-,mum= 'VI I A3 A V I I N I I:) S c, 3. I % V, s__ L I V I I It f i A le A I z p a 4 0 4 L q 4 4 () a i I. I I The Larw Tennis Library VOLUME II MECHANICS OF THE GAME II 1j, I. f,,.I t, - 4 - -. 41..I I I 'I- L i TWO FRENCH4 ACES MECHANICS OF THE GAME of Lawn Tennis BY J. PARMLY PARET ILLUSTRATED FROM SLOW-MOVING MOTION PICTURES MADE BY THE UNITED STATES LAWN TENNIS ASSOCIATION, AND MANY OTHER ACTION PICTURES OF EXPERTS IN PLAY VOLUME II OF The Lawn Tennis Library NEW YORK AMERICAN LAWN TENNIS, INC. 1926 COPYRIGHT 1926, By J. PARMLY PARET A.ND S. WALLIS MERRIIHEW, NEw YORK PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CONTENTS CHAPTER PAG I INTRODUCTION........... 1 II DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES..... 13 III IMPLEMENTS OF PLAY......... 33 IV How THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS..... 43 V EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE... 69 VI THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM..... 87 VII SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL....... 117 VIII FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND..... 131 IX BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND..... 157 X CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS... 171 XI SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES..... 197 XII HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING.. 215 XIII OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING..... 237 XIV MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER.. 249 XV VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY.261 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS GRIPS OF THE RACKET: PAGE Western Forehand Grip-Kinsey and Johnston..... 19 Forehand Grips-Tilden and Richards....... 20-21 Backhand Grips-Tilden, Kinsey and Richards..... 22-23 Volley Grips-Tilden............ 20-21 BALANCING THE RACKET: Patterson, Brookes, Wood and Williams........ 24 Borotra, Johnston, Tilden and Wood......... 25 FOREHAND GROUND-STROKES: Motion Series 1-Tilden, 2-Wood and 3-Williams.. 60-61 Motion Series 4 and 5-Johnston and 6-Richards.. 62-63 Motion Series 7-Patterson, 8-Alonso and 9-Agutter.. 64-65 Motion Series 10-Brookes.......... 100-101 Motion Series 40-Miss Helen Wills..... 220-221 Kinsey and Johnston............ 26 Borotra, Anderson and Hawkes........ 59 Harada, Shimizu and Fukuda...... 66 Lacoste, Tilden, Johnston and Richards (Extreme Finishes). 106 Mrs. Molla B. Mallory and Miss Elizabeth Ryan..... 219 Miss Katherine McKane (Mrs. L. A. Godfree)... 223 Mlle. Suzanne Lenglen........... 224-225 Miss Eleanor Goss and Mrs. Lambert-Chambers..... 226 BACKHAND GROUND-STROKES: Motion Series 11-Tilden and 12-Alonso...... 100-101 Motion Series 13-Johnston, 14-Wood and 15-Williams. 102-103 Motion Series 41-Miss Helen Wills........ 220-221 Richards, Lacoste, Anderson and Borotra....... 99 Mrs. Molla B. Mallory............. 219 Miss Katherine McKane........... 223 Mlle. Suzanne Lenglen............224-225 Miss Mary Browne and Miss Evelyn Colyer...... 226 vii viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS HALF-VOLLEYS: PAGE Richards, Brookes, Williams and Johnston.. 104 Tilden and Williams............. 105 STRAIGHT SERVICES: Motion Series 16-Tilden, 17-Johnston and 18-Richards. 140-141 Motion Series 19-Patterson, 20-Williams and 21-Alonso. 142-143 Motion Series 42-Miss IIelen Wills.... 220-221 Running In-Richards, Alonso, Patterson and Brookes...139 Miss Katherine McKane....... 223 AMERICAN TWIST SERVICES: Motion Series 22-Tilden, 23-Patterson and 24-Brookes. 144-145 FOREHAND VOLLEYS: Motion Series 25-Tilden, 26-Wood and 27-Brookes... 179 Motion Series 28-Johnston, 29-Williams and 30-Richnrds.180 Motion Series 43-Miss Helen Wills..... 222 Gomar and Borotra....... 146 Mlle. Suzanne Lenglen............. 224 BACKHAND VOLLEYS: Motion Series 31-Johnston, 32-Williams and 33-Richards. 181 Motion Series 44-Miss Helen Wills..... 222 Gilbert, Lacoste, Woosnam and Norton.... 186 Mlle. Suzanne Lenglen...... 224-225 OVERHEAD SMASHES: Motion Series 34-Richards, 35-Tilden and 36-Williams. 182-183 Motion Series 37-Patterson, 38-Johnston and 39-Alonso. 184-185 Motion Series 45-Miss Hclcn Wills..... 222 Cochet........ 146 PLAYERS AND STROKES ILLUSTRATED (In alphabetical order.) AGUTTER, GEORGE Forehand ground-stroke ALONSO, MANUEL Forehand ground-stroke (series). Backhand ground-stroke (series). Running in behind service. Straight service (series). Overhead smash (series).. ANDERSON, JAMES 0. Forehand ground-stroke Backhand ground-stroke. BOROTRA, JEAN Balancing racket Forehand ground-stroke, start and finish Backhand ground-stroke Forehand volleys. BROOKES, NORMAN E. Balancing racket Forehand ground-stroke (series). Forehand half-volley Running in behind service. American twist service (series). Forehand volley (series). BROWNE, MISS MARY Backhand ground-stroke PAGE..... 64-65.... 64-65..... 100-191...... 139..... 142-143..... 184-185...... 59........ 99...... 25...... 59...... 99...... 146...... 24.... 100-101... 104..... 139... 144-145...... 179...... 226 COCHET, HENRI Overhead smash COLYER, MISS EVELYN Backhand ground-stroke. ix.. 146.......... 226 x PLAYERS AND STROKES ILLUSTRATED FUKUDA, MANOSUKI Forehand ground-stroke GILBERT, J. BRIAN Backhand volley GOMAR, COUNT Forehand volley..... Goss, MISS ELEANOR Forehand ground-stroke HARADA, TAKEICHI Forehand ground-stroke, start and finish HAWKES, JOHN B. Forehand ground-stroke. JOHNSTON, WILLIAM M. Grip for forehand ground-stroke. Balancing racket. Forehand ground-stroke, start and finish Forehand ground-stroke (series).. Extreme finish of ground-stroke.. Backhand ground-stroke (series). Forehand half-volley Straight service (series) Forehand volley (series)... Backhand volley (series). Overhead smash (series) KINSEY, HOWARD Grip for forehand ground-stroke. Grip for backhand ground-stroke. Forehand "loop-stroke," start and finish LACOSTE, RENE Backhand ground-stroke, start. Extreme finish for ground-stroke. Backhand volley. LAMBERT CHAMBERS, MRS. Forehand ground-stroke PAGE.... 66...... 186...... 146.... 226...... 66.... 59... 19... 25... 26 62-63... 106 102-103... 104 140-141...... 180 181.... 184-185...... 19 22-23... 26..... 99... 106..... 186. 226 LENGLEN, MLLE. SUZANNE Forehand ground-strokes. Backhand ground-strokes. Backhand volleys. Forehand volley...... 224-225...... 225...224-225. 224 PLAYERS AND STROKES ILLUSTRATED xi MALLORY, MRS. MOLLA BJURSTEDT PAGE Forehand ground-stroke............ 219 Backhand ground-stroke............. 219 McKANE, MISS KATHERINE (MRS. L. A. GODFREE) Forehand ground-stroke, start and finish....... 223 Backhand ground-stroke. 223 Overhead service.............. 223 NORTON, BRIAN A. C. Backhand volley............... 186 PATTERSON, GERALD L. Balancing racket.............. 24 Forehand ground-stroke (series)........ 64-65 Running in behind service............ 139 Straight service (series)........... 142-143 American twist service (series)........ 144-145 Overhead smash (series).........184-185 RICHARDS, VINCENT Grip for forehand ground-stroke......... 20-21 Grip for backhand ground-stroke......... 22-23 Forehand ground-stroke (series)......... 62-63 Backhand ground-str6ke (start).......... 99 Forehand half-volley........... 104 Extreme finish of forehand ground-stroke....... 106 Running in behind service........... 139 Straight service (series)........... 140-141 Forehand volley (series)............ 180 Backhand volley (series)............ 181 Overhead smash (series)...........182-183 RYAN, MISS ELIZABETH Forehand chop-stroke, start and finish........ 219 SHIMIZU, ZENZO Forehand ground-stroke........... 66 TILDEN, WILLIAM T. 2ND Grip for forehand ground-stroke......... 20-21 Grip for backhand ground-stroke......... 22-23 Grip for forehand volley............ 20 Grip for backhand volley............. 21 xii PLAYERS AND STROKES ILLUSTRATED TILDEN, WILLIAM T. 2ND (continued) PAeS Balancing racket..... 25 Forehand ground-stroke (series)..... 60-61 Extreme finish of forehand ground-stroke.... 106 Backhand ground-stroke (series)... 100-101 Forehand half-volley...... 195 Backhand half-volley. 105 Straight service (series)... 140-141 American twist service (series)..... 144-145 Forehand volley (series)...... 179 Overhead smash (series)......182-183 WILLIAMS, RICHARD N. 2ND Balancing racket............ 24 Forehand ground-stroke (series)..... 60-61 Backhand ground-stroke (series)........ 102-103 Forehand half-volley...... 104-105 Backhand half-volley...... 105 Straight service (series)...... 142-143 Forehand volley (series)...... 180 Backhand volley (series). 181 Overhead smash (series).......... 182-183 WILLS, MISS HELEN Forehand ground-stroke (series)... 220-221 Backhand ground-stroke (series)... 220-221 Overhead service (series).......... 220-221 Forehand volley (series)... 222 Backhand volley (series)...... 222 Overhead smash (series). 222 WOOD, PATRICK O'HARA Balancing racket...... 24-25 Forehand ground-stroke (series)......... 69-61 Backhand ground-stroke (series)... 102-103 Forehand volley (series)...... 179 WOOSNAM, MAX E. Backhand volley....... 186 MECHANICS OF THE GAME I INTRODUCTION T HE technique of the lawn tennis player's skill seems naturally to be divided into elementary principles, mechanics and psychology, and it has been my aim in the Lawn Tennis Library to treat the matter systematically under these three heads. Having mastered the first principles, fully covered in the first volume, the student of the game naturally turns to the finer points of mechanical skill employed in making the different strokes. "Mechanics" may seem at first impression an odd name to apply to the physical motions of a human being, but on closer examination that seems to be truly the heading under which these matters should be classified. Entirely aside from any of the difficult problems that confront the more skillful, every player gradually acquires certain fixed habits of hitting the ball, of handling his body, his feet and his arms, that soon become almost mechanical. Later on in his progress toward championship skill, the mental problems of the play will engage more of his attention, and for success then his "mechanics" must have become so ingrained in his system that very little of his thought and concentraI 2 MECHANICS OF THE GAME tion will have to be given to the actual production of strokes. The psychology of the game will then demand the major part of his attention, and he will make the strokes themselves almost by habit, in a mechanical manner. The various problems of psychology that come into the game will be treated in the third volume, for in this it is intended to confine our entire attention to the actual mechanics of making the various strokes. The author has been particularly fortunate in having the help of the United States Lawn Tennis Association in illustrating these books. Through the co-operation of its Educational Committee (formerly the Motion Picture Committee) and particularly of Walter L. Pate, its chairman, the marvelous slowmotion films of great players made by this committee two years ago, have been placed at his disposal, and with such splendid results as these pages will bear witness. In line with a general policy of education in the game among young players throughout the country who have not the opportunity of studying at close range the champion players themselves in action, the Educational Committee spent a great deal of time and painstaking effort (as well as a large amount of money) in securing these slow-motion pictures. Through the efforts of Mr. Pate, the services of Tilden, Johnston, Richards, Williams, Patterson, Brookes, Wood, Alonso and Miss Helen Wills were secured, and under his direction all played repeatedly INTRODUCTION 3 their favorite strokes before a battery of motion picture cameras to demonstrate how these strokes are really made. The human eye, we are told by motion picture experts, is able to record from 16 to 18 different impressions per second, and when more than that are passed before it, the scene becomes indistinct and blurred. To have the player move slowly enough before the student's eyes without making his action unnatural and "jerky," the camera was geared up to take about 150 pictures to the second and the strokes recorded at this tremendous speed. If the pictures were projected on the screen at the same rate at which they were taken, the effect would be simply a blur, for the eye could not follow any action so fast. To preserve their smooth value and still make them clear, they are projected on the screen at the usual motion picture rate of sixteen to the second, and thus the apparent speed of the player in making his strokes is reduced to about one-tenth of his normal action. In other words, it takes Tilden ten times as long to hit the ball in these "slowmovies" as he really did require to make the same stroke, and still the action is smooth and natural. By this splendid method, the student of the game is able to sit before the screen and examine in detail the motions of the great players that would otherwise escape his eye, even the eye of an expert. Watching half a dozen champions make the same stroke emphasizes the fine points of their skill, and 4 MECHANICS OF THE GAME helps one to understand the mechanics of the game. These films displayed at various tennis clubs throughout the country during the last two years have helped to spread the knowledge of how the game is properly played. The U. S. L. T. A. rents the films to clubs at a nominal charge and much good has been accomplished by its educational campaign. It is curious how inefficient is the human eye. With all this help, one would expect at least the trained student of the game to know exactly how the players make each stroke. I have studied the methods of expert tennis players for over thirty years and thought I knew what motions they made in producing their strokes. When I watched these films projected on the screen a number of times in the usual way, I learned more of the mechanics of the game, yet when I had the opportunity of examining them one "frame" at a time it was a complete revelation. There before my eyes the players were doing things I had never dreamed they did, yet I had seen them do the self-same things in match play thousands of times, and unknowingly had seen them do those same things in these films moving at one-tenth their normal speed. But even that was too fast for the eye to detect what was really happening, and we had to stop the projecting camera entirely to know exactly what was going on. Perhaps I can illustrate this situation more clearly by repeating a story the operator of this re INTRODUCTION 5 markable slow-moving (or should we say "fast-moving"?) camera told me when we were working on these films. He had taken similar pictures shortly before of an expert juggler, a card expert who did tricks that amazed people. This man did one of the usual mystifying tricks with cards half a dozen times in succession before the eyes of a group of spectators, and not one could discover how he produced a certain card or where it came from. Then he did the trick before the camera and still no one could detect it. When the films were developed and projected on the screen at the usual one-tenth of normal speed, every one could plainly see the missing card come into sight out from the coatsleeve of the prestidigitator, an inch at a time, and slowly slide into his hand, completely undeceiving those who saw the films. Truly, it is easy for the quickness of the hand to deceive the eye! It was the same with the tennis films. The racket moved so fast the stroke was all over before one could realize what the player's motions were. Then the slow-motion camera caught it and we are now able to make the racket stand still and study it at our leisure. There are six reels with a total of some six thousand feet of these tennis pictures, which include about one hundred thousand separate negatives. Twice as many were made but only the best were retained. These negatives are strung along so close together that it is often difficult for the eye to detect any differ 6 MECHANICS OF THE GAME ence between them when they are stopped on the screen. A flying ball passes a foot forward perhaps between the pictures and the racket moves a few inches. When the player's action is slower, sometimes no difference at all can be discovered. Since every slighest change was shown, it was only necessary then to select from this seemingly endless mile of film the particular negatives that illustrate the most vital parts of each stroke, to demonstrate how it is made. (That was no easy task, let me state, parenthetically!) A serious effort was made to do this systematically, and a distinct point in the making of each stroke assigned for the selection of each picture. The films picked out were enlarged so that halftone printing plates, those you see in these pages, could be made from them. The method followed was to select a series of eight pictures to illustrate each stroke, except the volleys which require so much shorter action that four were found to be enough to show their mechanics. The first, A, was chosen as the first motion of the racket was detected that could be applied to the particular stroke under examination. In the forehand ground-strokes, B was selected when the racket reached its highest point for the back-swing; C when it was at the extreme end of its back-swing; D when it was midway in its forward swing; E as nearly as possible when the racket actually met the ball; F as it completed half of its forward swing; G at the INTRODUCTION 7 end of the forward swing, and finally H as the followthrough was completed. But even the selection of the particular pictures required for these pages did not end the difficulty of the work, for the films with which we were working were moving-picture "positives," the only films that can be projected on a screen. The "master negatives" had to be used for making the necessary enlargements and this entailed another task in matching up the chosen pictures with the corresponding negatives, which had to be picked out, some four hundred out of a hundred thousand, about one in each two hundred and fifty. It took a month to do this work, but with the good help of Wallis Merrihew in the selection of the originals, and Frank Coudert, of the Novograph Film Company which made the films, in the mechanical end of the enterprise, the enlargements were finally available. Then it came down to the author's work in identifying, sorting out and matching up the various loose prints that made up the three hundred and twelve "Analysis-of-Motion" pictures (as Charles P. Watson of the Novograph Company describes them) to mount in the forty-five series shown in these pages. If one reads across the pages where these strokes are shown, he will see how each individual player makes the stroke, and if he will read down each page at any point, he will get a close comparison of the methods of the various experts in making the same stroke. For instance, if the reader examines the E 8 MECHANICS OF THE GAME pictures one after another he will see how the ball is met with the racket, and if the C pictures are compared they will show the comparative length of the back-swing of the different champions. It is amazing to record the added knowledge of the mechanics of lawn tennis that has been placed at our disposal by these pictures. Many of the cardinal tenets of good form (as noted in a later chapter) have been confirmed, and other theories and beliefs completely disproved by what these pictures have shown us. One of their greatest advantages over any illustrations previously used has been the outstanding virtue that all of the pictures shown to illustrate any given stroke were made from identically the same stroke, not from efforts to snap the selected points of different strokes of the same kind, as heretofore. No two strokes are made exactly the same by any player, and the illustrated finish of any stroke shown in all previous books on the game was generally made from an entirely different stroke from the beginning that was shown beside it. This was very misleading, as is readily apparent. The position of the feet, for instance, would cause entirely different action in the body swing; the height the particular ball was being hit was never the same in the two different strokes, and even the direction in which the ball was being played would also affect considerably the action of the player. INTRODUCTION 9 In these pictures, on the contrary, one can trace right back to its source the action of making any particular stroke, and if the swing seems cramped, note whether its defect was caused by bad footwork, or poor back-swing or incorrect position of the body. The tennis student is now able to note the varying effects of follow-through and body rotation, an entirely different method of getting momentum in the racket to hit the ball. The reader may here enjoy, if he be a true student of tennis, what the author revelled in when these action pictures were first made to stand still before his eyes. If one has a theory on how any of the champions makes any particular stroke, he may prove it or disprove it to his heart's content, for here are the proofs. If he has had, as I have had for years, any fixed theories in his mind that he found difficult to prove, here is the open book with the proofs that cannot be denied. Do expert players take their eyes off the ball before they hit it? Examine these pictures yourself and read the answer in them. The author wishes to acknowledge here his full appreciation and debt to the United States Lawn Tennis Association and its Educational Committee for their help and cordial approval of this work, and trusts that the reader also will appreciate the benefit he has been able to secure through their co-operation in making this volume what it is through the splendid illustrations. DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES II DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES HE evolution of the lawn tennis stroke is very enlightening when one studies how it should be made-the actual mechanics of the game. In its infancy, "Sphairistike," which was the name first given to our favorite sport at its christening, was played (1873 to 1875) over a net that hung seven feet high at either side and sagged in the center to four feet. Here we have the origin of the underhand stroke that was in vogue at the beginning. The ball had to be hit upward to go over the net, and there were very few horizontal strokes and no volleying. From that beginning, there has been a steady evolution of the mechanics of the game, always toward the goal of speed which in itself means horizontal play. As the height of the net was lowered, it became less and less of an obstacle to hard driving. The lower the barrier, the faster the ball can travel without going outside of the court limits. Volleying was introduced into the game by Renshaw to offset the driving speed of Lawford, and from that date a new element entered into the calculations of all players. Since then, there has been a 13 14 MECHANICS OF THE GAME constant struggle for mastery between these two basic strokes, so far apart that they cannot ever be merged. A stroke must be a volley or a ground-stroke-there can be no middle ground. The half-volley is not a mixture of the two as one might easily surmise; it is very clearly a ground-stroke and only a poor makeshift for one at that. In the early days of the game, the ball was hit upward with an underhand stroke much like the swing of the pendulum, being met somewhat in front of the player. Then the play became faster and more horizontal, the racket being drawn upward across the surface of the ball to make it spin forward and drop in its flight. This speedy drive, as developed first by the English master Lawford, was met by an attack at the net, the first attempt to volley. When the net was lowered to its present height, three feet in the center and three and a half feet at the sides, the chances for the fast driver to pass the man at the net became much better, and the struggle between the two styles became more intense than before. The balance of power between the two has trembled in the scales ever since, and to this very day it is still a toss-up as to which has the advantage,-the volleyer at the net or the base-line driver at the back of the court. At the beginning, there is no doubt that the inherent instincts of the primitive man came into use by the first tennis player, just as they do to-day when the novice at the game has no coaching and must pick DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES 15 up the strokes from his own resources. He used the racket as his ancestors did the chopping axe or the battle club. With both hands the primitive man swung the deadly implement and it probably required some time for the earliest tennis player to discover that the racket can be more effectually handled with one hand. As soon as that same realization bursts on the beginner to-day, he must make a selection and promptly becomes a right-handed or a left-handed player according to which arm he selects to handle the racket. The next step often is (and probably was in the old days) what Tilden cleverly calls the "overhead forehand drive, usually made kneeling on the court." As Tilden remarks, this is a tremendous physical feat to accomplish, but it is a wholly wasted effort, as a much simpler method is available and is soon learned. The horizontal side swing was the next development, and this is the basis of the modern stroke in tennis. The body and shoulder of the playing arm are used as the pivot around which this circular swing is made and its horizontal sweep gives the ball a flat trajectory and offers almost unlimited latitude in speed. Now since the ball travels in a straight line and the racket in the arc of a circle, the point of contact must occur at the tangent where the two meet. The 16 MECHANICS OF THE GAME danger that the ball will fly off the intended line of flight is much increased by the fact that the contact must of necessity be short under the circumstances and the blow be more or less a glancing one. Here enters in the tennis stroke the same problem that faces the golf player. He too uses a circular swing to hit the ball, but the best teachers of golf all insist that a horizontal swing ruins a good golf drive, and that a perpendicular swing of the pendulum type is necessary to flatten out the arc of the club-head's flight.,,,/ /. \ I... _ II '7: DIAGRAM A Circular swing of golf and tennis, showing flattened arc in each. In tennis, the player keeps as far away from the ball as possible, and swings around the body in a nearly horizontal plane, while the golf player stands as nearly as possible over the ball, and strikes close to the ground with a perpendicular club. In both cases the same effort is made by the best players to flatten out this circular swing by moving forward its pivot while the club or racket is in motion. Viewed DEVELOP-MEN'T OF FIIRST PRINCIPLES 17 from in front of the golf player and from perpendicularly above the tennis player, the path traveled by the club-head or racket-head is practically the same (see diagram A). In each case, there is a rotation of the body itself on its own base and the more this turn of the hips, trunk and shoulders can be added to the forward swing, the greater power will the stroke have. Among some players, this body rotation is used alone without the forward swing, but the absence of the forward motion of the pivot on which the blow turns robs the stroke of its accuracy, by its failure to flatten out the arc of its swing. Body rotation is a fine adjunct to follow-through but a poor substitute for it. The reason the golf player can better use the perpendicular swing and the tennis player must use the horizontal, is that the small golf ball rests on the ground, and there is room for a full swing between that and the height of a man's shoulders. On the other hand, in tennis there is a great advantage in hitting the ball in the air from a higher position because of the net to be passed and the limitations of the court into which the ball must fall. The higher the ball is struck the greater will be this advantage. If it were simply a question of distance, the tennis ball also might be hit down close to the ground with a perpendicular stroke as in golf. The instant the tennis player gets too close to the 18 MECHANICS OF THE GAME ball he narrows down the diameter of the circle that his racket can swing and still hit it; and this produces precisely the same effect as the golf driver who stoops over the ball in hitting it-the same narrowing of the circle results in lessening the power of the stroke. Accuracy comes with the long follow-through because that flattens out the arc and keeps the racket head longer in the same plane of flight as the ball; it adds to the power of the stroke because the forward sweep of the pivot increases the speed of the blow. Keep away from the ball then and follow through. To bend the elbow in making the stroke is another way of narrowing down the all-important circular path that the head of the racket should follow. If you keep the body away from the ball, the elbow will have to straighten out to reach it, but what one player thinks is far away and another too close often depends on the bend of that playing elbow. Nothing can cramp the tennis stroke so much as a bent elbow, and it is doubly important that in all ground-strokes, at least, its angle should be obtuse, never an acute angle, if indeed the arm cannot be straightened out entirely. Note the splendid example of the straight arm shown by Richards in the illustration of his forehand drive (series 6-E), or of Patterson (series 7-E) and compare these with Alonso in making the same stroke with a bent elbow (series 8-E). THE " AWESTERX" GII' FOR FOREHAND STROKES 19 1"g The "Western" Grip for Forehand Strokes Kinseyv' ' gril holds the racket farther around so that the top of the frame is extelnded ( forward for an exaggerated ''loop'" drive. Note the first finger extended a;long the handlle to help in guiding the stroke. With this grip a heavily topped s-hot is the nily one that (can be played. 7 *^ff.lTollhnton's rlil) is very llmch like Kinsey's blit the racket is not turned so far folrward, as lih dtlos lnot texaggerate the top-spin to the same extent as the other Ca lifo rniianii. The t ame textension of the forefinger is noticeable here aind other.11;ll a;'i.titiri tc (s 11ie li Salil. f" 11 41, Jlohnstoln' same forellandl gril) with the racket aind forearm turned so the crotch ican e seen. This picture wa\s lmade as the hand wa s closing, and it will be uotted that the fingers have not yet grasped the racket handle firmly. The racket lay flait on a ta;lle before him when lhe was gripping it, which shows which;way the blade was turtned. 20 MECHAN-ICS (F THE GA -\I1:' 'ilk\ 0 7 Tilden's Forehand Grip li re i S T li~ i tdll ii, i t,I f or I t lt - fi IrdtII to (rIito - trot(ke. show nI fr1o mII inl frIo nIIt a nIItI tong fi nge r s nItI ( a stIna I I- ilatot(IIted ra ick et tI eurtIIiit: v ~erv. ti rt grI,I- p. M a rk Iio TI i4T Richards's Forehand Grip I jt l lis t r grit, los~ m-1c k I-t f o t.I II f o r'"I ila (I i Ito k ic o (II I-, II)I v 111m111 o cte tile to Tilden's Forehand Volley Grip Tiliden 's gripis fur the horizontial volleys arev entirely different froni those for Note the dififeretit a tigi if IlIe( rack t wilth the wsri st anid forearm, which barings cut and these grns irev ititetndid to tritue this effect. DIFFERENT GRIPS FOR FOREHAND AND VOLLEYS 21 Tilden's Forehand Grip N ( From the 1(ack ) t,,lhlind. It is the same grip) for the s;ame stroke from two different points of,,o lImost (otli.r pla;iers. aind tlhat his first filger is extended rwell along the handle. f';ir thie fillril'rs oer\l.'1 tlh, thlllll) ill w\Iall)ingl arou1nd the handle. Richards's Forehand Grip (From the back) that l(zs Tilden. The difflrence is clearly shown here. as,both racketts are vel\with TildTn it is lc hind I. T'I ild(li's grip inclines toward tol)ping the ball, -whilo liztillt unlcr-cut. Ilere aIl ain the samle grii, is shown from the front and the back.,... ->i Tilden's Backhand Volley Grip groun iid-strokes. liere are shown\ his grips for the forehand and backhand volley. tlie racket head in each case well above the hand. Stuch volleys are always under )AU~HA~t (iF~1?1 GAN / Tilden' s Bacddcjafid GriP,I h J.' u*o1 itI III it II thO t t,ke thaI I,I 1 1?fles BaCklXoafld GriP tttttIw th I I I -, O i xi 11t e I ti t o h r e i I I t -- t__ I 1 t It __T - __t 10 Ric-RaL-rds, S BaCkhoaid GriP tite h orttit l I t uItttve lie tihijhutti hasIa let hit htrtl i ti ti-it (ict it (It tha YBACK HANI) GRips OF THREE MASTERS 23 Tilden's Backhand Grip (Froni the front) ha n1)H indi lii. s first fingler. well extendled. The crotch of the hiand is opeui hack hold1( withI inore support. At first glanice one is inclined to feel that this wveakens.11wd1 that it viniiicates the hold. Kn'lsey's Backhand Grip I From the front ) lin iItld. T hI s gi v es ~ ) s ne oif the( I )I onpport o)f thIIe thIii ni )-nuI-p st ylIe a niid som e o f thle KiiisiVN Vxt wits his, iiidex finger wNell along the hanidle to guide thne stroke. It is Richards's Backhand Grip"W ( From the front) it fiu IIv a long t le handil~e aid i briacis, the grip) a gainist the i nwa ct of the ball. As hietween1 thli finglers a nd thuimbl, giving no overlaiP anil a grii) that is less secnre a nil is fa rthier (in top) thain eitheri iif the others, tendin g tuwarmd a slice in the stroke. 24 -CHAN-10, OF ' H E 0 A A I I -j '7,7".- " %*I 7114'11 IMOM "" cMl IIN WI Patterson Brookes itot h 1latttrsonI and Bronmkes 1V1ia I ilh-ir raclket'- in the id11, hildo jivilt upl to till' f1111 I 1101111( tII ef ore till- st llket au Ilit I:Itv -ta rt,;II (I Btuu nm e v I.v(1 -II oIe( - 1 I. I tht, t1a1k-wiflg Eleun. hl is h00w1 hfi.rtol o1 t to Ill:lki a tvl-elmdg-u -tr()kv. and thet use of the id11 hand i welt indlic-1t(li. I yUl"-#~~ Wood Williams womIIl is just staritin g a fore hall gin Ind-sfrinke here, wh~ile XWilI amos has carried his racket bala~Inced against hig left hland rigiht tIll to the aetuial start (If aI ))a(k - han d111 iv e. InT this, -a se, the guIidlin g hat 1111tll followed the -racIk et thlrough part If its hal-k-swing a111( 15 lett ilg gol jlst as the forward swirng is, ab out to start. BALANCING( THE RACKET BEFORE STROKES 25 Borotra Johnston lorotra is \waiting to receive the service here. and his racket is safely poised in tlie rip of the lft hanlld Ilntil hle knows which swing will he required next with it. Jolllhston as he starts one of his forehand drives, is just releasing the racket fol ti 1 uplward swing that carriedl his racket over the top of his head. k - -..\ I Tilden Wood TilIden is shown here waiting for a siash in his typical position with extended eltiow\s and the racket steadied by his idle hand. Up to the last second before he st;arts the back-swing the left handl will guide the racket. Wood in his back1hand stroke uses the same style as in the foreground, using the tips of his fingers. 26 M71FCHANw1CS OF THE.. GA —lI E WI lki - I I _E ---, 11 I __11 ;(."X. 'I i, - Ir 0 Or I. I-.9 I -1.11 " '..'0440im "t, I I I I " e.1. 4,...., I Start and Finish of Kinsey's ''Loop'' Drive 'Ill ei ts A t w ict iirws hO1 )w t hIIe ]i e i I I 1Ir ( t Ii u )11 f I II. lIm ); ' ( tr I V V I t iuiuli (I tix) Iti~ v. N t t hat t h e ra k iet st arti ow (I fi oihit ) ii i ti nu t tlimt ttIII ii tI t h (Iiii v I ii e i f t i t i ii (It St a z t i i ii. It tII e rI t t aI I fi )IttIi w I II t hII I -, I )'ti t a r e t i m )')? z o i t ii ti m e tiic ti m i e - I t I m w i f J.t m m tuii.tm m ii tr I N s II \iimt s i t ii a S i In itIm _ Start and Finish of Johnston's Fast Drive liere is thv ametimum if aI uimwerfiut mdrivi as uiimiti lv Joihnmstion, ill which there is fiutl fottowr-thromigh, a mmml thet ii m y mri h is t hri-mw mi mitui the stro)ke. N ote that liii s wrin g- if t h e raimk et is homiimizmmti t 1. nmit I, itt (i dti w nm. m h ueIi time fi nlish is to ov. (mm()IItmra~st this wvith the tKiosev-% triike shiiwn atmove, ati( the (tifferemmce im the speed if the two-( shuts mmitt t)ie aptiart-it. DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES 27 Primarily, the slightest bend of the elbow is necessary in order that the player can correct any error in his calculation of the ball's flight and bound. It may come in a little closer to his body than he had expected, or it may be farther away. The slight bend can then correct this calculation at the last second by more or less shortening or lengthening the arm. But if one must choose, it is better to keep farther away than closer than he thinks safe, for it is easy to lean out to reach a ball but a deadly weakness to draw back from it. The weight must be traveling in the direction you want the ball to go when the stroke is made or power is lost. By leaning out to meet the ball and swinging the weight forward as the ball is hit you carry all the power of the body weight with the stroke. Conversely, leaning back or standing upright without follow detract from the power of the bow. The follow-through is the best means of keeping the weight in motion forward with the blow, and it has the added virtue of flattening out the arc of the swing. Momentum of the racket is the chief power that puts speed in the ball, not the physical strength of the player. The diameter of the circle it travels is only one element that makes for added momentum. An early start of the back-swing increases the distance back that the racket travels, even to the last bend of the wrist that carries the head back another foot after the arm has reached its limit. 28 MECHANICS OF THE GAME The forward swing requires the loose-jointed arm that gives the power and snap of a whip's blow. There are three joints in that playing arm, the shoulder, the elbow and the wrist, and each should be used in turn. After the shoulder has started the forward swing of the racket, the elbow takes up the work, and finally the wrist, so that when the racket meets the ball it must be traveling at a high rate of speed. Naturally, the wider the circle it travels as it comes forward for the hit, the more time will be given to gather momentum and the greater will be the effect of centrifugal force. This swing must be smooth and even, with gathering power as the racket nears the ball, not a sudden jerky movement. As its maximum is reached, however, there is the danger that the impact will be too sharp against the incoming ball. To ease this blow, to increase the time of contact with the ball so that it can be guided the better, the stroke is most often made with a slightly bevelled racket. As the ball slides across the strings before parting with its projector, it receives a spinning rotation that has been put to great advantage by the skillful player. Primarily this cutting, sliding motion is intended to direct the ball by longer contact, but the spinning motion it receives has a direct effect on the ball itself. The full effect, its many varied effects, will be taken up later in these pages, but it must be noted here that the twist serves a double purpose, that of letting the DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES 29 contact continue longer by clinging to the strings being quite as important as the effect on the ball's flight. This bevelled stroke has a tendency to sweep the ball away rather than to hit it a clean sharp blow like that of a baseball against a bat. Some theorist, years ago, likened the tennis stroke to that of the lacrosse player, calling it in reality a "centrifugal curve throw" rather than a hit. While the tight resiliency of the racket's strings prevent this from being a correct description, the glancing blow aids control, and certainly accuracy of direction can be better secured by such an impetus than by sharp impact, and accuracy is one of the most prized attributes of the tennis stroke. If you don't want to miss this difficult contact, the eyes should be kept closely on the ball until after it has left the racket. Now, I do not want to be accused of inconsistency in making this statement so I repeat here that it is intended for the player who is learning the game. The masters do not always keep their eyes on the ball while hitting it, but their methods cannot be safely copied until a considerable degree of skill has been secured. Finally, the racket must not be stopped as soon as the ball is hit. The not uncommon tendency to check its forward swing as soon as it has done its work invariably works to the great disadvantage of the player. If the player follows through to the very end of his reach, the momentum of the racket will pull his weight forward and increase body-swing. 30 MECHANICS OF THE GAME The maximum speed of the racket should be just after the ball is hit, not before. In the "centrifugal curve throw" of lacrosse, the maximum speed of the arm is reached distinctly after the ball has left the stick. IMPLEMENTS OF PLAY III IMPLEMENTS OF PLAY THE rackets, balls and nets we use and even the courts on which we play, all have a strong effect on the mechanics of the game. For many years, little effort was made to standardize the balls, but now the rules of the game not only specify their size and weight, but even go so far as to define their resilience with great accuracy. The International Lawn Tennis Federation, of which the United States Lawn Tennis Association is now a member, has succeeded in standardizing the balls used throughout the world so closely that there is hardly any difference noticeable when players of one country play in the tournaments of others. The official rules require that the ball "shall have a minimum bound of 50 inches and a maximum bound of 60 inches when dropped 100 inches, at a temperature approximating to 68 degrees Fahrenheit, upon a concrete base; and a deformation of not less than.290 of an inch and not more than.315 of an inch when subjected to pressure of 18 pounds applied to each end of any diameter, at a temperature approximating 68 degrees Fahrenheit." These specifications are re33 34 MECHANICS OF THE GAME quired in addition to exact limitations given for the size and weight of the ball. Despite all these safeguards, dampness affects tennis balls and there is a noticeable difference in the weight and bound of a ball that has been wet or rubbed along against a soft turf court where the moisture from the grass itself is absorbed. Roughness of a dirt court affects their hardness and consequent bound, age softens the balls, and even heat and cold have their effect on the height of the bound. The rebound of a tennis ball largely depends on the compressed air within its sealed walls, and one that reacts as required by the rule, will bound considerably higher on a hot day with a temperature of 90 degrees; or much less if used on a cold day with a temperature below the point officially set for the test. Furthermore, the same ball dropped on a dirt court will not rebound as much as from concrete, and from a grass court still less. I recall an interesting test we used to make along these lines. I played in the National Indoor Championship tournament a good many years at the Seventh Regiment Armory in New York. This has an enormous drill floor under a high arched roof, and as the tournaments were held in mid-winter, the temperature was almost always cold under that big dome. We frequently found the balls so cold that they had a very low bound and were difficult to handle. To correct this, we used to heat the balls for an hour or so before playing by putting the boxes on a steam rad IMPLEMENTS OF PLAY 35 iator at the side. This soon corrected the trouble, and the air inside expanded quickly when "cooked" in this way, while the bound increased correspondingly. Balls that have become soggy from playing on a wet court can be quickly corrected by putting them in the oven of an ordinary cooking stove for a short time. This will dry out the covers and at the same time heat the air inside. Even the best balls grow light when played long on a dirt court, and the more so if the surface is covered with gritty sand, which cuts into the covers and wears away the surface. There is a tendency for old balls to grow "dead" also, and this is probably due more to the slight porosity of the rubber, which in time allows a small amount of the compressed air to leak out and reduce the inside pressure, than to any other cause. If cold only has caused the ball to lose life the oven heating will correct this fault. Originally, tennis balls were all made in two sections, and cemented together with a "plug" on the inside. This plug was made of very soft rubber and the needle of the air-gun was thrust through it to fill the ball. When withdrawn the soft rubber would close the hole of itself, leaving the ball air-tight. The felt covers were sewed on the balls, by a much more laborious process than now used, which left rough seams that sometimes ripped open in dirt-court play. One great fault of the old method was the effect of making the balls slightly heavier on the side where 36 MECHANICS OF THE GAME the plug was, so that they did not fly truly through the air. All this is changed now and better methods are used in making the balls we use. No plug is employed and the covers are cemented on so tight that it is very rare to see one even become loose in play, and the seams match so closely that there are no ridges or stitches to fray out when cut by the sand on the court. Instead of a monopoly in the ball industry, there are now about a dozen balls approved each season for use in official tournaments and competition for the business has improved their quality immensely. If one would play the game well he should insist on balls of one of the standard makes and use them only so long as they retain the correct specifications of size, weight and rebound. Accurate play is possible only when the balls do not vary, and the mechanics of each stroke are affected by the slightest variations of the force required by a heavy or a light ball, or the height the ball bounds up to be hit. The U. S. L. T. A. maintains a standing committee to constantly watch over these ball conditions and test new makes of balls. A few basic rules are worth remembering. A heavy ball flies straighter than a light one and curves less in the air, but on the other hand it bounds lower. A hard ball flies straighter than a soft one because its lesser depression by the racket causes it to curve less from the irregular pressure in the air, but it bounds higher. The most difficult ball of all to control is the IMPLEMENTS OF PLAY 37 soft ball that has become light generally from friction with a dirt court. When this is hard hit, it loses its shape and curves in the air in an eccentric manner. The court itself, particularly its surface, has its effect on every ground-stroke. A sandy top will let the ball slide some inches along the ground before it rises and the softer the ball is the longer will this sliding become, as is shown by the mark made on the ground where it strikes. This sliding is what cuts the covers and wears away the felt surface quickly. The sand-covered court gives a somewhat lower bound with a flatter trajectory than a clay court or concrete surface which grips the ball tighter when it strikes and gives it a more perpendicular and higher bound. Clay particularly gives an upright angle to the bound. A board surface, on the other hand, gives a very flat bound to handle, and more or less sliding tendency according to the varnish, paint or other coating over the wood. A canvas stretched tightly over any hard surface will give an upright bound because the cloth grips the felt cover of the ball securely and will not let it slide. Grass furnishes a lower bound than any of the hard courts, although this varies a good deal according to the thickness of the turf and the length of the grass, and still more on the nature of the subsoil under the turf. The English turf is much harder and firmer than the courts in America and the bound is inclined to be higher and at the same time truer. The meth 38 MECHANICS OF THE GAME ods of making all ground-strokes differ somewhat according to the kind of a court you play on. But the racket is unquestionably the most important factor outside of the player himself in the mechanics of the play. It must be selected with the greatest care if one would get the best results from it. It is all right to say that a poor workman blames his tools, but even the best tennis players find it difficult to play without good rackets. The strings must be tight and of a good quality of gut if you expect them to show the proper amount of resiliency for good strokes. There are many novelties in stringing offered but those with the least fancy strings generally give the best results. Several makers are using a few re-. inforcing strings in the center that stiffen the playing surface, and they have often been found a help. The weight of the racket and the size of the handle are quite as important as the stringing. For women, a racket of 12/2 to 131/2 ounces is generally considered right, but I would advise that not over 13 ounces be used unless the player is exceptionally strong, particularly in the wrist. Men use 131/2 to 141/ ounces and again the happy medium of 14 ounces is recommended as the best weight. The size of the handle depends somewhat on the size of the player's hand, particularly on the length of the fingers. A player who wears a number eight glove will generally find a handle measuring 51/8 inches in circumference the best size to use. Meas IMPLEMENTS OF PLAY 39 uring the middle finger is another test. If your middle finger measures 3/2 inches from crotch to tip, I feel that a handle of not more than 51/8 inches should be used, and it would improve the grip if the size were not larger than 5 inches. The handle can be easily measured by a piece of string or the edge of a handkerchief, and the measurements given are of course exclusive of the leather "button" at the end of the handle. Some time ago there was a strong tendency toward larger handles and many players were using rackets measuring 51/4 or 53/8 inches in size. They even went beyond this and wrapped such large handles with adhesive tape and other fabrics to change the grip, increasing the size to be held. I feel very strongly that such bulk weakens the hold on the racket, as the fingers overlap less than on a smaller handle and for the backhand strokes show a distinct open space that lessens the control. More recently there has been a steady drift in the other direction toward the smaller handles that I have consistently advocated for the last twenty years, and now the majority of the best players find a better grip possible with the smaller handle, and some have even gone to 5 inches. Brookes used a very small handle long before other experts adopted his idea, but he also used a very light racket as well, finding it easier to volley with. Some other good players are now using handles as small as 47/s or 5 inches, and for short fingers, I believe that this size is an advantage. 40 MECHANICS OF THE GAME The use of artificial grips has never appealed to me. The natural cedar handle is rough enough to afford a secure grip on the handle and the adhesive tape does not seem to give any better hold. In hot weather too it is apt to grow sticky and make a quick shift from the back-hand grip to the forehand a little difficult. A net that is not of the standard height should never be played over under any conditions even for a few strokes. Nothing will so soon throw a man completely off his game as playing over a high net or a low one. The slightest variation from the standard height will very quickly develop a bad habit in the player which it will take him a long time to rid himself of. The rules prescribe very closely how high the net must be and a center-strap is provided for maintaining this height without variation. The instant a net begins to sag, stop and tighten it up before you get used to serving or playing over a low net, and then lose many valuable strokes a little later by hitting into the net when it is raised to the proper height. A. fairly broad top-band on the net is a great advantage to the player. At a hurried glance he can see how high the net is by this white band, and it provides a mark for him to aim at when it is caught quickly by the eye in fast play. For the same reason, white nets are better for the player than the tarred variety, although they do not last so long in the exposure to wet weather. HOW THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS IV How THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS T HE mechanics of lawn tennis are affected more perhaps by the player's grip of the racket than anything else that is within his control. His playing position, his swing, the twist the ball receives, all depend on the grip he has on his racket when he hits the ball. Primarily, it should be comparatively loose and free so that it may be easily changed right up to the instant when the actual stroke begins. I am convinced that even the best players vary the angle of their hold on the racket's handle slightly in different strokes of the same kind, the grip differing according to the height of the ball they are planning to hit, the particular kind of a drive or other stroke they are intending, and often according to their own position in relation to the ball. For this reason, it is important not to grip the handle too tightly until ready to start the stroke. It is better to relax the grip so that it may be easily shifted, and also to rest the hand somewhat between the strokes. The racket's head is almost always balanced in the idle left hand of the player so that the change of the grasp, even though it be a shift of only 43 44 MECHANICS OF THE GAME a fraction of an inch, can be easily made if the grip is not too tight. There are many devices used to keep the handle from slipping in the grasp. The most popular is adhesive plaster with the cloth side turned out toward the palm of the hand, and some players, among them Johnston and Williams, wrap this around the handle diagonally in strips and sometimes in several layers, to produce a rough surface to grip without slipping. For players whose hands perspire excessively, this is sometimes a help, but in most cases the rough combed cedar handle used in all high-class rackets will be found sufficient to afford a firm grip on the handle. There is little or no difficulty in selecting the grip desired, even to the finest distinction, when the head of the racket is balanced by the idle hand when the shift is made. Without even looking at the racket (one cannot take his eyes off the ball when the grip is being selected) the player knows how much to turn the handle by the flat frame at the "throat" which clearly indicates the direction of the playing surface. When the desired hold has been selected, I have no hesitation in saying that the grip should be tight, very tight, until after the stroke has been completed. I know that some competent authorities and some players of skill advise a comparatively loose grip while striking, but the preponderance of evidence is strongly against them, and I feel very strongly that any relaxation in hold from the time the swing starts How THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 45 until after the ball has parted from the strings is likely to be a fatal mistake. The only possible exception to this rule is in making stop-volleys at the net, or an occasional type of service that depends on a turn of the racket as the stroke is made, and that can generally be done more accurately with the wrist than by allowing the racket to slip in the grasp. And such strokes as do depend on this loose grip are very uncertain of success at their best. No matter how expert the player is and how well he has gauged the flight of the ball he is planning to hit, he cannot always meet it exactly in the center of the strings. The playing center of the racket extends from three to four inches across the width of the racket and from four to six inches along its length. But that is a close calculation at best to make the ball meet this small area, with its many variations in flight and bound, when hit by a swinging club in the hands of a fast moving player. If the error in calculation is lengthwise of the racket, it is not likely to affect the grip much, but if a very small error brings the ball an inch or two to one side or the other of the longitudinal centre of the strings, the blow will give a twisting motion to the racket that is likely to turn it in the grip, if the hold is relaxed. Even though this turn be infinitesimal, it will cause an easing up of the impact and destroy the accuracy of the stroke. Let us assume that the grip must be tight and re 46 MECHANICS OF THE GAME main so while the stroke is being made. Then how should the racket be held is the next question. Few players disagree with the almost unanimous counsel to grasp the handle at its very end. The ball of the hand, the fleshy part of the palm furthest from the thumb, should rest solidly against the very end of the handle. Most players let the leather ferrule at the end of the handle press solidly against this pad, and often it is imbedded in the flesh there to give it a firmer seat. (Note Tilden's forehand grip-page 20). Personally, I like this firm base, as I feel that it helps to prevent the twisting of the racket, as well as any sliding tendency. There are some players of experience who do not use the full grip on the racket. They prefer a shorter grip and seem to play well with it, but they are a very small minority and it is safe to say that ninety-five per cent of experienced players prefer the full-length grip. It unquestionably gives a greater leverage and more power in the stroke, and also permits the player to maintain a position farther from the ball, which is always an advantage. As to the angle of the grip with the striking head of the racket there is more choice. The handle of a tennis racket is nearly round, octagonal generally, so that it can be held in any grasp that the player prefers. Assuming, however, that he has attained a certain degree of skill, that he has passed through the field of the lessons for beginners covered so fully in HOW THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 47 the first volume of this Library, there are certain more or less fixed rules that long experience has evolved for the most efficient grips that it would be wise to follow. For the ground-strokes these different grips may be divided into three general groups, which we might describe as the orthodox American grip, the English grip and the unorthodox American grip (or "Western grip" as it is sometimes called), which has found much vogue and some success, particularly in the far western section of the country. Historically, and basically, the English hold is the ancestor of them all and the oldest method of holding the racket. With characteristic conservatism, the English players, generation after generation, seem to shut their eyes to the limitations of this hold and continue in the same way to their detriment when International tests have shown it less effective. The typically English grip spreads the first finger and thumb slightly more along the handle of the racket than the American. As the ball is hit, the face of the racket is bevelled back three or four inches more than with the American, where the racket is almost perpendicular to the ground at the same point. Their hold makes the English stroke more of a glancing blow than the American, the head of the racket more often passing under the ball as the contact ends than over, as in the other style. Some of the English players use top-spin in their strokes. but this is made chiefly by turning the wrist 48 MECHANICS OF THE GAME over and with it even the forearm to bring the head of the racket above the ball, and make it spin forward in its flight. Americans require less turn of the wrist and more of the upward motion of the arm to produce the same result with less effort. In shifting to the backhand, the typical English hold originally required no change of the grip. The racket was simply carried across in front of the body with the head above the wrist and the other side of the strings used to hit. Here, too, the backward bevel of the racket's head generally produced an undercut, or a "check-cut" as the English called it, a "drag" that slowed up the ball as it spun backward in the direction opposite to its flight. There was a distinct modification in this English style towards the end of last century, when the famous Doherty brothers and other British leaders, changed their ideas and advocated a shifting of the grip from the forehand to the backhand strokes. This change was very slight at first and has never to this day reached the ninety degrees that is the generally accepted shift used by American players of the orthodox school. The Dohertys themselves, world masters in their day, declared "the less change the better." The English grip also required a stiffer wrist in hitting the ball and less of the flexibility that is thought in America to be an advantage. Particularly in making backhand strokes, the wrist was so braced against the blow that the angle of the joint helped to How THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 49 stiffen it and aid the power of the stroke. In the British type of play there is little of the snap of the wrist so apparent in American experts, and they make fewer errors in consequence. The original English grip of the racket was the easiest, and in the early days of American tennis it was adopted with all of the other British ideas that came with the game as it was imported from our English cousins. But American players soon developed a new way of holding the racket that seemed to give more flexibility of stroke, more power in many ways, although less steadiness and security. This new style spread among the players of the Eastern section, who generally adopted it in preference to that imported from the other side with the early principles of the game. This method required a shift in the grip of about ninety degrees of the handle's circumference between the forehand and the backhand, but it still used the opposite sides of the strings for the striking surface, as did the English style. Where the British bent the elbow in striking and carried the wrist below the level of the racket head, the American style was nearly horizontal, with wrist level and little or no bend in the elbow. This gave much more flexibility to the wrist, with corresponding advantage in fine placing of the ball at the last second while the stroke was being madfe. Whereas the stiffer wrist of the British method committed the player to a narrower range of direction after the stroke had been started. 50 MECHANICS OF THE GAME But still a third method of gripping the racket was meanwhile or soon after being developed on the Pacific Coast. The prevalence of asphalt courts, with the higher bound they give the ball, probably furnished the incentive for this Western grip. To hit the ball higher on the bound and still bring it down into the adversary's court needed more "top," more of an angle of the striking surface over the ball. The California players gripped their rackets a little further around the handle so that the top of the frame was noticeably ahead of the bottom when contact was made, and this gave the ball a decided top-spin, almost automatically communicated. (See forehand grips of Kinsey and Johnston, page 19.) This peculiar grip grew prevalent along the Pacific Coast and the majority of the far Western players used it, although it was not generally recognized in the East until the Californians began to appear constantly in the Eastern tournaments, and with marked success. Then what seemed a defect in their play had to be recognized and reconciled with existing ideas of good form. While this so-called "Western Grip" has seldom produced the best form, no matter how often it is used by the championship winners, still it has grown to be recognized as effective in some hands. As a rule players with this grip have good forehand strokes and poor backhands. Here you have the three general types of grips used by experienced players, but there are endless variations of them, and the minor differences that ex UNIVERS!TY HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY D 32 LANN.ARDOR, MJCH!GAN HOW THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 51 ist account for slight changes in the effect of strokes made by the same grips when used by different players. For the services and volley strokes, even for lobs, there are different grips, but these three styles roughly described may be said to include the standard grips for ground-strokes as made by the best players. As to the best, it is safe to say that the greatest percentage of tournament winners use some variety of the orthodox American grip. Johnston has succeeded in combining a good backhand with his tremendous forehand made with the Western grip, but his case is an exception to the general rule, and this method is not considered as sound or as versatile as the Eastern style, which offers a sounder backhand and a more varied forehand. The undercut sliced ball is very difficult with the Western grip, but can be made without any shift of the orthodox American style of holding the racket. The English style has much in its favor, particularly on the backhand stroke. Here the firmer wrist makes for safety and accounts for the steady certainty of play, particularly on the backhand side, that is characteristic of the British players. On the forehand side the tendency of that style is to slow up the ball somewhat, for the backward bevel of the racket that this hold produces on both sides tends to undercut the ball, and it is difficult to put much top-spin on the ball with this grip. The undercut so prevalent in English strokes, 52 MECHANICS OF THE GAME while it certainly does slow down the speed, on the other hand gives the player a firmer grip on the ball, and for this reason, as well as because of the stiffer wrist, offers a smaller percentage of error. On the other hand, it limits the possibilities of brilliant, offensive play, particularly in fine placing and hard driving. i _ w ENGLISH GRIP-_ T LOENS EASTERN GRIP JOHNSTONS WESTEk[N GRIP STRIKING DE STPlKIIG 510E OF IACKET OF tACKE1 FOREHAND BACKHAND DIAGRAM B Arrows indicate angles of crotch between thumb and first finger with head of racket. Western grips use same face of racket for both strokes -others turn racket over in shifting. The difference between the three styles of grips may be best illustrated by the accompanying diagram, which shows the different holds with the relative angles of the crotch of the hand between the thumb and the first finger with the striking surface of the racket. When we come to the details of the backhand grip, we encounter one of the widest differences of practice in any of the mechanics of the game. How to use the thumb is the question involved, and there How THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 53 are many ideas on this subject. In making the forehand stroke with any grip, the hand is behind the racket and its grip is secure through this position, but for backhand strokes that is not the case. Here the hand is above the handle of the racket and cannot brace it against the blow as in the other stroke. The weakness of all backhand grips lies in the crotch of the hand between the thumb and index finger. The tendency of the force of impact is to let the racket slip back into this crotch and ease up on the rigidity of the stroke. Of course the slightest easing up when the contact comes with the ball is almost certain to ruin the stroke, and every precaution must be taken to prevent this. The thumb is the natural protector there and it can be used in several ways to strengthen the grip during the stroke. Opinions differ as to its best use and are about evenly divided as to the advisability of using it straight along the handle of the racket as a strut or brace. Personally, I prefer this method, but there are some arguments against it and many good authorities in favor of other styles. Very few players of the English school do use their thumbs in this way, the prevailing method abroad, both in England and on the Continent, being to carry the thumb diagonally up along the handle, which gives more gripping power and less of the brace. Unquestionably the grip is tighter this way, but I feel that the weak crotch gets too little support, 54 MECHANICS OF THE GAME and the stroke must rely too much on a stiff wrist and therefore be less flexible. Here the question of the size of the handle of your racket plays a big part. If your fingers alone must be relied on for a tight grip so the thumb can be released for reinforcement, then a small handle is imperative. With a large-handled racket, the fingers do not wrap around so far and the space between the thumb and forefinger is more open and less secure than with a small handle. The tendency of the last ten years toward smaller handles may be taken as a support of the thumb-up theory. Both the English and the Western grips use the thumb diagonally along the handle and wrapped at least partially around it for the backhand grip, but the majority of those who prefer the orthodox American grips use the thumb as a prop straight up the handle for support. As will be seen by the picture on page 22, Tilden does not, and his backhand play is exceptionally strong. In the absence of this support, the British players for the backhand drop the wrist, bringing the dangerous crotch more above the handle. They take the force of the impact across the joint of the wrist so that the weakness is not so noticeable. But with, the typical Western style, the weakness is most pronounced, and a majority of those who use this grip have developed marked weakness in their backhand play as a result. How THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 55 In a consensus of opinions secured a few years ago from 64 of the best players of the world, 38 declared they did use their thumbs up the handle for backhand strokes and 26 did not. It is significant, however, that among those who do not are Johnston with the Western grip, Tilden with a modified American grip, and Brookes and Patterson with separate grips of their own. Richards, Williams and Hunter do use their thumbs in this way and recently both Borotra and Lacoste declared that they also do so, although at least in the case of Lacoste this is in a modified way, not straight along the handle. On the other hand, Charles Hierons, the professional at the Queens Club, London, and George Agutter, the West Side Tennis Club professional, two of the best tennis coaches in the world to-day, both favor the use of the thumb along the handle. All that has been said so far relates, of course, to ground-strokes, the backbone of the game. For services and volleying, we have new problems to consider. There is practically no top-spin used in volley strokes; all should be hit straight or with some under-cut, and the grip should therefore be altered slightly to give the racket a little backward bevel on both forehand and backhand. The volley stroke is always made with a downward, not an upward motion, and this glancing blow requires a less "open" face of the racket as the ball is met. The grip for the forehand volley is practically the same as the English grip for the forehand ground 56 MECHANICS OF THE GAME stroke and produces almost the same effect on the ball. This is also true of the backhand volley where the orthodox grip for the backhand ground-stroke as played by the English comes into play. There is little difference of opinion on gripping the racket for volley strokes. The loosening of the grip for close net volleys is a dangerous procedure, I feel, and a much safer method of checking the impact is the easing up of the tension on the wrist just as the ball is met. This is splendidly used by Borotra, the French expert, who hits his horizontal volleys at the net firmly and with plenty of power and keeps the ball from going out of court by an easing up in the wrist rather than the grip. This wrist action can also be used for directing the shot, whereas a loosening of the grip cannot. For the service, the grips vary much more than for the ground-strokes. There are so many variations of service that it is almost impossible to lay down any fixed rule. The player's personal preference also comes much more into play here and the same effects can often be produced by different grips. The straight overhead out-twist, however, can be made well with almost exactly the same grip as the forehand ground-stroke, but when the American twists, either straight or reverse, are used, the grip must be shifted. For the American delivery, the racket should be bevelled around a little further, so that it shows a less open face and meets the ball with HOW THE GRIPS AFFECT MECHANICS 57 a glancing blow that eases up the back of the racket while still in contact. There are of course many unorthodox grips to be found among the expert players, and not to follow the beaten path does not of itself predict failure. However, the accepted styles used by the best players will in the long run generally produce the best results. More men have succeeded with eccentric grips despite this defect in their play than because of it. DIFFERENT SrTYLES OF FOREHAND DRIVING 59 Start and Finish of Borotra's Forehand Drive mro tra like Tildein uses a great deal of wrist action in the back swing for his forehalnd stroke(s. lie starts the stroke with a whilpping snap of the wrist, and fiis,,tles with the racket well around his body but not so high as generally required for topl-splinl. gtis rouind-strokes are not the strongest part of his play, however. - I Anderson Hawkes Anderson is making one of his "flat" drives here, but the action does not indicate great Slpeed, as the p)layer's feet are flat on the ground. Ordinarily Anderson's drives are very powerful. lawkes, a left-handed player, keeps well away from the hball, and uses as very full swing. 60 IN11CHAN-IC8S OF THEI GAMEl, A ii C D 1. Tilden.-Nte thie chanplill's aI hw- s (itta I i thla bi t o)fI hItt in oIv(II thlit runii. Ill the! stroke hito the stroke, tranisferring the full low!e o)f his blyweigilt io the ball. 'Ihlere is a give-s the raeket a full turnl with no hiesitat int. Illis timinloir is~ verv tine(. hut till follow 4...aI I I I I I.. jk- I. A I... I bj -.. - i 1A. i. _ _ _ _ I I I i I I. A it C- D 2. Wood.-Here is pt-rhiats tile mwt~l~tOtl~i forllrildl11 Striiike tol ii 51 am n-~ till vx ill' i. A it C D 3. Willams-A c-haracteristic stroke of W~i l~liams. ife steppedll hitI) this strolke as did Tilden Iiams's strokes are tmadil Ilostlv 'withiHitil Illgit1 till rgilt fl(nt Iltid wlitih llmli rotation hody comp~lietely turn~ed before till Imll II5 lilit, till sihold:l iils ileilg It rigilt al~lgi es to tile MOVING PICTURES OF FOREHAND DRIVES 61 E F G H showni he apparently had ample time to get set, as shown by A and B, but preferred to step peculiar snap or turn of the wrist that Tilden uses which shortens the back-swing and still through of the right leg is late, the stroke being comnlleted before it crosses the left.. - I'd r TAP". 4 F r r_ >. 4 f r_ I 1. ' (G H Eac;h motion is )perftectl'y made. Note the arms, the feet, the rotation of the hips and the cormball. hlere is a littlI reserve in the back-swing which is not carried as far back as with driving piower. E F G It ablove, but there is little rotation of the hlils here and practically no follow-through. Wilsullstitlted for follow-thlough. Note his up)right plosition tlhoughout this stroke, and the flight of the ball in E. (32' MECHAN-ICS OF THE GAMTE IA C I ) 4. Johnston.- L)z (f the catlifm ri iia xpert tepttvI itj( u i. III hi,' VIIo ICe ioir t,t v Ie. Nii oif hII ' v y a, h e la c k s — t lii il tid v t ist 1 1t ii Ii i ' i 'lh v e t l t s ii i s t h m I I t it~ i\ i it i I I- I.: lii. k I, (,II( v I i d l l ':iu. c. d a oII I tra I I, t''r~ 11I i \' i 'igli I f ur.w a nItril I to lie1I A i I' 1) 5. Johnston. T his,, serif's if J ohnsI ton vwas take n, if a i'h iil I n frntii, tlfii fronlt, g iving le r fe rt a s t hle ii)t h e t.-, a s t 1 le iltiy r't i Ip a r e-IIt Iti ~ t I ' M- I ) I i # I II I IIII I ttIIo i iIi II, Iii al I lii t (I I nI( t L" 't v muI. a n( a hal f co m ptntuttei I III t he rae k it 's s wving ~. Tl l, tornl of lie Id ld ' of lii ra ik it shlo ws AB C' D 6. Richards. Ihere is puerhalps the fine~st swing ouf aill ruined by bad foot-work. The elbow the are of his sowinig, toth barkwnard andi forwa rd, lu(ttI r thai a tiy uther player. TheC lc k forward root ion of the weight wvhich Ira nsfers the l~ow\-r iiito the bll 1. If the left foot had been MOVING PICTURES OF FOREHAND DRIVES 63 E F G H wother ptlayer makes so wide a circle in the swing of the racket, which accounts for much self very firmly for his drive,. and the racket passes completely over the top of his head. lilit a;ll rotates h hihilps so that he centers all his forces into the stroke. -----— W --- —- E F G H another vi\w of a stroke similar to the series above. The body and foot action is not as set so we11 for the stroke. All of the same characteristics are shown here. however, with a the, lprinllunced topl-splin that was )put on the ball. Note how high each of these balls was hit. E F G H show s less bend than with Johnston, and Richards reaches out for the ball and widens of power in his ground-strokes is plainly indicated by his footwork. for there is little or no extended before the racket met the ball, the weight could have followed, but the ending is weak. (64 MECHAN-ICS~ OF TI-E, G-AI\IE A BI t 1) 7. Patterson.-Here rotatitioti, t vt nttrt, it toot ottI thaii folittt-thriitttIh. Notte tie ext rente B toil. I-Iwith the c(trrespitttittIii ptittirt.~ In aitv ttf thi(tto ihr vr le. itiktit frtin ttile front. antdhjn a full hatf circet ilt Patitt~r~tii.it, u. I~ Here livt thle t. velit of tlit ftie t11titti dirvITn A Ii 1) 8. A~lonso.-The forimer Spaish o timitlpii it sho\ot It-. litckii-,tti in that1 aI\ y if tiii othler.' A ii I) 9. Agutter.-The, prtfesitotal cont ht it. thttti lirii it a wi-efll(xeiutted drive, tttt aplparently The footwotirk is iterfi-t, the~ we I ttt goit lu hack ttll tw \\i. oa v ttt t iti fttttt it tue backgotti rotaitioii otf the tltdvt. Note tutu itigti tit. htwtt-sti lg t iL-ti titti fritt frtti the body MOVING( PICTURES OF FOREHAND DRIVES 65 E F G H o'rii of then shIuller-, extending the forward motion of the racket greatly. Compare,.ven.ohnston (series 5) and lic(.hards (series 6) show no such extreme turn of the shoulders pIWer. withi almot perfect timing to splee(l the ball. r\ El 1' G H his racket stopl)ing its l;ckward mo1vemlent straight in line with the ball's flight. This puts,all with si) shiort a blc k-swing. Alonso's elbow is })ent too close against his body also, are much bettter tlhan the preliminary s\wing. E I' G H made witholit 5muc(h effort to plit stpeed oll the ball, and lie seeis a b)it ",camera-conscious." swing, and finishing far forward on the left, with perfect transference of the weight and a and how straight the elbow when the blow is struck. The finish is a trifle low for top-spin. (i(6 MECHA-NICS OF THE GAM-fE Start and Finish of Harada's Forehand Drive f III th i setli iI I A in rici I hI a (I Ina k.l II s f llia II(I i II the bet formi. 1ii- fo utwork P, Iett r. hiis ),c 1ak w III fill iiin hII'. fol eo - throush I Inni(It, ill orthodox '-t \lI( wI t II a t oIsp-si t on t he liii I t IIaIt keet- Iih slit 41 Shimizu Fukuda liffre is shown a contrast of th i oll rid nwt\%~ sehool aiioing the Jaainese players.".Z Shirnizi his the ciramitel styli of the earty experts from the Iandl of t he rising suni, while likiuda's gine was huilt tip after the Western ideas iif the gamne were he in i j ni lii liii. Not e the diffiren ie of the sw ing anii the gi'ipis showvn. EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE V EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE P ERHAPS the most concise exposition of the need for good footwork in tennis was clearly stated by F. R. Burrow in his excellent English book on the game. Says Burrow: "The only way of getting power into your strokes is to get your weight behind them; the only way to get your weight behind them is to have your body properly balanced; and the only way to have your body properly balanced is to have your feet in the right position." There is the secret of footwork in a nutshellthe whole success of your stroke comes back to your feet. Without proper understanding (in more senses than one) a man's play is doomed to failure, despite the isolated instances of comparative success with poor footwork. To hold the racket right, even to swing it properly at the ball, is not sufficient to play correctly. The player must learn to carry his body and his racket in the most convenient positon, and to use his feet and legs so that he may gain the best effect in his strokes. These seem like small matters perhaps to the uniniated, but on such foundations is built all skill in tennis. 69 70 MECHANICS OF THE GAME Awaiting the next play, the racket must be carried in a neutral position, from which it will be most readily available no matter what stroke is required to be played next with it. Since about three-quarters of all the strokes made by the average player are forehand strokes, the grip when anticipating the next unknown play should be the forehand grip. But you may be surprised. Contrary to all expectations, the next shot required may be a backhand stroke, not one on the forehand side, so a quick shift of the grip will be necessary. This can be made quickest when the left hand helps to balance the racket, and therefore this balancing "ready" position is used by practically all good players. (See illustrations on pages 24 and 25.) The "splice" of the racket frame, the jaw where the two sides of the bow come together at what is known as the throat, is held loosely at rest in the left hand, while the end of the handle is gripped by the right. From this position, it is easy to shift for any stroke that may be required, whether backhand or forehand, volley or ground-stroke. It is a restful position also, taking much of the weight of the racket off the right hand, which does all the work. Waiting for the service then, or when at rest in the court anticipating another stroke, one should always adopt this position until the approaching ball shows which shot will be required next. There has been some controversy about the best EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 71 stance, the best position for the feet while waiting for the next stroke. Says Tilden, in his "Common Sense of Tennis": "Always await the ball facing the net and then step into the striking position," while many other writers have given similar instructions. There is no question that the player must face the net to anticipate the next play, but I believe that it is much better practice to avoid keeping the feet parallel with the net. From the parallel stance, the first quick move must be to the right or the left; to move backward or forward, as so often required by the next return, demands that you must first lift and replace one or the other of your feet in front or behind, in order to get a footing to "push off" quickly away from or toward the net. Much wider latitude for quick action is offered by a diagonal stance, with the right foot somewhat farther from the net than the left. From this position a much quicker start can be made in some directions than from that with feet parallel to the net. It is in just such fine points, which aim to save the thousandth part of a second for quick action, that lies the difference between success and failure. From the diagonal stance the player with his weight carried low is in the best possible position to start quickly in any direction. This matter of good footwork is particularly important when waiting for the service. Here the ball comes to you so suddenly and with so little warning of its exact direction that the time is very short in 72 MECHANICS OF THE GAME which to make the shift to meet it. The diagonal stance is doubly valuable for the striker-out. Except in the rare cases when the ball comes directly at the player, he must step into the next playing position, or possibly run to it if the ball be placed far away from him. From the diagonal stance, one can always step into any desired position as well, and into some positions that require a sudden move forward or back, more quickly than from the parallel stance. This rule does not hold good when the player is up close to the net in position for volleying. Here the quick shift is confined almost entirely to right or left; there are few moves backward or forward, and the diagonal position is then a handicap if a quick shift to the left is needed. A careful eye must be kept on the adversary in fear of a low lob, for if this comes unexpectedly when the feet are parallel, there will be time lost before you can start back to reach it. At the first motion that looks like the start of a lob, the master of footwork, the heady player who knows how to use his feet to best advantage, thrusts one foot out behind him for a quick start back. Such a player is never caught "anchored" at the net, and few aces are scored over his head by tricky lobs. The position of the body, too, should be in line with the feet, so that the shoulders will be slightly diagonal toward the net, with the right arm enjoying the greatest freedom to instantly begin the next EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 73 stroke. There is an easy choice offered by this position no matter what the next stroke may be. When a forehand shot is called for, the player simply steps forward with his left foot, bringing it up into line r 7 1 I I - r —?V I RIdR FORHAND ACKHAND FOREHAND BACKHAND _ I _ DIAGRAMr C Black feet indicate waiting position. White feet marked 1 show position after one step backward, and white feet marked 2 show position after one step forward. with the other if the ball is not close to him; or backward with the right for the same result if the ball comes too close. Similarly, if the next shot is to be a backhand stroke, he need only swing his right foot forward and around the left if the ball is short; or the left foot 74 MECHANICS OF THE GAME backward and around into line with the right if the ball is cominig deeper into his court. These variations offer four different positions for striking, differing by some four or five feet nearer or farther from the net, with the same cost in time and effort. The accompanying diagram illustrates the simplicity of this turn, and it is equally valuable if the next stroke requires a few steps or a run before the ball is met, for the first step in any case should be one of those slown here. The spread of the feet is an important point to consider in selecting the best stance, just as important in tennis as it is in golf, where the point is stressed greatly by all teachers of the old Scotch game. To spread the legs too wide apart is a severe handicap at once, for it limits the follow-through and the bodyswing. On the other hand, a very narrow stance with the feet close together does not give a firm base for operations and is inclined to throw the player off his balance with even a moderate follow-through. Just how far apart the feet should be depends chiefly on the length of the player's legs. The best angle can be arrived at easily by studying the positions of the expert players shown in these pages. Compare the stance of Johnston and Patterson (series 4 and 7) with that of Wood (series 2). Wood shows too wide a stance in almost every picture. He is inclined to settle down too much in a set position to make his stroke, and that permits less flexibility than his team-mate Patterson, for instance, or Johnston. EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 75 In the backhand also (series 14) Wood shows the same characteristics, while again Johnston's spread seems well adapted for a solid base, without the disadvantage of being extended so far as to limit his body-swing. Williams is inclined to use too narrow a stance, but that generally goes with body rotation where follow-through is missing, while Tilden's style, with bent knees, shows no fixed stance, as the feet shift during the stroke. Agutter is shown (series 9) in a forehand stroke with a rather narrow stance, but the action indicates a very moderate shot made with a good deal of reserve and his feet would probably have widened had he been trying for a hard drive. However, the correct angle for the legs should be readily apparent from a study of the motion pictures shown in these pages, and as the variation is not great, any angle within the range shown by these experts cannot be far wrong. Perhaps the greatest of all weaknesses in footwork is the tendency of the mediocre player to settle down on his heels. It is perhaps not too drastic a rule to lay down that never while the ball is in play should the heels of a good player come to rest on the ground. One should be up on his toes all of the time. The position is more elastic, the spring into position much quicker, than if the weight must first be lifted. This rule runs through nearly all sports. Look at the expert boxer and watch him prance about on his toes; the fencer, the sprinter-every man engaged in the 76 MECHANICS OF THE GAME snappy, quick sport that requires instant action at all times. Note the outstanding example of this efficiency in Borotra, the French ace, who won the sobriquet of the "Bounding Basque" because of his wonderful mobility. Put him back on his heels and his play would lose thirty percent of its efficiency. Note Tilden's crouch and splendid footwork, and watch him rise on his toes the instant his opponent starts to serve, and stay there till the last return of each rally has been completed. Study Mile. Lenglen's play and you will find much of her skill is in her dexterous footwork. Her heels seldom touch the ground. There is one general exception to this rule of the toes that is often noted in the play of experts. The chop-stroke is frequently made from the heels. Primarily it is a defensive stroke, and depends less on the weight of the player's body than does a shot with over-spin. Note the methods of Wallace Johnson, the best player of this style, and mark his upright stance, his lack of body-swing and follow-through. Frequently he will be seen hitting from flat feet, with heels, one or both of them, touching the ground. Readiness to spring in any direction at the slightest suggestion is the prime requisite for fast aggressive play, and this depends first on a wide stance, with feet spread well apart; second, on bending forward to carry the weight low; third, on a diagonal position for the feet; fourth, on carrying the weight up on the toes, and last, on carrying the EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 77 idle racket in both hands, head up, so that it too, like the body weight, can be suddenly shifted in any direction on the instant. Many photographs of experts are shown whose positions during actual match play seem to defy these general rules. One frequently sees them apparently with the wrong foot forward, with the feet totally out of position and with defects in their stance. Generally this is the result of being caught by the camera while they were " stepping into" position for a stroke, and before the racket reaches the strikingpoint the correct foot will have swung into the orthodox position to hit the ball. Tilden is frequently shown in such positions, as he makes a large proportion of his strokes on the run. He does not set himself with a braced leg to drive the ball, as does Johnston, but uses his moving weight in preference to the follow-through from a fixed striking position. Some good players also finesse in making some of their strokes. They become so expert in hitting the ball, even when out of position, that they often make successful strokes from the wrong position when they have not time to make the shift, or when they spare themselves the effort required to do so. Because they succeed with these methods gives no justification for a mediocre player to imitate them in this respect. Ninety per cent of the imitators would fail in the effort. Even among those orthodox players who get into 78 MECHANICS OF THE GAME position and set themselves for the stroke before hitting, there are many occasions when this routine cannot be followed. No matter how well one may anticipate the adversary's next return, nor how fleet of foot he may be in getting to the ball, he is frequently forced to hit before he can establish himself in the correct playing position. Some players actually prefer to hit on the run, and Tilden seems to stroke the ball better under such conditions than when given more time to make his shot. Richards is also little inconvenienced by hitting on the run. The forward movement of the weight already in motion takes the place of follow-through to a considerable extent and often adds to the power of the stroke, but the timing is infinitely more difficult, and the ball must be watched more closely, which limits somewhat the accuracy of placement. The prime essential of such strokes is to get the correct foot forward when the ball is reached and the actual stroke started. This is a matter of the most delicate judgment and long experience. You have seen a soldier change step when out of beat with a marching line. A half step is made with a little skip that reverses the forward foot without changing the measure. This has been adopted by some of the best tennis players to correct the position in running to a far-away ball. Tilden in particular uses this device very'cleverly. One sees him often make a mincing skip in the middle of a run and then meet the ball with the cor EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 79 rect foot forward, so the stroke is not hampered by a bad stance. He is exceptionally keen in measuring his distance, and makes this shift long before another player would see the error requiring correction. This brings him into the striking position without the late distraction of changing his feet just before striking, which takes some attention from the hit itself. Other players dance with many short skips to accomplish the same result, but obviously this is a loss of time and effort. Mlle. Lenglen dances on her toes constantly, while Brian Norton also uses this method to a marked degree. The prancing footwork keeps the player constantly "up on his toes" and ready for the next spring, but it is an unnecessary effort and waste of strength. Tilden economizes in this by reducing his "skips" generally to one. By better anticipation he produces the same result with one skip as they do with three, and where they take two skips he omits the half step altogether. But the short skip-step is not always necessary. Even the run to meet the ball may be unnecessary, for it may require only a step or two to meet it from where you stand. However, the greatest care should be taken when this is done that the first step is made with the correct foot. On the other hand, players like Williams, who depend more on body rotation than follow-through for the power of their strokes, and so require less accuracy of foot position, take the ball from either foot, as it comes, and often do not make the effort to change their stance for its accom 80 MECHANICS OF THE GAME modation. Then there are the born players, those who transcend all rules and get away with it, like Vincent Richards. Brookes studiously preferred the correct position for his footwork and took pains to get it, while H. L. Doherty was another great master who unfailingly stepped into a proper stance before he struck, and with less apparent effort than any other player who has succeeded him. Lamed pranced on his toes like Borotra does to-day. Whitman stroked the ball with bent knees in much the same style as Tilden. Too much stress cannot be laid on the correct position of the feet when stepping into the stroke, as it is not generally understood or reasoned out even by those who use this method of hitting. For the forehand stroke the left foot should be forward or nearest the ball when the stroke begins, and for the backhand the opposite foot. The completion of the stroke requires the forward moving of the weight and the turning of the body as the racket comes through to follow the ball. With the left foot forward when the forehand stroke is started, the right foot comes up into line with the swing of the racket, often touching the ground as the ball is hit, and steadies the weight. Then follows the turning of the body and the forward swing so that the follow-through can bring into action the weight of the body on the forward foot, which of course must be the left, in order to face the ball. Reverse this with the right foot forward, and the EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 81 follow-through will be checked as the left foot comes down to the ground while the racket swings through, and you will be hitting from the left foot instead of the right. The importance of footwork is splendidly emphasized by a contrast of the play of Mlle. Lenglen and Miss Helen Wills, the outstanding champions of the day in the women's division. The French girl is on her toes all of the time. She throws every ounce of her weight into each stroke, and is exceptionally fast on her feet. Miss Wills, on the other hand, is rather phlegmatic in her play. She is perhaps ultra-conservative, and at times it seems as if she were almost slow in her movements. This was forcibly shown in several meetings with Miss Kathleen McKane, the English champion (now Mrs. Godfree), who was at all times faster on her feet than the American. One of the chief defects of Miss Wills's play is her failure to throw her weight into the strokes. Her position is orthodox and her swing is above reproach, but there is a tendency to hold back at the end, never to fully let herself out, that detracts from the power of her strokes to a marked degree. If she would bend forward for the hit, throw her weight into the shot and follow-through with her body as well as her racket, her pace would increase materially and her attack be far more dangerous. As it is, her defense is far ahead of her attack. Examine the slow-moving pictures of Miss Wills reproduced in this volume and note the lack of body 82 MECHANICS OF THE GAME swing. Note the finish of her forehand stroke (series 41-H) and mark that after the stroke has been completed the right foot has not left the ground, but is only raised upon the toe. Look next at the end of the backhand stroke (series 42-H) and see the right foot and leg completely off the ground, but drawn up behind the other, holding the weight backward instead of throwing it into the stroke. There were a number of these backhand strokes reproduced on the U. S. L. T. A films and each was examined in turn to learn if this were simply an incident of this particular stroke, or characteristic of her play. In every case, the same fault was found. Next look at the pictures of Mlle. Lenglen (page 224) and note the difference. In practically every snap-shot of the French girl she will be found with the most extreme action, and, except for a tendency to leave the ground too much in her acrobatic strokes, little fault can be found with her footwork. She is the personification of dynamic energy, and is probably the quickest on the ball and the most aggressive of any woman who ever played the game. Perfect footwork has made perfect timing possible and these two in turn have been the groundwork of a wonderfully aggressive game, although one that is unquestionably very wearing on the nerves, as evidenced by her many nervous breakdowns. Footwork by the players who depend on body rotation more than on follow-through is of necessity somewhat different. When the turning of the weight EFFECT OF FOOTWORK AND STANCE 83 is relied on more than its forward swing, the feet are kept closer together and the forward foot takes a diagonal position rather than in direct line with the flight of the ball. Perhaps the most conspicuous example of this is Patterson, the Australian expert, whose style for his forehand play illustrates forcibly the powerful use of rotation. In his case, it is added to follow-through, and it is not open to the same criticism of bad footwork that is made of Richards and Williams. Patterson's powerful forehand drive is very much like that used by F. B. Alexander when at his best, and depends on body rotation quite as much as follow-through. The whole body and shoulders are turned sometimes before contact with the ball, and the racket is dragged forward rather than pushed, the shoulder being ahead of the racket at all times. Examine illustrations C, D, and E in series 7 (page 64) and note the diagonal stance as well as the peculiar shoulder action. The maximum acceleration of the racket's swing is accomplished by this turn added to the followthrough of the body weight. In such cases, this maximum is generally reached before contact with the ball, while the greatest speed occurs just at or a shade after contact when less rotation is used and more of the direct follow-through. Note the splendid swing of O'Hara Wood (series 2) and mark that the rotation of the shoulders comes after the hit rather than before. 84 MECHANICS OF THE GAME When this rotation principle is carried to its limit, as in the case of Williams and Richards, the feet are often turned completely around until they are almost if not quite parallel with the net, and then the follow-through is entirely absent and the rotation substituted for it. Examine series 3 and note that Williams's feet are turned in the wrong position and that long before contact occurs with the ball the shoulders have been turned straight toward the net; and compare this position with the Wood pictures immediately above them. With Richards, this tendency to substitute body rotation for follow-through has been carried to the extreme. Series 6 shows this clearly and here we find the player totally depending for his speed on the momentum of the racket without the weight of his body. The end of the swing is so far across the body and the feet so far out of position that should the player lean forward to get his weight into the stroke he would be in danger of falling on his face. Here is a fine example of a perfect swing and the finest arm action almost ruined by defective footwork. Johnston's footwork, as a rule, is of the best. He uses a wide stance, leans well into his shot, with a tremendous amount of body swing and rotation combined. Add to these the splendid timing the Californian concentrates into his strokes and we find the reason why he is able to hit such a powerful ball with less than 130 pounds of body weight behind it. THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM VI THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM UST what does constitute "good form" in tennis? I have asked myself that question a hundred times periodically within the last thirty years, and I, do not know that I have ever received a fully convincing answer either from myself or others. So many of the standards I have cherished were so fatally shattered when I recently studied the slowmotion films made by the United States Lawn Tennis Association that even after the most thorough deliberation I am still compelled to say that I do not know what really does constitute good form. Probably the best description of the elusive desideratum would be: "Those methods of play which when used by players of every type and ability will produce the highest percentage of success with the least strain." But more than ever before we are now compelled to admit that many successful players-masters of the game-do not play in what most of us believe is good form. Probably this is due to the fact that winning in tennis, successful play from the competitive standpoint, is far more a question of individual 87 88 MECHANICS OF THE GAME ability, of temperament, of vitality, of mental equipment, of moral fibre, of physical attributes, than one of the style in which the player uses his arms, his body, or his racket. Much of the success of the tennis master unquestionably comes from his head, not from his physical ability. Frequently he originates new methods of play; he pioneers in new fields and discovers new strokes that are not in the books. This very originality itself makes his play superlative and frequently transcends the rules of good form by the very daring of its conception. As a rule, your expert of perfect form can get just so far and no farther, because his skilled opponent knows his every move by the book. But he cannot fathom what the original master of the Tilden type will do next-no set rules will predict the next stroke. Without good form, the average player never rises above mediocrity, while with it he may scale the heights to the ranks of the champions, the masters of the game. From this level, he is privileged to break all rules of form, and do as he pleases, his individuality carrying him perhaps to the realm of the superplayers, if he has the real genius that inspires these exceptional performers. We have seen many brilliant examples of doubtful form succeed to high honors-McLoughlin, Brookes, even Borotra-and we have attributed their success to some qualities that supersede good form. We have seen Tilden hit the most wonderful aces THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 89 from impossible positions and with unorthodox strokes, and we can only agree that he is a law unto himself. But it all simply comes home to the fact that what the last generation called "good form" may be no better than, if as good as, some of the styles of play that are now succeeding. After all, the test of the pudding is in the eating! One may prefer to lose gracefully than to win in an awkward way, but the majority do not share that feeling, and we still worship success as the final arbiter. Let us lay down and respect at least one cardinal principle of form: The power of the lawn tennis stroke depends on the momentum of the racket at the point of impact, not on the physical strength behind the stroke. It does not take a strong arm to hit a fast ball with a tennis racket, and I have known several hard hitters with arms like girls. Now this momentum that is needed for all full tennis strokes (and to avoid misunderstanding, exception might be made here in favor of certain volleyed strokes and lobs where a full swing is not needed) can be produced in several different ways. There are half a dozen different forces contributing to it in most cases, and the most successful of hard hitters are those who combine many or all of these forces. Let us glance over the list for a moment: (1) A long back-swing; (2) increasing the speed of the racket in the forward swing; (3) meeting the ball 90 MECHANICS OF THE GAME with the racket traveling at its maximum velocity; (4) adding to the power by snapping the wrist just before contact is made; (5) turning the body around by rotation to increase the momentum of the racket; and (6) following through with a forward motion of the body to add its weight to the stroke. Each and every one of these items will prove a great help in building up the all-important speed that is so large a part of the modern game, and all can be combined in the same shot. There is no conflict between these elements, and the ideal power-producing mechanics include a certain proportion of each. The best masters include all of them, and nearly all players of skill include most of them in each stroke, but in varying proportions. There is a tendency with some experts to omit body rotation and to depend on follow-through to do its work; while on the other hand, some prefer the rotation and omit the body-swing to a marked degree. This last method almost always produces bad footwork, and bad footwork often produces an insufficient follow-through. With the feet in the wrong position, the body can be turned and speed secured in this way, but it is generally dangerous to follow the racket with the body swing, as the balance is soon lost if the feet are not properly under its weight. So far as possible, it will help greatly in this power-producing if all motions are kept in line with the intended flight of the ball. Each motion that remains in line with the ball's flight is a force for THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 91 accuracy in placing the ball as well as a gain in speed and in the certainty of making the stroke itself. Conversely, each motion that is off the line, particularly the snap of the wrist, is an element of danger and has a tendency to make the stroke more difficult and less likely to be successful. What we call "timing" is simply the application of the maximum speed at the instant of impact. A "well-timed" shot is one in which every ounce of the accumulated power in the racket is communicated to the ball; and one that is not "well-timed" generally occurs when the greatest force in the racket is gained long after the ball has left it, or an appreciable time before the ball meets the strings-that is, when there is any let-down in the power before the hit is made. Tilden makes a distinction between speed and pace, and he sums up his contention in "Match Play and the Spin of the Ball" (pages 22 and 170) in this way: "Speed is the rate at which a ball travels through the air. Pace is the momentum (rate of speed, plus the player's weight) with which it comes off the ground." I cannot quite agree with this distinction, and professors of physics with whom I have discussed the matter do not endorse it. The speed of a ball in part depends on the player's weight, but once this force has been communicated to the ball by the impact, it ecannot further affect its flight. I am told by good authorities that pace and speed are the same in the flight of a tennis ball, and the only exception I can 92 MECHANICS OF THE GAME find to this is that the spin imparted will affect its speed both before and after the bound. But it also affects the pace in the same way. We all know that the forward or backward spinning rotation of the ball not only affects it in flight, but changes its momentum after bounding by the acceleration or retarding effect of its revolving contact with the ground. The use of the idle arm extended well behind the body as a counter-poise, is a great aid in correcting and maintaining the player's balance, and consequently in adding speed. The crouching position too is often a help, and both enable the player to lean farther out to meet the ball without losing his balance, and to straighten up as the blow is delivered, which help to accelerate the speed of the racket, and through it the ball. The tennis stroke is much like the golf stroke. The racket head should be aimed at the ball accurately, as a hammer at a nail, or an axe at the cut in a tree, for it requires a very accurate blow. This careful aim is seldom appreciated because the head of the racket appears to be so large. However, only a small part of that large head will do the required work for you, and you must hit very close to the exact playing center of the strings to get any successful results. The late A. E. Crawley, the British player and writer, says (page 22 in his book) that all tennis strokes are hits, not pushes or sweeps, but that is a much-disputed point in tennis, as it has been in golf. THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 93 There is a distinct tendency to sweep the forehand stroke and sometimes also other strokes. This is particularly true of undercut shots where the contact is maintained between the racket and the ball for a longer period, and curiously enough more with the English than with the American players, who are more inclined to make a sharp clean blow of the stroke than their British cousins. The American twist service, however, is certainly more of a "sweep" than a clean hit. The worst fallacy of all is that put forward by F. R. Burrow in his otherwise excellent book. Says this English writer (page 23): "If you can hit the ball at the pace and to the place you want, and keep on doing so, you need not bother about the 'style' in which you are hitting it." This seems like encouraging the worst of habits, that of feeling that the end justifies the means if a good shot is made, no matter how badly it is played. Tennis built on such a foundation may win for a short time while the player is keyed up to top pitch by constant practice in making his strokes in the wrong manner, but let him stop playing for even a short period, and his skill will dissipate into thin air in a very short space of time. It would seem better to go slower and travel farther. The longer you study the motion-picture films, the more instructive do they appear. After the first shock is passed and the surprise at finding the champions doing so many things we all thought should not 94 MECHANICS OF TIHE GAME be done, we still note a remarkable similarity in their other actions which do conform to orthodox beliefs in good form. We find all of the best players balancing the racket with the idle hand and even guiding it right up to the last fraction of a second when the hitting stroke begins. The beginner in tennis too often sees a sign of weakness in this action by his neighbor when he finds him doing this same thing. Ashamed of this apparent weakness in using two hands, he struggles along with one hand against a great handicap. Of course he is all wrong, for you can get a great deal of helpful guidance from the idle hand, but it takes the actual proof laid out before his eyes that the best experts do this to make him see the errors of his ways. Examine the proofs yourself on pages 24 and 25 of this volume. We find almost all of the champions with their legs spread well apart for the stroke; with the weight carried far forward, divided between the two feet and up on the toes; with the position well away from the ball, and with the side toward the net, except in the few instances where defective footwork has concededly handicapped otherwise good form; with the idle arm held out away from the body as a counterbalance or "rudder"; and, with few exceptions, with the elbow well extended. It is a curious paradox that some of the very elements of the best form among the experts cannot be recommended for the beginner at the game. We THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 95 watch Tilden and Richards, Patterson and Johnston make their strokes, and we long to emulate these examples. To imitate such a champion would seem the surest way to become a good player. Strange as it may seem, however, that is not the best way to become a good player. Examine the slow-motion pictures that illustrate these pages in such rich profusion, all made from photographs of the best masters in actual play. Many of the movements that they all use in common may be considered conceded elements of good form. But you will also find many other characteristic actions among them that are individual to the men who use them. Among these common traits, there are at least three that can be used by experts only, and no matter how anxious you are to become expert, you cannot use these with success until you have acquired a considerable degree of skill. The time may come when you will appreciate their advantages, but to use them at the start or in the early stages of the average player's development spells disaster. First, there is the common habit of all experts of using a round-arm back-swing, in which the racket describes the arc of a circle in traveling backward before the actual forward swing begins that is intended to hit the ball. Second, there is the common habit of snapping the wrist with a sudden flick just before the ball is hit, in order to give great speed to 96 MECHANICS OF THE GAME the stroke. And, third, there is the almost unanimous habit of taking the eyes off the ball before it is hit. In the beginner, even in the average player, all three of these habits must be considered as cardinal sins, yet with the tournament players they are cardinal virtues, and in the play of the masters, they are practical necessities. To omit any one of these habits means to limit the skill of the expert to a marked degree. Now, for a moment imagine an inexperienced player copying these methods before he has an opportunity to become expert. Imagine him swinging his racket back in a wide loop, coming forward with a sharp snap of the wrist just before his racket hits the ball, and finally, to complete his debacle, taking his eyes away from the ball before he has completed his stroke. What do you think the result of such a "stroke" would be? I venture the prediction that not more than once in ten times would the ball hit anywhere near the center of the racket, and not more than once in twenty would it be sent over the net, if hit at all. It is good sound common sense to reverse all this at first. Swing back with a horizontal flat swing that parallels the forward stroke that you intend to make; stiffen your wrist until the racket handle and the forearm are almost rigid; and finally, watch the ball right up to the moment you actually see it touch the racket. There is no doubt that this routine will help to THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 97 perfect your ability to make tennis strokes much more than any effort to imitate the experts in the early stages of your development. Long after you have learned to hit the ball regularly in the center of the racket, and to drive it over the net and into the court of the opponent, then it will be time to take up the more difficult problems that lie behind the skill of the tournament expert. But let me urge you strongly not to hurry the time when this shall begin. You may feel you are ready for the next step soon after you have learned the first rudiments of the game, but an inevitable slump will follow any effort to jump from first principles to the expert tactics too quickly. It is far better to learn to walk well before you try to run. Let me explain just why the methods of Tilden and his fellows are not the proper methods to begin with. Each of these masters learned to walk before he ran, just as you must. The round arm swing is unquestionably the most perfected method of accelerating the speed of the racket to add force or pace to the ball. A flat swing of necessity requires a pause at the end of the backswing. The racket and arm must stop in mid-air, and the forward swing start all over again, so that any headway or momentum the racket has gained in going back is checked and a new swing must be started in the effort to hit the ball. Johnston draws his racket up straight in front of his face, then over the top of his head, drops it 98 MECHANICS OF THE GAME down behind his back, and then shoots it forward at an accelerated speed which has gained all the momentum of a long, continuous, circular swing that brings tremendous power to act on the ball when he finally hits it. He is a small man weighing less than 130 pounds and still he hits a ball harder than any other man in the world, with hardly an exception. This is accomplished by his beautiful, rhythmical, continuous swing and perfect timing of the contact with a sharp snap of the wrist. Richards swings his racket high up in front of his head, well above his right shoulder, and then draws it back far behind him before he turns the swing forward for the hit. Patterson, Brookes, Williams and other masters differ only in slight details as to this back motion. All keep up the momentum of the racket during its entire swing for the stroke, and avoid the check and pause at the end of the backswing that takes so much from the power. Now what would happen if the novice tried the same method? His circular swing would come forward with a rush but generally off the line of the stroke, and the ball would seldom be hit in the center of the racket. It is difficult enough at best for him to hit the flying ball accurately with a short backswing made in the same plane as the stroke, but with the centrifugal tendency of the racket to swing away from its intended line of flight it would become wellnigh impossible with a full round-arm swing and the B3ACKHAND DRIVIS BY FOUR EXPERTS 99 Richards Lacoste Richalrds 11and Lacoste are shown here at the extreme end of the back-swing for a la;ckh;and(1 strke. In each case. note how far around the shoulders have been tullrd. which adds to the power of the stroke by the rotation of the body in strikin g. l,ac(ostet's footwork is noticeably better than that of Richards. Anderson Borotra Anlderson shows much better form than the French expert, Borotra. Note that his left foot is extended and his elhow as low- or lower than the racket. whereas lorotra's feet are too close together, his right shoulder raised far above the left, and his striking-arm and wrist well above the racket. 100 MIECHAN-ICS OF T HE GAM-N E, If G 1" E 10. Brookes.-Because, teft-hianod.~l 110 krm )\t i plac (((I 1it IIII t hef set. i f f for etIsI: oIfdeut srokes,; in tile pictures. Brooke-'s footwor k is alive repiroach. hIls wvig"lt stairting-' oil his left (I)Ic1 Awotralian. also tim'cs his shIot- ptorfectiv..111( 1o otttort is 71aite to hliek thlt racket mit l if G I' E 11. Titden.-The chamption's biackhaind. as shiiwn tovre, Is idistinetly better than his, foreTildten is seel -steppiiil into'' thet stroke. atijo~t hitting~ on to mill, anl again1 to hits- -with fottow-throu gh. Thore. is wvonlderful toower in thiss stroke, aoot thine control. It is believed to H G F E 12. Alonso.-Atonso' s backhanil stroke is inchlinot to tie alt ''tueked ti,'' as the Engtish the shot of its help in biatanciing the weg t. it st riik tacks 1)od]y-swling, altttotgh the anti abandon necessary to greait tower. MOVIN(G PICTURES OF BACKHAND DRIVES 101 ( I AI A'. 4-1-9 I) C B A and the pictures read in the opposite direction because the racket travels from right to left foot and finishing far out beyond the right, with splendid transference of weight. The it has wrapped itself around the neck, a fine feature. I) ( B A h;ald stroke. Here is the poetry of motion if it %was ever shown in a tennis stroke. Again both knees bent. Butt note the long, perfect swing of the arm and racket, and the splendid be the greatest strength of the champion's play. J D (C B A put it. Note the left arm close to the body and also inside the striking arm, which deprives follow-through of the racket and shoulders is well executed. The player lacks the freedom 10(2 MEIFCHANLICS OF' TYIEI- (4iAIMI: 11 1 F 13. Johnston.-A. in, hi,. fir,11:111l Strffke,.Jffhintffn (),nffIt to nit~t tolt alt fbi'( nan. I the( t 'ci la r- -t yo( keI \w, tw it well1# if( II'II I tnnv'\tI. an I t I; Ia ~i svf II to III fm II a1 pro I (noI Of rtdI ) op-Spinl a tov ni-i' to-, ball. aI tnw ftiat Ifr i o iiackhifa dr i-is. 14. WVood.-M.ark the filii- fret-f ftiffif fff tit.- Aitni~trimi 'in Ihi-i ]ff-hmdfif Utfk-.le tises ffqluitlffd f'y fi-se it f tf 5 iN f f11 r it) th lii Sf0 f. lfeitf- f tielt, f t1 \vItt 'If ft-n)It (ft' hfim. giefffft a IIf Ifi th tf-ft raI. IIj-Infl II- -. )I IfI t.ff f wffffI It Alfftt I t fIII I- X.tfItI I o ) - f Of I ffftI- "IffIItfI S I - -t g v cf ()If I f(I F- 1F 15. Wri1iams.-I-ere again in only rotation sfulstitoted fofr follow-through~ a tot a ciftractefl hall andi probalfaty ofine piull edl~ acos coiurt. Ws.illianms sveens to he pta yin g thi balhal on the Note how miuch higher the fall is tltain inl any of toe o1ther tbackhand iffltinte MOVING' PICTURES OF BACKHAND DRIVES 103 D C B A sam;i lonml, high lool) il the back-sW\\ing 1nd the samle coml)lete follow-through. This parshlown \l the finiish of the racket. with the hllade turned well over. Note how far forward D ( B A a wide stlance( to work from andi still shows a full lback-swing and a follow-through that is it plinty of topl-sp in and carries his swing on outt unthis is weight is completely on his right tiastedli wit l si-ries 12 (Almoiso). D C B A swing that depends on perfect timing for its success. The low finish indicates an undercut rise and close to his body, as he has already made part of his turn swhen the ball is met. 104 iMI:CIAN-IOS OF THH. GAME\ ]' Richards Brookes Richard', andI Brookes hire ire utakiinz forehand hlilf-volli-vs, titit in styles very dis~linihir. TIhe Atustraliani Ia 'lti-i 'tnils vi-rv Straia ~t and hits the btst It almost as~ hizh as, his knee( -with a racket 11i1(d several inehes- from the end, -while Bli-hards (-ri' tli-h'- a iiiIftea aItid -I f.i-to — farl wit to mi-ivt Ht- hhall III froiit i)f hIIP feet. Williams Johnston In both rif these examipli-s:, WVill alins an ii o.thlistoiii ar I-niak ina half-volleys -will off at thIIe s id e. Thev('II faliforn ianII hi ts thi- t alI I I ti c-h ( i-isir to( t he( grounIId,..vl wilevV WilIliams he-re has let it rise- ahiitiist to the knee-f to-fore hitting. In almtiist every halfvolley the tilaye-(r (-aI chiiiis the 1eiicht at 'which. hi prefers to tilt tiii hall, t.int( it is Sutrprisiing to findi it hilt so hiinl ii hi- sair as- shriwti hi-re. HALF-VOLLEY STROKES 105 Tilden's Half-Volley, Forehand and Backhand Tildenl's method of half-volleying is clearly shown in these two pictures, and the s;lm lent knees are used as in his other ground-strokes. Differing from other experts who keep the legs straight for this stroke. Tilden not only crouches but;lllot kneels -witll his back leg as he makes the half-volley. Forehand and Backhand Half-Volleys by Williams Williams is perhaps the best half-volleyer in America. and he has long specialized in taking tlhe ball on the rise in all his ground-strokes. His forehand stroke here is very close to the sa;lme shot shown on the preceding page, but in the backhand ex;amliile lie is 'lrapling''" the ball very close to the grouiid, an exceptioially difficult stroke to make well. 1 0 6 \MECHANICS OF TFHE G4AM1E I0 '-_ I Lacoste Tilden lT I t-, t \t) tiIIIStrI t I Otions It IItittt-n(Itteil t o s IoI I\vt hiii txtire Iif fiut islie, oIf f ( t it. ( "I lIt IIIIt-'.t nokt, thait itire uil~c Its) th ltx pirtoi s oII MeI of t ittI r lolist rd-tiri.ves. IlaI(I),t ti hitt f- lt hII nt-elf gttI, ottIr t: it-r ii ani I I t I (I rt it hI r xIItt-II It Ia I a rrctI i I tdInIIt 1 a Iitni-(It tttittItI III tttv o ff1 it 0 Ih 1Ia hI it- f vn witI T IlI(ItI 1 io wel vII v i t lii ni c(I t 1 I Ii ivtI- It 1 II'' tli- thtisit if hlis stroke uindivluttt ixtititt, ott-nld. Johnston Richards tihntot n lv flnit hio his hrt rlSt diveisis wvithl a owifi fitiowttsthitiigh i hut fI-ld w iithI his racket stl wlthinil it i lift slhoildlir, utd Ilii, wesighit thriowni fut r tivx (i tt hIl lifft lt-Z. It iuchatrdtlo te vivrI ttIiitgs,,I tio srIght "ohtt Itit. tItitit-ild fitr tI.tItitmolt a ft-I I tdie( rttt-k t to. gil the ex t nut- mitip iti liii tither ixupirt s Sowii, it (Ii Ihis itt-k f 4tti THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 107 ball would be more likely to strike the wooden frame of the racket than the strings. The snap of the wrist which the expert has developed adds in a marked degree to the speed of the ball. It is like the lash of a whip, for first the upper arm, then the forearm and finally the wrist-snap, accelerate rapidly the momentum of the racket until that last flick whips the ball away with great speed. Study any of the motion pictures of the forehand stroke and note this snap in its most highly-developed form. It is shown plainly in nearly every series, the snap coming between the fourth and fifth pictures (D and E), the latter having been selected as nearly as possible to show the actual contact of the ball with the racket. In most cases the ball can be plainly seen in the D pictures comlilg in to meet the racket, so the shortness of the time that elapses before this snap of the wrist completes the stroke and sends the ball away flying, can be easily seen. Now again what happens if the novice tries to use this wrist snap to help him speed up the ball? If made a thousandth part of a second too soon, the ball shoots out to his left, far off the line of flight intended for it; and if an equal fraction too late the ball shoots off to his right, far wide of the opposite court. Nothing is more discouraging for the beginner than to find his otherwise well-made stroke ruined by his inability to guide the ball where he intends. Lastly, let us analyze the deadly error of taking the eyes off the ball. Seldom if ever in a service or 108 MECHANICS OF THE GAME smash does any one of the experts see the ball when he hits it, and in most of the other strokes the eyes are taken off the flying sphere an appreciable fraction of time before it meets the racket. Now, the development and discovery of this habit of the best players has been slow, and it has remained for these slow-moving pictures to actually prove the contention. If there be any one who still doubts this muchdisputed claim I made ten years ago in a previous book, let him examine with an open mind the plain, unvarnished evidence submitted in the motion pictures reproduced here. They were not chance snaps, remember, but carefully selected pictures from the systematic efforts of the United States Lawn Tennis Association's Educational Committee to picture the movements and methods of the most expert players in the world. Particularly, I suggest that any doubting Thomas study the pictures of Tilden in his forehand and backhand strokes (1 E and 11 E), both services (16 E and 22 E), forehand volley (25 C) and smash (35 D and E); of Johnston in his forehand stroke (4 D and E), his backhand stroke (13 E), forehand volley (28 C), backhand volley (31 C), and his service (38 E); of Richards in his smash (34 D and E); of Williams in his forehand stroke (3 D and E), his backhand stroke (15 E), his service (20 D and E), his forehand volley (29 C), his backhand volley (32 C), and his smash (36 D and E); of Patterson in his THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 109 forehand stroke (7 E), both his services (19 D and E, and 23 D and E), and his smash (37 D and E); of Brookes in his forehand stroke (10 E), and his service (24 D and E); Alonso in his backhand stroke (12 E), and his service (21 E); and finally Agutter in his model forehand stroke (9 D and E). Here are 26 examples of eight different experts with the world's highest ratings, in fact every one shown in the "movies" except O'Hara Wood, whose eyes seem very closely glued to the ball. If one can still doubt the statement that the best players lift their eyes from the ball before contact, then he must doubt the indisputable evidence of his own eyes. If these pictures should be suspected of giving false evidence because not taken in actual match play, then I submit that their leaning would be on the other side, for with an opponent facing the player here pictured he would have taken his eyes off the ball sooner, not later, in his anxiety to follow the other man's movements. Just why this is done and why it helps the player (for he wouldn't do it if it did not help him) is apparent to the deeper students of the game. Your novice finds it absolutely necessary to watch the ball or he will not hit it. As he concentrates his attention and rivets his eyes on the white sphere, he can see nothing else, He runs to meet the ball, turns perhaps and almost always changes his position after he centers his attention on the ball. He knows the general direction of his opponent's 110 MECHANICS OF THE GAME court, he knows the height of the net from recollection, and he probably remembers where he saw his opponent when he last looked at him. But the opponent has probably shifted since he looked away to concentrate on the ball, the exact location of the side-lines that bound his effort to make a good return is of necessity hazy, and even the height of the net can be only approximated when he is looking down, because then he must estimate the horizontal line from which it rises by the ground beneath his eyes. Result: Your novice plays to drive the ball in the general direction of the other court, not to place it in any particular part of that court; he guesses where his opponent is and tries to play safe; and he plays the ball two or three feet over tile net to be sure that he does not under-estimate its height and be trapped. If you see nothing but the ball as the last turn of the wrist is given that directs it, your return never can be placed confidently to any particular spot in the court, never hugs close to the net, and is seldom directed with accuracy out of your opponent's reach. But the expert by years of long training learns to complete his stroke without watching the ball up to the last few feet before it strikes the racket. He sees it until he feels sure he has a proper estimate of the flight and can center it on his racket, and then he looks up to get his bearings, and select his final direction. He sees in that last fraction of a second the top THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 111 of the net, the side-line he is aiming for, and out of the corner of his eye, the player on the other side to be sure he is not moving to intercept the return. With a last deflection of his wrist made just as the ball is hit, he directs it a yard this way or that; a foot higher over the net, or six inches lower, and instantly his whole return is endowed with an attacking power that would never be possible were he to keep his eyes fixed on the ball up to the moment of impact Lifting the eyes, you may, and most experts do, change the direction of a shot at the last instant; watching the ball you become committed to the stroke you have planned, and generally do not even know of;iny need for a change that may be due to the anticipation of the opponent who reads your intention by your movements and starts early to intercept the ball. To watch the ball up to the last minute then is absolutely necessary for the beginner, but it limits his power of attack and his accuracy in placing, until lie learns to look away. To swing back horizontally is the only safe way until the habits of the stroke are strongly fixed and so perfected that the ball can be met regularly in the center of the strings. But when this has been accomplished and the player is able to round out the stroke, and keep the racket in constant motion throughout the "wind-up" or preparatory swing and so increase its momentum, he will improve his hitting power and speed rapidly. 112 MECHANICS OF THE GAME To snap the wrist is still one more development of the stroke that will come only after long practice and a considerable degree of skill has been acquired in hitting the ball. But there is no royal short-cut to these refinements of expert skill. It takes years, literally years by the calendar, to gather the practice and experience necessary, and the ambitious young player who tries Tilden Johnston Richards Patterson if X A,, Wood Williams Alonzo Agutter DIAGRAM D to run before he learns to walk by laying a thorough groundwork of the elementary principles of the game, is courting destruction, and generally ruins what might otherwise develop into a sound game of tennis. It is interesting to study the different methods used by the best players in producing the round swing that accumulates momentum for striking the blow and then takes up the same motion at the end of THE ELUSIVE BASES OF GOOD FORM 113 the follow-through. I have prepared a diagram (D) showing an approximate bird's-eye view of the path of the racket during this swing for a forehand drive, and showing the position of the feet' in making it. Where the forward body-swing is well carried out it is noticeable how much the arc is flattened out at the hitting point, as shown most strongly in the diagrams of Wood and Johnston. Richards's poor footwork flattens out his swing despite the long reach of the arm rather in the wrong direction or across the flight of the ball, while those of Tilden and Williams are clearly affected by the forward movement as the stroke is made. It will be noted that Johnston is the only one of the players whose racket head passes completely around bis head and he makes a full circle and a half in completing his swing. Wood's swing appears above to be next to Johnston's in the wideness of the circle. SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL I VII SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL THE mechanics of lawn tennis are in a great measure tied up with the rotation of the ball on its own axis as it travels through the air. At all times we are dealing with a spherical body of light weight and with a rough cover that is much affected by the air, and it is not surprising that its behavior requires close study to be fully understood. During the last twenty-five years, this subject has been explored thoroughly and to-day the theorists have a clear understanding of the matter, whereas there was in the last century only a hazy knowledge of it. The curving of the baseball was the first that drew public attention to this matter among those devoted to sports, but the same principles were found to apply to every other spherical body. Firstly, the lighter the ball in use the more will its spin affect its flight; and the heavier the body, the more will its momentum maintain for it a true flight. Momentum must be checked before gravity will make a flying object alter its course to fall, and air pressure is the chief force that checks momentum. A light ball leaves its own plane sooner than does the heavier one, just as a dropping feather is easily deflected in 117 118 MECHANICS OF THE GAME any direction by a zephyr of air, when a falling stone is not affected by a gale of wind. Our tennis ball has a felt cover with a comparatively rough surface, and this with its lesser weight makes it more amenable to outside influences than a heavier, smoother object. There is some tendency in a ball to be compressed by a hard blow, and to lose its spherical shape, but this is very slight in the case of new balls, for under modern conditions they are so well inflated that there is little effect to contend with in this direction. A ball hit totally without twist or spin would naturally travel in the same direction in which it starts until its momentum is spent and gravity alters its course. But it is almost impossible to hit a tennis ball without giving it some spinning motion. The strings of the racket cling very close to its rough surface, and the slightest motion of the racket that is off the straight line tends to wipe or brush them across the surface of the ball, and make it revolve before it loses contact. This twist may be accidental with inexperienced players, but they soon learn the great value it has for them, and then make the ball spin with a conscious purpose. It is well known by scientists that any spherical body, whether it be old Mother Earth herself or the smallest rifle bullet, travels more truly through space and with less resistance from the surrounding air if revolving than if not. The spinning motion throws off the particles of air as an awl works SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL 119 its way through the wood. It maintains its course more truly and with the lesser resistance it travels farther; and it was this discovery that made our forefathers "rifle" their cannon to make the projectiles spin. But the tennis ball cannot be hit to give it a spin at right angles to its flight like a rifle bullet; the force required for this will not make it travel forward. In the case of the rifle, the powder furnishes the power to make the bullet go forward and the rifling in the barrel of the gun makes it spin around on its own axis. Tennis players have no such control of their projectile and can touch it at only one spot to produce its every action, whereas the rifle propels from behind and grips the bullet on all sides as it starts on its way. The tennis ball may spin at many other angles to its course, however, and each of these will have a different effect on its flight and bound. Any side spin, that is, any revolution which is not at right angles to the flight, will have the effect of making one side travel faster than the other in relation to the atmosphere through which it is passing. Here is presented the old question over again of the relative speed of the top of a carriage wheel when compared with the bottom. In relation to their common center, the hub of the wheel, both travel at the same speed, but in relation to outside stationary objects or the air, the forward moving part travels faster than that which is moving backward. 120 MECHANICS OF THE GAME The friction of the air against the rough surface of a tennis ball has an appreciable effect, and the forward spinning surface of the ball feels this effect much more than the side which is revolving backward. This friction naturally exerts pressure against the ball, and like every other body it seeks the line of least resistance. In other words, it swerves away from the greatest air pressure and curves in its flight away from the side that is revolving forward. Applying this rule, we find that a ball with topspin has a natural tendency to bend downwards, and a ball with undercut has the opposite tendency to keep upward. If we undercut a ball it will stay up in the air longer before gravitation pulls it to the ground than one which has no such spin. If the ball has a top-spin, it will dip downward faster because of this top pressure of the air, than gravitation would naturally make it. The accompanying diagram will illustrate more clearly than words the effect of this air pressure. But this tendency to curve is not confined to up or down motion of the ball; it can also be deflected in its course to the right or to the left by similar pressure. A tennis ball can be made to spin sidewise either way by the angle at which it is hit, and the skill of the player in drawing the strings of the racket across its surface while still in contact with the ball. In this diagram, P indicates the polar axis on which the sphere is revolving, A the forward-moving side of the ball, and B the backward-moving side. It SPIN:AND TWIST OF THE BALL 121: i cl.that the side whicb sinsu away from the air.. fssure will be less affected than the other side whiic is spinning toward the interfering wind. Small particles of air cling to the rough surface of the ball and they in turn rub against other air particles, so that there is a tendency to mass up and impede the TOP-SPINNING BALL t s ^ h_ '_ _._ c L..CIN. T........... arehepe-'_-'"f - i —:g-' ---.ion t s.id pa A UNDER-CUT BALL DiAGRAM E progress of the ball on that side as it pushes its way through the atmosphere. On the other hand, the air particles on the other side are helped by the spinning motion to slide past the moving ball, and more easily give way to let it pass. With this resistance so materially greater on the A side, it is very apparent why the ball bends in its flight in the opposite direction to seek the line of least resistance, If the operation of gravitation were omitted, the 122 MECHANICS OF THE GAME action of the ball no matter what the plane of its flight or the angle of the polar axis to the ground, would be always the same. It would swerve consistently away from the side that is rotating fastest against the air, the side that encounters the maximum opposition. In this diagram, no perpendicular is given and no gravitation considered. If the polar axis is assumed to be parallel with the ground, then the first ball has a top-spin and will swerve downward unnaturally in its flight; and the second ball has an under-cut and will hold up longer in the air (or "sail," as tennis players say) before gravitation pulls it to the ground. Still another force comes into play in a revolving tennis ball besides the swerve in the air, when it strikes the ground or the racket of the adversary. The revolving motion is always faster than the forward motion of the whole ball, so when its side comes into contact withl the ground, the binding friction checks the forward-moving surface and gives the ball a sudden jump forward (if the ball carried top-spin) that makes the bound unnatural. When the same ball strikes the racket of tihe other player, the tendency is to come off his racket slightly upward from the natural angle, and this pull must be overcome in hitting it properly for the desired angle of return. A ball hit with sharp under-cut when it strikes the ground has an opposite effect. The contact with the immovable ground acts as a brake, and the tendency of the spin then is to make it jump backward, SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL 123 but since this is palpably impossible for a forwardmoving ball, it skids along the ground, checks its forward motion a little and rises very sluggishly. This gives an under-cut ball a very low bound, and a topspinning ball an unnaturally high bound. One is checked by the contact and slows up, and the speed of the other is accelerated by its own motion. The under-cut ball when it strikes the opponent's racket pulls downward unnaturally, and this tendency like its opposite must be overcome in hitting the ball at a different angle to prevent it from being returned into the net. The most remarkable demonstration of the effect of spin and twist of a tennis ball has been developed in the American twist service. In this stroke the ball is hit a diagonal upward brushing blow, with the contact of racket and ball prolonged by easing up on the grip and the back-side of the racket. The strings are wiped across the surface of the ball so long that it receives an excessive amount of spin. The twist is half forward or top-spin, and half a right-side spin that make the ball revolve on a polar axis inclined at an angle of about 45 degrees from the ground. As the hard-hit ball flies through the air the topspin makes it drop, which helps to bring it into the service-court with an unnatural swerve downward; and the side-spin makes it bend from the server's right to his left with a very marked curve. Some players are able to make an American twist service 124 MECHANICS OF THE GAME bend eighteen inches to two feet in the air and drop as much more out of its ordinary line of flight. When such a ball strikes the ground, the double action of the spin again takes vp d effect, and the bound is accel7" \ erated forward and upward, and at the same time the side-. spin pulls it sharply to the / server's right, or in the opposite direction from its curve in the air. Its excessive twist and the friction of the ground make it jump erratically away from the resistance the ground affords., nA/ wheel suspended in the air will revolve rapidly around its own center and exert no pressure on its axle to shift its position, but let it drop and the instant its spinning is resisted by friction DIAGIw F ith the ground, the whole Effect of spin by American wheel will roll rapidly in the Twist Service. direction of the forward spinning side. Throw a spinning hoop into the air and it will fall straight to the ground, but the instant it touches, it will roll off in the same way. The point in the flight of a ball at which the SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL 125 swerve takes place varies somewhat, and still a third element must be taken into consideration in this calculation. The momentum or initial impetus that starts the ball is of course the most powerful force to be reckoned with and that comes from the racket driving in the given direction in which the ball starts. It is not until the first impetus of this blow has been spent that either of the weaker forces, gravitation or air resistance, will have any effect. The faster the ball is spinning the sooner will the swerve take place after the ball has left the racket, but it must be partly spent in any case before the change of course can be apparent. Gravitation works last, and then changes the course of the flying ball only when the other forces are partially spent. In the top-spinning ball, air resistance and gravitation are working in the same direction and both pull downward, so the drop is most marked. In the under-cut ball, these two forces are working against each other, and the resistance against the under side tends to keep the ball up in the air longer until its forward impetus is almost spent and then it falls almost lifeless to the ground. That is why these under-cut balls are often called "floaters" by tennis players-they seem to float in the air while the spin fights against gravitation, but when the stronger force, ultimately prevails, the ball drops lifeless. In a side-cut ball that spins at right angles to the ground, or nearly so, the air pressure pushes it to one side or the other, as in the American twist 126 MECHANICS OF THE GAME service, until gravitation pulls it down finally to the ground. Intricate as this may seem already, there are still further complications, and the studious tennis player must constantly calculate the varying effects of twist and spin on the ball he is handling. The left-handed opponent reverses all the apparent effect of the ball's action-that is, the same stroke makes the ball curve in the opposite direction and bound the other way than a similar twist hit by a right-handed player. The motion of the racket for the same stroke is necessarily in the opposite direction, and the ball receives the other spin. The reverse American twist service is also made with a spin in the opposite direction to the standard American twist. The ball is struck with an upward side-glancing blow, but with the playing arm across in front of the body, and passing (for a right-handed player) from right to left in striking. This cannot carry as much speed as the regular American twist, and of necessity travels slower and bends more. Its curve is from the server's left to right, and the "break" in the bound from his right to his left. The most puzzling combination I have ever seen or played against was that of Holcombe Ward and Dwight Davis, who were the originators of the American twist services, and who played for years together, holding the national championship in doubles from 1899 to 1902. Ward was right-handed and Davis left-handed, so that the two services had SPIN AND TWIST OF THE BALL 127 opposite effects on the ball, and one had to watch very closely which man was serving and keep constantly in mind which twist was being used to calculate the curving flight and breaking bound of the ball. The British players and others who use their typical under-cut style have distinctly better control of the ball because of the constant spin they play with. The racket remains longer in contact with the ball and grips its rough cover so effectively that they are able to control its direction better, but the slowing up of the speed by this under-cut is inclined to lose what advantage this style would otherwise have in its favor. The direction of the curve of a side-spinning ball and the angle of its rebound can invariably be predicted by watching the motion of the player's racket. The bound will always be deflected in the same direction from the normal angle as the racket was traveling, and the curve in the air in the opposite direction. This applies equally to underhand services and overhead services, or to other strokes hit with side twist. I FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND VIII FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND T HE forehand ground-stroke in tennis is the solid foundation, the one absolute essential of every player's game, the very corner-stone on which the modern game is built. It is conservatively estimated that more than 60 per cent of all the strokes played in a tennis match are included under this heading. Not one player in a hundred but would prefer a forehand stroke to a backhand stroke, and they use the backhand only when forced to do so. The forehand side is the natural side to play the ball from. The playing shoulder is in a more natural position, and follows through with the swing of the arm and racket much more easily than for the backhand stroke. The latter is more of a push than a pull. The arm is behind the ball and pushes it forward instead of being a little ahead of it and pulling it along in the more natural manner of the forehand stroke. In studying this part of the game, let us assume first of all that the player is using approved methods of footwork and stance, and the accepted habit of balancing the racket in the idle hand. 131 132 MECHANICS OF THE GAME In starting the stroke, one should make full use of the idle hand to guide the racket as it starts backward. This back-swing has been much misunderstood. From the early days of the game, most teachers have advised a flat horizontal back-swing as nearly parallel with the ground as possible and in direct line with the expected flight of the ball. It is so in golf, and the same principles apply in both games. I recall advising strongly in earlier writings on tennis, the close observance of this principle. Every divergence from the line of flight even in the backswing was considered an influence against accuracy in directing the ball. But a back-swing made horizontally in the line of flight means of necessity a pause at its end before the racket starts forward. A careful examination of the action of the most expert players of the championship class completely upsets this generally accepted theory, and we are surprised to find that not one of them does use the flat back-swing in making his forehand stroke. On the contrary, we find that there is no appreciable pause at the back, the stroke being continuous. A turn of the wrist in some cases, and in others of the entire forearm keeps the racket in continuous motion as the stroke is being made. Instead of being drawn back horizontally, the racket follows a much higher path in its backward flight through the air, the swing varying a good deal with different players. FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 133 Some instances of this are rather remarkable. Johnston, for instance, whose ground-strokes have often been considered as the most powerful in the world to-day, carries his racket back with the highest upward swing seen in any of the champions. He uses a very "flat" grip not uncommon among the players from the far West, and brings his racket straight up in front of his face, then over the top of his head, and drops it down behind the head, before he begins the forward stroke that is to hit the ball. This action gives him a very long forward swing, because the racket starts from behind his back, not off at the side. Examine the slow-motion pictures of this remarkable stroke as shown in series 4 and 5 (B and C particularly) and note the peculiar backswing. Vincent Richards swings his racket almost if not quite as high in going back, but in front of his head and then over his right shoulder before the hitting stroke starts. His swing describes fully as wide a circle as Johnston's and he straightens out his elbow more, but he does not use the same fine body action and follow-through, or his stroke would be equally fine if not better. Tilden's back-swing is not so high, nor is Patterson's or Wood's, but each of these experts carries his racket back in a much higher plane than used for the forward swing, so that the complete stroke describes a continuous curve with no sharp angle at the end of the back-swing. Tilden uses his wrist 134 MECHANICS OF THE GAME more than do the others to continue the movement of the racket and avoid the dreaded pause that would handicap the most perfect tennis stroke. The tendency of this round-arm stroke in the hands of an inexperienced player would be to throw the racket off the line of flight, and increase heavily the number of errors made. As in several other cardinal points of the game, the beginner must start with the elementary way to hit the ball, and leave the finer points of play, the polishing off of his first crude style, to his more experienced days when the rudiments have been mastered. But when the ambitious player has learned his groundwork fairly well, I feel sure that one of the changes which will soon come into his game will be to round out the stroke and cut out the hesitation at the end of the backswing. The forward swing should begin with the shoulder and upper arm. The rotation of the body, of the trunk from the hips to the shoulders, is very important and plays a big part in the power of the stroke. Again as in golf, much depends on this feature. Patterson uses rotation to get most of his power, and F. B. Alexander not many years ago used the same style. Both of these men start the rotation of the body earlier than most others and when the racket has completed half its swing toward actually hitting the ball, they both add much to its momentum by this means. Patterson seems almost to drag the racket after the body as he pulls it through for a FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 135 hard forehand drive, while Alexander did much the same. With Tilden and Johnston this feature is less marked. The body rotation is there but it comes later in the stroke than with Patterson. Johnston uses rotation more than Tilden but Johnston sets himself and braces his back leg to drive far more than does the champion, and from this position more rotation is possible than when the ball is hit on the run, and from the bent knees that are typical of Tilden. In any case, a certain amount of rotation is necessary, and the more it is used the better. The body should turn in any case enough to bring the shoulders and hips into line with the flight of the ball before the actual hit occurs, and it can continue after that, although body weight applied after the ball has left the racket cannot of course affect its speed or flight. Both Brookes and O'Hara Wood stress the follow-through and their weight is applied later. This serves to make a rhythmic smooth stroke that guides the ball perfectly, but never carries the tremendous power that is so apparent in Patterson and Johnston. Richards and Williams, on the other hand, depend almost entirely on body rotation, but theirs is used as a substitute for follow-through and lacks almost entirely its weight advantage. Faulty footwork is responsible for this, and a study of the end of the forehand strokes of these two men will show where the trouble lies. 136 MECHANICS OF THE GAME If your feet are out of line, so that it is not possible to throw your weight directly after the ball because there is no forward foot to recover the balance, then the next substitute is rotation to take the place of follow-through and weight-shifting. Richards uses this to the most marked degree. Note the pictures in series 6 and mark the feet flat down on the heels parallel with the base-line when they should be almost at right angles to this position and up on the toes. From such a stance, follow-through is almost impossible and body rotation is the only substitute possible to get speed on the ball. Tilden uses the forward motion of the whole body from a moving base, by hitting on the run, rather than from a fixed base for a stroke with a swinging follow-through. Such a stroke supplies even greater power than either of the other methods, but is infinitely more difficult to make. When moving forward the weight becomes even more powerful in the stroke than when used by follow-through from a fixed base. The idle arm does not lose its usefulness after the hand lets go of the racket in the back-swing. It should act as a counter-balance throughout the stroke, and is a very valuable aid. Note the splendid use Tilden makes of his idle arm (series 1) and how far out from the body it swings while the stroke is being made. Again note the lack of this help secured by Richards, whose stance makes him keep his weight FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 137 well inside of his base, and the idle arm is therefore much less useful. By all means keep your idle arm far away from the body as the forward swing comes into play, and use it to help maintain the balance. Your whole body should be kept as far away from the ball as possible as the stroke is made, and when you lean out to reach it, that idle arm will help greatly in maintaining the balance. Straighten out the playing arm too and reach far out, for the longer the lever used in making that whipping slash against the ball, the greater will be its driving power. We have seen how the upper arm and shoulder start the racket forward in the perfect stroke; how the body balanced by the idle arm rotates and adds to the momentum, and now as the racket approaches close to the ball we shall see how the forearm and wrist do their part in sending it flying with the speed of the wind. There has been a great deal of talk of using a stiff wrist in the tennis stroke. The English players, to be sure, do stiffen their wrists somewhat and have limited their skill in this way, but for the American champions, and for the Australians and French, it may be said that there is no such thing as a stiff wrist in making the best forehand strokes. This realization was another of the disillusionments that came as a result of studying the slowmoving films, the "Analysis-of-Motion" pictures that are laid before your eyes in these pages. 138 MECHANICS OF THE GAME In each series of eight snap-shots taken from the forehand strokes of the masters as shown on these films, care was taken to include the same relative positions of each man, so far as was possible. No. 5 (E) for instance, was intended to show in each case just how the racket, the arm and the body of the player looked as the ball was met; and No. 4 (D) was selected at a point a fraction of a second before this. Many tests were made to learn just how much time elapsed between these two positions. With Johnston, there were ten "frames" between D and E; with Patterson eight, and with Richards nine. A "frame," by the way, is the technical term of the "movie" operators for a single negative or picture. The speed with which these "frames" were made was about 160 to the second, so a fairly accurate method of measuring the elapsed time between these positions was easily arrived at. The time between the fourth and fifth pictures in each series then, was about one-twentieth of a second. And in that short time we find that Johnston, Richards, and Patterson all snapped their wrists through nearly ninety degrees or a quarter of a circle. That space of time was so short that the swift-moving ball was seldom found to have moved more than eighteen inches and often only twelve. In some cases the wrist made nearly all the bend and in others the forearm did its share. The average seemed to be about two-thirds wrist and one-third RuNNi.NG(,-IN B3EHIN,,D THE SERVICES 139 Richards Alonso Richa rds is particiularly fast inl following upl his service to the net heca use his Ice of 11 i verv oes 1101 carry the racket far back at the end of the service. His tin i sl,IIs w\.llI iiit ill f ron II Iad tliii carries him forwardi as5 his, body bends, over the 1,1"eline A also u~so 1es little of the American twist that is inclined to hold lhnck the sor ver, his finis-h leiejo loss. Patterson Brookes I ere are tw\ii exa nifes of the Amuerican i twist (deliveries wvhich (lelaly the server from st a itiiig towcard the net. Patterson's racket, it will tbe noteid, finishes out to the riighit so farl that it. is in clinied to 1ho(1( him i)nliiick. wisle Brook es endis his stroke out none iii froiit but not inl the dilrect line forwsarid shown by R ichards, -which -would help himi get sta rt ed tossardi the harrier. 140 IMCHNJ OF THE- GA ME 16. TIildenn.-1Itert ar I(ITu I t tIh I, Ih (. )I I II I t. II v I I II \ I I t i II I lI II -Itt T(. Iv S-r S'-l kn, A B I' I) A It (I, D 18. Richards.-Iiere, on tho cointrry, is, a deflivery by RichardIs that conisumes a good dleal is a snore, jerky back -swsititg Ithai w 'ithI.t lbiist)oi. iRi cba(s c( ontrtots thbe bat 11vell, anti is able the other strokes of his gamle. Ini this example, Richards -was evidently running up) to T HREE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SERVICE 141 A) E F G H inl tlh world. and tllis iexlpllIle ilndiclats the lowier of Tilden's remalkalile delivery. Note (-,, ]E ) with; st.raighteled 11r111 and shoiulder stretched to get the last inch of reach without E F G H t\\ i that lkeeps the 1;1ll fromll bloudinlr hligh. and hits a fast ball with little or no loss of llayeris. and slhoould count heavily iln hiis favor il a long hard match. Note how high his E F G H of effort. The -eight of the racket is lifted sidewise instead of being swung up, and there to run in behind his service better than many others, but his service itself seldom equals volley. 142-) MI~CHAN-IC-S OF TI-IL1~ GA-ME A It~ D 1 9. Patterson.- NVIht.i a t I t a1 ti- t. uk aIIi, t r ~ine, Iiia aI-Itttac k. ao la I1;ttiratis Ser vice at,hItIl()II IIIer s- c )I I I I I ItetcIr tI t,-Ited ii i II er f ac ~ t I a ISt retch,II -, Ic 1 ). i. I a i I tIe t \\ I wejalf~ v I ~'''IIt ii I I ()II tiii ~. thep nraket. I k, rev haid a lrteaIlr left tilt- hball iii -c wirhr i ira kv17ted tIi plac it (-ae Iii when A It C I) 20. Williarms.-Whten it Is iwirk-iti ceV.Wliiiaasri' a atIVn attack. H ii l" hi~ efirt, far, ici, a ii tilie aeiil ia e. Iiie i Ii I, strli Ai ieiilre Ik i tIs tile ball blut tiit so liii ifiirte ltittIV ui s a in I-t, aai I ( AAA II C.( 21. Alonso.- here is the nitost pectuliar service toi lie fitunil aniongo the exterts, oil inot the niorifntitn thus gttined for the rttcket by honiling, the wrist sharplv toil iheckitig its, the-re is pilenity (af tioiy action and rower in the deli very, bitt miuch if the preliminnary Nrirk is M\ORE MOVING PICTURES' OF SERVICES 143 '5I E F GH timles semres, 'a npty Ieaeec. Note the long lot ck swing, the extreme retach with his Not e as( I how\ t he wei ght goes forwvard Nvithi the ltilt I see F ) and1 fol los\, the lball as it leav te tlraeket still lhod three, feet to travel before hittinig. Imlrisks to iillcrealse the dtittlicltv of its beiig handled11( and imakes many\ (dotble faults, in te-lV iverV' as son( see Gi bv the ot-we of te li act(ket. Willianins a Iso looks away from 0 D E G H one of the b est. The Spaniardl makes an extra haif-sim-ig before hitting and then loses alt swing blefore going back for the float ''wiiid-tp.'' When he intoes conlie forward for the hit, waste effort. C, D, E and G show fine actioti. 144 i~1CHAN-I(S 01F IHF GAIF 1 14 i W.- -, I', --, " I I A I I, I ) 22. Tilden.- Cimipm-t. ill], Am.-ric:111 1\ 1-t %\ 1111 TIM.-Il'the ra,.k..t 1, Iw vol.,d;it:, lift."I"'11 I:I ( I ) I \ 1 I II. III — I.:Id 1c;II a t P 1, I.,.;I k. I " e '-:1 II I. I f t II I - - I (I I, 11 I I) t I I I 11. I t I, 11 I 11 " 11 Ill I, I — - (1116 4.111t II, I-III) III 1(, v (d i" v 1,:Ic k o f t1w A B I ) 23. Patterson.-The dliffi~rtiic tin'w ii the, twit ivi (,V(Ii Tiiiie iiiticii~iti iii Pattertii IIf vIi (.I I I I, (II -ii - I II ()tIi ()I (ft II it li -: ia.1\ iI: a i IIt lii tii w Ii;III I.::I II nI III)t - ~tin:1t t hii eves h a vi A B C I) 24. Brookes.-Th- grt-at Aiistatnian 1ia-tiil was- uiii ii the first to appreciate the value of can s, Ife has a thint, free (IIIlivery with a 4iharp trn-ak. As~ hi( is, left-handedl. thii spill is No one (c(ul1d sizspiiit llroiikes if hanvingsie this silt when he hilt it, for the brim of his capt MlOVING PICTUE OF AMERICAN TWIST SERVICES 145a i I.- --, 11; li-e-i j. - 111; - - I I E G H (series 16), and note the (lifferences, few lint highly important. The knees are bent more (B~), \i liii tilit, cl ii 1 (it tho I-iicit pilt' thlt twis-t ') the lhill thit lproduiies, its sharp side AmlIcs ii irsvicc. E' 1 (IV H onsthal ii Tinld liis pic tires. The hacikwardI bend of the bod.- iemoeetmantheil sei's 1 9, P'atteirson is slhowii here withi tremnendouits body lpower in his delivery. Note also COtiitletely left the hal 11before cmi tact with the raceket. El I, G H the Anmerica n twist serviee, a iii lie adopted it soon after its first intiroduiction by the Anserivery pouzzh ig toi most platiyers, its ati on hieing reversed from that of right-handed servers. (wrtIll inl Cut off hlis, view of it three feet or more before his racket met the ball. 1146 MEICHAN-IC8 OF THE, GAMIE Cochet Gomar 'Iii.t ~_ IM S h Iw n,imir i1)v t )he FlcI. ilI, ix ie l-t.( () I - lt. simi \v i cI, )t molistIIv li I I ffr.N~it tit well Siiprvi( 1g h i is a iicf th you ii fir hir k anl thii ralkit wvid li ihgfir a w Il(. fmri liami NvilliI- hit 1: ii tuI 1ivv rti liii tihe gr II II ii. 1,II! pn Borotra Making Two Forehand Volleys itorit ra is excepitionallv (ihiik at not hlvaid uk]hi hiorizonital volleys ire believed1 to) he the st rungest pi rt of h s- gmmei. For a low hilt onI hlis fijiehand side, he shows a Aviier rearth than most other ptayers and a very strong contriii of the racket with a, firm tow wrist. in the over-head shot the Freywhrnan is iuoderciutting the hail wvith the flexitile wrist that has nIradi' his soltivinig soi ffertivo. FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 147 forearm, but in all cases the racket makes its sharp whip-like snap just before the ball is struck. This is perhaps one of the most difficult things to accomplish in making a tennis stroke, and the beginner would do well to stiffen his wrist while making his forehand stroke, and reserve that flick of the wrist until after he has become more proficient and learned how to hit the ball accurately without missing. But when that stage has been reached there is no doubt that the greatest power and speed on the ball can be secured from that whip-like snap. Note the marked snap in Johnston's drive that carries such tremendous power-the pictures show it plainly. If it were not for that feature of Richards's play his strokes would be almost puny with his lack of followthrough and poor footwork. Good "timing," the secret of the speed of the best experts, requires careful adjustment in that snap of the wrist more than any other element of the stroke, but the most perfect timing includes coordination of the swing, body rotation, the snap of the wrist and the follow-through. You must meet the ball when the racket carries its greatest power, its maximum velocity, to get the speed that Patterson or Johnston displays. The follow-through adds the final completion of the stroke, and this is quite as important as any other feature. There is no disputing the argument that nothing can affect the flight of the ball after it has severed contact with the racket. You have done your 148 MECHANICS OF THE GAME work then, and what follows after can have no direct effect on the flight of the ball. True, but what you do after the ball is hit will affect what you do before contact and through that the ball's action. If one checks his swing immediately after hitting the ball, for instance, as is often the case with beginners, the process of slowing down the racket unconsciously begins long before the ball is hit, and the power diminishes before the stroke is completed. Conversely, if one accelerates the follow-through in a vigorous way, the pace of the racket-head just before and during contact is increasing, and the stroke's power is added to, not diminished. Get all the power in the stroke you can before you meet the ball, but try to add even more speed to the rackethead afterward, and the momentum of the ball will be greater. Still another feature of the follow-through is important. The forward rush of the racket even fafter the ball has been hit drags the body-weight rapidly after the ball, and as the racket cannot go straight on ahead, it must turn with the playing arm around the body. When the body follows around with it this rotation adds much to its power. The amount of twist or spin that you want to put on the ball is also largely controlled by the follow-through. It is very difficult to gauge that by the impact only, and it is only while the strings are in contact with the ball that spin can be imparted. If the follow-through is purposely played with a high FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 149 finish of the racket, the ball will get an over-twist or top-spin, because the racket will be drawn upward while still in contact with the ball, and the uptwist will be automatically applied. On the contrary, if an undercut is desired, aim to finish the swing with a lower follow-through and finish for the racket, and the racket will pass downward across the ball and undercut it. Passing under the ball gives undercut, back-spin, slice, drag or the chop-stroke, and passing over the ball as it leaves contact will reverse the action of the spin and make a "drop-stroke" of it. These points are more closely covered in the chapter devoted to twist-strokes and that on the spin of the ball. The forehand strokes made by the experts differ widely in their mechanics, but there are many points of common practice that are so striking they must commend themselves to all who want to play the game well. We find, however, two distinct groups among even the best players, those who set themselves in a fixed position to make the stroke and those who "step into" the stroke or make it on the run. Tilden is the foremost of those who do not set themselves for the stroke, his habit being to hit the ball generally while in motion. The champion is almost continually on the move. He runs to meet the ball later than most other players and throws his whole weight into the stroke as he moves forward. This style brings with it, as a rule, the bent knees 150 MECHANICS OF THE GAME that are always noticeable in the champion's play, and the absence of the set position makes it infinitely more difficult for the opponent to discover his point of attack. Williams too steps in to meet the ball for most of his strokes, but he stands more upright, with stiffer knees and lacks the splendid body-swing of Tilden. Williams substitutes rotation of the body for forward swing, which is a much less certain method of gathering power. When the flight of the ball parallels the circular swing of the racket for so much shorter distance it is not surprising that the result is bound to be less certain, and this accounts for a good deal of Williams's erratic play. Richards also uses body rotation in place of forward swing with the same result, but his arm and shoulder action are superior to Williams and he gets better results. Both of these players, however, show defective footwork, and with the feet in the wrong position it is difficult to use the body-weight in the forward direction that gives the greatest power. Without the left foot extended a forward swing of the body would throw the player completely off his balance. The most perfect strokes combine rotation with body-swing, for this method gains the advantage of both body actions. Examine Johnston's combined use of the two motions (series 4 and 5) and note how far around his hips and shoulders have turned when the stroke has been completed. Patterson also corn FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 151 bines both, but is inclined to accentuate the rotation, and before even the ball has been met, his hips have turned and his shoulders begin to pull away from the line of flight. This produces a dragging stroke rather than a clean hit, and gives the ball an exaggerated top-spin that makes it drop rapidly. (See series 7.) Patterson's arm swing, like Richards's, is very wide and both get a strong advantage from this splendid action. Johnston's elbow, on the contrary, is constantly too close to his body with the deadly effect that when the ball does happen to bound a little closer to him than anticipated, which with even the best players sometimes does happen, he is compelled to pull away to give it room, and then his left foot gets out of line, as in series 5 (on page 63) where this action is clearly shown. Contrast this series with that immediately above it (series 4) of the same player, and note the action of the left leg. Apparently Johnston stepped out with his right foot to meet this ball, but miscalculated its distance and overreached it, because he failed to bring his left foot out into position, his normal habit. He cramped his striking-elbow as the stroke was delivered, and turned his shoulders around to get power instead of putting his weight behind the ball, as in his other strokes, by following it with his body. Without the bent elbow at the start of the same stroke, the footwork and probably the stroke itself would have been improved by bending 152 MECHANICS OF THE GAME the elbow as the ball bounded up instead of stepping back. It is interesting to compare the different methods of the experts in their follow-through for the forehand stroke, and I have traced their positions before and after hitting the ball as shown by these slow-moving pictures of the U.S.L.T.A. This test would have been impossible by any other method I know of, for the beginning and end of any two similar strokes photographed at different times could never give accurate data for comparison. As these pictures were made from the same individual strokes, they do furnish accurate material to work from. The accompanying diagrams show the start and finish of forehand strokes made by Johnston, Williams, Tilden and Wood, and from the light and shaded portions one can easily compare the forward motion of the body while the stroke is being made. Note that Tilden and Williams are both stepping into their strokes, the feet being lifted and replaced while the strokes are in progress; while the strokes of Johnston and Wood were made from a fixed base where neither foot is lifted while the stroke is in progress. Wood and Johnston both show better bodyswing than do the other two, but of course the moving weight of the legs and hips as the forward step is taken add to the power of a stroke made on the run. Another element that must be taken into considera FOREHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 153 tion, however, is the body rotation and the loop of the racket's swing. These are pictured in another Tilden Williams DIAGRAM G diagram that is highly illuminating to be found in a preceding chapter on good form (page 112). It is a curious proof of the individuality that supersedes every common action of the game, that almost the same grip of the racket for forehand 154 MECHANICS OF THE GAME ground-strokes used by Johnston and Howard Kinsey should produce such widely different effects. Compare the pictures of these two experts on page 26 and note the horizontal drive of Johnston and the exaggerated "loop" drive of Kinsey. The former starts high with a very wide back-swing, hits the ball at the height of the shoulder and finishes in a horizontal line with a powerful follow-through. Kinsey, on the other hand, starts low with very little back-swing, hits the ball as low as his knee and finishes up high over his head with a sharp updrawing of the racket as the ball is met to give it the excessive top-spin that is characteristic of that stroke. His shot carries very little body-weight and almost no follow-through. It is the very antithesis of Johnston's drive in every particular. Yet the grip is almost the same, as proven by the illustrations of how both players hold the racket, shown on page 19. BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND IX BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND O lawn tennis player's game is complete, or for that matter even passable, without a thorough ability to play backhand strokes. One may prefer the forehand stroke and use it on every possible occasion, but no chain is stronger than its weakest link, and if there is a distinct weakness in the backhand play, the defence will be vulnerable whenever attacked by a "heady" player. There is no question that the forehand stroke is the easier way to play the ball. It is the natural way and the arm and elbow are less embarrassed when swinging the racket on the right side of the body than when they must be crossed over to reach a ball on the other side. It is much easier to get the body-weight behind the stroke with the ball on the forehand side than on the left, and the arm swings naturally around the neck with the follow-through, finishing with a bend of the wrist that takes up the momentum gradually by its narrowing circle. In backhand play, on the other hand, the end of the swing carries the racket out away from the body, widening the circle, and the 157 158 MECHANICS OF THE GAME momentum must be checked by the effort of the muscles. There have been from time to time a few players who played the backhand stroke as well as the forehand, and a rare case or two when the backhand was the better stroke. But such cases are few and far between, and as a rule such men neglect their forehand strokes as badly as does the average player neglect the other side. The even development of both sides is the ideal of all good players, and when this is secured so that the player is never embarrassed no matter which side the ball approaches, he has reached the higher development. So long as there is a tendency to favor one side over the other, there will be a conscious or unconscious effort to "run around" the ball-that is, to manoeuver into position so that the ball will come to the favored side. This in itself soon develops a weakness that becomes apparent to the best adversaries, who will promptly take advantage of such bad position play to force the one-sided player into trouble. When one becomes fully confident on both sides, then only will his position play be rid of the embarrassing fear of an attack on one side or the other. The average player seldom realizes how much this affects his play, but the deeper student can see its influence, and trace to it the loss of many valuable points. Since the difference between winning and losing a close match is often turned by a very few points, the BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 159 loss of many matches can be directly traced to this backhand weakness, even though it may not be very pronounced. Let us see how its subtle influence creeps in. Your one-sided player (I am not speaking of the man who can play only one stroke, but of him who simply favors one side over the other even though his favoritism be very small) drives deep to his opponent and awaits the next return. If he fears his backhand ever so slightly and nurses a half-hidden desire to run around the ball should it come slightly to his left, he will unconsciously take a position a few feet to the left of the center. Sometimes this is purposely done to tempt the other man to try his apparently open right side. He offers the larger opening on that side to lure his adversary to play to his strength. Perhaps he gets the return he wants by this method, but his run to reach the ball is just so much longer than if he had kept his true position in the middle of the court and the stroke is more difficult and more hurried. This play makes it harder to get back to the playing center in time for the next stroke, and his backhand is now more open to attack than if he had not tried the ruse. Opposed by a player of this kind, the "heady" antagonist gives him the ball he wants. He attacks his weakness through his strength, for he knows that this will open up the weak backhand to attack with the next stroke more effectively than if his friend 160 MECHANICS OF THE GAME the enemy had kept a truly balanced position for both shots. Primarily, the one-sider has covered his weakness, but his position is more precarious for his having done so. Another method of covering the backhand weakness is to hide the player's intention to play all doubtful balls on the forehand side by keeping the position in the true playing center. Such a player does not want to expose his weakness and like the proverbial ostrich which hides its head in the sand, he boldly stands in the center of his court, and as the ball approaches runs around it to use his stronger forehand shot. A man who permits himself to be manoeuvered out of position in this way is easier to beat than he who lacks finishing strokes. So much for the need of even development, for the actual necessity of learning to play the backhand stroke with equal facility if not as effectively as the forehand. This question is much deeper and more subtle than most players realize. There is a wide variation in the methods used by the best players in making their backhand strokes. Lacoste, the brilliant French champion, has a style all his own but one that has no weakness, and is made in as good form as any to be found in the armor of his rivals. On his back-swing, Lacoste brings his racket very close in to his body (see page 99), wrapping his arm around his neck with a bent elbow so close that one marvels at his ability to get enough momentum in the swing. The secret lies in his body BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 161 rotation. The racket goes far back, however, and as the stroke widens out, he puts his full weight into the hit and times the shot so perfectly that the ball carries great pace. Lacoste's footwork and body-swing are wellnigh perfect, and his turn of the wrist gives the ball a fine top-spin that brings it well down into the court with good length and a sting in the attack that is missing in most other backhand strokes. Borotra, on the other hand, under-cuts most of his backhand strokes. The ball is hit higher with less back-swing and less follow-through, so they are never so safe nor so effective as his partner's. Lacoste makes few errors in playing this stroke, and is so confident with it that he never runs around a ball to give preference to the forehand, while he maintains a safe position in his court as a result of this strength. Among the American players, there is no such backhand control or power shown by the others as by Tilden. HIe has a tendency to swing his elbow low like the English for the backhand drive (see series 11-D and 11-E), but this is a feature that makes for steadiness and control, as proven by the English steadiness in backhand play. Tilden seems to have the most perfect grip on the ball in his backhand play. The racket maintains contact longer and with the extreme follow-through that he uses, he gets not alone great attacking power in the stroke but finer control. There is less difference in the swing and position 162 MECHANICS OF THE GAME for the under-cut and the top-spinning backhand strokes with Tilden than with most other players, and he is able to control the spin almost entirely with his wrist, where most of the others alter the swing and angle of the racket to get this result. I believe it is because of this matchless facility for change from one style to the other that the champion is able to play both strokes with little difficulty in mixing them. Most other players, even the best experts, find it very difficult to mix the two styles without making too many errors to find that kind of play profitable. Tilden seems to prefer to under-cut most of his backhand shots, however. Study the answers to the question: "Is it practicable for the same player to control both under-cut and top-spin in driving, or should players concentrate exclusively on one style?." This question was put to the best players of the world a few years ago and the answers were published in "Methods and Players." (Volume IV of the Lawn Tennis Library.) Many of the experts quoted there realize Tilden's remarkable ability in this direction but doubt the ability of others to follow in his footsteps. I think the remarkable use of Tilden's wrist in changing from one to the other without materially altering his other motions is the secret of his success in this respect, but of course this does not preclude the possibility of other players learning the same methods. 0 'Hara Wood has a better back-swing even than Tilden for his backhand stroke, more body-swing and BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 163 the same free follow-through, but the angle of his wrist and the higher elbow do not give him the same freedom of change, nor has he as solid a hold on the ball in hitting. Tilden's body rotation adds far more to his power in backhand play than does Wood's shorter turn, and the Australian's stance is Inclined to be too wide to permit a free turn of the body. (See series 14.) Johnston uses the same high, round back-swing for his backhand as for his forehand stroke, although the racket does not pass all the way over the top of his head before starting forward as in his forehand play. Without seeing the rest of the stroke, who would venture to believe that his position shown in series 13 B indicated the beginning of a backhand ground-stroke? The high start of the stroke generally calls for an under-cut ball, and Johnston undercuts his backhand shots more often than he gives the ball top-spin, although the stroke shown in series 13 unquestionably carried top-spin as shown by the turn of the wrist at the finish of the swing. (13 G.) Johnston uses a high elbow which his peculiar grip makes necessary, but he has a fine free swing and gets every ounce of his body-weight into the stroke and finishes out to the extreme end of the follow-through. His stance is nearly perfect and provides a good base for a hard swing and yet not too wide for body rotation. His is very much like Lamed's famous backhand stroke that was so devastating some years ago. Johnston keeps his position 164 MECHANICS OF THE GAME in court, apparently not fearing or favoring his backhand, and seldom runs around the ball even to punish an adversary with his powerful forehand drive. A careful study of the slow-motion pictures in this volume will shed much light on the mechanical difference between the forehand and backhand strokes. Compare series 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 which cover the backhand stroke as played by some of the best experts in the world, with series 10 which shows a forehand stroke played by Brookes, and which has purposely been placed on the same page with the backhand strokes of other experts because Brookes is left-handed. One realizes most clearly by this close comparison, one below the other, just how much more difficult the backhand stroke is. Compare particularly series 10 (Brookes) with series 14 (Wood), and you will see the same periods in each stroke made in much the same style by brother experts from the same country. The backswing is much freer in the forehand, as it is easily increased by the full width of the player's shoulders, about eighteen inches, over the possibilities in the backhand. This extra latitude for the back-swing and consequently for the forward-swing as well, gives much more momentum in the racket when the ball is met than is possible with the backhand stroke, while the turn of the shoulders for the follow-through has also much greater possibilities. Make the same comparison of Brookes's fore BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 165 hand with Tilden's backhand (series 11) and note how much more cramped the back-swing is when played by even the best backhand stroke players. Particularly contrast postions B, C and D in these two series which emphasize the greater difficulties under which the backhand stroke is made for lack of freedom in the swing. In his fine book on the game, the late A. E. Crawley said: "The swing-back must never be behind the left shoulder" (referring to the backhand stroke) but this contention is not borne out by the best players of the game. Lacoste swings all the way around his head, while Richards, Tilden, Wood and others carry the racket back well behind the left shoulder to get as much back-swing and momentum as possible before the impact. I have found that one of the greatest difficulties in making the backhand stroke is the tendency to start the stroke itself with too little back-swing, and then push the ball rather than hit it. Among players of the English school, a stiffer wrist and more actual strength than impact is used as the hit is made, and this somewhat lessens the need for the longer back-swing, but I do not regard it as good advice to any young player to limit the backswing as suggested by Crawley. However, from the very limitation of the body's position while the stroke is being made, there is no question that the backhand stroke depends for its power more on the follow-through than the backswing, which is diametrically opposite to the facts 166 MECHANICS OF THE GAME that govern the forehand ground-stroke. Because of the cramped back-swing, forced by the position of its pivot, the striking shoulder, which is on the opposite side of the body or forward of the stroke rather than behind it, the preliminary swing which furnishes the momentum, is necessarily short. There is unlimited room for a long free back-swing in making the forehand stroke, and less opportunity for the long straight-arm follow-through. At the end of the backhand, the shoulder pivot pulls away from the direction the racket is traveling and the swing here is across the chest, so the finish is more limited in the follow-through. Lacoste's back-swing for the backhand stroke illustrates the possibility of using body rotation before the hit just as it is used after the hit for the forehand. In both cases, this serves to carry the shoulder pivot along with the arm and lengthen its swing, as it flattens out the arc of its circular path. Note how far Lacoste turns his shoulders as he goes back for backhand stroke (page 99). Note also Tilden's use of the same body turn for his backhand (series 11 C) and Wood's turn for the same purpose (series 14 B). However, no other player shows as much of this back-turn of the body for rotation as does Lacoste, and much of his power in this stroke undoubtedly comes from this feature, as do Tilden's and Wood's. At times the Frenchman turns so far around that his BACKHAND STROKES OFF THE GROUND 167 back nearly faces the net, as he watches the approaching ball over his shoulder. Richards also uses his body rotation in making his backhand stroke, but he lacks the fine footwork of the Frenchman. Compare the pictures of these two masters at the end of the back-swing for backhand strokes shown together on page 99, and note how closely the action corresponds. There is a remarkable similarity between the start of this backhand stroke with body rotation, and the end of the follow-through of a hard forehand stroke with similar body rotation. Compare the two illustrations just noted of Richards and Lacoste with the finish of the best forehand strokes. Series 4 H and 5 H (page 63) show Johnston at the end of his forehand drive, and here you will see almost exactly the same position of arm, racket and shoulder. There can be no question that this long backswing before the ball is hit is more valuable than after as in the base of the end of the forehand stroke, and the free use of it with ample body rotation for the backhand stroke ought to increase very materially the power of the stroke itself. Turning the shoulders with the hips and the trunk of the body is the biggest element in lengthening out the forehand stroke, and it can be used in reverse order in the backhand by this method. CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS x CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS IN discussing ground-strokes up to this point, the matter has been confined almost entirely to those with a top-spinning motion on the ball. Concededly that is the principal ground-stroke played by ninety-five per cent of all good players, although the degree of the spin varies a good deal according to individual ideas. There are among the other five per cent of the tournament players a few whose play is largely confined to under-cut strokes, and a few who use both styles. Tilden is a strong advocate of combining both methods and he personally has done so with marked success. But even he, the strongest advocate of the double method, declares that the top-spin must be the foundation of all good play, and the chopstroke only used as a change to furnish variety. There is no doubt that if the two can be combined successfully by any player, his skill will have improved because of this variety, but there are dangers that dog the footsteps of him who attempts this dual allegiance. One cannot worship two masters successfully, and there is great danger that with two such widely different styles in use at the same 171 172 MECHANICS OF THE GAME time he will hesitate between the two and fail in both rather than succeed with one of the two styles. First and most important, the chop-stroke player is inclined to neglect his footwork, for less is required of him in this department with a stroke that can be played almost, if not quite as well from a flat-footed stance as from the correct position, a stroke that can be played almost entirely with the arm and shoulder and with little or no body action. He will be inclined to hit his over-twist strokes without good footwork and ruin them by that shortcoming. This in itself makes it imperative that if used at all, the under-cut style should never be attempted until after the top-spinning stroke has been well mastered. Reversing this order, it is not likely that the player will acquire the necessary good footwork for the orthodox stroke, but use the easier and less aggressive flat-footed stance. The under-cut ball should never be depended on as a primary attack; it may be used or held in reserve as a secondary basis of attack when needed for a change or because of special conditions, but should not be offered as the chief weapon. In his book "First Steps to Lawn Tennis," A. E. Beamish, the English expert, says of the chop-stroke: "Although its value as an auxiliary stroke cannot be too highly rated, yet it should never be allowed to have any other place in the player's list of shots." Young players who find it much easier to learn and play this chop-stroke are too prone to depend CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 173 on it, and invariably fall back on the easier method in close matches even if they subsequently do learn the better way to hit the ball. Bad habits of this kind acquired in the early stages of learning the game are doubly hard to uproot, and constantly crop up at the most unwelcome opportunities. Vincent Richards had a big handicap to overcome later because he learned to play first with a chop-stroke. Despite his advocacy of the stroke and help that Tilden gave the U. S. L. T. A. Motion Picture Committee, of which he was a member, it is a curious fact that there is not one example of the chop-stroke in all of those 5,000 feet of slow-motion film from which the pictures illustrating these pages were selected. The writer was anxious to show the different mechanics of the players in making this stroke, but did not find any material in the official films for this purpose. The chop-stroke should not be confused with ordinary under-cut shots, although there is no very sharp line of distinction between the two. Primarily, all chop-strokes are under-cut shots, so the latter term is really broader and more inclusive than any other to describe this group of shots. The chop-stroke, properly speaking, is any shot made with a downward motion of the racket and playing arm that carries the racket under and below the ball. The strings of the racket are drawn across the ball in a downward direction during contact, and this in itself gives an under-cut spinning motion to the ball, which makes it twist backward in 174 MECHANICS OF THE GAME its flight. The racket's swing almost invariably ends below the level at which the ball was hit. To hit the ball downward requires something to offset its natural tendency to go into the net. This is accomplished by bevelling the racket backward somewhat which tends to strike a glancing blow that lifts the ball to offset the downward drag. The motion is much like the stroke of an axe in chopping wood, hence the name of the stroke. The normal under-cut ball, however, need not have a downward motion of the racket. It may be hit horizontally and the back-spin accomplished by S bevelling the racket backward a little bit. Wallace v Johnson's style is distinctly a chop-stroke, but Tilden's slice is generally under-cut, rather than chopped. Tilden unquestionably gets the best results of all J with his under-cut ball, and he makes splendid use / of the strokes for two purposes, as a change of pace to break up his opponent's attack, and as a defense against a deep ball in his backhand corner. His backhand slice is quite as strong if not better than his forehand shot. In long duels from the back of the court, Tilden frequently swings into an under-cut in answer to dangerous attacks directed at the deep corners of his court, and his unerring accuracy and splendid control of this stroke have doubled the strength of his defence. As an attack, the stroke has little value, however. Its chief virtues are its low bound that pre CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 175 vents the antagonist from making any very aggressive stroke from the under-cut ball, and the fact that it travels much slower through the air than a ball which carries over-spin. This is often useful in gaining time for a player who is trying to run in and get established at the net before the answering drive can reach him. It also saves strength as it requires less effort and is inclined to disconcert an adversary, particularly if mixed with top-spinning drives, because of the opposite spin of the ball and different bound. Against an opponent at the net, under-cut strokes have little or no value. Their slower speed gives him more time to reach the ball and volley it; and when he does reach it, it is a much easier ball, because of its back-spinning motion, to volley successfully than one that is spinning in the opposite direction. An under-cut ball comes off the volleyer's racket with more crispness and speed than one that is spinning forward. Its true value then must be confined to use against a player at the baseline, unless one would risk the dangerous chance of an outright clean pass of a net opponent. As its attack then is of only secondary importance, chops and under-cut strokes must be relegated to a minor position in the armory of even the best players and the most successful users of the stroke. One should understand thoroughly the action of the ball and the varying effects that different twists 176 MECHANICS OF THE GAME and spins have on its flight, and this intricate question has been fully covered in an earlier chapter. The ball is affected in many ways, in its flight through the air, in its bound from the ground, and in its action when met with the strings of the racket. Assuming familiarity with these details, the value of the stroke itself can be studied more intelligently and its use better appreciated. One essential feature of all under-cut strokes clearly identifies them, and that is the course of the racket in making the stroke. In every case, the racket must pass under the ball. Its contact must be downward or if only forward, the strings must rub against the under-surface of the cover. This contact is necessary to produce the backward spinning that is the chief characteristic of the stroke. Hitting below the center or passing under the ball must naturally tend to turn its course upward, so the course of the racket to overcome this tendency is necessarily downward, and the end of the swing is almost invariably below the point at which the ball was met. While the under-cut stroke can be started as far back as the top-spin drive, it is not necessary to have this long back-swing, and most chop-stroke players do not use it. The stroke itself depends less on the momentum of the racket or the speed of the ball in the air than does the other, and the racket therefore need not go so far back. Some chop-stroke players get good results with only a half swing, although CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 177 Tilden, the best master of the under-cut ball, does go all the way back and gets better results because of this longer back-swing. There is less body-swing, less rotation and less follow-through for this stroke, than for the more vigorous top-spinning drive, and it rewards its users by some conservation of energy. At the end of a long hard match, the chop-stroke player will generally be stronger than his adversary who has been using the drop-stroke, which is much more tiring. A tired player also finds it more difficult to handle an under-cut ball than a top-spinning ball because of its lower bound, so that the "chop-stroke artist" has a double advantage at the end of a hard match because of his own better condition, and the effect of his play on his tiring opponent. A prolonged chopstroke attack will sometimes wear down and exhaust an opposing player when it will not beat him outright while he is fresh. Mixing the two styles, when it can be done successfully, is perhaps the most effective of all, but at the same time infinitely the most difficult. To vary the spin of the ball keeps your antagonist constantly on the anxious seat as to which kind of twist he must handle, for each style requires a different reception. The slightest relaxation in his concentration and the tired opponent will fail to allow for the spin and his return will be ruined. But on the other hand, for any other than Tilden, this mixed attack is likely to 178 MECHANICS OF THE GAME entail as many errors on the part of the attacker as the defender. The effect of the rotation of the ball on the stroke of the player who must return it is much more important than is generally understood. Not only does the ball curve in the air and bound from the ground in an unnatural way, but it has a strong inclination to change its natural course when hit by the other man's racket. This difficulty must be studied from two different angles, from the standpoint of the volleyer at the net and from that of the player at the back of the court who is trying to stroke the ball. Their problems are not at all the same, as one stroke requires a distinct effort to answer spin with spin and the other simply to overcome the effect of the other man's twist. An under-cut drive is more effectively made against an under-cut ball than against one that is top-spinning, and a top-spin drive is far easier to make against an opponent using the same type of play than against the opposite style. Either twist to be successful requires that the racket strings get a firm grip on the cover of the ball as the brushing contact transmits the power to it. If all the effort of the stroke is spent in transmitting this spin, little will be left for driving the ball forward in the required direction. The ball itself if spinning in the same direction that the racket travels offers a less resisting mark AMOVING PICTURES OF FOR-EHAND VOLLEYS 179 f Ii A B (' D 25. Tilden.-A, in hi, ground -stroke, Tilden steps, into his volley shots as well. Note this exaoplie, withI its sharp turn of the wsri st a id less forward inot ion of the racket than most da ye!'. s use. 'It'll r'acket hleadI has toeen dropped very lows at the endl. 3: i3: A B C D 26. Wood.-Wood shiows- uuoure hacek-swing here, a dleanu-hit hall and a rather full followlhrollgll for a horizon tat volley. The high fini sh of tise rarket indticates less undtercut than is probat 101!bly louca use hie hal l hiudle a dropplinug ball. A B C D 27. Brookes.-Note ttuc. short. grip of the racket that Brookes uses in his volleys. His elbow is a little (close to the buody, buut tluat is characteristic of his play. The finish shows a sharp undulsr-euut oil tile ball, wtuic'h should( keep) its bound tows. 180 MEC1-HANIC0S OF THE GA-M-E A It 28. Johnston.- lHer i,~ the ItIo)t tI,( ffI-t f th II fh r.II oII v o eII,Y s itI thII s (-(IIIo i t iut III. It inIIdi - catesz a cri otjir sho~t w ith nio te:ittackio-, pow er than7 I o o t) i l-,. A.tohoI tooI lollows thle hail w el I a n11d m)it l 1ij ( c it Oh 1 V er hi- ti I, XI! itt I e 11I v rI ii t ra t1 tl hli m t1IIv a n I ut cia iieii v l o. - I I...;. 7. 1A _- __ __ I __ - ___1 III I.,.....k, " ,' I I A ItI I ) 29. W filiams.-W illiatni hast, Iwii caui~lit ly the - c nora li-re M niakini_ a rallier hiicl iotlv,% a h o v i t h II h ot- I uII(Ie r. T IhI I al(.IIl f r)I a jI I ll, flft,I.f i I it;Ia.t i,qI1, II i I tIll- m itW i i tiu i Nv ill lie eioniiartil with thii other:Siraic,. A Bi C I) 30. Richards.-Althotitgh hiindli~ig a rathir high bail, Richards is shown here making one of his derisive volleyvs. Thi act ion of t he bacik-swijog is part icularty fine, although the haill seems to have ionic in too close to himi and he~ is pulling away friom it. MOVING( PICTTRES OF BACKHAND VOLLEYS 181 1) (' B A 31. Johnston. —Iere is another fine example of Johnston's volleying power. -le puts his weight well into thte stroke a;ll l meets the ball w\ith a straight contact that leaves the undercut tuntil after the conttact has been lmade. A fine finish too. I) C B A 32. Williams. —Williams has croullhed too mulh for this ball, probably due to a low shot that was uncilxpec ted. There is not enough back-swinlg and the racket is again too close to the body as the stroke is started. J D C B A 33. Richards.-Conmpare this with the preceding series, and note the better turn of the shoulders and back-swing over the shoulder. Richards is using here the English style with the wrist wvell below the racket head and ahead of the ball. 1 82) MEICHANIC0S O THEj. GAME I1 A 8It) h -lit.i w — 1 t fr ith ~tr(kt tilt t~ririt Ito- r-Oiht f(t tup tod acn' - behind iii' i-ft. tattll'1Intg h1e svtr1ItdI Ir()I" It ii hI v sInI- faIIt. lI-n. N A ]it' It 35. Tiicden.-Not- tht fine armt nct ttt itllT-itens,wtill-. at tits itail, iut itis raised klitsthIIe r i v It f oot frott\\Ir ti It o c nt-vI it ho v s-hit t ti Ittttt d stt "oittt-sttt ltt t o it- h tote)w r of t he s trt)k-,. t I ) wfttiO his rat-ktt 11tti-. the( hlit. 4 I j -f - 0i 0 q q j 4 - - - -I -_.,- - -, J, - - Aim""l I A Bt 1 1) 36. W lm.- n iiistitisiisra tket fatrther dttwit beittiniid his btt-k tita ittnost other ftor his speetd. Ihis shttnritirs gtt itttt all his strttkes tort there is less ittttiy-sw\iitg here thttn itefttre it touchetd his racket. MiOVING PICTURES OF SMASHES 183 ' I7I7T 7 //",7 -- - 7'. 1 __I___/________L I: F G H shows ill this smaslh, but as in 1ma11n of his other strokes, his feet aire badly twisted. Here his legs badly lbefore he finishes. If he had followed through on this stroke with body weight. i" E F G H at the eind of the stroke does Inot help. A more vigorous follow-through would have brought lie certainly dlid Inot see this ball \when he hit it and began to look away from it some time * * 9 I — - - 0 - -.1 -, -: F G H experts for his smash, and dependls more on momentum of the racket than on body weight could be used to advantage. As shown by D. he looked away from the ball several feet 184 MECHAN-iCS OF THE.' GA I E' cE A BI 1) 37. Patterson.-Patter-(ti', -ta,1i'iis vtrv littit. lift titeit tutui llii5 'trtili-lt '.1itviie. i vetsN Iliil-,Ii iti the air. fit ith all] atiil piit, a wttidilrtil ainiiitilt (if taiir ill thlis strikt', 4:. 1.t A B C D 38. Johnston.-Thu baick -sw~NvIti u-i iithi tit i maI f -Tioultti i,t oi ' wNa,vets tuuiiuh lit tler than it s iti his, stiisli. liii thfendiu i vt~-t tieviu Nitti thel wiuui~it stillo tti hi, left leg. TheI I i- ii tt i I IV I A BI C D 39. Alonso.-There is niore dihiferince hetwveen the smiash soil( service of Altins-o than -with Alion so' s feet aric tiloo s toget her here itt get the ma ximum U i owtsr into the itrotk e, alt hotugh 0MOVIN(-G PICTURES OF SAMASHES 185 _: F G H pare these pictures with series 19 and note the close similarity of each position. He reaches not only il the iomiiimiitu of the racket, but in the body swing and the follow-through with 1 V E F G H finish. As in all his other strokes, the Californian makes good use of the preliminary swing motions are almost exactly the same as his service (series 17) but the finish is hardly so tiff M F G H most of the other experts. The smash is less vigorous than the service shown in series 21. the racket swing is carried out to its full limit. I 86' MECHAN-ICS OF THE GA -\IE' Gilbert Lacoste lItIre a rteI hakhaImtl( v olltevs,lI)v (;ttr i nII).tII ILa cito 'tt. Iht th wellI es-it it (ld. '['lli EtII - I II nap I a reTtot lyist t itt-,. awaIy a Slho tzlIldt.r - Igli hall )II thamt IIa I gi v en i II o S I stl. - diii ( I o tI r Itt1i tit' at thel it t. I ito h ilt I tt c t~-t t, i tiikIt1ig, tueII, fi lii t v jI I v.I ShotS -wit It1 \\trist well titltt the racett, slitiulditr tuirnttd. ttnd tltt aick-switig etettidld untifl the racket hasts bitt i,I alti n,tv wra tlipd titunt)i Id the it'ck. Woosnam Norton Lttw backhantd volleys, are hiowtt lbv Woosnaiti anti Notrton, each -with hlis fortarm indl wrist -well aheatd otf the rtte;(ket andt a fret( shotuldler that gines a -iN' cotto tnl of the dlirectiotn. In otttha ta ses, it will lte iotett ethalit the fa ce of I~" ratcket is abevel ledl -well hat-k toi give the btaIl an undlert-cti at I ritise it ttve r Itle ietI. CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 187 than if spinning in the opposite direction, and makes this glancing contact doubly difficult. Suspend a wheel in the air and revolve it rapidly around its axle. Now, while it is still spinning rapidly, try to accelerate its motion with your hand brushing across the rim in the same direction it is turning. Note how difficult this is, and how fast the stroke of the hand must be to make the quick contact, push the wheel and let go again. Next, reverse this operation, and taking the same revolving wheel, try to make it spin in the opposite direction. Mark the stiff opposition encountered, the friction with the hand and the tendency of the whole wheel, if its axle be not too rigidly confined, to jump away from this friction. Apply this test theoretically to the spinning tennis ball and the problem will be more clearly understood. With an approaching ball that has a top-spinning motion, the revolution is in the opposite direction to the course of the racket when it meets it for an answering top-spin drive, and the opposing friction gives more power to the stroke. The ball goes away with greater forward momentum as well as taking the opposite spin with better effect because its contact with the strings was more binding. Try to under-cut the ball as it comes to you, and the course of your racket will be in the same direction as its spin, and your glancing stroke will have great difficulty in holding contact long enough to increase the spin, while its forward force will be lessened by 188 MECHANICS OF THE GAME the lack of opposition and firm frictional contact with the strings. The same contrast also applies to driving an under-cut ball with a top-spinning drive and with an answering chop-stroke. 'rN, LINE OF FLIGHNT.................... MEETING UNDER-CUT WITH UNDEOCUT MEETING TOP-SPIN WITH TOP-SPIN MEETING UNDER-CUT WITH TOP-SPIN MEETING TOP-SPIN WITH UNDER-CUT DrAGRAM H The accompanying diagram illustrates this point. To use the opposite style in answering a spinning ball slows up the stroke and weakens the attack. To maintain speed, use chop against chop, and top-spin CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 189 against top-spin. If circumstances make the same twist unavailable, better omit the twist than to try to continue the same spin on the ball in a driving duel. Says Tilden: "A sliding chop against Wallace Johnson or Vincent Richards is a waste of time, yet this shot will almost alone defeat Shimizu or Kumagae." Richards and Johnson play an undercut ball almost exclusively, and the two Japanese play only forward spinning drives with excessive top. The first two meet back-spin with under-cut giving the best results, while the others find it almost impossible to make their drives against a ball spinning in the same direction they want to make it revolve. I do not agree with Tilden, however, in the difficulty of chopping a chop-stroke that he expresses (page 11) in "Match Play and the Spin of the Ball." Theoretically, this should be the easiest and most effective way to meet the chop-stroke and I have personally found it so. When we come to the difficulties of volleying a spinning ball, there is another element to consider. Here the racket does not travel forward with the same aggressive effort to force the ball, but rather depends on the incoming force and a half-swing of the forearm and snap of the wrist to give the ball speed and direction. But the different twists that the ball may carry when it is volleyed make it necessary to vary the stroke to secure success. As it is met in the air, the top-spinning ball has a tendency to glance upward off the racket in just 190 MECHANICS OF THIE GAME the same way that it jumps forward from the ground when it strikes, and the under-cut ball has a corresponding tendency to glance downward. To overcome this inclination, the volleyer must vary the angle of his racket or the motion of the stroke itself. If the stroke be made the same as it would to meet a flat drive with little or no spin, the topped ball will slow up in returning and go high over the net, while the under-cut ball will come off the racket more crisply and go down into the net. This effect can be corrected by varying slightly the angle of the impact, but a constant watch must be kept as to which spin of the ball is used, and this can invariably be recognized by the direction the other man's racket followed when he made the stroke you are called upon to return. It cannot be too strongly urged that every ambitious player should study the effect of the spinning motion on a tennis ball, and make a conscious and constant effort to use this twist to his advantage at all times. It can be overdone, of course, as in the cases of some of the Japanese players and Wallace Johnson, for instance, but the moderate and thoughtful use of the spin will always improve one's play. If seven-tenths of the energy of a stroke is spent in producing spin, and three-tenths in driving the ball forward, the twist is excessive, of course, and the play suffers in consequence; but if one-tenth is spin and nine-tenths drive, you are approaching the so-called "flat" drive and neglecting twist. CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 191 The "flat drive" is perhaps a misnomer, for it is almost impossible to hit a tennis ball without spin, and the drive is "flat" or spinless only by comparison. Watson Washburn is said to depend on a flat drive, but nearly every one of his strokes carries spin, though in less marked proportion than most of his competitors. The same may be said of J. O. Anderson, of Australia, and several others. 8 — ------ tl- ----- TOP-SPINNING BALL ---------- ---- 'a ^ UNDER-CUT BALL DIAGRAM I Showing tendency of spin on the ball to make it jump up or down from the volleyer's racket. I believe that W. A. Lamed came nearer to the successful flat-drive than any player who has succeeded him. At his best, Lamed devoted the greatest part of his power to the forward motion of the ball, yet every stroke carried enough spin to make it travel true and drop into court without sacrificing speed. Lamed had a wonderful ability to time his shot so that the maximum speed was first put on the ball, 192 MECHANICS OF THE GAME and still the racket kept in contact long enough to be drawn upward after the forward impetus was imparted which put on the top-spin. The secret of the highest success in handling the top-spining drive is to get the speed first and put the twist on at the last instant. To reverse this and use the glancing blow of the original "Lawford" stroke which put twist on first and forward motion later, exaggerates the dropping "top" on the ball and suffers in length as a rule. That is the ideal stroke for passing a volleyer at the net, but not for deepcourt driving. No man since his day has been able to make a forehand cross-court drive run away from his opponent faster than did Lamed. There is still another variation of the top-spinning drive that must be recognized even though it is hardly to be considered an orthodox stroke. I refer to the so-called "loop-drive" that the Japanese, Kumagae, and more recently Howard Kinsey have used with some success. This is no more than an exaggerated top-spin played with a defective grip that brings the top of the racket considerably over the ball as the contact is made. (See Kinsey pictures on page 26.) The speed of the shot is materially slackened of necessity to keep the ball in court, and the ball is hit with a higher trajectory that gives the impression almost invariably as the ball leaves the racket that it is going out of court. The power of the swing itself is largely spent in putting spin on the ball rather CUT-STROKES, CHOP-STROKES AND TWISTS 193 than in driving it ahead, and the brushing action of the strings is increased to the last possible degree in the effort to increase the spinning motion. The ball spins faster in this loop-stroke than in perhaps any other stroke of the game unless it be the American twist service. The chief virtues of this stroke, if it has any, are the extreme speed of the spin that makes it difficult for the opponent to handle the shot with accuracy, and the long high bound that keeps the other man well outside of his court to play the ball. It has little value as a passing shot as the ball travels too high in the air and so slowly that it is generally easy for a volleyer to reach and very easy to kill if he does reach it. SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES XI SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES HERE are many varieties of the service stroke, and no two of the best players use exactly the same style of delivery. More than any other stroke of the game, the mechanics of this particular play are left almost entirely to the individuality of the player himself. It opens up a lot of possibilities for this service stroke, to be told simply that you may stand at almost any point you please behind the base-line and hit a ball into the opposite court in any way you please, when you please. One has time to wait and think out his motions before he hits the ball, and his originality has much more chance for play here than in the heat of battle where the action is much faster, with less time to think of the stroke. It is very evident that many players have put their minds on this problem and with varying results that have developed many kinds of deliveries. The so-called "American twist" service is an example of the originality that has developed in this department of the game. Curiously enough, the strange effect this delivery has on the flight and bound of the ball, was rather a discovery than an 197 198 MECHANICS OF THE GAME invention. Holcombe Ward, at that time a Harvard student but later a national champion at the game, was really experimenting with a service that would help him get started quicker in his constant rush for the net position, when he discovered the odd results he got from hitting the ball with the up-swing of the racket. From this, there developed the original American service, followed by many variations of it. A clear understanding of the mechanics of twist and spin are absolutely essential to a proper study of the service stroke, and I strongly recommend that the student of the game, if he has not already done so, read chapter seven of this book before studying the various effects of the different services. Primarily, the object of every good player has been to reach as high up in the air to hit the ball as possible, to get the best angle to serve down into the restricted service-court on the other side of the net into which he is aiming the ball. An examination of the service pictures showing nine series of the deliveries of the masters will show this clearly. One finds Tilden, the tallest of the champions, on his very toes reaching over nine feet up into the air to hit the ball, and this splendid point of vantage, certainly a full foot above Johnston's hitting point, is a great advantage to him. Those tremendous " railroad" deliveries of Tilden's would have to carry more twist to hold them in court, and also slow up a bit, if they were hit at only the height that Johnston can reach. SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 199 Patterson pirouettes seemingly on one toe to stretch up into the air, and turns his body at a difficult angle so that his right shoulder stretches far up above his left to increase his reach; while Brookes and Johnston keep both feet on the ground and depend on control rather than pure speed for success. The back-swing in the service stroke is an important feature of its mechanics. Without a complete circle behind the back, including the head of the racket dropped down as far as the waist, the racket could not get up the momentum for the severe hit that is required for a fast service delivery. The most confined back-swing of the leading players is unquestionably that of Richards, who draws his racket back rather jerkily but snaps it forward with a sudden rush that makes up for some of the lack of back-swing. The oddest delivery of this kind is that of Alonso, the Spanish champion. In his effort to get up speed, he begins the preliminary swing with an upright racket (see series 21 A) and gives it a full half circle more than any of the other players. Unfortunately he checks its momentum half way back before it passes behind his back for the final swing, and so loses most of the headway it carried. This mannerism has become so fixed that it is doubtful if Alonso could break himself of the habit if he wanted to. Certainly the extra half circle does his service no good, and it surely requires some effort to make it. Patterson and Tilden are probably the most 200 MECHANICS OF THE GAME powerful servers in the world to-day, and their deliveries are the most consistently aggressive. Tilden varies his service more than Patterson, and except in his extreme fast deliveries depends more on a fine control of twist and "break" than the Australian. Patterson seldom moderates his speed and, when playing in his best form, his services at times are almost unreturnable. The difference in the mechanics of the straight twist services and those made with the American break are shown better by the pictures in these pages than ever before. Compare Tilden's two services (series 16 and 22) and the same deliveries made by Patterson (series 19 and 23) and the differences in the motions can be clearly traced. Note that in every case of the American twist service, the playing arm and racket finish far out at the same side of the body on which the ball was hit (the right side in all cases except with Brookes, who is left-handed). In the other services the racket finishes its swing across on the opposite side of the body, or in the least severe cases in front of the right foot, and low down near the ground. Here the glancing stroke while the strings are in contact with the ball is in a downward direction to give the ball side twist and a spin that will make it drop in its flight soon after it crosses the net. For the American service, however, the effort of the player after first striking the ball upward is to draw the strings horizontally across its cover to give SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 201 it a side-spin, and this rapid dragging motion of the racket carries it off to the side at the end of the swing. As shown by the American services illustrated in these pages, Brookes's service carries even more sidespin than Tilden's or Patterson's, while Patterson's indicates the greatest speed. It is interesting to note that the American delivery, despite the origin of the stroke, has a tendency to hold the player back in his effort to get in toward the net more than the other deliveries. The forward ending of the racket's swing drags the player ahead in the other deliveries, but in the American, its side motion has a tendency to throw his weight off balance and delays his getting started toward the net. Compare the pictures of Patterson in the two services on this point, especially 19 G and 23 G, and note that the right foot is still in the air long after the ball has left the racket in the American service, whereas it has reached the ground at the same point for his other delivery. Even this small fraction of a second delay in getting started toward the net often operates against success in volleying the first return, for if the ball is met a yard or two farther back, it is likely to drop nearer the feet and be more difficult to volley successfully in return. The rules of the game give to the server an advantage that should not be neglected. The opponent is put under the distinct disadvantage of having to defend his court with his first stroke, while the server 202 MECHANICS OF THE GAME on the other hand is in position to attack. That this advantage is appreciated is shown by the almost universal custom of selecting the right to serve in the first game when the toss is won. Records of matches between equally skillful players also show that a large majority of the games are won by the side serving. Between outright winning the point by converting this advantage into an ace, and serving a weak second delivery that is easy to hit hard, there is a wide range of possibilities in the service. We find some players, one of them Williams, who take big risks with their first delivery in the effort to serve aces. This may sometimes be a wise chance to take, but only when the player has in reserve a safe second delivery that can be relied on to still retain the aggressive with a very small percentage of double faults. The player who runs the greatest risks is one whose second service is so weak that it is easily pounced upon with an aggressive return, or who is inclined to double faults when he serves it hard enough to retain his attack. Nothing is so destructive to the morale of any player as making double faults, nor so much encourages the opponent. One must get the second service under perfect control so this cannot happen often. The constant effort to ace the other man by exaggerating the speed of the first service is generally the cause of double faults. There are some players who would rather serve a brilliant ace than win the SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 203 same point by a long rally that is ended with a winning stroke, but that style does not appeal to me. To stress too much the force of the first service in this effort generally results in weakening the second and of adding to the list of errors in the double fault column. Two deliveries of an average speed, the first perhaps a trifle faster than the second, are generally found the safer plan, and as the difference between them is not so wide, the risk of another fault with the second when the first has found the net, is not so great, and the attack is still maintained. The player wXho slugs his first service and misses, as such players generally do miss, frequently has to moderate his second to such a degree to be certain of getting it in the court that it loses all sting, and the opponent pounces on it for an attacking first return that takes the whiphand. The very difference between the two deliveries, particularly when the styles used are not the same, increases the risk of a second error, whereas the man who uses the two moderate services of little difference but speed, gets the range from his first fault and generally gets his second into court. There are other ways to make the service effective than mere speed. An outside twist with a little over-spin tends to keep the ball down into court, and make it bound low so that the antagonist does not find it an easy mark. To this should be added direction. The ball must be placed so that the adversary does not find it easy to handle. He must not be 204 MECHANICS OF THE GAME allowed to get the ball just where and how he wants it and be prepared for it. Watch the adversary and you can almost always see from his position where he is best prepared to play the next stroke, and serve it to him somewhere else. The man who has to guess what is coming next and has to jump to one side or the other before he makes his shot almost always becomes defensive in his return. If he has a weaker side, which is generally the backhand, select this point for attack, and serve to his backhand. The mechanics of the American twist service are perhaps the most intricate to be found in tennis. The stroke is physically the most severe on the player of all that are used in the game, and it exhausts him more than any other. The effort is very great at all times and the muscles of the back and over the stomach feel the strain most. Among expert players it is used sparingly because of its strain, but as a change from the other services it is often effective. However, among tournament players of experience it is generally felt that the physical strain is hardly offset by the advantages offered. Most match players have become accustomed to its eccentricities and find little more trouble now in returning that delivery than others. No women use it, as it is physically too severe for them. In making the American service, the ball is thrown up somewhat further behind the head and left shoulder than for any other delivery and the SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 205 player bends back sharply to bring the striking-arm under the ball as it falls. The racket is dropped down fully to the waist and sometimes even farther before the upward swing is started to hit the ball. A long back-swing is absolutely essential to success for this stroke because much momentum must be put into the racket before the ball is hit. As the stroke is started, the racket is drawn upward very sharply, the wrist straightens out and the elbow loses some of the sharp kink necessary to get the head of the racket low enough behind the back. The ball is met low down over the head, not nearly as high in the air as for the other services, and the hitting stroke is made in an upward direction. The strings of the racket are brushed across the ball sharply as the racket is still traveling upward. This part of the stroke is the most important because it is this upward motion of the stroke that gives the ball its characteristic forward spin that is essential for the American twist. The effect is the same as a forehand lift stroke made off the ground, the ball receiving the same forward spin that makes it drop in its flight through the air because of the greater friction on the forward-moving top side of the ball (see chapter on "Spin and Twist of the Ball"). Hit in this way, the ball can carry more speed than without the top-spin for this serves to bring it down within the service-court. But the stroke does not end with the upward hit. Before contact between the ball and the racket 206 MECHANICS OF THE GAME strings is lost, there is a sidewise dragging motion that alters the spin. The racket is drawn sharply out to the right while still in touch with the ball, and a side-spin is also imparted that has still another effect on the ball. At the end of every American twist service, you will note the racket swing out to the side away from the player's body (see series 22, 23 and 24, G and H), and it is this end of the stroke that produces the side-spin. In fact the American twist service can almost invariably be identified by this ending better than by any other feature of the play. The actual blow delivered, therefore, meets the ball and brushes it at an angle of about 45 degrees from the perpendicular, so that the polar axis around which it spins when it leaves the racket is at a corresponding angle to the ground. The side-spin makes the ball bend in its flight from the server's right to his left, and the top-spin makes it drop unnaturally after the first forward motion is partly spent. The characteristic curve in the air, however, is only one feature of the ball's flight when hit with this American twist service. When it strikes the ground, the forward spin makes it jump forward quickly and the side-spin makes it bend at a sharp angle to the server's right or the opponent's left. The ball is still spinning when the striker-out is ready to return it, if well-delivered, and this spin still complicates his effort to return it. If hit with a forehand stroke, he must keep the racket well to the left of the ball, because its rapid spin has a tendency to make it SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 207 jump off to the left from the racket of the strikerout. A topped stroke is the best to hande this ball, and an under-cut is always dangerous because it offers the same spin in answer. The reverse American twist and the straight American for a left-handed player carry the opposite curves and breaks from the ground because the spinDIAGRAM J Swerve and break of American twist services. (Reverse twist at right.) ning ball revolves in the opposite direction. The straight American for a left-handed man, like Brookes for instance, is exactly opposite to the other, but the reverse American twist for a right-handed player is made with the same twists but like a backhand stroke, with the arm across in front of the body. This is a slower stroke, too, and seldom used because of its lack of speed. It is inclined to jump very straight up into the air and can be hit hard with ease, but must be hit from the outside or the player's right side, to overcome its spin. 208 MECHANICS OF THE GAME The regular American twist has the effect of driving the opponent out of court when played with his forehand in the left court, whereas on the right side, the ball is met at nearly the center of the court. Perhaps its most skillful use is to open up the center of the court for attack by serving it in the left court only. Against a man who has a weak backhand also, this is inclined to be effective, as he must either be forced out of court on the left side or play it with a backhand stroke. Correspondingly, the reverse American twist is more effective in the right court or against an antagonist whose forehand stroke is not particularly dangerous. Against a player who likes to hit the ball low it is best, while against a man like Johnston who prefers to meet the ball high in the air, it is less effective and often offers easy chances to kill or to take the attack away from the server. I shall never forger my first experiences with these American twist services. All three varieties came out the same year while Ward, Davis and Whitman were all students at Harvard. Ward was righthanded and served the straight American which he had invented; Davis, his partner in doubles, served the same delivery but was left-handed, and Whitman used the reverse American twist. I played against all three the same season in close succession, and while these twists were new it was very difficult to puzzle out just which effect the delivery against you would show. No two were the same in any particular SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 209 way, and one had to get used to each delivery before he could in any way anticipate its action. In the first international matches for the Davis Cup in 1900, the English challengers were introduced to all three of these twist deliveries in the course of two days, and they told me afterwards that they had never been so baffled in their lives. The ball was hit such a glancing blow that it lost its shape in the air, and looked like a hurtling egg as it approached you; then it not only curved through the air as it flew, but bounded off at a sharp angle to the side with a different bound in each case, as though it had hit a depression in the ground by accident. The first claim of the British visitors that year was that such a service was quite impossible under English conditions. They blamed the American balls and courts for the effect produced, but Ward and Davis went over to Wimbledon the following year and produced the same effect under their home conditions, and that contention was destroyed. Later the Australian Brookes learned the same delivery, playing it with much success both at home and abroad. One of the most mechanical actions of the game is that of throwing up the ball for the service. It should not vary at any time, and to be done well it simply requires constant practice in the simplest kind of an action. The ball should be thrown up to about a foot above the point at which it is intended to hit it; to throw it higher than this serves no good pur 210 MECHANICS OF THE GAME pose, and not to throw it as high is inclined to give the player too little time to make the proper connection for the stroke. Carelessness or irregularity in this point is very costly in the accuracy of the service. To throw the ball six inches too far back or too far forward means that the player must lean one way or another to meet the ball, and this affects the stroke unfavorably. As the swing must be started before the ball has been tossed up, the racket is naturally thrown out of its studied course if the ball does not go to the point at which the player has intended to hit it. Tossing the ball a little too far behind the head makes the player lean back and lose his balance, and too far in front makes him lean out to meet it, and generally results in a fault. In trying to adjust his stroke to meet the irregularly tossed ball, the server makes many unnecessary faults. It is a very simple thing to accomplish, this throwing the ball up always the same, and all it requires is constant practice and lots of it. Without even having a court to play on or dressing for the game, the ambitious player can easily master this simple detail. Take a tennis ball and stand as though at the base-line ready to serve. Toss the ball up a hundred times in succession until it comes down always at the same point. It is easy to catch it and note the point at which it falls. When the angle of the toss is well controlled, the height can easily be SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SERVICES 211 adjusted until the ball always goes the same distance into the air. It will be a great surprise to note how much this helps the play, and if any player who is having trouble in controlling his service will practice steadily in making the toss, he will probably help his delivery greatly by this simple means. I have seen many players struggling to control the service and making double faults without knowing the reason for their difficulty. When the action was studied closely it was generally found that the ball was not being tossed up accurately. The player was leaning one way or another to strike it and varying the angle of his racket often to meet the unexpected point at which he found the ball waiting to be hit. When he had learned to control the toss, his service almost invariably improved at once. HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING XII HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING BY far the most spectacular part of tennis play is the volleying in the game. The ball is hit so crisply and flies off at such startling angles when volleyed well at the net, that spectators are kept on the constant qui vive while the players themselves are keyed up to the highest pitch to volley well. There is something particularly exciting in play of this kind for both the players and spectators alike, as the ball seems to travel faster and is often cut off in its flight almost as soon as it crosses the net. But the volley is a difficult stroke to play well. Whenever possible the ball should always be met at or above the level of the net, so that it can be driven downward not upward, which makes nearly every volley an attacking stroke. It is not only in actually making the stroke itself that the difficulty lies, but also in getting into position to make the shot aggressively. In singles, the court is twenty-seven feet wide, and it offers many opportunities for the opponent to place the ball past the volleyer and still keep it within the sidelines. The closer the volleyer gets to the net, 215 216 MECHANICS OF THE GAME the less time he will have to intercept a fast passing shot; yet the farther he hangs back to get more time to cross over to reach it, the more difficult the volley becomes, for the ball will then have dropped lower before he hits it, and he will have further to drive it before it recrosses the net. The upward lifting volley is perhaps the most difficult of all, too, and that is what must be played in most cases when the volleyer hangs back near the service-line to wait for the ball. It behooves the volleyer then to get in close to the net for his attacking position. English players for many years made a practice of volleying from as far back as the service-line, but American experts think this is unsafe and prefer to crowd in close to the net for the winning position, and watch closely for the dangerous lob that might "turn the flank" when thus exposed at the rear. Once in position, however, the stroke itself requires very different mechanics from the groundstrokes. The horizontal volley is not made with a full swing, as is the ground-stroke, but rather with a half-swing made mostly with the forearm. A distinct bevel should be kept on the face of the racket for this kind of volleying, so that the ball does not meet a flat racket, but rather receives a downward glancing blow that under-cuts and at the same time tends to lift it somewhat over the net and still check its speed. Perhaps the best example of this shot is the way that Borotra, the French champion, plays the stroke. HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING 217 He has a style very much his own and essentially different from most other experts. Borotra's wrist is his greatest asset in tennis, and nowhere else does it show to such good advantage as in his volleying. In this stroke, he not only turns his wrist as the contact is made between the ball and racket, but he relaxes slightly, giving the ball a peculiar action. Generally speaking, this is not orthodox. A stiff wrist should be maintained in all these volleying strokes, as there is so little swing that to relax generally takes all snap and life out of the stroke. But the Frenchman defies these rules with such good effect that his volleys are improved rather than hurt by this lack of rigidity. There is so little time in meeting a fast drive at the net that the strength of your return is generally in direct ratio to the speed of the incoming ball. It is very difficult to graduate the speed of your volley with a stiff wrist, but to relax generally means to miss the shot altogether. But Borotra relaxes just enough to absorb the impact of the incoming drive on the strings, and with the bevel he uses on the racket itself and the turn of his wrist, there is a flick that adds snap to the return and still equalizes the speed and length no matter whether the incoming ball is traveling fast or slow. Johnston uses a more horizontal sweep than most of the other experts, and this fact probably accounts for the unexpected speed with which these shots of his so often get out of the reach of the opposing 218 MECHANICS OF THE GAME player. His racket is inclined to be flatter when he strikes, giving the ball more speed in its flight. (See series 28 and 31.) Johnston stiffens his wrist more and bevels less than most of the others, getting well behind the ball and pushing it back fast and deep without slowing up the speed by the sharp undercut that most other players use in their horizontal volleys. Tilden's backhand volley is very much better than his forehand, as is also the case with most of his ground-strokes. His action on the backhand side always seems freer and more confident than when the ball is on his right side. There is less wrist power and more forearm and shoulder on the backhand side, which gives more complete control of the ball and its travels. Richards perhaps shows the soundest style of all the American net volleyers, his forehand and backhand volleys both showing splendid control and a fuller swing than most of the others. Note the splendid finish of his backhand (series 33 D). Williams, on the other hand, takes far more chances of error with his, but brings off more outright "kills" because he risks so much that there is seldom any chance for another stroke after he volleys at the net; it is miss or kill with him always. Note the fine form of O'Hara Wood again in his volley stroke (series 26) and mark how solidly he meets the ball, although the downward swing of the racket and turn of the head at the end of the stroke D IF FEF-RENT Gno uNI- STROKES BY \XOMIEN 219 Start and Finish of Miss Elizabeth Ryan's Chop-Stroke Mis: iv i' famous chiop-stroke as shown by these picituies is made -with a shoirt soii,starting, a hove the wvaist and finishing as lows as, the knee. The shot is hit d() sinW1ra d, and the folloss-thr-ough is veryi limi test because the raceket passes out in fri mit nu( t hi hsai is sharpl y unidir-rnt 'with a ba(Ick- 5pin ithat gives a low hound. Mrs. Molla Mallory's Forehand and Backhand Strokes Thle Starit iif '\II. Aii IIii s 's forielhand shirike s id the tiiiish. of her tbackhand stroke ie isl btvssi ii i theii s s imi shots. The tinriiei ith mptioin has a ra tier linsiteil hint-ssis u hint i filuii fiithiiss oug thiiis ashst icii e isis miiiIs the speed of her play. Iii thin bchi andsiii sti ikehi lii ttiis is swell shsiws i 22() M-EC'HAN-\ICS OF THE- GAMAE, A B I ) 40. Miss WiUs's Forehand- N11- NVIII,', fi'l-t-11:111d tl.()k" I" \\"II alld ill -(mI frtt,. a-141 III)t mllv f;ir hark hut 1, carrWil to, I full vmIM —. \\hlh t1w I'mow(wk 1,, gmml. Nv f, I 1, ),u t I I I va r ia 1) I x- - t, t I I I, t ) (,II tc k t II c fol h m - t II 1.4 )II -,II bl. ff'r., i I I - c () I I I 1) I t, t t, (I. -N () t 4 t 11:1 t II G F" I 41. M1iss W~ills's Backhantd. ---Ttt. crli t it ii~t (ift I. (AIi;.tpiiut batcikliaitdi tiu.tit giimul A It I ) 42. Miss W~iIls's Service.-In hiii s-(IWWVic is itts" cumls tieui t, to the tutu'1,s uutiuIumr. II Stnt utmv D). us tiuItII0 up1 fmiti tuuttIs. I'I1(,e ). tuii Ithe tinisth Is livtid tuIut n to() t Nft.. Ierigteri, sthe wmittd 'idd~ to itit- pilt itult to tthe uitgt-esivetie-s of let plhy. M\OVING PICTURES OF THE WOM-\AN- CHAMPI1ON, 221 EI (C H form. ecx ep t thlat it Seenms a twa ys to he pla yed with too much reserve. The swving is- foil and~ Shel 11'es a w ide stalore. andl shifts. her w\eighit forward \vith the stroke to timie the shot heI, - rii t foo)t is-, si tl lietI~ I tack ini 1- after the stroke has beeii fin ished. vp 1t t' B A.. of her forehand. otIt in a Itrner formi The swving1 is- full and the hit weell-timed, but iaI,jStil. no(t Jj(tI~roIgit forwa-,rd its, in a more aggressive stroke. -Note the foot lifted and even SIio\\te~d the same defect. E V1 U H ~i.1i lmost \vmtlien pilavyers. Slit svings wvile Isee B)I. dtropls the racrket headi very low get0 the full pover of 'the stroke. if Miss WNills wvould throw lier-self at the bll.1 a does MECHANICS- OF THE G-AME A B I(' 43. Miss Wills's Forehand V'olley.-Tl'i~ 1 < I,nrI I, II;Ir vl,) Iv N\:I I I; Iv,(It 'I (Ii f aIt i II t I )IIttIt, It I 1It A 44. Miss Wills's Backhand Volley —Itart, is a vorty titti eixtipifiii if a ft ~lytt,v(Ivital( tanIkn it l it: t ii, tha tim ttt ttttit ittNotiii it tintplav iir ftrtit iltitt t Iitll iiV tt0itttWit. -ll A B ( ) 45. Miss Wills's Snisash.-A gooiit start ittl a por itiiIitni (tist Innicritian this nttsian. Th e bmtk-n,-wing is w(ll ex ti-cttil. huat tlii fitt~ih virv wia k. Nitti tita benitt if the wvrist ift I), the armh it linen thaickil nit ii the rathit a ittwfiti ttt tittishwit \\tl Itt twiel frimtti i trttt THI ENGLISH CHAM[PION'S STYLE OF PLAY 223 Start and Finish of Miss McKane's Forehand Drives Note the long hrack reach of Miss IMKane's forehand drive and the splendid followthrull gh tlhat i'ive the ball its ftie pa le when she hits it right. The turn of the wrist at the end of the shot clearly sho\\ws that the ball has been given a top-spin tlhat will k eel it from s.ailing out of court. End of Service End of Backhand Stroke In her service, MAiss McIanle ses a side drag that carries her racket out to her ight side, and the tposition indica;tes thlat the 1all11 has been given a good deal of si de-splin. At the end of her ba; ck-handl stroke the racket follows the ball to the limiit of helr rech Iand her w-\eight is thriown -well into the stroke. PI. 0A 6 - TI-PICAIL STROKE1S' BY THE FRENCH CHAMP\Iio-N 225 Forehand Drive Backhand Volley Mile. tenglen has I avon (lerfuol ('ont rol of her iac'ket and( an excelit ionallyv free style of lii t timg. fleir wrst iS, aiiwai, Nv oell pinaced ani(1 heir elbow wetl1 out of her on vi. She sldoi striikes withlouitiain one foot (if bothI are not off the ground, nod sh-le onva riaiblI thirowlV Ill her. ve"Algt iiito the shIot. End of Two Backhand Drives The FIrenchl rhaminpion finishes out her driives in orthodlox form and( guides the hall1 iij to thle In st Siicond (Ihifore it ha s, left li in 'kit. Note the iue of the t hunih up1 the htiiiile (If the racket iii )(tiitl if these tw\o shots. Cioimpare the tieiid of the bodily ill en ch if Ih woe t\\o stroki's w(ithI the hac'khiaid shot (of Miss Wills Oil lirecedin g pa gin, innde from a ii upiright pos it ion. c)-)c) 26MECHANICS-, or rm-u: GA-N E1 Miss Eleanor Goss Miss Mary Browne of t I I t' ti I I I I I t I til f iitI tunkf.. I ic slihiwvII h re, execut-i in a frif, firiiin yl I K; -., Mrs. Lambert Chambers Miss Evelyn Colyer M rm. Iatiitert Chatntiirs i- out, iif thiei ohut scihoil t f Fngii~tsh pit ver-a that inck the tiaik-siwint so neinssary toi aeiicrim, aipod ini the halt1. She is exceetioniiliitt stea ity ti t h er striik ec tia -k fiiiish iiitr liver. M i C oinivi h n ix i-e tteid it, -o tte yiii far tievonit tier griiiriid-striike-, and tier sirvici mitI voiitvy ire inearir to the menil's sta n d ard t h ait an vI it tnt n-I~ iitIi I 11 I I tI tu o m i i t " t i-dItu v. HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING 227 clearly show that the ball was undercut in leaving the strings. Generally speaking, there is practically no bodyswing and little follow-through in the horizontal volley. One jumps into position and strikes, always with a horizontal or downward angle, and nearly always with a bevelled racket that undercuts the ball. The racket must finish lower than the ball is hit, out in front, and crossing in front of the body to the left for the forehand stroke and to the right for the backhand stroke. The ball must be met where it may be; there can be no rule laid down for this, for one cannot pick out the height or angle at which it will come. Since it must cross over the net and should not be allowed to drop more than a few inches before being hit, against good players the ball will almost always be met about waist-high. Occasionally a higher drive can be intercepted and the ball met at the shoulder, but this presents such an easy chance to kill that it should be pounced on at once for a downward smash that ought to be an outright winner. Length is particularly important in making these horizontal volleys, for if you permit the adversary to come in close to you by giving him a short volley, your position at the net will become untenable at once. If he does not make his shot from well back of the service-line, you are likely to have very little time to jump for the next drive and it may easily pass you before you can reach it; or it may come 228 MECHANICS OF THE GAME directly at you so fast if your adversary gets in close that you will not have time to get out of its way. No ball is so difficult to volley as that which comes straight at you; it is easier to handle if off a yard to the right or left. Short volleys, if sharply angled, are the most effective for killing, but they must be absolutely out of the opponent's reach. The player at the net should volley deep or kill outright at the sides. Quickness of eye and anticipation are the two outstanding qualities that must be acquired before one can become a good volleyer. For the service and ground-strokes, even for the smash, the player can select his position, pick his stance and set himself for the stroke as he likes, but for net-volleying, quick action is the only possible road to success. Here it is even more important than in any other stroke to keep the racket well in front of the body, with head up and balanced against the idle hand, and (if a change of grip is required from forehand to backhand) with the relaxed hold, that permits an instant shift for the next attack. The weight must be up on the toes, the body bent forward, and in every detail the player must be ready to spring on the instant in any direction. The balance of power between the volleyer and his back-court opponent is so delicately drawn that a hair divides success from failure, the slightest fraction of a second's delay in starting means being passed, while the quick spring of well HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING 229 coordinated eye and muscles, turns failure into success by a killing volley that is unreturnable. It is a curious paradox not consistent with the conditions governing other parts of the game, that it is easier to volley at the net on the backhand side than the forehand. Possibly because the stroke does not require the sweeping motion of the other shots, the braced wrist of the backhand grip is more easily.... ---.~~ ' 'k.-..-..'. * - \..~..o......~. ' BACKHAND fOREHAND DIAGRAM K Reach of a volleyer with one step from his original position. made rigid than the forehand grip. For the players who use their thumbs up the handle as a prop, the backhand grip is distinctly less flexible and better adapted to the peculiar stroke of the horizontal volley. Strange as it seems, the reach is also greater in volleying on the backhand side than the forehand. Study the accompanying diagram and the reason will be apparent. Facing the net awaiting a fast volley with feet 230 MECHANICS OF THE GAME parallel to the net, there is generally time for just one step in either direction before the ball must be hit. If the right foot is crossed over in front of the left and the reach extended as far as possible on the backhand side, the hitting shoulder will have extended out to the farthest point and be free for a clean hit. (See B in diagram.) If the ball comes on the forehand side, however, the single step permitted brings the left foot across in front of the right and turns the player's back to the incoming ball as in the backhand shift. But in this shift the striking shoulder turns away from the ball instead of toward it, and the reach is shortened by the width of the shoulders. The striking power is much more limited because of the turn of the shoulders than when the turn is made for the backhand volley. With a volley coming straight at the player near the net, that is while he is still facing the net when he strikes, the reach is nearly equal without lifting the feet, but if one step is required so he turns his back, and there is not time for two, the backhand side is the better for handling the ball and the reach greater. Another fine point of technique that is worth a little study is the method of getting back quick from the volleying position for a lob over the head. For a right-handed man, the turn should always be to the right, not the left, and the right foot should be lifted first and take the first backward step. Splitting hairs, some one will say? Is it? Let us see. Lift the left foot first and turn to the left and you will have HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING 231 to make a complete circle before you can smash or make a forehand drive or lob in return. Follow the first rule and you make at most a half turn to run back and then a quarter turn back again to strike. This is less confusing and less likely to lose direction than a full circle, and less effort too. Only in the case of a lob to the extreme backhand corner that must be played backhand and cannot be smashed, will there be any advantage in turning to the left to run back for a lobbed ball. For a lefthanded player, of course, this would be exactly reversed. Going back once more to the moving pictures of the volley strokes, note that Johnston and Tilden both step forward to meet their volleys. (See series 25, 28 and 31.) Both await the ball a yard farther back from the net and step forward to meet it, whereas the others stand in closer and let the ball meet their rackets. Particularly in the case of Johnston this has a big advantage for with him there is a strong tendency to get the weight behind even the volley strokes. Compare his position in series 31 C with Williams in series 32 C, and note that he steps out to meet the ball, while Williams reaches out to meet it. One method makes the stroke aggressive, while the other is inclined to defend the position rather than attack the adversary. In these two instances, each had a short ball to handle but the contrast in the styles of handling the short ball is very illuminative. 232 MECHANICS OF THE GAME The half-volley is a poor name for the stroke that is always so identified. It is not a half-volley in fact, or a quarter-volley or even an eighth-volley. It is a ground-stroke pure and simple, and an ineffective one at that. Its only possible virtue is a saving in time that is sometimes valuable, but it is much more often a defensive stroke than an aggressive one. It is played most often because the player is caught in the wrong position in court and has not the time to get back for a full ground-stroke. There are a few players who have specialized in this stroke and practiced it until they have become rather proficient in handling the rising ball. For such men there is some gain in coming in closer and half-volleying the ball to force the play. They hit the ball as it rises from the ground rather than waiting for it to bound to its full height, so as to catch the opponent out of position and not give him time to get to the shot. This is sometimes successful, but many years of study of the most proficient experts in this shot, including Caridia and Eaves in England and Williams over here, have convinced me that many more points are lost by this stroke than are ever won, even when played by those who are most skillful in its use. As a pure defense of an untenable position, when caught in too close with no time to get back for a full shot, it is sometimes the only stroke that can be used, but to choose it intentionally when any other stroke is possible, seems to me little short of tennis suicide. HORIZONTAL VOLLEYING AND HALF-VOLLEYING 233 The slow-moving films of the United States Lawn Tennis Association include a good many examples of half-volleys, and good pictures of this stroke have been heretofore particularly rare. Even though we find no backhand strokes of Brookes, Richards or Patterson, there are half-volleys galore. Fortunately these shots could be selected with the ball stationary in the pictures, and it was a distinct surprise to find that the ball is not hit so near the ground as has been generally believed. In every one of the examples shown on pages 104 and 105 (all taken from the slow-moving films, by the way) the ball is rising from the ground and has not yet been hit by the racket. This is important as otherwise the character of the strokes pictured might seem very different than it was. Note that in Brookes's forehand half-volley the ball was hit almost as high as the knee, and also in that made by Williams on the forehand side. The only example of a plainly "trapped" half-volley was the backhand shot by Williams made close to the ground. Tilden plays the shot off at the side as shown by both forehand and backhand examples pictured, while Johnston uses an almost perpendicular racket for the same stroke that the others play with a horizontal position. OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING XIII OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING THE overhead volley is mechanically a very different stroke from the horizontal volley. Although both strokes are classed as volleys because the ball is hit before it has touched the ground, there is not the slightest similarity between them. The racket is held differently, the swing is not made in the same manner and the ball is met at an entirely different angle. The overhead volley is never a horizontal stroke, but at all times an attacking stroke with a downward trajectory that gives it a great advantage over the adversary. It is a distinct relief not to feel the everpresent threat of the net interference, and in overhead volleying the danger of hitting it is reduced very greatly. The stroke can be made from any part of the court, but the nearer the net the greater the likelihood for success. When close in, the smash is generally resorted to as a final winning stroke that should be unreturnable. The smash is practically the same stroke as the service, but as it is played from a much better position and its direction is not limited 237 238 MECHANICS OF THE GAME to a small part of the court, it should be unanswerable every time. There is no sharp distinction between the smash and any other overhead volley except the extreme speed and abandon that generally accompany the smash. It is seldom necessary to place a smash as its success depends more on sheer speed than on direction, and one need only hit the ball so hard that the other cannot return it even though it bounds close to him. In fact, it is often wise to smash directly at the opponent, as his only chance of handling a hard smash is to get away from the ball enough to have a fair swing at it. It is remarkable how close the mechanics of the smash duplicate those of the service. I was much surprised to find in studying the motion pictures that accompany these pages how closely the motions duplicate each other. Compare the action of Tilden (series 16 and 35), Patterson (series 19 and 37), and Johnston (series 17 and 38). With the exception of the first positions (A) which differ because the ball must be thrown up with the left hand in the case of the service and not in the smash, the action is almost exactly the same throughout each series. To make the most effective smash the head of the racket is dropped down behind the back in the preliminary back-swing just as it is for the service. The weight is thrown far back and brought forward with the striking blow so that all the accumulated body power will be added to the racket's momentum. OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING 239 The ball should be hit as high up ay the arm can reach and the follow-through should be complete, with the racket ending its swing far out in front and almost down to the feet. Mark the same characteristics in Patterson's smash that are shown in his service. He bends back more than any of the other experts as he gets under the ball to smash (see series 37 C) precisely as he does for his straight service (see series 19 C), drops his left shoulder to raise his right and increase the height of his reach, and throws his weight forward so completely that the right leg reaches out in each case to recover the balance (see series 19 H and 37 H). Note also the striking similarity between 17 B, C and D with the corresponding pictures in series 38, which show Johnston's long back reach with his racket before making his overhead service and smash. For the service, the player may choose his own position and is never hurried, but in smashing he is compelled to move to meet the ball, play it where it falls and often is hurried into making the play before he gets set, almost while on the run. The ball falls much faster too than when tossed up only a few feet over the head to serve. One serves twenty balls for one he smashes, so the habits formed in serving become so fixed that they are almost mechanical when it comes time to make a smash. The chief anxiety is to get into the right position for the smash, and that is no easy task. A hurried 240 MECHANICS OF THE GAME smash is very uncertain of success, and it is doubly important to get into position under the dropping ball in time to get set before starting the swing. It is useless to try a smash unless a full back-swing is used. To smash with only half a swing means to weaken the shot so that it loses its sting, and can often be returned without much difficulty if it can be reached. The player's position should be directly under the ball, not off to one side, and it is safe to say that if the best position is taken the falling ball would hit the player on the head if he did not hit it first. If you have to run back to smash a lob, it is generally better to run slightly more than you think necessary and then move forward with the stroke as it is made, rather than to take the estimated position and risk having to move backward if the calculation is not perfect or the wind blows the ball back more than expected. Nothing will take the sting out of a smash so quickly as the slightest tendency to shift the weight backward as the stroke is delivered. It should always be made with a forward motion that gives the added power of the body-weight to the swing of the racket. A smash made on the run is seldom successful, and almost never unless the run be forward, not back. I have seen many attempts to smash lobs as the player backs away to reach the ball that is dropping behind him, but almost invariably they fail because OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING 241 the power is all taken out of the stroke by the backward motion of the player. When the dropping ball promises to fall within ten or fifteen feet of the net, there is little anxiety as to the success of a smash. The net itself offers little hazard there, as the angle at which the ball is hit is so far above it that the whole court is "wide open." One may choose his direction then and consider where lie the greatest chances of killing the ball. If the opponent is close to you, a smash directly at him will almost invariably prove successful, but if he is far back in his court and will have time to step aside and meet the ball, a spot must be picked or an angle that will carry it out of his reach. A wide stance is a handicap rather than a help to a player in smashing, as it is inclined to commit him to placing his shot in the direction intended when he took his position. A firm base is necessary for body-swing, of course, but the player who can smash with a narrower stance has a wider choice of direction when the blow is delivered. This is often a great help as the opponent may anticipate the attack if the smasher's position shows the direction of the attack, and start moving before the ball has left the racket. If the smasher can alter his plan at the last second when he detects the other man's start he may completely outwit him and score an easy ace. If far back in the court, it is seldom wise to risk the smash, as the target is much smaller and requires great accuracy to put all the power into the shot that 242 MECHANICS OF THE GAME is required and still keep the ball in the court. A deep volley overhead is generally the wiser play. The opponent cannot always lob perfectly, and if the volley is deep and keeps him in the back of his court, the smasher can safely run up again after it and wait for a better opportunity to kill on the next return. An overhead volley differs from a smash chiefly in that there is no long back-swing to the racket, which carries much less momentum when it meets the ball, and the follow-through is cut off much shorter. The overhead volley does not need the slicing bevel of the racket to undercut the ball that the horizontal volley requires. This is chiefly intended to lift the ball over the net, but that element does not enter into the overhead volley, as this stroke is only possible when the ball is already high above the net when it is hit. It is a downward stroke but made from a high ball more or less horizontal in its incoming flight. It is very difficult to smash such a ball, and that stroke is almost always reserved for a dropping ball. In handling lobs, the horizontal volley is much more difficult as there is no impact in the ball. Its motion is downward, not against the racket, and if the ball has been lobbed high, it may be falling so fast that it is no easy task to gauge the point at which it can be met with the glancing blow of a fast-moving racket across its path. With the overhead volley correctly played the conditions are different. Here the ball is coming OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING 243 straight in to the racket, meets its open face and offers a resisting mark, not a lifeless one, to hit. The ball flies so much faster when approaching horizontally too that there is seldom time to make a long swing backward for a full stroke like a service or smash, and still depend on its accuracy. The overhead volley is almost always made from the front of the court, for a horizontal ball that is higher than the shoulder would surely go out of court if it met the player far back. Only a dropping ball like a lob or a "loop-drive" with high trajectory but traveling slow, could reach the player back of the service-line yet above the shoulder and still stay in court. Confined then to strokes made from the front half of the court and for handling very deep lobs that are dangerous to smash, the overhead volley is still an aggressive stroke at all times, and should never be turned into a defensive play. Once having secured the position with the high return to handle, the attack should be pressed home to victory. A half back-swing is enough as a rule for such a stroke, but the ball should never be "bunted" or pushed away. The hit must be crisp and sharp or the shot will lose its character altogether and possibly weaken enough for the adversary to turn the attack against you on the next return. Against a horizontal ball, the face of the racket can be kept well open and the ball hit cleanly with only a little out-twist; but with a dropping ball, particularly a high lob that is 244 MECHANICS OF THE GAME falling straight down and fast, it is often well to bevel the racket backward a little to increase the striking surface from that angle. Among the moving pictures of the volley strokes which were taken from the U.S.L.T.A. films to illustrate these pages, only one could be properly called an overhead volley, the forehand shot of Williams (series 29) shown on page 180. Here the ball reached the player well above the shoulder and is hit downward and across with an attacking direction. The forehand series (30) of Richards just below Williams was taken of a rather high horizontal volley, but the bevelling motion and the pull off to the side that the player shows here, with the low finish of the racket, carry all the earmarks of a horizontal volley well put away for an ace. All of the same characteristics that mark their other strokes show again in the smashes made by the experts in the motion pictures shown on pages 182 to 185. Johnston's perfect footwork and timing make his smash easily the outstanding example of good form, although his wide stance might tend to limit somewhat the change of direction at the last second and make the player depend on speed alone for success. Patterson and Richards (series 37 and 34) both show a tendency to put twist on the smash as indicated by the turn of the racket in the F pictures, the finish in each case being more like the drag of an American twist service than a flat hit ball. Tilden, on OVERHEAD VOLLEYING AND SMASHING 245 the other hand, puts the opposite spin on the ball and finishes like a regular out-twist service with his racket across in front of the body. Tilden's ever-present tendency to lift his feet off the ground is not an advantage to the smash, and the high right knee shown in series 35 G would better be replaced by the forward action of the leg as shown by Patterson and Alonso (series 37 G and 39 G). Here again in the smashing pictures shows the poor footwork of Richards that has handicapped his play. Examine series 34 (page 182) and note the defective action of the feet. In this stroke the player evidently met the ball slightly further to his left than he had expected, and he has shifted his weight (see E, F and G of this series) to meet its unexpected position. Had he been throwing his weight forward in the blow with some follow-through, he would be compelled to use the better footwork and bring his right leg around and out in front of the left to recover the balance at the end of the stroke. Instead he has brought his right leg in behind the left and so tangled them up that any follow-through would be impossible. If the player had swung his weight forward after this stroke he would probably have fallen. It would have been just as easy in this instance to advance the right foot properly and add to the beautiful swing and body action the benefit of a proper follow-through. There have been some players who have earned considerable success in tournament play to whom the 246 MECHANICS OF TIE GAME smash and overhead volleys were a sealed book. Your confirmed back-court player seldom has an opportunity to use either of these strokes, but he robs his game of one of its greatest assets. Against a man of his own type the play becomes simply a long-drawn battle of steadiness to see who will break down first and lose by error. Better far the risk of a volleying attack at the proper time than to forever defend, and the well-rounded game should always include the use of these strokes. MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER XIV MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER THE mechanics of lawn tennis are always the first stumbling-block for beginners in the game, and forever remain a source of weakness to the average player. Fixed habits are formed in the early stages of learning to play that become so ingrained that it is next to impossible to later eradicate them, and many an otherwise promising player has had his tennis career ruined by ignorance of his mechanics. In "Lessons for Beginners," the first volume in this series, these elementary principles were fully covered, but the matter is so important that even at the risk of repetition, it seems necessary to go over part of this ground again here. The novice, unless he be guided by an experienced player, seldom realizes that the tennis stroke depends almost entirely for its power on the momentum of the racket. He tries to push the ball, rather than hit it. The racket is started in making the stroke with little or no back-swing and met with little impact. The tennis stroke is not a throw, as in lacrosse, where a loose bagging set of strings is used against the ball, but a clean sharp hit. The racket strings are stretched very tight and 249 250 MECHANICS OF THE GAME made of highly resilient gut to give the greatest elasticity to the hitting surface. With this implement it is almost impossible to throw a ball because it will not stay in contact long enough to give it direction. It must be hit and hit clean with a sharp impact. Note the wide variation in the resilience of the strings, depending on the distance between the point of impact and the frame of the racket. At the point at which a string enters the frame through the hole bored in the wood, there is practically no resilience in the string. The longer the string between the two points of non-resilience where its ends enter the frame, the greater will be the maximum resilience in the string, and the center of the string will always be the point of maximum. The actual center of a racket therefore is always the point at which the ball can be hit with the greatest power, and every inch away from this central point of contact that the ball meets the strings, the less will be the power of the blow. This calculation is much finer than most players realize. Test it yourself by bouncing a ball against a racket at one side and note the lack of rebound, and then contrast this with the resilience of the playing center by a similar test. Your experienced player hits every ball within a very few inches of the racket's center, and a dark area in the middle of his racket will be very apparent after it has been used for some time, particularly on grass courts where the balls become soiled from MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER 251 the turf, and leave their marks on the strings. Some tests have been made by theorists with stained balls, and the result was surprising to even experienced students of the game. An exceedingly small area of the strings is used by good players. It is extremely important then that the beginner should learn to hit the ball in the very center of the racket for each stroke. This takes time, of course, and only long practice will develop the accuracy necessary to make this fine calculation under the varying conditions that are met in constant play, with the flying ball and the moving player always to be reckoned with. To make a thousand strokes will help a lot, ten thousand will do more good, but literally millions of strokes are necessary to gain the experience needed for this accuracy. The racket must be drawn back, or preferably swung back, in ample time before the stroke is to be started, and far back too. To swing the racket back a foot or two is not enough; the stroke made from such a back-swing will inevitably be a push shot. The first effort of the beginner is to swing back a short distance, then balance the racket a fraction of a second to time the start of the stroke with the bound of the ball. But as this calculation becomes more familiar, the back-swing should be constantly increased until the maximum is reached where the playing arm is extended to its full length and far behind the back. From this point, momentum can be made a 252 MECHANICS OF THE GAME powerful factor in the stroke. The racket will accumulate much power as it swings forward and meet the ball with an impetus that imparts plenty of pace when the ball goes on its way. But even this does not accomplish all that is possible. The momentum and power can be still further increased by following the methods of the most expert players and making the entire back-swing one continuous motion. This is done by cutting out the pause or hesitation at the end of the back-swing and making it a more or less circular motion, rather than a horizontal flat swing backward. Study the action of the champions shown in the slow-moving pictures in these pages, and these motions will be made clearer than they can be with words. Specially note the forehand ground-stroke as played by Johnston (series 4 and 5) and note the extreme to which this round-arm swing can be carried by one continuous curve extending to a circle and a half before the stroke is completed. To omit the pause at the end of the back-swing requires a very accurate calculation by the player. Before even the ball touches the ground, a start must be made and to connect properly with the ball, the player must by then have calculated accurately the relative time required for the entire swing and for the ball to make its bound and come up to the striking-point. This seems almost impossible at first, but the ability all comes so gradually as the player gets MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER 253 the necessary experience that the difficulty lessens rapidly and finally vanishes into thin air. There are two watchwords for success in this practice, and they are persistency and concentration. For success in tennis, one must keep everlastingly at it and keep his mind steadfastly on the play with his eye glued to the ball. Given ordinary physical qualifications, the player who gives enough time to constant practice, who persists with dogged tenacity, and concentrates all his energies on the work in hand, will surely learn to play well in due time if he follows the elementary principles laid down by any good instructor or book on the game. He who plays most generally plays best. The next principle of mechanics in the game, after the long back-swing and the need for hitting the ball in the center of the racket, is the necessity for adding the weight of the body to the momentum of the racket and the strength of the stroke. This is neglected by nearly every young player. Yet it is not difficult to accomplish by swinging the body forward and turning it as the stroke is made. The weight sways back over the rear foot as the back-swing is made, swings forward again with the racket as the ball is hit, and is shifted to the forward foot at the end of the stroke. The swing must not be cut off at once after the ball is hit; the racket should continue in its path until it reaches as far forward as the arm can extend, and in the forehand stroke should then curl around the neck to check its headway. 254 MECHANICS OF THE GAME This swaying of the body increases enormously the power of the stroke, and without some of it, the ball will receive much less impetus from the racket. Turning the body around on its own center, body rotation, has been used by some fine players as a substitute (see moving pictures of Williams) for body-swing and follow-through, and by others in conjunction with it to still further increase this power (see moving pictures of Patterson). This rotation certainly increases the power, but it does not make for accuracy in the stroke because the motion is not parallel with the flight of the ball. As its curve meets tbe ball's course at a tangent, the slightest error of calculation with this method is exaggerated much more in the inaccuracy of the ball's flight than with the follow-through method. When added to the forward swing, rotation is a great help, particularly when the turn comes after the ball has been met, not before. For the beginner, followthrough in a straight line parallel with the ball's flight should be mastered first, and rotation added later if possible. The average player generally neglects his footwork. To make the body-swing in line with the ball's flight requires that the position of the player should always be with the feet in line with that swing. If not so, the weight cannot be balanced properly and the swaying of the body will be much limited or in the wrong direction. The technique of footwork is fully covered in an another chapter. MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER 255 To make the long back-swing and the full followthrough so essential to good play, two prime essentials must always be kept in mind. The racket must be held by the extreme end, not the middle of the handle, and the player must keep away from the ball. It is difficult to realize how much the power of the stroke depends on the diameter of the circular path that the racket swings in hitting the ball. I have tried to make this clear by diagrams in an earlier chapter on good form showing the course the racket travels in forehand drives made by the best players. This swing can be widened best by keeping away from the ball-the further away the better. Reach out to hit the ball-don't let it come in close to your body under any circumstances. Keep farther away than necessary and then step forward to meet the ball. Back away from it if some change in its flight threatens to bring it near you-give it room! Most players stand too much upright. One cannot dwell too strongly also on the need to get the weight down low and carried on the player's toes, not on the heels under any condition, or even on flat feet. To bend the body forward at the waist, carry the shoulders well advanced, and the whole weight on the toes, means to be ready to spring on the instant in any direction. That "always ready" position with both the body and the racket marks the keen aggressive player, the man who carries the fight to his opponent, as contrasted with the player whose chief idea of the game is to keep the ball going back and 256 MECHANICS OF THE GAME let the other man lose if he will. The English call this "stone-walling" because playing against such tactics is like knocking the ball against a stone wallit always comes back. There is also present at all times with the average player the danger of over-playing, of "pressing" as golf players describe this error; and of underplaying, or falling into "pat-ball" habits of hitting the ball too softly and too much to the center of the court. Girls are more prone to the pat-ball weakness than men, but on the other hand, more than half of the ambitious young men who take up the game seriously sooner or later fall into the deadly error of pressing. They find it difficult to distinguish tennis from baseball, where the harder you hit the ball the better. Most of them have previously played baseball and have this baseball habit of "slugging'' every ball they hit. The finesse of lawn tennis takes a long time to accomplish, but speed is of no value unless controlled, and slam-banging at every ball that is hit never gets the young player far along the road to success. There must be a definite objective for every stroke and it is far more important to be able to land the ball in the spot of the court selected than to hit it with great speed. The height of the interfering net and the limitations of the court are constant sources of error, and the ball must be kept under the player's control or the effort to win the point is wasted. MECHANICAL ERRORS OF THE AVERAGE PLAYER 257 This brings us once more to the question of the twist and spin of the ball, for it is with the help of this rotation that the ball can best be kept under control, and it is almost impossible without it. It is not necessary to go into details of this spinning question again here as the matter has been fully covered already, but the fact should be impressed forcibly on the mind of young players that controlled speed is only possible with a spinning ball. VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY XV VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY WIITH very few exceptions, all of the mechanics of lawn tennis apply with equal force to women as to men. It is needless to say that the ball acts the same no matter who hits it, and the same principles of position, weight transference, swing and timing apply the same. But there are a few variations that must be considered by women players as affecting their play more than that of the men. Physically, there are qualifications by which they are handicapped, and these limit their possibilities along certain lines. Few women can get the same action in their service because there is a difference in the physical construction of the female shoulder from that of its brother. We have all seen how difficult it is for a woman to throw a baseball overhand; she almost invariably uses a round-arm motion from the side, and seldom truly gets her arm up over her head. Physiologists say that the shape of the shoulderbone is somewhat different and this limitation is accountable for woman's inability to make the same overhead motions of the arm. In serving, the tennis 261 262 MECHANICS OF THE GAME racket requires much the same motions as throwing a ball and very few women ever get the masculine swing of it. Not one shows the same power in this stroke that men do, nor enough to correspond with their own ability in the other strokes. The actual difference in the standards of skill between the two sexes is more than most people realize. About forty years ago there was a famous test match in England between the two champions of that day, William Renshaw and Miss Lottie Dod. The man gave the woman a handicap of minus-forty and won rather easily. This was taken for many years as a fair estimate of the gulf that separated the two sexes, and it is probably a fair estimate to-day. Between Tilden and Miss Wills there is probably as much difference in skill as represented by that handicap, if not more. Among players in other than the championship division, the gap is fully as wide. Occasionally we find an outstanding exception to this estimate of feminine inferiority in tennis, and this is the case with the French champion, Mlle. Lenglen. She has what not one in a thousand women players possess, the ability to put every bit of her physical energy into a tennis stroke. That quality is very rare among women players, and many have reached a high standard of skill without it. Our own champion, Miss Helen Wills, lacks that quality, nor is there another American player of prominence who has it to a marked degree. Miss Kitty McKane (now Mrs. Godfree), the English champion, comes nearer VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY 263 to the Lenglen standard of aggressive energy than any of the American women players. Glancing over the instantaneous photographs of Mle. Lenglen in action (page 224), one is instantly impressed with the dynamic energy she puts into every shot. She literally throws herself at the ball, and all of her weight goes into each stroke, which is in itself a handicap of great value. She bends down to each stroke, reaches out for the ball, makes a full swing, and with good timing to get the maximum power in the hit, applies her weight so well and follows through so energetically that there is a snap and "sting" in each shot that counts heavily in her favor. Contrast that style with Miss Wills's play, no matter what the results may be of their matches. Our American champion never puts more than half her weight in her strokes, and sometimes actually draws back at the end of her swing. Note the finish of her forehand stroke in series 40 on page 221 with her body still upright at the end of the stroke. In the backhand stroke (series 41) note the left foot lifted from the ground and behind the right, showing clearly that her weight is not traveling forward with the ball, or her leg would come out to check and recover the balance. Miss Wills always appears to have a lot of energy in reserve but even under emergency conditions she never seems to get all that reserve power into action. She stands too straight and does not bend over to punish the ball. Her arm swing is very good, 264 MECHANICS OF THE GAME but her body work poor and her footwork only fair. If someone could make Miss Wills put into her play all the strength she has, there would be a marked improvement in her strokes and the power of her attack. Women too often content themselves in service with a half-hit delivery. They do not throw the ball high enough and do not bend over backward to get the weight behind the stroke. They hit the ball with the racket too "open," that is with the face too flat, and do not use the same bevel and slice that give men a better grip on the ball and better direction as well as power in the shot. English and continental women players as a rule show less of this weakness than the American girls, probably from the fact that more of them are taught by British coaches, who stress this point a great deal. The true value of the lob as an impregnable defense for women has seldom been appreciated. I have never yet seen a woman player who could kill overhead successfully from the back of the court, and I do not believe that the redoubtable Mile. Lenglen could do so. If they are required to repeatedly volley balls overhead from ten feet or more back of the service-line, they will lose more points by errors than they will win by killing. Now, it should be no more difficult for a woman to lob well than a man. The lob is the easiest kind of a stroke that requires only constant practice to perfect it. Gauging a lob so that it will fall in the back of the court, far enough back to prevent successful VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY 265 smashing, should not be difficult, and a thorough mastery of this stroke will furnish the most perfect defence for a woman. I do not advocate winning tennis matches by purely defensive play, but I do feel that a reliable defence is a wonderful help to any player's game, and by itself will win many matches when they cannot be won by outright aggressive play. Good lobbing will drive any woman volleyer away from her net position, and once that has been accomplished the aggressive player can again resume her definite attack, which would be wrecked perhaps with her opponent at the net. Experience is a valuable teacher, and fortunately I have had considerable experience in this particular point. I had the pleasure many years ago of coaching two of the national champions in the women's division, that is two women players who won the championship, Miss Elizabeth Moore and Miss Marion Jones. Miss Jones scorned the lob and confined her work to hard driving, but Miss Moore was opposed in her time by Miss Juliette Atkinson, who held the title and was at her best when volleying from the net position. These two girls played many matches together and when Miss Moore tried to win by hard driving she was generally beaten, her drives being cut off at the net by sharp volleying. At the back of the court, she could outdrive her opponent, but she 266 MECHANICS OF THE GAME could not pass her often enough at the net to win with that style of play. For several weeks before the championship tournament I coached Miss Moore along definite lines based on the play of the opponent she expected to meet in the challenge round. When the time came, she consistently followed this campaign and won the championship by lobbing every time when Miss Atkinson came up to volley, and driving when she went to the back of her court again. The lobbing was practiced for a long time before the tournament until Miss Moore could hit the back of the court seven times out of ten, and her opponent found these dropping balls too far back to smash or volley successfully, and was forced back where she was at a disadvantage and beaten. I cite this case only to illustrate the unappreciated value of lobbing as a defence, particularly in women's play. Well played it will consistently break up the volleying of an opponent and it will save many points that could not be won by driving from difficult positions. When driven into a deep corner by a clever forcing stroke, a deep lob will recover position and much-needed time when a horizontal drive will only draw another and probably more difficult stroke that will win the point. Practice against men has been one of the greatest helps to women players who were ambitious for tournament success. It made Miss May Sutton (now Mrs. Bundy) the player she was, it has been the VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY 267 greatest help to Miss Helen Wills, and Mlle. Lenglen's game has been entirely built up on it. In fact, she has more distinctly than any other woman of her own time or before her, the true man's style of play. The constant practice with men improves a woman's speed of stroke as well as her speed of foot. A larger proportion of her strokes are hit from horizontal balls and there are fewer "looped" shots than against women opponents. This makes for harder hitting, faster and more aggressive play, and of course tournament winning against opponents who have not had the same advantage. The same contrasts of style exist among women players as among the men. We find Miss Wills, Miss McKane and Mlle. Lenglen, the three outstanding players of the day, all hitting with a top-spin on most of their strokes, while Miss Ryan uses the chop-stroke which has been favored by some of the men. It is perhaps unfortunate too that there are the same isolated cases of success with unorthodox strokes among the women also. Miss Joan Fry's backhand is a nightmare, for she hits the ball with her arm across her body and her wrist turned for a forehand stroke, and yet she has won high honors with this style. Recently she has made a determined effort to correct this defect with some success. It is not so many years ago that Mrs. Barger-Wallach won the American championship with an underhand service, while the form displayed 268 MECHANICS OF THE GAME by Miss Leslie Bancroft (now Mrs. C. F. Aeschliman) is not to be found in any of the books on the game. There can be no question that the play of Mlle. Lenglen is in a class by itself among the players of her sex, and I cannot express too much admiration for her technical skill. My only criticism of her form is the constant tendency to jump into the air (note the pictures on page 224), which is quite unnecessary. She hits on the run, as does Tilden, seldom making a stroke from a set position, but her swing and footwork are above reproach, and her timing a revelation. Miss McKane's style appeals to me more because she gets nearly as much body power from her strokes from a fixed position, and is not nearly so wasteful of her energy as is the French girl. Miss Wills hits from a fixed position even more consistently than Miss McKane or Mlle. Lenglen, but she lacks the body power of the English girl, even though her swing may be a bit fuller and her timing exceptionally accurate. I do not know of any other woman who shows as good form in her swing and timing. Miss Browne's style is truly orthodox and she hits a very clean stroke at all times, although never with as much body power as the others nor as much aggressive snap. Mrs. Mallory's play is inclined to be labored and her back-swing cut short, though at times she rises to heights which seem above the general standard of her play. Women's play in mixed doubles has a mechanical weakness that makes the game more of a battle of VARIATIONS OF TECHNIQUE FOR WOMEN'S PLAY 269 tactics and strategy than of stroke play. The woman playing with a man of a corresponding class is always the weaker link in any team. She is the target for the attack of the opposite side if they are keen on winning, and she is consequently compelled to do more than her share of the work if she attempts to cover half of her side's court. In order to let her man partner play his full share of the game, or better yet the larger share of the strokes, she must get into some position where it would be dangerous for the other side to play to her. Let her learn to volley well then and get to the net on all occasions in mixed doubles. From that point of vantage she should be able to kill many balls and return safely nearly all that she gets, which is far better than staying back in court and drawing the attack to herself when she is in the least advantageous position to defend. THE LAWN TENNIS LIBRARY VOL. I-LESSONS FOR BEGINNERS By J. Parmly Paret. An elementary book of instruction teaching all the strokes of the game. Errors of beginners carefully pointed out and detailed hints to guide them in learning the game. Illustrated. Price, $3.00 VOL. II-MECHANICS OF THE GAME By J. Parmly Paret. The best possible guide to playing tennis after first principles have been mastered. An exhaustive analysis of all the motions of the expert players while making their strokes. Profusely illustrated with photographic enlargements from the slow-motion films made by the United States Lawn Tennis Association. Price, $4.00 VOL. III-PSYCHOLOGY AND ADVANCED PLAY By J. Parmly Paret. An analytical study of "inside tennis," of the secrets of the experts' skill in more advanced methods than mere mechanics. Illustrated with many diagrams and photographs of expert players in action. Price, $4.00 VOL. IV-METHODS AND PLAYERS By J. Parmly Paret and Edited by S. Wallis Merrihew. The best-known and most approved book on the game that has ever been published, which includes expert opinions on all disputed points of play by more than 60 of the world's great masters. Profusely illustrated with over 400 pages of text. Price, $4.00 VOL. V-HISTORY AND CHAMPIONS OF OUR DAY By J. Parmly Paret and S. Wallis Merrihew. How the game is played the world over, and how it has been played from its cradle down to the last International matches. Reminiscences of great matches and great masters. Profusely illustrated. Price, $4.00 VOL. VI-THE QUEST OF THE PAVIS CUP By S. Wallis Merrihew A picturesque record of the twenty-five years' struggle for International supremacy in lawn tennis. Profusely illustrated. Price, $4.00 VOL. VII-LAWN TENNIS ENCYCLOPEDIA By J. Parmly Paret and S. Wallis Merrihew. A compilation of all tennis information. Illustrated. Price, $3.00 Edition de Luxe-Limited to 250 numbered copies, each signed by the authors. Price, $7.50 each. All prices include charges for prepaid carriage. Published by AMERICAN LAWN TENNIS, INC. 461 Eighth Avenue, New York, U. S. A. I THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN GRADUATE LIBRARY DATE DUE ro < J 1( I r111 1 111 r I I I I )% h 7( I