-milling, where the successive steps in the reduction of the wheat are very numerous and alternate regularly with the cooling process. The cylinder or roller mill, or Walzenmiihle, of the Hungarians consists in its simplest elements of two small parallel, horizontally-disposed steel cylinders, placed near to each other, arranged for adjustment, and revolving from above toward each other. The cylinders in the great Pesth Walzenmiihle, the flour from which won the highest distinction at Vienna, 42 HUNGARIAN WALZ-MUELE. were not more than five inches in diameter; the surfaces of some of them were traversed by numerous sharp furrows, or, which is the same thing, numerous sharp ridges parallel to the axis; others were smooth. 99. The accompanying diagram (Fig. 30) exhibits three pairs of roll Fig. 30. 7b 7& ( A ers, one above another, in a set, showing how the grain, in passing from one pair of cylinders to the next, passes through an intervening body of air, and how the slight heat developed by the pressure between one pair of cylinders may be overcome by the cooling effect of the air through which it passes on its way to the next pair of cylinders. The smooth cylinders, revolving with uniform speed, if near enough together would crush the grain to flatness; if revolving with unequal velocity, the tendency would be to squash the grain; with grooved cylinders, the tendency is to indent and crack the grain where the velocity of the two cylinders is the same. Where the fluted or furrowed rollers revolve with unequal velocities, the action is frictional. The action ~ 43 ' i' I _ 4. Iu IL 3m r VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. depends as well upon their distance from each other as upon the character of their surface. 100. If smooth cylinders are so far apart that the pressure is but slight, the berry will split open along the groove throughout its length, the two halves frequently clinging together, somewhat suggesting an open book; if the cylinders are nearer together, soft wheat will be flattened, hard wheat will be cracked into fragments, and the grits will be freer from bran than when obtained by grinding between stones. The following diagram (Fig. 31) presents a profile of the grooved surface of a roller of large diameter: 101. The essential advantage of the Walz or cylinder milling is that the product is not heated; it is a process of cold milling. It is also to be remarked that there is no dustflour produced. In the great Pesth Walzenmiihle, under the direction of Doswald of the international jury, the wheat, before attaining its last disintegration, passed through from eighteen to twenty-four pairs of cylinders. The product of grits, flour of various grades, and bran w as obtained from the Hungarian commissioner at the Exposition, and analyses have been made, which will appear in their proper place farther on. 102. In Wyngaert's journal "Die Miihle," of December, 1874, and January, 1875, an account is given of an imnproved Walzenmuihle, the work of an Italian inventor, Wegman, in which the cylinders are of porcelain and the space between the cylinders controlled by springs, (formerly by levers and weights as shown in the diagrams,) which, in thejudgment of Wyngaert, promises to be of great value. Wyngaert says there is practically no heating of the product, and that the gluten retains its normal qualities; that the bran is subjected to no tearing process, but is flattened out, and the interior portion pressed away so that the middlings-purifier is rendered unnecessary; that the yield of first flour is greatly increased; that the effect of the adoption of the porcelain Walzenmiihle on the low mnilling will be to change it to half-high milling; and the effect of it on high milling will be to reduce the number of grades of flour, a consummation greatly to be desired. Wyngaert sums up the advantages of Wegmann's porcelain-cylinder mill, as shown in a series of special experiments undertaken at his instance and under his direction, as follows: 1. It renders unnecessary the whole system of grits and middlings purifiers. 2. It secures a larger proportion of clear, pure flour. 3. It makes it impossible to injure the quality of the flour in milling. 103. The accompanying figures illustrate in some degree the construction of the porcelain-cylinder mill. 44 Fig. 31. .'I WEGMANN 7S PORCELAIN-CYLINDER MILL. Fig. 32 is a sectional view. Fig. 33 is a view from above. Fig. 34 is a side-view. In F ig. 32, a shows the feed-cylinder; b, the porcelain cyl Fig. 32. aX --— 7.2 b i -a7 X\-? Fig. 33. I I I- / -IT d- LD-s - ,. I - 'i -1. inders; c, the scraper with glass-edge. In Fig. 33, d shows the couplingbolts of the uprights; x, the porcelain shell; y, the lead interior shell; e, the axle. In Fig. 34, b is the porcelain shell; c, the scraper, with the weight e to secure the glass edge against the porcelain surface. The fig. ures are one-tenth the size of the actual machinery. 45 _b VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Fig. 34. r( __ 104. The Walzenmihle, or grits-mill, with one cylinder, fromn the St. Georgen Manufactory at St. Gallen, was on exhibition. It is presented in the accompanying figure, (35.) Fig. 35. ~ ~~ ir or J~-' - /1 I~' II I ~i\\ I j ~\~ Cylinder-mill of St. Georgeu, St. Gallen, Switzerland. i 46 DISINTEGRATOR. W is the cylinder, with steel shell, and S is the steel concave. It is used only for the purpose of cracking the grain and the production of grits, leaving the further milling to be pursued with runs of stones. 105. DIsINTEGRAToR.- Beside the two great systems of millingthe high (I) and low, (II,) which differ from each other in the distauce apart of the upper and lower stones, and the Walz or cylinder milling, (III,) there is (IV) a system of disintegration, in which there are neither stones nor cylinders, but in which the pulverization is effected by friction of the grain upon itself, the wheat being kept in motion by beaters revolving at high velocity in a hollow cylinder. The product in a givenil time with a given expenditure of power is said to be very large. It has not been widely introduced. Fig. 36. III~7;,/w777X%( Carr's disintegrator, or centrifugal mill. 47 "LI I ! I i _ I'ID,. i y ; — (D VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Kick's Vienna Report, after analyzing the work of Carr's centrifugal disintegrator, gives it a secondary place, as compared with the work of the high milling with runs of stone or the cylinder-mill. The diagram (Fig. 36) exhibits a section of one of the forms of'this apparatus at the Exposition. 106. SUMMARY.-The extreme low milling is a system of mashing and repeated scraping and squeezing and a single bolting. It is attended with heating of the product, which injures the flour. The high milling is a system of successive crackings with alternate removal of the finer particles and the bran as fast as produced. It is attended with but little heating of the product. There is some cracking in low mnilling and some mashing in high milling. The half-high milling, as its name imports, partakes more of the cracking than low milling, and more of the scraping and squeezing than high milling. The cylinder-milling is a system of pressing and cracking, and, where the cylinders are grooved and move with unequal velocities, of tearing. Like the high milling, it produces little heat. 107. SIFTING OR BOLTING OF THE PRODUCTS OF GRINDING.-The bolting process to which the product of the grinding is subjected immediately after cooling, has for its object in the low-milling process to get the largest possible amount of flour, and of course the smallest amount of bran. In high milling, bolting or sifting has various objects to accomplish. As the grain is reduced by successive grindings into groats, grits, and flour, between each two steps in the grinding process there must be one or more gradings, boltings, or siftings to separate the products from each other; and, to complete the process, sieves of varying degrees of fineness are employed; the coarser sieves may be made of wire, but all the finer ones are for the most part of silk. The sizes of the openings in the bolting-cloth vary from three hundred and twenty-four in the square inch to more than twenty thousand. The number of meshes in a square inch is indicated by certain numbers qualifying the fineness of the bolting-cloth, and these numbers should be employed to indicate the flour which passes through the meshes of the corresponding numbers of the cloth. But, nnfortunately, this is not the case; the numbering of the flours is quite arbitrary. The numbers upon the wire-cloth and the grits silk gauze indicate the number of meshes in a linear inch. The numbers of the silk boltcloth are entirely arbitrary. 108. BRAN-DUSTER.-The brush-sieve consists of a wire-gauze cylinder; within this fixed drum is a revolving axle making from two hundred and fifty to two hundred and seventy revolutions in a minute, and carrying with it cast-iron rings, at the circumference of which is attached a series of bars bearing brushes. The office of the brushes is 48 THE FLOUR-BOLT. to rub off the flour from the bran, and drive the flour through the fine wire-gauze, while the bran is permitted to pass on. 109. The proportion of flour of the white interior of the grain adhering to ordinary miller's bran, before subjection to the bran-duster, is indicated in the accompanying cut, (Fig. 37.) Fig. 37. Transverse section of a scale of millers' bran, magnified to 150 diameters; drawn under the Camera Lucida, part being left in outline only. 110. THE FLOUR-BOLT.-The construction of the flour-bolt, whether round or hexagonal, whether single or double, whether in connection with interior screws for the movement of the flour, and the disposition of the bolting-cloth of different degrees of fineness, would lie without the scope of the present report. The problem presenting itself in the separation of the various products resulting from the processes of reduction in high milling will be apparent from a consideration of the following diagrams. They illustrate at a glance some of the important stages through which the grain passes on its way fromrn wheat to flour and bran. Fig. 38 exhibits the result of the first cracking of the berry or pointing. The stones were at the maximum distance apart for removing the brush. The product has been freed from the hairs or bristles, more or less of the outer bran-scales, fine flour, and whatever mninute particles had been detached in running through the stones. It is purified. In Fig. 39, we have the result of -the second cracking, purified. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. In Fig. 40, we have the product of the fourth cracking, precisely as it came from between the stones. One sees what was the condition of the grits of Fig. 43 and Fig. 45 before they were purified. In Fig. 41, we 4v B 49 ,ft. -4.0 4'a, ** or. do I S Inau O - f I Fig. 41. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ,,TERNATION~~~~173 have the coarse solution, a mixture of groats and grits. In Fig. 42, we have the medium solution-of groats and grits. In Fig. 43, we have grits No. 1, or farina, or semolina; and, in Fig. 45, we have grits much finer —No. 5. In Fig. 44, we-have the bran, which has been ground and scrubbed, and as far as possible exhausted to the gluten-coat. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. A ~ e o I. d ,I a.s Cb 1, 9e $ v, G D - a /P Z s. a 4,, I 1, t Pat f.,, . - go d't, 4 v e, i, . I-! al e F~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 0 Fig. 45. 111. THE PURIFICATION O from the bran-scales of equa garian origin, and so essent flour from which the excellen the attempt to present an o which this separation is effec in essential particulars. Th are fragments from the inter To the bran proper, there some of the starch of the in still adhering portions of the coats of the wheat. Fig. 46. h ~ 112. The bran is thin and flat, or consists of scales; the grits are irregular fragments of the grain, roundish or granular. The bran is specifically lighter than the grits, and presents, relatively to its weight, a much greater extent of surface. Upon these differences rest the separation of the bran from the grits. The agencies employed are, first, the current of air, produced either by blast or suction; and, secondly, centrifugal force. The current of air is directed against a thin stream of falling mixed bran and grits. All the particles are blown out of the perpendicular-the heaviest least, the lightest most. The bran, presenting the largest amount of surface with a given amount of material, is driven farthest; t IB 50' .Of t IB PURIFICATION OF GRITS. the grits, presenting a less extent of surface relative to the amount of material, fall nearest to the perpendicular. Between these is an intermediate portion. The preceding cut (Fig. 46) exhibits a machine substantially the device of Ignaz Paur, the discoverer of the process of high milling. It has been already partially described. b is a hopper having a long narrow slit at the bottom. a is a flat supply-tube, with an adjustable slide for the supply of the mixed bran and grits. Through the opening d, a current of air encounters the cascade of falling bran and grits. The grits fall into the division I, the bran is carried on to the division V, and the. intermediate portion falls into the division II. The current of air entering at c subjects the grits and intermediate portion from I and I I to a second purifying operation. Bauer's exhaust grits-purifier and Escher Wys's grits-purifier are selected by Professor Kick in his report on Group IV to the Austrian government, from the vast number on exhibition. They are shown in the diagrams, (Fig. 47 and Fig. 48,) It may be questionable whether such extreme grading of products as must result in Bauer's apparatus is desirable. : - -...Fig. 47 S,,; = =...._.. _: r-a~~ 91:~ It'Y t' gq,'.:' Bauer's exhaust grits purifier. 113. In the great Walzmiihle at Pesth, there was an apparatus which the annexed diagram (Fig. 49) will illustrate A is a hopper receiving the meal; B is a cylinder fitting the spout from the hopper and'admitting of raising or lowering; b is a circular, smooth, metallic plate revolved by a vertical shaft attached below. The meal, as it issues from the foot of the hollow cylinder with increasing velocity, is carried to the periphery, and shot outward into a current of air produced by suction through the spout H. The rounded grits, having greatest weight in proportion to . 11 51 Fig. 47. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the extent of surface, reach the space D; the bran-flakes, having least material to surface, are drawn to F; and the fine flour falls between to the receptacle H. Fig. 48. — ~ o h ..... k~~ i 114. Another device has been contrived for separating the minute branscales from the grits of equal size, by causing a broad stream of air, either by blast or suction, to pass through a slightly-inclined plane sieve of meshes sufficiently large for both the bran and grits to pass through; the force of the blast being so gentle as to permit the grits to drop, while the particles of bran are kept afloat to be discharged at the lower margin of the sieve. The sieve is sometimes disposed around a cylinder, and the action promoted by a brush acting upon the surface of the sieve in coniection with the blast or suction. Of this class, several of most ingenious construction, under the name of midd]ingspurifiers, have been recently invented and brought into use in this country. The accompanying figure ~50) illustrates one of the simpler forms. a a, the slightly-inclined sieve, through which the air is carried upward by the exhaust-fan, by which the fine bran is F, 111 1,I .I I " " \' F / -49 -- ~~~~ -I >I F A B /S. J)$j~~~~~~~ ? \IV I!/ / l is~. 1R Escher Wyss & Cb.'s grits purifier. l I 1 t II I II II I II i I.1 i 1 :1 / 1 I i;l I' II II I! l l1 il I1l 1l I I I I l I 52 1' -,q-if. ell Fig. 49. PRODUCTS OF MILLING. prevented from passing through, while the heavier purified middlings are dropped to the trough below. 115. THE PRODUCTS OF THE TWO PROCESSES OF LOW MILLING AND HIGH MILLING.- The relative merits of these two modes of milling have been discussed at great length and with signal ability by the Austrian and German millers. Foremost among those in asserting and expounding the just claims of the process of low milling with its recent and most improved appliances is the distinguished Joseph J. van den Wyngaert, editor of the German journal "Die Miihle," and member of the international jury, Group IV, DivisionFlour and its Products, &c. In his numerous papers, he has set forth with great clearness and force the principle that the question of relative superiority is not to be determined upon purely scientific principles alone; but that inasmuch as milling, as a great practical art, is intimately connected with the every-day life of the 5 7 whole community, it must be first of all self-sustaining; it must provide a flour for which there is sufficient demand to yield a livingprofit to the miller, over and above the cost of the grain and its working, including the various tariffs, the interest upon capital, and the expense for repairs; in other words, that it will not do to produce an article, however attractive to the scientific mind, for which there is little or no remunerating demand on the part of consumers. In the second place, he holds that inasmuch as the Austro-iEungarian process of disintegration of tissues is a process of successive crackings, it is especially suited to a hard and brittle wheat, which is the principal wheat in the markets of Vienna and Pesth, and is not suited to the softer varieties of wheat, which are more abundant in North Germany, England, and the United States, and which consist of a tougher shell and a more mealy and friable interior. He cites instances in which mills erected with the appliances for high milling, because of their not being found self-sustaining, have been converted into mills with the conveniences for low milling. He presents ("'Stenographischer Bericht der sechsten Versammlung deutscher Miller und Miihlen-Interessenten,') a series of tables illustrating the production of various high and low milling establishments in Baden and Bavaria, with the cost of wheat ground, the amounts and kinds of products turned out, the cost of grinding and fitting for market, and the receipts from sales, in which the profits of the low milling are, according 53 Fig. 50. v. I ma VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. to the figures, decidedly greater. iHe submits also the result of a series of experiments in baking with the different kinds of flour, and reaches the conclusion from them and from the relative profits, that low milling, at least for the wheat of Northern Germany, that is, as of softer wheat distinguished from hard, is more profitable than high milling would be. Hie dwells upon the fact that the hard, flinty wheat is chiefly a matter of climate, and that crops in the same district vary in their hardness on the different soils and even in the same fields in different years, and to some extent according to the character of the preceding crops. Wyngaert gives due prominence, in seeking an explanation of the excellence of the Vienna bread, also to the beautitful white press-yeast with which the Austro-Hungarian bakers are supplied. 116. The physical impracticability of producing lumps from the friable interior of the soft wheat shows at a glance the inferior adaptation of this kind of wheat to the production of the numerous grades of grits which characterize the Austro-Hungarian milling. The toughness of the shell of the soft wheat makes it practicable to obtain a product in low milling in which the fine particles of bran are relatively few, and from which a flour of high order of whiteness may be obtained. The dry, brittle Hungarian wheat, subjected to the low-milling process, would, by reason of the brittleness of the shell, yield a product in which the small particles of bran would be numerous, and, being of the same size, would pass through the bolt with the flour, and make it impossible to produce a flour of perfect whiteness. By moistening the Hungarian wheat, however, before grinding, the toughness of the shell Would be increased, its reduction to fine particles in the process of grinding would be less, and the flour would be made whiter. 117. The advocates of high milling rest upon the claims of the scientific solution of the problem: the reduction of the wheat-grain by a succession of alternate erackings and sortings, in which disintegration is effected by successive steps of such slight individual advance, and the graduations of the successive products are so fine that the heat produced is inconsiderable, and the ultimate product of flour free from specks and of absolute fairness is much larger than by the low-milling process. The significance of this peculiarity of the process cannot be easily overestimated. It leaves the integrity of the cells of gluten unimpaired. They have, therefore, their natural investment of cellular tissue to protect the sensitive nitrogenous constituents of the interior from the oxygen of the air, and from the spores of microscopic vegetation always afloat in the atmosphere. Having escaped destructive crushing, they have also escaped the heat attendant upon it, and the loss of water and chemical decomposition due to it. As the chemical changes consequent upon this exposure of the gluten bring with them products of disagreeable taste and smell, the flour produced by the high milling has escaped the deterioration consequent upon the destruction of the texture of the gluten-cells. 54 PRODUCTS OF MILLING. 118. From the researches of M6g6 Mouries, already referred to, it would appear that the gluten-comb of the grain contains a nitrogenous constituent of great susceptibility to fermentation upon the application of water, in which it is soluble. This body, so long as the cells containing the gluten remain intact, is protected from the moisture of the air. The importance of maintaining these cells unbroken in the flour until it is to be converted into bread needs no illustration. The defense of the theory of high milling, where the hardness of the grain renders it practicable, seems perfect. 119. The inferior adaptation of the process of high milling to the softer varieties of wheat has led to a compromise between the two processes, called half-high milling, already referred to, in which the advantages of the principles of high milling are recognized and the necessary profits of the miller to make his art self-sustaining are maintained. 120. After all that may be written, one is forcibly impressed with the conviction that, as in every kindred case, there will remain an unwritten art, which is only to be acquired by actual contact day by day, for long periods, with all the details of the business. In the art of the miller, it must continue from the selection of the grain to the sale of the flour, upon which scientific treatment and commercial success depend and are made to harmonize with each other. 121. PROPORTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT GRADES OF FLOUR YIELDED BY THE HIGH AND LOW MILLING PROCESSIES.-By the processes of low milling, we have the following scheme of treatment: Table showing the course of ordinary low milling. Clean whe I Pointing Pointed wheat. Poores Grinding. No. 1. Flour No. 3, or No. 2. No. 3. Dust. Fine grits ground. Flour No. 2. Dust. Dust ground. Flour No. 1. Black dust ground. Flour No. 4 or 5. 55 I IE[ulls ground. Flour No. 6. Ba.. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Wyngaert gives the quantities of these products as 75 per cent. of No. 0; 5 per cent. of No. 1; 7 per cent. of bran; 11 per cent. of scales or hulls; 2 per cent. of loss; Making 100 parts of the whole. Kick gives them as 73 per cent. of flour, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; 7 per cent. of flour, Xos. 4 and 6; 17 per cent. of bran and dust-flour; 3 per cent. of loss. This table exhibits the method of low milling as given by Kick. It is, however, in some localities conducted with a detail and refinement which involves a much greater consumption of power and a much increased variety of products. 122. Low MILLING. -The scheme shown in the opposite table, as compiled by Wyngaert, represented what in Germany in 1870 was known as the American or low-milling method. The wheat is purified, by which the foreign seeds, dirt, and blasted kernels are removed. It is then pointed, or clipped, and then, in some mills, before entering the run of crackers, or groats-run, is passed between iron cylinders, which facilitate the subsequent reduction. The product, as it issues from the cracker or groats run, has a woolly rather than a gritty feel, and the coarse bran remains in large pieces. The groats are then treated as shown in the following table: 123. The processes of purification do not vary essentially fromin those of the Hungarian or high-milling method. In some of the best-appointed mills in this country, (United States,) the grits or purified middlings are conducted back and discharged into the hopper with the pointed wheat. In others, the grits, which are produced in the process of half-high milling to the extent of 20 per cent. or more of the weight of the whole wheat, are ground separately, and then mixed with the residual 50 to 60 per cent. flour, in such proportions as may be determined, to give a flour of special excellence, indicated by the brand. 124. There is grown, in the State of Minnesota, a variety of springwheat, known as the "Fife" wheat. The berry is small, red, plump, and hard. It is distinguished on account of the extent to which the outer true bran-coat may be separated in the preliminary process of milling, without abrading the gluten-coat. The following scheme shows the steps of the milling process as pursued in a first-class mill employing this variety of wheat: 56 -- ~ - ~ _____________________________________________________ ~~0 0 O~ - 0 0 -#4 0~0 0~0 - 0 0 ~ ~~~I~.0~~~~ ~ -i 0~~0 0 ~ -. ~ ~0 ~ - ~0 - 0 ~ ~~.0 - 0 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 0 0 PRODUCTS OF HIGH MILLING. Commercial wheat. Separator. Purified wheat. Chicken-feed. Smut-machine. Clipped wheat. Dust, hairs, &c. I between Scouring-brush and stone and blower. Iunbranned wheat. Scales of true bran, I longitudinal and First run of stones. transverse cells, Iha-el (cigar-coat.) Wheat-meal. Bran. Middlings and flour. I Purified middlings. Refuse sold as feed, |[~~~ ~b u t containing First grinding. much grits. Second middlings-flour. Second grinding. Best midhlings four. The best middlings flour is about 25 per cent. of the wheat. The remaining flour is about 50 per cent., not so rich in gluten, but of excellent quality. 125. HIGH MILLING.-In the process of high milling, it will be remembered that in the step by step reduction of the grain, starting with the pointed kernels, we have with each grinding three products: coa,rse fragments, with much bran attached; less coarse fragments, with less bran attached; and minute fragments, with little or no bran attached. These are separated from each other by the sifting and purifying machines. Each of the several products is again subjected to grinding, and the product in each case again sorted into grades, and so on, until the last traces of the white interior of the berry have been separated from the dark hull and graded. 126. The following scheme exhibits the products yielded in a comparatively primitive high-milling establishment, where the details are very much less extended than in the larger and more perfect AustroHungarian mills. in which the processes are carried out to the last degree of refinement. 57 A fib 1) (,leaning. 2) Pointing. Pointed wheat. Bran. 3a) First cracking. Groats flour. Dust, (flour.) Gri its. 1. Groats. i 3b) Second crackin Groats flour, Nos. 3 and 4. 2. Groats. I 3c. Third aci. Dust, (flour.) Grits. Hulls. Groats flour, Nos. 3 and 4. 4) AZl the grits purified and ground to dust (flour) give t4 ~ PO ItPi z I Flour No. 1. DI)ust, (flour.) 5) AU the dust (flour) purifed and ground gwoes Flour No. 2. Black dust flour, No. 5, 6) Grinding the hulls. Flour Nos. 5 and 6. Bran. I ri ri tid t4 Dust. (flour.) Grits. pl COMPREHENSIVE TABLE OF Tll[~ llUi\GARtAN OR AUSTRIAN llIGll-MILL!NG PROCESSES. 1) GThaning of the wheat. Cleaned wheat. Foreign grain, seeds, chaff, &e. 2) Pointing or clipping, or high cracking or bruising. Flour ~ ~Noo -t5-: Poor bran. Large groats. ( FIRST CRACKING. U First pure ~ Flour No. 3 and No. 4. greats. ~ SECOND CRACKING. First purified dust. Flour Nos. 3 and 4. Second greats. > TRIED COACKING. il Dust. Middlings to 2d purified dust, &c.t Fine bran. First purified dast. Flour Nos. 21 and 4. Third greats. >FOURTH CRACKING. Extra grits, No. 0 to No. 5. Bran. to 2d purified dust, &c. First pun fled dust. FIcier No. 4. Coarse hulls > to be Dust. Middlings to 2d grits, &c. Dust. Middlings to 2d purified dust, &c. further r1I~Bran. Fine flour grits, No. 0. Bran. Fourth purified dust. twice il. Extra grits, N()s. 1 to 5. Dust. Middlings to 5th purified dust, ground, Grits. ~ ~~\ij~d~dJlO~S to 2d purified grits, &c. Extra grits, Nos. 3, 4, and 5. &c. (see Grits. Middlings to 2d purified grits, &c. Bran. Bran. below.) H Coarse fee gas ents. Medium fragments. no Small fragments. (No grits and fragments.) Fisse hulls. H EH~ V U ~ By itself or divided with 2d cracking it gives: Graded gives: Graded gives: a -________________ __ ~=~ -~ Flour Nos. 3 and 4. Rendual Flour Nos. 3 and 4. liesidual Flour No. 4. Fesiduum to a First purified dust. 3d cracking Dssst to 3d and 4th purified dust, to 2d hulls. U ~ Dust Middlings to 2d purified dust, &c. added. Dust, first purified dust, &c. to &c. ~~Bran. -U 1st hulls. F -~ Fine flour grits, No. 0. Grits, N~s. 3, 4, 5, extra grits, Grits. Extra grits, Nos. 1 to 5. &c. Middlings to 2d purified grits, &c. tBran. ~ ( GRITS No. 0. GRITs No. 1. GRITS No. 2. GRITs No. 3. GRITs No. 4. GRITs No. 5. ExTRA DUST. H Grits, Nos. 1 to 5. (No. 2. No. 3. First. to 1st purified Grits. No 3 Grits. No. 4. Grits. ~~~ 4. C, its No. 5. Extra dust. Dust. > Extra dust. U Dust, No 4' No. 5. 0. 5. N U, dDst, &c. No. 5. F dust. Et dicet. Flo No. 00. Flour. No. 00. Second with 2d purified Flour Nos. 3 and 4. Dust, to first purified Exts-a dust. xtra xra ur. Jo. 0. No. 0. dust. dust. Fl No.00. Flour No.0. Flour, No. 2 or Flour No. 2 or Flour No. 1. our. No. 0. No. 3. No. 3. a ( FINE FLOUR-GRITS Nos. 0 AND 1. GRITS No. 2. GRITS No. 3. GRITS No. 4. GRITS No. 5. FINE FLOUR-DUST. UNo~UDF No.2. U ~ Grits. ~ No.3. Grits. No.3. Grits. Cs-its No. 5. Fine flour-dust. With 2d and 3d purified dust. 4- No.4. N0o - RH ~ t }{c$' o. No.5. ~a-,i iI,~~HR Dust, to 2d purified dust. Fine flour-dust. Fine flour- dust. Fine flour-dust. Flour No. 1. Flour No. 1. -u ~ Flour Nos. 3 and 4. Flour No. 21. Flour No. 2. Flour No. 1. a ROLL-FLOUR a GRITS No.1 AND No. 2. GRITS No. 3. GRITS No. 4. GRITS No. 5. ROLL-FLOUR DUST. RU U~ DU Ne. 3. Grits. No. 4. Grits No. 5. Dust. With 4th and 5th purified dust. a. Grits. No. 4. N UR ~ No. 5. No. 5. H Roll flour dscst. Roll flour dust. Roll-floses- di Li t. Flour No. 2. Ftsitr 2. t Flour Nos. 4 or 5. Flour ~o. 21. Flour No. 2. 6)GRINDING OF SHELI.S AND HULLS. Great shells. Hults, (Haspen.) Sd) GRINDING OF Ti'E 6TH AND 7TH DUST. First grinding. First grinding. 6th pm-ifled dust. Fl By fi.Tst grinding,g,ives-FThur No. 21. Coarse shells. Flour No. 5. } } ~OD~ No. 5. Hulls. No. 3. First grinding. White third. ~ bite third. First grinding. fi,nrth. fourth. 7th unpurified dust. - Coarse shells. fi~'~Js~t [ fifth. ) dust. Flous- No. 4. - V Second grinding. Flour No. 5. Hulls. Comptetely-gromid Flour No. 6. Bran. Second grinding. shells. Flour No. 6. Completely-ground hulls. (Fodder for horses.) Bisek dour third. ~ ( Black third. fi,iirth ______ _____ ______ _______ ftiurth. (Fodder for horses and cows.) fifth. - _____> 0 fifth. dust. ) [ dust. V Flour No. 6. Fine bran, (fodder for cows.) No. 5 The expression in this table: Flour or means that one or the other grade of fiour will be obtained, according to the quality of the wheat; but if the expressions No. 00, or Nos 3 and 4 this No. 6, No. 0, in eons that two grades of flour pass through the same meshes of the bolting-cloth. t Middlings (ovei'-fiow) to 2d purified dust, means ihat the middlings will he purified to the grade of 2d purified dust, then to 3d purified dust, and so on to 4th, 5th, and 6th purified dust, and 7th unpurified dust. PRODUCTS OF HIGH MILLING. In such a mill, the fine extract flour of grades Nos. 00 and 0 will not be obtained at all. Kick expresses a doubt whether the product thus obtained is superior to that of a well-appointed low-milling arrangement. 127. In the accompanying table, there are given the successive steps of the various processes by which wheat is milled in a thoroughly-appointed Hungarian mill. To a layman like the writer, such a scheme seems almost bewildering in its repetition and detail, in its division and distribution of products, and their final collection and gradation. It is to be remembered, however, that the movement of the various products by means of horizontal transferring screw-work. in connection with elevators, shoots, and switches, becomes a mere matter of power in the engine. 128. It is to the circumstance of the comparatively recent development of the high-milling process in Southern Germany that the designation by numbers is not a more absolute guide in determining the actual value of the grades of flour to which these numbers are attached. Bakers were accustomed to speak of the products of the Austrian or Hungarian high millingas being of ten grades; but, in the products of the Hungarian Walzmiihle at the Exposition, there were altogether twelve, including the groats and two grades of bran; while in the mills at Debreczin, already referred to, the subdivision was greater still. 129. In deciding upon the relative excellence of the products of the different mills submitted to'the International Jury, the comparison was made, as already stated, with the best 45 per cent. of the product. This included, in the Debreczin mills, the three grades of grits, the 0 grade of flour, and the first five numbers. These were distributed as follows: Per cent. A B, C grits and flour No. 0........ 6 Flour No........................................-..... 6 Flour No. 3............................ 7 Flour No. 3............................................. 7 Flour No.4-.......................................... 9 Flour No. 5-.............:-....................................411 45 The remaining grades were as follows: Per cent. Flour No. 6.................................................. 12.0' Flour No. 7......................................... 10.0 Flour No. 8.................................................. 8.0 Foot-flour No. 9.............................................. 1.0 FlourNo.10........................................ 0.5 II. Bran............................. 20.0 Dust ---------------—. —--------------—. —--------—....... 0.5 Evaporated —.........................................3.0 59 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. In the products of the Hungarian mills in Prague, the 45 per cent. includes: Per cent. Flour No. 00 Flour No. 0;i-.**...-as.Xa.X.Ao,18, Flour No. 1.........................................13.8 Flour No. 2.................... -................. 8.6 Flour No. 2~................................................. 4. 5 45.8 130. It is obvious that for commercial purposes, where the grades making up the best 45 per cent. are to be mixed together, the finer graduation would not be recognized, and as a matter of practice the flour used for the Kaiser Semreel or Imperial rolls in the Vienna bakery at the Exposition rarely fell much below the best 45 per cent. of high-milled HIungarian wheat. It is from this 45 per cent., or from more or less of the higher grades included in it, that the famous Vienna bread is made. 131. The names or numbers and the percentages corresponding to' these numbers as produced at the Prague high-milling establishment are: Flour No. 00, imperial extra. Flour No. 0, extra flour. Flour No. 1, Fllour No. 2' baker's extra or fine flour Flour No. 3, fine flour. Flour No. 4, roll-flour. Flour No. 5, white pollen. Flour No. 6, black pollen or bran and foot-flour or sweepings together. Wyngaert, in "' Die Miihle," No. 36, 1870, gives the following proport-,ons of the different products yielded by the Hungarian high-milling process, which, it will be seen, are apparently inferior to the results ob tained at the Debreczin mills. From wheat of average weight. 83 to 84 87 to 88 pounds per pounds per metze. metze. There were produced Per cent. Per cent. 4.25 5.00 5. 53 5.75 5.76 6. 25 5.51 6. 75 6.48 7. 75 7. 12 7.50 13. 30 15.'00 11.85 11.00 9. 95 8.75 4. 36 2. 25 6. 32 4. 25 S. 94 9. 40 6. 87 7. 25 3. 76 3.10 100. 00 100. 00 Lady-groats —----------------------------------—........... Table-groats, fine......................... —............................ Table-groats. coarse.................................................. —-------------------------- Extra imperial flour. —---------------------------------------------- Extra fine flour........................ —---------------------------------------------—. -—. — Ordinary fine flour....................................... —-------------------------------------------—.......... Extra roll or semmel flour.......... —-------------------------------------—.. Common roll or semmel flour......................................... First pollen flour..................... —.. —------------—............................... Second pollen flour..................................................... First dust-flour...................... —--------------------------------------------—.. Second dust-flour.......*................................................ Brown pollen flour.................................................... Foot-flour......... —--------------------------------------------------—. ---—. Fine bran...........................-.................................. Coarse bran..... —------------------------------------------------—.. Chicken-feed, loss, and dirt ---------------—....................... I I I 60, i I A B c 0 I II III IV v VI vii viii ix F G H I i CYLINDER MILLS. According to this, there would be an average produced from 100 pounds of wheat of from 34 to 39 per cent. of the better grades of flour. 132. From a comparison of these two tables with that of the P-rague Hlungarian mill, given by Kick and presented below, it will be seen that the numbers afford at the best but an imperfect guide. The Prague and Debreczin mills yield 45 per cent. of the choicer grades, while the results of the mills cited by Wyngaert give an average, as shown above, of 34 to 39 per cent. Flour No. 00, imperial extra 18 18. 9 Flour No. 0, extra Flour No. 1, baker's extra...................... 13 8 1 3 45. 8 Flour No. 2, baker's extra.............. 6 v86 Flour No. 2:, baker's extra............................ 4. 5 4 Flour No. 3, fine flour................................. 12.6 Flour No. 4, roll or semmel flour....................... 11.9 Flour No. 5, white pollen.............................. 7.3 Flour No. 6, black pollen................................ 4.5 Bran and sweepings..................................... 98. 5 133. BUCHHoLz CYLINDER-MILLS.-There has appeared in England a combination of the grinding and bolting processes of great apparent Fig. 51. = rI' K'.- 1, —--- l - p1 —,I ~~~~~\'?~~~~:' @...............................................w I'd...= Ala I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ !i ~- _iF -' -..~~~~~...... —:.......... T a + it a__ XF~~~~~- l [ i i 61 i VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. simplicity, which may properly claim a place in this connection. It is shown in section in Fig. 51 and fromn the end in Fig. 52. ~\\~~\1 ;~~ TV~~ 11t-1111111 I I 1 UrIIIli Fig. 53 exhibits a pair of cylinders one-twelfth of the actual size. Fig. 53. E~\~~ _ ___ L _ ~~~j ____ I Fig. 54 is a centrifugal apparatus for grading the grits after the separation of the fine flour by the process of bolting. The cylinders revolve with unequal velocity, and are all set in motion by a single large cog-wheel, M M. The pointed and purified grain is fed in between the highest pair of rollers L L, to be cracked as it passes I l,ii l't l [III I i'i!, -I.[ | IIIli l filfliili .[....i -.111- ----- --- -I- — ~o ~ u s~ SlIiti'i!iJU II 14,i'!!, L l I 11' I- - iii i ~. -Il i'' ! iol on 'i; :119 — il 'i i( L!1 62 . -...... -.Krllil!i am 11111111 i iD~ i...;...; CYLINDER MILLS. through into coarse fragments, and more or less flour, grits, and bran, which are received upon the inclined shaking-sieve X, where they are sorted; the grits and fine flour passing through to the trough P, to be discharged into the upright receiver R. The groats and bran pass on to the next pair of rollers, to be further reduced to finer groats, grits, flour, and bran. Falling upon the second sieve, the flour and grits pass through to the trough P, while the bran and groats pass on to the next pair of rollers, and so on until the groats having been reduced to grits and flour, all the bran is collected in T T, and all the flour and grits in S S. The screw conducts the flour and grits to a bolt, where the flour is bolted off, and the remaining grits graded in the centrifugal machine shown in Fig. 54. Fig. 54. ,gj.,j:r$%i /y "' /".1J qw 4, i W, IL C. r III d1 134. The average production of the Hungarian mills on exhibition at the International Exposition at Vienna gave, according to the report of van den Wyngaert and Dr. Thiel, jurors from the German empire, the following results: I~ 63 I..,,,.. B I VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. er cent. 6.2 7. 8 6.3 5.0 5.0 5.0 16.5 11.9 9.4 2.2 9.1 11.2 0.4 4.0 100. 0 Flour No. 0O.................x..................... Flour No. 1.............................-....... Flour No. 2.................................-...... Flour No. 3................................................ Flour No. 4............................................ Flour No. 5............................................5..0 Flour No. 6............................................ a.5 Flour No. 7....................... Flour N~o. 8................................ Flour No. 9....8.................... Fine braun.......-...-.-......-..-..........-........... Coarse bran............................................. Chicken-feed -... e..........-e-.- e....................X Dirt and vapor.......................................... 135. THE LOW MILLING. The following table presents the results obtained by the low-nmilling process inll North Germany, submitted for comparison at the Exposition: Name of the product. 1 2 3 Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Flour No. 0............................................. 650 65.0 75.. o 05 Flour No. 1....................................................0. 0 80 4. 90 7.9 Flour No. 2 —---------------------------------------------- -. 0 7.0) -00) FlourNo.2..................................................... I Pollenflour..... 2. 5] f —----------------------— 3. 7. *0 Coarse or groats bran.. —----------------------------------— 3.0 2 18 J 6. 70 17.8 Fine bran................................................... 1 I Coarse bran, with hull.................................... 15 5J 5.5 11.15 Loss..................................................... —------------------------------------------------—...... 5. 0. 0 2.20 The following table exhibits the average results of the high-milling process as obtained from wheat of high order of excellence (from 86 to 87 pounds per metze) in the Vienna mills: Per cent. Flour No. 0................................................. 4 Flour No. 1............ a —-—..... ——...... —-— 20 Flour No. 2.................................................... 10 Flour No.3......................... 12 Flour No. 4............................................ 12 Flour No. 5.......................................... 12 Flour No. 6........................................ 6 Offal, (bran).......................................... 20 Dust............................................-* 4 As contrasted with this, the high-milling process yielded to C. Genz, lHeidelberg, the following products: 64 PRODUIJCTS OF LOW MILLING. er cent. 25.5 15.5 5.0 25. 0 3.5 1.5 1.5 11.0 8.0 0.5 3.0 Flour Xeo.0............................................... Flour No. 1............................................. Flour No. 2............................................ Flour No.3............................................. Flour No. 4.................................................. Flour No.5..............................................Flour No.6.............................................. Fine bran............................................... Coarse bran............................................... Cockle..................................................... Waste and loss............................................... And the following were obtained by C. iledlrich, in Glanchau, Saxony: Per cent. Extra imperial flour........................................... 23.3 Flour XNo. 00.............................................. Be5.6 Flour XNo. 0......................................... 5.8 Flour No. 1...................... -...................... 8. 3 Flour o.2...................................................11.2 Flour:No.3............I..................................... 15.0 Overflow................................................... 2.1 Groats bran............................................. 0.8 Fine bran.....................-............. —... —- 8.0 Coarse bran.......................... 10.1 Clippings bran............................................. 1.7 Waste.................................................. 3.9 Vapor and loss.............................................. 4.2 136. In view of the foregoing tables of results, the necessity of a congress of millers for the purpose of devising, for universal adoption, systems of numbers qualifying the grades of flour, each number having a definite qualitative signification, is self-evident. The numbers in each system of millinlg, high, half-high, or low, should manifestly admit of simplification and greater precision of meaning. 137. Without attempting to go further into the practical details of the high-milling processes as practiced in Austro-iHungary, we may see that the object to be gained in the alternate slow reduction of the grain and its grading and cleaning is to effect the utmost possible separation of the bran, the objectionable colored part of the grain, from the white interior, and to effect this by so slight production of heat that no deterioration of flour will take place in the process. The flour produced by the high-milling process, as a necessary result of the numerous boltings and siftings, is again and again exposed to the air, and will have the 5 V B 65 0 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. dryness due to the climate of the region. This will necessarily prolong the period during which, without artificial drying, it may be kept without deterioration. 138. AMERICAN IMPROVED MODES.-Within the last three or four years, great improvements have been made in the better class of American mills, including the purification of commercial wheat, the adoption of the principles of the half-high milling, the Walzmiihle or cylinder grinding, and numerous improved devices for purifying the connell or middlings. A system introduced from France two or three years since, in which the rate of revolution of the stones is greatly reduced, is specially suited to our northwestern spring-wheat, and is said to increase the yield of merchantable flour by 8 per cent. Our method of packing in barrels is commended by German writers, although the Hungarian flour is, in general, transported in sacks. As has already been mentioned, it does not require artificial drying in order to "keep," as would be required if the grains were moistened preliminary to grinding, or as the plump, white, softer berry of the less favorable climates than that of Hungary makes necessary. 139. The flour that has uniformly stood first in our eastern markets, certainly until within a very few years, was the so-called southern flour. The wheat from which it was made was southern wheat, and was earlier in the market. The kernel was flinty and slightly shrunken. Some brands could be shipped with safety on long voyages. One of the best in repute was packed in barrels, hot, as it came from the bolt, while other flour, in the best class of mills, was uniformly cooled in the open air before packing. The brand that enjoyed this high repute, on analysis yielded at 212o Fahrenheit only 8 per cent. of water, while ordinary flours gave from 12 to 16 per cent. The latter became sour and musty when kept for long peri;.ods. The former experienced no deterioration. The reason is probably this: the heat consequent upon friction in grinding the choice brand had driven out from one. quarter to one-half of the water removable at 2120 Fahrenheit; some of it water of hydration, from the gluten. This reduction in the quantity of water lessened the mobility of the molecules of the gluten, and with it, the capacity to undergo incipient fermentation. In this dried condition, the flour was packed in barrels, and the air and its moisture excluded. It was permitted to cool without opportunity to re-absorb moisture. In the case of ordinary flour, the cooling process of stirring in the open air, with the hopper-boy or its equivalent, gave opportunity for the water to be absorbed from the atmosphere. In the former case, the flour would keep for indefinitely long periods. In the latter case it would keep sweet but a comparatively short time. In the former case, the barrel of flour of 196 pounds, packed while hot, was the equivalent when fresh of from 204 to 212 pounds of flour packed after cooling in the open air. For immediate consumption, the difference in value was frotm 4 to 8 per 66 0 AMERICAN METHOD)S. cent. in favor of the flour packed without cooling. For shipping pur. poses, the difference in value was of course much larger. 140. The appointments in some American mills are so complete as to enable the miller to extract the sound grains of wheat from the most varied mixtures with foreign seeds and impurities. For example, a sample of wheat obtained in the corn-mnarket may contain sound wheat, sand, straw, stalks, chaff, oats, cockle, mustard, buckwheat, grass-seed, chess, corn, (maize,) blasted wheat. 141. This will be first passed through au inclined, revolving, cylindrical screen, having two grades of wire gauze. Through the first grade, the sand will escape. Through the second grade, all the remainder will drop except the corn, (maize,) and the larger bodies, like stalks and straw, which will go on to the tail of the screen. The mass, freed from sand and the coarse matters, will then be fed in a thin cascade upon the jogging, inclined, perforated plates of the separator, already described, p. 22, which will remove the oats, chaff, and small fragments of straw on the one hand, and the mustard, cockle, grass-seed, and blasted wheat. grains on the other. Of these separators, a very inferior wheat would pass through three sets; then through three smut-machines with beaters, and a fourth provided with brushes; and then through a fourth separator, to remove the fine fragments, the headings and pointings produced in the smnut-machi.nes. Then follows a duster. Next the product of purified and pointed wheat passes to the run of stones, where a single grinding reduces the whole to meal. In the mill specially examined, the stones were 52 inches in diameter, having logarithmic, spiral furrows -6 to i of an inch deep, with finelygrooved, alternating lands of about equal area, the leading furrows running to the eye of the stonie numrnbering 22, alternating with 22 short furrows running into the leading furrows. From the stones, the meal issues at a temperature of about 120~ Fahrenheit, and is conducted to the bolts, where the first fine flour is separated from the remainder of bran, middlings, feed, tailings, &c., which are afterward graded by bolting. 142. The finer bran of the middlings, after passing through the middlings-purifier described on p. 52, goes into the "feed." The coarse bran goes to the bran-duster. The white interior, having been detached from the hulls, is conducted back to re-enter the whole meal on its way to the bolts. The middlings (grits) may be ground separately or discharged with the purified and pointed wheat directly into the run of stones. The running stones make about 170 revolutions per minute; the bran-dusters, about 450 revolutions; and the smnut-machines, about 500 in the same time. The above is an outline of the processes observed in Jewells Brothers' mills at Brooklyn, N. Y. 67 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 143. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOUR.-The best wheat flour has a faint, pleasant aroma; is dry, heavy, by transmnitted light having a light shade of clear brilliant-yellow, and readily balls in the hand. An inferior article, when pressed in the hand, shows a quality of adhesion, retaining the form imparted by the pressure. LUnder the microscope, cells of larger and lesser size are readily recognized, and also the still lesser cells of albuminoid bodies, which, unlike the starch-cells, are not colored with iodine, and also portions of the frame-work of the cellular tissue of the interior, in which the starch and albuminoid cells are lodged. 144. Dr. Julius Wiesner, professor in the University of Vienna, of the international jury Group IV, in an elaborate paper upon the morphology of wheat-starch, recognizes three kinds of starch-granules, under the names of the lenticular, the small spherical or polyhedric, and the compound grains. The last variety had not been recognized by previous observers. They are found in the interior of the gluten-coat, and are made up of from two to twenty-five individual granules. These compound grains are rarely found in commercial starch, and seldom otherwise than'in broken fragments. In admeasurements, the greater number Fig. 55. of the grains showed two very unlike mag (f,~, z nitudes, the one of the large lens-shaped, Em C s c and the other of the smaller grain. /fl> X < 145. The accompanying diagram (Fig. 55) exhibits the different forms under a \ agnifying power of 1,000: a, the large 0 C t lenticular simple starch-grain; b, the small simple starch-grain; c c, the compound ~~, pg ~starch-grain; d d, fragments of the com ~I ~W pound starch-grain; e, the fragment of a cog-l e ~) twin starch-grain. The diameters of the Compound lenticular starch-gran- large lenticular starch-grains are given ules, (Wiesner.) in the following schedule: Varieties. Least di- Greatest di- Most fre VY~arieties. ~ameter. ameter. -qetedi ameter. Millimeters. Millimeters. Millimeters. Triticum vulgare (1)............................................. 0.0140 0.0390 0. 0282 Triticum durum (2).............................................. 0.0110 0.0360 0.0261 Triticum turgidam (3)........................................... 0.0176 0.0411 0.0290 Triticam spelta (4)............................................... 0.0154 0.0396 0. 0270 Triticum dicoccum (5)........................................... 0.0111 0. 0301 0.0259 Triticum monococcum (6)........................................ 0.0120 O. 0270 0.0195 (1) Twenty-three varieties from Mlihren, Hungary, France, Italy, Chili, and Victoria (Australia) were examined. (2) Six varieties from Mlihren, Hungary, France, and Algiers. (3) Fifteen varieties from Miihren, Lower Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, England, East India, Chili, and New South Wales. (4) Four varieties from Wiirtemberg and Baden. (5) Two varieties from the Vienna collection; origin unknown. (6) Three varieties from the Vienna collection; origin unknown. 68 CHIIARACTERISTICS OF FLOUR. The same varieties of wheat that were employed in the determination of the magnitude of these granules served for the measure of the small s tarch-granules. The small starch-granules gave the following magnitudes: Least di- Greatest di- Most fre Varieties. ameter. e quent di an~et r. am ameter. Millimeters. Millimeters. Millimeters. Triticum vulgare................................. —-----------------------------------------—.... 0. 0022 0.0082 0. 0072 Triticum durtum.................................................. 0.0022 0. 0078 0. 0072 Triticum turgidum............................................... 0.00-25 0.0082 0. 0072 Triticum spelta................................................... 0. 0025 0. 0079 0. 0070 Triticum dic occum............................................... 0. 0018 0. 0068 0. 0066 Triticum monococcum............................................ 0.0018 0. 0060 0.0058 146. The compound starch-grains are found in the outer as well as inner layers of the gluten-coat; more frequently, however, in the inner layer. The quantity of these grains in comparison with the larger and lenticular grain is not large, the general form is elliptic or egg-shape, and they frequently exceed in size the large lenticular starch-grains. The largest of the compound grains measured by Dr. Wiesner had a diameter of 0.0324 millimeter. It is easy to distinguish under the microscope between wheat-starch and the various other starches in commerce, by their size, forms, and markings, with the exception of the starch of rye and of barley. In Fig. 56 are rye-starch grains, magnified 750 times; and in the next figure, 57, we have the starch-grains of barley, magnified 750 times. . The difficulty arises from the circumstance that the starch-granules in the seed are found alike in the gluten-coat of the wheat, rye, and barley, and are of substantially the same size. In the wheat-grain that has begun to grow, the starch-grains present the appearance given in the following diagram, (Fig. 58.) Fig. 58. Fig..56 ,.',.A'..>;,Fig. 57. C ( )~i Rye starch-grain. Barley-starcb. Starch-growing wheat. Lesser fissures than those shown in the cut are also sometimes to be observed in the starch-grains of perfectly sound wheat. 147. GCLUTEN-CELLS.-On page 4, we have a cross-section of the coats of the wheat upon a scale of four hundred diameters. In the accompanying diagram, (59,) we have the ripe barley-grain on a cale of three hundred diameters. It will be remarked that the glutencoat presents'from two to three and even more layers of cells. In the following figure, (60,) we have a section of the oat-grain. In Fig. 61, we have a section of rice. 69 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. In Fig. 62, we have a section of Indian corn; and in Fig. 63, a section of rye. Fig. 59. {'h k I)t, Barley. Fig. 61. P K P K tm\~ II ~:~: Fig. 62. A Indian corn. R ice. Fig 63m J. =~ '-a Indian corn. Rye. 148. Upon comparing these sections with each other, it will be seen that the structure of the different grains that have served from time immemorial as the material for the supply of farinaceous food of the world, has certain great distinguishing characteristics. WVithin a series of layers of woody fiber, serving for the protection of the nutritious interior, and otherwise coin aratively worthless, we have one or more layers of cells, containing the nitrogenous compounds and phosphatic salts, which serve the most important purposes of nutrition, as they largely furnish the materials for the various tissues of the human organism; and within these layers, to the center of the grain, a mass of starch-granules, larger and lesser, and cells containing albumi noids, supported in a loose frame-work of cellular tissue. c 70 Fig. 60. sit K l~~~~ad K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Oa,t. )II" , ) HUNGARIAN PRIZE FLOUR. 149. Thie art of milling in its perfection consists in the disintegration, not destruction, of these tissues and cells, and the removal from them of the woody fiber. This is more perfectly accomplished in the milling of the wheat than in that of any of the other grains, with perhaps the exception of the rice, and yields the whitest and to the palate the most acceptable flour. 150. fHUNGARIAN PRIZE FLOUR.-ln comparing the flours of the dif ferent countries with each other, the jury, in the first place, compared with each other the best 45 per cent. of the wheat of all the products of high milling; then all the products of half-high milling were compared together, and lastly the products of low milling. The average of the products of the Hungarian mills with the high milling process stood (0 being perfection) 0.015. Of these, the flour of the Pesth Walzmiihle held the first rank. The director of the mills, llerr Dosswald, received an imperial decoration. Of this flour, I ob tained the complete series, including the grits and brans. The interest that attaches to this collection led me to make an analysis, which is herewith submitted. 151. Bytreating0 flour with iodine, it is easy to make every large starch granule blue, while all the minute grains (nitrogenous bodies) remain unchanged in color. Then, by treating another portion of flour with ammonio-nitrate of silver, the minute particles (nitrogenous bodies) will become yellow, while the starch-granules remain unchanged in color. This latter experiment proves at the same time the presence in the nitrogenous bodies of phosphoric acid, indeed of phosphates. The No. 0 Hungarian flour has, under the microscope, a cleaner look. is freer from fine particles (of the albuminoid bodies?) than the product of low or half-high milling, as shown in the best grades of western flour ill the Boston market. The mode of grading pursued at the Pesth mill would separate the finest particles; and as these are chiefly the little granules corresponding in appearance with those in the gluten-sacs of the inner shell, it is at once explained why the nitrogen should be less in the zero flour of Hungary. 0 El ax 0 _84. _: 14.65 10.76 10. 76 II. 02 it.o0 11.15 11.54 11. 79 1l. 54 I2. 18 12. 69 14.16 10. 57 10. 37 10. 23 10. 47 10.07 10.24 9. 66 . 112 10. 99 9. 86 9.71 il.01 Grits............................................. Imperial selection, or extra...................... Semmel-flour, or roll-flotr........................1 Bread-flour...................................... Black flour......................................... Fine bran...........................................6. Coarse bran....................................... 71 .2 0. 24 0. 14 0. 21 0.22 0.17 0.25 0. 35 0. 24 0. 21 0. 36 2. 96 1. 74 I- 1) 0 1 A No. 0 No. I No. No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No..7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 0. 44 0. 42 0, 46 1. 03 1. 02 1.19 0. 61 1. 04 0. 81 1. ot 7.32 4. 21 2. 25 1. 68 1. 68 1. 72 1. 72 1. 74 1. 80 1. 84 1. 80 1. 90 1. 98 2. 2i VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION) 1873. 152. These results will be intelligible if we understand that in the main the numbers may be regarded as qualifying the composition of the berry as one goes outward from the core to the surface of the unbranned or clipped grain. The grits are coarse fragments of the interior, carrying with them more or less of the gluten-coat, from which the true bran has been removed. It will be remarked that the ash, or mineral portion, increases from the core to the surface; and that the phosphoric acid obeys the same law, though the rates are not the same. The nitrogen, as representing the total albuminoid bodies, also increases except in the grits, (A,) and in that the nitrogen is in marked excess. Fig. 64. 11 .,l on~. C11i Xi ei 11 _5 C3 -. ~-C OQ g,4 C)-, - -T -,,, " - -::... X, F 1. C) 11 Pk o C:J a; ._4 OT/ ~ [),1l P 0.5 Co f 40 oJoC 4 aoCo C Jfi j 20 t,1) 10 —\1 Fe Fe 0 2 8 72 I ,2 'i PA 1. 0 1.I pq 1.2 pq 11 P4 ;z 2 P4 z rA z 6 Z. pq i 4 pq -3 0 30 0 2 1 10 0. N C,,l HUNGARIAN PRIZE FLOUR. 153. Dempwolffmade, at the instance of the late Baron Liebig, an elaborate analysis of the products of the Hungarian Talzmiihlen, which I add in an appendix. One of the striking results of Dempwolffs analysis I have illustrated in the foregoing cut, (Fig. 64.) Hie found the phosphoric acid to be about 50.per cent. of the ash in every part of the berry. The oxide of iron and the soda were each present in small quantity, and each in its constant percentage of the ash in all parts of the berry. The lime and potassa, however, increased from without inward-from the surface toward the core-while the magnesia diminished. 154. The cut also exhibits the relative total weights of the different products in percentages, indicated by volumes. 155. The white body of the interior of the berry is, for the most part, a mass of starch-grains of sizes, according to Prof. Julius Wiesner, ranging in diameter from 0.0110 to 0.0410 millimeter; or an average of about the one-thousandth of an inch. Embedded in this mass of starch are clusters of cells of a diameter ranging from 0.0022 to 0.0082 millimeter, or an average of two ten-thousandths of an inch in diameter, and containing nitrogen in their composition. These cells are the depositaries of the albuminoid bodies and the mineral constituents found in the interior of the berry. Among these smaller cells are also small starchgranules. OnI crushing a lump of the grits and placing it under a microscope, the,starch-granules are seen surrounded by a great profusion of these albuminoid cells. As compared with No. 0 flour, the relative proportion of starch-granules in the latter is vastly greater. It would seenm, therefore, that the cohesion of the mass in a lump of grits is a coincident fact, if it be not due largely, to the presence in it of the albuminoid bodies. 156. The composition of the 0 flour and the A grits is indicated in the following figures: A grits. Ash................................ 0. 4 4 Phosphoric acid....-........ —-....... —................... 0.24 Nitrogen.....-...i,...................... 2.25 Occasional lumps of the grits are seen to have still adhering to them the gluten-coat, and even portions of the outer bran-coat. The presence of phosphoric acid in the minute grains of the interior of the grits may be readily shown by immersing the crushed grits in a solution of ammonio-nitrate of silver. The minute albuminoid cells become yellow, as already shown, from the formation of tribasic phosphate of silver, and are quite readily distinguished from the minute starch-grains. 157. In comparing this flour No. 0 with ordinary low-milled flour, under the microscope, one remarks a striking uniformity in size among the particles of the latter. One also remarks relatively very few broken or bruised starch-grains in the high-milled flour, while the reverse is true of the low-milled flour. 73 0 flour. 0.43 0. 14 1. 68 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 158. It would seem that the grits are due to the presence, in the par ticular mass of starch-grains and frame-work of cellular tissue, of some agglutinating material binding the grains and tissue together. Under the microscope, this material is seen in clusters of minute cells embedded in the mass of starch, and corresponding in size with the minute cells that fill the gluten-sacs. If a grits-fragment be moistened, and subjected to pressure upon a glass slide, and the upper thin glass plate be moved about, the tenacity and elasticity of the material of the albuminoid cells may be readily discerned. This is in keeping with the greater measure of gluten and the larger percentage of nitrogen in the grits as compared with that in the finer grades of flour. This explanation of the nature and cause of the grits, as produced by the process of high or half-high milling, is in keeping with the climatic conditions which make a flinty wheat-that is, which cause a more rapid exhalation of moisture and an arrest of movement of the nitrogenous constituents toward the periphery of the berry. The flour-granules-that is, the finer portions resulting from abrasion of the grits-contain less gluten than the grits, for the obvious reason that, had they contained more gluten, they would have been less readily reduced to powder. 159. MODE OF TESTING FLOUR.-This belongs to the class of un written arts. To the inexperienced eye, all grades of flour, except the very worst, appear white, when each is examined by itself. When, however, several samples are placed side by side, and their surfaces made smooth by drawing over them lightly a polished spatula, they are seen to differ from each other in color, and especially if the samples be placed upon blue paper. The shade of yellowness will be seen to be due in some instances, as a magnifying-glass of moderate power will show, to minute particles of the interior bran still adhering to small grits; to fragments of the color-coat, especially the portion in the groove of the berry; or to fragments of the embryo. It may also be due to the actual color of the interior of some varieties of slightlyshrunken, hard, or flinty grain, which, when cut with a knife, presents, in the cross-section, a shade of pale reddish-yellow. Any blue shade which the flour may present will be due to the minute fragments of the hulls of black foreign seeds, or possibly to particles of smut. The feeling of grit in the flour, to be determined by rubbing between the thumb and finger, is one of the qualities in which flours from grains of unequal hardness differ from each other. 160. The aroma of the flour of recently-ground, fresh, sound grain is grateful to the sense of smell. But if the flour be old, and especially if it has not been adequately dried, or has been made from wheat " grown," or sprouted; in the shocksor has been subjected to excessive heat in the process of grinding, it will exhale products of fermentation that are more or less offensive. 74 TESTING FLOUR. 161. If a small sample of flour be moistened with half its weight of water, and wrought into dough with the thumb and finger, it will exhibit the degree of tenacity and elasticity and a certain quality of liveliness, as it is termed, which causes it to return to its original form when extended or indented, upon which the baker depends to make his bread porous. If the gluten, of which this tenacity is the normal property, be greatly deteriorated, the dough will " run," and the inferiority of the flour for those purposes which depend upon the tenacity and elasticity of the gluten will be proportioned substantially to the facility with which the dough "runs." This softening of the gluten points to rusted wheat, or wheat grown upon fields richly manured with concentrated organic manures, or wheat deteriorated from the presence of foreign seeds, as those of wild onion, but more frequently to flour that has itself been heated, or flour produced from wheat that has been wet and not properly dried, or grown in the field after harvesting and before housing. 162. The chemical examination consumes more time, but also determines certain points of importance which can be ascertained in no other way. The percentage determination of the nitrogen has been shown, by the researches of Krocker and Horsford, (Liebig's Annalen,) to be sufficient to determine at once with great precision the percentage, on the one hand of the gluten and associated albuminoid bodies, and on the other the starch with its small quantities of dextrine and sugar. The determination of the ash by burning, points at once to the percentage of nutritive mineral matter, as the phosphates for example; and the deter mination of the water which may be driven out at 212~ points to the susceptibility of the flour to spontaneous deterioration. The larger the percentage of moisture present the less likely is the wheat to keep. The determination of the starch and gluten by subjecting a weighed quantity of flour moistened and fashioned into a ball of dough to a slender stream of water will yield a trustworthy result for the starch, but only for the gluten of perfectly sound flour; and even in that the vegetable albumen, caseine, and cerealine of Mege6 Moiries will be more or less dissolved and lost. 163. The whole of the nitrogenous bodies may be separated from the starch by treatment with diluted acetic acid, and, after the settling-out of the starch, the determination of the specific gravity of the solution will give the amount of the nitrogenous constituents. HUNGARIAN MILL INDUSTRIES. 164. In the pamphlet accompanying the collective exhibition of the product of milling of Btuda-Pesth and the cities of five Hungarian provinces, it is stated that the products of the wheat are exhibited in one kind of grits, nine sorts (No. 0-8) of flour, and two kinds of bran, (coarse and fine.) The Hungarian mill-industry is based in general on the total cereal production of the Hungarian kingdom, but especially 75 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. on the quality of the Hungarian wheat. Besides being rich in flour of extraordinary keeping quality, it contains more gluten than other varieties of wheat. The milling-art is so conducted that, taking advantage of every improvement in rendering it more perfect, the great excellencies of the raw material are rendered appreciable and brought into service. The Hungarian flour produced by high milling is, in the points of purity, whiteness, yield and keeping qualities, not equaled by that of any other country. Its keeping quality has been illustrated under trying circumstances-in transportation by sea under the equator, where for a whole year it has yielded from every 100 pounds of flour, 160 pounds of bread, of characteristic nutritive value and excellent taste. The mills of Buda-Pesth, for the most part erected or enlarged between 1865 and 1869, cost about $5,000, 000. They contain 500 run of stones, and 168 Walz sets (of three pairs each) of steel rollers. They have a capacity of about 1,000,000,000 pounds of wheat per annum, valued at $37,000,000. The mills of the provinces erected between 1862 and 1872 cost about $1,250,000, have 128 run of stones, and grind about 200,000,000 pounds of grain, having a value of about $7,500,000. 165. The preceding discussion will have qualified us to appreciate the excellence of the material from which the renowned Vienna bread is made, and we proceed to the discussion of the preliminary steps to its production. 76 CHAPTER III. MAKING YEAST BREAD. 166. BREAD.-Bread in its widest signification comprehends all the forms of farinaceous food which have been subjected to the processes of the culinary art. It embraces, besides loaf-bread, rolls and biscuit, the cracker, tl merely boiled dough, the griddle-cake, and the numerous fanciful forms of farinaceous confectionery. For the most part, when fitted for consumption as food, they have received a cellular structure, and are light. The practical advantage of this porosity is that when eaten the digestivefluids-the saliva and gastric juice-readilypenetrate the mass and promptly perform their function. The objection to " heavy" bread is that its digestion is retarded, and that is because the digestive fluids come in contact only with the outside of comparatively large masses; the absence of cellular structure preventing their penetration to the interior. 167. The superior digestibility of porous bread was known to the ancients, but, because its preparation required the use of flour already in a state of fermentation and decay, which filled the mass with bubbles and was offensive to smell and taste, it was proscribed from sacred uses on account of its conceived impurity. For these uses unleavened bread, which was a sort of Graham wafer, was required. This was mainly a product obtained by heating to a baking temperature a thin layer of paste made of whole meal or cracked grains and water. The term bread, in its more limited signification, is applied to porous loaves and rolls. If the product contain butter or sugar, or spices or perfumes, or fruit, it is pastry, cake, or confectionery rather than bread There are exceptions to this definition. The mixed rye and wheat bread of Austro-IHungary, and the inferior roll and Semmel bread have sometimes, to disguise the odor or taste, a few caraway-seeds. 168. To secure the cellular structure of the bread, it is necessary that the flour should have a constituent which, when moistened with water at common temperature, shall possess two of the properties of India rubber, tenacity and elasticity; and that these properties shall, in a great degree, be lost oni subjecting the moistened flour or knieaded dough to a certain elevated temperature. This body which nature has provided in the cereals is gluten, and in wheat it is associated with a mass of starch of remarkable whiteness and purity, and yields, when properly prepared and the baking processes are properly conducted, a product VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. exceedingly grateflil to the palate. This palatability in the best forms of bread is partly due to the changes wrought in the starch of the inte rior crumb, which is largely a mere physical, not a chemical, change, and the changes which take place in the starch and gluten of the exte rior crust, due to incipient destructive distillation, or roasting, and partly to the absence of special or marked odor and taste in the bread as a whole. 169. FERMENTATION.-The knowledge that whole meal wet with water will go into spontaneous fermentation must have been coeval with that of the first use of leavened bread. The philosophy of the changes which the flour undergoes in fermentation is of comparatively recent study and practical development. That a small portion of flour already in process of active fermentation would, when mixed with fresh flour and water, cause it to go into more prompt fermentation than when leftto spontaneous change, must also have been known at an early period. Upon this was based the practice of setting apart a portion of the dough of each batch of bread to be employed in raising the succeeding batch, and this process prevails largely over the world at this day. 170. Pure starch mixed with water experiences no decomposition, but pure gluten mixed with water and set aside in a warm place, soon begins to swell from the production ot gas-bubbles in its interior, and to exhale products at first grateful but at a later period offensive to the sense of smell, and from having had at the outset qualities of tenacity and ,elasticity, which permitted the formation and retention of gas-bubbles, it loses its tenacity in great degree, so that its bubbles escape from the larger volume, and the porous mass collapses to a smaller volume, and the material itself becomes semiliquid. The changes it has experienced have given to the mass an acid reaction; it has become sour; various volatile products have been formed; the permanent fluid portions have taken on new composition and new qualities. If this mass be examined with a powerful microscope, it is found to contain, besides the materials furnished directly from the flour, numerous very minute bodies, of an irregular spherical form, which have been ascertained to be capable of carrying with themselves the capacity to produce fermentation when transferred to fresh mixtures of flour and water. These little bodies are the yeast-plant. They are the minute agencies of fermentation possessed by the sour dough. They are contained in countless myriads in a cent's worth of baker's yeast. They constitute the actual value in the brewer's and distiller's yeast. They are the principal bodies which are produced by following the various recipes for making potatoyeast, hop-yeast, bran-yeast, barm, &c. They are contained pure, with the exception of water, which constitutes from 70 to 80 per cent., in the moist German press-yeast cakes. It is estimated that a single cubic inch of the air-dried press-yeast contains some 1,200,000,000 of these minute organisms. 171. The researches of Dr. Julius Wiesner have shown that the fresh 78 FERMENTATION. yeast-cells (that is, cells taken from a fermenting fluid) are, for the most part, spherical or slightly elliptical, rarely oval, having an average greater diameter of 0.0087 millimeter. They are sacs, as shown in Fig. 65; a containing granules, as seen Fig. 65. in b, and are, for the most part, 7 filled with the jelly-like proto- a plasm, the center of which ap- C pears more transparent from t the presence of a little air-cell, or vacuole, as indicated in c; d is the jelly, ar protoplasm; and e, the thin space, or vacuole. The cells increase by budding. According to Pasteur, the young cells do not separate from the parent cells until they have attained to nearly the same size. According to other authors, including Mitscherlich, the yeast-cells also increase by bursting and diffusing their granular contents through the liquid; the granules then developing into cells. 172. Blondeau maintains that the young cells once separated always remain isolated, and never form branches, or elongated cells, like those that accompany lactic fermentation. 173. The following outline-diagrams (Fig. 66) illustrate the growth Fig. 66. . 1. . 2 After 25 hours QiQ;> At16ho4 After 16 G hours After 9 hours 5, 1 2-A 6 At 40Gor After 40 hour s After 73 hours of the yeast-plant from hour to hour, as observed under the microscope by Mitscherlich, (see vol. i, p. 372, Mitscherlich's Lehrbuch.) The yeast-cells were taken from the mualt-extract, placed between glass 79 4. 2. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. plates, the edges of which were covered with melted wax to prevent evaporation, and kept at a temperature of about 66~ Fahrenheit. The drawings were at intervals, as follows: 1, parent cell; 2, after 9 hours; 3, after 71 hours more; 4, after 8~ hours more; 5, after 15 hours more; 6, after 33 hours more. 174. The younger cells not yet separated from the parent cells appear hyaline, crystalline, or extremely fine-grained. In perfectly-developed cells, one distinguishes readily the glassy, bluish plasma, (gelatinous contents of the cell,) and in the midst of it one or two, rarely three, reddish-appearing cavities having an average diameter half that of the cell. If these cells are transferred from a fermenting fluid into distilled water, they are observed immediately to swell with increase in size of their cavities. After a few days, they are enlarged to diameters occasionally as great as 0.138 millimeter; the cavities become enormously large, and sometimes fill the whole, and in elliptical cells extend from wall to wall bounding the shortest diameter. If, however, the yeastcells are placed in a solution containing 20 per cent. or more of sugar, the cells lessen in size and by slow stages are reduced to one-half their original dimensions, and the cavities entirely disappear. These experiments show that the cavities are increased by addition of water and reduced by its abstraction. 175. By drying the cells till they cease to lose weight-that is, first in vacuo and then in an air-bath at a temperature of from 2300 to 248~ Fahrenheit-they may be reduced to a diameter of from 0.0045 to 0.0068 millimeter, when the cavities will have entirely disappeared. They become shriveled and assume a yellowish tint. These dried cells will again take in water upon exposure with very great avidity. In a solution 10 to 15 per cent. strong of sugar, these cells become charged with numerous small reddish drops of water, having the appearance on a small scale of the larger cavities before mentioned. Wiesner distinguishes between these cavities and the former ones as abnormal and normal cavities. The normal cavities are for the most part single, and seldom exceed three in number, while the abnormal are reddish, numerous, and spread about through the plasma of the cell. 176. Drying at a temperature of 2120 Fahrenheit continued for several hours will not kill the yeast-plants, but all except the very youngest go over into the condition of abnormal cavities. The young cells that have had no cavities will be the starting-point for fermentation, when yeast so dried is added to a solution of sugar. The presence of numerous cavities is an evidence of impaired capacity for producing fermentation. The young undeveloped cells have no cavities except in very diluted solutions. The young full-grown cells have large cavities, and the old cells have the numerous small cavities. All yeast-cells having cavities convert sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Those having the abnormal cavities-that is, the numerous cavitiesand those which have 1o cavities, having, first of all, either from age or any 80 FERMENTATION. other cause, passed through the stage preceding the formation of abnor mal cavities, produce no fermentation; they are dead. The young cells, though without cavities, as they develop will acquire normal cavities, and then will produce alcoholic fermentation. Solutions containing only from 2 to 4 per cent. and from 20 to 25 per cent. of sugar, seem most favorable to the chemical and physical conditions of fermentation. In such solutions, the fermentation is complete. Solutions containing from 12 to 13 per cent. of sugar, or above 25 per cent. of sugar, do not undergo complete fermentation. The relations therefore of concentration and dilution of solution, influencing, by endosmosis and exosmosis, the condition of the contents of the cavities of the yeast-cells, determine the best circumstances for fermentation. The relative quantities of carbonic acid, alcohol, succinic acid, butyric acid, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and glycerine-which arise in the process of fermentation are evidently dependent on the relations of the water to the protoplasm of the yeast-cells, and obviously also upon the percentage of sugar or concentration of the solution. 177. The following diagrams from Enyrim exhibit various appearances of the yeast-plants as observed by him. Fig. 67. ~,-~. ~~ ~,~ ~Fig. 68. 0 e" 0'' //'ll, $ Fig. 69. a 11, In Fig. 67, we have the appearance of yeast taken from mash, eight hours in fermentation, exhibiting the germs and the increase by budding and their union in the form of chains or threads.* Fig. 68 exhibits the developed yeast-plant and the series of successive developments. In A, we have the cells with their cavities capable of * They seem also to be charged with the abnormal cavities observed by Dr. Wiesner, andtherefore incapable of alcoholic fermentation., 6 V B 81 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. producing alcoholic fermentation; in B, we probably have the cells as observed by Dr. Wiesner. containing numerous abnormal cavities no longer capable of prod uci-ng alcoholic fermentation and in C, D, E, and F, probably the yeast-plant present with the lactic fermentation. Fig. 69, which is from the upper ferment of white-beer yeast magnified a thousand-fold, illustrates, in a, the parent cell, which in b is elongated, in c still more elongated, in d resolved into two adhering cells, the parent and the bud, and in e the young cell separated from the parent bud. 178. Dr. Hassall, well known from his researches on the subject of adulteration of food, has traced the yeast-plant, as he believes, successfully through these various stages of development. Blondeau recognized the elongated or branch cells as connected with the lactic fermentation. The weighty investigation of Dr. Wiesner has shown that the only forms of yeast-cells capable of producing alcohol and carbonic acid in solutions of sugar are the nearly round cells, which, in the observation of Pasteur, are produced by budding, and remain in contact with the parent cell, to be separated only when they have-attained to nearly equal size, and thereafter, according to Blondeau, maintaining their isolated condition, and which have acquired normal cavities. 179. THE THEORY OF FERMENTATION.-The theory of fermentation is not yet settled. Pasteur, the advocate of the notion that the division of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid is a concomitant of the vital processes of the yeast-plant, and, as a consequence, that the living yeastcell is indispensably necessary for alcoholic fermentation, has the support of Hlelmholz since 1844. Pasteur has shown that if the spores of the yeast-plant (Penicilium glaucum or Mycoderma ini) be sown on the surface of a fermentable liquid, having taken care to exclude all other germs, the fungus grows -and develops on the surface an air-plant, absorbing oxygen from the air, and giving off carbonic acid, without the production of alcohol. If the liquid be agitated, and the film submerged, for a time there is no further change; but if the proper temperature be maintained, after a while bubbles of carbonic acid are given off, and the liquid yields alcohol on distillation. According to Pasteur, whether the yeast-plant shall occasion putrefaction or vinous fermentation in a fermentable liquid-such as a solution of sugar-depends on whether the growth takes place in the air at the surface of the liquid, or within the liquid below the surface.* Pasteur cites the following experiment: "If we half fill a flask with a fermentable liquid, such as a solution of sugar, and, having taken care to exclude aIll'other germs, sow on its surface some spores of Mycoderma tvini or Penictitim glaucum, the fingus grows and flourishes on the surface, feeding on the organic matter in -the solution, absorbing oxygen from the air, and throwing off carbonic-acid gas. In this case, no alcohol is produced. If we now shake the flask, the film of fungus sinks through the liquid, and for a time there is no further change; but, after resting a little, if the tern 82 FERMENTATION. 180. A ferment is a living body, which is special in this respect, that it is capable of performing the functions of its life apart from free oxygen; it cn assimilate directly oxygenated matters, such as sugar, and derive from them the requisite amount of heat; and it further can produce the decomposition of a much greater weight of fermentable matter than the weight of the ferment in action. Pasteur has found that ferments, such as yeast, lose their fermenting power-that is to say, the amount of organic matter decomposed diminishes and approaches the weight of the ferment employed-exactly in proportion to the amount of the oxygen supplied. 181. Pasteur claims to have shown, and this is one of the most curious results of his investigations, that t'le same fungus does not incite or maintain the alcoholic, the acetic-acid, the lactic-acid, or the butyric-acid fermentations, but that these changes are produced by different species, nearly allied but distinguishable from one another under the microscope; the specific differences between them extending to this strange difference in their powers of nutrition or respiration, which induces different reactions in a fermentable fluid.* This may be said to have become perhaps the more prevailing opinion of the men of science of the day. Baron Liebig, so recently lost to science and the world, was the great defender of the opposite view, that the division of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid was a phenomenon belonging to a numerous class in chemistry, where compound bodies in a state of comparatively unstable equilibrium are resolved into simpler groups by taking on the motion of other bodies in contact with them and in the condition.of motion,:and experiencing the molecular movements attenda-it upon this particular kind of motion. One of the most reecent researches -upon this subject is by Manassein, of St. Petersburg, under the direction of Dr. Wiesner, made in 1871. The Tesult of his research is embodied in the following sentence: " Upon the basis of all these experiments, I consider myselfjustified in maintaining that the living yeast-cell is not necessary to alcoholic fer metation.,1 He adds, "It is more than probable that the specific ferment in the living yeastcell, and in some varieties of mold, is produced as the emulsion is in sweet almonds." It is well known that this emulsion produces fermentation without any instrumentality of organic forms. 182. -Still more recent researches have shown that alcoholie fermentation attends the growth of several genera and:numerous species of yeast-plants, from which it is plain that alcoholic fermentation is a phe perature be kept up, bubbles of carbonic-acid gas-begin to rise from the fungus, which continues to grow, although more slowly. Fermentation sets ininstead of putrefaction, and alcohol is produced in sensible quantities. The one great change which has been produced in the circumstances of the fungus is that it has now been almost wholly excluded from contact with free oxygen, while, in its former condition, it was bathed in it." Upon this change, according to Pasteur, depends its now acting as a ferment instead of inducing putrefaction. * Nature, -p. 80, 1872.-Address by Wyville Thompson. 83 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. nomenon attendant on a peculiar molecular condition which many microscopic plants pass through. Liebig always maintained that this was a dynamic condition, not necessarily connected with growth or vitality. This conclusion is supported by the startling discovery, made by Pasteur himself as well as by Lechartier and Bellamy, that sound fruits containing sugar, brought into an atmosphere free from oxygen, begin to produce carbonic acid and alcohol without the instrumentality of the fermentation of yeast. Pasteur held, in 1861, that oxygen is necessary to the growth of the yeast-plant. If the oxygen is present as such, or free, the plant consumes it, and partly assimilates the sugar and partly burns it. If the oxygen be not free, it is taken from the sugar. This view is not sustained by other and more recent researches. 183. O. Brefeld gives (in Wagner's Repertorium, 1873,) the following results of an investigation of the subject of alcoholic fermentation 1. The alcohol-ferment requires, like all plants, for its development as a vegetable, the action of free oxygen. 2. In the exclusion of the air-the exclusion of free oxygen-the yeast-plant cannot grow. 3. It is a mistake to assume that the yeast-plant instead of free oxy. gen can take to its growth and increase combined oxygen from a body rich in this ingredient, like sugar, for example. 4. Again, it is a mistake that upon this accredited peculiarity of ferment to vegetate-to grow upon combined oxygen-the process of fermentation depends. 5. The alcoholic fermentation is excited by living yeast-cells that are shut off from free oxygen and do not grow. 6. The fermentation is in this case the expression of an abnormal, imperfect, vital process, in which the necessary material to the growth of the yeast-plant-the sugar, nitrogenous and mineral substances, and free oxygen-do not all work together to the simultaneous and harmonious growth of the yeast. The sugar by itself, or in mistaken relations to the other nutrient substances, will be decomposed and separated by the yeast-cells. The yeast-cell which possesses the power in this abnormal vital process will show enfeebling of its vitality to continue for weeks. 7. The yeast-cell has great affinity for free oxygen; it possesses the power to grow in carbonic acid that contains less than 6ol of its volume of free oxygen, and perfectly consume the whole of the oxygen. This affinity for free oxygen is not possessed by the lower types of mold, with the exception of Mucor racemosus and the nearest related organisms. The yeast-plant is, by reason of this property, an extremely fine reagent for oxygen. 8. By reason of the strong affinity of the yeast-plant for oxygen, united with its peculiarity of living in fluids, and rapidly to multiply and grow, there comes in fluid media, in which the yeast-plant grows, a dearth of free oxygen, and with it the phenomenon of fermentation, as, for example, in the art of beer-brewing. 84 HEAVY OR LIGHT BREAD. 9. There may arise in a fluid, fermentation and growth of the yeastplant at the same time, even when the surface is in direct contact with the free air. Neither from a theoretical nor from a practical standpoint is the possibility shut out that fermentation and growth may both take place at the same instant in a yeast-cell; that, therefore, the growing yeast-cell which is in inharmonious relations to the free oxygen present may ferment thie sugar it has absorbed. 184. EFFECTS OF FERM;INTATION.-The action of the, acids of ferment is well known. Tlhey tend to liquefy the gluten, and deprive it of its tenacity and elasticity. [With time, gluten dissolves in acetid acid; this being the foundation of one of the methods of determining the amount of gluten in the flour. The gluten is dissolved away from the starch; the starch weighed'by itself; and the gluten determined, as we have seen, from the specific gravity of the solution.] It is also well known that dough too far advanced in fermentation (old leaven) yields offensive products both to the taste and smell, including butyiic ether and other offensive products. 185. VWHY IIUNGARIAN FLOUR WILL MIAKE LIGHT BREAD.-We are now able to see how the superiority of the Hungarian flour produced by the high-milling process is intimately connected with the production of the Vienna bread, which is entirely free from acidity and any offensive odor. The gluten encased in its cells, not having been crushed, is but slightly exposed to the action of the press-yeast. The press-yeast is capable of converting the starch into sugar, and sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. The nitrogenous constituents, owing to their protection within cells, largely retain the integrity of their chemical constitution. The tendency to lactic fermentation, where portions of the gluten are in solution, and, as a consequence, of the acidity degrading or liquefying the gluten and so making the bread heavy and sour, or of butyric acid and other compounds, offensive to the taste and smell, would manifestly be increased by the rupture of the gluten-cells, which is produced in much larger measure in the process of low milling. WHY BREAD MADE FROM OAT, RYE, OR BARLEY MEAL IS HEAVY.We have hitherto spoken of gluten as the body upon the tenacity and elasticity of which the capacitylof the moistened flour to hold gas-bubbles depends. Strictly speaking, this quality is due to a portion only of the body separated from the starch of flour by washing with water. The body so obtained, on treatment with alcohol, is resolved as already pointed out, into two substances; one soluble and the other insoluble in alcohol. Of the portion soluble in alcohol, there are two, one called mucine-vegetable caseine, and the other called glutin, or glyadin, or vegetable gelatine. It is to this vegetable gelatine that the capacity to hold gas-bubbles is due, and it is because wheat contains a notable portion of it that this grain will yield a highly porous bread, and other cereal grains, oats, rye and barley, for example, which contain only traces of vegetable gelatine, yield only heavy bread or bread deficient in porosity. It is this vege 85 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. table gelatine, the degradation of which by acids produced in fermentation, and so eausing a diminution of its tenacity, that deprives the walls of the cells in the sponge of their cohesion and allows it to collapse. It is in consequence Of this liquefaction of the vegetable gelatine that flour which has from any cause become sour is no longer capable of making a light or highly cellular bread. 186. To counteract this deterioration, Liebig proposed the use of limewater, which arrests the liquefaction of the vegetable gelatine, and by some kind of combination restores more or less its tenacity. Ritthausen found that solution of sulphate of lime possessed the property of increasing the tenacity of gluten, and so facilitated its separation from the starch of flour by the process of washing. The same end is effected with inferior flours by the employment of small quantities of alum in solution in making the dough, and also in the use of small quantities of sulphate of copper and sulphate of zinc. All these agents have the effect of increasing the whiteness of the bread produced over that which would be produced by the simple process of fermentation. Meg6 Mouries conceives that the darkening of the dough, which sometimes occurs even in the use of white flour, is due to an excess of lactic fermentation produced by cerealine, the nitrogenous constituent soluble in water which he finds in the gluten-coat. This action which produces at first proportionally more dextrine, at a later period yields, at the expense of the gluten, ammonia and a brown substance. It is to the predominance of this ferment in the dough of black bread that its extreme dark color is to be ascribed. The presence of acetic and butyric or lactic acid is objectionable, because it tends to liquefy the gluten and make the bread heavy and sour to the taste; so also any offensive gases or ethers, such as accompany putrefactive fermentation; so also the degradation of color. 187. PROBLEM OF A B3READ YEAST.-It will be seen from the foregoing that the problem of a bread-yeast is the production of a yeastplant capable, within a limited time, of producing only alcohol and carbonic acid; the alcohol by itself producing comparatively little effect upon the dough, and the carbonic acid serving only by its productioh of cellules or pores, in every part of the interior of the mass of dough, to give the bread lightness. Such a yeast was the ideal yeast sought by the Vienna bakers, and for which they offered their prize, won by Mautner, of St. Marks, Austria. 188. THE PRESS-YEAST. —Historically, the prebs-yeast dates back to 1847 and the introduction of the yeast from beer, only to 1817. Up to that time, the sour dough, and a mixture of sour dough and hops obtained by boiling, were the instrumentalities for producing porous bread throughout Austria and Southern Europe. At this time in Vienna there was introduced by the bakers a roll made with a finer quality of flour by the process of sweet fermentation, (that is, with yeast,) which was called the imperial roll, (Kcaiser-Semmel.) From this time to 1840, nothing new appeared, though there was constant demand for the sweet fermented rolls. 86 PREPARATION OF YEAST. At length, a prize was offered in 1845by the Association of Vienna Bakers, (an association which has kept its records from the year 1452 down,) for the independent production of a good yeast, and the trades-union recognizing the importance of the object, offered to the discoverer the loan of its great gold medal. The offer of these prizes met with success in 1847. Adolf Ignaz Mautner, succeeded in producing the desired article, and in 1850 the prize and the medal were awarded for the production of his cereal press-yeast. From this point on, the baking-industry made rapid development throughout the Austrian empire, and at the Paris Exposition in 1867 the Vienna bakery was recognized as the first in the world. Vienna may therefore.,properly claim the double honor of having been the seat of the first development of the art of high milling and the birthplace of the use of press-yeast. 189. To give some idea of the development of this industry, the press yeast sold by A. I. Mautner & Son is herewith presented: Zollverein pounds 1846..............................................,. 72 400 1852........................................ 380, 600 1862.............................. 1, 144.,.500 1872............................................. 3, 170,000 In recognition of the magnitude and importance of this branch of industry,v, the council of the international jury of 1873 gave to this firm the Grand diploma of Hionor. 190. PREPARATION OF THE PRESS-YEAST.-The press-yeast is obtained by skimming the froth from the mash in active fermentation, which contains the upper yeast, and repeatedly washing it with cold water until only the pure white yeast settles clear from the water. This soft, tenacious mass, after the water has been drawn off, is gathered into bags and subjected to hydraulic pressure until there remains a semi-solid, somewhat brittle, dough-like substance, still containing 80 per cent. of water. This is the press-yeast. It is then resolved into packages of definite weight up to four pounds, and wrapped in paper, and supplied to the market. Such yeast in summer will keep for eight days, and for an indefinite time on ice. 191. There are several modes of producing the press-yeast. The writer visited the press-yeast manufactory of the Brothers Rheininghaus at Steinfeld, near Graz, bteyermark, which is upon a large scale, and the products of which attracted especial attention at the Exposition. In this establishment, both beer and alcohol are produced. In the preparation of the press-yeast, coarse rye-meal is preferred. The wheat-groats are less suited, probably because the excess of gluten interferes with the removal of the water by pressure. Potatoes can be employed, but the yeast produced is not so effective or lasting. Malt is employed to produce sugar. One part is enough for the perfect mashing of eighteen parts of flour. The mashing has for its office the conversion of starch into sugar. This takes place best at a, temperature of 1400 to 145~ Fah 87 0 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. renheit. In from two to six hours, the conversion into sugar is complete, which may be recognized by the sweet taste. This solution is cooled to a temperature of from 750 to 800 Fahrenheit, and then active yeast should be added at the same temperature, stirred intimately, and left at a temperature of about 750. . To facilitate the rising of the yeast-cells, an alkaline carbonate and diluted sulphuric acid are added. To every 100 pounds of the flour, half an ounce of oil of vitriol (H 0, S 03) diluted with water and its equivalent of bicarbonate of soda are employed. The disengaged carbonic-acid gas in rising to the surface carries the yeast-cells up with it. The foam that rises to the surface is skimmed off and repeatedly washed with water. The water is drawn off from the yeast-cells that settle out at the bottom, and the white deposit gathered in cloth bags, and the excess of water removed by pressure. 192. Xavier Zettler, of Munich, employs a mixture of equal parts of rye-malt, unground wheat, and slowly roasted barley-malt. These three are intimately and finely ground together, and to this mixture 4 to 5percelt. of steamed and driedfinely-ground potatoes are added. These are made into a mash with water at a temperature of about 1450 to 1500 Fahrenheit; then sufficient water is added to make it into a uniform emulsion, which will carry the temperature down to 1200. To bring it back to the temperature for the production of sugar, (from 1400 to 1500,) water of a temperature of 2000 is added with constant stirring. The mash remains now from twenty to twenty-four hours, during which the lactic acid produtced liquefies the gluten. When this has taken place, which prepares the mash for rapid fermentation, the emulsion is rapidly cooled by the addition of cold water and the employment of a cooling-apparatus to the temperature of 750 to 800, and the yeast added in the proportion of four parts yeast to a hundred of the malt-mixture. This mixture is stirred up in fresh water, and added to a small quantity of the mash in a separate vessel, in which the fermentation proceeds rapidly. When it has attained its highest activity, it will be returned to the whole mass. This now remains ten to twelve hours, during which the perfect fermentation will have commenced, and the whole mass have gone over to the period of the production of yeast-cells. When this period has closed, which will be indicated by the falling of the mash, the foam will be skimmed off, repeatedly mashled in fresh water, permitted to settle out, collected, and pressed. The details of the processes pursued in the establishment of Rheininghans, at Steinfeld, and of Mautter & Son, in St. Marks, I am not in position to communicate. Before proceeding to the description of the use of the press-yeast, it may be well to glance at the other processes of making bread in use in Germany and France, which have gained a place among the bakers of those countries. 193. The PU~IPERNICKEL OF WESTPHALIA, which is made from whole 88 1 0 PARIS WIlEAT-BREAD. rye-meal, and which is substantially the black bread produced by slow baking in large loaves, and used among the lower classes, and in the airmies of Eastern Europe, is usually made without the use of yeast, employing only the leaven or dough of the previous batch to secure the desired porosity. The ordinary bread of rye-flour, or of mixed wheat and rye,.made in loaves, and so extensively in use in Germany and Austria among the peasant classes, and also among the higher classes, because of its greater nutritive value than the bread made from the higher grades of wheatflour, is now generally made with the aid of yeast. 194. PARIs WIHEAT-BREA1D.-In Paris, the wheat-bread is produced in the following manner: The fermentation is made to depend chiefly upon the gluten of the dough; yeast being employed merely to introduce and facilitate the action. 1. A lump of dough remaining from the last batch of bread, consisting of 8 pounds of flour and 4 pounds of water, 12 pounds, is set aside at eight o'clock in the evening. This is left till the next morning at six o'clock, and constitutes the so-called fresh leaven. 2. This is then kneaded with 8 pounds of meal and 4 pounds of water, which gives the once revived leaven, 12 pounds. 3. At two o'clock in the afternoon, the baker kneads in 16 pounds of flour and 8 pounds of water, and this gives the second revived leaven, 24 pounds. 4. At five o'clock in the afternoon, he adds 100 pounds of flour and 52 pounds of water, to which from two to three tenths of a pound of yeast have been added, making 152.2 pounds, and altogether? of dough, 200 pounds. 5. At seven o'clock in the evening, he adds to this dough 132 pounds of flour and 68 pounds of water, with from three to six tenths of a pound of yeast and 2 pounds of salt, and kneads the whole to a mass of dough, which weighs altogether about 402 pounds. From this portion of dough, he makes five b1atches of bread in the following way: First baking: He takes half of the dough, fashions it into loaves of the proper size and form, sets it aside for a while at a temperature of 700 Fahrenheit to rise, and then puts it in the oven to bake. The bread so obtained has a sour taste and dark color. Second baking: The half of the remnaining dough is mixed with 132 pounds of flour and about 68 pounds of water, from three to six tenths of a pound of yeast and 2 pounds of salt, and the whole immediately kneaded. Half of this product is taken for the second baking. It is whiter and better than the first baking. Third baking: The remaining half of the dough left from the second baking is mixed with 132 pounds of flour and 68 pounds of water, containing three-tenths of a pound of yeast and two pounds of salt, and the whole immediately kneaded. The third baking is made from the half of the so prepared dough. 89 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The fourth baking is prepared like the third. Fifth baking: This is prepared as the preceding, and yields fancy bread, the finest quality produced. 195. MEGE' MOURIHS's METIEOD.-MIege Mouries has sought to introduce an improved method of bread-making. It is bread resting upon a mode of grading the products of milling, so as to yield from 100 pounds of wheat 72.72 pounds of flour and white groats; 15.72 pounds of brown groats; 11.56 pounds of bran. At six o'clock in the evening, to 40 pounds of water, at a temperature of 700, he adds the tenth of a pound of grape-sugar, and seven hun. dredths of a pound of yeast. This mixture he leaves over night at a temperature of 700. At six o'clock the next morning, the fluid will be saturated with carbonic acid. He then stirs in the brown groats, 15.72 pounds, when the fermentation immediately begins. At two o'clock, he adds 30 pounds of water, and passes the mixture through a hair-sieve to separate the bran from the added groats. The mixture separated from the bran weighs about 55 pounds. To this he adds the 72.72 pounds of flour, and seven-tenths of a pound of salt, and kneads the whole to a dough. The dough will be fashioned into loaves, in which the fermentation will go on, and then-placed in the oven to be baked. 196. By this process, Meg6 Mouries uses the 72.72 pounds of white flour and about 12.72 pounds which come from the brown groats. This process, although promising a larger percentage of white bread from a given weight of wheat, does not seem to have met with extensive introduction. 197. The method accredited to the London bakers is the following: The process contemplates the consumption of a sack of flour weighing 280 pounds. For this flour, 5 or 6 pounds of boiled potatoes freed from their skins, rubbed with from 2 to 3 pounds of the flour and one quart of fluid beer-yeast, and then intimately stirred with sufficient water to make the whole a uniform thin emulsion. Fermentation commences almost immediately, and after three hours the ferment may be used. It is at its maximum in about four or five hours. To this, 20 pounds of water are added, and the flour worked in till a stiff dough is formed. This is set in a warns place to ferment. At the end of an hour, the bubbles begin to swell the mass, soon the carbonic-acid gas escapes, and the dough falls. Soon after a second accumulation of gas-bubbles takes place and escapes. The next operation consists in diffusing this dough in water, making about 150 pounds in all, adding to this uniform emulsion 2 to 4 pounds of salt, according to taste, and then working in the, balance of the meal. The dough is allowed to stand for 1~ or 2 hours, and then fashioned into 4~-pound loaves, which are put into an oven of about 5720 Fahrenheit at the beginning, which falls to from 400~ to 430~ in the hour of baking. This process yields 94 so-called 4-pound loaves. 90 METHODS OF BREAD-MAKING. These two methods are circumstantial to the last degree. The Vienna method, which rests upon. the use ofpress-yeast, as will be seen, is much sim_pler. 198. SUBSTITUTES FOR FERMENT.-The discovery that the essential thing to making bread porous was a spring of carbonic-acid gas in every part of the moistened flour was made elsewhere as well as in Germany. Fifty years ago, in this country, bread was made by employing, in the place of leaven, sour milk and bicarbonate of potash, (saleratus.) The acid of sour milk (lactic acid) united with the potassa of the carbonate, and, setting the carbonic acid free, gave porosity to the dough. Thirty years ago, cream tartar (the acid tartrate of potassa) was substituted for the sour milk, and bicarbonate of soda for bicarbonate ot potassa. The cream tartar had the advantage over sour milk that, being a powder, it could be weighed, and thus the proper proportion be taken to exactly neutralize the soda of the bicarbonate, also a powder, and invariably yield a: white biscuit or bread. Besides this, the sour milk, varying in the proportion of its lactic acid, would, from its imperfectly neutralizing the soda, sometimes leave a portion of that constituent to discolor the product. As a substitute for sour milk, diluted hydrochloric acid was employed in England in the bread, with bicarbonate of soda, yielding commnon salt, which is a necessary constituent of farinaceous food. The attempt was made to saturate the dry flour with hydrochloric acid. so that the flour so prepared could, when required for use, be intimately mixed by sifting with aniothter portion of flour, with which an equivalent of bicarbonate of soda had been intimately mixed, and then the whole stirred up with water and immediately baked. Baronl Liebig modified this process, adapting it to the whole meal of rye or wheat, with a view to the increase of the nutritive value, by preventing the loss consequent upon fermentation of the dark bread in use among the lower classes in Germany. 199. In England, tartaric acid" obtained from cream tartar, was mingled with its equivalent of bicarbonate of soda, and this mixture with flour, yielding what was called a self-raising flour. It required only the addition of milk or water, in proper proportion to make a dough, and this might be immediately introduced into the oven and baked. The tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda promptly dissolving and reacting on each other in the water or milk, disengaged the carbonic acid, giving porosity to the dough, and with the baking the desired cellular structure of the bread. 200. DAUGLISH'S METHOD, AERATED BREAD.-The method of making bread, invented and introduced into England by Dr. Dauglish, recognized that the essential quality of an agent for making the dough porous was a spring of carbonic acid in every part of the moistened flour, and carried out to practical working, the idea of mixing the flour in a confined space with water charged under pressure with carbonic acid, (soda-water.) The dough so formed, on coming to the 91 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. air of ordinary atmospheric pressure, expanded under the influeiice of the expanding carbonic acid until the whole possessed the cellular structure of thoroughly leavened dough, when it was immediately put into the oven and baked. These various processes, like the yeast and leaven processes, contellmplated no addition to the nutritive value of the bread. 201. PHOSPHATIC BREAD.-A process having in view increased nutritive value to the bread, which was exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition at the request of the Archduke Albert and the minister of war of the Austrian government, will be described in the appendix, under the head of phosphatic bread. 202. CHANGES OF FLOUR IN BECOMING BREAD.-In popular use, we employ the word bread " to qualify loaves which are served in slices. The rollsaremuch smaller. Both consist alike of crumb and crust. The crumb is made up of a multitude of cells of thin walls containing carbonic-acid gas, the product of fermentation in the dough. These walls of the cells contain both gluten and starch and traces of dextrine and sugar. As a consequence of the treatment of water and the application of heat, the starch-grains, which, in their normal condition, are little sacs filled with minute granules of starch proper, have been swollen and burst. Starch similarly treated by itself, as in the preparation for stiffening linen in the laundry, when dried in a thin layer upon glass plate, for example, is transparent and presents a glazed surface. When this glazed material is removed with a knife-blade, it is seen to be stiff and,horny. The gluten, which is mixed with it in the crumb of bread, and which mav be conceived to be continuous, however thin throughout the wall of the cell, has been, by the process of baking, dehydrated; that is, the heat to which it has been subjected has driven out a certain amount of water, which chemically sustains something like the same relation to the gluten from which it has been expelled that the water expelled by heat from alum-crystals sustains to the original body of alum. This is the condition of the gluten from the crumb in the interior of the loaf at the instant of its removal from the oven. On drying, it abstracts the water from the starch with which it is coated, or intimately mixed, as the roasted alum absorbs the water that is sprinkled upon it. The starch by this pro. cess being dried and stiffened, gives its support to the walls of the cell, and renders the texture of the stale loaf more firm than that of the fresh loaf. 203. That the starch has undergone no especial change as the result of fermentation, beyond its conversion into glacial starch and the conversion of a certain small amount into dextrine or gum-sugar (glucose) and alcohol and carbonic-acid gas, is evident from the reaction which it gives with solution of iodine. It has taken on a property, which we observe in the boiled starch of the laundry, of drying in thini layers to a transparent, horn-like varnish, less readily taken up by water. The starch has also, in the mixing and kneading of the dough, become 92 PROCESS OF CHANGING FLOUR TO BREAD. incorp)orated with the gluten so that.after baking, when it has become the glassy starch, it is no longer possible to separate the gluten as a distinct elastic body, such as may b)e produced from flour. The gluten has been to some extent consumed in the process of fermentation, more especially in that form of it discussed by M6ge Mouries, where the bread is dark and sweet, and in which I have observed the presence of ammonia. In the alcoholic fermentation, the degradation of the gluten is less. 204. The examination of the crust shows that heat has produced a variety of effects of marked character. The application of the iodine test shows that the starch is no longer present. It has been converted into dextrine.* Portions of the dextrine, as well as of the gluten, have been subjected to slight destructive distillation, yielding at the outset, with proper temperature, an agreeable essential oil, the grateful aroma of warm, freshly-baked rolls. If continued too long, the destructive distillation produced causes the formation of substances less grateful to the sense of smell, bitter to the taste, and worthless for purposes of nutrition. Among the bodies thus produced, Reichenbach recognizes assamar, a bitter substance, the effcts of which on the human organism, according to v. Bibra, are akin to those of coffee. 205. In large loaves of bread, the thickness of the unpalatable crust is sometimes neatly half an inch, and this is not unfrequently sacrificed where such bread is made for the use of armies in the field. 206. Another effect of baking, and which is one of the chief results, is the coagulation of the vegetable albumen, one of the nitrogenous constituents of the flour, which is soluble in water, and which, diffused over the walls of the cells, contributes to their rigidity, and unites with the tenacious vegetable gelatine and the glassy starch in preventing the cell-walls from easily giving way after the requisite temperature has been maintained a sufficient length of time. 207. The test for phosphoric acid in the crumb, ammonio-sulphate of copper, or, better, ammonio-nitrate of silver, will show that the phosphatic constituents of the flour, as a part of the nitrogenous constituents, are present in every part of all the cells of well-made bread, and, therefore, that portions of the albuminoid bodies have been dissolved in the water used in making the dough. * The baker is well aware of thejpresence of gum, or dextrine, in the crust. If, by chance, the just baked loaf, instead of being removed from the bake-pan, is allowed to remain in it, the vapor of water, escaping from the fresh loaf as a consequence of the elevated temperature, striking the tin, which has cooled from exposure to the air outside of the oven, is condensed to water between the tin and the loaf, and, dissolving the dextrine in the crust, makes the surface of the loaf below the margin of the bakepan moist and sticky. - It is well known that thin slices of toast may be digested in a sensitive stomach without producing the distress occasioned by fiatulency, and which, when fresh warm yeast-bread is eaten, is due to fermentation. The process of toasting has not only destroyed the yeast-germs, but it has converted the starch into dextrine, which is incapable of fermentation, and so:of course incapable of producing fiatulency. 93 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 208. The principal desirable effect of the heat in baking the bread, as we have seen, is, therefore, the coagulation of the albumen in the cell-walls, by which their permanency has largely been secured, to the advantage of the office-of digestion and the destruction of the yeast-plant, as the cellular structure provides for the imbibition of the digestive fluids. The change wrought in the gluten is seen in the impossibility of obtain ing it by any process of kneading and washing applied to the crumb of the loaf. We now see why it is necessary that the heat applied to the exterior of the loaf should be longer continued where the mass is large than where it is small; why small rolls may be baked in from ten to fifteen minutes with a temperature of 500~ to 550o Fahrenheit, while a large loaf may require from one to three hours, according to the size. As the heat must be continued until the required change in the vegetable albumen has extended to the heart of the loaf, and as this takes time in proportion to the diameter of the loaf, we see why the surface may be burned before the interior is properly cooked; and, as a corollary, we see that the smaller the loaf the less change the surface will experience, the less injury it will receive during the time of its necessary stay in the oven to complete the cooking of the interior. 209. To prevent the burning of the crust, and yet produce loaves of considerable size, ovens are in use in Austria and to some extent in this country, in which, until the mass of dough is thoroughly cooked, the loaf is surrounded by steam; this also prevents the too rapid formation of crust, and its subsequent cracking, consequent upon the increasing pressure of the heated gases of the i-nterior, and so preserves a smooth exterior to the loaf. 210. The Austrian bakery in the Paris Exposition in 1867, for the production of loaf-bread, was provided with the steam-arrangement; but the oven of the Vienna bakery, on exhibition at the Vienna Exposition for the production of rolls, was a dry oven. Oneof the efifects of heat in baking is that of destroying the yeast-plant, as already mentioned; this, however, is incomplete, as has been shown by Dr. Wiesner. To a certain extent, therefore, the yeast-plan-ts con-t-i.nue to live for some time after the bread has been baked. It is partly to avoid the introduction of these living organisms that the universal practice prevails in Europe of eating the bread cold or stale. Another advantage is also gained by allowing the bread to become cold and dry. It is that the cell-walls coated with glassy starch-which renders them moist and adhesive when the bread is fresh and warm, and so disposes:the bread to ball and become less pervious to the digestive fl'ids* —ose this — adhesiveness on cooling -by the absorption of the water from the glassy starch by th-e * It is obvious that if the yeast-bread be eaten while warm, in the process of mastication it will become resolved by pressure into compact boluses, (the moist glassy starch being adhesive,) which having lost their cellular texture will resist the penetration of the gastric juices. Experiments made by Dr. Hammond, late Surgeon-General of the United States, who pressed the recently-baked yeast-bread into compact'condition, showed that they resisted much longer the digestive powers of the stomach. 94 STALE BREAD. gluten in contact with it in the cell-wall-s; which water of hydration, as will be more clearly seeen, had been driven from the gluten to the starch by the elevated temperature of baking. 211. WEAT IS STALE BREAD?-Experiments made by the writer to determine the cause of the moistening of the interior of dry stale bread by the process of toasting furnished the material for the explanation. Boussingault many years ago undertook the solution of this problem. He first showed that, in becoming stale, bread did not necessarily lose weight, as of water. He cooled recently-baked bread in hermeticallysealed spaces, and it became stale. He then sealed stale bread in a metallic tube and heated it. It became fresh, and again became stale on cooling. He repeated the process again and again, in all, forty times with the same sample, alternately heating and cooling, and with the last beating it became fresh, and with the last cooling it became stale. He concluded from his experiments that there was what he called a imolecular change in the crumb when heating, and again when cooling, and he thought he had explained it. Thenard, who listened to Boussingault's paper before the Academy, suggested that bread was a hydrate, fromn which water was drivenout by heat and reqabsorbed by cooling; but it would seem that according to this view fresh bread should be the drier of the two. Neither explanation was satisfactory. When I found that gluten was a hydrate from which a roderate heat would expel water, and that, on cooling, this water was again taken into the constitution of the gluten, I applied this fact to the solution of the problem. The stale crumb may be regarded as a frame-work of gluten, coated with glassy, dried starch, which is not readily dissolved by saliva. Of course, when taken into the mouth, it requires time before it becomes flexible, so as to be easily compressed and force out the fluids it takes up by virtue of its capillary action. But by heating, the water of hydration of the gluten is driven out; the starch which invests the gluten is moistened and rendered flexible; and the whole crumb recovering the sponge-like elasticity of fresh bread, yields its juices when mastieated, and is palatable. To test this, I placed in one end of a glass tube a quantity of thoroughly air-dried gluten, and hermetically sealed it; I then placed the end containing the gluten in warm water, and beheld a few moments later moisture condensing on the interior of the upper portion of the tube, which was cool. On withdrawing the tube from the water after a few hours, the film of moisture had disappeared. Water had been driven out from the gluten by heat, and had been re-absorbed on cooling. I then placed another quantity of gluten in the bottom of a tube, above it a tuft of cotton, and above the cotton a quantity of loose shavings of very thin glacial starch. Now I expected that if moisture was given off from the gluten, it would penetrate to the space occupied by the shavings, half liquefy the glacial starch, and make it adhesive. In this condition, the starch-shavings would be gummed fast to the glass, and it would no longer be possible to shake them about. 95 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 212. The experiment realized my expectations. The solution then of the question of the difference between stale bread and bread freshened by heating or by toasting is this: The gluten of the crumb-walls of stale bread which are stiff and brittle is dehydrated by the heat in freshening, and the water of hydration driven out softens the glacial, horny starch which coats and penetrates the gluten. Thus softened, the crumb is more palatable, because it is in condition to be disolved by the saliva, and tasted. On cooling, the water is withdrawn from the starch, which is thereby rendered stiff., and restored to the gluten, and the bread becomes stale. 213. EFFECTS OF HEAT IN BAKING.-Theeffect of the heat in baking, as shown in the difference between the composition of the crumb and crust of wheaten roll free from water: Crumb. Nitrogenous ingredients......................... 11.296 Dextrine, gLum, and soluble starch................. 14.975 Sugar.................................... 4.175 Oil............................................. 1.683 Starch.......................................... 67. 8 71 214. The crust has lost about one-half its oil, and a little of its nitrogen and sugar. It has gained in dextrine and soluble starch. The crumb has lost in starch, perhaps in the process of fermentation, which would be sooner checked in the crust. The relative amounts of water in the crumb and crust and total loaf of bread, as determined by Professor v. Fehling, are: Per cent. For the total loaf.......................................... 44. 30 For the crumb....................................... 48. 92 For the erust...................i.................16.23 A peculiarity of bread made from the use of yeast or leaven, where the kneading has been prolonged, and which is conceived to be an evidence of its superior excellence, is the so-called "'pile." 215. WHIAT IS PILE?-This term, familiar to bakers, indicates, when prefaced by the epithet "good," and applied to bread, that a loaf so distinguished may be separated into strips, somewhat like the husks that coat an ear of Indian corn, or the coats that invest an onion. How this should appear in a loaf produced from a body apparently so homogeneous as dough is thought quite extraordinary. The explanation is, however, quite simple. Where the gluten of the flour is unimpaired by heat or souring, it retains its tenacity, even when greatly attenuated. When the dough is kneaded, it is spread out and folded over upon itself, again and again, from the border to the center; the surface is repeatedly dusted with flour, until these thin layers of flour, at last after long-continued kneading are everywhere present in the loaf, separating thin sheets and strips of fermented dough, each strip containing fibers of tenacious gluten. Now this fine flour constitutes a series of films of relatively diminished cohesion, so that when the loaf 96 Crust. 10. 967 16. 092 4.149 0. 715 68. 077 p LOSSES BY FERMENTATION. is baked there are planes of easy separation alternating with sheetS,of tenacious crumb, having a direction from the bottom around the outside toward the center of the top, corresponding with the last foldings of the mass of dough, before placing it in the pan. These permit the loaf to be stripped off in coats, somewhat as pie-crust may be separated into flakes, and for a kindred reason. The pie-crust has been made by alternating layers of dough with layers of butter, and repeated foldings, to be followed with alternating extensions under the roller. 216. WHAT IS THE LOSS IN NUTRITIVE VALUE DUE TO TIHE PROCESS OF FERMENTATION?-This loss has been estimated by Dauglish as high as 10 per cent. It is due to the growth of the yeast-plant at the expense of the nitrogenous constituents of the flour, and to the conversion of starch into dextrine and sugar, and subsequently into alcohol and carbonic acid, both of which are lost; but which, in the conversion into gas and expansion by the heat of baking, give the raised loaf, which is about nine-tenths pores. or air-spaces, and one-tenth bread-substance. This estimated loss is conceived to be much too high. Heeren found the actual loss in weight to be 1.46 per cent., estimated on the anhydrous substance. Von Bibra found it but 2. per cent. Normandy's calculation, based on the production of carbonic acid to produce porosity, gives it at 2 per cent. The error in the high estimate is to be ascribed to the greater quantity of water which the unfermented porous bread is capable of holding. 217. THE QUESTION OF SIZE OF LOAF.-The Vienna bakers recognize in its fullest significance the proper relations between the crust and the crumb; so fixing the size of the mass of dough and so fixing the temperature of the oven that the bread when taken from the oven shall, every part of it, crust and crumb, be thoroughly cooked, none of it burned, and the whole, when warm, have an agreeable aroma, and, when cold, but fresh, shall be palatable in the highest degree without the addition of butter or edibles of any kind whatsoever. 7 v B 97 CHAPTER IV. PROCESSES IN THE VIENNA BAKERY. 218. THE PREPARATION OF THIE DOUGH FOR THE PRODUCTION OF VIENNA WHITE BREAD, T'HE IMfPERIAL ROLL.-[u nothing was the exposition of the Association of Vienna Biakers more striking than in its simplicity and cleanliness. Three classes of products were continuously turned out: first, the imperial roll, (the Vienna bread par excellence;) secondly, the loaf of rye and wheat bread and the loaf of pure rye-breadl thirdly, fancy bread, fruited cakes, sweet cakes, &c. In the latter division, the variety produced was immense. With regard to both these and the forms of rye and rye and wheat loaves, it is not purposed to go into fairther detail. Fig. 70. Kaiser-Semnmel, or Imperial table-roll of Vienna. 219. IMPERIAL ROLL, (or Kgiser-Semnimel.)-The bakery connected with the production of these rolls consisted of three departments: first, a store-room containing salt, fresh milk for daily consumption, and flour; secondly, the dough-roomn; and, thirdly the ovent-room; in the storeroom, the sacks of fine flour, including the best 45 per cent. of the high-milled best Huntgarian wheat, or a smaller percentage if the wheat was not of the best quality, embracing the grades from the imperial extra to No. 5. For the best imperial rolls made at the Vienna bakery, they employed DOUGH FOR VIENNA BREAD. only the first four grades, Nos. 0, 1, 2, and 3, about 18 fo 25 per cent. of the total wheat. These grades were also employed for the production of the tea-cakes, containing milk and butter, the Gipfel, or pinnacle cake, which has the form of a crescent, and contains milk and lard, and the Brioche, an oblong, slender roll, containing milk and sugar, neither of them containing water, mixed with the milk 220. The dough-roomn was an oblong apartment, well lighted on two sides. Along the center were racks for the support of long, smoothlyplaned, movable boards, on which the dough-balls of the Kaiser-Senmmnel were placed for transportation to the oven. Along one whole side, and a part of two others, was a broad shelf, or continuous table, breast-high, for handling the dough. Opposite the long table was a sink, and a supply of hot and cold water. At one end was a zinc-lined trough, about two feet and a half wide and about eight feet long, semicylindrical in form, for setting the sponge and 221. PREPARING THE DOUGII. Iito the middle of this trough, flour was emptied from the sacks, leaving the ridge sloping down to the ends. Into a pail holding about five gallons, equal parts of milk and water were poured and left to stand until the mixture acquired the temperature of the room, which was between 70o and 80~ Fahrenheit. It is then poured into one end of the trough, and intimately mixed, with the aid of the naked hands and arms, with a small amount of flour, making a thin emulsion To this three and one-half ounces of press-yeast by weight, after finely crumbling in the hands, to every three quarts of the liquid, and one ounce of fine salt, were added, and intimately diffused throughout the mixture. The trough was then covered and left undisturbed for three-quarters of an hour. At the end of this time, the workmen, step by step, thoroughly incorporated from the neighboring pile an amount of flour sufficient to give the requisite texture to the dough. The determination of this point belongs to the department of unwritten art, but practically does not probably vary in first quality of flour, day by day, five ounces in fifty pounds from the proportion indicated in the following table given me by Roman Uhl: 8 pounds of flour; 3 quarts of mixed milk and water in equal. proportions; 3~ ounces of press-yeast; ] ounce of salt. The mass of dough so prepared is covered and left for two hours and a half, at the end of which time it presents a smooth, tenacious, puffed, homogeneous mass of slightly yellowish color, which, when subjected to the pressure of the hand, yields to indentation without rupture, and oni withdrawing the hand recovers, in a short time, but not instantly, its orig - inal outline and smooth surface. It is now in condition to be weighed into pound masses, and cut with a convenient machine into twelve smaller masses of uniform equal weight, and having a thickness of about three-quarters of an inch. Workmen take individuallv these smaller 99 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. flat masses, lay the back of the forefinger of one hand upon each one in turn, and with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand draw out slightly each corner of the irregular mass, and fold it over to the center to be secured by pressure and adhesion, when the whole is reversed, and placed upon the smooth board, already mentioned, to complete the fermentation preparatory to being transferred to the oven. Before being introduced into the oven, the little rolls are again reversed, and restored to their original position, having considerably increased in volume, to be still farther enlarged in the oven to at least twice the volume of the original dough. They were distributed over the bottom of the oven near to, but not touching, each other, where they remained for about fifteen minutes, when they were taken out, with the same long-hantdled, thin, fiat, wooden shovel, or spatula, on which they were introduced. As all parts of the oven are not alike heated, some of the rolls are likely to bake more rapidly than others, and the workman who opens the door to examine them from time to time changes their places, replacing the more exposed with others from a less heated portion of the oven, so that but a small proportion are rejected as culls from having been overbaked. If it is desired to glaze the surface, they are touched in the process of baking with a sponge dipped in milk, which, besides imparting to them a smooth surface, increases the brilliancy of the slightly reddish cinnamon-color and adds to the grateful aroma of the crust. 222. TEE OVEN.-In regard to the construction of the Vienna oven, there seems to be nothing of complexity to challenge attention. It wasmade of brick, presenting the edges and not the fiat surfaces, having a very low arch. The floor was oblong-oval in form, having an inclination toward the door of about eight degrees. The ovens in the city were built substantially on the same simple plan. The oven was fired eight times in the tw6nty-four hours with dry ight wood. The baking for the day commenced at two o'clock in the morning and closed late in the afternoon. The person in charge of the oven of the Exposition was introducing and withdrawing the rolls and changing their place from cooler to warmer places or the reverse at short intervals during the whole time between two firings. As the rolls were brought out, any that were overbrowned were culled out, to be sold elsewhere than at the Exposition restaurant, and at a cheaper rate. 223. Fig. 71 is a vertical section through the greatest depth, and Fig. 72 a section through the greatest horizontal diameter, of the average Kaiser-kremnmel, of which 12 weigh 500 grams, one-half a kilogram. One Kaiser- Semmel weighs 643 Troy grains. 224. ADVANTAGES OF THE VIENNA BREAD-SECRET OF ITS EXCELLENCE.-From what has been said, it will be apparent that the virtues of this bread had their origin primarily in the Hungarian wheat. These are not- due to any particular variety of wheat, or to any marked peculiarity of soil or mode of fertilizing, or to a mean annual temperature 100 1: I.... CAUSES OF SUPERIORITY. characterizing the climate of Hungary as a whole, but, as already intimated, to a peculiarity of the climate, uniting special dryness of the air during the hot season, from the time of the development of the milk of the berry through the period of its segregation of the various constituents of the grain, down to its being housed for thrashing. Fig. 71. I\ IS ~;~., - Fig. 72. 7~~ x ~ I ~ ~ With a view to finding out what influence the climate of Hiungary exerts on wheat, I have been furnished by Graf Zichy with several samples of great interest. They are original Australian white wheat, 101 :IX I * e ee e eeee te) ee VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. and the produce of a portion of the same sample, on Hungarian soil, after some years. The changes, if one might form a conclusion from so limited a range of observation, seem to be, in the first laace, (a) from white more or less to redness, that is, a change in the amount of red or orange pigment in the color or seed coat; and (b) a change to a more flinty quality of the grain; and (c) a more shrunken berry; in the second place, to the process: of grits or high milling, by which the organized formns of the grain are disintegrated or detached from each other without crushing, and opening the gluten-cells, which renders the flour produced by the low-mnilling process liable to become musty and sour; in the third place, to the employment of a selected portion of the flour so produced, varying, according to the quality of the wheat ground, from 25 to 45 per cent. of the whole grain; and, in the fourth place, to the introduction of press-yeast, which renders the process of making dough quantitative, and less a work of art; avoids the lactic, acetic, and other offensive fermentations; and yields a bread. the dough of which has been subjected to the process of purely vinous fermentation, producing only alcohol and carbonic acid, and imparting no taste due to the action of yeast; and, lastly, to the production of the bread in rolls or loaves, so small as to provide for the thorough cooking of the interior, at the same time that a thin, aromatic, palatable crust of substantially unimpaired nutritive qualities has been uniformly produced over all the surface, without any portion of it having been rendered inedible from heat too high or too prolonged. The temperature of the oven at the Vienna Exposition was not far frpm 500o Fahrenheit. 225. As the coagulation of the albumen, which is the' principal change that takes place in the cooking of the loaf, is affected at a temperature below 2120 Fahrenheit, and as flour is not browned except at a temperature much above this point, it is easy to see how skillfully the Vienna baker has adapted the size of the roll to the object to be gained. Where the loaves are large, the surface must be protected by baking at a prolonged lower temperature, or by surrounding the loaves with steam until nearly the close of the process of baking, which prevents the formation of the inedible crust. With the latter arrangement, wheat and rye loaves of a pound weight were shown the jury at the steam-bakeries at Wittingau, one of the seats of Prince Schwarzenberg, which loaves were encased in a thin crust of exceeding delicacy and palatableness, and presented a crumb of uniform lightness and most acceptable taste. 226. ADVANTAGE TO THE CONSUMER OF ROLLS RATHER THAN LOAVES.-The mode of producing bread in Vienna, where all the baking is in public bakeries, enables the householder to place upon his table day by day absolutely fresh bread in precisely the quantity required for consumption. He thereby escapes the waste attendant upon the accumulation of stale bread, and he also avoids the deterioration and 102 I... VIENNA BREAD IN AMERICA. losses attendant upon keeping a stock of flour in his house. He may thus have a better bread with the expenditure of a given sum of money than he could have if he maintained all the appointments of a bakery within his own dwelling. 227. CAN WE IAVE VIENNA BRIEAD IN AMEFICA?-The answer in general is, we may. To assure it, we must have, first, as good flour as the bakers of Vienna have; second, we must use the press-yeast; and, third, we must pursue the same processes of preparing the dough and bakin,g. Good flour can only be made from sound, pure wheat, and, having the wheat to start with, by good milling; and this means, in general, flinty wheat reduced by the process of high or half-high milling, and a selection of the products of the milling, not to exceed one-half of the total weight of the wheat ground. Good, fresh middlings flour would compare favorably with the average Hungarian flour. Press-yeast is now produced in this country. It should be of recent preparation; sweet, so that it will yield only alcohol and carbonic acid as products of fermentation. 228. The sponge should be madle with a mixture of half milk and half water. The proportions of the ingredients, temperature, and the processes of preparation of the dough in bulk and detail as given in the account of Vienna bread in the 221st paragraph, will give the unbaked loaf. In general these proportions are: 8 pounds of flour; 3 quarts of mixed water and milk in equal proportions; 3~ ounces of press-yeast; 1 ounce of salt. 229. The baking requires an oven of no especial complexity, but should be capable of maintaining a constant temperature of about 5000 Fahrenheit. The loaves should be of size to require not more than from 15 to 20 minutes to bake completely; that is, to thoroughly cook the interior by the time the outside has assumed a delicate thin reddish or cinnamonbrown crust, and become palatable in every part. If eaten at its best, that is, soon after it has cooled, or at least during the day of its preparation, it will not fall behind the average first quality of Vienna KaiserASemrnel. 103 APPENDIX A. 230. DEMPWOLFF'S1'NVESrIGAT[ON OF TUE HIUNGARIAN WHEAT AND WHEAT-FLOUR FURNISHIED FROM THE PESTIH WALZM-UHLE, (CYLINDER-MILL.)-The flour in this year (1869) was 78 per cent. of the wheat; the bran, 22 per cent. These were included in fourteen distinct products. The flour was produced fromn a mixture of two-thirds Theis and onethird Banat wheat, of which the analysis of the whole grain gaveWater...................................... 10.51 Ash.............................................. 1.50 Nitrogen................... 2.24 Starch.................................................... 65.41 The ash of the whole grain yielded in 100 partsFe2O3....................................... 0.404 CaO................................................. 4.275 Mg O................................................ 14.862 KO......................31.825 NaO.................................................... 1.016 P 0O 49.912 S03......................................'............. 101 C 02s..................................................... 0.86 102.481 The ash containedWater.................. 10. 5 Lime.................... Ash................... —1.5 Magnesia................8 Gluten................... 14.4 Potash............. 82 Starch.................... 65.4 Soda.................... Oil and woody fiber........ 8.2 Phosphoric acid..........9 231. The products of the milling, gave in 100 parts A and B. 0. 489 grits. No. 0, 3.144) No. 1, 2.635 1 - No.-2, 5.291 imperial extra flour. No. 3, 7.165 No. 4, 14.757 rol-or. No. 5, 17.935 No. 6, 15.419 bread-flour. No. 7, 6.805 No. 8, 2.576 black flour. No. 9, 9.516 } bran. No.10, 9. 000 No. 11, 1.290 clippings. 3. 988 loss. 4. 275 14. 862 31. 825 1.016 49. 902 HUNGARIAN WHEAT AND FLOUR. 232. From this wheat, 100 parts yieldedGroats and extra imperial flour..................... 18. 724 Sammel or roll flour, Nos. 4 and 5...-...................32. 682 Bread-flour, Nos. 6 and 7.............................. 22. 224 Black flour, No. 8....................................2.576 Bran..............................18.516 Offal, clippings, &c..............1.290 Lost.................................................3. 988 100. 000 In every 100 parts are contained Ash. Gluten. Starch. Groats and extra flour —-----------------------------------— 10. 6 0. 41 11.7 70.0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Each 100 parts of flour contained lffitrognNitrogen Number. Water. Ash t i com- Starch. at 2120. mon flour. A................................................... 11.050 0. 398 2.089 1.858 69.983 B.................................................... 11.545 0.386 1.874 1.658 69.530 0................................................... 11.077 0.380 2.010 1.808 72.145 1.................................................. 10.618 0.416 2.071 1.851 71.017 2................................................... 10.492 0.452 2.087 1.868 68.867 3................................................ 10.142 0.481 2.122 1.907 68.386 4................................................... 10.421 0.586 2.212 1.981 67.302 5................................................... 10.544 0.611 2.435 2.178 67.176 6................................................... 10.748 0.764 2.611 2.329 65.631 7.................................................. 10.674 1.176 2.788 2.491 61.773 8................................................... 9.527 1.549 2.570 2.325 61.031 9................................................ 10.690 5.240 2.518 2.249 45.838 10 ----------------------------------------- 11.150 5.680 2.513 2.233 41.453 11 9.235 2.648 2.616 2.375 0.000 In 100 parts of ash there are contained Number. Fe2 O3 Ca O Mg O KO aO P0 O8 Total. A........................ 0.525 7.296 6.899 34.663 0.988 49.721 100.092 B....................... 0.583 7.718 6.857 34.669 0.891 49.218 99.936 0....................... 0.630 8.057 7.008 35.482 0.744 48.976 100.125 1-....................... 0.643 7.946 7.105 35.285 0.675 48.976 100.428 2....................... 0.627 7.454 7.795 34.254 0.678 49.519 100.327 3-....................... 0.635 7.094 8.343 33.876 0.690 49.306 100.344 4-....................... 0.596 6.798 9.924 32.715 0.650 50.056 100.739. 5-....................... 0.570 6.791 10.574 32.239 0.726 50.187 100.087 6-....................... 0.334 6.626 10.870 30.386 0.946 50.146 99.308 7....................... 0.425 5.536 12.234 30.314 1.260 50.204 99.973 8-....................... 0.484 4..741 12.947 30.299 0.974 50.173 99.618 9.-...................... 0.208 2.747 16.861 30.672 0.701 50.152 101.341 10........................ 0.436 2.502 17.349 30.142 1.080 49.112 101.621 11....................... 1.671 8.203 13.023 31.489 2.144 44.054 100.584 105 Water. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The nitrogen gave of albuminoids (a, in normal flour; b, in normal flour, dried at 212~ Fahrenheit,) Number. a b a b e~ b A......................... B......................... 0.......................... 1.......................... 2................ ~3.......................... 4.......................... 4 —----------— 1.9 1419 1 —----------— 524 1.6 With the above numbers referred to 100 parts of whole wheat, the several percentages of milling products show the following composi tion: Number. p. o.: Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. A and B...................... 0.489 0.0019 0.0096 0. 0085 0.0629 0.0557 0.341 0............................. 3.144 0.0121 0.0663 0.0596 0.4254 0.3824 2.268 1..................... 2.635 0.0109 0.0545 0.0487 0.3498 0. 3128 2.2:38 ............................ 5.291 0.0239 0.1051 0.0940 0.6739 0.6028 3.543 3............................ 7.165 0.0344 0.1520 0.1365 0.9744 0.8705 4.899 4............................ 14.757 0.0864 0. 364 0.2923 2.0924 1.8744 9.931 5.............1....1. 0........90.1095 0.4364 0.3903 2.7979 2.5024 12.031 6............................ 15. 419.5 0.1178 0.4025 0.3592 2.5807 2.3030 10.119 7.............................805 0.0800 0.1897 0.1694 1.2141 1.0867 4.,203 8............................ 2.576 0.0349 0.0662 0.0598 0.4245 0. 3835 1.573 9............................ 9.516. 0.4886 0.2296 0,2139 1.5359 1.3712 4.261 10........................... 9.000 0.5112 0.2261 0.2008 1.4427 1.2821 3.730 11............................ 1.290 0.0341 0.0317 0.0287 0.2035 0.1842..... — Total............................ -1.4611 2.3066 2.0617 14.7781 13. 2097 58.948 Found.................................. 1.505 2.503 2.2399 16.044 14.351 65.407 Difference..................... — 0.044 -0.197 — 0.178 -1.266 -1.142 -6.459 The proportions of the principal nutritive salts, as lirtne, magnesia,, potassa and phosphoric acid, present themselves in the different prod ucts as follows: ume. cao. Mg O A and B............................................ 0O................................ 1................................................... 2................................................... 2.................................................... 3.............................................. 0......024.0. 65.. 4.5................................................ 5.................................................... 6.................................................... 7................................................... 8.................................................... 10 9................................................... 11.................................................... Tota..... ^......................................... Total.......................................... Found............................................... Difference......................................... ~ 106 ii. 910 13. 396 10.628 12.012 11.520 12.891 11.865 13.275 11.974 13.378 10-.224 13.602 12.699 14.179 13. 961 14. 872 15. 968 1 14. 904 14. 417 14. 314 15. 224 5....................... 6....................... 7....................... 8....................... 9........................ 10....................... 11....................... 15. 609 16. 737 17. 871 16. 474 16. 141 16. 109 16. 769 Number. Ca 0 Mg 0 K 0 P 0, 0. 00090 0. 00395 0. 00331 . 0. 01183 - 0. 01696 0. 04325 0. 05495 0. 05972 0. 04016 0.01851 0. 24505 0. 24106 0. 01502 0. 75103 0. 75887 . -0. 00784 0' 00014 0. 00104 0. 00086 0. OOt78 0. 00244 0. 00587 0. 00744 10. 00780 . 0. 0044-2 0. 00165 0. 01342 0. 01279 0. 00-279 0. 06584 0. 06245 +O. 00339 0.00013 0. 00085 0. 00077 0. 00186 0. 00287 0. 00857 0. 01158 0. 01280 0. 00978 0. 00452 0. 0838 0. 08865 0. 00444 0. 22367 0. 22920 . -0. 00553 0. 00065 1 0. 00429 1 0. 00384 0. 00828 0. 01165 0. 02826 0. 03530 0. 03573 0. 02425 0. 01057 0.15006 0.15408 0. 01074 0. 47897 0. 47770 +O. 00127 HUNGARIAN WHEAT AND FLOUR. According to this result there was lostAsh....................................... 0. 043 Albuminoids....................................... 1.142 Starch...................................6.459 7.644 (3.988 of the product was dissipated; therefore, less than about 3.8 per cent. was found.) The difference is to be sought in the starch, as the point where all the starch and dextrine are changed into sugar cannot be accurately determined. The relations of phosphoric acid to nitrogen are as follows: A and B.................................. 100: 944 0 1 0 0 1010 1...................................... 100: 911 2.............................................. 100: 976 3.............................................. 100: 807 4.................... 100: 676 5)............................... 100: 710 6...100 ~ 601 6................................................100: 60 7................................................ 100: 422 8 1............................00: 323 9....................................... 100: 87 10............................................ 100: 83 11............................................. 100: 191 12, (whole wheat)...................................100: 295 These relations are graphically shown in the annexed diagram, Fig. 73. Fig. 73. - A B. o. 1. 2. 8. 4. 5 6.. s. 9. 10o. l. 12 I I ~ i I I I I i.1 i i i j I - I i,I i I q i; t J t i I 1000 900 SOO 700 TOO 500 400 300 I t 11 f i' -,W I- I I I ] " /, t00 I I I I i.'\4 / - I,, I, -, I - = - I = _ _ / _ _ ~~~~_.__ I - I-_, J —--- ___- = Z2V0' An analysis was mIade of a flour that contained all the bran, and it was found to be very nearly that of the whole kernel: Water........................ I..................... 10.743 Nitrogen..................................2.506 Starch............................................. 64.475 Ash, (containing Fe2 O3, 0.852; Ca 0, 4.246; Mg 0, 14.721; K O0 31.898; Na 0, 0.704; P O,, 49. 20 = 102.141)............... 1.503 iI i i Iii I i I I 107 . I i i - -- -I - - - 100 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Another flour, containing all the product except 13 per cent. of bran, was analyzed, and gave the following result: Water.............................................. 10. 548 Nitrogen.............................................2. 518 Starch 6............................................ 65. 660 Ash, (containing Fe2 03, 1.338; Ca 0, 5.085; Mg O0, 12.425; K O, 31.456; Na 0, 1.878; P 0O, 48.761 _ 100.943)...............1.032 These analyses show that the coarser the'flour the more ash it contains, and the increase is proportioned to the increase of the lime and potassa and the diminution of the magnesia. The percentage of nitrogen increases to the bread-flour, Nos. 6 and 7, and diminishes with the bran, although the difference is only 0.8 per cent. (Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, 1869, pp. 332-338; Anlnalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, 1869, Band cxlix, p. 343.) 1.08 APPENDIX B. PHOSPHATIC BREAD. 233. IMPERFECTIoN OF TilE VIENNA BREAD.-AIl improvements iu making bread point to its being eaten fresh, but not warm. TIiis necessity makes urgent the adoption of a process by which the labor of making tbe bread for household consumption shall be reduced to a minimum. Either the bread must be produced by a public baker, where the waitmg-time can be utilized, or the yeast-process must, in private families, give place to a method which does not require the time and tbe care of this process, such asthe process of selfraising flour. With all its excellencies and attractiveness, the Yienna bread is not as nutritious as the rye-bread or as the brown wheat-bread. The two most important nutritive constituents of the wheat are the albuminoid bodies, largely lodged in the gluten-coat of the grain, and the phosphates, which are associated with them. Both these constituents are largely lost from the flour both by the high and low milling processes. The percentage of nitrog, which is the same in all the nitrogenous constituents of the wheat, is on an average not far from two, and deducting the weight of the woody fiber of the outer and inner coats of the bran, including the gluten-comb, but not the coutents of the cells or the starch-granules embedded in it, which contain but little nitrogen, the nutritious portion of the berry contains 1e88 than two per cent. of 234. The flour of the great Pesth Walzrni~hle (cylinder-mill) at the Yienna Exposition yielded to my analyses the following percentages of Nitrogen. Grits, A..................................................... 2.25 No.O-0 —-------—... —-..... —------—. —1.-.F.....*^*. I.68 No. 0-........................................... 1.68 o. 2........................................................ 1.72 No. 3.....-.............................................1.72 No. 4 -..-.......................................... 1.74 No. 5.......-.................................. 1.80 No. 6...................................................... 1.84 No. 7................................ 1.80 No. 8......................... -................. 1.90 Bran, No. 9........................-............ 1.98 Bran,No.10........................... 2.21 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. My analyses yielded also the following percentages of phosphoric acid: acid. 0.24 0.14 0.21 0.22 0.17 0.25 0. 35 0.24 0.21 0. 36 2. 96 1. 74 No. 5.............................................2. No.6............. —...................... —--—. 0.3NTo. 6.............,...................................0...... No. 7...............................................21 No. 8........................................................... Bran, No. 9......................................... Bran, No. 10........................................... The percentage of phosphoric acid in the whole grain is about one, (1.00.) 235. A glance at these results will show why the peasantry of Austria and Hungary, and, indeed, of Europe in general, prefer the black bread made from the whole meal, because of its greater nutritive value-because the laborer can be sustained on the black bread and cannot on the white. The consideration of these conditions led the late Baron Liebig to remark as follows: "The significance of the nutritive salts in food is sufficiently well known to physiologists; it is known that without their co-operation the other constituents of the food are incapable of affording nourishment. "By simple washing of fresh or boiled meat with water, which abstracts the nutritive salts it would become incapable of serving in the preservation of life; the nutritive salts of wheat are identical with the nutritive salts of meat, and one understands that what is true for meat must also be true for bread, and that the nutritive value of flour is less in the same proportion as it contains less of the nutritive salts than the grain. " The nutritive salts of meat and wheat are phosphates, and consist of compounds of phosphoric acid with potassa, lime, magnesia, and iron; the simple relations of the quantity of these substances, contained-in wheat and flour, as shown by chemical analysis, will be sufficient to make obvious, the differences in the nutritive value of the two" &c. 236. The researches of Magendie, made many years since established beyond question the superiority, for purposes of nutrition, of the bread made from whole meal as compared with bread made from the fine flour. He found that while dogs fed upon white wheat-bread alone after a time became ill, lost strength, and ultimately perished, dogs fed upon bread made from whole meal lived in health indefinitely long. Chossat found that absolutely clean wheat-wheat that has been 110 PHOSPHATIC BREAD. washed to remove any traces of calcareous earth adhering to its surface, would not sustain pigeons in health when supplied in addition with absolutely pure water only. After a time, their bones became thin and frail, and were unable to bear the weight of the birds; the phosphate of lime of the bones having been transferred to sustain the activity of organs more essential to life. They ultimately perished. Pigeons fed upon the same wheat and the same pure (distilled) water, and having access to lime compounds, continued in perfect health. Even pigeons nearly perished from having been fed only upon the diet first mentioned, upon being supplied with carbonate of lime were wholly restored to health. 237. It is well known that the peasantry, not of Austria only, but of all Europe, and a large proportion of the middle classes, habitually eat because of its nutritive value, brown bread; that is, a bread containing the bran with its phosphates. The higher classes in England prefer, two or three times a week, as au article of luxury, wheaten bread made from whole meal. 238. The nutritive value of oat-meal, and of the porridge made from oat-meal groats, an established dish upon the breakfast-table of Scotland, is well known. The bread made from whole rye-meal, the Puinpernickel of Westphalia, containing all the phosphates due to the normal grain, is widely used by the best classes in Germany. The rice, which is the great staple of food for so large a fraction of the oriental world, contains 20 per cent. more phosphoric acid in its ash and twice as much lime as the average wheat. The Indian corn, the meal of which, wrought into the various forms of farinaceous food, has long been the basis of so large a proportion of the nutrition of the labor of the South in this country, differs but little in its percentage of phosphates from whole wheat. 239. These phosphates are indispensable to the nutrition of all higher organisms. They enter into, and constitute a part of, not only the bones, but every muscle, every nerve tissue; and in each secretory organ there seemnis to be a special accumulation, to be employed in the elaboration of the products which are secreted. The observation that cattle prefer grass grown in meadows enriched with ground bone is in keeping with the practice, now well known, of feeding cattle upon bone-meal. 210. The significance of these considerations led to an investigation in Germany by M. AIeyer of the effect of restoring in mineral condition the phosphates of rye-bran to the flour from which the bran had been separated. These experiments, made in 1870-'71, though less extended than might have been desired, and though defective somewhat in theory, so far as they went showed that, with the restoration of the phosphatic constituents of the bran, the bread was more nutritious than when made with the whole rye-meal including flour and bran. ill a VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, I,73. 241. The mnode by which this restoration was effected consisted iu the employment of an acid phosphate of lime and magnesia in the form of a dry powder; this was mixed with an alkaline carbonate sufficient to neutralize the acidity of the phosphoric acid, and these mixed powders intimately incorporated with the dry flour in such quantity as to restore to it the phosphoric acid, limne, margnesia, and alkali lost with the bran. On adding to this mixture of flour, acid phosphate, and alkaline carbonate, sufficient water or milk to produce with stirring a dough, the phosphoric acid and alkaline carbonate were dissolved, and reacting upon each other evolved carbonic acid in the form of gas. This gas appearing in every part of the dough gave it the required porosity or cellular structure, which was preserved by immediate baking. 242. The changes produced in the flour by this process are less than in the process of raising by yeast, partly because of the brief exposure of the gluten and starch to the solvent power of the water employed in making the dough, but chiefly because no deterioration of the nitrogenous constituents of the gluten or of the starch to supply material for the process of fermentation has taken place. The amount of the deterioration in nutritive value which bread made by the yeatst or leaven process experiences, though doubtless frequently overestimated, is, nevertheless, considerable, even when pure press-yeast is employed, and much more when inferior yeast or old leaven is employed. In the latter case, the deterioration is not confined to the degradation of the nitrogenous constituents and of the starch, yielding lactic, acetic, and other acids and offensive exhalations, but is seen in the imperfectlyraised, heavy, sodden, indigestible bread produced. 243. None of all this class of effects are produced in the process of raising with acid phosphate and a carbonated alkali. An excellence in the whitening of the crumb over that imparted to any bread produced by pure yeast, is to be ascribed to the action of the acid phosphate. Another advantage in the phosphatic bread is that it contains no yeast-plants, and of course none to survive exposure to the heat of the bakingtemperature. As a consequtenceofthebriefexposuretotheaction of water, the starch is less perfectly converted into the glassy texture, and is less liable to lose its cellular structure by pressure, and the walls, being coated with a larger proportion of granular starch, are less coherent. The crumb less easily loses its elasticity, less readily forms into compact boluses, and more readily imbibes the digestive fluids. As a consequence, persons ofsensitive organs of digestion, who cannot eathotyeast-bread, eat the hotphosphaticbread, enjoyingthe grateful aroma andflavorof fresh bread without conscious inconvenience. But the chief advantage is that to which Baron Liebig has called especial attention, the increase in the nutritive value, amounting to from 12 to 15 per cent., arising from the restoration of the phosphates lost with the bran. This bread having no yeast-plants does not mold, while great complaint was made of the 112 PHOSPHATIC BREAD. army bread in use by the Austrian and German armies on account of its tendency to mold. 244. This mode of making bread, which was introduced by Baron Liebig into Germany, was tried in several kingdoms of Europe, and met with great acceptance in all particulars except one, and that was in the inferiority in size of the loaf produced from a given weight of flour with the phosphatic preparation as compared with the loaf produced by yeast. As the phosphatic process has been successfully employed for a lon, period in the United States, and as the publications in relation to it have found their way into all the text-books, repertoriums, and recent chemical and industrial works, like " Enyrim on Baking," for example, and especially as Baron Liebig had taken much pains to introduce the method into Germany, it was natural that the inventor, although a juror, should be requested to exhibit the practical details of the process at the Exposition. The Archduke Albrecht had remarked, in looking through the collections of improved arms and devices for the relief of the sick and wounded, that he saw nothing contemplating improvements in the food of the soldier in the field. 245. As the phosphatic method enables the soldier to provide himself with fresh bread equally nutritious, because containingall the phosphates of the original grain, and more nutritious, because more palatable, since it contains none of the objectionable peculiarities that attach themselves to the bread made with yeast or leaven from the whole meal; an offer was made by the inventor, " hors concour,? as being a juror and commissioner, he could not be an exhibitor, to show the process in all its details to the war department of Austria. The offer was accepted, and the minister of war detailed a commission to witness the practical exhibition of the process at the Vienna bakery within the grounds of the Exposition. Through the kindness of Professor Schrotter, secretary of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, the conveniences of his laboratory at the imperial mint were placed at the disposal of the inventor for the preparation of the acid phosphate. With this acid powder and bicarbonate of soda, dough from the extra imperial flour, from rye-flour, and from a mixture of wheat and rye flour, was prepared in a few moments, and baked both in the oven and on the hearth outside, to show, in the interest of the military service, that the conveniences of the oven were not necessary in order to its ready baking. In the latter experiment, the dough was placed between two thin sheet-iron troughs, (small stove-pipe cut in half lengthwise, and the straight edges flanged outward,) their curved surfaces turned toward each other encasing the dough, and the whole placed in hot ashes and coals. The exhibition was in all respects satisfactory. The loaves were 8 vB iia VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. porous in every part, and the taste in no respect inferior to the best Vienna bread made from corresponding flours. There were present at the exhibition of the process, besides the commission from the war department, IRoman Uhl, who courteously placed the conveniences of the bakery at the disposal of the inventor, members of the international jury of the fourth group from various countries and other gentlemen interested in the subject of improvemenuts iu the process of making bread. 246. It was obvious, as the result of this experiment, that by this process bread mnight be prepared at short notice from the Hungarian flour, which should unite all the excellencies of the Vienna bread made with press-yeast, and have restored to it all the nutritive value due to the phosphates of the original whole wheat. 247. REFERENCES.-In the preparation of the foregoing report, I have been indebted to various persons, whose names are given below, and who have aided me personally in the collection of material, or whose published researches and works I have consulted and quoted. J. J. van den Wyngaert, Redacteur des wochentlichen Journals " Die MiUhle," 1872, 1873, and 1874. Prof. Friederich Kick, " Mehlfabrikation," 1871, und'4Officieller Bericht der Welt-Ausstellung, Gruppe IV, Sect. 1." Prof. Carl Eugen Thiel und van den Wyngaert, "Officieller Bericht, Gruppe IV, Sect. 1." Prof. Julius Wiesner, "Microscopische Untersuchungen," 1872, (Stuttgart.) Dr. Wjatscheslaw Manassein, (St. Petersburg,) IUeber die Beziehungen der Bacterieu ztum Penicillinmn glaucuairn u.s. w.," 1872. Liebigs Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. Wagner's Repertoriu m. Comptes Rendus. Enyrim, "Backergewerbe," \Weimar, 1870. Kerl und Stohmann's (Muspratt's) Technische Chemie. Mitscherlich's Chemie. Skizze der Landskunde Ungarns. Thos. J. fHand, New York, "Wheat: its Worth and Waste," 1862. Nature, 1870. Prince Schwarzenberg; Heinrich Graf Zichy, President der IV ten Gruppe; HiofrathDosswald; Dempwolff; Roman Uhl; Hassall; Pekar; von Fehling; von Bibra; Poggiale; Sachs; Laskowsky; Vogel; Alex. Muller; Oademann; Mege Mouries;'PReichenbach; Normandy; Hieeren; Brefeld; Schrotter; Ritthausen; Thilenius; Mayer; Meyer; Jewell Bros. 114 INffDEX. Article. Page. Acid, phosphoric-,in ash....................................... 12 7 varies with nitrogen........................... 39 15 tartaric, in self-raising flour.........,......................... 198 91 vegetable.................................................... 19 9 Albumen, vegetable coagulation of-in baking....................... 205 93 America, can we have Vienna bread in........................... 226 102 American devices used in Austria........................... 50 20 methods...............,...........................137 65 wheat, impurities in....................................... 139 66 Analysis, table of............................... 10 7 approximate.........................................26 9 Dempwolff's ----------------------------------------------- 152 72 Apparatus, Paur's ------------------------------------------------ --- 69 32 required in the practice.............................. 81 36 Ash, distribution of material in the ---------------------------------- 11 7 phosphoric acid in the......................................... 12 7 constituents of the............................................. 13 8 proportions of. - - -............................................ 14 8 Australian wheat, result of harvesting Banat and.................. 45 18 Austria, American devices used in ----------------------------------- 50 20 Bakers, method of London.......................................... 196 90 Bakery, process in Vienna........................................... 217 97 phosphatic bread made at Vienna --------------------------- 243 112 Baking, coagulation of vegetable albumen in......................... 205 93 Banat, result of harvesting and grinding-and Australian w]ieat - -- --- 45 18 Barley-bread, why-is heavy........................................ 183 84 Beard, removal of................................................... 61 27 Berry, chemical composition of...................................... 9 6 proximate chemical ingredients of the......................... 16 8 Bentz's method of removing beard and bran.......................... 61 27 Blondeau's view of yeast-cells --------------------------------------- 170 78 views of ---------------—.......................176 80 Blows, effect of-on wheat.......................................... 65 31 Bolt, the flour...................................................... 109 49 Bolting or sifting................................................... 106 47 bran-....... —............................... 78 35 Bran, composition of true........................................... 5 3 composition of inner layers of........................... 6 3 illustration of structure of..................................... 7 3 removal of beard and-............................... 61 27 Bentz's method.......................................... 61 27 duster -------------------------------------------------------- 107 47 proportion of flour attached to-................... 108 48 Bread, flour for Vienna. 129 59 signification of the word. -.........................-164 75 INDEX. Article. Page. Bread, leavened and unleavened............................ 165 76 to secure porosity to the ---—.. —---------------------------- - 166 77 why Hungarian flour will make light......................... 183 84 why barley, rye, and oat is heavy... 183 84 Paris wheat......................................... 193 88 Dauglish's aerated -. —-------------------------------------- - 199 91 phosphatic. ——..................................... 200,231 91 object of keeping-till it becomes stale.....................209 94 what is stale................................................ 210 94 advantages of Vienna-........................... 223 100 black-more nutritious...............................2. 235 110 Meyer's experiment with phosphatic..........................238,239 111 advantages of phosphatic.................................... 241 112 introduction of phosphatic-into Europe.................... 242 112 phosphatic-made at the Vienna bakery...................... 243 112 Brefeld's results of research upon alcoholic fermentation... 181 83 Buchholz's cylinder-mills......................................132 61 Cake, leavened and unleavened................................. 165 76 Caseine, vegetable fibrine and....................................... 21 9 Cells, necessity of preserving gluten............................ 117 54 gluten-illustrated...................................... 146 69 size of starch-grains and gluten-.................... 154 73 size of yeast.................................................... 169 78 Blondeau's views of yeast.-.-...................... —... 170 78 cavities in yeast........................................172 79 effect of heat on............................................... 173 79 effect of solution of sugar on..............................173 79 having cavities convert sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid.... 175 80 Cerealine........................................................... 24 9 Chemical composition of the berry................................... 9 6 ingredients of the berry........................... 16 8 constituents of gluten..................................... 31 12 examination of flour.-......................................-161 75 Chossat, experiments of Magendie and............................... 234 109 Climate, effect of-and other influences.................... I..,...... 27 10 nitrogen affected by........................................ 37 14 of Hungary................................................ 38 15 Color, redness of-in wheat......................................... 41 16 Congress of millers desirable...................................135 64 Cooling............................................................ 95 42 indispensable in low milling.. 96 42 Corn, nutritive value of Indian...................................... 236 110 Crumb, test for phosphoric acid shows it everywhere in crust and... -. 206 93 proportions of ingredients in................................ 212 96 Crust, changes in the............................................... 203 92 test for phosphoric acid shows it everywhere in-and crumb - --- 206 93 use of steam to prevent formation of thick -------------------- 208 94 proportion of ingredients in-........................ 212 96 how to secure loaves of large size with thin................... 224 101 Cylinder-mill, the porcelain-.......................................102 44 Buchholz's-.........................................132 61 Cylinder-milling, methods of-.......................................97 42 illustration of-........... —.................. 98 42 Dauglish's aerated bread.......................................-....199 91 '116 v I INDEX. Article. Page. Dempwolff's analysis.........................................152 72 investigation of Hungarian wheat and wheat-flour from Pesth Walzmiihle.................................... 229 103 Dextrine and sugar.............20 9 and its homologues......................................... 32 13 conversion of starch to.................................... 203 92 Dirt, removal of.................................................... 60 27 Diseases of wheat.................................................. 51 21 Disintegrator, the........................................... 104 46 Dough, what causes it to "run"..................................... 160 74 action of lime-water in improving texture of................. 185 85 room -------------------— 7. 219 98 preparation of....................................... 220 99 howto make................................................ 227 103 Duster, the bran —----------------------------- -......... 107 47 Edges, effect of sharpness of cutting................................ 80 36 European varieties.........................................46 19 Febling, loss of water as determined by 213 96 Ferment, what is a.................................................. 178 82 substitutes for.......-..............................197 90 Fermetatio —------------- ---------------------------— 17 7 Fermentation............................167 77 theories of............................................ 177 81 alcoholic-dependent on dynamic conditions -----------— 180 83 effect of-182 83 loss due to --------------------------------------- ---- 215 96 changes produced by-compared with those produced in the phosphatic process............................... 240 111 Fibrine, vegetable-and caseine..................................... 21 9 Fife-wheat, Minnesota.............................................. 122 56 process of milling.. 123 56 Flour, constitution and peculiarities of............................... 79 36 bolt, the.............................................. 109 49 for Vienna bread............................................. 129 59 southern. -—........................................138 66 characteristics of.............................................142,150 67 Hungarian prize.......................................149 71 composition of flour No, 0-and A-grits ------------------------ 155 73 comparison of low and high milled......................... 156 73 mode of testing ----------------------------------------------- 156 74 aroma of.................................................... 159 74 chemical examination of................................. 161 75 why Hungarian-will make light bread ------------------------ 183 84 tartaric acid in self-raising ------------------------------------ 198 91 changes of flour in becoming bread........................... 201 92 Dempwolff's investigation of Hungarian wheat and wheat flour from the Pesth Walzmfihle. 229 103 Horsford's analysis of prize-of Pesth Walzmiihle.............232 105 Gallen, St., mill.................................................... 103 44 Gluten.- -......................-...................................... 17,22 8 percentage in various flours............................-.....30 12 its chemical constitution-....................................31 12 cells illustrated............................................146 69 size of —cells-..............................:-...............154 73 changes of starch and.......................................-202 92 117 INDEX. Article. Page. (Crades, proportion of-yielded by high and half-high milling.......... 119 55 by numbers......................................... 127 59 made at Prague and other mills............................ 130 60 Migi Mourit*'s-of product of grinding-................. 196 90 Grain, the several coatings of the.................................... 8 5 condition of phosphorus in the............................ 33 13 character of Hungarian....................................... 42 16 separation of light............................................ 55 22 in the mill.............................................93 41 structure of edible...................................... 147'69 effect of milling on the....................................... 148 70 Liebig's comparison of meats with............................ 233 109 Grinding, result of harvesting and-Banat and Australian wheat...-.. 45 18 finer products of........................................... 76 35 Megi Mourin's grades of product of........................ 195 90 Grits, Vienna-.............................. 67 31 unpurified.................................................... 75 34 purification of................................................ 110 49 composition of 0 flour and A................................... 155 73 nature and cause of........................................... 157 73 Groats of pumpernickel, nutritive value of -.-. —--------------------- 236 110 Grooves, arrangement of............................................ 85 37 use of the................................................. 86 38 various forms of the................................... 89 40 dimensions adopted........................................ 91 40 Harvesting, result of-and grinding Banat and Hungarian wheat... 45 18 Hassall, views of................................................... 176 80 Heat, effect on cells................................................. 173 79 Hieating-.............................................,-..............-88 39 prevention of............................................... 48 20 Horsford, experimental researches, result of.......................... 211 95 analysis of prize flour of Pesth Walzmiihle.................. 232 105 Hungarian wheat -. —. —------------------------------------------- - 3(; 14 comparison of Victoria with-wheat ---------------------- 40 15 character of-grain....................................... 42 16 tables of varieties of-wheat ----------------------------- 43 16 hardiness of-wheat..................................... 64 30 products of-high milling................................ 125 57 details of-milling process-...................... 126 57 mills, average product of -------------------------------- 133 61 prize flour ----------------------------------------------- 149 71 mill industry -------------------------------------------- 163 75 why-flour will make light bread ------------------------ 183 84 Dempwolfi's investigation of-wheat and wheat-flour from Pesth Walzmilhle................... —----------—. 229 103 Hungary, climate of ---------------------------------------------- --- 38 15 Impurities of wheat................................................. 52 21 in American wheat -------------------------—..... —--- -- 139 66 Indian corn, nutritive value of................................. 236 110 Ingredients, source of mineral —of flour —............................15 8 proximate chemical —of the berry -......................-16 8 in crust and crumb, proportion of-.......................212 96 Jewell Brothers' practice-..........................................141 67 Jury classification................................................71 33 comparison by international..................................1`28 59 118 INDEX. 119 Article. Page. Kaiser-semmel............................... 1,218 1 illustrations of....................................222 100 Lands, arrangement of-and grooves.... 85 37 Liebig's views............................. 179 82 Manassein supports................................... 179 82 comparison of meats with grain............. 233 109 Lime-water, action of-in improving texture of dough............... 185 85 Loaves, advantage to consumers of rolls rather than................. 225 102 Machines, smut..................................................... 62 28 Magendie, experiments of........................................... 234 109 Manassein supports Liebig's views.................................. 179 82 Mautner, press-yeast of -.-...-.............................. 187 86 Method of thrashing................................................ 49 20 Bentz's-of removing beard and bran......................... 61 27 older-of milling......................................66 31 Ignaz Paur's-of milling................................ 68 32 American........................................... 137 65 London bakers'............................................. 196 90 Meyer's experiments with phosphatic bread..........................238,239 111 Middlings or unpurified grits...................................75 34 Mill, grain in the.............................................93 41 porcelain cylinder............................................. 102 44 Saint Gallen 103 44 grades made at Prague and other...........................130 6e products of the Prague........................................ 131 60 Buchholz cylinder --------------------------------------------- 132 61 average product of the Hungarian..........................133 61 Hungarian-industry-........................... 163 75 Millers, a congress of-desirable..................................... 135 64 Milling, older methods of........................................... 66 31 origin of high.............-.67 31 difference between high and low-..................-...-...70 32 detailed description of high............................. - 72 33 character of high 74:4 -.4 products of low 77 ~'.3o; cooling indispensable in low................................ 96 45 method of cylinder......................................... 97 42 illustration of cylinder..................................... 98 42 advantages of cylinder................................100 44 advantages of high.................................... 116 54 half-high its.........................................118 55 process of low..........................-.. 120 55 process of "Fife" wheat.................................... 123 56 high-.......................................................-124 56 products of Hungarian high................................ 125 57 details of Hungarian process................................ 126 57 products of low............................................ 134 63 effect of —on grains-.......................................148 70 products of -.............................................230 104 Millstones-......................................................82 36 the Thilenius............................................92 40 Minnesota "Fife" wheat-.........................................1~22 56 Mitscherlich's observations on growth of yeast-plant-.................171 78 II Article. Page. Mouri6's, M ~g~, method............................................. 194 89 grading of products of grinding............................ 195 90 Nitrogen; its proportion affected by climate......................... 37 14 phosphoric acid varies with............................39 15 distribution of........................................... 151 71 Oats, removal of ------------------------------------------------- --- 54 22 why ryeand barley bread is heavy........................... 183 84 meal-porridge, nutritive value of............................... 236 110 Oil. —--------------------------------------------------- 23 9 Paris wheat-bread........................................... 193 88 Pasteur, his views -. —---- ------------------------------------------ 176 80 different yeast-plants required for different products......... 179 82 Pastry, leavened and unleavened..............-................ 165 76 Paur's, Ignaz, method of milling-.............................68 32 apparatus............................................. 69 32 purifier........................................ i111 50 Pesth, purifier.used at.................-112 50 Pesth Walzmiihle, Dempwolff's investigation of Hungarian wheat and -wheat flour from the.............................................. 229 103 Pesth Walzmtihle, Horsford's analysis of prize flour of-.............232 105 ~ Phosphates and suiphates-...........................................-29 12 indispensable to vital tissue............................. 237 111 Phosphatic bread..................................................200,231 91 Meyer's experiment with-bread........................238,239 ill changes produced by fermentation compared with those produced in the-process.............................. 240 111 advantages of-bread................................... 241 112 Phosphatic bread introduction into,Europe....................... 242 112 made at Vienna bakery-.................... 243 112 Phosphoric acid varies with nitrogen............................. 39 15 test for, shows it everywhere in crust and crumb 206 93 ~':. Phosphorus, condition of-in the grain. -33 13 ~ Pile, what is it-214 96 ?,:Jant, structure of the.............................................. 47 19 .Poraidge, nutritive value of oatmeal............................ 236 110 P~rpeain cylinder-mill...............102 44 Prague, grades made at-and other mills.......- 130 60 mill, product of......................................131 60 Pressed-yeast, the.....................................-187 86 production from 1846 to 1872...... 188 86 preparation of................................189 87 Pressure, effect of blows and-on the grain.......................... 65 31 Products, grades of.................................................. 73 34 Pumpernickel of Westphalia...................................192 88 nutritive value of groats of........................ 236 110 Purification........................................................-121,140 55 Purifier used at Pesth............................................... 112 50 Report, scope of the-................................. 3 2 Research, result of Horsford's experiments........................... 211 95 Rice of Indian corn, nutritive value of-.............................236 110 Rolls, advantage to' consumers of —rather than bread-.................225 102 Rye, why oat —and barley bread is heavy —............... —-— 183 84 Scourer...................................,-.....................63 2 99 Seeds, separating round.....-..............'-.....-.................56 24 separating and winnowing-..................................53 22 Sifting and bolting...-.......................-.....................106 47 120 INDEX. INDEX. Article. Page. Smut-machine..................................................... 62 28 Southern flour 138 66 Starch......... -. 18 9 character of various-granules................................ 145 68 grains, size of................................................ 154 73 changes of-andtgluten,................................ 202 92 conversion of-to dextrine 203 92 Steam, uses of-to prevent formation of thick crust.................. 208 94 Structure of the granule.....................................144 68 of edible grains-....................... 147 69 Sugar and dextrine................................................. 20 9 Sulphates and phosphates........................................... 29 12 Tartaric acid in self-raising flour.................................... 198 91 Thilenius millstone, the-............................. 92 40 United States, form of grooves used in.......................... 87 37 Vegetable albumen-..................................-.-. 19 9 fibrine and caseine-................................ 21 9 Ventilation......................................................... 94 42 Victorian, comparison of-with Hungarian wheat.................... 40 15 Vienna bread, manufacture of................................. 2 1 grits................................................67 31 flour for-bread............................................. 129 59 bakery processes-....................... 217 97 advantages of-bread................................. 223 100 can we have-bread in America.............................. 226 102 bakery, phosphatic bread made at the........................ 243 112 Water -------------------------------------------------------------- 25 9 action of lime-in improving texture of dough.................. 185 85 loss of-as determined by von Fehling......................... 213 96 Walzmiihle, Wegmann's............................................ 101 44 Pesth, Dempwolff's investigation of Hungarian wheat and wheat-flour from. —------------— 229 103 ** wheat-flour..from............................. 103I Horsford's analysis of prize flour from Pesth.............. 232 10a:Wegmaun's Walzmiible.-..................... —-. 101 Westphalian pumpernickel ------------------------------------------ 192 ~'8 Wheat, description of the grain of................................... 4 ~* 2 Hungarian -------------------------------------------------- 36 14 comparison of Victorian with Hungarian --------------------- 40 16 redness of color in; its causes.................. —------------ 41 16 table of varieties of Hungarian ------------------------------- 43 16 kinds generally sown........................................ 44 1I European varieties 46 19 diseases and enemiesof -------------------------------------- 51 21 Minnesota "Fife" ------------------------------------------- 122 56 Paris-bread................................................ 193 88 Dempwolftlib investigation of Hungarian-and-flour from Pesth Walzmiihle....................................... 229 103 Winnowing and separating....................................53 22 Wiesner's views of yeast-plant-........................... 176 82 Yeast-bread, problem of a - ---------------— 186 86 cell, size of a —------------------— 169 78 Blondeau's view of the-..................................170 78 cavities of the. —---------------— 172 79 9VB 121 INDEX. Article. Page. Yeast-plant, the.................................................... 168 77 Mitscherlich's observations on growth of................. 171 78 illustration of growth of —--—. -...... 175 80 different-requires different products.................. 179 82 pressed......e.........-.................187 86 production of-from 1846 to 1872....................... -188 86 preparation of................................. 189 87 Zettler's mode of preparation of pressed yeast....................... 190 87 122 ~ ~ Z.:.