%Wtt Or'xg'l anb  tnt'ltity
OF
P HYSICAL MAN
SCIENTIFICALLY CONSIDERED.
PROVING MAN TO HAVE BEEN CONTEMPORARY WITH THE MASTODON; DETAILING
THE HISTORY OF HIS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE DOMAIN OF THE
BRUTE, AND. DISPERSION BY GREAT WAVES OF
EMIGRATION FROM CENTRAL ASIA.
HUDSON T U T T.LE,
AUTHOR OF ARCANA OF NATURE, ETC.
BO STON:
WILLIAM WHITE & COMPANY,
158 WASHINGTON STREET.
1 8 6 6. 
.    ~
-,~or 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by
HUDSON TUTTLE,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
STEREOTYPED BY C. J. PETERS & SON,
No. 13, Washington Street. 
PREFACE.
TIERE are two classes of writers who produce two
very distinct classes of books. The first are trained
to write, as the gladiators were trained to fight, and
are the present champions of the prize-ring.   Libraries and encyclopedias are their weapons.  The
skilful use of these is their strength.   They learn
to polish periods, and write over other men's ideas,
and by burnishing and varnishing, and a slight
veneer of wording, present them so different that
their authors do not recognize their own children.
They do not write because they have any thing to
say, but because there is honor and profit in the pen.
The second class write because they have something to say. Libraries are of little benefit to them,
and because of their originality, they are not encouraged by profit. I claim no skill in modelling
sentences, or in the desirable art of presenting my
subjects in their most pleasing forms; nor can I
claim to belong to that class who have something
worthy of record to say when they write. What,
iii
423455 
PREFACE.
then, is my apology for obtruding a book on an old
and vexed theme?  It is briefly this:  I began an investigation of the philosophy of history, going downward into the strata of earlier and
pre-historic races.   I at length came to the question
of man's origin.  It struck me that on its elucidation rested the scienqce of history, - at least, here was
its first great problem.
The reasoning I pursued in arriving at a solution
I have recorded, faithfully marking the places where
research is neededi where discoveries may be expected, and where facts are wanting to fully establish the
views suggested. I have sought to find the truth,
and present it as clearly as possible, not to vindicate
any favorite, theory. In this research I have drawn
largely on the works of the great scientists of the
day. To Sir Charles Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, Carpentier, Pritchard, Miiuller, Guyot, and Agassiz, I am.particularly indebted, and take pleasure in the acknowledgment.
Hl. T.
BOSTON, MASS., 1866.
I
iv 
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Vulgar Aim of History. - How Man solves the Question of his Individual
Origin and that of the Race. - The Cosmogony of Genesis imperfect. -
Agassiz' Theory no better.- The Theory of Unity, if Genesis be re  ceived, untenable.- Origin of Species. - The Geological Record. - The
Position of Man, and his Relations. - The Grand Ideal of Nature is Life.
- What is Life?- Classifications of the Races of Men. - Of Buffon,
Kant, Hunter, Netzau, Virey, Blumenbach, Desmoulins, Morton, Pick  ering, Bury de St. Vincent, Burke, Jacquinnot.- The Object of the
Work...............................                                13
CHIAPTER I.
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Traditionary Chronology.- Effects of Prejudice.- Fossil Man.- Imper fection of the Geological Record. - The Plan of Nature is to destroy the
Products of Life. - Fossil Human Remains in the New World.- New  Orleans Skeleton, its Age calculated at 27,600 years.-Natchez Skeleton. Human Fossils in Brazil. - Mounds of the Ohio.- IN THE OL,D WORLD.
- In the Loess of the Rhine. - In the Maastricht and Hochlit Canal.
- Arrow-heads of the Valley of the Somme and Seine, of England. CAVERNS.- Determination of Age of Bones by Amount of Organic Matter
they contain.- Cave of Durfurt.- Caves in France.- Caves of Sailen -reuth, Coppingen, Kustritz; of Gower, of North Sicily. - Lake Dwellings.
- Danish Seat.- Danish Shell Mounds.- Sodertelzo Fossils, calculated
Age 16,000 years.- Calculated Age of Arrow-heads in Peat of the Valley
of the Somme 120,000 years.- Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization. Fossil Remains of the Dog. - The Grotto of Sartel. - Summary.    38
.0 
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
The Climate of the Tertiary Warm.- Whence came the Savage of the
Flint Arrow-head? - Primates, no Break or Chasm between them and
Man. - Fossil Primates, Dryopithecus, of the Swiss Jura, Eocene. - Lin  neean Classification of PRIMATES.- Embryonic Form of the PRIMATES.
- -ATHROPOID, or MAN-LIKE APES. -First Account of the PONGO.  Anatomical Structure. - The GIBBONS. - ORANG-OUTANG. - CHIM  PANZEE. - GORILLA. - The Point of Man's Contact with the Animal
World, the Quadrumania.- Comparison of Structure of the Hand, Foot,
Vertebral Column, Pelvis, Skull, and Teeth. - Brain, Convolutions of. -
Correspondence of Fossil Human Remains, the Engis Skull, the Nean  derthall Skull. - CONCLUSIONS.............. 66
CHAPTER III.
ORIGIN OF LAN G UAGE.
The Myth of the Tower of Babel. - Is Man the only Being possessing Lan  guage? - Growth of Language illustrated in the Romance Tongues.  The Language of Animals.- Intonations of Savage Man.- Ideas of
Savages. - Language the Expression of Ideas. - Polysynthesism, its
Outgrowths. - Comparison with the Growth of Living Beings.- Fossil
Languages a sure Guide in History. -Inevitable Growth of Language.
- The  Sanskrit. - Rig-Veda. - Difficulty of crossing Languages. -
Rapid Changes in the Dialects of Savages.- The great Achievement
of Comparative Philology,- the Discovery of an Ancient Tongue to
which Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, &c., are mutually related. - Its Method
of Research.- What is a just Estimate of the Affinities of Dialects? -
Agassiz' Theory of Language opposed.- Conclusions.....  89
CHAPTER IV.
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
Geographical Dispersion of Organic Beings in Relation to Man.- The
Great Zoological Provinces first distinctly marked immediately antece  dent to the Introduction of Man. - Cause of. - Climate of the Earth
during the Tertiary.- Disappearance of Climatic Distinctions in the
Secondary Strata.- ZOOLOGICAL  PROVINCES  of the  Earth, - the
Arctic Realm, the Asiatic, the European, the African, the Australian,
the Indian, the Polynesian.- Realms, how defined, how produced.  The Principles applicable to the Dispersion of Animals also applicable
to the Dispersion of the Races of Men........... 112
vi 
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
Definition of Species. - Points of Agreement of all the Races of Men. - Lon  gevity.- Contagious Diseases.- Color of Skin.- Color of Eyes and
Hair.- Texture of Hair.- Similar Variations observed in Animals.  Albinos. - Anatomical Comparison of the Races.- Measurements and
Comparison of Skulls of. - Hybridity. - Egyptian Records. - CONCLU  SIONS...................... 124
CHAPTER VI.
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS
TO MAN.
Bacon's Observation. - Analogies between the Continents.- Typical Con  tinental Form. - The Three Double Worlds. - Benefits conferred on
Man by Contour of the Land. -Influence of Mountain Chains, and of
Large Bodies of Water. - What is Acclimation? -Application of fore  going Principles.................. 139
CHAPTER VII.
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION: THE ORI
ENTAL NEGRO, AFRICAN AND SEMITE.
The ORIENTAL NEGRO, or the Australian Race. -When originated the
three Great Branches, SEMITIC, TURANIAN, ARYAN? - The SEMITIC. -
Structure of Language; divided into Aramean, Hebrew, Arabian; De  scription of Character, Language and History of Each. - Nestorians. -
Berbers.- Phoenicians. -Egyptians, Language of, Origin of, Shepherd
Kings of. - Copts. - African Tribes of Semitic Origin: Haussa, Gallas,
Berberins, Fellatah, Mandingoes, Yoloffs.- AFRICAN RACE.- Descrip  tion of, Origin of.- Divided into two Great Families, KAFFER and HOT  TENTOT.- Language of Africa. - The DAMARAS.- The  KAFFER.  The HOTTENTOT.- Description of, Language of, and History of Each.
150
vii 
CONTENTS.
CIIAPTER VIII.
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
Name, Derivation of. -Which are the Autochthonic, the Aborigial Races?  Wide extent of the Turanian Family. - Characteristics of Languages,
Agglutination.- Successive Waves. - The Chinese.- Iberians.- Lapps.
- Finns.- Permians.- Votiaks.- Tscheremisses. -  Voguls. -  Ostiaks,
&c.- Samoiedes. - The Mongolians. - Turkish Race. - Turkomans.  Usbeks. - Kirgis. - Yakuts. - The TUNGUSIANS. -  Mandshus. - Osti  aks of the Yenisei. - Yakagers. - Kamtschadales. -  Aino. -   Coreans.
- Japanese.- Lew-Chew Islanders.- American Indians, Similarity of.  Unity of, Origin of. - Origin of Indian Tribes. - The INCAS and AZTECS,
from whence Derived. -Relations between the Indians and Northern
Asiatics. - The Destiny of the Red Race. - Turanians of the Caucasus:
GEORGIANS, CIRCASSIANS, ABYSSINIANS.........           179
CHIAPTER IX.
THE SOUTH TURANIAN RIACES.
The "Hill Tribes," or Dravidians of Hindostan. - Pritchard's Failure.   The BHILLS. - Pariahs. - Gonds. - Peoples of the Valleys of the
Ganges and Brahmapootra. - Siamese. - Tal Tribes. - Bengalese. -
Thugs. - TIHE POLYNESIANS, From whence Dispersed? - MALAYS.
- They are the Nomads of the Sea.- Vast Geographical Extent of this
Race. - Turanian Fragments in Africa. - Extent of Dispersion not an
Argument against Community of Descent.........        200
CHAPTER X.
THE ARYAN RACES.
Who are Aryans?- Origin of, and Attainments in Civilization before the
Separation of its Component Races.-A Sketch of the Method of Linguis  tic Research.- The Vendidad, and Zend-avesta.- Date of the Founda  tion of the Median Empire. -INDIC BRANCII.- Prakrit, Sanskrit, and
Zend.- The Gypsies.- THE IRANIC, or PERSIAN, BRANCH. - Effect of
the religious system of ZOROASTER. -The Language of the MAGI. -
Pure  Persian. - The  Afghans. - Buchars. - Kurds. - Belooches.  Armenians. - Assetes. - Parsees. - Guebres. - NOrTHEERN BrANCI-. -
Peiasgi. - Thracians. - Kelts. - Sclavonians. - Lithuranians. - THE
TEUTONIC RACES.-Their History, Customs, and Languages.- From
whence came the Waves of People that devastated Rome?- Goths.  Franks. - Saxons. - Alemanii. - Vandals, Longobards. - Huns. - Re  lations of Languages.- CONCLUSIONS..........         209
viii 
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XI.
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD.
The Exalted Position of Man.- The Arguments for the Origin of Species
of Animals, by Natural Causes, apply to the Origin of Races of Men.  Consequences of the Introduction of one Being, and its Increase. -The
Antagonist of Multiplication. - The Struggle for Life. - No Catastrophe,
but Certain and Perpetual Change. - Illustrations. - The same Laws ap  plicable to Past as to Present Beings.- The two Antagonistic Forces.  Selection by Man.- Wherein different from that of Nature.- Selection
by Nature.- Application to Man............              235
CHAPTER XII.
CONCLUSION.
The Geographical Seat of Man's Origin. -Natural Selection applied to
Man...............................250
ix 
I 
THE
ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN,
SCIENTIFICALLY CONSIDERED.
INTRODUCTION.
Vulgar Aim of History.- How Man solves the Question of his Individual
Origin and that of the Race. - The Cosmogony of Genesis imperfect. -
Agassiz' Theory no better.- The Theory of Unity, if Genesis be re  ceived, untenable. - Origin of Species. - The Geological Record. - The
Position of Man, and his Relations. - The Grand Ideal of Nature is Life.
- What is Life? - Classifications of the Races of Men. - Of Bulffon,
Kant, Hunter, Netzau, Virey, Blumenbach, Desmnoulins, Morton, Picker  ing, Bury de St. Vincent, Burke, Jacquinnot. - The Object of the Work.
HIISTORY has been content to chronicle the actions
of mankind, and not until yesterday has it sought to
philosophize on the events it recorded. Philosophy
is avoided by the low aim of the simple narrations
called histories. To reduce all the facts of the past
to wide generalizations, so as to take in at a grasp the
entire sum of human activity, is the work of to-day.
The origin of man lies at the foundation of the philosophy of history, yet history affords little aid in the
solution of this most complex problem.   Before it
opens its annals, the scaffolding has been torn away
from the comparatively completed world; and little
trace remains to tell us how the structure was reared.
Individuial existence is too brief, and the historic p1
13 
INTRODUCTION.
riod too limited, to allow us to pierce the mists which
conceal the origin of passing events. We are inexplicable enigmas. We stand up complete, and even
tradition speaks in fable of our beginning.
We learn of our individual origin by observing the
origin of individuals like ourselves; and, by analogous
observations of the wider branches, - the savage types
thrown off in his growth, - we can learn the pathway
of man's ascent.
Hitherto tradition has held the position of positive
knowledge.   Revelation, too, has been distorted to
the unholy office of fettering science. The question
under discussion is not a theological one, unless the theologian pleases to make it so; and, should he so please,
the task to him is willingly accorded. Here it is inadmissible, for we deal with facts; and, as necessarily
the conclusions of truthful reasoning stand side by
side with truthful revelation, we shall take no pains
to harmonize one with the other, but pursue our
course to its results.  For a moment only will I dwell
on the salient points of the connection between the
account of the creation contained in Genesis, and that
of science.
View it in whatever light we please, it is a strange
fact that all the superior races of men have a more or
less defined feeling of universal brotherhood. The
common fatherhood is deeply felt, and unquestioningly
received. Its rejection appears to be the result of
false theories, or a mistaken notion of the manner in
which this brotherhood resulted. Much bitterness has
been manifested on both sides of this question without a step of advancement.
14 
INTRODUCTION.
The literal interpretation of the account contained
in Genesis is now held by the best authorities as untenable.   It is allegorical; anld, as each authority
explains the allegory as his fancy dictates, or in such
a manner as matches it with his theory, it has little
scientific value,- at least until better understood.
The explanation of Agassiz, that mankind were first
created in nations, so far from solving the question,
renders it more confused. It carries us no nearer the
real cause; and, if we were before unable to account
for the birth of the first pair, equally unable are we
now of accounting for that of the mighty races and
nations which start into being over the whole globe.
Every great province of the earth has its own fauna, and
its own race of men.  " These," says the great naturalist, "are autochthonic, and were created where they
are found; and consequently there is no great tie of
common origin, but-each received birth by an independent creation." It is true, as he states, that the
correspondence between the races of mankind and the
faunas which, as it were, underlie them is very remarkable: " One which cannot fail to throw light on the
origin of the differences existing among men, since it
shows that man's physical nature is modified by tihle
same laws as that of animals, and that any general
results obtained from the animal kingdom regarding
the organic differences of its various types must also
apply to man," an inference hereafter to be applied.
This conclusion is followed by the startling assumption
that such diversity of origin does not conflict with
the unity of the races and the comnmon brotherhood
of man. The two alternatives he presents are, birth
15 
INTRODUCTION.
from a common stock, and that all subsequent changes
are the results of diversity of surroundings, or that
these changes result from a direct exertion of miraculous power on the part of the Creator, and their
distribution a part of his plan, "and human races,
down to their specialization as nations, are distinct
primordial forms of the type of man." Such are the
conclusions to which one of the greatest scientific
men of the age has arrived. After striving all his
life to attain the real cause of phenomena, he quietly refers every thing he cannot solve to miraculous
agency, - a conclusion unworthy of the age.
Granting man to have been created six thousand
years ago, the Pritchard school have a bad cause to
defend; and, admitting such to be the true chronology,
the conclusions of Agassiz must be received. If it be
denied, then both fall with all the host of dependent
writers. Even the- supporters of unity have endeavored to prove that this unity centred in a single
pair within historic time, and hence have not taken a
step towards the solution of the question; for, if
mankind are referred to a single pair, created perfect,
that pair, isolated as they necessarily must be from
surrounding creation, must have been miraculously
created.
Great laws underlie and permeate creation, on
whose atlas shoulders all things are supported. No
province of nature is exempt from their sway, and
in no case are they for a moment set aside. Ignorance
only sees miracle and direct exerti( n of power. We
know that we exist by the power of fixed and immutable principles, and consequently we must have
16 
INTRODUCTION.
originated through their agency. We know that the
universe is a unity of forces; that the realm of life is
governed throughout its vast extent by fixed principles, which, applying to all beings, to the highest and
the lowest, bind them all together, and infallibly
point to a common source.
It has been well remarked, that, if we grant the
common origin of mankind, we must also that of the
animal world, and be pushed to the transcendental
philosophy of Lamarck.   We  accept the premises,
and the greater portion of the philosophy of one
of the greatest naturalists Europe has produced. It
is on this basis that the proofs of the common origin
of the animal world have a direct bearing on the
origin of mankind.
Species of animals and plants have their origin in
the lowest forms of life; and their progress, and the
characteristics which distinguish them, are results of
physical conditions combined with the peculiarities of
the beings on which they are exerted.   This is supported by a vast array of facts drawn from organic
nature. The changes produced by domestication and
the artificial selection of man; the still more potent
force of natural selection by which only the most
vigorous individuals are preserved; the study of
transitional varieties; the laws of hybridity and variation, - all afford immutable pillars of support to this
theory, which applies with equal truth to man.
The geological records of the earth substantiate the
foregoing conclusions, and prove that progress is the
plan of creation in this world.   In order to under
* See Darwin's Origin of Species.
2
17 
INTRODUCTION.
stand the idea of progress introduced into this work,
and show how man is indissolubly united to the animal
realm, I pause to condense in a few sentences the
progress of the earth and its living tenants as revealed
by the light of the only rational theory yet promulgated.
From the increasing temperature as the earth is
penetrated toward the centre, the volcanic character
presented by the moon, the arrangement of the solar
system, it has been theoretically advanced with almost
the conclusiveness of mathematical demonstration, that
the earth was once in a fluid state from ignition, and
farther yet in a gaseous condition. Inherent forces
outwrought a solar systemfrom this primitive gaseous
chaos. This was the first state of advancement, from
which a steady progress is observed to the present.
The rock-volumie of earth, as read by the light of
science, presents a constant succession of the grandest
advances. A crust cools over the fiery globe, on the
jagged surface of which, when sufficiently solid, water condenses from the atmosphere, running down into
the hollows, forming boiling pools.   These  unite,
forming shallow seas, which when sufficiently cooled,
living beings are generated.
Not the highest forms of life, however, but the
lowest; mere masses of cells having the appearance
of irregular fragments of jelly.  Billions of ages
rolled away into the past eternity before a single
vertebrate animal came; and when they were introduced it was only the lowest forms,- the fishes, and
the lowest of the fishes.
Then came frog.like, bird-like, and marine reptiles;
18 
INTRODUCTION.
the huge and terrible saurians of the old world, spanning in multitudinous shapes several vast geological
ages.  Then came gigantic mammals, the latest types
of which were the mastodon and mammoth. With
the latter came the existing fauna, with man as its
highest type.
From this brief outline we can gather an idea of
the position of man, and the relations he sustains to
the inorganic and organic creations beneath him.
A more extensive or interesting subject for study
could not well be selected. Standing as man does
between the brutes of the field on one hand, and the
angels of light on the other; forming a bridge spanning the gulf between material forms, which perish,
and those who bask in eternal light,-an investigation
of his relations reaches through all grades of intelligence; through all forms of matter; from the pebble
beaten by the surf on the ocean's shore, to the throne
of Deity.
For man is the representative of the universe; the
grand archetype of creation, in whom all elements,
principles, and forms are unitized.
- The grand idea of Nature is life. The highest evolution of creative energy is a perfect living being.
Strange, incomprehensible, is life and its laws.   I
know not if an archangel,. ripe in the lore of a thousand ages, could answer the question what it is better
than a child.  We, may understand many of its laws,
and necessary conditions, but its final causes remain
sealed; and the hand of science vainly essays to break
and read its arcana.
What is life? It is the turmoil of elemental forces,
19 
INTRODUCTION.
t.e rush of storms, the crash of ocean, the sparkle of
sunlight, the whirl of suns and worlds; for what we
call inorganic nature, is really organic; and suns and
worlds are globules floating in the great arteries of
the universal system.  The principles we see manifested in the harmony of arrangement, the beautiful
adaptation of means to ends, are the tltoiyhts of that
universal whole.
The imponderable agents of light, heat, magnetism,
electricity, are the messengers and executors of those
thoughts. We call these manifestations life, for they
correspond to the life of a living being. It is the
gigantic exhibition of identical forces concentrated
and individualized, but dwarfed in ourselves.*
When we see the whirlwind rushing past, or view
the terrible energies of the ocean, or gaze into the
profound and awfully silent depths of the starry night,
all our emotions are derived from the instinctive feeling of unity and brotherhood with these. The rave
of the storm-swept sea beats on our hearts, and finds
responsive strains; the mad violence of the tempest
awakes the consciousness of slumbering tempests in
our brain; and the grandeur of starry worlds produces a corresponding grandeur of being within us.
For our being is cosmopolitan. There is nothing
but what we have been elementally; and, elementally
and organically, all things are represented in us.    _
Living beings are the separations of these forces,
so terrible and gigantic in the world of elements,
their individualization.  How this was effected would
require the history of the globe: the geological hieroglyphics of the great rock-volume of earth alone can
* See Arcana of Nature.
20 
INTRODUCTION.
reveal the biography of life from the point where it
touches the geometrically formed crystal, and its ascension to the myriad forms we behold around us.
Does the heart pulsate? it does so by the same force
by which our earth is chained to the sun, and rolled
along its orbit. Does the blood circulate? so does the
aqueous fluid of our planet. The currents of wind
and clouds are the arteries, rivers its veinous system,
and the oceans temporary receptacles.  Does the stomach digest? see how matter is digested by the earth,
ever eliminated in more sublimated forms.  Above all,
does the brain think? so do te elements.  See how undeviatingly they run on their missions, and with what
wonderful perfection they accomplish their tasks. A
continent is parched by drought: see the winds take
up water from the sea, and drench it until vast Amazons and Orinocos run from its deluged back. There is
too much moisture; and the winds waft it away. A
chaos exists, of conflicting elements: see how, under
the influence of their co-eternal attributes, they evolve
worlds and suns, and harmony springs from discord,
or beautiful solar systems roll out of darkness into
light.
Child of the Eternal, thy being pulsates with the
eternal of nature because thou art eternal.   They
awake awe in thee because of the dim consciousness
that all are but accidents of thy being, to melt and
vanish away as thou proceedest on thy course.
Life, as a general expression, is divided into two
branches, -one characteristic of animals, the other
of vegetables.  We -may call that common  to animals
and vegetables, organic life; that confined to animals,
21 
INTRODUCTION.
animal life.  While planits have only life, as it were
only existing, man has two distinct existences, the
other and higher being differentiated through the
lower forms of animal being. He possesses two lives,
vegetative and animal life. Intricately blended as these
are, they are governed by distinct and wholly sepa rate laws.
Through the organic laws man reaches down to
the plant, and becomes brother with flower, fruit, and
tree; acknowledges closest relationship with fucoids
of the sea, palms of tropic climes, and alpine pines.
As the organic functions are internal, they are purely
selfish, and only act to build up the organic structure
by the processes of assimnilation, as digestion, circulation, nutrition, and, in the equally necessary processes
of its destruction, as exhalation, secretion, and excre.
tion.  These functions are held in common by man
and plants. They are independent of mind, and proceed uninterruptedly, the mind being unconscious
of their operations during their normal state.   His
animal life is external, bringing him in contact with
other objects. It is his conscious existence.
If we examine anatomically the organs by which
these two lives are carried on, we shall find that
while the organs of purely organic life are very irreg.
ular, as stomach, liver, &C., and their functions being
equally well performed however great their departure
from the common type, the organs of animal life are
remarkably symmetrical, as the brain, organs of vision,
hearing, &c., and the slightest departure is accompanied by impaired functions, or entire destruction.
These processes go on normally, wholly unheeded
22 
INTRODUCTION.
by the mind. Its powers are not wasted on the most
important organic functions, but are reserved for
those of conscious existence.
The animal life is not necessarily unintermittent,
but the reverse. Vision, being, sensation, thought,
cannot be long exercised without repose. This repose is in a great measure dependent on their double
character. When one organ is weary, the other can
be used; as, when the right arm fails, we use the left.
By these periods of action and repose, this life is essentially different from the other: the dull monotony
of ceaseless action is relieved.  By this means we are
enabled to compare one state with the other; and, as
comparison is the first step of progress, to this seem.
ingly unimportant fact our progress from infancy is
referable. By it the cry of the infant is developed
into the speech of manhood, and its crude thoughts
ripened into maturity,- results referable to constant
action broken by rest.
Tile organic functions never improve. They are as
perfect at infancy as at manhood. Although the size
of these organs increases, there is no progress in their
offices.  They are closely related to the undeviating
actions of the inorganic or mineral world. In fact the
offices of excretion and secretion can be performed by
mineral membranes, equally well as by living tissue;
,nd digestion, the most mysterious of all vital functionrs, takes place in the test-glass of the chemist as
well as in the living stomach; and even tissue, held to
be entirely dependent for its formation on living bodies,
has not only been created by the chemist, but the mineral elements have been compelled to unite by means
23 
INTRODUCTION.
of electric currents, and from the compounds thus
produced tissue has been created identical with those
of living beings.
In this vast and unexplored field, we find our existence going down to the basis of all existence, thbe mineral realm; and our proud natures acknowledge the
supremacy of purely inorganic lawvs, which arise and
permeate the domain of life, the mysterious laws of
which, to the borders of its spiritual province, apparently are but modifications of those ruling the inorganic world.
When we study the structure of our body, we at
once see that all its functions are strictly like those
of animals. The blood flows in our veins by the same
law, - by a similar combination of arteries and veins,
heart and lungs, as in all warm-blooded animals. The
processes of digestion, assimilation, secretion, &c., are
identical.  A unity pervades the kingdom of living
beings.   They are all moulded after one plan, and
man is the archetype of that plan,   its perfection.
The reptile has a heart; but it is so imperfect, only
half its blood is oxygenated at once. The heart of man
is like that of the reptile, only (what we find presaged
in the highest reptiles by a partially formed  membrane) another division is added. Instead of these, his
has four chambers; and the thick, turgid blood of the
reptile, in his veins, being fully oxygenated, glows
with sparkling vermilioni, and is qualified to build a
body adequate to the manifestation of the highest
mentality.
The dolphin has a fin; the seal a rude attempt at an
24 
INTRODUCTION.
arm; the lion a claw; the monkey tribe a hand, farther
perfected in man, and rendered capable of the most
varied attainments. Wide as the interval between
the fin of the dolphin and the hand of man may appear, yet in elements they are the same. In number
of bones and their arrangement they are embryonically
identical; one plan is everywhere present. The dolphin's fin, the huge flipper of the whale, the massive
foot of the elephant, have the same elements as the
hand of the child, only they are relatively differently
developed.
Man stands at the head of the vertebrate division,
and is the highest in the mammalian class. The
characteristic of this division is the possession of a
back-bone, or vertebral column, which is divided into
sections called vertebrce, whence is derived vertebrate.
Throughout the mammalian class, all species have an
equal number of vertebra in their embryonic state. As
the different species become matured, the vertebra
unite; and consequently in the adult animal their
number varies. Man conforms, in number, with his
class.  The only modifiltionl is in form, by which the
pelvic regions, the lumbar vertebra, are enabled to
support the weight of the entire body in the erect
posture. The same may be said of the muscles; but
they are enlarged in this region to meet the requirements of the erect position of the spine.  No new element, however, is added; and, as will be hereafter
seen, this peculiarity, through the anthropoid apes,
imperceptibly shades into the lower animals. The
vertebral column, in its highest form, is a series of
flexible bones, so articulated and modified as to meet
25 
INTRODUCTION.
the demands of their position. There is a wide difference between the vertebrata in this respect, and the
other divisions.  While the articulata have a crust or
shell over the entire surface of their bodies, to which
the muscles are attached, and by which the internal
organs are supported and protected, the vertebrata
have an internal skeleton, which is a system of levers,
giving form, support, and protection to the softer parts.
As the vertebral column is the characteristic of the
highest division of life, and in man culminates in that
flower of nature, the brain, every thing connected
with it assumes interest and importance.
Bone is a living, growing, vascular substance, uniting when fractured. In this it differs from the shells
of mollusks and crusts of insects, which are unvascular, and grow by addition of layers to their circumference, and may be cast off when too small, and by
exudition others formed. When animals are fed on
colored food it will penetrate their bones, and stain
them of its peculiar color.  A pig fed on food in which
madder was mixed was found to have its bones stained
dark red. This shows that bones grow, that their
substance is slowly removed, and new particles are
introduced.
Bones in the embryo are represented in form by a
thin, glairy liquid, which slowly changes to cartilage,
in which the particles of'lime are deposited concentrically around the blood-vessels which penetrate the
first model, in concentric layers, or, in flat bones, in
plates connecting them.
The characteristic vertebral column is made up of
pieces or segments, called vertebrae. Variously modi
26 
INTRODUCTION.
fled as these appear in different animals, or in the
same animal, they are all reducible to one type.
These vertebra are subject to great variation; so
much so as often to obscure the general type. It
was but lately that the generalization was wrought
out, that all the bones of the vertebral column were
directly referable, whatever might be their form,
to the primitive form of the vertebra. In the central portions of the body the vertebrae most nearly
approach their typical form; and, in either direction,
they become modified as the distance increases. Approaching the caudal extremities, all parts but the
central mass become gradually obscured until nothing but a shapeless mass of bone, without even a
perforation for the spinal cord, remains. In the other
direction, the change, although different, is equally
great, as is seen in the parietal segment of the skull
of man.
Now it is essential that the structure be well understood, for on its modifications depend the countless
changes in character we shall observe in the vertel)rate.
In the skull we see the widest departure from this
type. The hemal arch is reduced, and the neural
arch is enormously expanded to enclose the brain.
The humal arch is here converted into jaws, and
acquires, with its new functions, the teeth and the
accompanying organs.
A great modification occurs also in those vertebra
to which the limbs are attached.  The limbs themselves are accessory organs, budding from appropriate
vertebrae. Often several, generally three or five, ver
27 
INTRODUCTION.
tebra unite in one solid mass; the elements of which
are, however, plainly perceptible. These form the
pelvic bones, and from them the hind limbs are put
forth.
In the amphioxus, the spinal column exists in the
the same state as in the embryos of higher species:
it is but a simple tube of glairy liquid; and obscure
fibrous bands are the only indication of its division
into segments.
The  fibrous bands become cartilage, the central
portions remaining undivided. At this stage the
skeleton of the sturgeon is arrested. The points of
these bands next become converted into bone, as in
many fossil fishes. More commonly the next step is
attained when the central portion of the spinal cord
is divided, the ossification of all the parts being im perfect as in the sharks. But ossification is never
complete in fishes, the juncture of the vertebra
being left hollow, so that they unite by concave surfaces, the cavity being filled with  a glairy fluid.
The flexibility of the bones of fishes can be readily
tested, showing their cartilaginous character.
The elements of vertebra are remarkably modified in the turtles. The row of plates along the
back are modified spinal processes; those on the sides,
the ribs; while the under half of the shell is the modified breast-bone. Great as this departure appears, it
is not so very remarkable; the ribs are consolidated
and brought on the outside.
From the amphioxus up to man all gradations are
observed, consisting chiefly in the acquisition of
limbs. In fishes, the vertebrae unite with concave
28 
INTRODUCTION.
surfaces. As we arise through the sauroid fishes
to the reptiles, their surfaces become flattened, as in
mammals; and we find diverging branches. In reptiles they are generally united with a ball and socket,
one side of the vertebra remaining concave, while
the other is largely developed into a ball, which, taking its form from the opposite surface, of course, is
nicely fitted and adjusted. In mammals they oppose
straight surfaces to each other.
The number of vertebra possessed by different
animals greatly varies. It is greatest in serpents; also
very great in saurians, from the enormous development of tail.  Many monkeys, from the same cause,
have a prodigious number. The loss of the caudal
appendage, as in the apes, greatly reduces the number. In mammalia, except from this variation, the
number remains very constant; the excessively long
neck of the giraffe having no greater number than
the pig, which can scarcely be said to have any neck.
In the former case they are greatly elongated; in
the latter, shortened and compressed. Man, too, has
the almost constant number, seven, vertebrae in his
neck.
We thus see how one primary element, the simple
vertebre, by its countless modifications produces all
the diversity of the vertebrated kingdom. A gelatinous tube, it forms the spinal column of the sturgeon;
partially ossified, and converted from cartilage to
bone, those of the shark and ray; its opposing surfaces, remaining undeveloped, oppose concavities in
.the fishes and in the lowest of the reptiles; in serpents, they are articulated by the ball and socket
29 
INTRODUCTION.
joint; the lowest mammalia, the marsupials, also by
a ball and socket, showing their ascent from the batrachians, or frogs. In mammals, as in the higher saurians of the fossil world, by square surfaces; a line
of jelly in the amphioxus; a tube in the sturgeon; a
piece of hollow bone in the tail of the crocodile; a
solid mass of bone giving off ribs in 4he dorsal regions of all mammalia, thus protecting and supporting
the vital agencies; giving off the limbs of quadrupeds, or spreading around the brain, plates of bone
protecting it from injury, and in front sending out its
appendages, previously acting as ribs, to become
facial bones, and jaws for the prehension and mastication of food, ever presenting the same primary
elements.
By this comparison of the bony case which encloses the spinal cord and brain, we see the intimate
structural relation of man to the animal.  By the
comparison of vascular, or nervous systems, this beautiful unity is constantly developed;  but  nowhere
more beautifully than in the changing adaptation of
the limbs.
The limbs are merely appendages to the vertebra.
This is a startling statement when the complex limbs
of the higher mammalia, as of man, are considered;
but, by tracing their development downwards, we
arrive at the rudimental forms where we can see tlhe
actual process of transformation.
In the great divisions of life each strives to attain locomotion by means peculiar to itself. They
all employ analogous means; but the real nature of
the organs thus used is very different. Thus, the
30 
INTRODUCTION.
limb of a grasshopper, to appearance, is like the
limb of an ox or horse, but in reality it is entirely
different, as will be shown.
As animals cannot extract nutriment from the soil,
as they depend on living beings for nourishment, it is
essential to their maintenance that thev be provided
with proper organs to pursue and capture their prey.
Such organs are given most animals; and those which
are destitute are furnished with other apparatus by
which they attach themselves to floating bodies, or
are drifted by currents.
We shall only consider the fore-arm, as it furnishes
a perfect illustration of our subject. Its most rudi.
mentary form is found in the lepiodosiren. They are
simple-jointed, rod-like members.  In the next higher
form, the amphioxus, we find these rod-like limbs
becoming jointed, and two digital rays formed; and,
ascending to the proteus, a still further complication
and approximation to mammalia.
There is a type or model preserved throughout the
entire vertebrate kingdom which is ever followed.
The limb is always composed of the same elements;
some of these may be dwarfed, and when the animal
is matured, confounded with others; some may be
greatly enlarged or changed in form, but all are
represented. This model is the most perfectly expressed in the arm and hand of man. From it we
will trace the chief departures by which vertebrate
animals adapt themselves to the various functions
they perform. Lowest of all is the rod-like member
-of the lepiodosiren, in which there is no apparent
differentiation of organs
31 
INTRODUCTION.
In fishes it is necessary that a resisting surface be
opposed to the water, like an oar. This cannot be
situated at a distance from the body; for then the
leverage would be too great, and instantaneous movement, which is required, could not be attained.
Hence it is that the humerus and radius and ulna
are shortened or almost obliterated, while the carpal
bones remain; and the digital, becoming augmented
in number by vegetable repetition, become rays for
the support of membrane forming fins.
The same object is attained in the feet of aquatic
reptiles by their having a wveb-like membrane spread
between the toes of their feet. In the frog, for instance, we see the digital bones greatly elongated,
axel supporting a thin, tough membrane.  As the foot
necessarily contracts when brought forward, this
membrane folds up; but when thrown backwards the
foot expands, and of course this membrane is stretched
so as to offer the greatest resisting surface.
In the paddle of the dolphin, whale, and other marine  mammalia, the  same mechanical objects are
attained by the same means. The bones of the arm
are shortened and wholly buried in the body of the
animal, the digital and carpal bones only remaining
on the outside, giving support to the membrane forming the fin.
In bats, the object is to form an animal for flight;
and we see this accomplished by the enormous development of the four digital members, and stretching a
fine membrane over them; the three remaining, as
will be seen, of the ordinary size, and serving other
purposes.
32 
INTRODUCTION.
In birds, the object is the same as in bats; but it is
accomplished by quite different means. The bones
of the arm remain unchanged, but the carpal bones
are obliterated as well as most of the digital. Generally, however, two or more of the latter remain, and
their first joints become  greatly enlarged.   The
thumb bones sometimes become converted into a
spur, as in the domestic fowl.
In the deer and most quadrupeds the humerus, ulna,
and radius remain unchanged; but the carpal bones
become consolidated and elongated, while the digital
are confounded in a hoof, or, if remaining separate,
are armed with claws.
Throughout the entire series, we perceive the same
elements. All conform to a common type; and the
changes, when viewed by the clear light of science,
are very slight between contiguous species.
These elements are always recognizable. Thus,
commencing at the shoulder, we first meet with the
shoulder bone, - scapula; joining this, generally, we
meet the humerus, it being only in fishes that it
remains undeveloped; next the ulna and radius,
whose presence can be always seen, though one of
them may remain in a rudimentary condition. At
the wrist joint are the carpal bones, usually ten in
number, forming two rows; but they may be reduced
by non-development to any number less, even to
one.  Next is the metacarpal bones, usually five, but
often reduced in the higher vertebrata to four, three,
two, or one; whilst in fishes they may be multiplied
to twenty or more. Lastly, we find the digital bones,
usually five sets, each composed of three or more
8
0.
33 
INTRODUCTION.
bones, but which are subject to the same reduction or
multiplication as the metacarpal, to which they are
attached.   On the modification of these bony elements entirely depends the special adaptation of species, enabling them to be used for terrestrial, aquatic,
or aerial locomotion; for diving, swimming, tearing,
lacerating, seizing; or entering into the refined
mechanism which enables the human hand to serve
the dictates of intellect with such certainty and accuracy.
Ultimate analysis of the constituents of man's body,
and of animals, shows identical results. A myriad
compounds, products of decay, spring from the dissolution of his form as well as theirs. Ammonia, Cyanogen, the Prussiates, and their countless combinations,
arise from the wreck of his mortality. He assimilates
the grains and herbs of the herbivora, and produces
flesh like theirs; he assimilates the ready-made flesh
of the herbivora, and builds a system like the carnivora.
Whether he partake of plant or animal, or mix both
with mineral ingredients, he on every hand acknowledges the closest physical relations with the lower
animal world. It is absurd and childish to deny this
relationship, which science every day makes more
complete.  No reasoning can be sound unless it keeps
this truth clearly in view, and hence the diverse races
of men may not have originated from a single pair;
but unity of type they all display points to a common
source.  Nowhere can lines of demarcation be clearly
drawn, so imperceptibly do the families of mankind
blend at their circumferences. The various classifications which have been attempted are so many proofs
34 
INTRODUCTION.
of unity of origin; and their confliction shows the
fallacy of the theory of diversity. There are no race
marks which are reliable; and those thought permanent, undoubtedly are so only by the equilibrium established between man and his externals, of which they
are the expression.
Buffon makes six varieties of mankind; viz.,-Polar
Negro, Tartar, American, Australian, Asiatic, European.  Kant divides man into four varieties, white,
black, copper, and olive; HIunter, into seven varieties;
Netzau, into two; Virey, into three; Blumenbach, into
five; Desmoulins, into sixteen species; Bury de St.
Vincent, into fifteen; Morton, into twenty-two families;
Pickering, into eleven races; Burke, into sixty-three;
Jacquinnot, into three species of one genus. Such are
the disagreements of those who have devoted themselves to this study.   Granting that mankind  are
classified by any of these systems, I cannot see how
knowledge is advanced. We cannot admit that mankind can have diversity of origin, while so united by
one great plan. If a species or variety of the genus
Homo sprang up in Europe, and another in America,
by agency of conditions existing in those localities, it
would be beyond probability that they should both be
formed on the same plan: what then of the possibility
of sixty-three or more species being formed on the
same model? Deny we may, with plausibility, the
origin of the diverse races from a single pair six
thousand years ago; but the bond of union which exists
between them points to a common source.
I see no necessity of obscuring this subject with a
tedious classification, and shall introduce none. The
35 
INTRODUCTION.
classification adopted in the following description of
races of men is one founded on the study of languages,
and is similar in results to the classification of animals
by embryology, or, in other words, by parentage. Each
great wave of peoples is thrown together, so that we
reduce the divisions to the simplest terms, and discard
color, form, and all the accidental effects of conditions.
This classification is thus presented: -
Oriental Negro -Australian, &c.
African - The Caffres and Hottentots. The peoples
of Africa south of the Mountains of the Moon.
Semites- Hebrews, Arabians, Armenians.
Turanians - American  Indians, the innumerable
peoples of North.-Eastern Asia, and a great portion of
the peoples of Hindostan.
-4ryans- The peoples of Europe, the ruling race
of Hiindostan, and many scattered nationalities.
This classification is presented fully in the accompanlying ethnological chart, and accompanying explanation.
I said color and the effects of accidents in this
classification are disregarded. If it be examined, we
shall find that there are people classed with Turanilians
that have pure Aryan features and light complexion;
and there are those classed with Aryans -the class
pre-eminently white- as dark as the lightest Africans.
The lines of this classification strike directly across
the distinctions which have been considered eminently
characteristic. This may appear fatal to this system;
but it is found on closest inspection that language, the
expression of the mind, is less influenced by conditions than the physical form; and while the latter is
36 
INTRODUCTION.
greatly modified, the fundamental structure of speech
remains unchanged. So far as history furnishes aid
it is gladly received; but the period over which it
extends is so limited, in comparison with the ages of
man's advance which precedes it, that it yields but
little light. Reliance must be placed in the perfection
of philological research, the results of which will be
given in the following pages.
The problem we are to discuss will involve the
investigation of the origin, science, and relations of
language; the geographical distribution of races; the
relation of man to physical conditions; a survey of the
races of men; and an inquiry into the causes of
deviation.
37 
CHAPTER I.
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Traditionary Chronology.- Effects of Prejudice.- Fossil Man.- Imper fection of the Geological Record. - The Plan of Nature is to destroy the
Products of Life.- Fossil Human Remains in the New World.- New Orleans Skeleton, its Age calculated at 27,600 years.-Natchez Skeleton. Human Fossils in Brazil. - Mounds of the Ohio.- IN TEE OLD WORLD.
— In the Loess of the Rhine. -In the Maastricht and Hochlit Canal.
- Arrow-heads of the Valley of the Somme and Seine, of England. CAVEP.Ns. - Determination of Age of Bones by Amount of Organic Matter
they contain.- Cave of Durfurt.- Caves in France.- Caves of Sailen reuth, Coppingen, Kustritz; of Gower, of North Sicily. - Lake Dwellings.
- Danish Seat. - Danish Shell Mounds. -  Sodertelzo Fossils, calculated
Age 16,000 years. - Calculated Age of Arrow-heads in Peat of the Valley
of the Somme 120,000 years.- Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization. Fossil Remains of the Dog. - The Grotto of Sartel. - Summary.
THE theological system supported by Christendom
maintains that man was introduced on the globe about
six thousand years ago by a direct miracle. However
derived, this belief has excited a baneful influence on
the progress of geology, and the science of history.
It makes a wide difference in our views whether we
regard man as a once perfect and fallen being, or a
savage progressing to perfection; whether he was
created sixty centuries ago, or has developed from the
lowest state through myriads of ages. This pre-conceived opinion, founded on infallibility and revelation,
has stood directly in the way of geological discovery
in pushing the antiquity of man beyond its dictum.
Without this mythological prejudice, the date of man's 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Origin would never have been placed at so recent a
period; and with it, scientific men thrust aside the
most conclusive evidence with a sneer. Cuvier pronounced the most decided fossil human bones recent;
and Buckland, to vindicate his theology, concluded
that human remains found beneath those of numerous
extinct animals belonged to historic time.
More than half a century ago fossils were discov-:
ered, which, had they belonged to any other animal,
would have at once, and beyond doubt, placed that
animal's origin back to the strata in which they were
interred; but, belonging to man, and overthrowing
existing chronological dates, they went for nothing.
Slowly and patiently scientists have labored; and now
a mass of facts are presented which challenge refuta.
tion. The most thorough scientific men of the world
accept these facts, regardless of the voice of theology.
We are receiving, for the first time, positive knowl.
edge. We have lost the given date of man's advent;
but we have ascertained that years are nothing when
dealing with periods only expressed by eons or myriads of millions.  We  can only learn the order of
events: their date is nothing.
An unconquerable prejudice has existed against the
discovery of fossil man. I halve mentioned and need
not enlarge on its cause. Fossil man destroys chronological dates, man's fall; and then why, if not fallen,
needs he redemption?
Considering the determination to ignore such discoveries, a very great progress has been made in
accumulation of material. It is true they are in many
cases not as explicit as might be wished; but, as a
39 
40      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
whole, they furnish a mass of evidence which cannot
be gainsaid. A few years will fill this gap in paleon.
tology, and geology and natural history will perfectly
join. It is not strange that so few fossil human
remains have been brought to light. Compared with
the vast dimensions of the earth's crust, a fossil is a
small affair. If we assume the existence of an animal, say the dog, at any geological era taken at random, it is a thousand times more probable that that
animal existed in that era than that its remains will
be discovered. In localities where they are known
to exist, they are rarely met with.  The reports of
experienced dredgers show that, although they explore the bottom of the sea for hundreds of miles
near shores peopled with millions of inhabitants, and
in the route of countless sails, works of art are rarely
found, and human remains, almost never.
When the Harlem Lake was drained in 1853, in digging the great canal, and thousands of miles of ditches,
although it had been a thoroughfare for vessels, and
a dense population had dwelt on its shores for ages,
only a few coins and the wrecks of two Spanish ships
were discovered; not a vestige of human remains.
Nowhere should negative evidence be accepted
with greater caution than in geology. Dr. Schmerling, after having found flint tools in forty-two Belgian caves, only found human bones in three or four.
Not till 1855 was the first skull of the musk-buffalo
discovered. Birds were, until recently, supposed to
belong exclusively to the tertiary; and very lately
mammalia were supposed to descend only to the
oolite. It is not the plan of nature to preserve the 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
products of life. The activity of the forces of decay
are brought in play before the cessation of life; and
the organism melts into the air, or is devoured by
other beings. Not a particle is lost. Were it otherwise, the earth would soon become so encumbered
with the rubbish that living forms could not flourish.
The preservation of an inanimate organism withdraws,
for the time, elements needed in the construction of
other organisms; and were not these elements restored
as well as withdrawn they would soon be tightly
locked in worthless fossils, and the earth, the ocean,
and the atmosphere, rendered incapable of supporting
life. Thus are the forces of destruction made active;
and the tree, the bone, the tooth, the hardest as well
as the softest parts, are soon absorbed. Their preservation is the exception where some peculiar circumstances have, as it were, embalmed them.
Now, when a thousand millions of men inhabit the
earth, a number equal to which die every thirty years,
how few remains are to be found! The bones from
Grecian and Roman times,- where are they?  Egypt
has preserved a comparatively few in her mummies;
where are those left to the natural chances of preservation? The bones of the mound-builders, a recent
people, are rarely so well preserved as to retain their
form, but fall to dust on exposure to the air. Of the
herds of bison and deer; of carnivora, as bear, panther,
wolves, foxes, which so recently inhabited the forests
of this country; with their Indian companions, all of
which for countless generations left their bones in
the forest soil, - where are their remains? The tooth
of time has gnawed them to dust; and they have
41 
42      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
ascended through plants to form again in the living
systems of ox, horse, and man.
Only occasionally, during freshets, or by accidental
causes, have rivers borne down on their turbid currents the bloated carcasess of animals, and covered
them in silt at their mouths.   It is beneath the
waters of lake, or ocean, or miry peat bogs, that fossils are preserved; rarely or never on dry land,
where they are so exposed that a few years suffices
to destroy them. As since the advent of man there
hias not probably been any material difference in the
relations of land and water, and it is beneath the
water that organic remains are to be found, we should
not be surprised that the geological record of early
human history is so meagre. In those places where
bones are preserved on land, as caves and peat-bogs,
small as the chances are in favor of their fossilization,
many interesting discoveries have been made by indefatigable explorers. I shall allude first to those
instances where fossil human remains have been
found in the New World, as they invariably indicate
a more recent origin than those of the Old.
The skeleton found at New Orleans was sixteen
feet below the surface, and lay directly beneath the
roots of a cypress tree; there being four fossil cypress
forests above it. To arrive at an approximation to
its age, we must study the formation in which it is
found. The cypress grows in the low lands bordering the Mississippi. It attains a great size and age.
Humboldt supposes one growing in the garden of
Chapultepec as at least six thousand years old. If
only one generation of trees were produced in each 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
fossil forest which reposes above this skeleton, and
the duration of each be taken as six thousand years,
then twenty-four thousand years must have elapsed
since its interment. But to this duration must be
added the time of elevation and depression of each
beneath the surface of the Gulf of Mexico, a period
for the computation of which we have no data. If
we take the estimate of Lyell, of two and a half feet
in a century, as the mean of elevation as observed in
existing continental movements, and place the necessary elevation and depression of each forest at its
minimum of fifteen feet, then the lapse of time between each forest would be twelve hundred years,
or thirty-six hundred years for the three intervals, or
twenty-seven thousand six hundred years in all, to
which must be added the duration of the last or present period.   The discovery of the Natchez fossil
human bone, of which much has been said, was not
attended with sufficient accuracy of observation to
give it any importance as evidence of man's antiquity.
If, however, its claims be allowed, it is recent when
compared to the human fossil remains of Denmark, or
the gravel beds of the Somme.
Dr. Lund has discovered in Brazil, in eight different
caverns, human remains, all of which bore marks of
contemporaneous deposition with the bones of fortyfour species of extinct animals with which they were
associated.
In a cave on the borders of a lake named Lago
Santa, he found human bones mingled with the bones
of many extinct animals, moulded together, and consolidated into a very hard breccia. Among the ex
43 
44      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
tinct fossil animal remains were those of the ape
and horse. It would be an extremely interesting
study to investigate the causes which extinguished
the horse from this continent. The wild horse of
South America is a descendant from Spanish stock,
but thrives well from Patagonia to the Great Lakes;
and it is difficult to say why it perished.
In South America, near Lima, eighty-five feet above
the sea, cotton thread, and plaited rush, and a head
of Indian corn were found embedded with recent
shells in limestone. At a contiguous point evidence
was elicited, that, since the peopling of the country
by the Peruvian race, at least this considerable elevation has taken place. This affords no certain data on
which a calculation can be based, as the coast often
in a single day is elevated several feet, and then perhaps for centuries remains at rest. Taking the foregoing estimate of-two and a half feet in a century,
eighty-five feet represent three thousand four hundred years as the lapse of time since the threads
and plaited straw found a lodgment in the forming
limestone. iHow long previously the Peruvian race
occupied the table4-lands of the Andes cannot be told.
The mounds of the Valley of the Ohio are of iun.
known age. They probably were the work of the
same race which had begun the incipient civilization
in Mexico so ruthlessly destroyed by the Spaniards.
For a savage people to migrate across this continent,
— their traditions referred their origin to the north,
and they were undoubtedly from Asia, - and to advance to so high a degree of civilization, pre-supposes
at least several thousand years. 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Probably to them, or to the later Indian race, is
due the extinction of the mastodon of North, and
the gigantic sloths known as the Margatherium, and
Mylodon, of South America. The horse, so far from
being used by them, was probably extirpated with
those huge beings. We here have a key by which
to account for the anomalous disappearance in recent
times of those animals, the bones of which extend
into the human period.
It is, however, in the Old World that the records
of vast and incomprehensible antiquity are met with.
So early as 1823, a human skeleton was disinterred
by M. Ami Bone from ancient, undisturbed loess of
the Rhine, at Lahr, nearly opposite Strasburg. This
loess is the ancient alluvium thrown down  by the
turbid water of the rivers from the Alps.  Previous to
its denudation, a thickness of at least eighty feet ex.
isted above the skeleton. Nearly half the bones were
obtained.- They did not lie as if part of a corpse
that had been buried there. The fossils were presented to Cuvier, who pronounced them at once to
be human; but, pre-occupied by theological chronology, he referred them summarily to recent date.
On excavating a canal from Maastricht to locht,
in 1815-1823, in the loess, there twenty feet thick,
extraordinary numbers of fossils of elephants of the ox
tribe, horns of deer, and other mammalia were found.
Mingled with these, at a depth of nineteen feet, where
the loess reposes on the underlying gravel, in a stratum
of sandy loam, overlaid by gravelly and sandy beds,
a human jaw with teeth was found. The animal fossils were much more plentiful at the bottom of the
45 
46      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
loess, but were partially diffused to the surface. This
statement of Prof. Crabay is indorsed by Lyell, who,
after visiting the locality, "could see no reason for
supposing the human jaw to belong to a different
geological period from that of the extinct elephant."
The geological evidence of the vast antiquity of
man furnished by the Valley of the Somme is, perhaps, among the most conclusive. In the thick stratum of alluvial gravel bordering the river, flint implements have been found at several places, and in
great numbers at Abbeville, Amiens, and St. Achuel.
They are arrow and spear heads, knives and hatchets,
some of which have their edges broken, as though
used before they were lost. They are embedded from
ten to twenty feet in the solid, undisturbed gravel,
and are associated with bones of the elephas primigenius, rhinoceros, horse, deer, hyena, felis spelala,
&c., which inhabited Europe at that period. The disappearance of these huge quadrupeds may be as
much referable to the agency of man as of climate.
Similar flint instruments have been discovered in
the alluvial gravel of the Seine, in the environs of
Paris, twenty feet below the surface, accompanied by
like organic remains, as well as in the Valley of the
Oise.
In England, they have been found in several places
in the Valley of the Thames; at Bedford in the Valley
of the Ouse, in gravel; at Hoxen in Suffolk; at Icklingham, in which localities they occur from ten to
twenty feet below the surface.
The discovery of human bones in caverns, the
most probable place for their occurrence, is very sig 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
nificant. It is the locality above all others where we
should expect to find the remains of a savage people.
Caves are the natural shelter for savage man. There
he has left a dim hieroglyph of his existence. Sometimes, perhaps, he expelled the bear and hyena from
their dens, or in turn was expelled, or fell a victim to
their rapacity, leaving naught but the gnawed fragments of his bones to tell of his existence.
The idea of determining the age of fossils by the
amount of animal matterwhich they contain is incorrect,
for, after a time,- and it is of no great comparative
duration,- all bones arrive at the same condition by the
loss of their organic atoms. There is no situation, in
which fossils are found, which can more than temporarily retard this destruction.
The Cave of Durfurt, in the Jura, is situated in a
calcareous mountain, and is entered by a shaft twenty
feet deep. Here were found the bones of the rhinoceros, bear, hyena, and numerous other extinct animals,
and, mingled with them, human bones and pottery.
They were embedded in mud and fragments of limestone, in some places to the depth of thirty feet.
There are a great many caves in France that have
yielaed bones.  They have been ably described by
I)r. Schmerling. In the Cave of Engihoul the human
bones were mixed with those of extinct animals, and
were like them in all respects. Near them were found
fragments of ancient urns, and vases of clay, teeth
of dogs and foxes, pierced with holes to serve the
purpose of beads.
In all these caves, as well as those of Belgium,
situated as they are in the deepest and most inacces
47 
48      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
sible localities, buried beneath thick deposits of stalagmite and mud, human bones have been found mingled
with those of the extinct elephant and rhinoceros.
They are often found mixed, in a fragmentary
breccia, with the bones of these animals, in all in
stances having precisely the same appearance as the
bones with which they are associated.
The Cave of Sailenreuth, in Franconia, is three
hundred feet above the river; those of Zahnlock and
Kuiihlock are similarly located, and the cave of Coppingen in the Suabian Alps is two thousand five
hundred feet above the sea:  those of Kustritz in
Upper Saxony are also very elevated. These instances
are interesting, because in all of these human bones
occur mixed with those of the usual extinct animals,
sometimes covered with a drift deposit twenty feet in
thickness. In some of these caves the human bones
were found eight feet below those of the rhinoceros,
and in such quantities as to represent man from infancy to maturity.
In the Cave of Gower, South Wales, a fact has
been brought to light, which is of a most conclusive
character. In the same undisturbed deposit which
covers the floor of the cavern, the remains of two
species of rhinoceros, and two flint knives were found.
Since the occupation of the cavern, the land has
subsided beneath the sea; and a deposit of sand has
taken place over its floor. How vast the interval
required to depress the land beneath the sea, allow a
long period for the deposition of sand, and its equally
slow elevation!
There are many ossiferous caves in North Sicily, 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
in which human remains occur with those of extinct
animals. The northern coast of that island presents
rocks containing recent species of shells, with broken
pottery, elevated to the height of three hundred feet.
If we allow one hundred feet for the depth of water
in which the shells flourished before elevation began,
then, at the rate of two and a half feet in a century,
four hundred feet of elevation would give 16,000
years as the age of the pottery. But a much greater
period must be stated; for no allowance is here made
for the time after the deposit of the pottery, before
the elevation began.
Herodotus speaks of a small Thracian tribe, that
dwelt in the midst of a mountain lake of Poeonia,
building their dwellings on piles driven into the bottom of the lake, and connected to the shore by narrow
causeways.
That was B.C. 520 years.
In 1853-1854, in reclaiming a part of the Lake of
Zurich, piles were discovered, belonging to just such
an ancient village. In dredging, abundant evidence
of fishing gear was discovered, as pieces of cord,
hooks, stone weights, and canoes, one of which,
made out of the trunk of a tree, was fifty feet long.
Since the direction of attention to this important
subject, piles, fragments, and implements have been
found in almost every lake in Switzerland. Some of
these villages belong to the age of bronze, some to
the age of stone.
The sites first studied were on the Lake of Moosseldorf, near Berne. All the instruments found were
of stone or bone: the flint employed came from the
4
49
4 
50      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
South of France, but, from the chippings found, must
have been worked up on the spot. The other imple ments were of jade,- of a kind not found in Europe,
and which is supposed to come from the East, - and
amber which probably came from the Baltic; facts
which show that these savage tribes carried on a
widely extended commerce. The Indian tribes of
America had arrived at quite as extensive exchanges,
the nations on the Atlantic trading as far west as the
great lakes of Erie and Hiuron, and probably the
Mississippi.
In the Lake of Constance, at the site of another lake
dwelling, arrow-heads of quartz; hatchets of green
stone and serpentine; a kind of plated cloth; lumps
of carbonized wheat and barley; flat cakes of bread;
carbonized apples and pears, such as grow now in the
Swiss forests; bones of the ox, sheep, and goat, - have
been discovered.
Near 3forges, on the Lake of Geneva, is the site of
a village of the bronze period. No less than forty
bronze hatchets have been there dredged up in a
wonderful state of preservation.
The presence of the cultivated cereals, as well as
the near approach to the present type of the countly
made by the solitary skull discovered, renders the
remote antiquity of these lake-dwellings uncertain.
They undoubtedly are of great age, but modern
compared to the flints of the Danish peat.
Numerous examples of artificial islands have been
discovered in Ireland; but they have been too uncritically examined: all that is known of them points to
I 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
the remotest antiquity. They belong to the stone
age.
These primitive people dwelt south as well as north
of the Alps after the retreat of the great glaciers; for,
in Northern Italian lakes, their remains have been recently discovered.   Considering that scarcely ten
years have elapsed since attention was first called to
this subject, a wonderful mass of facts bearing on the
age of man have been recorded; but there is a wide
field yet unexplored, in which a rich harvest is certain.
The untiring labors of a few zealous Danish geologists have yielded a strong mass of evidence. They
have had good material, and have used it well. Nowhere has the remoteness of man's creation been so
forcibly shown as in the analysis of their peat-bogs
and shell-mounds. At the bottom of the peat, numerous flint and stone instruments occur. Substantially
above them, embedded in the peat, is a forest of
Scotch fir. This tree has not flourished in Denmark
in historic times. After the fir had exhausted the
soil, it was succeeded by the sessile oak. This was
followed by the pedunculated oak; and, after these
forests, came the present beech. Forest trees attain a
great age, and it is probable that each of these forests
was formed of several generations of trees.
In the time of the Romans, Scandinavia was remarkable for its splendid beech forests; and they still
continue to thrive with undiminished vigor. Six
thousand years would be the least period which could
be assigned for the duration of the present forest; and
51
Al 
52      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
hence four forests would equal 24,000 years as the
age of the flint instruments.
From careful investigation, the Scandinavian antiquarians decided that the remains they discovered
should be classified in three epochs: that of stone, the
oldest and most savage; of bronze, when man had
learned the use of that alloy; and of iron, which is
the historic. This classification is at once simple and
truthful, and applicable to all remains, in whatever
part of the world they are found.
The peat of Denmark is no more remarkable than the
immense mounds of shells often met with. Similar
ones are to be seen on the Atlantic coast of New
England, where the Indians have dwelt for ages,
throwing the refuse of their meals together.
These shells belong to living species; but theyprove,
that, since they were gathered, the geography of the
earth has changed.  Thus the oyster, periwinkle, and
cockle are full sized: but now the Baltic is too fresh
for them to flourish, except at its entrance; and, in
consequence, they are of diminutive size. Mingled
with the shells are fragments of the bones of the wild
bull (aurock), the roe, deer, lynx, fox. wolf, and dog.
The dog is the only domesticated animal the remains
of which have been found. It was of small size in
the stone age, but larger in the bronze. It became
very large in the iron epoch.
The remains of man, of course, would not be found
in the refuse heaps, unless these early people were cannibals; but the instruments he used in the chase are
common, as flint axes, and arrow-heads. In mounds
of contemporary date, where the careful hand of af 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
fection consigned them, human skulls have been
discovered. These skulls are small and round, with
a prominent ridge over the orbits of the eyes,- a
mark of inferiority, and extremely large in the chimpanzee. This ancient race were of small stature, and
resembled the Lapps.
Skulls of the age of bronze are elongated and
larger. These mounds correspond to the older portion of the peat, the canoes found in which show that
these little men ventured on the water; and the remains of bones of deep-sea fish in the shell-heaps show
that he was not an unskilled mariner.
By careful comparison of the bones of the various
ages, venison appears to have been the principal food
of the hunter, or stone age; and the flesh of the ox and
sheep, that of the bronze, at which latter period the
tame pig displaces the wild boar. At the beginning
of the age of stone, the goats were the more numerous; at its close, the sheep. The bronze age had two
races of cattle, and two of pigs, a horse of medium
size, and a small dog. The fox, at first very numerous
and serving for food, was at length displaced by the
dog. Have we not here a clew to the origin of the
dog, the progenitor of which, as is well known, is undiscoverable among living species?
In a section laid open at Sodertilge, at a depth of
sixty feet, beneath marine strata, the timbers of a
wooden hut, with its circle of hearth-stones, and much
charcoal, were discovered. In the same strata occur
the remains of vessels constructed with wooden pegs.
The strata in which they were found contain the
characteristic shells of the brackish waters of the
53 
54  THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Bothnian Gulf. As the saltness of the Bothnian Gulf
and Baltic depend on the same causes, and as this
deposit represents only brackish water, while the
oyster and cockle shells of the shell-mounds of Denmark represent water as salt as the ocean, the latter
must belong to a period previous to the strata in
which the vessels and huts occur.
The time required to sink the land sixty feet, and
then slowly elevate it to that height, would suffice to
bring us close to that period when Scandinavia was a
vast glacier, sending off its erratic blocks far over the
site of England. Perhaps by a simple computation
we can arrive at an approximation. Scandinavia is
undergoing a slight elevation: the process is a continuation of that which has elevated the strata containing
the human relics, and converted a large portion of the
bed of the Baltic and North Sea into dry land.  The
area of elevation extends over one thousand miles north
and south, and the degree of elevation amounts to five
feet in a century at the North Cape, where it attains its
maximum, and gradually grows less towards the south,
until it reaches zero. It is eight hundred miles from
the North Cape to the point where the remains occur; and, consequently, the mean elevation at that
point is one foot in a century; so that to produce an
elevation of sixty feet would require sixty centuries.
But the water must have had some depth when the
boats sank, and were enclosed in the ooze.  If we
assume this at twenty feet, we must add twenty centuries to the above. But this period is only that of
depression: that of elevation was equally long, so that
for the whole time we have 16,000 years. 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
This lapse of time is insignificant, if we accept
the calculations of M. Boucher de Perthes from data
derived from the observed growth of peat. At the
bottom of the entire stratum of peat in the Valley of
the Somme, thirty feet in thickness, flint tools have
been found. Taking the growth of peat at three centimetres, or three-tenths of an inch, it would require for the growth of that peat stratum one hundred and twenty thousand years. More: carrying
the antiquity of man still farther into the realms of
paleontology, this peat rests on and overlies the drift
gravel-beds in which flint tools have been described
as being found in the Valley of the Somme! Their age,
computed from the thickness of gravel in which they
occur, is a vast period; but, when added to that of the
overlying peat, it becomes wholly incomprehensible.
On the opposite shore of Sweden, deposits of the
same age as those of Sordertilge attain an elevation
of even seven hunded feet. The shells found in them
are not of the same species as those found in the neighboring sea, but like those several degrees farther
north. The climate of Scandinavia was decidedly
more arctic then than now.  Lyell, by assuming an
average elevation of two and half feet in a century,
estimates that the present elevation of the coast of
Sweden required twenty-seven thousand five hundred
years, and this without making allowance for pauses
of indefinite duration, which always occur during longcontinued elevations or depressions. As the distance
from the point of greatest elevation is about the same
as Sodertilge, one foot in a century would be a
55 
56      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
mean elevation probably nearer the truth, and yields
seventy thousand years as the result.
Vessels have been found in England, buried in the
now-deserted channel of the Rother in Sussex, of the
Mersey, and the Thames.
In almost all parts of the kingdom, canoes and stone
hatchets have been found at considerable depths beneath the surface.
In America, flint arrows and stone hatchets are often
turned up by the plough; but they are invariably met
with at the surface. There has not yet transpired a
single instance where they have been so deeply buried
as to yield to calculations, results like those of the
old world.
Ancient as are the Pyramids, they rest on a deposit
yielding evidence of an almost fathomless antiquity.
From the stupenduous researches of Hekekyan Bey,
made by a series of-shafts and artesian borings across
the Valley of the Nile, we learn, that when the depth
of sixty feet, or the level of the Mediterranean, was
reached, fragments of pottery were brought up; and,
in a boring by Linaut Bey, fragments of red brick
were brought from a depth of seventy-two feet. M.
Rosie're, in his great work on Egypt, from personal
observation, estimates that the deposit made by the
overflow of the Nile, which has buried these works
of art to their present depth, averages two inches
and eighty-eight thousandths in a century. Twentytwo feet would consequently represent forty-one thousand three hundred years; but the auger brought up
fragments from the lowest point reached, and thou 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN..
sands of centuries may be represented in the unknown depth of deposits below.
Fossil remains of the dog have been discovered in
many places, and the discovery merits more attention
than has been bestowed upon it; for the dog has not
only been the companion of man, but is a creature
formed by his selection and culture from widely different sources.  Hence the discovery of its fossils in
a given era is almost equivalent to finding the bones
of man himself in that era.  The antiquity of the
faithful instincts of the dog is touchingly shown in a
cave of the Canary Islands, where the skeleton of a
Guanches is accompanied by that of a gigantic dog,
lying as if watching the slumbers of his master.
The similarity of the skeleton of the dog and wolf
has undoubtedly led to pronouncing many fossils as of
the wolf which belonged to the dog.
Bones of the dog have been found in the caves of
Lagoa-Santo in Brazil. They belonged to a variety
larger than now living.  They were mingled with
bones of the huge extinct mammalia of that country,
like that found at the foot of the Pyrenees in a
stratum of marl, surmounted by compact limestone: it
was also associated with the fossil bones of a monkey.
This is the more notable, as fossil monkeys are more
rare than fossil man. The latter was associated with
the rhinoceros, anoplotherium, deer, and antelope.
Several fossils of the dog have been described by
Dr. Schmerling. They differ essentially from the
wolf or fox, and belong to two well-marked varieties.
They were found in a cavern deposit, mingled with
bones of bears, hyenas, and other extinct animals.
57 
58      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Of the fossil bones of the genus Canis, found in
the Cave of Gailenreuth, Cuvier remarked, that they
resembled those of the dog much more than those
of the wolf. They were mingled in the same deposit
with bones of the hyena, tiger, &c., and had the same
appearance and consistence, and were evidently of
the same age.
A fossil dog resembling the bull-dog occurs in the
bone-caverns of England.
The fossils of four types of the dog have been discovered; the immense Canary, pointer, hound, and
bull-dog. A smaller variety resembling the turnspit,
and that discovered by Mantel in New Zealand, associated with the bones of the dinornis, are yet undetermined.
When the pointer set for game, and the hound
bayed in the woods of Europe; when the bull-dog
growled at the caverns mouth, and the canary watched
in its cave,- can we doubt that man was with them,
on whom their very existence depends?
A more startling fact remains for statement, one
which has received the sanction of that cautious observer, Lyell. In 1852, a grotto was discovered in the
face of a cleft forty-five feet high. The entrance was
concealed by rubbish; but on systematic exploration,
made by M. Lartet, in 1860, beside the seventeen skeletons at first removed, he made other and most wonderful
discoveries. It appears that the grotto was the burialplace of an ancient people. After clearing the rubbish
away, a slab of stone shut the entrance.  In front of
this door was a layer seven inches in thickness of
ashes and cinders, remains of fires where the friends 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
cooked and ate the funeral feast; the remnants of
which, the charred and gnawed bones, were plentifully
scattered through the ashes. These bones belonged
to the cave-bear, cave-hyena, fox, brown bear, badger,
polecat, cave-lion, wild-cat, horse, stag, gigantic Irish
roebuck, and aurochs. None of the denizens of their
forest came amiss to the voracious appetite of these
early people. The larger bones were invariably split
for extraction of the marrow, and many of them are
more or less burned. The softer and spongy parts
were gnawed by hyenas, or other animals, which
prowled about the place after the departure of the
mourners.
There were a great variety of flint articles, knives,
projectiles, sling-stones, chips, and the flint stone
from which they were broken, with the round stone
used in breaking them out, and bone arrows. Some
of the bones were steaked by the flint knives used to
scrape off, the flesh. No human bones occurred outside of the stone door.
They were not cannibals. Inside were as many as
seventeen skeletons. They belonged to a race of
small stature. A flint knifeb, a few teeth of the cavelion, tusks of the wild boar, and a tooth of the cavebear carved into a resemblance of the head of a bird,
and the bones of the cave-bear, accompanied the skeletons. They were probably amulets, or tokens of the
chase. The bears appear to have been placed in
the cave entire, undoubtedly to serve as food for the
departed on their journey to the land of spirits.
In the gravel-pits of the Somme, the Thames, the
Oise, in the peat and shell-mounds of Denmark, we
59 
60      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
meet the remains of art, associated with the  extinct rhinoceros, mammoth, and elephant, showing
that, when Europe was a warmer climate than now,
and was peopled by the cave-bear, lion, tiger, rhinoceros, &c., man had already reached a rude state of
civilization. Here in this grotto, at the foot of
the Pyrenees, we find him occupying the position
of a conqueror. Judging from the works of art,
the remains in this cave are of equal antiquity with
the flint arrows and hatchets of the Somme, or the
shell-mounds of Denmark. Rough calculation fixes
their age at several score thousands of years; yet
we find him in a comparatively high estate. Hle is
acknowledged lord of the animal world; the huge
cave-bear falls by his arrow; the unwieldy mammoth
is sacrificed; the fleetness of the enormous Irish
elk does not save it, nor the fierceness of the cave
tiger or lion. He provides a sepulchre for the body
of the dead; the tribe gathers, and places the corpse
of their friend in the prepared grotto; they place
by its side the carcass of a bear to sustain the spirit
on its long journey, and a flint arrow with which to
pursue the cave-lion in that far clime.  Then they
prepare the flesh of mammoth, or other denizen of
the wild, by the funeral fire; partake of the feast:
the door is replaced, and the friends depart. Wonderful fact! we find the belief in immortal existence
buried among the wrecks of animate forms fossilized
in stone. It has survived the gigantic beings of the
world of its birth.  Mammoths have perished;  the
cave-bear, lion, and tiger are no more; the rhinoceros,
diminutive in size, has withdrawn to Asia and Africa; 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
the entire fauna and flora of Europe have undergone
two great fluctuations; yet the belief in immortal
existence after death has grown brighter and clearer,
and draws, as to a centre, more and more the activity
of mankind.
Were the evidences adduced applicable to any
other fossil, they would be considered as incontro
vertibly fixing its situation in the drift.
It will be seen that all calculations on the period
of man's advent, in years or thousands of years, neces sarily are but rough approximations. Science can
here deal only with the order of events. All that
geology contends for is the removal of his advent
from historic times to the first age of the past,- the
drift. If his birth dates in that age, there is no diffi culty in accounting for the great varieties of race,
and his dispersal over the whole earth; for the continental masses were not then related to each other
as at present. The Atlantic Ocean was then in a
great measure continental, or had large islands studding its expanse. The weald of England indicates
an indefinite stretch of land to the west or south-west,
it being the estuary and delta of a large river flowing
from that direction. There are reasons for supposing
that this tract did not subside, and the Atlantic take
its present form, until a recent geological date; and
that the Old and New Worlds were in communication
across the present site of the Atlantic by means of
projecting continental masses. Asia, on the other
side, approaches so near, that there is a free intercommunication between the Esquimaux tribes across
Behring's Straits.
61 
62       THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The facts furnished by geology extend the advent
of man so far into the night of time, that the Pyramids,
and ruins of ancient cities, even the rude stone columns of Stone-IHenge, are of yesterday. All of these
show a highly civilized state. In their day, man was
acquainted with the metals, the principles of refined
architecture, the art of writing, the measurement of
time, and had acquired the social amenities of refined
nationality; but what shall we say of man of the
drift? A rude and colossal world spread around
him; in the midst of a dense wilderness inhabited by
savage and colossal beasts, we first find him, armed
only with a flint arrow. Hiow long he had existed
previously, we as yet cannot tell; but he had advanced
from a ruder estate by a process slow and painful.
Progress is in a geometrical ratio. The more enlightened a nation is, the greater will be the rapidity of
progress.  Savage tribes remain from age to age
apparently without change. The study of his progress from the age of stone to that of bronze ilHstrates the slowness of his advance. Bronze presupposes the knowledge of two metals, copper and tin.
The first exists often in a pure or native state;
the latter is not only rare, but its extraction from
its ore requires a considerable knowledge of chemistry. The proportion of each required to produce the
hardest bronze might be learned by experiment.
After all this knowledge had been acquired, the
instruments made from it were cast after the fashion
of those of stone. The bronze hatchet was fashioned
just like the stone. It is considerably higher up in
the strata in which they occur, corresponding to a 
ANTIQUITY OP MAN.
long elapse of time, before the savage learns that he
can, with the more plastic material, improve the form
of his hatchet and arrow-head by departing from the
form of those of stone.
From the age of stone he passes to that of bronze.
He at first has no domestic animals; but we see how,
in the preceding pages, he acquired the dog, sheep,
ox, pig, and goat.  These acquisitions were not made
in a few centuries. The American Indian has inhabited this continent from immemorial time; yet the
only domestic animal he has acquired is the dog,a kind of mongrel wolf. How long before he would
have tamed the bison or the deer? The ancient
man of Europe had the aurochs, as wild and fierce as
the bison, to subdue, and the wild, goat-like mountain
sheep, as fleet as the deer, to domesticate. He had
learned to manage the horse, and wrought a great
departure in the pig from its parent, the savage wild
boar. All this he had done while he still possessed
only a bronze hatchet and arrow. But even with
these he had extirpated the mammoth and elephas
primigenius, and by the power of intellect taken the
commanding position he has since held over the animal world. All of this vast duration lies far below
the seventy-two feet of Nile deposit, which, as we
have said, represents twelve hundred centuries; and
this underlies the base of the hoary Pyramids, which
of themselves are scarcely of historic time, reaching
back, according to Lepsius' calculations, to within one
hundred and twelve years of the creation, according
to received chronology.
Perhaps these immense periods already bewilder the
63 
64      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
understanding; but we must add, that below all these
combined periods of savage life, of twelve hundred
centuries of Nile deposit and the Pyramids, lies a
stretch of ages during which man existed, adown
which we gaze into night with our senses perfectly
appalled. We have stated that human remains have
been discovered in the Alps twenty-five hundred feet
above the sea, and covered with a deposit of drift.
The arrow-heads described also belong to the drift.
All facts prove that man inhabited the earth during
that period. When it covered Europe with ice and
snow, manl could not have been introduced: he must
have previously inhabited that country, as every circumstance would debar his approach to its inhospitable shores while it continued; hence man must have
first appeared in the later tertiary, and already become established before the drift began. We thus
place the entire drift, or pleistocene period, between
the present and the origin of man. The continuance
of that period cannot be measured by years; but an
idea can be obtained by comparing it with other
periods. After careful inspection of the weald of
England, Darwin estimates the time required to effect
its observed degradation at 306,662,400 years. The
degradation effected by the drift was equally great
as that of the weald. There was time enough to
cover the northern hemisphere to the 38~ latitude,
and in many places lower, with an icy sea covered
with icebergs, and to wrap the land in vast glaciers,
and to allow the degradation thus begun to continue
until not an exposed rock or mountain-peak should
bear witness of its action. The interval since Niagara 
ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
began to cut its channel from Ontario, or since the
Mississippi flowed in its present channel, are but centuries in this time. Lyell estimates the age of the
delta of the Mississippi at 100,000 years;  but he
makes little allowance for the fine sediment which is
more than one-half of that brought down by the river,
and on which his calculations are based. This would
certainly double the interval. To this must be added
the age of the bluffs, also of fluviatile deposit, ill
many places two hundred and fifty to three hundred
feet in height, and probably twice the antiquity of
the present delta, or 400,000 years in all. We can
thus go on making estimates, all reaching into incomprehensible past time; but we cannot do more
than thus approximate by the million or the hundred
million, and must, as yet, content ourselves with tho
order of events.
a
65 
CHIIAPTER II.
RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE AN             THROPOID APES.
The Climate of the Tertiary Warm. - Whence came the Savage of the
Flint Arrow-head? - Primates, no Break or Chasm between them and
Man. - Fossil Primates, Dryopithecus, of the Swiss Jura, Eocene. - Lin  nean Classification of PRIMATES.- Embryonic Form of the PRIMATES.
-ANTHROPOID, or MAN-LIKE APES. -First Account of the PONGO.  Anatomical Structure. - The GIBBONS. - ORANGOUTANG. - CHIM  PANZEE. - GORILLA. - The Point of Man's Contact with the Animal
World, the Quadrumania. - Comparison of Structure of the Hand, Foot,
Vertebral Column, Pelvis, Skull, and Teeth. - Brain, Convolutions of.  Correspondence of Fossil Human Remains, the Enigis Skull, the Nean  derthall Skull. - CONCLUSIONS.
THUS far our investigations have been in the sepulcral land of paleontology, where, in mausoleums hewn
by the sea, the wreck of human beings and of the animal creation are entombed. Before the icy drift
ocean laved the northern continents, wrapped in an
almost perpetual and universal coat of ice thousands
of feet in thickness, there existed, as has been previously shown, a warm climate. This is not only
proved by the bones of elephants and mastodons, —
they may have inhabited a comparitively cold climate,
-but the contemporaneous presence of the rhinoceros
and hippopotamus, the tiger, lion, and hyena, speak
of a genial clime extending over Northern Europe and
Asia.
66 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
It is in this period that we obtain the first traces
of man. It is a flint arrow-head, a stone axe, so rudely
shaped that we  pause before we pronounce them
works of art, and throughout this immense elapse of
time we only obtain such traces of the rudest existence.
From whence came this savage whom we find even
in traditional ages, naked or skin-clad, wandering
through the gloomy forests of Europe, often feasting
on the bodies of his fallen enemies?
We descend step by step; we pass into the drift,
finding there the lowest savage man; leaving whom,
and descending into the true tertiary, we meet with
fossil primates, the highest group of animals. Few
fossils of the latter have been discovered; but, when
hundreds have been exhumed and placed side by side
in an ascending line, there cannot be the least doubt,
that, between the highest prirnate and the lowest savage, there will be no break, no chasm, but a perfect
and complete series.
To hazard conjecture in the present state of science
is perhaps immature; but there are certain great
deductions which may be drawn from received facts
which appear to converge to one irrefragable conclusion.  Many scientific writers boldly put forward the
views, based entirely on negative evidence, that,
by the absence of fossil primates, man is completely
cut off from the animal world by an impassable chasm.
The preposterous assumption of such criticism will
become apparent when we consider that scarcely a
single living specimen of the ourang or gorilla has
been procured. Very little is known by naturalists
67 
68      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
of the higher primates, and still less of their fossil
remains. The dense and inaccessible forests of Borneo and Sumatra, Loango and the Gaboon, conceal
the orangs, troglodytes niger, and gorilla. The geological provinces of the present correspond in a great
measure to those of the tertiary, and hence it is exactly in those inaccessible countries that such fossils
must exist. It is by mines and works of engineering
that fossils are principally brought to light. Nothing
of this kind has broken the soil of those countries.
Even to the northward, the only direction they could
extend, the country is almost unknown. While undoubtedly many living species remain undescribed,
how puerile to found an objection on the absence of
fossils!
The most notable fossils yet discovered. of primates
is that of the DRYOPITHECUS of Lartet, found in the
Upper Miocene of Sauson, near the foot of the Pyrenees, in the south of France. It was a long-armed
ape or gibbon, about equal to man in stature.
M. Riitsmeyer has discovered, in the eocene of the
Swiss Jura, remains of a monkey allied to the lemurs.
Europe, the only country where a partial search even
can be made, was, according to the high authority of
Lyell, too cold during the pliocene, or latter tertiary,
for monkeys.
It is not my purpose to array the brute in comparison with man; to sink his noble and immortal qualities
to the level of the beast. If we admit the unity of
type in the animal world, and ignore any other creation than that of law, how can we escape from basing 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
the origin of man on the highest members of the
animal world?
The facts on this subject are scanty; but so vital is
the importance of the theory to which they refer, that
I shall devote a considerable space to their presentation. It has been said, and is constantly repeated,
that a break, a chasm, an impassable gulf, exists between even the lowest man and the highest animal, - a
gulf nothing but a miraculous creation by God can
bridge. Philosophers may reason on either side,the animal side, or the human; but at this gulf they
must pause, and, if conscientious, be brought to a
realizing sense of divine interposition, and the helplessness of philosophy.
Now, it is evident that the conclusions drawn from
the animal realm agree with those drawn from the
domain of man: over the gulf, only an arch is wanting
to complete the chain of a perfect system of nature.
The arch I am endeavoring to build may be imperfect;
but I am confident, rude as it necesssarily must be in
the present state of our knowledge, that it may serve
as a bridge until material is gathered for a better.
The facts I have gathered I have severely sifted,
and their statements as severely condensed, reserving
only the essential particulars which bear directly for
or against the present theory of the derivation of man.
I do not deny the existence of a chasm. I understand that in the gorilla there is not a single bone,
muscle, or fibre, but differs so much from the corresponding part in man, that it can be readily determined.
But man does not differ more from them than they
differ from each other; a fact brought out boldly in the
69 
70      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
classification of that master mind, Linneus. He called
the order embracing man, apes, and lemurs, primates.
This he divided into seven families: THE ANTHROPI NI, containing the various races of men; the CATAR nliII, the Old-World apes; the PLATYRHINI, the New World apes, except the MARMOSETS;  LEMURIN, the
lemurs; the CHEIROMYINI; and the GALCPITHICUS, the
fiyfg lemur.
Since his day, man has been set apart in an order
by himself; but, by painful research, he is again
replaced where the sagacity of the great naturalist
assigned him.
I do not desire to make the chasm appear less than
it is. It is such a one as exists between all genera,
when viewed across the lines of their advance. It is
to fossil anthropoids we must look for a perfect series,
as they, not the living, are the true progenitors of
man.  All we claim is, that as we take Greek, Latin,
German, and go to Sanskrit, not for their origin, but,
because it is an older branch, we can trace their common origin to a parent from which allare derived; so
we go to the anthropoids, as to an older branch, to
learn of the common parentage of all.
Here an explanation may be inserted, else the gorilla may be considered as a link in the chain of beings,
which it is not. The progenitors of both gorilla and
man are entombed in the earth. They are divergent
lines of advance from such progenitors; as we say
that the German and the Hindoo sprang from an early
race in Central Asia, not one from the other, and each
has advanced after its own manner. It is on this account that analogies are between the lowest types of 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
orders, and not the highest of one and lowest of the
next. If we compare, it must be directly across the
lines of advance. It is interesting to learn that in
its fetal state the embryo partakes of the form of its
ancestor more closely than in its adult. Fetal growth
depends on hereditary descent; and, before the influence of conditions is exerted on its plastic form, it
copies its earliest ancestors. The young lobster is
almost a perfect tribolite, a crustacean which lived in
the earlier geological ages; the young salmon is a
sauroid, a very early form. In the young dog or cat
or colt, the distinctions of variety are ignored, the
young of all varieties of dog closely resembling each
other; and so of cats and horses, sheep, &c. In like
manner, the young chimpanzee or gorilla more closely
resembles man, and closer still the infant than when
matured; and the young of the monkey tribe anticipate
remotely and approach to a typical form. In the
young gorilla, on the principle that it copies its ancestral form, we see a picture of that early being
from which sprang the human line of advance. If
future discoveries confirm this inference by bringing
to light fossils of as high grade as the young chim panzee or gorilla, I know not where this reasoning
can be broken.
The first notice of the man-like apes was given in
1598 by Pigafetta, in "Description of the Kingdom
of Congo," but was so overcharged with fiction that
it only creates a smile. In a quaint book published
in 1613, entitled "Purchas his Pilgrimage," the apes
are, introduced with great relish; but the accounts are
extravagantly fabulous. In both works, and, in short,
71 
72      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
in all the writings which relate to this subject, up to
the beginning of the present century, the fabulous
largely predominates.   The abominable caricatures
which ornamented their pages are enough to bring
contempt on their descriptions.  It was not until very
recently that accurate portraits or descriptions were
obtained. The works of these old authors have nothing worthy of introducing in a present work. Their
perusal is exhilarating from the wonder which their
subject seems to excite, a wonder reaching perfect
credulity, receiving every thing; and the more unreasonable, the better are they pleased.
Linneus never saw an anthromorphus ape, and his
illustrations are childish caricatures. Buffon had the
opportunity of examining a young chimpanzee, and
an adult gibbon, the first and the last living specimen
of that species brought to Europe in many years
thereafter.
In his great work in 1766 on natural history, he
gave the first correct description of the orang, pongo,
and jocko; but, as all these animals then brought to
Europe were immature, he supposed that they all belonged to one species, or the great orang. Twenty
years afterwards he modified his opinion so as to make
two species, a large and a small.
Cuvier classed the pongo as a baboon in his " Re'gne
Animal," but in the second edition of that work considers it as an adult orang. But not until 1835 was a
clear and trustworthy account published on the chimpanzee and orang. In this, Prof. Owen for the first
time gave correct figures of these animals, and a
comparison of their skeletons. The result of all in 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
vestigations up to the present is the accurate delineation of four species of man-like apes or anthropoids,
the gibbon and orang of Eastern Asia, the chimpanzee and gorilla of Western Africa.
The anatomical peculiarities of these may be thus
stated: They have the same number of teeth as man,
four incisors, two canines, four false molars, and six
true molars in each jaw, or thirty-two in all. The numb)er and character of their milk-teeth also agree with
man's; they are twenty in number, four incisors, two
canines, and four molars, in each jaw. Their nostrils
have a narrow partition, and look down, whence their
name catarrhtine; and their arms are longer proportionately than man's.   The chimpanzee approaches
nearest to man in the length of its arms; and, in the
series, the gorillas, gibbons, and orangs follow, the gibbon when standing upright being able to reach the
ground with its hands. Their arms are terminated by
true hands, and the legs by true feet. The great
toe is more flexible than in man, and can be used
like a thumb. They are entirely tailless, and are destitute of the cheek-pouches which characterize the
monkey. They are exclusively confined to the tropical
regions of the Old World; and, from the record of fossil
remains, always were thus confined.
It is unnecessary to present a classification of these
apes. The classification, if perfect, would be profitless,
but is now very far from perfection. I shall give a
description Of each drawn from accurate sources, rejecting every thing that appears unreliable.   Our
knowledge is extremely deficient; and it must be
confessed that we know almost as little of ther habits
73 
74      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
as the last century did of their anatomy. They dwell
in the most inaccessible regions of the globe to Euro.
peans, and have never been seen in their native haunts
by men qualified by science to appreciate and note
the essential facts wanted. A Wallace is not found
once in a generation qualified to penetrate the jungle
of the tropics, and observe and reflect on the new
nature there unfolded. We may safely say that one
half of the earth is yet unknown to us. The wild
stories of ordinarytravellers are whollyuntrustworthy;
and nearly all are too much engaged in telling of their
own inconveniences to devote a line to the subjects
of vital importance to science.
The gibbons number about a half-dozen species, and
dwell in the Asiatic Islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo,
and in Malacca, Siam, Arracan, and, to an unknown
extent, in Ilindostan. They are the smallest of the
anthropoids, being about three feet high when erect.
They are of various colors, and, according to Dr. Miiller, lovers of the precipitous mountains, although they
do not ascend higher than the limits of the fig. Their
voice has a tremendous volume, like that of the howling monkeys of South America. It is grave, and
may be heard half a league, resembling the sounds
goe-ek, goe-ek, goe-ek, goe-ek, goe goek, ha, ha, ha, ha,
haaa-a-a&a: when confined to a room, it is deafening.
This animal is not more than one-fourth the size of a
man; yet the voice of the latter, if as strong, would
be audible five or six miles.
All the species of gibbons generally walk erect,
and sleep in a sitting posture. Mr. Bennett, in his
"Wanderings in New South Wales," says that one in 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
his possession always walked erect, assisting itself with
its hands, - as its arms were so long that its fingers
reached the ground, - or more usually with its arms
uplifted. Their gait is quick, but awkward.
This is the testimony of Drs. Burrough and Lewis.
Mr. Martin says, "Pre-eminently qualified for arboreal
habits, and displaying among the branches amazing
activity, the gibbons are not so awkward or embarrassed on a level surface as might be imagined. They
walk erect, with a waddling or unsteady gait, but at
a quick pace; the equilibrium of the body requiring
to be kept up, either by touching the ground with the
knuckles, -first on one side, then on the other, - or
by uplifting the arms so as to poise it. As with the
chimpanzee, the whole of the narrow, long sole of the
foot is placed upon the ground at once, and raised at
once, without any elasticity of step."
It cannot be doubted, from all this concurrent testimony, that the gibbon walks erect; but it is at home
in the branches of the forest, where it springs from
branch to branch as though furnished with wings. It
clears spaces of forty feet, leaping from branch to
branch-for hours at a time without apparent fatigue.
They will seize a bird midway of their longest leaps
with one hand, and grasp a branch withi the other,a feat never equalled by any circus performer. When
going with a velocity scarcely traceable by the eye,
they will suddenly seize a branch, and, as if by magic,
seat themselves upon it.
They are of gentle disposition unless irritated. Their
food is fruits and insects, and they relish animal diet.
They have a mental endowment superior to the brute,
75
I 
76      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
and a consciousness of right and wrong, if we can
believe a reliable observer. Mr. Bennett, who, after
speaking of a gibbon who stole a bar of soap, but returned it as soon as he saw that he was discovered,
remarks, "There was certainly something more than
instinct in that action: he evidently betrayed a consciousness of having done wrong, both by his first and
last actions; and what is reason, if that is not an
exercise of it?"
Drs. Miiller and Schlegel in 1845 published an exhaustive account of the orang-outang. This animal
inhabits the low plains of Borneo and Sumatra, and is
rare. It loves the densest jungle, where they usually
live singly, except at certain seasons. The young are
under their mother's care an unusual length of time,
and are carried against her breast.  It is uncertain
how long they are in reaching maturity; but it is
probable they do not until ten or fifteen years of age,
and that they live to be forty or fifty years old.
The orang has none of the agility of the gibbon.
It is sluggish, and only stirs to appease its hunger.
It will sit down, its arms drooping beside it, and remain without a motion for hours. During the day it
ascends to the loftiest branches, but at night descends.
It selects a proper place, where the branches are solid,
and makes a bed of twigs and leaves, sometimes several inches thick. The orang rises with the sun, and
goes to bed about the time of its setting. He lies on
his back, or, for change, on his side, resting his head
on his arm for a pillow. On windy, rainy, or cold
nights, he contrives to make himself comfortable by 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
wrapping up in several huge palm-leaves, which he
uses as blankets.
He has none of the agility of the monkey; and,
although he seeks the topmost branches of the largest
trees, he is an awkward climber, ascending laboriously
exactly as a man would do. He is careful lest he get
a fall, never trusting a branch until he has first tested
its strength by shaking it: this he will do even when
closely pursued. On the ground, he walks on all-fours;
but the length of his arms compels him to stand nearly
upright, or in the position of an old man. His feet
touch the ground only at their outer surface or edge;
and the hands touch only at their inner edge, the
thumb serving as a strong point of support.  When
pursued it will run as fast as a man, but can be soon
overtaken. It never walks perfectly upright, and all
representations of its doing so are incorrect.
Its long arms are serviceable in gathering fruit from
branches too slender to support its weight. Its foodI
is exclusively vegetable: blossoms, young leaves,
bamboo, figs, and other fruits.
When taken young, he is docile, and seeks human
society, but is naturally wild and sly, and, when
wounded, will rush on his assailants with a rage and
strength which nothing can withstand. Usually he
seeks to hide himself, or climbs to the highest branches,
uttering a singular cry, at first very high, but sublsiding into a low roar. When pursued, he will break off
branches, and throw them at his pursuers. Wallace
says, "In one case a female, on a durian-tree, kept
up for at least ten minutes a continuous shower of
branches, and of the heavy spined fruit as large as
77 
78      THE ORIGIN AND- ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
32-pounders, which most effectually kept us clear
of the tree she was on. She could be seen breaking
them off, and throwing them down with every appearance of rage, evidently meaning mischief."
The crocodile is the only animal attacked by the
orang; and then the former is the aggressor, watching for the latter as he comes down to drink. The
natives say that the orang is more than a match for
the scaly monster, tearing at his throat, or beating
him to death with stones or clubs.
The character of the orang, given by Miiller, is exceeding bad: " He is a very wild beast, of prodigious
strength, and false and wicked to the last degree. If
any one approached, he rose up slowly with a low
growl, fixed his eyes in the direction in which he
meant to make his attack, slowly passed his hand between the bars of his cage, and then, extending his
long arm, gave a sudden grip, usually at the face."
His intelligence was great, his hearing acute, vision
less perfect, and his under-lip the organ of touch.
When he drank he doubled the latter up like a trough,
and turned the water given him into it.
There are several species of orang in Borneo.
Their average height is four feet two inches. The
color of the hair varies with individuals. Some have
the rudiments of a nail on the great toe, others have
not. The form of the skull is also subject to great
variation, unlike all other wild animals. The length
of the muzzle, and slope of the profile, the width and
height of the orbit of the eyes, and development of the
cranial ridge, vary as much as among European skulls;
no two being alike. 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
Thne chimpanzee has been often brought to Europe
while young; but no one previous to Dr. Savage
has described the habits of the adults in their native
wilds. It is larger than the orang, measuring five
feet in length. It is often seen walking; but, when it
finds itself observed, it immediately falls on all-fours,
and runs away. When it stands erect, it throws its
arms back of its head, or behind its back, to balance
itself. Its natural position is on all-fours; but owing
to its toes being bent inward so that their upper surface rests on the ground, and its fingers being also
much bent, its gait is awkward and shaky. Its home
is in the branches of tall trees.   It is an expert
climber, and, like the gibbon, will throw itself from
branch to branch with great agility.' They are not
gregarious, but families remain together; and, for
amusement, large numbers assemble. They are then
boisterous and frolicsome; hooting, screeching, and
drumming with sticks on hollow trees.
They never make an attack, but, when assailed, will
throw their arms around their foe, and draw him up
to their formidable teeth. They feed on vegetables;
but in a state of domestication, although they refuse
it at first, they readily acquire a taste for flesh.
It avoids the abode of man, and builds its nest in
the dense forest in a similar manner to the orang.
" They exhibit a remarkable degree of intelligence
in their habits, and, on the part of the mother, much
affection for their young. In a recent case, the mother,
when discovered, remained upon the tree with her
offspring, watching intently the movements of the
hunter. As he took aim, she motioned with her hand, 
80      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
precisely in the manner of a human being, to have
him desist, and go away. When the wound has not
proved instantly fatal, they have been known to stop
the flow of blood by pressing with the hand upon the
part, and, when they did not succeed, to apply leaves
and grass. When shot, they give a sudden screech
not unlike that of a human being in sudden and acute
distress."- Dr. Savage.
On the same authority, we have the very full and
reliable account of the last of the man-like apes, the
gorilla. He shows that the names "Pongo," Euch4eko, Eng4-ena, and "Jocko," belong to two or more
species to which they have been indiscriminately applied. Its known habitat is Guinea, from the Camaroon to Angola, and how much farther is unknown.
It is about five feet high, and disproportionally broad
across the shoulders.   It is covered thickly with
coarse black hair, which becomes  gray with  age.
They walk by thrusting their long arms forward, and
then, resting their hands on the ground, give their
body a swing between them, like a man walking by
the aid of two crutches. When it walks erect, which it
inclines to do, it throws its arms upward to preserve
its balance.
They live in bands; and usually there is but one
male to each band, the strongest male vanquishing
or destroying the weaker.  Their dwellings are leafy
beds made in the convenient crotch of a tree, and are
occupied only at night.
They are ferocious, and never run from man. They
are objects of greatest dread to the natives. When
first observed, the male gives a terrific cry like kh-ah, 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
kh-ah! opening wide his enormous mouth.   At the
first cry, the females and young conceal themselves.
Hle then rushes towards his assailant. This hlie does
in an erect posture. His mouth is distended, showing
his glistening teeth; his under lip hangs down, and the
hairy ridge is contracted over his eyes, presenting an
aspect of indescribable ferocity, the more from the halfhumarn expression which gleams beneath this brutality.
As he rushes on, he strives to terrify his adversary by
unearthly shrieks. If the hunter is not sure of his
aim, he waits until the gorilla seizes his gun and
conveys it to his month; then he fires.  If his gun
should fail, the barrel is crushed between the jaws of
his foe; and the contest is soon fatal.
Ilaving briefly stated the little that is reliably
known of the habit of the man-like apes, I shall proceed to an equally brief comparison of structure.
If man belongs to the animal world, he must touch
it at some point. The popular classifications of animals teach the relations he sustains.  It is not to the
dog, the horse, the deer, that he is closest related, but
to the quadrumana, or ape family. It is not difficult
to make this assignment, nor is it more so to yield
the place next to him to the chimpanzee or gorilla.
On inquiry, we shall find that the interval which separates the gorilla from man is no greater than that
which separates the gorilla from members of its family, or the extreme races of men from each other.
The gorilla's brain is smaller, its legs shorter, and its
arms, feet, and hands longer, than those of man.  But
man varies in the proportion of these members, and the
species of anthropoids present a wide variation. The
6
81 
82      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OP MAN.
hylobate contains within itself the extreme variation
of both pairs of limbs; its arms being as much longer
than the gorilla's as the latter's are longer than man's,
and its legs are as much longer than man's as man's
are longer than the gorillas.
The mandrill's limbs are of nearly equal length, be ing shorter than the spinal column; and its hand and
feet have the same relative size to the spine and to
one another as in man. The spider monkey has legs
longer than its spine, and arms longer than its legs;
the indri [Lichanotus] has legs longer than its spinal
column, while its arms are little more than half as
long. Thus do we see, that, in this striking conformation, the apes differ more from each other than they
do from man.
The hand and foot of the PRIMATES, or man-like apes,
agree with those of man. It has been said, and the
classification of the monkeys as quadrumana is based
on the idea, that they have four hands. This is erroneous. The primates have true feet and true hands.
To prove this, we need enter into no lengthy anato.
mical discussion. There are a few salient points
which prove the matter conclusively. In the toes,
there are first the phalanges, then metatarsal bones,
forming the toes as the same do the fingers. As
we enter the massive portion of the hand or foot,
the relations of the bones change. The tarsus, which
corresponds to the carpus of the hand, forms four
short polygonal bones in a row. In the foot, instead
of four more tarsal bones, there are but three; and
these do not lie side by side. One forms the projecting heel; another lies on this on one face, and forms 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
by another, with the bones of the leg, the ankle-joint;
while its third face articulates with the remaining
tarsus, which unites it to the metatarsus. The greater
or less flexibility of the great toe, in the character of
a thumb, is of no consequence, as it presupposes no
anatomical differences. Thus there is a marked difference between the hand and the foot. If we examine a gorilla, we shall find the same differences. Its
foot is set more obliquely, and the great toe is more
flexible; but in bone and muscle it is a foot, not as
perfect as man's, which must always support the
weight of the body in an upright position, but in
every sense of the word a true foot.
Man does not depart from the gorilla in hand or
foot more than the orang departs from the gorilla;
and the lower monkeys depart still more widely. In
some the great toe and the thumb become entirely
dwarfed, and are concealed under the folds of the
skin, as in the spider-monkeys; while in others they
are directed forwards, and armed with curved claws
like the other digits, as in the marmosets. But, after
all these changes, the foot remains essentially a foot
in the lowest of the monkeys, and the hand a hand.
The vertebral column of man presents an elegant
curve, by which the shoulders are arched, and the
back hollowed, and the weight of the body balanced.
The gorilla and chimpanzee, especially when young,
present the same, though in a less degree. They
have the same number of vertebra. The gorilla has
thirteen pairs of ribs, while man has but twelve; often,
however, he has thirteen pairs. The lower apes greatly
vary, departing widely from this number. The pel
83 
84      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
vie or hip bones are broad and strong in man, in order
to support the viscera in an erect posture. The gorilla generally walks erect, and its pelvic bones are
much like man's.  As the apes are examined, it is
found, that, in direct proportion as their habits are to
walk upright, the hip bones are stronger; and the opposite, until they become thin blades, in those who
never stand erect. Between the pelvis of the gibbons
and gorillas there is more difference than between
that of the gorilla and man.
The skull of man is comparatively smooth. That of
the anthropoids is very ridgy and dense. It is quite
different from its external appearance. The low facial
angle is not produced by deficiency of skull so much
as prominency of the facial bones.  It is said that the
skull and facial bones widely differ from man's, but
not as much as the members of the ape family differ
from each other. - The proportions of the gorilla's
muzzle are enlarged in the baboon, and projected
forward in a brute-like manner; while in the former
the development is downward,   essentially a human
characteristic. The projection of the muzzle of the
baboon is carried farther and farther in the monkey's,
and becomes essentially like other brutes in the lemur.
In short, wherever the conformation of the skull,
the face, or the skeleton, of the man-like apes differs
from man's, greater differences can be found between
them and the lower members of the ape family.
In the brain, that most important organ of animal
life, and which determines by its development the
amount of intelligence manifested, the same holds
true. 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
The apes furnish a complete series of gradations of
the brain, from the rodents to one little lower than that
of man. Nature seems determined to break down
all classificatory distinctions between apes and man
founded on anatomical structure of that most vital
organ. In the whole family, except the lemurs, the posterior lobes of the cerebrum conceal the cerebellum,
and the posterior cornu, hippocampus major and minor,
are developed. In many (as chrysothrix), the posterior
lobes extend relatively farther back than in man. This
is quite contrary to the received notion, which has
been given in the books, that the posterior lobes of the
cerebrum of apes were so undeveloped, that, looking
down on the brain, the cerebellum was exposed to
view. "In fact," writes Prof. Huxley, "all the abundant
and trustworthy evidence (consisting of the results
of careful investigations of these very questions by
skilled anatomists) which we now possess leads to
the conviction, that so far from the posterior lobe, the
posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor, being
structures peculiar to and characteristic of man, as
they have been over and over asserted to be, even
after the publication of the clearest demonstrations of
the reverse, it is precisely these structures which are
the most marked cerebral characteristics common to
man and the apes. They are among the most distinct
simian peculiarities which the human organism exhibits."
"According to M. Geoffroy, the brain of the young
orang bears a close resemblance to that of a child;
and the skull also might be taken at an early age
for that of the latter, were it not for the development
85 
86      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
of the bones of the face." The change effected in
the adult skull is produced by the excessive growth
of the cranial ridges, which serve for the attachment
of muscles.
The convolutions of the brains of apes exhibit
every stage of advance, from the marmosets, which
present an almost smooth surface, to the orang and
chimpanzee, which in form and depth fall little below
that of man.  What is notable and of great weight in
determining the unity of man and' animals is, that,
where the convolutions first appear, they form, as it
were, a skeleton map of the brain of man, occupying
the same place as in his brain;:and, as we arise, at
each advance the new convolutions agree with similar
ones in his brain, until, in the man4-like apes, the
constant presence of fissures absent in his brain, the
different arrangement of some convolutions, -unessential characters,   is all the difference between
their brains and that of man's.
Their brains are not as heavy in proportion to their
bodies as man's, and make here a greater departure
than in any other direction. The lowest estimate of a
healthy European brain cannot be placed lower than
thirty-two ounces, nor of a gbrilla at more than twenty
ounces. But the gorilla is nearly twice as heavy as
a European of so small a brain; so that the relation
would be as ten ounces to thirty-two, or say only onethird. But European brains have weighed sixty-five
ounces, and hence the gorilla would have but twothirteenths as heavy a brain. This subject of size of
brain explains the wide departure of man's intellect
from the animal world. 
HIS RELATIONS TO THE ANTHROPOID APES.
In spinal column, in skull, in teeth, in hand, in
foot, or brain, there is no structual variation placing
man beyond the animal, or assigning him to another
type of structure; but every fact proves the perfect
unity of his type of being with theirs.
There is one consideration more, which bears directly on this question: Do the human fossil skulls
make any perceptible approach to the gorillas?  The
interval of time between us and these fossils is vergreat, but is insignificant compared with the duration
since the introduction of man; so that the few mutiIated specimens as yet discovered do not belong to a
sufficiently early age to show any great approximation, yet they certainly make a step in the direction
of the animal, and that beyond the most savage of
existing men.
The Engis skull from a cave in the Valley of the
Mense, on the authority of Lyell, belonged to the same
age as the mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros; and the
Neanderthall skull belongs to the same period. It is to
be expected, that, at so remote a time, a savage type
would be presented. This is more than realized. The
contour of the Engis skull agrees with the Australian
type, especially in its occipital flattening.  The facial
bones of both are wanting; and, as these are far more
characteristic than the skull, the full relationship cannot be determined. The Neanderthall skull passes by
the Australian; and in the heaviness of its ridges, its
vertical depression, its sloping occiput, its squamosal
sutures, it approaches the ape much more than any
other human skull. In internal capacity it rises above
the gorilla, but not so far as the latter does above the
87 
THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
gibbon, and scarcely more than the largest human brain
exceeds the smallest. The largest human skull measured by Morton contained one hundred and fourteen
inches; and the smallest, according to Wagner, that of
an adult female of ordinary intellect, 55.3 inches. The
capacity of the gorilla is 34.5 inches: thus, between
the brain of the gorilla and the smallest brain of man,
there is only a difference of 10.5 inches, while between the smallest (not idiotic) and largest human
brain there is a difference of 58.7 inches.
Whither tend all these facts, if not to place man at
the head of the animal world, as the perfected fruit of
incomprehensible millenniums of its growth and progress?
* 88 
CIIAPTER III.
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
The Myth of the Tower of Babel. - Is Man the only Being possessing Lan  guage?- Growth of Language illustrated in the Romance Tongues.  The Language of Animals.- Intonations of Savage Man.-  Ideas of
Savages. - Language the Expression of Ideas.- Polysynthesism, its
Outgrowths.- Comparison with the Growth of Living Beings.- Fossil
Languages a sure Guide in History. - Inevitable Growth of Language.
- The  Sanskrit. - Rig-Veda. -  Difficulty of crossing Languages.  Rapid Changes in the Dialects of Savages.- The great Achievement
of Comparative Philology,-the Discovery of an Ancient Tongue to
which Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, &c., are mutually related. - Its Method
of Research.- What is a just Estimate of the Affinities of Dialects?  Agassiz' Theory of Language opposed. - Conclusions.
PERHAPS no problem has more perplexed philosophers than that of the origin of language. Whence
came the wonderful instrument by which thought
more subtle and evanescent than lightning could express itself, and, through the secondary means of
symbolic characters, array itself in permanent form?
The task of furnishing a solution seemed hopeless,
when the philosopher looked over the world with it,,
diversity of races, speaking several thousand dialects
mutually unintelligible, and considered that these
were but a remnant of the tongues which have gon(,
down to oblivion.
In remotest historic time, the question was asked;
and the God-fearing iHebrew answered, that, because
89 
90      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
man thought to evade the dictates of Jehovah by
building the Tower of Babel, each went away from
that unpropitious labor speaking a different tongue.
The myth is beautiful; but we know, that, ages before,
there was the same degree of diversity as at present.
The name Babel or Babylon tells us that it was not
the tower, but the city, wherein reigned confusion of
dialects. Situated on the boundaries of two great
branches of speech, it drew within its walls dialects
of each. From the word the myth arose, as many
have before and since.
Wise men have considered that man could only
have possessed language by a miracle. They think
that by it he is wholly severed from the animal world.
As William von Humboldt expresses it, "Man is man
only through the power of speech; but, to possess
speech, he must already be man." Thus he stands
alone the only speaking being on the earth. If this
be true, the acquirement of language is an impossibility: it must have been given him ready formed.
An eminent philosopher thinks that it was the work
of a conclave of. sages. Wonderful, indeed, would
have been their mute deliberations: he should tell us
how they arrived at their conclusions, having no language wherewith to reason together.
Speculation is scarcely admissible; for, by observation, we can see the rise and steady growth of languages. The six Romance dialects, the English, the
German, were all born in historic time. They are
recent, and we know that they have developed from
pre-existing dialects, as the English from the Latin
and Anglo-Saxon, the Romance tongues from a de 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
composition of Latin; yet no learned body of men
ever sat in council to mould their grammatical construction, or give definitions to words of any of them.
The mandates of kings have been of small avail in
giving tone to popular speech. The change has been
gradual. The,lisp of childhood, the garrulity of age,
the sage and the idiot, have all helped. No one can
say when Italian became Italian and not Latin, French
became French, Spanish became Spanish. The differentiation was, however, effected; and the seeming
difference between the modern dialects is great.
Language is not fashioned by rules of men; it
grows by rules established in the constitution of
mind: it is not created by reason, but by growth.
Primarily, language is but vocalized expression; and,
in this sense, all animals have each a tongue peculiar
to themselves.
The roar of the lion by its intonation informs all
other lions of his feelings and thoughts, whether
of hunger, pain, or anger. The wolf's howl of hunger is unlike its call for its companions. The carol
of the song-bird, the scream of the eagle, are as expressive as though translated into human speech: we
readily understand these simple, unequivocal, vocalizations of passion. They are words of a language
unknown to us, except as we understand by intonation and signs. Locke, Monboddo, and others, suppose animals have no language because they do not
have abstract ideas. It may be true that they have
not; but is language confined to the conveyance of
abstract ideas? When the hour-old babe cries, "Ma I "
has it abstract ideas? or when it is capable of ex.
9'1 
92      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
pressing its wants by an attempted articulation of the
name of the object, or in those Oriental negroes
wherein language is reduced to its lowest estate, or
in the case of the laborers in England whose entire
vocabulary is found not to contain three hundred
words, how many abstract ideas is this instrument
called on to convey? All animals have rudimentary
organs of speech, and many have them in great perfection. Why do they not vibrate with thrilling
words?  Because there is no mind behind the organs,
capable of originating thrilling ideas. With the globttis of the gorilla, or even with an artificial one, man
could articulate perfectly.
Animals, by the ircharacteristic intonations, express
their few and simple thoughts, confined exclusively to
their corporeal wants and passions. Between civilized man and the animal there is a tremendous reach
of intellect, and perhaps a complete addition of morals.
The interval is filled, in a great measure, by savage
peoples, and by beings that are now extinct. This
difference yields a perfected speech. That intellect
and morals express themselves through his organs
of speech is as natural and consistent as that the
passions should through those of animals. The language of abstract ideas is as natural as the processes
of thought by which such ideas are evolved. It is
nothing foreign to him, but an outgrowth of mind.
Savage man is born on the globe languageless; but
he has thoughts and the organs to expre s those
thoughts, and his first infant cry is the first word of his
language. He expresses pain bycries,and laughswhen
pleased.  His language may not be greatly superior 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
to the animals. A hundred words may fully express
all his ideas, and those principally names of objects;
as animals, trees, places. The relations these bear to
each other and to him could be expressed by gestures; for communication in such a state would
require more intuition than reason.
Thought necessarily precedes expression; for a word
is the symbol of an idea, and could not be created
without the idea. As the savage began to have clearer
ideas, he would endeavor to express himself with
greater clearness: new words would spontaneously
arise; and, as they awoke similar ideas in the hearer,
when he desired to convey that idea he would use
the same word which had conveyed that idea to him;
and thus the articulation would come to stand for the
idea, leaving a wide margin, however, for gesture.
The ideas of savages are not complex, but as simple
as those of children. Hence they strive to present
them simultaneously by a single effort or word; and
from this results agglutination or polysynthesism, a
characteristic of ancient and of savage languages.
They combine the phrase into a single tightly interlocked word, containing all its appendages and shades
of meaning. The language thus formed is composed
of stereotyped phrases. The tongue sets forth, with
an intonation expressive of the individual's sensation,
neither noun, verb, nor adjective, but capable of being
either, or all combined. It is a simple expression of
feeling, as of joy, pain, or hope.
Such is the elementary condition of all languages,
and is preserved in many at present.
As ideas, by the development of mind, became clear.
93 
94      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
er, the necessity of distinguishing the parts of a
sentence by which they are expressed becomes evi dent, and noun and verb are distinguished; words set
apart to express action not being used to express
the names of things. In Chinese, this stage has not
been attained. Traces of the previous condition are
met with in English, far away as it is from its original
polysynthesism; as the employment of many words
as nouns, and also as verbs: as fly, an insect; fly, to
move through the air.
Language advances by analysis, by which the parts
of a sentence are differentiated from each other, and
appropriate offices assigned to each.
When savage man began to aggregate into tribes,
each tribe would commence the formation of a language
of its own. There would be expressions common to
all, based on the anatomical structure of the organs
of speech; but, independent of these, each tribe
would rapidly acquire new expressions. Those dwelling among mountains, surrounded by the most startling
phenomena of Nature, would have quite different
sensations from those dwelling on extensive plains.
Each would have ideas awakened by surrounding
scenes, which the others would not have, and hence
words to express those sensations which the others
would not have. Man is a creature of circumstances;
and the great Humboldt has told in beautiful language
how the human heart vibrates to the ever-varying aspects of surrounding Nature.
From this starting-point, the various languages diverge until so widely separated that their origin is
lost; and the most expert linguist fails to observe any 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
other relationship, except such as grows out of the
similarity of anatomy in all races.
Some tribes have exhausted the forms of expression
on the verb, using it as the means of designating the
relationship of the sentence; others have used the
substantive, to mark by its variations the inter-relation of its dependencies. No language is perfect, and
some races express shades of meaning which have
remained unrecognized by others. Thus the Sanskrit,
so much richer than the Greek in the manner it indicates the relations of a noun to a phrase, of words
between themselves, and the nature of the verb, has
no mood for a verb distinct from time.
The general mechanism of language is everywhere
the same; for that is dependent on the anatomical
structure of the brain which originates, and the organs which express thought; and human nature, from
the poles to the equator, is very near the same.
When we view this wonderful structure, so harmonious in all its parts; so delicately and logically constituted; expressive of the minutest shade of feeling;
capable of conveying the inspirations of Jehovah, or
illuminating the darkest province of Nature,- we are
lost in amazement, and shrink from referring it to the
silent and imperceptible growth of ages.
It appears complete, as the work of one man grasp
ing the wants and feelings of all other men; yet we
know by the records of history that - it has been built
up by the conjoint labors of all men, laboring unknowingly, as bees building in harmony a beautiful and
mathematically constructed comb. The philosopher
coining a new word to express the scarcely defined
95, 
96      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
shade of meaning he wishes to convey, the playful
chance misarticulation of the child, the word of wisdomfn, the rude utterance of the boor, the polite language
of refinement, the slang of the street, even the voice
of the wild brute, is incorporated in this structure.
Drawing existence from so many sources, at once
seemingly fortuitous and conflicting, how wonderful
that each language should be a perfect harmony, and
all be related by the deep foundation of their structure! The explanation is very simple. The organs
of speech are the same, except the slightest variations, in all races of mankind.   They  are capable
of making but a certain number of distinct articulations or sounds. The imperfect organs of the animal
realm cannot make all of these, nor can thle rudest
races of men; but what they do make are of these,
and they can make no others. The song of the
bird, and roar or growl of the wild beast, are made
with consonants and vowels: all their voices can be
expressed by letters. Thus all races have a few
simple sounds to build with. There is no language
which uses all of these. The choice is probably the
result of slight anatomical peculiarities.
These sounds savage man crowds or agglutinizes
into one spontaneous expression, as representing an
idea or emotion, just as the lion to express anger utters an explosive or prolonged growl, or the wolf a
repeated howl. There is simply the expression of
feeling heightened by gesture.  The phrase is nothing
more than a gesture of the tongue.  This is what may
be considered the rudest state of the language of 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
man. It is sufficient to meet the wants of the savage,
as it expresses all his feelings and ideas.
As he advances out of his savagehood, ideas arise
independent of objects. The mind not only is capable
of receiving ideas of objects, but can unite these
simple terms into complex thoughts, and put forth
such thoughts as intangible representatives of tangible things. Delicate relations are discovered which
cannot be expressed by conglomerated phrases. By
analysis the primitive words are disintegrated, and
changed to meet the new requirements.
This growth is like that of the development of life,
seen in the evolution of the chain of living beings
revealed by geology. There is first but one organ to
serve all purposes: slowly other organs form to meet
various requirements. The assimilation of food is the
essential condition of animal life, and hence the first
organ is a stomach. The animal is nothing more than
a stomach floating in the water; so the cardinal requirement of speech is the expression of thought, and the
tongue makes one gesture for that object.
To this simple, floating sac, organs for locomotion; a
complicated digestive system, composed of members
between whom the labor is divided; circulating nervous systems, the latter receiving impressions of
seeing, hearing, feeling,  are added one by one, until
it becomes a wonderful being, capable of meeting the
most varied requirements.
So from the original phrase-word, which is neither
noun, verb, nor other part of speech, but either, or all
combined, these parts are developed by a slow process
to a complete separation.
7
97 
98      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
If we admit the theory herein advanced, by studying the various tongues from the savage to the
civilized, the process by which the advance or growth
is made can be readily discerned. For if the most
civilized was once in the same condition as the agglutinated tongues of savages, and all are following after
the same manner of growth, then the diverse languages of the world become but so many stages
through which the highest have passed, and the entire history of growth is revealed.
It is as though language had left fossil remains all
along the path of its ascent, and those, too, far less
equivocal than those of geology.
It is a living, growing structure, always the perfect
photograph of the mind which uses it.  It changes
from year to year, from century to century; rarely
enduring a thousand years. This growth is affected
by the aggregation of words from other languages, and
the growth of thought coining new words to express
itself, or giving new meanings to old words. This
process can be Observed in every writer or speaker.
Often words used in the slang of the vulgar are elevated into polished literature. The developments
of science have introduced during the present century
many thousand new words, and our lexicons have to be
revised every year. Language seeks to become cosmopolitan. As geological knowledge extends, and
the facilities for travel and mutual interchange of
thought and commodities perfect, each language
grasps to itself all others. Each race learns the
thoughts of others; and how can the new thought be 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
better expressed than by the words by which it was
first conveyed?
Even languages which are held as sacred, and sacrilegious to corrupt, have not been preserved from
change and decay. Before the Christian era, Hebrew
had ceased to live; and Sanskrit, venerated for ages
by the Hindoo as the vehicle of the divine utterance
of the Vedas and sacred poems, shared the same fate.
It is an easy task to observe the growth of a language. Words retain vestiges of their origin, such
as silent letters, not of any use in pronouncing the
word, but once employed in the old speech. If we
go back any considerable distance, say in English, we
shall find that a great many words from which the
silent letters have now disappeared then retained
them; and by their aid the origin of the words can be
determined.
The Sanskrit, the oldest written language, affords
the best view of development. It is so intricate and
wonderfully complicated, that it astonished the scholars of Europe, who held for a long time that it was
an invention of philosophic Brahmins to preserve
their knowledge from the common people; but now
it is discovered that those common people speak a
language which must have grown out of the Sanskrit
by ages of decay and corruption. In its first appearance in the Rig-Veda, it has all the inversion, comI)plexity, and agglutinized characteristics of the savage
age of spontaneous thought.  Then follows the age
of analysis, carried to the extent of the decomposition
of its grammar.  The process then ceases; for the
language becomes too unwieldy to be used when
6     
99 
100     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
brought in collision with the dialect of a conquering
race. Here a fact is brought to light of a very in
teresting nature. When two languages are brought
in contact, the more advanced or analytical gains
the ascendency. Thus the French tends to supplant
German and the Basque-Breton, when the two coalesce
on the borders, and in its turn, when spoken by negroes, is simplified in structure to the level of an
African tongue.
Languages are difficult to cross from this cause.
The barbarians conquered Rome, but lost their language by doing so. The Romance tongues are monuments of the enduring logic of Latin speech. The
Anglo-Saxon language only appropriated a few words,
and names of places, of the Celto-Britons.   The
Arab has in vain endeavored to compel his Persian
subjects to speak the language of the Koran. They
employ Arabic words to such an extent, that whole
sentences are spoken in pure Arabic; yet the structure of such sentences remains purely Persian. The
modern Greek still uses the idiom of Demosthenes,
yet with so changed a vocabulary, that that orator
could not understand his modern countrymen. The
Turkish, one of the widest-spread languages, so
tenaciously retains its Tartarian structure, that the
rude Yakat from the frozen regions of Siberia and
the polished Turko-Sybarite of luxurious Constantinople, although their ancestors were separated beyond the ken of tradition, are mutually intelligible
to each other.
Numerous facts prove that language is of growth,
and that its development is due to the expansion of
..i 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
mind. This statement has no reference to the perfec tion of structure, but to the capability and perfection
of conveying thought. Some savage tongues have
very perfect structure: this praise must be awarded
to all; yet these structures are often complex, and
cumbersome in the extreme. It has been a stereotyped speech for centuries with scholars to praise the
beauty, sweetness, strength, and power of Greek and
other ancient tongues. Allowance must be made for
the affection a student has for his particular study,
and the fact that the translator always finds many
novelties, which, through the interesting method of
substituting a word in one language for a corresponding word in another, seems to give that language
greater expressive power; but, if the subject be maturely considered, will an Englishman say that he
has ideas which his language cannot express with all
the beauty, force, and strength it has in his mind? Will
a German, a Frenchman, an Italian, acknowledge this
of their several tongues? It is said that the word
corresponding to humanity is vainly sought for in
Greek. Can it be supposed, that, if the idea existed,
it could have remained unexpressed? Linguists take
it for granted that it did not, by the absence of the
word. Equally vain would be the search for words
expressive of the great modern inventions and scientific discoveries, which may be said to require a distinct language of their own.
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, even the hieroglyphs of
Egypt and the cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh, can
be translated into modern speech; but he who attempted to render a modern book into any of these
101 
102     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
would stumble at every sentence, and find a host
of words for which the ancient speech had no synonymes.- Why is this? Is it not simply because the
human mind has expanded, and, to express its new
thoughts, added to its vocabulary? Greek was perfect for the Greeks, Chaldee for Chaldeans, modern
speech for moderns; but how fettered would be our
minds were we compelled to express ourselves in any
ancient tongue, even were it made our mother's dialect!
The Norwegian colony which settled Iceland in the
ninth century remained so stationary, that, at the end
of four hundred years, they still spoke nearly pure
old Norse, and were unable to converse with the
people of their mother-country. The desolate island
scenery and isolated social life furnished not even as
many ideas as the bleak mountains of Norway and
the contact of nationalities.
Germany, during the French wars, as nations always do when thus stimulated, made rapid advances
in thought and its expression. A colony sent just
previously to the mountains of Pennsylvania, and by
the war cut off from the mother-country, were found,
only twenty-five years afterwards, to be speaking as
Germans had done in the previous century. Their
slight contact with the English had fused many English words into their speech, which they used to
represent the new objects presented. They had advanced in one direction, Germany in another. Previous to the time of Cicero, the Latin tongue appears
to have been in a state of rapid growth or change.
Polybius says that the best-informed Romans could
with difficulty read the treaties between Carthage 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
and Rome.  Horace says he could not understand the
Salian Poems; and from Quintilian we learn that the
sacred hymns were scarcely understood by the priests.
Latin was once the dialect of a small tribe,- one
among many which inhabited Italy. It was more
especially the language of Rome. It was the polite
tongue. It was not spoken by the plebeians; and,
had they gained the mastery previous to the classic
age, Latin would have been quite different. Jt was
rapidly changing until Livius, Andronicus, Ennius,
Cato, Lucretius, Cicero, and.the Scipios, fixed it permanently in literature, very much as Johnson, Shakspeare, and Mlilton fixed English speech in their
writings.
Such a condition is said to necessitate the decay of
a language; it rather is a landmark by which the
change or advance can be observed. Were it not for
literature, we could not observe changes; for literature
itself is only a record of change. Missionaries attempted to write the language of the Indians of Central America, and compiled a dictionary containing all
the words they could gather. After only ten years,
they found their work antiquated and useless; so rapidly had old words sunk into disuse, and new ones
arisen.
In the mountain ranges of the Irrawaddy Peninsula,
multitudes of tribes speak different dialects; and Capt.
Gorden collected in the neighborhood of Maniparu
twelve dialects, some of which were not spoken by
more than forty families; and Brown says that tribes
who have removed to neighboring valleys, after two
or three generations, were unintelligible to those they
103 
104     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
left in their native valley. The Ostiac has degenerated into so many dialects, that people dwelling not
twenty miles apart are unintelligible to each other.
It seems, according to Castren, that the barbarous
tongues of the Buriates and Tungusic idioms around
Njertschinsk, Siberia, are rapidly growing, and have
surpassed the literary mongolian; having added terminations expressive of the persons of verbs, which
the liter has not.
Travellers never fail to experience profound surprise
at the diversity of dialects in Africa.  Moffat describes how this diversity occurs. In the isolated villages of the desert, the children are left in the care of
the aged while the parents set off on long journeys,
lasting for weeks or months.  "The infant progeny,
some of which are beginning to lisp, while others
can just master a whole sentence, and those still further advanced, romping and playing together, the children of Nature, through their livelong day, become
habituated to a language of their own..... Thus
from this infant Babel proceeds a dialect of a host of
mongrel words and phrases joined together without
rule; and, in the course of one generation, the entire
character of the language is changed." In the absence of any method by which words are recorded, it
will be readily seen, that, when these children mature,
their language will be retained, while the death of
their parents will destroy the link which unites them
to the past.
The countless Indian tribes, from the Esquimaux of
the Arctic Ocean to the Patagonian of Terre del Fuego,
speak dialects unintelligible to each other. Here, as 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
in Africa, language is in a state of constant flux, and
words are evanescent symbols, enduring scarcely a
single generation.
Great as are the fluctuations in the vocabulary of
languages, their grammatical structure is far more
permanent; and their relationship is established from
this fact in a more permanent manner than possible
by the mere correspondence of words.
Comparative philology is recent, scarcely dating
back to the beginning of the present century; but it
has been cultivated with great assiduity, engaging
the strongest intellects, and has made startling revelations in the new field it has opened.
Its greatest achievement is the discovery of an ancient central language from which the old historic
tongues were derived, and placing its site in Central
Asia.  As the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French,
Wallachian, and Rhetian dialects demonstrate that
they were derived from a more ancient and common
tongue, the Latin; so Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Zeud,
Lithuranian, Sclavonic, Gothic, and Armenian, demonstrate, by their similarity of structure, their common
derivation from an ancient tongue. It would not be
difficult, were history destroyed, to prove that the Romance languages were derived from a common source,
nor more difficult to prove that the eight mentioned
ancient tongues must have been derived from one common ancient stock.
Comparative philology has arrived at this grand result by first ascertaining the laws which languages
follow in their growth; for, fortuitous as the coining of
words may appear, their birth and death are governed
105 
106     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
by inexorable law. By ascertaining the method by
which words change, by phonetic substitution, it is
able to trace words back to their roots which would
not otherwise have been thus referred. To illustrate
what is meant by roots, and to show the irresistible
proofs they furnish of the common origin of tongues,
we will take a word, and, after extracting its root,
show how it unites distant languages. Respectable is
a word derived from the Latin respectabilis.  The latter word is composed by affixing bilis to the verb respectare; separate the prefix re, and spectare, a participle from specere, to see, remains. This latter is compounded of the unchangeable spec, and changeable ere.
The word can be reduced no farther; and hence spec
is the root of respectable, or rather the original first
coined wordfrom which all words containing it sprang,
such as respect, respec-tive-ly, respite, de-spise, circumspect, suspicion, and a host of others, all having
their synonymes in the other branches of Assyrian
speech. Spec, in Sanskrit, is spas; in old high German,
sp}eka; in Greek, skep. If a root is found in one Aryan
tongue, it will be found in the others, having nearly
the same meaning, although the words which grow
out of it may be very different, and have changed
their meaning.
The number of roots is small compared with the
number of words. Sanskrit has but 1,706, according
to the older grammars; and recent students have reduced the number to 500 by tracing words back to
more primitive elements. Hebrew contains 500; Clhinese, 450, multiplied by accents and intonations to
1,263, producing a dictionary of 50,000 words. 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
With five hundred roots like spds, spec, a language
like the English, containing one hundred thousand
words, is readily composed. Hiow few of these words
are used! There are laborers in England who are
said not to use over three hundred words; and a welleducated person seldom uses more than four thousand:
eloquent speakers, not more than ten thousand; Shakspeare, the most original of English writers, fifteen
thousand; Milton, not more than eight thousand;
the Old Testament, five thousand six hundred and
forty-two. The writers of the hieroglyphics, the sages
of Egypt, wrote all their thoughts with two thousand
and thirty words, according to the most recent research.
The savage Indian of America, or the more barbarous negro of Africa, cannot have a more extended vocabulary than the English laborer; and consequently
the substitution of new for old terms more quickly
affects the character of their speech.
Having shown the manner in which the roots, the
fundamental elements of language, are determined,
the proof they afford will be appreciated. These are
briefly,  1. There existed a parent race in Central Asia. 2.
That the Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Zend, Lithuranian,
Sclavonic, Gothic, and Armenian were branches sent
off from this parent stock.  3. That this separation
occurred while these peoples were in a semi-savage
state.
All these propositions are proved by tracing out
the words held in common by these eight branches.
Not only their common origin, but the social advance.
107 
108     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
ment they each had attained before they separated
from that parent stem, can be determined. Thus the
names for ox, sheep, horse, goose, and dog, are the same
in all, as are those for carts, yokes, and fixed habitsations; showing that, before their separation, all these
animals had been domesticated, these implements
been constructed, and the wandering savage began
to learn the use of a fixed dwelling. The sameness of
the words for numbers, and the lunar divisions of the
year, show that they divided the year by the mutations of the moon, and counted to more than one hundred by the decimal system, and worshipped according
to the system revealed in the Rig-Vedas.
The seat of the parent dialect is traced towards
the East, or to Central Asia, by the constant approach
the languages met with in that direction make towards
what may be considered a common stock, or towards
the Sanskrit, its eldest offspring, and the departure
made from it towards the west, where, in the extreme
continental limits, the Celtic is so remote, that for a
long time it was considered as belonging to another
and distinct group.
The elements of the European languages are found
in the Sanskrit, like remnants of one mother-tongue.
They are more logical, more analytic, but not, as philologists are wont to say of modern dialects, impoverished. To suppose a language three thousand years
old, expressing the ideas of that time, superior to a
language embodying the thoughts, inventions, and
magnificent discoveries of the present is too absurd
to need refutation.
There has been a tendency, and it is of German 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
Origin, belonging to German thought and erudition,
to elevate language above anatomy in the classifi cation of the races of men; in other words, to place
more dependence on the relationship of the dialects of
the races, than agreement of form, color, or structure.
This may appear strange; but it is found true, that,
after a people have attained sufficient advancement to
acquire what may comparatively be called a permanent
speech, the essential elements of that speech are re tained more tenaciously than the physical characteris tics of the race.
Words are the habiliments of the soul, and partake
of its own indestructible qualities.  The deeper the
research is carried, the more certain it appears that
structure of language is more permanent than race.
Who for instance would classify the swart Hindoo and
the florid German together? yet language places
them near, very near, to each other; and, having thus
obtained the indication, or lead and based himself
on a true classification, the scholar finds ethnological
reasons to support his linguistic conclusions.
On the other hand, eminent men have wholly ignored the truthfulness of language in classification.
Agassiz has given his name to this issue. Hle compares the brumming of the bears of Thibet, East
Indies, Nepaul, Syria, Europe, Siberia, the Rocky
Mountains, and the Andes, which, though of different
species, utter the same sound; the miawing of the cats
of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; the gackling
of gallinaceous birds, the song of the thrushes; and
concludes, "Let any philologist study these facts,
and learn at the same time how independent these
109 
110     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
animals are from the other, which utter such closely
allied systems of intonations, and, if he be not altogether blind to the significance of the analogies of
Nature, he must begin himself to question the reliability of philological evidence as proving genetic
origin."
This conclusion merits repetition only from its
source. It shows a want of appreciation of the
principles which govern linguists. The sounds made
by these orders of animals may be, and perhaps are,
inherited from a primitive common ancestor, and point
to such an origin; but, be that as it may, the words
which possibly agree by reason of anatomical similaritv
are discarded, and such only are used in comparison
as are unmistakably free from such criticism. What
is more, it is on grammatical structure the main reliance is placed; for that is more enduring than the
words it controls.
That the eight great branches should, if isolated,
each invent the decimal system, and call the numbers
by similar names, would be beyond possibility.  That
they should call any number by the same name would
be impossible; but that they should call a hundred
alike, and not only that, but give similar names to
their domestic animals, their dwellings and occupations, is entirely beyond belief.
This proof, drawn from the most permanent part of
language, is strengthened by the deeper structure of
these tongues. The idiom employed by the peasant
of Germany is repeated by the sanctified Brahmin in
his devotions before the altar of Brahma.  Tenaciously
as the grammar is retained, it breaks before we reach 
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
the lowest race, and in this, and in this alone, fails to
be all that is required of a method of classification.
Aided by history, in all the nationalities of the world
it speaks unmistakably except of the Oriental negro
and some fragments of tribes whom it fails to connect
with the great stem which supports the other races.
These lowest peoples were cast off before the fixation of speech. We have seen how, among a certain
grade of savages, language is in a constant flux; and
a few years or a single year change its nature. Not
until it attains to a degree of permanence, the result
of superior advancement, can we look for the preservation of its distinctive marks.
This stage was not attained, as the present classification indicates, until after the separation of the two
great branches,- the TURANIAN and ARYAN.
ill 
CHIAPTER IV.
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
Geographical Dispersion of Organic Beings in Relation to Man.- The
Great Zoological Provinces first distinctly marked immediately antece  dent to the Introduction of Man. - Cause of. - Climate of the Earth
during the Tertiary.- Disappearance of Climatic Distinctions in the
Secondary  Strata.-  ZOOLOGICAL  PROVINCES  of the  Earth,-  the
Arctic Realm, the Asiatic, the European, the African, the Australian,
the Indian, the Polynesian. - Realms, how defined, how produced.  The Principles applicable to the Dispersion of Animals also applicable
to the Dispersion of the Races of Men.
THE geographical distribution of organic forms, the
subdivisions of the zoological provinces wherein peculiar types flourish to the exclusion of others, is first
noticeable in the age immediately antecedent to the
introduction of man; and it is a remarkable fact, that
the zoological provinces of the earth immediately
preceding the drift correspond with those of the
present. The kangaroo, dinornis, &C., are not found in
the Europeo-Asiatic province, but in the Australian;
the rhinoceros, hyena, lion, &c., belong to the African;
while the elephant, mammoth, rhinoceros, bear, hyena,
hare, &c.., roamed the European, the mnastodon, megatherium, megalonyx, glyptodon, mylodon, toxodon,
macrauchema, and other extinct beings, inhabited the
American continent; the former pointing to species
existing at present on the continent, the latter to
forms more changed, but of the same type; as the
112 
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
llama, cava, capabara, sloth, and armadillo. The monkey
race indicates the same fact.  Their fossils found in
Brazilian caverns belong to the platyrrhine family, now
peculiar to South America.
Holding firmly to the principle that organic forms
in their introduction and maintenance are governed
by law, and that they are progressive in development,
we must search for the cause or causes of geographical distribution in the laws which regulate the climate
of the globe. If a uniform climate prevailed over the
whole earth, one fauna and one flora only could exist.
In proportion as climate changes shall we meet with
changes in the organic beings subjected to its influence.
Until the tertiary age, there was a nearly uniform
climate. During the coal period, the lepidodendron,
sigillaria, and palm flourished from the arctic to the
antarctic circle; and the fossil remains of saurian,
denizens of warm seas, are scattered over the world,
regardless of present climatic dictinctions.
Until that age, paleontology records only extinct
species, and generally extinct genere.  Its records of
each age are fragments of the preceding, as existing
species strike their roots into the genera of the fossil
world. Each age presents new species; but they are
closely related to the age immediately past.
This differentiation of climate undoubtedly began
in the earliest ages, but not until the tertiary had it
become sufficient to produce marked results. As
mountain chains gave shape to continental masses, as
existing oceans, currents, islands, and the elevation
of the land, became like the present, and the radiation
8
113 
114     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
of the earth's central heat allowed the influence of
the sun to be locally felt, the climate of different portions of the earth began to assume their present
character; and, with this change in climate, living
beings became subject to local influences, and hence
localized.
At the closing age of the tertiary, the PLEISTOCENE,
or DRIFT, three-fourths of the fossil shells are of existing species, and most of the principal generae of
mammals correspond to those of the same zoological
provinces.
In the age immediately preceding, the PLIOCENE,
one-third the species of mollusks, and nearly all the
mammalia, are extinct.
In the next lower and earlier age, about two-thirds
of the shells are extinct; and those that still exist
must be looked for, not in adjoining seas, but in latitudes to the south,- indicating a differentiation of climate: in other words, the temperate zone was being
established on the borders of the far-reaching but then
contracting torrid. All the fossil mammals of that age
are extinct.
Here we may notice that the higher orders of all
classes of animate existence are less able to withstand
the vicissitudes of conditions than the lower. They
are products of favored circumstances, and modelled
to meet certain requirements, and yield obedience
more slowly to the new. It is not the gigantic and
aberrant beings, as the margatherium, mylodon, and
mammoth, the megalasaums, masosaurus, and iguanodon, which survive, but  shell-fish and  zoophytes,
coming up from the dark night of the silures to dwell 
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES
in the sunshine of the present seas, scarcely modified
in generic distinctions. Such instances are rare; but
they serve to show the tenacity with which the hereditary powers of life preserve their identity against
adverse conditions, and how slowly the forces of
change operate. The little TERRABRATULA has withstood conditions which have swept the fleets of
huge saurians from the ocean, levelled the coal forests
of the coal measures, and buried in ruins the herds
of mammoths and mastodons which roamed from the
Yellow Sea, across both continents, to the Pacific
Ocean.
In the EOCENE, the oldest portion of the tertiary,
reposing directly above the secondary rocks, the relation between the present and ancient zoological
provinces disappears. With few exceptions, all its
shells are extinct; and those still living are found in
torrid latitudes. All its mammifers belong to extinct
species, and the greater part to extinct GENERAE, indicating changes so great as to obliterate radical characteristics. The fossil plants of its upper portion
indicate a climate like that of Southern Europe and
the Mediterranean, while those in its lowest showv a
tropical climate.
As we pass down into the secondary strata, all
climatic distinctions disappear. It is, then, of the
deep sea, or shallow river or ocean, lake or estuary,
that we observe these influences, and not of the more
powerful force of temperature which now renders the
poles masses of uninhabitable ice, the equator a burning zone, and the intermediate spaces temperate regions.
115 
116     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Having indicated the differentiation of climate, we
are prepared to view with comprehending glance the
distinguishing features of the zoological provinces
into which this differentiation divides the surface of
the earth.
The broad field covered by the term "climate"
includes not only the thermal and meteorological
conditions of a country, but all external circumstances
brought to bear on living beings. It includes, even
in meteorological sense, the configuration and elevation of the land; as it is evident that climate is
intimately related to physical geography, or the
elevation and depression of continents and islands,
mountains and valleys, currents in air and ocean,
and all the diversified aspects assumed by the physical world.
Beginning with an all-enveloping ocean studded
with islands, and a high uniform temperature arising
from the internal heat of the earth, as mountains were
pushed upwards, and continents showed their broad
backs above the sea, arresting the flow of currents in
the sea and atmosphere; as the lands assumed their
present aspect, the provinces of life were defined
more and more clearly, until, by loss of internal heat,
the thermal conditions depended entirely on the sun's
rays: thus the globe was divided into unchanging
zones of temperature, and the universal province became subdivided, as at present, at nearly the same
time with the' appearance of existing species of animals and of man.
Of these provinces, we shall first consider the
ARCTIC REALM. This extends from the North Pole, 
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
irregularly beyond the Arctic Circle, to the northern
limits of forests. It is characterized by the uniformity with which its animals and plants are distributed.
It is remarkable that plants become dwarfed, stunted,
and wholly disappear, while animal life flourishes in
vigor, and pushes its most gigantic forms far beyond
into the Frozen Sea. Some graminiferous plants,
mosses and lichens, serve as a scanty pasture to the
ruminants and rodents. Flowering plants are of few
species; but some of them make up in number of individuals the deficiency of kinds, often when in bloom
resembling drifts of snow. A month is sufficient for
them to mature their seeds, which feed a few small
birds. The gull, and otlher sea-side feeders, prey on
the immense swarms of fish, or marine plants and inftlisoria. Countless flocks of geese, ducks, petrels, penguins, cormorants, and gulls larger than eagles, hover
over the coast and islands. The mammals are the white
bear, musk-ox, reindeer, white fox, polar hare, lemming,
walrus, cachalot, seal, norwal, and whale. Fishes are
numerous, and the lower order of worms, mollusks,
echinoderms, and meduse, are well represented; but
not a single reptile dwells in this zone. Its flora is
devoid of all plants used as food by civilized man; and
its dwarfed races of men who dwell on the borders of
the frozen ocean are compelled to live on an almost exclusive flesh diet, relieved only by a miserable lichen,
the tripe-de-roche.   They have only two domestic
animals: in the east, the reindeer; in the west, the dog.
This realm is distinguished by the sharpness of its
outline. South of it, lies first the AMERICAN REALM,
characterized by the wide diffusion of its species, a
117 
118     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
fact referable to the mountain-chain extending from
the Arctic Circle to Patagonia, furnishing a means
of transit. Thus we find many ancient plants and
animals common to both North and South America.
Tropical America does not possess the luxuriance
of species of Africa. Its largest pachyderms are insignificant, and its ruminants small in comparison.
The tapir and peccary represent the former; the llama
and alpaca, the latter. Species rivalling the elephant
of Africa flourished at a recent period, as the mastodon, megatherium, &c.; but they are extinct, with the
horse it once possessed. It approaches Australia in
possessing marsupials; but its ostriches are different
generically from those of that continent, and its
monkeys are not generically represented in Africa.
The next realm, bordering the Arctic, and almost
joining the American, is the ASIATIC, remarkable for
being the original home of the progenitors of the
domestic horse, ox, sheep, and goat. It possesses the
musk-deer, the bear, argali, yak, the bactrian camel,
the wild horse and ass, and numberless other forms.
It extends from the Arctic Circle to the Himalaya,
from the Pacific to the borders of Europe, and may be
considered as one vast and greatly elevated tableland. Its exposure to the unmitigated Arctic blasts
depresses its temperature. At a recent geological date,
probably since the advent of man, the elephant and
rhinoceros roamed over the now inhospitable steppes
of Siberia to the mouth of the Lena on the Frozen
Ocean.
The EUROPEAN REALM. extends from the Arctic
Circle to the deserts of Sahara, from the western 
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
boundaries of Asia to the Atlantic. Its representative animals are the bear, stag, antelope, goat, aurochs,
and wolf.
The AFRICAN REALM, embracing the whole of the
African continent, except a narrow border along the
Mediterranean, possesses one of the highest types of
the animal kingdom, as well as the largest, -the chimpanzee (troglodytes niger), the elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, giraffe, lion, tiger, leopard, and innumerable antelopes and deer, and its representative
species.
The AUSTRALIAN REALM embraces all that continent, and is entirely unique: it is exclusively represented by marsupials, as the opossum and kangaroo.
The INDIAN RIEALM embraces all Asia south of the
Ilimalaya, and the many islands lying between Australia and Hindostan. Its animals are the elephant,
rhinoceros, tapir, stag, and the highest of animals,
the pithecus satyrus, or oranlg outang.
Thle POLYNESIAN REALM embraces the islands scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean, and is characterized more by its races of men than animals. It is
entirely fragmentary, and its fragments are set in a
wide ocean, often hundreds of miles apart.
The ARCTIC REALM is limited on its southern border
by the increasing temperature.   Its fauna, being
adapted to withstand a vigorous temperature, are disqualified for sustaining heat: even when the sun for
a few weeks melts the ice and snow from the southern
faces of the hills, and brown lichens start in the
warmest nooks, oppressed by the heat, its inhabitants
crowd towards the pole. The whale loves the coldest
119
I 
120     THEE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
bays of icebergs, and to bathe in water far below
freezing. The sea of the tropics would be to it an
impassable sea of fire. Surrounded by a coat of blubber a foot or more in thickness, which, at the same
time, retains and supplies heat, it seems constantly
overstocked with caloric, in a high fever which nothing
but ice can satisfy. The seal and the walrus are protected in like manner, and the bear and musk-ox are
clad in thickest fur.
The ANTARCTIC REALM is scarcely known: as it has
no land except what is buried beneath perpetual ice,
its fauna is exclusively of the sea. The whale, seal,
and penguin are its characteristic forms; but thiese
are of different species from those of the Arctic. Tihe
whale cannot cross the tropic, and hence its diffusion
must have occurred previous to the present differentiation of climate.   The American Realm is, except
beyond the Arctic Circle, cut off by vast oceanic expanses from all others. The European Realm is isolated on the west by an ocean, on the east by seas
and mountains, on the south by the Saharian wastes.
The African and Australian are isolated by a surrounding ocean. The Asiatic Realm has an ocean
north and east, and the almost impassable Himalaya
on the south. Hlaving thus briefly surveyed the
realms into which the earth is divided by barriers
now existing, we are enabled to understand how this
differentiation has been attained. If we glance at a
geological map, we shall see that the land during the
earlier tertiarv did not have its present form.
The  salient features  existed;  mountain  ridges
showed their sharp outlines from the sea, anticipating 
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
the future form of the continents: but, even so late,
the character of the land was essentially insular. Projecting masses, since submerged, brought the Old and
New Worlds into close relationship.  This, in connection with a uniform temperature, favored the wide
distribution of species.
With these realms, as yet faintly defined, but
rapidly developing their peculiarities, see how it
would be with the diversified species submitted to
their agency. Admitting that living beings are resultants of the conditions which originate and surround
them, they of course assume forms adapted to those
conditions. In the strife for existence, those individuals, species, or generas, which cannot conform, inevita
bly perish. Wide seas, swift currents, and mountain
barriers, would separate the realms of life. These
were introduced slowly. There was opportunity for
dissemination and interblending. Then, when thoroughly isolated, each species followed the direction
imparted by its parentage, modified by the new circumstances.   Many perish; for they are unyielding,
or incapable of mastering more vigorous antagonists.
Others prosper, and crowd out less plastic forms. But
here I take all this for granted, and apply it to the
geographical distribution of species iri their relation
to that of mankind.
The bear of the Rocky Mountains, the black bear
of America, the brown bear of Europe and Asia, the
white bear of the Arctic, are so intimately related,
that the most superficial observer at once pronounces
them all bears; yet they differ much more in external
appearance than anatomical structure. It is difficult
121 
122     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
for the anatomist to distinguish between their skeletons.
The puma, and fossil lion of America, the tiger,
lion, and leopard of Africa, all present the same uniformity. Cuvier confessed himself unable to distinguish a skull of a lion from that of a tiger. The fossil
elephant of America and the existing Asiatic species
are very similar. The wolf of America and that of
Europe cannot be distinguished by their skulls. This
similarity extends to all genera of animals. It shows
a bond of union which cannot be satisfactorily accounted for otherwise than by referring families so
related to a common parentage.'If we suppose the
American fauna to have originated on American soil,
and the European on European, it would be inexplicable how the bear, wolf; horse (fossil), the elephant
(fossil), lion (fossil), and innumerable other types,
should, in countries so remote, surrounded by such
diverse conditions, arrive at identical developments.
The occurrence of one instance would be remarkable,
that of hundreds incomprehensible. That America
and Europe each possess a bear, the structures of
which cannot be distinguished, together with numberless other instances of conformity, as in deer, wolves,
foxes, &c., points to an anterior time when both held
a fauna in common. Diversity of conditions has produced specific changes, which are scarcely more than
change of color.
It is evident that any theory which accounts for the
dispersion of the family of bears or wolves or deer
in a partial measure is applicable to the diffusion of
the races of men. It appears that the dispersion, or 
ORGANIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES.
rather specific change, of the latter began about the
same time with the former, and must, consequently,
have been governed by the same causes.
When we cast every vestige of miracle from
science, the justness of this conclusion will be apparent.
123 
CHIAPTER V.
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
Definition of Species. - Points of Agreement of all the Races of Men. - Lon  gevity.- Contagious Diseases.- Color of Skin. - Color of Eyes and
Hair. - Texture of Hair.- Similar Variations observed in Animals.  Albinos.- Anatomical Comparison of the Races.- Measurements and
Comparison of Skulls of. - Hybridity. - Egyptian Records. - Co~cLU  SIONS.
THAT what are called the RACES or TYPES of mankind belonged to one species is supposed to be proved
by their conforming to the tests employed to define
species.  Species has been defined as "a primordial
organic form," and the definition widely received;
but it is a problem to solve what is meant by the
word "primordial."  According to the most recent
views of naturalists, there are no " primordial" forms.
The learned Pritchard defines species: "It includes
only the following conditions; namely, separate origin
and distinction of race, evinced by the constant transmission of some characteristic peculiarity of organization. Permanent varieties are those, which, having
once taken place, continue to be propagated in the
breed in perpetuity. The fact of their origination
must be known by observation or inference; since, the
proof of this fact being defective, it is more philosophical to consider characters which are perpetual
as specific or original."
124 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
From this definition of species, it will be seen that
much difficulty invests the subject. Varieties which
originated beyond the reach of history must be con sidered as species; while an equal amount of varia tion, when known to have occurred, creates, not
species, but varieties.
But there are certain tests which can be applied
that obviates the necessity of historic data. It has
been found that the individuals of a species of animals
agree in longevity, in the regularity of periodic
changes in their organism, in the diseases (especially
contagious) to which they are liable; and that species
remotely allied will not produce offspring, and, when
nearly allied, their offspring are sterile.
As will be shown, all races of men conform to the
requirements of these tests, and must be classed as
permanent varieties. But, as we shall have occasion
to show hereafter, the distinctions are as great as
those between the members of the bear, the dog, or
the cat families, which most naturalists consider quite
sufficient to establish specific relations. As was intimated in a previous chapter, the intimate relation
of the members of these families indicates a common
origin equally as much as the same relation existing
between the races of men. To the latter we for the
present will confine our attention.
Taking into consideration the great variation in
the conditions of life of the various nationalities of the
world, some frozen in and confined to their ice huts
half the year, while others are scorched beneath the
tropics, and others still enjoy every intermediate
grade of climate from lofty and cold mountain-sides to
125
I 
THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
warm valleys, from arid deserts to grassy steppes, it is
uotable that all attain an almost equal longevity. Some
writers have supposed that the difference in length
of life was a distinctive race-mark; but more careful
investigation shows, that, among all races, individuals
occasionally attain a great age, and that an octogenarian is almost equally rare among all.
Savage nations are shorter lived than civilized, -a
necessary consequence of their mode of life, and not
referable to any distinction of race. The European
in the middle ages was quite as short-lived. Dr.
Winterbottom speaks of the inhabitants of Guinea as
short-lived, and becoming really old at forty-five; but
the descendants of these short-lived, because improvident and savage negroes, in the Southern States,
where they enjoy many of the comforts of civilization, are among the longest-lived people in the world.
Negroes in the West Indies frequently attain the age
of one hundred, and sometimes one hundred and
twenty.
The Indians have been said to be short-lived, and
to mature and decay early; but they often reach the
age of ninety and one hundred years. The Laplanders, situated in the extreme north of Europe, are
subjected to a rigorous climate, and it is certain that
they early attain maturity: they often reach eighty,
ninety, and one hundred years.  In cold climates and
in warm, the age of puberty is attained earlier than
in temperate regions, heat and cold producing the
same effect. The same may be said of cities over
the country, as the more stimulating diet, and asso
ciations of the former, have a strong influence. But
126 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
this period differs but a few years at most, and there
is as much variation in any one race as there is between those the most remote.
Neither longevity, nor the period of puberty, furnishes any marks of distinction of race.
If we except malarious influences, to which the
African seems acclimated, the different races of men
are equally effected by contagious diseases. There
are some of these diseases that are communicated by
all warm-blooded animals to each other, as hydrophobia: but most such diseases are chiefly confined to
the species with which they originate.  The most
contagious disease among sheep will not extend to
oxen or swine; nor will such as the pneumonia extend to horses, although fatal to oxen. Plants show
the same quality, - diseases like the yellows in
peaches, or black-knot in plums, extending only to
those species.
Each species has its own peculiar diseases, which
are readily transmitted to the members of the species,
but wholly incommunicable to members of other
species.
In this manner, all the races of man are shown to
belong to one family; for the contagious diseases
which affect them do not reach downward, even to the
apes, and have a wide margin from all other animals,
while they are all similarly affected by the same
epidemic or contagion, although some races not as
severely as others. Thus the small-pox has spread
from the Arctic Ocean to the circumference of
Africa, and is equally fatal to the African and the
Kamskatdale, all races having been alike scourged.
127 
128     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The Asiatic cholera, the rubeolas, the plague, and syphilis, spare no race.
Pritchard informs us that the yaws is not peculiar
to Africans, but is communicable to Europeans.
The elephantiasis prevails among the inhabitants of
particular countries, and is produced by peculiarity
of food and climate; but, when the system is thus
prepared, it is no respecter of race. It is common
with the negroes of Guinea, spread into Java in 1661,
and attacks Mongolians and Tartars.
When Europeans visit tropical Africa, they usually
have fevers produced by malaria, from which the
negro population have been erroneously thought to be
exempt. The negro has the fevers remittent and intermittent but rarely and lightly; but the negroes who
emigrated from the Northern United States to Sierra
Leone suffered much more from these fevers. The
Indian, when carried to a tropical climate, suffers from
the same malarious diseases as the whites. The Aztecs are said to have suffered from what is supposed
to have been the yellow fever.
These diseases affect all races, black, yellow, red,
and white, but some more than others. The negro
cannot withstand diseases which depress vitality, like
the plague, cholera, small-pox, or typhoid, or any
morbific poison, except malaria. They are predisposed
to consumption when living in a cold climate, and are
more subject than the whites to inflammatory diseases,
and will not bear depletion.
The Semite is peculiarly liable to ophthalmia and
cutaneous diseases, such as leprosy.
Individual instances occur of Europeans beingquite 
-THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
as exempt from fevers, dysentery, and other effects of
tropical malaria, as the native Africans; and consump
tion is as certainly fatal to the white as to the black.
The American Indian will endure a severity of cold
almost incredible; but arctic explorers have shown
that whites could endure a winter in the arctic zone
quite as well.
That the African is a child of the tropics, and the
white of the temperate zone, is evident; but they are
not removed sufficiently by this fact to subject them
to different diseases.
It may be stated as a general rule, without exception,
that any disease contagious among whites will be so
among blacks or red Indians. As such diseases go no
further than man, and as among animals each disease
is confined to a species, how avoid concluding that
all the races of men belong to a common family?
The color of the skin is so different, varying from
an almost pure white through yellow and red to jetty
black, that it has been used as an unequivocal racemark; but there are so many intermediate gradations
between these, that, by the best naturalists, they are
considered of little value. The color of the skin depends on the pigment excreted from the blood, and
interposed between the cutis and cuticle. This seems
to be excreted from the surface of the cutis, anj, like
the cuticle, is extravascular.  It is as thick as the
cuticle in the negro, and, by nice manipulation, can be
detached as a separate membrane. It was an old idea
that the condition of the liver affected the color of
the skin, and this idea has been revived by the emi nent and acute Draper.   The torpor of the liver,
9
129
I 
THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
induced by a hot climate, throws the burden of excret ing carbon on the skin, and hence the excreted deposit
beneath the cuticle. There may be truth in this; but
there are other differences of race accompanying
change of color which remain unaccounted for.
According to dissections made by Seammerring and
Hunter, the texture of this intermediate lamella be tween the cutis and cuticle exists in the fairest of
Europeans; but the pigment is not deposited, and hence
the color depends on the transparency of the skin
revealing the blood in the capillaries beneath. From
white to black, every conceivable shade is produced
by the amount of coloring-matter deposited in this
lamella or rete-mucosum.
From the jetty African, we pass, by insensible degrees, to the brunette of Southern Europe. Exposure
to the sun of dark-haired but fair-skinned Spaniards
makes them as brown as Arabs or Berbers. The
women of swarthy races, when excluded from the
sun, are much whiter than the men. The stimulus of
light and heat is required to produce the secretion.
The same process takes place ill whites exposed to
the weather, as sailors and voyagers, but to a limited
extent; and, as soon as the exposure ceases, the secretion is arrested, and the natural color returns.
The color of the eyes and hair corresponds usually
to the color of the skin. The choroid or iris of the
eye is colored by a pigment secreted from the surface
of the choroid, and passes through the various shades
of blue, gray, brown, and black. Light or blue eyes
usually accompany a fair, and dark eyes a dark complexion. This is not as unvarying as the color of the
130 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
hair. The florid complexion is accompanied by flaxen
or red hair; and the color of skin accompanying black
hair is never so light as that associated with flaxen
hair.  The deposition of coloring-matter in the hair
occurs by a similar and related process to that which
colors the skin. The hairs grow from bulbs situated
just beneath the cuticle. The hairs are enveloped in
a sheath which passes through the skin to the surface.
Each hair is formed by an external, transparent, horny
sheath, similar in substance to the nails, and an internal
pith in which the color of the hair resides. This pith
must possess a limited vascular motion, as it undergoes rapid changes of color in disease, or strong mental
excitement; a few days or hours sometimes serving
to change the color of the hair to snowy white. Unless there was circulation in the hair, this could not
occur, nor could the color change with age.
The structure of hair is the same in all races of men
and in animals; nor does the structure of wool differ
essentially from that of hair; both grow from similar
bulbs. Wool issues from smaller bulbs, and is usually
waved, so as to possess the property of matting.
What has been styled "wool" of Africans is true hair,
but is wavy. It is not always short, but in certain
papua tribes grows so long as to be brushed out into
a periwig three feet across. Some negro tribes have
curled hair, not crisp.
Europeans have curled hair; and, if we pass in a
direct line from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope, we
shall find every variety of hair from the straight to
the most crisp.
The same variations are seen in animals. Varieties
131 
132     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
of swine are white, red, and black, and covered with
stout bristles, and with crisped hair, or wool. Some
varieties of sheep and goats are covered with coarse
hair, others with wool. When sheep of the finest
grade of wool are transferred to a warmer climate, in
a few generations they become covered with coarse
hair. The common goat is covered with rough hair;
but the Angora goat is covered with long silky hairs
of great length and snowy whiteness, and the Cashmere goat produces a fibre of extreme fineness, from
which the Cashmere shawls are made.
Some varieties of dog are covered by a thick wool.
All traveIlers have observed that the color of the
individuals of barbarous tribes is not uniform. This
is easily explained by calling such tribes "mixed,"
but not satisfactorily. The fact is too universal to
allow of such interpretations. It is rather because
varieties arise as it were spontaneously, as they are
seen to do among animals.
One of the widest departures is made by albinos,
or "white negroes."  Their blanched color may result
from disease, but, if so, is congenital, and capable of
hereditary transmission. There have been many cases
of albinos among the slaves in the Southern States,
and they are of frequent occurrence in Africa. Whatever the cause in man, the same affects animals. In
the albino negro, the hair is white, and the eyes pink.
There is a complete absence of the pigment which
gives the black color to the negro.
Domestic species of animals often give birth sporadically to albinos. The farmer is often surprised to
see cats, dogs, rabbits, sheep, hogs, goats, and horses 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
give birth to white offspring, while they are of an
opposite color. There is scarcely a species of wild
animal or bird, but it has been recorded that snowy white individuals have been seen, as the monkey,
squirrel, marten, buffalo, camel, elephant, rhinoceros,
deer, badger, beaver, crows, blackbirds, canaries,
fowls, and so on to the end.
Among domestic species, varieties often as suddenly
spring up of a jetty black; and instances occur of
intermediate colors. Sheep are white, red, and black;
and cats and dogs sport in an endless variety of color,
as do horses and cattle.
With animals as with man, the skin and hair are
strictly correlated or dependent, the latter being always of the color of the former; and, when spotted,
the skin from which the white, red, or black hairs
grow, is of corresponding color.
In structure there exist no considerable variations.
The foramen magnum in Africans is placed more forward of the spinal column than in Europeans, in this
respect approaching the apes. The ribs are heavier
and more arched; the pelvic bones narrower and
thinner; the arms are longer, as are the fingers and
toes; the bones of the leg are bent outward, so that
the knees stand farther apart; the calves of the leg are
thin and high, the feet are flat and broad, the hands
thin, and fingers flexible. All these departures of
the African from the European are made toward the
anthropoid apes; but they are not any greater than is
made by individual Europeans.  It is easy to find
individuals of the latter with arms as long as the
African, with as thin hands, as long and flexible fin
133 
134     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
gers, with as small and high calves to his legs, as flat
feet. On the other hand, no more difficulty is expe.
rienced in finding negroes with as short arms as
Europeans.
These comparisons might be extended to all races
with similar results. None of these superficial char.
acters are sufficiently permanent or defined to be
valuable as positive race-marks. All the races flow
together at their borders; and it is at the centre, and
not at the margins, of their broad streams, that distinctions are discernible.
I will present another point of agreement of races
which lies at the foundation of intellectual and
moral development. The skull, as it contains the
organ of mind, the brain, and by its form indicates
that of the enclosed organ, and by its capacity the
size of that organ, is of vital consideration.   On
the skull and teeth tile comparative anatomist bases
distinctions of species, and he finds no marks as per.
manent or reliable. Between the teeth of the races
of men there is no essential difference. Those of
Egyptian mummies are broader than those of Europeans, but no broader than may be readily found
among the latter. Instances of double front teeth,
and corresponding large molars, are by no means rare.
Even this, the most remarkable distinction, is far from
being sufficienit to establish a specific distinction.
From measurements made of the celebrated and extensive Mortonian collection of skulls, the following
results have been obtained:  Of 38 skulls of the Teutonic Family, the internal
capacity of the largest was 114 inches; of the small 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
est 65. Of 9 skulls of the Tchudic family, of the
largest was 112.5; of the smallest, 81.5. Of 6 Keltic,
of the largest, 97; of the smallest, 78. Of 3 Arabic
skulls, of the largest, 98; of the smallest, 84. Of 18
Fellahs, of the largest, 96; of the smallest, 66. Of 10
Chinese skulls, of the largest, 98; of the smallest, 70.
Of 20 Malay skulls, of the largest, 97; of the smallest,
68. Of 177 skulls of the ancient Peruvians and Mexicans, the largest, 101; the smallest, 58. Of 164 skulls
of American Indians, of the largest, 104; the smallest,
69. Of 90 negro skulls of various tribes, of the largest, 99; of the smallest, 68.
The smallest capacity, 53, is observed in the ancient Peruvians, and the largest, 114, in the Teutonic
Family. Here is a wide difference, one brain being
more than twice as large as the other. But the largest Peruvian skull has a capacity of 101; while the
smallest Teuton has a capacity of 65, or a trifle more
than half the former.  The smallest negro skull has
a capacity of 63, and the largest Tchudic 112.5, or
almost twice as much; but the smallest Tchudic has
but 81.5, while the largest negro has 99.  These
comparisons will suggest others, and it will be found
that they yield like results when applied between
all the families of mankind. There is as much variation in the capacity of skull, that is, size of brain, in
any one race, as exists between the various races.
It has been said that animals of different species
will not propagate; or, if they do, their offspring are
unprolific. The mule offspring of the horse and ass
is a familiar example. Until recently, it has never
been disputed that all races of men were equally pro
135 
136     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
lific when mingled together.  The example of England, created out of different nations, and of the
United States, made up of fragments of almost every
race on the earth, are standing examples of the perfect blending of races. I say, until recently; for a
class of writers have allied themselves, and prostituted
science to the slave-power, and endeavored to prove
that the offspring of the negro and white, after a few
generations, inevitably perishes, showing, they think,
a weakened constitution, or an imperfect power of
propagation, the result of hybridity. Were it not for
the counter facts which show the mulatto to be as longlived and able to rear as large families as negroes or
whites, it might be well asked if species must not be
nearly allied to the closely related varieties, if the
effect of hybridity on their offspring could escape the
notice of all the world until wanted to prove the inferiority of the negro slave.
The statement, so often produced, that the Austra
lian women are sterile to the males of their own race,
after producing by Europeans, was first made by two
credulous travellers, since repeatedly contradicted,
but recently revived by pretenders to scientific
knowledge.
It is unessential whether races be called species, or
permanent varieties, or simply varieties: what I desire
is to show the relationship of all races or varieties to be
sufficiently intimate to prove their common parentage.
The facts of this chapter point only to such a conclusion. The same tests have been applied as are
employed to fix the position of species of animals, and
their requirements have been fully complied with. 
THE UNITY OF MANKIND,
In duration of life, and the periodical functions of
the system; in predisposition to contagious and epidemical diseases; in size and structure; in color of
skin and hair; in capacity of skull, and in perfect
prolificacy, inter se,- the races of men differ no more
than species of any other genus of animals: they differ
as much, and in precisely the same manner. They
differ as the white bear differs from the brown, as the
latter from the black, as the black from the bear of
Europe, as the tiger differs from the lion, the lion
from the panther or leopard. The difference is not
in kind, but in degree.
It is thus seen that the races, varieties, types, or
species of mankind are associated into one family,
bound together by the ties of a common  origin.
The objection is urged against this unity of parent
age, that the delineations of races on the walls of
Egyptian temples, made at least four thousand years
ago, and probably nearer six thousand, preserve the
expression of each,  as well as the artists' crude
method would allow, as they appear at present. The
Copt, the Semite, the African, can all be perfectly
identified. If, for four thousand or six thousand years,
there has been no perceptible change, urges a certain
school of ethnologists, are not the races permanent?
and how did they ever originate from one another?
Granting the Mosaic chronology to be correct, it is
evident that the Egyptian paintings show a diversity
which cannot be reconciled with a common origin. But
science has been completely severed from theology.
It has been shown that six thousand years is but a
day since man wag introduced. Hence a conclusion
137 
138     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
drawn from so short a period is untrustworthy, were
the pictures known to be absolutely faithful.
From the known caricatures they have left, and
their conventional, stereotyped manner, reliance cannot be placed in their outlines, sufficient to yield
a scientific conclusion that there has been no change.
All that can be said is, that they preserve the general
expression of each race. Their pictures inform us of
this sufficiently well, so as not to need explanation.
It so happens that the races depicted, the Semite
and African, are the ones which have changed the
least. They belong to the stationary races. It is
probable that a picture of a Chinese three thousand
years ago would be good for a Chinese today. The
great change which yields the civilization of the
present belongs to races wholly unknown to the
Egyptians. That these have changed, and are daily
changing, no observer can deny. 
CHAPTER VI.
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS
TO MAN.
Bacon's Observation. - Analogies between the Continents.- Typical Con  tinental Form. - The Three Double Worlds. - Benefits conferred on
Man by Contour of the Land. -Influence of Mountain Chains, and of
Large Bodies of Water.- What is Acclimation?- Application of fore  going Principles.
BACON first observed that the two worlds, the Old
and the New, while they widened into broad masses
towards the north, narrowed and terminated in points
towards the Antarctic Ocean. The learned companion
of Capt. Cook, Foster, in his second circumnavigation
of the globe, developed this observation into three
generalizations on the structure of continents.
The first, that the southern points of all the continents are mountainous. These are termini of chains
radiating from the interior, and abruptly broken off at
the shores of the ocean. Thus America terminates
in the rocky heights of Cape iHlorn, where the Andes,
already broken, fall in high cliffs into the Antarctic
Ocean; Africa, in the plateaux of table-mountains;
Asia, in the peninsula of the Deccan, where the giant
Ghauts form the rocky Cape Comorin; lastly, Australia presents the same character at Cape South-east
of Tasmania.
139 
140     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
A second analogy is, that the continents directly
east of these southern extremities have a large island
or group. East of Cape Hiorn are the Falklands;
of Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar and volcanic
islands; of the Deccan, Ceylon; of Australia, New
Zealand.
A third resemblance is in configuration.  On  the
western side of all of them, their flanks are, as it
were, hollowed into a vast gulf. This inflection is
indicated in America by the position of Arica at the
foot of the high Cordilleras in Bolivia, in Africa by
the Gulf of Cambay and the Indo-Persian Sea, in
Australia by the Gulf of Nuyts.
It will be observed by a glance at the map of the
word that all the masses of land widen as they extend northward.  This is not only true of the princi
pal masses, but of the smallest.  Greenland, California, Florida, in the New World; Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Greece, the two Indies, Corea, Kamtschatka, in
the Old, — point southward, but conform to the above
statement. Steffens brings to view that the land is
grouped in three great masses, or double worlds, composed of two parts united by an isthmus or chain of
islands, on one side of which is found an archipelago,
and on the other side a peninsula.
The Americas are the type of this arrangement.
The two parts, North and South America, are of
about equal size, of similar form; and the Isthmus of
Panama which unites them is perfect. On the east is
the archipelago of the Antilles; on the west, the peninsula of California.
The two other double worlds are less perfectly de 
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS TO MAN.  141
fined, and symmetrical. Their component continents
are of unequal size, and, as it were, turned back to
back. They are united along the line of the Caucasus down to the Persian Gulf. Of the western double
world, Europe, a part of Western Asia, and Arabia,
are the northern part, united by the Isthmus of Suez
with Africa, the southern counterpart. The western
archipelago is Greece, the peninsula is Arabia. The
eastern double world, Asia and Australia, approaches
nearer the type.  Asia is its northern part; the isthmus is broken into a chain of islands uniting it with
Australia, the southern part: it possesses the great
archipelagos of Borneo, Moluccas, and Celebes, and a
peninsula, India, of vast extent.
Another aspect of configuration is of momentous
consequence. The massing of land into great bodies
is not favorable to civilization. Africa is the most
solid of the continents, Europe the most intersected
by the sea. The facilities of commerce, the variety
of scenery, the stimulus imparted by natural divisions
into nationalities, are broad themes, based not so much
on the constitution of man as on that of the globe.
Such are a few leading resemblances between the
great continents. In respect to the globe, other characters are equally well defined. A necessity of the
present contour of the continents is the vast preponderance of land in the northern hemisphere.*  The
globe may be so divided that one-half is almost entirely covered by water, and the major portion of the
other half by land. A circle drawn through the coast
of Peru and the south of Asia so divides the earth
* First remarked by Ritter. 
142     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
into a terrestrial and oceanic hemisphere. Then, in
one of these halves, are grouped all the important
masses of land, while in the vast ocean of the other
only float scattered groups of islands and the extremi  ties of the most projecting peninsulas, and Australia,
the most insignificant of the continents.
In the grouping of the lands, the Old and New
Worlds are the exact reverse. The masses in the
Old World stretch from east to west; in the New, from
north to south. One consequence of this arrangement,
which at first appears of little moment, is that Asia
and Europe have a vast area occupying the same
zone; while America, traversing all the zones of the
earth, presents a great variety of phenomena. As
will be readily admitted, this configuration exerts a
great influence on mankind, an influence hereafter to
be more fully considered.
All the facts of Nature are dependent and mutually
related.  Thus the shape of continents, foreign as it
appears to intellectual development, bears with great
force, as will be hereafter shown, on its advancement.
The similarity of form in the three continental masses points to a law by which they were fashioned;
and as man, the plastic being, must conform to the
implastic conditions of the continents in order to be
in harmony with their conditions, he becomes directly
related to the laws by which they were produced.
Let us consider his relations to the country in
which he is placed, and the results of slight differences of configuration. If the continents were depressed a few hundred feet, nothing would remain but
the high table-lands and mountain summits above an 
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS TO MAN. 143
almost universal ocean. An elevation of a few hundred feet would throw the continents up into the cold
strata of the atmosphere, and transform the tropics
into arctic  regions.   Such  trivial causes  decide
whether a country shall be a torrid plain, a dry plateau, a desert of sand, a waste of water, or a fruitful
plain. A few feet of elevation only makes the difference between the airy table-lands of Mexico, and the
pestilential plains at its feet; between the fertile
plains of India, and the cold, barren plateaux of
Thibet.
For example, take North America; suppose it to be
tilled so that its great rivers, instead of flowing into
the Gulf of Mexico, empty into the Arctic Ocean:
for the purposes of civilization, the continent would
be a failure.  Commerce could not flow to the north,
and for its purposes the rivers would be useless. The
lands facing the sweeping arctic winds would xeturn
a poor encouragement to agriculture; and nothing
would be left to the unfortunate people who inhabited
it but to become nomadic, and gain a scant subsistence
from their wandering herds, like the people of Northern Asia, where precisely such conditions exist.
Thus the direction of the inclination of continents,
small as its influence would appear, exerts a vast
power on civilization.
Glance for a moment at the influence exerted by
mountain chains. Setting aside the barriers they
oppose between the mingling of nationalities, hemming in ambitious communities and protecting weaker
tribes from the encroachments of stronger neighbors,
their influence on climate alone is incalculable. Sup 
144     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
pose the Rocky Mountains, instead of skirting the
western shores of America, were placed in the position
of the Great Lakes; protected from arctic winds, the
countries to the south would perfectly represent the
plains of India. The United States would be entirely
free from the influence of the cold gales which are so
severe in winter, in spring and autumn, and of which
summer is not wholly free.
Still greater would be the changes were the Andes
placed on the eastern instead of the western coast of
South America. Now, the trade-winds deluge the
vast plains of Brazil, pouring torrents on the very
summit of that range, creating the largest rivers on
the globe,- the La Platte, Orinoco, and Amazon, the
latter one hundred and fifty miles broad at its mouth,
and pouring a torrent of such strength as to combat
successfully with the tides of the sea. But, as the
winds pass over, their last drop of moisture is wrung
from them, and" the narrow belt of land between them
and the Pacific is nearly or quite rainless: the condition which would prevail over the whole continent
were the Andes placed on the eastern instead of the
western coast of South America; and, like the rainless
regions of Peru and Chili, not a rain-drop would fall
on the illimitable expanse of desert, nor a cloud
obscure the burning expanse of its sky.
Taking the world as it is, we see that physical conditions determine the variety of men who permanently
occupy any given region.
The occupying race have been brought into equilibrium with those conditions at some indefinite time
in the past, and now, so to speak, being acclimated, 
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS TO MAN. 145
hold it against all others; for climate, which is their
safeguard, is destructive to a foreign people. In the
earliest historic epoch, this equilibrium had become
well established. Each race held essentially the
same countries as at present. The Semite, the Negro,
the European, each held the same provinces as now.
The people of Arabia, of Northern Africa, of the
Steppes of Asia, tended their herds, and roamed over
the wastes, in the same manner as they do to-day.
Civilization can never rise above the pastoral state in
those countries; for, to its high advancement, there
must be a crowded population and an abundance of
food. In countries so barren that but a family can
exist to the square mile, little progress can occur.
The deserts must always be peopled by nomads; and
the fertile plains, by dense agricultural populations.
There are climates where no human being can
exist, as that of the celebrated Campagna and Pontine, which affects the Italian just as it did in the days
of Livy. Those who are compelled to dwell in the
poisonous district, show, by their bloated forms, distorted features, dark-yellow complexion, and livid lips,
that there is no acclimation against such a climate.
Generally, however, some races are more affected
than others. The African seems perfectly acclimated
to all torrid climates, and able to bear, unharmed,
vicissitudes which are wholly insupportable by
lighter races. When transported to the low seaboard lands of the Southern States, they not only
enjoy health, but rapidly increase, and attain a remarkable longevity; while the European, avoiding
every exposure, and occupying the healthiest locali
10 
146     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
ties, from earliest infancy manifests symptoms of the
insidious working of the malarious influence which
early disorganizes the human fabric. The negro labors
in the rice-swamp all day beneath the burning sun,
without danger; but a single hour's exposure of the
European often so impregnates the morbific matter,
that no medicine can alleviate its rapid progress to dissolution. Chemistry cannot detect the character of
the malaria; for it is extremely subtle, and powerful in
proportion to its subtlety. It does not result always
from decomposition of animal or vegetable matter
alone. The Campagna does not differ from other
plains; nor does the deadly vicinity of Vera Cruz, with
its long stretch of sandy beach and sand-hills, differ
from other shores. Such decompositions may assist;
but to them must be added direct exhalations from
the earth, the cause of which we do not understand.
From the yellow fever the negro is exempt, or
nearly so,-this liability to it has been determined as
13.19 to 6000.4, - and he escapes the deadly malaria
of Vera Cruz.
The same holds good between the Oceanicans and
the cinnamon-colored Polynesians.   The Island of
Vanikow has a climate so deadly to the latter, that
a nighlt's exposure is certain death; but the former
enjoy perfect health. Some regions of Hiindostan are
so deadly, that they cannot be visited bye whites; but
the Hindoo inhabits them, enjoys health, and lives to
a good age.
Such are a few of the leading facts adduced to prove
that the races of men are primordially distinct, and are
here brought forward to show that they do not point 
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS TO MAN. 147
in that direction: all that can be claimed for them is,
that they refer to races as they are, not as they have
been; they do not prove the impossibility of acclimation, but the vast period requisite to bring about an
equilibrium between man and a given province. The
African cannot go north, on account of liability to consumption, scrofula, and kindred diseases, as well as
the white can go south. The freedom from malarious
influences appears to be in proportion to the darkness
of color; even dark-skinned brunettes bearing more
exposure than blondes. This should be so; for is not
the darkness of skin an index of acclimation?
The application of these considerations is easily
made. If we suppose Central Asia to be the point of
dispersion, the waves of emigration must necessarily
follow the paths marked out by the geographical contour of the surrounding lands. When the earliest
waves set out, they were rudest savages, without
even a bow and arrow. They could not pass broad
rivers, arms of the sea, or mountain chains. They
were walled in by these.
HIad the Old World been one vast and interminable
plain, the dispersion of man had been quite different.
There had been but little of that difference of race
now so notable, the differentiation of continental
masses having direct influence on the differentiation
of race.
If the map of Asia be examined, it will be seen
that to a point south-east of the Caspian Sea, or towards the Highlands of Toorkistan, all the great
inountain chains converge.  Although hemmed in by
lofty mountains, there are gateways left on every 
148     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
side, through which emigration can readily pass.
Between the Black Sea and the Caspian, such a
passage exists, leading into Europe: although closed
by the Caucasus Mountains, it has many easy passes,
and affords a ready entrance into Europe. Through
this passage emigrated the Finns, Iberians, the Celts,
and Aryans, or Indo-Europeans.
Between the Caspian and Persian Gulf, another
passage exists into Arabia, and, beyond the Isthmus of
Suez, leads into the vast continent of Africa.
The Ural Mountains prevented the Turanian or
Mongolic waves from overflowing Europe, throwing
them off to the north and east, while the Himalaya
confined them on the south: the latter chain protected
the commingling of the Dravidians, and latterly the
Aryans, who were thrown south of that range in
Hindostan, passing into those interminable plains
over the sources  of the Indus.  Had the Red Sea
communicated with the Mediterranean, Africa would
have remained uninhabited for an indeterminable
time, and would not have been peopled until man had
learned the art of navigation. Had the gateway of
the Caucasus been closed, and the Indo-Europeans
forced north along the eastern side of the Ural Mountains, so as to enter Europe from the north, the
arrested development shown in the Tungusic tribes
would have resulted, and its civilization been no
higher than those tribes present.
Such considerations might be indefinitely extended:
they show the strict dependence of man on external
nature. 
RELATION OF CONTINENTAL FORMS TO MAN. 149
The continents were first created, and then man.
They do not harmonize with him; but he, as the
plastic material, is compelled to conform to the accidents of his surroundings. 
CHAPTER VII.
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION: THE ORI     ENTAL NEGRO, AFRICAN AND SEMITE.
The ORIENTAL NEGRO, or the Australian Race. -When originated  the
three Great Branches, SEMITIC, TURANIAN, ARYAN? - The SEMITIC.  Structure of Language; divided into Aramean, Hebrew, Arabian; De  scription of Character, Language and History of Each. - Nestorians.  Berbers.- Phoenicians.- Egyptians, Language of, Origin of, Shepherd
Kings of.- Copts.- African Tribes of Semitic Origin: Haussa, Gallas,
Berberins, Fellatab, Mandingoes, Yoloffs.- AFRIcAN RACE.- Descrip  tion of, Origin of.- Divided into two Great Families, KAFFER and HOT  TENTOT.- Language of Africa. - The DAMARAS.- The KAFFER.  The HOTTENTOT.- Description of, Language of, and History of Each.
THE race of men who used the fossil arrows have
entirely passed away from Europe. They, there, have
no living representative; but in India, and the Islands
of the South Sea, there exists a race of men who seem
to be the Autochthons, the primitive race. Whether
they are similar to those who used the flint arrows of
the drift cannot be decided; but this is certain, that,
between the employes of the arrows and this race none
other has left remains. This race has undoubtedly
changed during the vast interval, but presents us
with a sample of the most primitive people known to
have existed.  It is an ethnological fossil.  It is a
black race, speaking the most barbarous and undeveloped languages. It inhabits portions of the vast
plains south of the Hlimalayas, and extends southward
150 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
into the sea, constituting the aboriginal inhabitants of
Borneo, the Philippines, New-Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, and extends eastward to New-South-Wales.
The people of the Andaman Isles, though their
language is allied to the Siamese, Owen considers
the lowest of mankind. They are of diminutive
stature; they have no agriculture, no garments, no
families, no idea of deity, or a future state. Without
dwellings or the capacity to construct them, in the interior wilderness of Borneo, they occupy the branches
of trees. They were the aboriginals of the Sandwich
Islands prior to the real Polynesians, having left traces
of their vocabulary in the language of the latter.
According to Dr. Foster, the inhabitants of Mallicollo,
approach nearer the animal than any other. Their
bodies are entirely covered with black and brown
hair, their skulls so pressed backwards, and the cheekbones so broad, the face so sooty, as to impart the
most disagreeable aspect.  They are a "small, nimble,
slender, ill-favored set of men, who, of all men he
ever saw, border the nearest upon the tribes of
monkeys." Equally degraded are the inhabitants of
Tauna and New-Caledonia.
In Australia, this race exists in what is styled a most
degenerate form, but, perhaps, really superior to the
common stock at its departure therefrom. Thinly
spread over vast regions, if there were few causes for
advancement, there were none for degeneracy; and it
appears reasonable that the race has remained nearly
stationary from immemorial time, until, in a recent
period, they were brought in contact with the Pdynesians. The Australian may be taken as the repro.
151 
152     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
sentative of the original black race of Hlindostan. A
description of him is a description of man as he was
prior to two strata of superimposed races.
The hardy Dampier, in 1686, astonished at the
appearance of the natives of Australia, wrote, "The
inhabitants of this country are the most miserable in
the world, - who have no houses, no skin garments,
(,r sheep, or poultry, or fruits of the earth, - and, setting aside their human shape, they differ but little
from brutes."
Another writer, Mr. Collins, has accurately given
their appearance: "Their noses are flat, nostrils wide,
eyes much sunken in their heads, and covered with
thick eyebrows; their lips thick, and mouth extravagantly large. Many have very prominent jaws; and
there was one man, who, but for the gift of speech
might well have passed for an orang-outang., He was
remarkably hairy; his arms of uncommon length; in
his gait he was not perfectly upright."
A strip of bark tied around the loins is a sufficient
raiment, and he lies down where night overtakes him,
like a wild beast; or, at best, makes a lair of a few
branches. He does not enter into the relations of
family, or of clan.  He prowls in the forest like a
wild animal, making no provision for the morrow,
having no object of worship, or thought of a future
existence.
Some authors have disagreed from the received
statement of the low estate of this race.  Pickering
states that the finest example of muscular strength,
and classical mould of head, he saw among Australians.
From the physical appearance occasionally observed 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
in individuals, it is probable that there is a slight infusion of Malay blood; although this is not confirmed
by their language, which has not a single Malay word.
They appear to be not a strictly homogeneous race,
but mixed.
The reports of those interested in the instruction
of Australian children, made to the British Government, state that they surpass Europeans in those
studies depending on the perceptive faculties, but deficienlt in those depending on abstraction, are, without
doubt, overdrawn. It cannot be supposed that offspring of parents unable to count above three, or at
most, above five, show the same aptitude as Europeans.
Such a state of savageness excludes conquest, or migration in masses. The extension of such a people
occurs in the same manner as the spread of animals, -
by the increase of population pressing outward; and,
as they met with no preoccupying race, they were at
liberty to wander as far as they pleased.
We have seen that the Ibero-Finnic waves in
Europe correspond to the Dravidian of HIindostan;
the Indo-European, to the Hindoo. Does the race of
the flint age in like manner correspond to the Orientalblack? Confined by impassable barriers, the former
have perished, while the latter, extending to the isles
of the wide ocean, have remained securely isolated.
Analogy teaches that wave after wave was sent off to
tlie west through the Caucasus, to the south through
the Hindoo-Kosh; and that the status of these waves
at any given age was the same; and, perhaps, on this
primitive race is founded the traditions so beautifully
embodied in the "Kalawala" of the Finns.  Have not
153 
154     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
the same causes which have preserved in Australia
the fauna of the Oolite, while the remainder of the
earth underwent the changes of myriads of ages, resulting in several complete changes of organic beings,
also preserved a fragmentary living fossil of the early
age of mankind?
Subsequent to the spread of the autochthonic black
race, the true African stock was probably detached
and spread over Africa. This conclusion is based on
analogy only; for the structure of the negro dialects
has as yet afforded no certain evidence of their origin.
They must belong, however, to the earlier branches
thrown off from the great centre.
The separation of the SEMITIC, the TURANIAN, and
the ARYAN branches of mankind, occurred in the
remote ages of pre-traditionary time. On the theory
that the lower race must have separated first, the
truth of which will be so far as possible substantiated
in future pages, the SEMITIC must have been first
thrown off, and the other two branches have remained
united for a considerable length of time thereafter.
They remained until, as is shown by their corresponding words, they had invented fixed habitations,
and domesticated the ox, horse, sheep, goat, and dog.
Like three great rivers, these great families of mankind roll back into the misty past, and we can only
see at last the dim lustre of their waves; but we can
note their directions, and see that their converging
lines meet beyond the clouds and fog which shut
them from our view. Their divergence is far away,
so remote that the structure of the languages of
the streams, especially of the Aryan and Semitic are 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
radically distinct, but by reducing words to their most
radical forms, a marked resemblance is observed,
enough to show a common origin.
As the earliest, we shall first speak of the SEMITIC
Family. Setting aside anatomy, it is impossible to
mistake a Semite; for his language is as unique as his
physiognomy. All the branches of this family bear
its indelible marks in the vital structure of their
tongues, so prominent that the linguist is left in no
doubt.
It differs from the other families of languages in the
formation of its roots, which are composed of three consonants, while theirs is composed of one or two, linked
with a vowel. It is consequently called tri-literal.
Words are formed from these roots by varying the
vowels, which are vague, and inserted between the
rough consonants, or adding a syllable. Few words are
formed by composition. The verb has but two tenses,
the nouns but two genders, and case is in general not
expressed by inflected forms. The structure of the
sentence is simple, presenting none of the involutions
of the Indo-European tongues. It has considerable
poetic power, is expressive of passion and feeling, but
is wanting in precision, and inadequate to express the
mature results of thought. The pronunciation of its
short words is jerking, and far from musical or elegant.
But there is a rugged sublimity in its terse and
ambiguous style, which sounds like the rude chant of
the elements.
The SEMITES have the glory of producing the religious doctrines received by the most civilized races
of the world. They have given the world three great
155 
156     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
religious systems, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism; and now the believers in their system of
monotheism embrace all the civilized races of the
world.
They have given the divine law to nations reaching
the confines of the arctic circle, and those under the
burning torrid; to the polished nations of Europe,
and the hordes of the African deserts. Amid the surrounding mass of monstrous mythologies, and childish
conjectures, they ever maintained the grand conception of one infinite, all-wise, and all-powerfill God.
I-e dwelt in light unapproachable, reflecting the stern
and savage ideas of the Semite mind in his love for
strict and unmitigated justice,-a justice terrible, vindictive, and revengeful. In the Old Testament or
Koran, his image is the same.
If, however, he escaped prevailing mythologic ideas
in regard to the unity of God, his sensuous and passionate mind invented mythological trappings environing that unity, which, becoming incorporated in
Christianity, and flowing through the rank corruptions
of Greece and Rome, concreted in the abominations
of Romanism, and are plainly perceptible at the
present.
The Semite attempted to build cities; but he was
too restless to abide their completion. His religion
bound him only long enough to build his temples.
The Biblical account of the patriarchs tending their
flocks onl the great plains is true of Semitic life everywhere.
He loves traffic, connives at unlawful gain, has little
energy, loves revenge, hates labor, is a cosmopolite; 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
the same three thousand years ago in his tent on the
plains of Syria, the wastes of the desert, or selling
clothes in the great metropolis; austere, selfish, hating
other races, with little that an Aryan would consider
noble, or manly. Tenacious of the past, and disinclined to change, combining the strongest passions
with the strongest religious sentiments, he is capable of astonishing acts of heroism, or rather fanaticism. A wandering people. The Arab in his tent is
no more so than the dwellers at Jerusalem before its
fall. They were always a dispersed people; and now,
although the moans of the Hebrews for the great and
holy city is only equalled by the sighs of the Germans
for their father-land, they may well be distrusted
when, if they desired, they might purchase it with a
tithe of what they possess.
The Semitic race is recognizable, most uniquely,
through its negative characters: it has no mythology
(of its own), "nor epopees; neither science, nor philosophy; neither fiction, nor plastic arts, nor civil life."
No language has radiated less. It has always been
confined in the peninsular space, between the Armenian mountains, and those which bound the basin of the
Tigris; and only by Phoenician colonization and Moslem invasion has it been partially dispersed.
The first emigrations of the Semitic race from Asia
is lost even to tradition; but twenty centuries B.C.,
Babylonian records show traces of Semitic forms.
The geographical configuration of Asia indicates the
great highways of these waves.
Supposing that the three great families of mankind
sprang from Central Asia, the isolation of that por
157
4 
158     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
tion known as Armenia and Mesopotamia, by the
mountain barrier separating them from Persia, affords
the key whereby we can solve the problem of the differentiation of the Semitic branch. While, on the other
side of this barrier, the Turanian and Aryan families
remained together, the Semitic, cut off from their influence, swept onward in a career emphatically its
own, ages after to meet those families after they
had passed the Caucasus and the Black Sea, on
the shores of the Mediterranean. From their centre
of dispersion at the foot of this barrier, they extended southward, along the western shores of the
Persian Gulf, over all Arabia to the Gulf of Aden
and the Arabian Sea, and westward over Asia Minor,
clustering around the Mediterranean. By colonization,
or pouring through the gate of the Isthmus of Suez,
they extended along the southern coast of the Mediterranean, occupying the country from the sea to the
desert, and breaking at length on the Atlantic shore,
or extending even to the Canary Isles. The little
known of the extinct Cannaries or Guanches showing
that they were of the Berber race. Southward along
the western shore of the Red Sea, they reached and
occupied Abyssinia.
This wide dispersion created as wide a difference
of dialects; yet small in comparison with the Turanian or Aryan: a fact accounted for by the uniformity
of the regions over which they spread. They are
divisible into three orders: 4rameans, Hebrews, and
lrabians.  The 4ramneans occupied Syria at an early
period, and after the HIamite dynasties held possession of Babylon. The Modern Chaldee is the direct de 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
scendant of their language, which in the first century
was spoken from the Mediterranean to the Tigris. It
was the native speech of Christ and the Apostles. In
it the Targum was composed, and it continued to be
the literary language of the Jews to the tenth century, and of the cities or empires of Ninevah and
Babylon. The Hebrew order embraces the Jews, the
Canaanites, and Phoenicians.
Carthage, so long the successful rival of Rome, was
a Phoenician colony; but the Carthaginians, when they
settled in Africa, found the Berber before them, belonging to the same family, but of older birth. The "shepherd kings"  who conquered Egypt, and held it at least
five hundred years, were of undoubted Semitic stock.
As delineated on the most ancient monuments  of
Egypt, the Semite differs little from the type he bears
at present. The Jew is of the most hardy race of
history. A dispersed people at least four centuries
B.C. (Knox, "Races of Men"), they have been persecuted and despised by all other races; yet they have
thrived wherever they have taken up their abode.
It is impossible to annihilate or change them. The
statements of Pritchard are not authenticated by closer
observations. The Jew of the torrid is darker than of
the temperate, but, in every thing else except that
superficial character, is a Jew. They increase in
Sweden faster than the Christian population; in Algiers
they are the only people able to maintain themselves;
in Aden, the hottest place in the world, and in Cochin
China, they appear to be unaffected by the climate.
The Arabians originally occupied the peninsula of
Arabia. The Hicayaritic inscriptions record their an
159 
160     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
cient form of speech, showing how extremely remote
was their origin; and, if we accept Renan's conclusions, before them Arabia supported a ilamite population. In those early days they colonized Abyssinia,
where their language, the Geez, is preserved in sacred
writings. They also extended over Northern Africa,
where they still remain under the name of Berber, and,
with the tenacity which ever characterized this people, they held the valleys of the Atlas against the Carthaginians, Romans, Bazantines, Vandals, and later the
Arabs, none of whom have been able to absorb or destroy them.   They were, in the eleventh century,
pressed towards the desert; yet they hold a larger
area than any other people in Africa,-an area stretching from the northern skirts of the Atlas south over
the Great Desert to the regions of the Niger and the
Soudan, and from Egypt to the Atlantic ocean. They
were the Libyans of the ancients. The great commercial race of the deserts,- their traders uniting the
unknown interior with the Mediterranean,-and natural
robbers, they form the greatest obstacle to travellers
in penetrating that interior. Their language is di.
rectly descended from the ancient Libyan, and so uncorrupted that the bilingual inscriptions on the rocks
of Northern Africa show not only the same idioms
but many of the letters used by modern Berbers.
It is in recent times that the Arabians spread
over Northern Africa; and, finding the climate very
similar to that of Arabia, they became people of the
soil. Amid this mixture of peoples an aggregation is
observed. The Moors, or Berbers, living in cities,
forming the merchants, farmers, and tradesmen; the 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
Arabs on the plains are the shepherds; the Kabalyls
in the mountains are ferocious robbers, while the Bedoiiin defies all restraint, and turns his hand against
all. These are united under the common bond of the
Mohammedan faith.
The African Arab has been modified by climate, and
his dialect has so changed that the true Arabian understands him with difficulty; but he disdains to borrow the idiom of the conquered people. Hie pitches
his tent in the subdued country, but generally refuses
to mingle with the natives of the soil. Lithe, agile,
capable of superhuman endurance, impatient of control, a lover of the desert, a monotheist by nature,
despising labor, a lover of gain, especially of unlawful
seizure, - such is the Arab of antiquity, such is the
Arab of to-day. Along the southern border of the desert, where the Berber, Arab, and Negro races meet, a
complete gradation takes place.   On many of the
oases, as Ashen, says Bartle, the harsh Berber character is blended with the playfulness and darker color
of the African.   The Berber now  roams with his
flocks over the ruins of a splendid civilization. That
civilization was of his own race, but he held thle soil,
while they colonized. They flourished and decayed in
his midst, and are so completely forgotten that the
relics of their former grandeur awaken in him not
even curiosity.
History finds the Phoenicians at the height of power
and civilization. They have the honor of inventing
the phonetic alphabet, which at once sweeps away the
tedious and ambiguous systems of hieroglyphic writing, and of which our.own is simply a modification in
11
161 
162      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
characters. They were exclusively maritime, and the
boldest mariners of the world. If tradition be received
they sailed down the Red Sea, and, after circumnavi.
gating Africa, returned through the Pillars of Hercules
and the Mediterranean; a feat not again attempted
until after the lapse of more than two thousand years.
Even the stormy isles of the Northern Ocean were
visited by their galleys in search of tin; and the remote Baltic was searched for amber. To them is
referred the invention of glass, and their artificers
astonished the ancients by their ingenuity. Insatiate
traffickers, they conveyed the commodities of India,
by way of the Red Sea and the deserts, to the people
of the West.
Carthage arose at the expense of the mother country; and the conquests of Alexander, and especially
his founding the great commercial centre of Alexandria, situated on the natural highway between the East
and the West, ruined Phoenician commerce.
By the captivity of the Jews, Hebrew became mixed
with Aramean, the language of Babylon, and submerged by the political ascendency of the latter, and
of Syria, at last to be swept away by the Arabic,
which, since the conquest in 636 A.D., has become the
language of the whole country originally occupied by
the Semitic race.
One important historical race has not yet submitted to classification, but shows a nearer alliance to the
Semite than to any other branch. They are the Egyptians, who were the wonder and admiration of the
ancients, and from whom Greece and Rome received 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
the rudiments worked up into their charming mythology.
The Nestorians, a fragment of the Semitic family
b)elonging to the Aramean branch, are found amid the
mountains of Kurdistan, and the northwest province
of Persia. They are an exception to the Semite, who
never renounces his religion; they having, in the fifth
century, embraced Christianity.   Their ancient language was the same as that spoken by Christ; but
their modern speech is mixed with Persian, Kurdish,
and Turkish words. Their missionaries present the
most wonderful examples of perseverance and devotion.
When  thinly scattered, they are subject to the
Kurds; but one tribe, the Tiaree, are as ferocious as
the Kurds, and have preserved their independence.
They are strictly pastoral, and are slowly coming
under Turkish rule.  They are mostly serfs, and suffer from extreme poverty. They are generally handsome, with light complexion, and head with a marked
cut of features resembling the Jews.
The origin of the Egyptians has been a problem
creative of great confusion. Their language was of too
early date to bear the impress of collateral branches,
and is isolated except in the Semitic direction.  Its
structure is what grammarians would call an advance
on the Semitic; but its noun and pronoun are entirely
like that family of tongues, and is profuse in aspirates.
It is to history and etymology we must look for a solution. Known to the ancients as Egyptians and Ethiopians, they are not only interesting for their wonderful
(civilization, but from its being the only great empire,
163 
164     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
except the colony of Carthage, that the African continent has produced. Much learning has been expended
in the controversy whether the Egyptian was a negro
or not, which grew out of loose expressions of classic
authors. The necessity for such wordy and neverending debates has been set aside by the recent explorations of the ruins of Egyptian tombs and temples.
In the tombs" the entire nation, generation after generation, is preserved. The skulls of these innumerable mummies are entirely distinct from the negro
races, approaching in a decided manner the type of
the European. The hair of the mummies is not wooly,
but long and fozowing, and, when best preserved, of a
brown color. There can be no reasonable doubt but
the sculptures on the monuments of Egypt are faithful delineations.   They have been preserved in all
their pristine freshness. There the negro is admirably drawn, having Wooly hair and jetty countenance;
and beside him are placed the red Egyptian, and the
Semite. Pritchard doubted their African origin, and
referred them to the IHindoos of the Ganges, a theory
quite as baseless. The Sanskrit has no affinity for
the language of Egypt; and there is not the least evidence of any communication having taken place between the Nile and the Ganges, not even a legendary
tale.
The argument afforded by caste, a unique system,
but alike adopted by Hindostan and Egypt, has been
swept away by the revelation recently made that the
division of caste never existed in Egypt, - Niebuhr
notwithstanding,- and that it has been recently introduced among the Hindoos. 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
A clue to the origin of the Egyptians is given by
Hodgson, who considers the earliest people of Egypt
to have been Berbers. Situated in a fertile country,
and pressed together, they would advance faster than
wandering tribes. Their position on the highway between Asia and Africa exposed them to repeated inundations. The Berber or perhaps a still earlier Semitic
wave from Asia formed the under stratum. The modelling of this early type is finely shown by the artists on
their monuments.  They were always a mixed people,
and their sculptures, at least of their ruling class, show
predominance of Semitic blood, and of that variety
known as Chaldean.
Egypt was for ages a battle-ground between Asiatic
and African races. After attaining a high state of
civilization, having finished her system of government,
and perfected her architecture, the shepherd-kings
for five hundred years kept her stationary.  After
their overthrow, she continued her triumphant march;
but the shephlerds, who were probably wandering Semitic tribes, added greatly to her future prosperity by
introducing the horse and several other domestic animals. Their long residence could not otherwise than
leave a deep trace, by admixture of blood. Before
their conquest, as well as after, the sculptures of Egyptian kings indicate Semitic origin.   Together with
these rulers, there is sculptured negro slaves; and captive Semites, with features still more indicative, and
what has been styled the true Egyptian type, having
fiat and expressionless features, appear, coming up
from the primitive stratum or earliest race.
A cursory examination of engravings from Egyptian
165 
166     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
monuments clearly indicates a highly developed people, but one extremely mixed, and offering a perplexing study. Many of the sculptured heads are of pure
Grecian mould, and clearly must have been related in
some manner to Greece. We pass entirely into the
land of conjecture; but it is not improbable that a
branch of the Pelasgi penetrated and were incorporated with the autochthonic race.
The Copts are the direct descendants of the old
Egyptians, and have preserved the lowest type of
their sculpture.
The origin of the Egyptians has been invested with
needless importance. Seen through the mist of classic
description, they seem to absorb the entire ancient
world, where comparatively they were but an insignificant people.  Their civilization was wonderful, occurring as it did, surrounded by barbarism, but is dwarfed
when compared with that of the present Indo-European. The great diversity of type exhibited by the
hieroglyphic paintings reveal an extremely mixed
race of Semites and negroes, with a basic population
indicating remote Semitic origin.
These sculptures commence about 4000 B.C., when
the hieroglyphics were already perfected. What occurred previously?  Linguistic research is silent, and
we must abide conclusions drawn from monumental
records.
There are many tribes in Africa north of the Mountains of the Moon, who, from their black color, have
been classed with negroes. If reliance be placed in
the affinities of language to determine the place the
various tribes occupy in the classification of mankind, 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
these peoples belong to the Semitic race, or to what
sonicme have called Hamitic, which is nothing more than
an imaginary early branch of that race.
From the Berber of the coast of the Mediterranean,
as we pass across the Desert of Sahara: the type
changes almost insensibly from the Semitic to the Negro. There can be no doubt that this is the result of
mixture of these races.  Such blendings are observable in the Turanian fragment occupying the country
between Lakes Yeou and Tsad, where the Berber element is added, and the inhabitants of the eastern part
of the Great Desert, the Tibboo, who have elegant European features, with jetty black color, and speak a
language allied to the ruling tribe of Borneo.
The Haussa occupy the centre of the continent
and one of its finest provinces; and, until the beginning of this century, they held an important empire.
They speak the ilaussas, a tongue strongly Semitic.
Their forms are graceful; their features regular, noble,
and pleasing; and their temper lively, spirited, and
cheerful. The Eastern Nubians are a very ancient
people, who speak a language classed by Renan with
the Semitic.  Their physical type is neither Semitic
nor Negro.  They have regular European features, a
dark or black countenance, and curly hair. They are
a shrewd, energetic people, living a nomadic life.
Encircling Abyssinia, south of the Hamitic people
of the Nile, are the Gallas, a people speaking a language thoroughly Semitic, and so powerful and warlike that they constantly encroach on the Abyssinians.
They are a tall and well-formed people, with large
foreheads, aquiline nose, well-cut mouth, a coppery
167 
168     THiE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
color, and curly hair.  They arc the most infamous of
all the slave-dealing tribes, and are extremely savage,
delighting in drinking blood as it flows from the living
animal; and some of their tribes do not even bury
their dead, leaving them exposed, to be devoured by
wild animals.
The high mountain plateau of Sennaar is inhabited
by a race of a dark-brown color, frizzled hair, but regular features. They are classed by Renan as Semitic.
The Berberins of Nubia are described by Denon as
of a jetty-black color, exactly like that of antique
bronzes, but without the smallest resemblance other.
wise to the negro; their eyes deep-set and sparkling,
with overhanging brows, high pointed nose, mouth
wide, lips moderately thick. Their color is not always
black, but is often coppery-red. Their face is perfectly oval, and nose often Grecian; their hair bushy,
but not woolly. They are of precisely the HIamitic
type, but their language cannot be assigned at present
to any family.
The Fellatahs are a race inhabiting a territory equal
in extent to one-tenth of Europe, extending from
the Atlantic Ocean to Borneo on the east, from the
Great Desert to the Bight of Benin and Kong Moun-,
tains on the south. They are of perfect Eturopean
features; of a mahogany color, sometimes not darker
than the Spaniard, and their hair straight. They have
a noble bearing, are intelligent, and possess a deep
poetic feeling, and are subject to the deepest enthusiasm. They are a nomadic people, who have made
considerable advance in agriculture. They have
lately attracted attention by the zeal they have dis. 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
played in promulgating the faith of Mohammed. In
this they rival the Arab, and seem destined to extend
the religion of the prophet over Africa. They are
thus working a great change for the better; for it
must be acknowledged that Mohammedanism is the
best system which the African will receive, and that
it is immeasurably superior to the fetichism of the
negro. It prohibits human sacrifice, nourishes learning, and induces a belief in personal dignity, a trust
in Providence, and unites all believers into a common
brotherhood. It has also prevented the slave-trade.
This is shown by the Fellatahs never having participated in the slave-trade, for, according to the Koran, a
believer cannot become a slave.
I Although greatly mixed, it is the opinion of those
best qualified to judge that they are of the original
Egyptian or Hamitic stock. Their language is primitive, and without an alphabet, and its numerals reach
only five.  It has  a relationship in its  alliteral
changes to the Kaffer tongue, which probably is a
degraded offspring of the primitive HIamito-Semitic.
Its structure is allied to the Ashanti and Timmanee.
The Mandingoes and Yoloffs on the Gambia and Senegal retain a vestige of Semitic blood largely diluted
with the true African. They are zealous Mohammedans, but still are fetich in their worship. They
possess well-ordered governments, and good public
schools; and all their leading men can read and write
Arabic. They are good agriculturists, and skilful
manufacturers of cloth, leather, iron instruments, and
their merchants enterprisingly conduct the principal
commerce of Northern Africa.
169 
170     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The African, or negro, race, as will be seen by
reference to the chart, were an early branch thrown
off previous to the subdivision of the main stem into
the other three great families.  From this it will be
understood that we are not to consider one race as
springing from another, but each advancing after its
own type in a parallel or diverging course.
The popular idea of the negro race, as sooty black,
with woolly hair, flat noses, and long heels, is very
erroneous, but has been countenanced by scientific
works. This description applies only as a type, but is
never fully realized.
There is no family of mankind among whom greater
diversity exists than the African, as will be seen by a
review of its various tribes. Some nations, as the
Yoloffs, present the finest European forms, regular
and perfect features, but their color is deepest black;
while the people of the Gold Coast have perfect
negro features, but are light colored. The Barabras
and Bedjas present scarcely any other African peculiarity than a swarthy complexion, and curly hair.
Other tribes have negro features, and black color, but
straight hair. The Bechuana Kaffers have European
features and form, and a light color, but woolly hair.
Thus, through every gradation of hair, color, and
features,- from the highest Aryan to the lowest Ilottentot,- there are all grades, from woolly to straight,
from white to black, from high, aquiline features to
the depressed of the typical negro.
What is called the "negro type "- is the exception,
and seems to be the result of adverse circumstances.
More than a general view of the innumerable tribes 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
of Africa will not be profitable. It is of little avail to
read lists of unpronounceable names. We can group
the primary facts and thus render them available;
but the countless negro tribes and dialects, the rise
and fall of which counts in the progress of mankind
scarcely more than the births and deaths of antelopes
and lions of that locality, are of little use. The
desert tribes, including all those dwelling north of the
Mountains of the Moon, have been referred to elsewhere, as they show closer alliance to another branch,
the Semitic or HIamito-Semitic.
It appears that a branch, marked in the chart as
African, was thrown off at a very early period, and
occupied Africa. When the Semitic wave bore the
Berber, the Egyptian, and the Arab, successively to
Africa, and perhaps a still earlier people, the two races,
ithe African and Semitic, blended together. I have
purposely arranged the-tribes north of the Mountains
of the Moon in a descending series, from the pure
Semite to the almost African Mandingoe. It will be
seen by the present chapter that the degradation can
be carried still further. The Mandingoes are remarkable for their fine physique, and ingenuity in arts and
agriculture; but in the dense jungles and swamps
which line their coast for hundreds of miles, they assume what has been considered the true "negro
type." The climate, deadly to Europeans, has exerted
a moulding influence.  We  speak of Senegambia,
which is peopled by a jetty black negro race. Northern Guinea is peopled by a low negro race, who are
the most degraded pagans.
The tribes of the Gold Coast are more intelligent.
171 
172     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The Kons dwell on the coast from St. Andrew to
Cape Mensurado. They have a fine physique, are of
every grade of color, but have negro features. The
Ashanti races have an inferior physical development,
and do not present open or manly countenances.
They have been exposed to the terrible blight of slavery; but missionaries have begun a civilizing process, which may reach high results.
The tribes of Benin, Dahomey, and Yoruba, have
also been disorganized by the demand for slaves. Da.
homey has become almost proverbially known. The
people of Yoruba have a constitutional government,
profess a monotheistic religion, are industrious, and
notably free firom licentiousness, and skilful in the
arts.
All the northern tribes, even those which are absolutely "negro," have various religious customs which
point to their Semitic parentage: "Such as circumcision; division of tribes into families, and often into
the number twelve; the interdiction of marriage between families too nearly related; bloody sacrifices,
and the sprinkling of blood upon the altars and doorposts; the observance of new moons, and weekly
festivals; the division of time into seven days; the
shaving the head, and wearing tattered clothes in sign
of mourning; the rites of purification, and the belief
in demoniacal possession."
One custom, however, is decidedly African: the heirship of all property descending to the females instead
of the males, and through the sister instead of the son.
From the Mountains of the Moon south to the Southern
Sea, the entire continent of Africa, from ocean to ocean,
0 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
is peopled by a pure race of negroes, who have completely penetrated its every recess, and made it for
immemorial ages their home. Their language proves
them to be a unit, but throws no light on their origin,
except it be to prove them to be a distinct people. It
is not to be understood that a uniform type prevails.
On the contrary, there exists the greatest diversity,
from the high features of the European to the flat
nose of the negro, and from jetty black to light yellow. The prominent nationalities which may be taken
as characteristic of the countless inferior tribes, are
the Pongo and Congo peoples of the Atlantic coast;
the Kaffers, Zulucs, and Bechuanas of the south; the
Swahere of the eastern coast; and the Hottentot
Family. Thus the South-African tribes are divided
into two great families, the Kaffers and Hottentots.
The latter are the oldest people, and probably inhabited the regions to the north, and were expelled
southward by the approach of the Kaffers, a process
still taking place. They would then appear as a contemporary wave of the oriental negro, whom they resemble. The Kaffers, who have given their name to the
great North-African family, are a tall, robust race,
with a deep black, or bronze, complexion. Their faces
are oval, nose not depressed, and the hair only
crisped. They are a pastoral and patriarchal people.
Their language is soft and euphonious, but has incorporated the "click " of the Hottentot.
All the dialects of this family are distinguished by
"alliteration," by which is meant that the "initial
letter of the leading noun reappears in the beginning
of all dependent or related words in the sentence."
173 
174     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Everything is sacrificed to this, as we often see in
children's prattle, which it exactly resembles. As
though a child should say, for, I am very thirsty to-day,
Ti tam tvery thirsty to-tday. Nothing can show with
greater force than this peculiarity the common
origin of the tribes who use this strange euphony.
The people of Southern Guinea all speak a Kaffer dialect, of which it is said, "there are perhaps no languages in the world capable of more definiteness and
precision of expression."
The Damaras are supposed to have emigrated from
the interior of Africa to the country they used to occupy, extending east from the Atlantic to Lake
Ngami, within the last century. They are a pastoral
people. They practise circumcision, and offer prayers
and sacrifices to the spirit of the dead. They are in
constant warfare with the Hottentots, whose territory
they have invaded, and being rapidly exterminated.
The Ovampas dwell to the north of the Damas.
They are skilled in working metals, in agriculture,
and in commerce. Their love of country is so great
that they are unprofitable for slaves, as they die of
home-sickness.
The Bechuanas are the most powerful of the Kaffer
races. They are keen wits, of revengeful temper, and
given to theft. Agriculture flourishes under the care
of the women, while the men engage in hunting and
war. Their language is poor in abstract terms, having no words for conscience, spirit, &c., and hence
their mental advance must be extremely limited.
The peoples of the eastern coast are more degraded
than those of the western. They believe in the gross 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION.
est fetichism, and are preyed upon by the most loathsome superstitions. They have felt also the blight of
the slave-trade; and the most cruel and devastating
wars have been waged for the purpose of slave capture.
The tribes of Kaffers are not stationary, but their
state of unrest resembles that of the Germans in the
first centuries. Gigantic emigrations en masse are constantly occurring, and nations are as constantly absorbed, conquered, or blotted out.  The Matabele on
the east have founded a vast empire, embracing many
disjointed fragments; the Tschobe have erected
another; and the Makalolo have nearly perished by
fever. The emigration of the Damaras has already
been spoken of, and also that they were rapidly perishing by the fierce onslaughts of Hottentot tribes.
THE HOTTENTOT. I stated that this is the oldest
African family. That it extended far to the north is
shown by the HIottentot names the rivers in the
Kaffer country still retain, and also by fragments of
tribes which dwell as far north, and even beyond,
Lake Ngami. In the deserts, where the most degraded Kaffer tribes live by the side of the Bushman, the vitality of race is beautifully shown. They
have lived thus for ages, but are as distinct as whenl
they first came in contact. The former will grow
pumpkins, and keep a few goats; but the latter know
nothing of even such little arts, and lead a brutal
life, depending for subsistence on the scanty game
and vermin of the desert.
The Hiottentots have been pushed southward until
175
4 
176     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
they have reached the extremity of Africa. Here they
recently met a new pressure. The European Cape
Colony began driving them back against their old enemies; and between the two forces they are rapidly declining. The whole number of pure HIottentots is
not estimated to exceed 20,000.
Other tribes on the south-western coast have disappeared, and others have mingled with the whites,
producing a mongrel race called Griquas.  The Bushmen, or Bosjesmen are the most remarkable of the
Hottentot tribes.  It has been supposed that they
were merely degraded members of that people; but
their independent dialect shows them to be distinct,
and they are now supposed to be the earliest wave of
that people who entered Southern Africa, and, as the
Turanians were beaten down by the Aryans in India, so
they were oppressed by the succeeding Hottentots.
A deadly hatred still exists between them.   The
territory of the Cape Colony was the central abode of
the Bushmen. They had been pushed to the very
brink of the Continent. They are in the most savage
condition, living in burrows or bushes. Yet, savage
as they are, they are excellent herdsmen, in the employ of the colonists, and the only African race that
has manifested any aptitude for art, the only race who
have sought to express ideas by rude carvings on
rock and tree. Fragments of this people dwell as
far north as Lake Ngami, and it is thought, from the
slaves brought from the interior of Africa, that they
may be scattered over all South Africa.
Their moral condition is the lowest. They have no 
THE FIRST WAVES OF DISPERSION
family ties, nor personal names; no name for wife.
They are cheerful, friendly, and true to their promise.
The descriptions of the Bushmen have been drawn
from the most exaggerated examples. They often
present fair proportions; but they are usually badly
fed, and often suffer the most pinching want. Small
ground-animals, as rats and mice, are their staple
food; and they wander over the deserts of the Great
South Namaqua-land where there are only four inhabitants to a square mile. Hence they present a dwarfish
size, sometimes less than five feet, with thin limbs, slight
body, and projecting abdomen. Their high and prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, fiat noses, and yellow
skin give them a decided Mongolian expression. Their
skull is narrow and long, the hair grows in tufts, leaving bare spaces between, and, when long, hangs in
knotted curls like pipe-stems.
Their language is -distinguished by "deep, aspirated gutterals, harsh consonants, and a multitude of
ugly, inimitable clicks." Yet its structure, in grammatical gender and accusative case, allies it to the
most highly organized languages. Its affinities are
with Coptic and Semitic. This fact is illustrated in
the chart, by placing them next to those races.
These points of resemblance between the earliest
peoples, however indistinct, are extremely interesting,
as they point unmistakably to the original unity of the
races so allied.
Our survey of the African tribes has been very
brief, nor does it appear necessary to dwell on the
minute descriptions of people whose names perhaps
will be for the first time presented, and in an hour
12
177 
178     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
will be forgotten; who have no part in our civilization,
and little in that of the world. All the facts which
go towards illustrating the origin of races which they
afford will be used in appropriate order; and that is
all the service that can be wrung from them. 
CHAPTER VIII.
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
Name, Derivation of. -Which are the Autochthonic, the Aborignal Races?  Wide extent of the Turanian Family. - Characteristics of Languages,
Agglutination.- Successive Waves. - The Chinese.- Iberians.- Lapps.
- Finns.-Permians.- Votiaks.- Tscheremisses. -  Voguls. -  Ostiaks,
&c. - Samoiedes. - The Mongolians. - Turkish Race. - Turkomans.  Usbeks. - Kirgis. - Yakuts. - The  TUNGUsIANS. - Mandshus. -  Osti  aks of the Yenisei. - Yakagers. - Kamtschadales. -  Aino. -  Coreans.
- Japanese.- Lew-Chew Islanders.- American Indians, Similarity of.  Unity of, Origin of. - Origin of Indian Tribes. - The INcAs and AzTEcs,
from whence Derived. -Relations between the Indians and Northern
Asiatics. - The Destiny of the Red Race. - Turanians of the Caucasus:
GEORGIANS, CIRCASSIANS, ABYSSiLxNS.
THE great stem from which the Semitic branch sprang
continued united with the parent trunk for a length
of time thereafter, as shown by the closer relationship
of the languages thus continuing together. This relationship is so evident, that high authorities have said
that there were really but two families of languages,
-the SEMITIC and ARYAN; thus confounding the Turanian with the latter.
We must not be misled by classification, which is
imperfect and arbitrary at best. In the early days of
their separation, mixtures would occur; and we find,
that, faintly as the line is drawn between the blending
members of Semitic and Turanian, that between Turanian and Aryan is still less perceptible.
179 
180     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The name of this great family is derived from Tura,
the swiftness of the horse: it being applied by the
Aryans to the barbarous country lying outside of their
own. They are widely spread; and so remotely have
their branches diverged that only by the closest attention to analogy can their relations be determined.
The difficulties which environ the subject are increased by the blending of nationalities, by which
their salient characters are, more or less, obliterated;
and, as the dispersion occurred countless ages before
the most vague record, it is in vain we look for aid to
history. Should we successfully account for the origin of the existing races, still there remain extinct
races, - not autochthonic, for we have seen that people after people have succeeded each other, leaving
only vestiges of their existence in many places scattered over the globe. Of these we can only conjecture that they were waves thrown off in vastly remote
ages from some creative centre. Of these we learn by
remnants driven into mountain fastnesses by the predominance of superior races, where they have maintained their purity by isolation. These relics are the
ancient types of the vast Turanian family which now,
here and there, over the whole of the Old World, crop
out, like the mountain-cliffs to which they have been
driven, through the thick strata of other nationalities.
They are the oldest people of which we can learn by
the study of language. Undoubtedly, between them
and the employes of the flint arrows of the Drift numberless others existed, stratum on stratum. But of
them we can only conjecture, and by imagination
bridge the vast interval.. 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
The study and classification of the Turanian tongues
has been the grandest triumph of comparative philology. The fact that the structure of savage languages
is more intricate, and hence their affinities more
strongly marked, has been of great assistance. Embracing the wandering tribes from the North Cape to
the Pacific Ocean, the Chinese, the Dravidian-Hindoo,
the Malay and Polynesian, and the entire Indian people of the New World, its limits are at once strongly
marked and imperceptibly blended. Itembraces atleast
two-thirds of mankind, forming the understratum, and
savage element, at no time or place attaining any great
civilization. Its languages have been styled Nomadic
from the wandering character of this family, and the
great fluctuations which occur in themselves. They
are characterized by agglutination, or the building up
of phrases by gluing word to word, so that the phrase
is but a single word. They are also distinguished for
the regularity of their forms; the indiscriminate use
of the same word as noun, adjective, anfl verb; and
the rapid divergence made by these dialects, resulting from the isolated tribes wandering over vast
plains; and absence of written forms.  It must be remembered, that, previous to their separation, the Aryan and Turanian branches spoke the same primitive
language. The agglutinized form is necessarily the
earliest effort of the mind to express its thoughts.
Muiller separates the Turanians into two divisions,the northern and southern.  The former includes the
Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, Samoiedic, and Finnic
classes; the latter the Taic, Malaic, Gangetic, Lohitic,
181
4L
I 
182      THiE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Munda, and Tamulic. To the northern division the
American Indian may be added.
It is entirely by the comparative study of their
languages that he supposes there were two directions
for their migration, north and south, from the table.
lands of Central Asia. The first southern wave - the
Taic -settled on the Meikong, Meinam, Irrawaddy,
and Brahmapootra; the first northern, on the Amoor
and Lena, founding the Tungusic tribes. A second to
the south pushed on to the islands of the South Sea,
and founded the Malays; a third poured through the
Himalaya, and formed the original native population of India, crushed by the conquering Aryan-Hindoos. A second to the north originated the Mongul;
and a third, the Turkish tribes. This is only an
hypothesis which can never be proved. The number
and direction of these emigrations can never be
known.   According to Rawlinson, the enthusiastic
decipherer of the inscriptions of Nineveh, the "Median
Empire," which flourished and fell before Nineveh
was known, 2458-2234 B.C., was composed of a
mixture of Turanian races with Semitic or Egyptian.
Even then, the Chinese Empire was as glorious as
to-day. Remotely situated from the arena of classic
history, its existence was unknown.
From the infantile structure of the Chinese language, together with the discovery that, at least 2000
B.C., they had a fixed and permanent government,
they are supposed to be the earliest crystallization of
the Turanian race. Chinese is distinguished by its
singing accent, which designates the word, and remains
absolutely fixed; for, if it changes in the slightest de 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
gree, it produces a new word. A departure is observed in the Siamese, in laying the stress on the last
word of a compound expression. The Burman takes
a conspicuous step towards agglutination. which is seen
more decidedly in the Thibetan, which is furthest separated from the monosyllabic tongues.
It has no grammar, as we understand that word;
that is, no inflections or declensions; but the relations
of words entirely depend on their localities in the
sentence. Its words are all roots, having never been
changed by prefixes or suffixes, thus remaining in the
most primitive possible state. Although more civilized than other members of this family, the language
is the most undeveloped of all. They have advanced
to the agglutinative stage, but the Chinese presents
but slight approach to this more progressed form.
Yet we must allow that these agglutinative tongues
were once as simple as the Chinese. By some fatality,
and probably by its early fixture in the sacred writings of Confucius, the latter has remained almost immovable.
The twelve thousand characters or letters in this
language were once the pictures of the objects they
represent, but now contracted into seemingly arbitrary signs. All its characters are such contractions
of pictures once used, and, as the contraction is not
governed by any rule, and it is not allowable to introduce a new picture for a word, how can a new idea
be expressed?
The labor of learning these characters,  to  use
them correctly, and write them elegantly, comprises
the tedious system of Chinese education, on the
183 
184    THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
success of which all preferment depends. If an idea
is to be expressed, it must be written exactly after
the pattern furnished by the classics, and hence must
become the same idea. A better plan to fetter and
stagnate thought cannot be conceived. There can be
no literary progress until the whole system is thrown
aside for a phonetic alphabet, an event which will not
occur until forced on them by a conquering race.
With such a clumsy method, poetry and oratory cannot flourish, though all the poetry and fire of Chinese
character, perhaps, can be expressed. The affinities
of their dialect have not been considered sufficiently
explicit to place the Chinese in the Turanian family;
but whatever evidence is thus furnished is supported
by physical characters. The obliquity of the eyelids
and smallness of the eyes, the lank, straight, black hair,
and yellow color, point in the same direction as linguistic alliances. The Mandshlus are superior to the
Chinese proper, being more warlike, and better capable of ruling.
Turanian fragments exist in Europe, as previously
stated.  Of these, the IBERIANS have attracted great
attention from the anomaly of the Basque language which they speak. It is preeminently agglutinative, and strikingly related to the languages of
America. It compares the idea-word, and, in so doing,
suppresses entire syllables, presenting sometimes only
a single letter of a root, and distinguishes case by the
striking use of post-positions. It is similar to the
Tartar tongues, to which Finnic makes a closer approach.
So isolated have they remained in their mountain 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
fastnesses that they seem like a foreign people dropped
into the centre of Europe. According to Strabo, they
were not originally warlike; were moderately endowed
with natural gifts; were a laborious, agricultural, and
mining race, until driven by the inundation of the
Celtic Gauls into the fastnesses of the Pyrenees, and,
by the bruises of war, compelled to defend themselves.
There they have remained, their jealousy of each
other preventing the petty tribes into which they are
divided from uniting, even sufficiently to maintain
their independence. From their abhorrence of foreigners they have remained comparatively pure, a
fossil people, from an age immensely remote from the
ken of history. They have retained, on their poor
soil, their love of agriculture, and are still miners.
Their costumes, dances, and amusements are like
those of their immemorial ancestors, as is their extreme affection for their dead.
Ancient writers mention them as having arrived at
a remarkable degree of civilization. They were noted
for their success in mining, and were widely dispersed,
even to the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. They
had been several times invaded by Celtic tribes, who
forced themselves over the Pyrenees, and were eventually almost annihilated.
From the traces left of allied tribes, it appears that
the Iberians, Finns, and Lapps entered Europe from
the north and east. Whether to them the rude remains%of works of art so abundantly scattered are to
be referred is a question of doubt. Some of the latter,
mounds, piles of huge blocks of stone, and the lake
185
I
I 
186     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
dwellings of Switzerland may, with high probability
be referred to them.
The mountains saved the Iberians; their inhospitable
climate, the Lapps and Finns. Crowded to the north,
until they reached a land where the harvest was too
unpromising to invite further pursuit, the severity
of climate has told destructively on the Lapps; so
much so, that they are the lowest people of Europe.
No instance better shows the effect of climate than
the contrast presented between them and the Magyars.
The former have a dusky complexion, scanty beard,
protruding chin, high cheek-bones, slender limbs, oblique eyes; in short, are the most unsightly of the
tribes of Europe; the latter are the most symmetrically formed, being models of physical perfection, and
only by an occasional obliquity of the eyelids do they
denote their descension from the Ostiaks, as ugly and
disgusting as the Lapps.  They are the only nomadic
and heathen population of Europe. They have their
reindeer and dogs,- their only domestic aniinals, -
and their locality is determined by pasturage.
The FINNS are not inferior in physical development.
Their complexion is dusky, and they have a serious
and gloomy expression, with a strong tendency to
superstition, and hence by nature lovers of the subterranean regions of mines. Wilful and morose, they
do not change their own ways, nor learn those of
strangers.
While the other Turanian dialects have been in a
great measure adulterated by wars, and blendings
with other peoples, the Finnic has, by isolation and
early embodiment in sacred songs, been preserved in 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
purity. The Finns are one of the best-cultivated of
the Turanian races, and to them belongs the honor
of producing and transmitting the Kalawala, one of the
few great epic poems of the world, and almost the only
one produced by the Turanian race.
Europe has received great benefit from the Hungarians or Magyars. They have taught how to organize
a constitutional government, which gives great liberties to subjects, yet holds them amenable to law.
They also taught courtesy and dignity of manners.
Their origin is proved by their language to be held
in common with the Finns, Lapps,* and the Ostiaks
who inhabit Bashkiria, situated at the northern extremity of the Ural Mountains, through the passes of
which they came from Asia.
The Permians, Votiaks, Tscheremisses, Voguls,
Ostiaks, are some of the principal tribes that inhabit
the countries watered by the Vishera, Viatka, Kama,
Obi, Irtish, and the Uralian chain, the dialects of all
of whom are allied to the Finnic.
The Samoiedes are a race dwelling on the shores
of the Frozen Ocean, and extending up the great
rivers from the Gulf of Kara to Yenisei.
They have a few reindeer, but subsist by hunting,
and devour dead whales and marine animals that drift
ashore. It has been found that traces of this people
exist in the south of Siberia, and they appear to have
been crowded towards the north, as the Lapps have
been in Europe. Their traditions say that they came
from Eastern countries.
The dialects of the Samoiedes are closely allied
* Strahlenberg, Ruysbroek.
187 
188     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
and are united with the Tschudic or Finnic and the
Caucasian. The latter fact points to the time when
they passed through  the gates of the Caucasian
MIountains.
The Mongolian race is divisible into the Mongols
proper, the Buriats, and the Kalmucks.  The  Mongols have been taken as representatives or types
of the Turanian race, but do not represent it as well
as some others. The countries around the Altai
Mountains, especially to the north, have from immemorial time been the home of these people, the lakes,
mountains, and rivers retaining the names given by
them.
The Mongols are nomads, and inhabit Mongolia, a
great steppe or plain north of China, and are scattered
in Siberia. They are now ruled by governments they
once overthrew. They are timid and credulous, but
terrible when excited by vengeance or fanaticism.
The Buriats wander in Siberia from the border of
China to the Upper Lena.
The Kalmucks' native country is the mountainous
region on the frontier of Turkestan and China, but
colonies have wandered to the Don and Volga, and
into Siberia. They have high, prominent, and broad
cheek-bones; small eyes, widely separated by a broad
fiat nose; coarse jet-black hair, scarcely any eyebrows, and enormous ears, presenting a hideous
physical aspect.
The TURKISH RACE has largely figured in history;
and its deeds partake of the wild steppes from which
its hordes made their desperate springs on Europe.
Its tribes are scattered from the mouth of the Lena 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
on the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the frontiers of
Hungary and Northern and Eastern Africa, reaching
into Europe on one side and Southern Asia on the
other.
These tribes once received indiscriminately the
name of Tartars; but, as the Turks are the leading
people, it is proper to designate all related tribes
by their name. They appear to be incapable of improvement. Living neighbors, or subjects, or conquerors of refined nations, they always have remained
barbarians. They are equally unchanging in dialect;
and the hordes which have been separated beyond
the reach of tradition can converse with each other.
The Turk of Constantinople finds no difficulty in being
understood by a Yakut from Siberia or a Tartar
from Astrachan.
The Turks first appeared to the northward of
the Chinese provinces Shensi and Shansi probably
about the beginning of our era, where, during a
century, they engaged in a fierce war with the
Chinese. Broken by famine, a portion united with the
latter, and overthrew and expelled the other portion,
who migrated westward.  Tribes of Tungusian and
Mongolian origin filled the vacuum thus created, to be
in like manner expelled and thrown to the west in the
third century, when the sullen sound of these hoarse
human waves was first heard by Europeans. Turkish
tribes inhabit the Russian provinces of Kazan, Astrachan, Siberia, and the Crimea.  These are the Tartar
hordes of the Czar. The language of the Crim-Tartar
differs little firom the Turk.
The  Turkomans wander with their  herds over
189 
190     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Northern Persia, Western Armenia, Southern Georgia,
and the region east of the Caspian. They are a lively,
intelligent people, who boast that they rest neither
under the shadow of a tree nor the authority of a
king. Their features are extremely Turanian; of a
coppery hue, and their physique is more wiry and
lithe than the Osmanli. From them the celebrated
Seljukian Turks descended.
The USBEKS are a closely related people, though
more agricultural. Their capital is Bukara, and their
country very extensive.
The Turks of Turkestan are the remains of a once
powerful nation, from which originated the celebrated
Osmanli or Ottoman Turks, who are now the ruling
class in all the Turkish possessions, numbering eleven
or twelve millions, and forming the gentry and nobility
of Turkey. Theirs is the polite and official language
of Syria, Egypt, Tunis, and Tripoli, and is spoken
through the southern provinces of Asiatic Russia, the
provinces bordering the Caspian, and all Turkestan.
In 1453 they conquered the eastern capital of the
Roman Empire, and have since made the city of Constantine the capital of their European possessions.
The KIRGIS occupied the south of Siberia, between
the rivers Tom and the Yenisei; but, in the beginning
of the eighteenth century they were forced out by
the Mongols, and now their hordes roam over the
immense deserts or steppes of Great Tartary.
The  YAKUTS  are the most remote tribe of the
Turkish family, and at the same time have preserved
their language in purity. They are scattered on the
borders of the Northern Ocean, over a country the 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
most desolate in the world, where the mean temperature is 6~ Reamur below freezing, and mercury is a
solid two months in the year, and at the depth of a
few feet, the earth is perpetually frozen.
There are many tribes of Turks or Tartars in
Siberia; and the Kazan Turks in European Russia are
interesting, as they are now changing from nomadic
to agricultural life.
The Tungusians wander over the vast area from
Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okotsk. Their original
home is Daouria, north of Corea and China. They
extend along the Amoor and Usuri Rivers to the
shores of the Eastern Ocean. Under the government
of Russia, according to the animal they have domesticated and use, they are called Dog, HIorse, and Reindeer Tungusians. These roam over the trackless and
interminable steppes, from the Yenisei to the Pacific
Ocean. They are called Mandshus in China, having
in 1644 conquered that immense empire, and ever
since retained its government, filling all its offices,
and being its soldiers.
The Tungusic language is the lowest of the Tura.
nian family, being more unadvanced than the Chinese.
In Mandshu there are numbers of words without
distinctive terminations, being used for noun, verb,
adverb, and particle. This is the only Tungusian
dialect having a literature. They are more muscular,
of heavier make, than the Chinese, anrid have a physiognomy expressive of larger views, and more determinateness of purpose.   Their complexion varies;
but the blonde, with blue eyes, light hair, and aquiline nose, is not rare.
191 
192     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The religion of the Mandshu is Buddhism; of the
Osmanli and those they govern, Mohammedanism; and
Christianity is professed in Siberia.
On the northern limits of Asia, and like scattered
fragments between the hordes of other races and isles
of the Pacific, tribes are found which formerly were
not assigned to any class because so little known.
These are the Ostiaks of the Yenisei, the Yakagers,
Kamtschadales, Ainos, Coreans, the Japanese  and
Lew-Chew Islanders. From a careful comparison of
dialects, remains found in mounds, customs, and
fragmentary speech still existing, it has been concluded that over the vast region of Northern Asia,
from the Lew-Chew Islands, Japan, the Kuriles, Aleutians, and Kamtchatka, one race, the Aiios, held barbarous possession. The Japanese and Lew-Chews
have felt the influence of the Chinese from an early
day.
The Ainos or Kurilians, who have given their name
to this family, inhabit the eastern coast of Asia, and
dependent islands. Ethnologically, this family resembles the other northern Asiatics, and their dialects are
allied, especially the Aino, to the Samoiedes, and the
nations of the Caucasus. The Japanese, who have,
by the aid of Chinese civilization, and free infiltration
of blood, advanced beyond all other members of this
family, are described by travellers as a handsome people, with oval heads, regular features, and full round
foreheads. Their language unquestionably places
them in the Turanian class, and with the Tungusians.
It is through these northern Asiatics we pass to the
Esquirnaux of the New World, and from thence to all 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
its other innumerable Indian tribes.  The Tschuktschi
and Koriaks resemble the Esquimaux in manners and
language, and it is from this northern region, at Behr ing's Straits, or Aleutian Islands, that a connection
exists facile for the passage of savages. From the
Arctic Ocean across the equator to Terra-del-Fuego,
the countless tribes into which the Indians are broken
present a constant approach to one common type. In
moral character and intellectual status, as well as in
physical contour, they are alike.  Humboldt says:
"The Indians of New Spain have a general resem blance to those who inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru,
and Brazil. They have the same swarthy, and copper
color, straight and smooth hair, small head, squat
body, long eye, with the corners directed upwards
towards the temples, prominent cheek-bones, thick
lips, expressive of gentleness in the mouth, strongly
contrasted with a gloomy and severe look."  "We
think that we perceive them all to be descended
from the same stock, notwithstanding the prodigious
diversity of languages which separate them from one
another."''
There is a closer adherence to a common type be tween the most aberrant American tribes, than the
numbers of the Turkic or Tamulic classes. The dia lects of the American tribes do not differ as much as
somne authors endeavor to prove; and between those
which make the widest departure there are generally
connecting or intermediate forms. Few of these dialects have been carefully studied; and all of them are
so subject to change, that a few years serves to render
obsolete the old words, and introduce a new vocabu
13
193 
194     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
lary.   None of these have ever had a literature,
none have an alphabet, and to foreigners is assigned
the task of writing their sounds by the use of foreign
letters. How vague and unsatisfactory this method
must be to all except those who, with a theory already conceived, assert positively the absolute distinlction of race between petty tribes! The dialects of
the New World have been but partially studied; but
the facts brought to light point to a common source.
Many dialects are related by their vocabularies,
others by their grammatical structures.
The idiom of the Indian dialects is very intricate,
and among the most laborious and artfully contrived
that any language possesses. Yet dialects as remote
as those of the Incas of Peru, the Aztecs of Mexico,
and the Six Nations of New York, maintain striking
analogies in their constructional forms. The entire
dissimilarity between the structure of the Indian dialect and the European, renders it almost impossible
for an Indian to perfectly acquire the latter.
There are two reasons why their structure should
remain alike, while their vocabularies are lost.
Structure is far more permanent than words, and the
aggluterative method of formation in all these dialects is unfavorable to the preservation of the original
or root-word.
Barton has discovered "traces of the Samoiede
dialects, unequivocally preserved in an immense portion of America;" and Vater has shown, "that in
respect to most of the words denoting universal ideas,
and sensible objects of perpetual recurrence, words
may be found nearly resembling each other in some 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
of the idioms of America, and some of those spo
in Northern Asia."  The Indian skull is remark
like that of the Asiatic or Turkic.   Blumenb
pointed out their likeness.  Humboldt asserts: "
cannot refuse to admit that the human species d
not contain races resembling one another more nea
than the Americans, Mongols, Mandshus, and
lays."  In physical traits, in morals and intellect,
his nomadic habits, the Indian resembles the Asia
The color of his skin and hair, his prominent che
bones, oblique eyelids, scanty beard, are pecu
marks of similarity.
There is every reason to consider that the In
and Aztecs were branches of the American race;
der the favorable auspices of soil and climate, t
began a civilization of a unique and astonishing c
acter; and, had they remained  undisturbed, we
have risen to the glory of the empires of classic
nown.  They constructed temples of hewn porphy
measured the year, and properly divided it by
phases of the moon, possessed an advanced system
picture-writing, had literature composed of pot
and history, and a complicated government.  Th
traditions stated that they came from the north-w
in which they agree with the traditions of other tri
who refer their ancient homes in that direction.
The Koriaks of Asia, as before stated, are allied
the Esquimaux.  The latter stand, according to 
menibach, exactly intermediate between Mongolic 
American races. The American form of skull, altho
distinct, has more points of resemblance to, than
difference from, the Asiatic type.  Physical charact
195
I I; 
'196    THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
ne are not sufficiently marked to refer them either
the American or Asiatic families.  Their language
iallied to the American.
if the American Indians entered the New World
m the north-west, the tribes left on their path of dission would partake more of the original type than
se who were further removed.  Thus the Celts,
phed furthest from the centre of the Indo-European
tionalities, have lost almost every trace of their
gin, while those Aryan tribes scattered in the
acasus are closely allied to the Europeans and the
ndoos.
volume might be filled by a mere enumeration
the tribes scattered from  the Arctic Ocean to
rra-del-Fuego; but it were idle to tire the memory
h the unpronounceable names of people who have
history; who can never have; who act no part in
magnificent drama of civilization.  Like the wild
mal, the Indian perishes by the contact of superior
es. No effort, however benevolent and long-exerted,
c   preserve him.  He will not be converted by misnaries, he will not labor, he will not be civilized.
nce, all that is desirable is to show them of common
gilln, and refer that origin to Asia.
The New World has not a single indication of having
bi the original home of this or of any race.  There
no indications, as in the Old World, of an earlier
occupying people.  On the contrary, there is every
ication of recent occupancy.   A  people  thinly
ead over a great wilderness will not advance, and
re was no crowding in America.  There had not
en time  for this to occur.  The Indians were
.i..
I  i 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
savages, having no domestic animal but the dog, which
was little more than a tamed wolf.  Their dialects
were in the polysynthetic stage; they used only the
simplest hieroglyphics; and had not achieved, except
in Peru and Mexico, any degree of civilization. They
had not had time to work out any great result.
The Caucasus presents many fragments of Turanian
people, thrown off while the waves of that family
were passing into Europe. The multitudinous dialects
of this "Mountain of Languages" has been a perplexing subject to philologists. MIany of these languages,
spoken only by small and insignificant tribes, are
wholly distinct, presenting scarcely a trace of affinity
with any other. Only by the keen intellects of such
students as Miiller have the faint foot-prints of their
origin been traced.
The famed Georgians and Circassians are the leading tribes of this region.
THE GEORGIANS
inhabit the country lying between the River Alazan and
the Black Sea, the Kur, and the Caucasian Mountains.
Some travellers have thrown doubts on the remarkable
beauty of the Georgians; but it is conceded by the
most reliable authorities that they are "tall, slender,
of noble bearing, with regular features, aquiline nose,
finely formed mouth, dark complexion, dark eyes and
hair," and that the females are more beautiful than
the Circassians, although not so fair. They appear to
be descendants of the old Iberians and Colchians, and
present a type of features eminently Aryan, and hence,
according to our ideas, eminently beautiful.
197 - 
THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
THE ABASSIANS
are a pastoral and predatory people, inhabiting the
north-western portion of the Caucasus. Their language
has become distinct; and only by closest research can
its affinity to
THE CIRCASSIAN'
be determined. These term themselves Adigi. Their
country is elevated, cold, and covered by vast forests.
The men are tall, slender about the loins, with small
feet, and uncommon strength, and possess a very
martial bearing. Although the women are not all
"Circassian  beauties," there are proportionately a
greater number that would pass for such than amongst
any other polished nation. Their forms are universally elegant, their complexion white, and their hair
soft brown or black.
There are a multitude of tribes classed under the
names of Middle and Eastern Circassians, all of whom
speak dialects emphatically their own, and all agreeing
in their high-toned spirit of independence and their
pastoral and lawless habits.   Klaproth has traced
these dialects, with great labor, to a common source,
and shown that they are all related to the dialects of
Northern Asia, and especially to the Finnic.
The map gives Russia dominion over all these tribes,
but they are virtually free. They seem at a very
remote period to have embraced Christianity; but now
their religion is a strange mixture of Christianity,
Mohammedanism, and Paganism. That the dialects
of this mountainous region should so widely diverge
from what must have been their common parentage,
198 
THE NORTH TURANIAN RACES.
is not anomalous. It is what we should expect, and
what is always found in such regions. A sparse
population inhabiting vast forests, like the American
Indians, or deserts like those of Africa, or isolated in
narrow valleys by impassable mountain barriers, are
left to themselves; and their mother-tongue becomes
in a short time, by the natural growth of speech, a
dead or rather obsolete dialect. The wonder is why
all traces of a tongue do not more rapidly disappear;
how the roots of words and grammatical forms are so
tenaciously preserved.
199 
CIIHAPTER IX.
THE SOUTH TURANIAN RACES.
The "Hill Tribes," or Dravidians of Hindostan. - Pritchard's Failure. -
The BHILLS. - Pariahs. - Gonds. - Peoples of the Valleys of the
Ganges and Brahmapootra. - Siamese. - Tai Tribes. - Bengalese. -
Thugs.- THE  POLYNESIANS, From whence Dispersed? - MALAYS.
- They are the Nomads of the Sea.- Vast Geographical Extent of this
Race. - Turanian Fragments in Africa. - Extent of Dispersion not an
Argument against Community of Descent.
THE SOUTHERN BRANCH of the vast TURANIAN family
embraces the under-stratum of the population of the
immense plains of Southern Asia, and thence extends
over the islands of the South Sea. As in Europe,
these races are there stratified one above the other.
Vestiges only remain of the first; and the second is a
conquered and persecuted race, only preserved from
the Aryan Hindoos by the impregnable recesses of their
jungles, or the deadly miasma of the districts they
inhabit. They speak a language of their own, which
is strongly Turanian, as is their physical structure. In
India-these are called the " Hill tribes," or Dravidian
peoples. They live in a miserable condition, are outlawed and despised by the Hindoos, and so undeveloped
that many tribes find it difficult to protect themselves
against the tigers.
The Dravidian language possesses the traits of
agglutination, grammatical structure, and vocalization,
200 
THE SOUTH TURANIAN RACES.
observed in the Finnic, which may be compared to
the softest Dravidian dialects, while the Magyar may
be compared to those roughest in consonants.
The debris of this race are found in the "heart of
the Mahanuddy as far as Cape Cormorin, being the
Bhills, Tudas, Meras, Coles, Gonds, the Soudrahs, Pax
riahs, &c. The second inhabit the northern section
towards the Himalayas; such are the Radjis or Doms.
The third occupy the angle that separates the two
peninsulas of India, and which is distinguished by
the name of Assam, as well as that mountainous
band constituting the frontier between Bengal and
Thibet, as well as the islands of Ceylon, the Maldives, and the Laquedives."
In no place has Pritchard, in his laborious work, so
signally failed as in his description of the people of
India. He describes them as though they were of
one race.
Our knowledge has greatly extended since the date
of his work, and light has been thrown on the unique
system of castes prevalent in that country. It would
be foreign to my aim to enter into a detail of tribes
whose uncouth names are without interest. I desire
to present only the salient features of each, so that a
complete view may be obtained of the races of men
as they exist at present.
The BHILLS are of short stature, their hair curls,
and their lips are thick, and complexion very dark.
The Meras, living in the mountains, resemble them.
They must have been among the earliest tribes that
entered India.
The PARIAHS have been subject to the Tamuls.
201 
202     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
The latter have been a leading tribe. They show a
strong affinity to the Mongolian or Turanian type.
Their jaws and mouth are very prominent, their
cheek.bones high and large, their nose is short and
club-shaped, nostrils round, eyes small and half shut,
their lids oblique, ears large, lips thick, beard deficient,
and color brown.
They appear to have been the last tribe of Turanian
stock that entered India. Their language has reached
a grammatical perfection in advance of the Tungusic
or Chinese; and they possessed a considerable civilization before exposed to Aryan influences, and hence
have successfully resisted the Sanskrit dialect.
The GHONDES or KHONDES inhabit the dense forests
reeking with miasma. They are in the lowest state of
barbarism. Their foreheads are low and broad, eyes
small, sunken, and reddish, thick lips, skin black, and
hair reddish-black, and sometimes woolly. They present a picture of extreme ferocity.
The inhabitants of the north-east countries of India,
the valleys of the Brahmapootra and the Ganges, are
allied to the Tamuls and Thibetans. They are much
lower socially and intellectually than the Tamuls, are
more fierce and dependent on the chase, and have
fewer religious observances.  They are called Bhotlyas; and, although among the first tribes which entered
India, from their position they were the last to surrender their independence. Among them is observed
many of the curious customs by which their alliance
is shown with the tribes of Polynesia, such as exposing
their dead for four days on scaffolds, before burning
them. The Bhotiyas inhabit the high declivities of 
THE SOUTH TURANIAN RACES.
the Himalayas to a height exceeding ten thousand
feet. The foot of those'mountains are peopled by
tribes remarkably fine and healthy, although their
country is so pestilential that no other human being
can live in it. From this region the Bhotiyas spread
into Burmah, along the Irrawaddy and Brahmapootra.
Over all this vast area innumerable wild tribes are
spread. Their language is much less advanced than
the Tamulic, belonging to an earlier age.
The SIAMESE, Ahom, Laos,Khamti, and Kassia people,
have received the distinctive name of Tai tribes.
Their country possesses advantages for agriculture,
mining, and commerce, unsurpassed by any in the
world; yet these vagabond races allow it to run to
waste. The Anamese are remarkable for the per.
fection of the Turanian type which they present. The
language of the Ta'i tribes is monosyllabic, like the
Chinese, and is marked by a similar manner of musical
accent or intonation.
The disagreement of travellers in regard to the
morals and intellect of the East-Indians results from
the diversity of races which exists there; but the
prevailing idea is that they are, as a whole, a mild
and orderly people, easily governed. If it were not
so, 50,000 Englishmen could not hold, as they now do,
135,000,000 Hindoos in subjection.
In Bengal, each English magistrate has jurisdiction
over a million men, and in Madras there is but one
English official to half a million, and four districts
where there is only one to 300,000. Yet, perhaps,
there is no country in the world where more crime
exists, or where it takes as horrid a form. There
203 
204     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
is no country in the world where the puerile dis.
tinctions of rank and birth are carried to so ruinous
an extent, where poverty is so helpless and hopeless.
The Turanian people are as savage as their brethren
of the steppes of Tartary, and far more insidious and
crafty. The Thugs, professional murderers, are drawn
from their ranks.
THE POLYNESIANS [Malaic]. The groups of islands
over the great Southern Ocean present many interesting facts in the study of mankind.   Over this immense waste of waters, a peculiar race of men are
disseminated. There is scarcely an island in all this
expanse, however small, or newly raised above the
sea, but is inhabited; and, although conforming to a
common type, each of these isolated tribes have
traits peculiar to themselves, and their dialects vary
in every possible degree. This might be predicated,
on consideration of the immense tracts of ocean which
intervene between these islands, and the slight intercourse existing between members of different groups.
A people of few wants have few words, and the fewer
there are, the more liable of being lost. It has
been a received theory that all these multitudinous
tribes were descendants from Malays; but it is now
rendered certain that at least three waves of people
have been thrown over this expanse, the first being
the Australian or Oriental Negro, and the last two
Papuas or Polynesians proper, and Malays.  I have
already spoken of the former. The Polynesians are
scattered over the islands between New Zealand and
Easter Isle, north to the Sandwich, and westward to
the New Hebrides, and as a mixed people over the 
THE SOUTH TURANIAN RACES.
entire expanse of Polynesia. They are a daring race
of sailors, who will trust themselves, for weeks and
months, on the frailest raft, to the winds and the sea.
It has been conjectured that this people and the Ma lays descended from a great nationality once occupy ing these islands. Judging by words held in common,
this anterior nationality had made considerable advance
in agriculture and arts, understanding the use of
gold and iron, to fabricate cloth, and had domesticated
the buffalo, hog, duck, and fowl. To this early people
the colossal images scattered over many of the Pacific
Islands are referred. These races are the only ones
that have been persistently cannibals.
From whence was this aboriginal race dispersed?
If we go to the Hill tribes of Hindostan, we shall
find the object of our search. They dwell on the low
lands, -where the malaria is death to any other race,
- despised and outlawed. Their customs are widely
different from the HIindoos.   They have  no castes,
widows remarry, they shed blood in their sacrifices,
indulge in intoxication, bury and not burn their
dead. Their institutions are peculiar; their religion,
fetichism; and they occasionally indulge in cannibalism. This race once occupied all Southern Asia, as
its western division did all Europe. They are the
Dravidian Turanians.
By comparison of dialects, the languages of these Dravidians and the Polynesians are found to be related to
the Chinese and Thibetans, and all the languages
spoken by tile yellow race.   The closer alliance of
ancient Thibetan and Burmese than their modern
forms, indicates that they are parallel developments
205 
206     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
from a parent tongue, from which the Chinese originated.
By this alliance of the languages in the south-east
of Asia, it becomes certain that the yellow race once
occupied its whole extent. Even the wild tribes in
the defiles of the Mountains of Assam, wherever they
were driven by conquering Burmese, Chinese, or Aryans, by their monosyllabic language indicate their
alliance to the yellow race.
Tribes remarkably similar to these wild clans of
Assam, inhabit Malacca and Sumatra; mark themselves in tattoo every time they slay an enemy, as is
observed in the Islands of the South Sea; and, as
among the natives of Borneo, a young man must not
wed until he has slain a certain number of enemies.
A tribe in Assam expose their dead on scaffolds, as do
many Polynesians, and those of the Sunda Islands. It
is by comparison of languages that philologists are
enabled to pronounce the trans-gangetic peninsula
the cradle of the Malayo-Polynesian race.
The dialects of the sporadic islands of Polynesia
cluster around the Siamese and Burman; but, in the
ratio of their removal from this point, they become
changed by mingling with other languages and
isolation from the parent stock, and their original
character in many instances is lost.   A  constant
stream of Thibeto-Chinese were passing across the
tranA-gangetic  peninsula, and dispersing over the
Southern Ocean. The Dravidian tribes, issuing from
the same stock, but at a remoter age, commingled
with this stream as it flowed seaward.
But this Polynesian race had another element of 
THE SOUTH TURANIAN RACES.
change added to this by the infiltration of the blood
of the still older Oriental Negro, an Australian race,
whom they everywhere met, and either dispersed or
absorbed.
The Malays appear to have been the last wave sent
off from the trans-gangetic peninsula. They are the
nomads of the sea; a commercial people from immemorial time, who have occupied all the desirable positions in the South Sea, and rapidly extend their
influence to the south and east. Their language is
diffused over a wider area than any other, extending
from Madagascar to Easter Isle, from Formosa to New
Zealand, or over 70~ latitude and 200~ longitude.
They first settled on the continent in 1160, and in the
succeeding century embraced Mohammedanism, and
have ever been zealous in propagating that faith.
When they were confined to Sumatra, the Javanese
were lords of the Indian Ocean, carrying on an extensive commerce, reaching Madagascar on one side, and
Amboyna on the other. Restlessly they have extended themselves over this vast expanse, confined
on the Asiatic shores by China, and from America by
the vastness of the intervening ocean. The North
Turanians are the wandering robbers of the desert
and steppe; the Malay, his southern brother, the robber, the corsair of the sea.
There are fragments of the Turanian family existing so far removed that criticism has been active
against their classification as such. Far down in the
heart of Africa, between Lakes Yeou and Tsad, are a
people known as Kanuri, of whose language Mr. Norris writes: " Its nouns are fully declined by past fixed
207 
208     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
syllables; its roots are not subject to any modifications; it forms its plural by adding a syllable; it has
an accusative case; it uses pronominal affixes; it has
negative verbs; and its verbs have distinct personal
endings, which are, however, unconnected with existing pronouns. There appear also some traces of the
Tartar vocalic harmony." This people are distinct
from the negro, and even more congenial to the table
lands of Asia than the deserts of Africa, so far have
they preserved their ancestral physiognomy. We
must be ready to admit that no dispersion, however
wide, throws any objection to community of descent. 
CHAPTER X.
THE ARYAN RACES.
Who are Aryans? - Origin of, and Attainments in Civilization before the
Separation of its Component Races. - A Sketch of the Method of Linguis  tic Research.- The Vendidad, and Zend-avesta.- Date of the Founda  tion of the Median Empire. - INDIc BRANCH.- Prakrit, Sanskrit, and
Zend. - The Gypsies. - THE IRANIC, or PERSIAN, BRANCH. - Effect of
the religious system of ZOROASTER. -The Language of the MAGI. -
Pure  Persian. - The Afghans. - Buchars.             - Kurds. - Belooches. -
Armenians. - Assetes. - Parsees. - Guebres. - NORTHERN BRANCH. -
Pelasgi. - Thracians. - Kelts. - Sclavonians. -  Lithuranians. - THE
TEUTONIC RAcES. - Their History, Customs, and Languages. - From
whence came the Waves of People that devastated Rome?- Goths.  Franks. -Saxons.- Alemanii. -Vandals,  Longobards. -Huns. - Re  lations of Languages. - CONCLUSIONS.
THE greatest ethnological discovery of modern times
is that which by comparative philology defines the
boundaries of the Indo-European, or Aryan, races,
and refers them to a common stock inhabiting the
high lands of Asia. The blonde Scandinavian, the
phlegmatic German, the irascible Kelt, the Sclavonic
Russian, the energetic Anglo-American, the dreamy
Hindoo, the Greek, the Latin, and the Persian, have
been proved to belong to a common parentage.
The term Indo-European is more objectionable than
Aryan. The latter is Sanskrit, and originally meant,
"one who tills," in opposition to Turanian, which
referred to the nomadic horsemen; but it came to
209 
210     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
mean, "noble," "of good family," as distinctive to
Soudra and Pariah, ignoble and despised. This family
contains the Indic [Hindus], Persian, Celtic, Italic,
Illyric, Hellenic, Sclavonic, and Teutonic peoples.
The study of their dialects conclusively shows, that,
before their separation, and previous to the departure
of the first Celtic and Hindoo emigrations, they had
attained the civilization of agricultural nomads. They
had learned  the art of ploughing, making  roads,
houses, ships; of spinning, weaving, sewing; and
could count, at least, as far as a hundred, using the
decimal system. They had domesticated the horse,
cow, sheep, and dog; were acquainted with the most
useful metals; and armed themselves with iron hatchets, &c. They recognized relationships, the marriage
contract; they fixed by law the relations of right and
wrong; framed rude governments of chieftancies.
How is this known? How do we know that in the
night of ages previous to historic ken, that, through
the gates of the Caucasus poured the living waves of
Kelts, Teutonians, Sclaves, and Lithuranians, driving
before them the indigenous population? That the
Pelasgi, the Phrygians, Lydians, and other nations, all
rolled towards the west?  That the almost fabled
Pelasgi, -reaching Italy and Greece, broke into Grecian and Latin tribes? Because, in all the diverse
tongues which are classed as Aryan, from the old Norse
of Iceland to the confines of Hindostan, the primitive
names given to the above-mentioned domestic animals,
metals, and objects, are identical in their elements.
That a single name should be found in them all, applied
to the same object, would be improbable; but that a 
THE ARYAN RACES.
great maj6rity of such names should agree, is impossible on any other theory than that of a common
origin, especially in the system of numbers and their
names. The word for sheep, in Sanskrit, is avis; in
Latin, ovis; in Greek, ois. For yoke, in Sanskrit,
jagam; Latin, jugam; Greek, zagon.
This agreement runs entirely through these entire
languages, forming a basis as sure as historic record
from which to calculate the exact attainments they
had made at the period of their separation. They
could count, because all these nations count in the
same manner. They made houses and carts, and
used salt, and counted time by the lunar divisions
of the year, because the names of all these are the
same in all Aryan dialects.
The similarity extends deeper than words; it
enters into the structure, and all these dialects have
almost identically the same grammar, showing that
they had attained their present structure before the
separation occurred. And, remarkable as it may appear, few, if any, roots have been added since that
period; the changes in the languages being only new
combinations of existing elements.
The most ancient and sacred writings of the Persians, the Vendidad, places the home of their fathers
in eastern Turkistan, at the source of the Oxus and
Oaxartes. The Hindoos have no tradition relating to
this subject. The earliest Vedic hymns show them
to have been on the sources of the Indus, contending
with, and vanquishing, the primitive Turanian tribes.
The Zend-avesta agrees with the Vendidad, and even
211 
212     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
now the prevailing dialect of those countries, fixed
upon as the source of these emigrations, is Aryan.
It is puerile to attempt to give the dates of these
migrations. We can only give the order of their succession. Bunsen supposes the Aryans entered India
from 4000 to 3000 B.C. Ducker places the formation
of the Vedas at from 1800 to 1500 B.C., and Rawlinson places the emigrations which founded the Median
Empire at from 1160 to 640 B. C. These dates, however, are not reliable. All we actually know is that
the Aryan family was the last to appear on the stage.
The Semite and Turanian had created great empires
while they were still savages. But with this lateness
of maturity came a vigor and power which soon placed
the Aryan at the head of all the families of mankind.
In science, in philosophy, in arts, in law, in all that
goes to make civilization in its highest sense, they
stand far in advance. Applying knowledge to the
forces of nature, they have made bulwarks and fortifications of them, and, thus defended, bid defiance to
the savage Turanian, who has so often overthrown the
civilizations of the past. Only the inaccessibility of
his haunts can- save the Turanian, or even the lower
members of the Aryan, from the sway of the higher.
Thus it is that the European-Aryan meets the effeminate Indo-Aryan, and the latter is subjugated to the
genius of the former. The Aryan is a proud and energetic race. Already its members talk of making
their dialects the universal tongue; and one, at least,
has extended its empire around the world.
From this ancestral Aryan people two great streams
diverging, flowed, one over the Hindoo-Kosh into Hin 
THE ARYAN RACES.
dostan, the other through the Caucasus into Europe.
The first is called the southern, the latter the northern
branch.
The southern branch is divided into INDIC, and
Iranic.  We have shown that a considerable advance
was made before  separation.   The two  branches,
Iranic and Indic, remained united for a much longer
time, and after their separation a close intimacy existed
for a long period. This is shown by the words they
hold in common, which the northern branch does not
possess.
The ancient dialect of the Indic was the Sanskrit
and Prakrit; that of the Iranic, the Zend.
Sanskrit with the Brahmin is still a living tongue,
preserved in its purity. In it their sacred books are
written, and thus hidden from the vulgar. The chronology of the Hlindoos is a fable prompted by egotism.
All we know of their early history is by comparison
of the Sanskrit with the Zend, by which it appears
that the two ran nearly parallel until the reformation
of Zoroaster. When the Indic branch pushed through
the Hindoo-Kosh, we have already seen how the Turanians were affected. We must, however, place a
vast interval of time between the emigration of the
latter and former. The Dravidian, or Turanian, had
made a great advance from savage life before crushed
by the stronger Aryan.
The Sanskrit, or its parent dialect, was the spoken
language of the.Indic branch when it entered India;
and long ere the Greeks knew of the Indus, it had
acquired its refined polish and cultivation. The description of Herodotus and Dionysius of this people
213 
214     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
is perfectly appropriate to-day, so completely stagnant
have they remained since the great effort they put
forth in the subjugation of the Turanians, who occupied the soil before them. The present Hindostanee
dialects are outgrowths of the Sanskrit, as is shown
by nine-tenths of its roots being referable to that
tongue.
The Gypsies belong to this family, as proved by
Grellman by the numerous words of their vocabulary
which agree with HIindostanee, and especially with
the idiom of the Bazeegurs.  "Palas observes that the
language of the Gypsies very much resembles that of
the Hindoos.  Resorting for the purpose of trade to
Astrachan, from the Indian province of Multan, they
entered Europe in the fifteenth century, and are now
widely dispersed over Asia and Europe, and a few
bands have crossed the ocean, and infest America.
Their physiognomy is Eastern, their complexion dark,
and their form like the Hindoos.
There are many clans of Kelts and Saxons who profess to be Gypsies, but they are distinguished by their
show of work. They are tinkers, are itinerant coblers, or peddlers. The Gypsy has discovered how to
live without, and he will not under any emergency
make the slightest effort. He prefers starvation.  He
regards the plodding laborer as his lawful prey. His
vagabond race are without a history, and they deserve none. No race, not even the Jew, has preserved with greater tenacity their peculiar type.
From the snows of Norway, through the mountains
of Spain, to the burning sands of Africa, they speak
the same language, are of nearly the same complexion, 
THE ARYAN RACES.
and have the same marauding habits.   Everywhere
despised and scorned, a foreigner wherever he pitches
his tent, an outlaw, a jocky, a thief. The civilization
and Christianity of the people among whom he is cast
are nothing to him. He is the identical Pagan he was
four hundred years ago when he entered Europe.  It
is said there are exceptions; and in Russia they follow
the trade of the smith, and work in silver and gold;
but it is doubtful if such are not spurious. Nor have
they ever shown the least tendency to mingle with
other races, and hence, with their roving habits, the
preservation of type.
They have a tawny complexion, black piercing eyes,
black hair, high cheek-bones, projecting jaws, narrow
mouth, and agile form. The young women are occasionally pretty, but the men and old women are ugly.
Their morals are depraved. They accept alike all
religions, as interest dictates; but they have no word
to express the idea of God or immortality, and hence
cannot have those ideas. Nor have they a literature,
except fragments of rude songs handed down verbally
from generation to generation. They are honest with
one another; and, however rough and degraded, the
females are chaste, even when panderers for others.
Their whole number is computed at 5,000,000.
THE IRANIC, OR PERSIAN, BRANCH. The ancient dia lect of Persia, the Zend, is most clearly allied to the
Sanskrit. It is preserved in the sacred book called
the Zend-avesta; in inscriptions of Cyrus, Darius,
and Xerxes, in the Pehlevi; in the epic poem of
Firdusi and the spoken language of Persia in its cor rupted form.
215 
216     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Persia, the seat of the Iranic family, has been the
battle-ground of contending races.   Over its plains
and mountains are scattered. fragmentary tribes of the
three great divisions of mankind.  The Turanians and
Semites are wanderers and traders; the Iranians are
the tillers of the earth and the people of cities.
Could the mystery which involves the history of
Persia previous to the reign of Cyrus the Great be
penetrated, light would be thrown on the now obscure
problem of the cause of the separation and origin of
the Aryans. Persia, before his time, has no written
history; but, like all other nations, she has a brilliant
heroic age, "where Iemshid is said to have built the
palaces of Istakhar, and Rustan fought upon his hippogriff against the warriors of Afrasiab." These
traditions lose themselves in thle dreamy clouds of
the past.  In the absence of positive proof of the
existence of an ancient Persian Empire previous to
historic time, it must be supposed, in accordance with
the testimony of ancient Greek historians, and, as the
traditions of the East imply, that the vast regions afterwards united under that powerful monarchy were
occupied by a people similar in language and manners
to the ancient Hindoos.
The religious system of Zoroaster, and the magnificent works of art, remains of which still exist in Iran;
refined literature and poetry, vestiges of which are
preserved,- all date from the foundation of the MedoPersian Empire and hierarchy of the famous Magi.
The language of the Magi bore similar relations to
the common speech of the Persians that Sanskrit, the
speech of the Brahmans, does to Hiindostanee. It could 
THE ARYAN RACES.
not have been a foreign tongue, as the Magi were indigenous. It appears to have been the language of
Media and Northen Persia. The Zend is closely related to Sanskrit, and they who used it as a vernacular
idiom must have been closely allied to the Hilindoos.
The other dialects of Persia, although farther removed
from the parent-stock, are unquestionably referable to
the same source. One branch, the Parsee, bears a
striking resemblance to the German, and may be considered as the connecting-link uniting the Gothic or
German with the Primitive, or Pre-Sanskrit, tongue.
The preservation of Zend and Sanskrit by a favored
priestly class is exactly paralleled by the preservation of Latin by the Catholic Church. Had the latter
had its own way, the Bible, its liturgies and hymns,
would never have been translated, but have remained
in the language in which they were composed. The
sacred books of the Zend-avesta and Vedas represent
the Zend and Sanskrit as they then existed; but, while
they remained stationary, the vulgar tongue changed,
until they became sealed books except to those who
made them a daily study. So the Bible was written
in the common tongue; but a few hundred years
placed it beyond the knowledge of the vulgar.
Thus we see there is no necessity for supposing
the Magi were of a foreign race.  They rather grew
out of the desire for a religious order to translate
and expound the sacred books, a want which has been
felt and met in all ages, and made themselves necessary by sealing those books from the vulgar.
The pure Persian presents a high Aryan type. His
face is oval, features regular, complexion is usually
217 
218     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
brown, eyebrows long and black, eyes large and black,
stature not tall. Allied to the Persian are many fami.
lies whose importance necessitates their mention.
The Afghans are a numerous and powerful people,
inhabiting the mountains to the north of the plains of
the Indus, and the southern declivities of the HindooKosh. They are a rude and warlike race, with a
striking Semitic cast of features. They call themselves Pushtun. Their language, the Pushtu, is
spoken from the valley of Pishin to Kaffaristan. Although an unmixed race, they present great variations,
according to the climate of their respective territories,
from those on the low-lands of the Indus, who are almost black, to those of the high table-lands of the West
who are as fair as Europeans.
Of their innumerable wandering hordes, the Duranis of Western Afghanistan are the most civilized.
They are educated in Persian literature, and are
strongly attached to their country, and their religion,
which is the worship of the sun. Their holy city is
Kandahar. Seven centuries ago, the Afghans overrun India, and inflicted the greatest cruelty on that
unhappy land, until Tamerlane led the Mongolians,
and swept the last Afghan dynasty away forever.
The Belooches inhabit the country lying between
Afghanistan and the Indian Ocean, having Sind on the
east, and Persia on the west. Over this vast territory
roam the hordes of Belooches and Brahoocs, the two
great divisions into which this people are divided.
The Belooches are pastoral, dwelling in felt-tents, and
moving from place to place, as the necessities of pasturage or water indicate.   The Brahooe's, are still 
THE ARYAN RACES.
more wandering and savage, perpetually moving,
though they prefer the high, cold mountain pastures.
The language of the former is connected closely to
the Persian, while that of the latter is more strongly
allied to the Hindoo.
The Buchars are the dwellers in the towns of Great
and Little Bucharia, between the Caspian Sea and the
borders of China. They have been referred to Tartar
origin; but Klaproth has shown them to be decidedly
Persian. The cities of Balkh, Sarmarcand, and Bokhara have been, in the eyes of the people of the East,
the wonder of the world. They have undoubtedly
inhabited this region since the time of the ancient
Persian Empire.
The Kurds inhabit the mountains of Kurdistan, and
are scattered as far as the Persian Gulf, and into Russia. rhey are considered direct descendants from the
Karduchians, mentioned by Xenophon. They are divided into nobles or rulers, and peasants. The latter
are hard-featured, with sunken-eyes, and abrupt lines
of face, and live in a state of great misery and oppression; but the former are a handsome people, with almost Grecian cast of features. Their language is a
dialect of the Persian, with a mixture of Arabic and
Turkish words. It is not taught in their schools, and
has no written form.
They are warlike, and live by plunder, escaping to
their mountain fastnesses. The Turkish government
on the west, and the Persian on the east, are endeavoring with a strong hand to suppress their outrages,
and, by a system of wholesale transplanting and denationalizing, will, in a short time, annihilate the race.
219 
220     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
North of Persia, and stretching across the isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian, lie the Caucasus,
or, as it has been termed by the Persians, "the mountain of languages." Through this isthmus flowed the
great streams of Aryan and Turanian people into Eiurope; and all have left eddies or fragments in these
mountain gorges. In Herodotus' time the same mixture prevailed, and Greek merchants passing that region were accompanied by seven interpreters speaking different languages. The Turanians are much the
most numerous. Although nominally Russian territory, yet these mountaineers are virtually independent, and the Russian mails can only be carried by an
armed escort.
Contiguous to this region lies Armenia, which from
remotest ages has been the battle-field of contending
races, often conquered by inferiors. Yet, in a remarkable manner, its people have preserved their rich intellectual and moral endowments, their religious systems, customs, manners, and language.  Their origin
is obscure. When they held intercourse with the Romans, they were already nearly the same as now.
Strabo referred them to Greek origin; but his conclusions cannot be sustained. The facts he states are of
more value. He says that the Armenians and Medes
had the same worship and religious rites as the Persians, to which they added the licentious rites of Anaitis.  Their religion was that of the Magi, but is
now a strange mixture of Christianity and paganism.
In the fifth century, Missrob invented an Armenian
alphabet, and translated the Bible. From that date
its literary history commences. 
THE ARYAN RACES.
By conquest, voluntary and forced emigration, and
their love of trade, the Armenians are widely scattered
over Europe and Asia; yet they ever, like the Jew,
look with longing eye and unchanged affection to
their native land.
They are more honest and intelligent than their
Turkish masters, and far superior in agriculture.
They profess a corrupted Christian religion, for
which they endure persecution and exile with great
firmness. Their ancient tongue is a dead language,
and differs so much from both the Iranic and Indic
that some writers have considered it as distinct. It,
however, is so closely allied to the Persian that Median words preserved by Herodotus can be explained
by means of the Armenian.
The Armenians are a handsome, well-formed, sober,
frugal, hospitable, and honest people.
THE OSSETES
Occupy the country north of Tiflis, and the valley
of the Tiflis. They were, according to Georgian tradition, much more widely dispersed. Their customs
and practices are strikingly like those of the German
peasantry, so much so that they have been considered
a fragment thrown off by the Teutonic wave as it
passed the Caucasus.   Their language inclines more
to the Persian than the Teutonic. Klaproth considers
them as descendants of the ancient Alani. According
to Reineggs they are the Assmi of Pliny, who were
ruled by women, and were celebrated for the manufacture of iron arms.
221 
222     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQITTY OF MAN.
Our ideas of the true Persian must be drawn from
the Parsees, who are the most direct descendants of
the Fire-worshippers. When driven into exile, "they
carried with them into India the religion, the hardy
habits, and athletic forms of the north of Persia; and
their posterity may still be recognized, with their
mental and bodily powers unimpaired, after the residence of a thousand years in a burning climate."
They are a brave and handsome people.
The Guebres are also descendants from the old Persian; but they have acquired, from their mixture with
Mongolian or Chinese, an ugliness foreign to the old
Persian type, as delineated in their sculptures, which
present perfect European features. Their color varies with locality. The women of Persia and Afghanistan are, when not exposed, as white as Europeans;
but the men are dark. It is stated that in the north
provinces of Persia a slender form and blue eyes are
characteristic of the females. In the south, especially
on the low lands, a dark, almost black complexion
prevails.
The northern branch of the Aryan family possesses
more historic interest than all other races combined.
To it belong the history, poetry, literature, arts, inventions, and the grandest civilizations of the ancient
and modern world; the Greek, the Roman, and the
various European empires.
The Pelasgi, almost a mythic people, appear to have
belonged to the earliest Aryan waves, which, flowing
south of the Black Sea, reached Italy and Greece.
The accounts of Greek historians of this people are 
THE ARYAN RACES.
conflicting and inconsistent; even then they had sunk
into the mists of time.
They were a peaceful race, and had the inherent
love of architectural forms of beauty so conspicuous
in the Greek.   To them are referred the cyclopean
structures, scattered over parts of Asia and Europe, massive but rude attempts to express ideas in
stone. The most plausible theory of this race is that
they were the first waves of Greek and Italian
peoples, and were constantly succeeded by other
emigrations of the same stock, pressed towards
Europe, across the Hellespont and Bosphorus, by
the Lydians and Phrygians; they entered Italy in
two streams, one from Greece and the other over the
Plains of the Po.
All these emigrations appear to have been of one
stock, and the memory of the earlier have been lost
in traditions so completely that they were considered
by the Greeks to be the very children of the "black
earth." In such a state of things, the historian and
the student of races must needs yield to the confusion.
Pritchard has shown that the entire ancient population of Greece were Pelasgi, and that they spoke
the  31oic dialect, which may be considered as the
common original from which the other dialects were
derived. It was a long time before the Greeks invented a name by which to distinguish their kindred
tribes, to the exclusion of foreigners. When the term
Hellenic was applied, it strictly designated tribes of
unmixed blood; but the Romans used the name Greaeci
for all those who spoke dialects of that language.
223 
224     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
After the Peloponnesus had adopted this name, the
Ionians still retained that of Pelasgi.
From these united emigrations sprung the Hellenic
and Roman civilizations.
THE THRACIANS
Appear, by the intricate manner in which they blend
with the Pelasgi, to have been of the same stock.
The Greek and Latin languages indicate the relations
of their respective races to the Iranic and Indic
branches. The Sanskrit is a sister language from a
common parentage.  Before the separation occurred,
or previous to the emigration of the Pelasgi, the
connection of words teach what advancement had
been made. They hold the name of a boat in
common: but they had not invented sails, nor had
they seen the sea; and they were more nomadic
than agricultural.
Thinly spread over a large area of Europe and
Asia, and the islands of the Mediterranean, they
remained barbarous; concentrated in Greece and
Italy, they began a splendid civilization. The Latin
partakes deeply of an older stock than the Greek;
but both run almost parallel courses with the Sanskrit. As races they avoid the mental stagnation
of the Hindoos, and eagerly rush onward in quest
of novelties, yielding poetry in its noblest form, and
art in unrivalled beauty.  The Lydians, Carians, and
Thracians, by the manner in which they are all lost
in the Pelasgi, appear to have been derived from a
common parentage. 
THE ARYAN RACES.
THE KELT.
A contempory wave of the great European immigration was that of the Kelts. Their language is
considered to be, by many scholars, of an earlier date
than Sanskrit, belonging directly to the ancient
tongue from which Sanskrit also was derived. The
hypothesis of Meyer, although entirely hypothetical,
accounts for the facts connected with the migration
of this people in a very clear and satisfactory
manner. Hie supposes that they entered Europe in
two streams: one passing through Syria, Egypt, and
along the northern coast of the Mediterranean, entering Europe at the Straits of Gibraltar; the other
passing on the north of Europe. Authentic history
finds the Kelt from the northern regions of Scotland
to the extreme south of Italy.   In the third century,
they capture Rome and enter Greece, Macedonia,
and Thessaly, ravage Asia-Minor, and attack the
Scythians.
The Kelts were a noisy and warring people, elastic
but unenduring, with the restless folly of childhood,
with vast hopes and fierce joys. With swift feet
they overran Europe, and subjugated or destroyed
the Turanian tribes which preoccupied that country.
They met the ocean, when it invaded them, with
arms, and shot arrows at the lightning. Never to
flee was a point of honor; and often they would not
leave a house on fire, but perished in the flames.
Of enormous appetites, their feasts rarely ended
without a quarrel; for the thigh belonged to the
bravest at the board, and to determine who was the
15
225 
226     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
bravest was the source of constant dispute. No
people held life cheaper. They would, for a piece
of money or a little wine, sell their lives.  Next to
fighting and feasting they loved tales of other lands,
and would compel strangers to entertain them.
They were great talkers themselves; and, in public
assemblies, drawn swords only could secure the
speaker a hearing. They were abandoned through
levity, and at random ran blindly into the most
licentious pleasures. They broke faith with a jest;
had no idea of the obligations of a promise; and, until
other blood was infused into their veins, so impatient of control and fickle were they, that they were
incapable of founding permanent states.
The Kelts inhabited Europe from the earliest
period spoken of in ancient history. Their mythology indicates their Eastern origin more unequivo.
cally than their language. From Coesar we learn
that they were divided into three castes, corresponding to the priest, the warrior, and laborer
among the  Hindoos.  The Brahmins of India are
the exact counterpart of the Druids. Those wild
priests of a wilder people are clothed with an impenetrable myth. They possessed the strongest hold
on the imaginations of the people. They had no
concern in warfare, nor were they subject, together
with the rest of the people, to pay taxes. They
enjoyed immunity from military and all other burdens. "By means of augury and the inspection of
sacrifices, they foretell future events, and keep the
multitude in awe." They were abettors in battle,
the teachers of youth, and decided all legal questions 
THE ARYAN RACES.
which arose among a rude people. All knowledge
flowed from them. They had sacred animals, and
sometimes on their rude altars offered human sacrifices. Like the Hiindoos, they burned their dead on
funeral piles; and favorite animals, slaves, or relatives
were consumed with the dead. From the earliest
periods, they excelled in valor, and were eagerly
engaged as mercenaries by the rulers of ancient
times. They were extremely credulous, and thus
the Druids fastened on them a terrible system of
superstition. By the steady valor of the Romans
and Teutons, they were subdued and absorbed.
Their moral and intellectual traits have remained
almost without change to the present; but nowhere,
except in the Highlands of Scotland, is the Kelt
described by Cesar to be found. There they still
have a ruddy complexion, light hair, and blue eyes,
and are remarkably tall and athletic. There, too,
they still wear the tartan garment. From their remains,
it has been learned that they understood working in
iron, gold, copper, bronze, ivory, and glass: that
they used coins, constructed ships and houses and
roads. They possessed an alphabet allied to the
Greek; but none of their literature, if they ever had
any, has been preserved. Philologists divide the
Keltic tongues into Kymric, embracing the Welsh
and Bas-Breton, and the Gaelic, embracing the Irish,
the Gaelic of the Scotch-Highlander, and dialect of
the Isle of Man.
THE SCLAVONIANS.
Over the vast country known to the Romans as
Sarmatia, dwelt a people who have, in very recent
227 
228     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
times, excited the interest of the world by their rapid
strides to civilization and power. These are the
Sclavonians. They are divided into the Antes,
comprising the Russians, and Sclavonian nations of
Illyrium, and the Sclavi, comprising the Poles, Bohe.
mians, Serbes, and Wends. The Sclavic languages
show the structure of the Sanskrit, and are allied to
the Latin and Greek. By this alliance, their origin
is determined. In what degree they partook of the
character of the old Sarmatian tribes cannot be
determined, but it is probable that they aggregated
out of them. They were unfortunately settled on the
boundaries of Roman civilization, and their territo.
ries became the battle-ground between Rome and
the barbarians. They were not warlike, but tillers
of the soil; but on them fell the attacks of the hordes
of Asia, on the east, and on the west, towards which
they were crowded by the Huns, Turks, and Avars,
they met the unflinching Teuton.  But with a tenacity unparalleled, they have withstood all these invasions, and absorbed each wave of conquest, without
being changed themselves.  From 400, B.C., to 200,
A. D., they slowly moved north and east, occupying
the vast plains of Eastern Europe.
It is not until the sixth century we meet with the
Sclaves in history. When the Longobards abandoned
Hungary, the Avars took possession of that country,
and assigned lands to their Sclavonic allies. Tle
Sclaves in 552 occupied the country beyond the
Danube, and their expeditions extend over Dalmatia,
Illyria, Thrace, even to Constantinople. They partook of the immense movements of the Teutonic 
THE ARYAN RACES.
tribes; and, in the sixth and seventh centuries, they
spread from the Danube to the German Ocean, occupying territories left by Teutonic tribes in their
emigrations towards the west.
In the seventh century, the eastern Sclaves became
attached to the south-eastern declivity of the Alps.
The Russians belong to the eastern branch, and
receive their name from a Scandinavian tribe who
governed them for some centuries.   From  582 to
the eighth century, the western Sclaves overran
Greece and contiguous states. In 623, they appeared on the Elbe. They settled Moravia, furnished
the ancestors of the present Bohemians, founded
cities and colonies on the North Sea, and from them
sprang the Dalmatians, the Frankish Sclaves, the
Saxon Sclaves, the Poles, the Slovaks, and Pomeranians.
Less bold and adventurous, and less moral than
the Teutons, they evince, however, a tenacity of
character which preserves, after all the conquests to
which they have been subjected, and the mingling of
nationalities, their peculiar type in its original purity.
They have always fought well when forced to do
so, but their inclinations have ever been towards
peace. They were at first in advance of the Teutons in peaceful arts; and it is thought the word
expressive of plough, as well as the use of that important instrument, was derived by the latter from their
Sclavic neighbors. From the fifth to the ninth century, the Teutons held Western Germany, and the
Sclaves eastern; and it was observed that the latter
country was more powerful, and in every way more
229 
230     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
prosperous. They are remarkable for never having
had great chieftains  and leaders.  There seemed
more equality among the individuals than in any
other race. Their progress was always slow, and
now they appear to have only just entered on their
career of civilization. The Russian Autocracy, having grasped the destinies of the Sclavic race, and, with
the highest order of justice, removed the impediments
of serfdom which has so long forbidden progress,
will swiftly arise to its true place as one of the most
powerful, enlightened, and commanding governments
on the earth.
THE LITHURANIANS
Inhabit the eastern coast of the Baltic, from the
Vistula to the Memel.  They are a very early branch
of the Sclavonic Family, and their language has not
suffered so much change as other branches; so that
it approaches the original Sanskrit in a wonderful
degree.   Early in the fourth century, they were
brought to notice by their traffic in amber, and were
recognized as distinct from the adjoining Sarmatians.
They are divided into three branches: the Ancient
Prussians, the Lithuranians, and the people of Kurland and Livonia. Of all the pagan nations, none
resisted Christianity with so great pertinacity; and
not until the thirteenth century were they subdued
by the Teutonic Knights. They have been called
the Windic family by Miiller, and considered as a
sister family of the Sclavonic. Very little of their
literature has been transmitted, but their dialects are
of great interest as presenting the earliest forms of
Aryan speech. 
THE ARYAN RACES.
THE TEUTONIC RACE.
We have come to the consideration of this last
great family of mankind.  We have left it until the
last, because it is the great historic race of the
present, and around it gather the ruling nationalities of the world. The history of this noble race
begins, like that of all others, by the description of
savage hordes scattered through the wilderness of
Northern Europe. Germany as known to the Romans
embraced the vast area comprised between the Rhine
and Danube on the south, the ocean on the west,
the Vistula on the east, and extended north indefinitely. The tribes scattered over this territory were
divided by their dialects into three branches: the Lower and the Upper German, and Scandinavian. This
division, so pertinent at present, was equally good
two thousand years ago; and, so radical is the difference between these dialects, that the separation must
have occurred before their departure from their original seat.  The Upper, or classical German, is " harsh
and deeply-toned, abounding in gutturals and imperfectly articulated consonants, and in deep diphthongal
sounds, which stand in place of the softer dentals and
palatines, and of the open vowels of the Lower German languages." Notwithstanding the softness of
the Upper German in the classical speech, it remains
the harshest dialect of Europe.   This branch has
been always distinguished by the name of Teutsch,
or Deutsch, from whence is derived Teutonic. Long
before the Christian era, the Teutons and Cimbri
moved towards Gaul and Italy. In the second cen
231 
232     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
tury, an indescribable confusion prevailed among the
hordes of the Germanic forests. Constantly, fresh
tribes were arriving from the East, pushed forwvard
by an irresistible impulse on the boundaries of the
Roman empire. Nations of warriors making inroads
for the purpose of plunder; others advancing with
their women, children, and herds; others transplanted
by the Roman magistrates, as the safest and easiest
method of their disposition.  For seven centuries,
commencing at least two hundred years before
Christ, this immense flux and reflux of nationalities
went on, producing the greatest mingling of races;
and, beneath their irresistible human waves, the
colossal Roman empire went down, and was trampled
in the dust. It was not lost however. The vigor of
savage Teutonic blood, directed by Roman knowledge, exerts its strength in the civilization of the
present.
Whence came these terrible surges of peoples?
From the East. " We may suppose as probable that
about 1200, B. C., some great internal popular movement, or some change in the physical conditions in
Asia pressed the neighboring tribes upon the Teutonic races, and drove them to the country oil the
north of the Black Sea. From these provinces three
great currents are believed to have flowed, in the
fourth century, B. C., into Europe: one up the
Dnieper to the countries on the Baltic, and still
another up the Danube to the valley of the Rhine.
From Scandinavia it is believed by some, that, in the
third century, B. C., two streams flowed towards the
south, one of which mingling with the Kelts, formed 
THE ARYAN RACES.
the nation of the Belgae, and the other forced out
the whole nation of the Cimbri from Northern Europe
upon the Roman empire."
There were four leading nationalities in ancient
times: the Goths, Franks, Saxons, and Alemaluns.
besides the Vandals, Burgundians, Longobards, and
innumerable other tribes. Of these the Goths were
the first; but, weakened by the attacks of the Huns,
and exposed to the enervation of Latin influence,
they totally disappeared as a nation. The Vandals
had a large infusion of Sclavonic blood; and, accepting the Semitic civilization of Africa, they perished
under its influence. The Longobards preserved their
purity for a much longer time, but mingled with the
Kelts. The Burgundians, although remaining in
purity still longer, mingled at length with Kelt and
Sclave. The Franks preserved their purity still
longer, and escaped the corruption of Rome. Of
all these tribes, the Saxon, in his remote home il
the north-west of Europe, was least contaminated
with Latin corruption, and hence preserved the
Teutonic blood in its greatest purity.  In the eighth
century, a great Teutonic empire under Charlemagne
was founded. The ethnic condition of Europe at that
time is most perplexing. Semitic, Teutonic, Sclavic,
and Keltic tribes were scattered in wildest confusion,
just as they were cast by the countless surges of
peoples. From these have grown the present nationalities of Europe. But their evolution more properly
belongs to the province of history.
The classical historians have left us fine descriptions of the Teutonic race. They were tall, powerful,
233
0 
234     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF IAN.
with blonde complexions, light hair, and blue eyes.
They were noted for personal dignity and boundless
spirit of enterprise. They were trustful and confiding; reckless of their own lives, and cruel to their
foes, with a burning desire for adventure, especially
on the sea; greedy of booty, the table, and gaming.
Of all the nations of antiquity, savage or civilized,
they paid the most attention to women; and by them
the spirit of mediwval chivalry was awakened, and
the high position held at present by women acknowledged.  To their love of the country, and detestation
of the city, are referable the feudal castles where the
lord held his court alone; for the Teuton was always
arbitrary, and cherished slavery and difference of
classes, but supported self government in the ruling
order. The ancient Teuton was moral, but not religious. His religion was a scientific mythology, and he
spent his ardor in the subtleties of law and government.  But  they were ready recipients of Christianity, and became a great power ill its extension.
The German languages are intimately related to
the Sanskrit; so much so that the attention of scholars was deeply awakened by the remarkable coincidences it presented, when attention was first directed
to the subject. It is a sister, younger than the Kelt,
of the Sanskrit and Prakit tongues. 
CHAPTER XI.
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD.
The Exalted Position of Man.- The Arguments for the Origin of Species
of Animals, by Natural Causes, apply to the Origin of Races of Men.  Consequences of the Introduction of one Being, and its Increase. - The
Antagonist of Multiplication. - The Struggle for Life. - No Catastrophe,
but Certain and Perpetual Change.- Illustrations.- The same Laws ap  plicable to Past as to Present Beings.- The two Antagonistic Forces. -
Selection by Man.- Wherein different from that of Nature.- Selection
by Nature.'- Application to Man.
MAN is the most highly developed being of the animal world. In preceding pages it has been shown
that there is no difference in his organic structure or
physical character from animals, and that even his
mental endowments do not sever him from their
realm. As a necessary deduction from these premises, any laws of development applicable to them
must in like manner be applicable to him. As their
laws of embryonic growth are his; as the organic
changes in their systems are like those in his system,
those of origin or derivation must be his:  for the
entire organic world is bound together into an indissoluble unity, which can only be explained by unity
of descent.
I shall first introduce the facts connected with the
origin of species of animals, and, from the principles
they evolve, arise to the consideration of the origin 
236     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
of the races of men. It is presumable that life first
appeared in a simple cell, or cellular mass, the lowest
form of animal or vegetable life. Let us trace out
the probable results which would inevitably flow from
the introduction of such a cell-life on the globe,
which at that time was, from internal heat, of a warm
and equable climate from equator to the poles.
Let us suppose that this cell has the power of
multiplication. It is well known that this takes place
in the lower forms of life with far greater rapidity
than among the higher. Ehrenberg estimates that a
single individual of Hydatina, or Rotifer, or animalcule, is capable of multiplying to seventeen millions
in twenty-four  days.   If we  state  the increase
at only a hundred in a year, -allowing the earth to
be 8,000 miles in diameter, its surface would contain
5,577,680,000,000,000 square feet,-at the end of the
tenth year there would be 17,935 animals to every
square foot of surface. If these multiplied a hundredfold the eleventh year, each square foot would contain
1,793,500, or nearly two millions of beings, and, the
twentieth year, 1,793,500,000,000,000,000,000,000, or
nearly two septillions.
Many fishes eject a million spawn in a single year.
If all these were to mature, as they might under favorable circumstances, and in the absence of enemies,
the second year they would number one million millions; the third year a million billions; the fourth year
they would fill the ocean, and the vast majority of all
offspring would inevitably perish in the fierce struggle for existence which would ensue. This immense
reproductive power is held in common by the lower 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD. 237
forms of living beings. Before other functions become differentiated, that of propagation seems to be
the end of the being's existence.
The view of these appalling and incomprehensible
numbers shows us at once that some antagonistic
force, or forces, must be brought to bear against this
increase of living forms. There are two powers at
work: one creating, the other destroying.
We commence with a warm and equable climate,
and a cellular being neither plant nor animal, a
being like the Protophyte, or Protozoa. We have
supposed it capable of multiplying a hundred-fold
in a year; at the end of a score of years the earth
becomes densely stocked. The almost universal sea
is filled with this being.  It teems at the equator
and at the poles. What next occurs?
Mal] thus promulgated the doctrine that the increase of the human family was at a greater ratio
than the production of food. Hence the supply of
food set an impassable limit to the increase of man.
This law applies with terrible force to the animal
realm, which, having no foresight, are compelled to
accept conditions as presented. Hence arises what
Darwin so aptly terms the struggle for existence.
Tlhis means, not a battle, but the silent combat between the weaker and the stronger, in which the
weaker eventually perish.
The waters of the sea could not support all the
beings which so rapidly sprang into life. The limit of
its supporting power would be reached long ere the
twentieth year of multiplication had been attained.
Then the competition between the stronger and the 
238     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
weaker would commence. Although produced under
similar circumstances, there would be a diversity
among the individuals; and, when the vigorous had
obtained their supply of food, there would be little or
none left,for the feeble. They would leave few or no
offspring, and eventually perish. Only the strong
survive and propagate. This statement appears very
plain, and perfectly self-evident; but its adoption
leads to what may be considered appalling results:
for between this lowest form of life, and man, there is
no break in the chain of beings. When we speak of
transitions from one geological age to another as
abrupt, or accompanied by great changes, it must
not be supposed that these changes were violent
or sudden. The sudden changes observed are the
result of the imperfection of our knowledge of the
geological record, not to the real rapidity of change.
Lyell nobly proves that the laws of change in the
inorganic world fully accounted for the changes
revealed by geology, thus setting aside the wild
theories of convulsion, of fiery and aqueous deluges,
which filled the minds of men previous to his time.
A similar work is required to destroy the notions of
revolution and catastrophe in the realm of living
beings, which, like a nightmare, broods over the
minds of most scientists. There has been one PLAN,
one code of action, pursued with unerring certainty; and the much-spoken-of catastrophes have
had no more effect on the general tide of life, than
the eruption of AEtna has on the civilization of the
world. The terrific mountain piles, broken and dis
torted; the flexions and upheavings of the earth's 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD.  239
crust; the upthrows and downthrows of faults, -at
first suggest terrible and violent forces, acting at
once and gigantically; but we learn that these are
silent and inconceivably slow effects.  The upheaving
of a mountain may be the result of a hundred million
years, and the bendings in the earth's crust may have
begun myriads of ages ago, and, for aught we know,
the mountains at this moment be rising, and the crust
bending with as great rapidity as at any time in the
past. Looking over the globe, we know that we see
the entire catalogue of forces which have exerted
themselves to change the crust of the earth actively
at work, and performing exactly what we see performed in the past. Every day we have witnessed a
day of catastrophe. Every day is a day of violent
change.
If a mountain should rise one foot in a thousand
years, it could not be detected, as our determination
of the heights of mountains is too rough to appreciate so slight a change. But this rate would, geologically speaking, soon elevate the loftiest mountain
range.
Equally is it true, that we see, every day, working
after their own manner, the forces which produce
change in the species of organic beings. Geologists
talk of the gigantic coal flora springing into existence, as though before the coal there had been no
planits; of the Saurian age, as though before there
had been no Saurians, and that they died out entirely
at the close of that period, and, in a similar manner,
of all the periods they have seen fit to create. The
truth is, that their ideal Saurian age, or age of gigan 
240     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
tic mammals, completely run into each other, and are
only broken because they can see but a fragment of
each. The best idea entertained of the geological
record is like that which would be obtained of numeration by an ignorant person, by writing the figures
thus: 3, 4,,9,  -      20-21-22,
65. What would that person know of numbers, and how
vain would it be for himin to theorize on catastrophes
which had erased the intermediate numbers, or violently leaped the intervals by miracle or the action
of unknown forces?  A very little learning will make
the subject plain, and show him that the breaks are
not of nature, but of ignorance; that those numbers
begin with one, and ascend by an inevitable law to
the last figure.
If a savage should for the first time see the dial of
a clock with the hands pointing to six, and, going
away, return to find them pointing to twelve, as they
apparently stood at rest when he left, and are at rest
when he returns, he would at once refer their movement during his absence to a sudden and violent
cause; whereas they were moving constantly with
the same unerring and perpetual motion.
The laws which create and govern living beings
are as immutable and eternal as those which govern
inorganic matter; hence must have been the same a
thousand million years ago as at present.   These
forces act in completeness around us, and their study
reveals the method of specific variation in past forms.
Having thus shown that the being we have introduced on the globe stands at the foot of a graduating series of which man is at the head; that that 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD. 241
series is without break; that violent and sudden
change exists only in the mind; that the same laws
hold to past as present forms, - we ask, Why is the
admission that there is a struggle for existence fraught
with so important consequences? Because by it organic changes can be accounted for.
The being which we supposed inhabiting the
earth finds that the ocean cannot afford it sustenance.
An unfavorable condition is introduced,-want of
food. Will this destroy all, or only a part? It will
destroy a part, and those the weaker.  We never
see two animals or plants alike; there is always diversity. But any change unfavorable to the being, when
there is great competition, is fatal. On the other hand,
any diversity favorable to the being confers the power
to compete successfully. Hence all individuals gaining any thing are preserved, while those that lose are
destroyed. If hereditary descent were impossible, the
race of beings would gain nothing; for at death the
acquisition would be lost, to be again acquired and lost
by succeeding beings. But hereditary descent is possible. It is a potent force in fashioning organic forms.
There are two forces operating on every organism:
1. The conservative power of hereditary influences.
2. The force of surrounding conditions.
An organic being, as it stands animated with life,
is the result of all the conditions and forces which
have operated on all its ancestors. It is the concretion of these which it inherits and transmits to its
offspring.  So unerringly is this performed that it is
16 
242     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
proverbial; and we expect the offspring to be like
the parent.
That the offspring varies within narrow limits, no
one will dispute.  The cause of such variations is not
referable to chance; for, when every thing pursues
the course prescribed by law, there can be no chance
or accident. It is probable that these variations are
results of the operation of conditions of life on the
parent; in fact, they can be accounted for in no other
mnanner.
Hereditary descent strives constantly to preserve
the breed true to ancestral forms, while the conditions
of life seek to modify and mould to new patterns. If
the conditions of life were ever the same, then both
the forces of descent and conditions would act harmoniously, and there would be no change; for
hereditary descent is that which seeks to perpetuate
the result of certain conditions, regardless of all others; and, were it not influenced in the embryo, circumstances might blot out, but they could not change
specific forms. The embryonic being is influenced:
if sufficiently to mature in harmony with the modifying influences, it is preserved; if not, it is remorselessly destroyed.
This method of destruction and preservation, turning
on the slightest adaptations, is really the same as that
pursued by man in his cultivation of the various
varieties of plants and animals. In order to understand natural selection, we shall first study the method
of man. Between it and that of Nature there are certain differences; but the principles involved are the
same. The animals and plants called "domestic," are 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD. 243
not found in nature, but are creations of man. They
have been slowly evolved by the conditions imposed
by man acting on their embryo to induce alterations,
and then seizing on those changes which best suited
his demands. When these domesticated animals or
plants escape from cultivation, they rapidly degenerate, and often are unable to support themselves at
all. Our horses, sheep and cattle do very well under
the care of man in the latitude of the Great Lakes;
but if by any accident man should be swept off, they
would inevitably perish. They could not endure the
first winter. So with our cultivated grains: they
cannot hold their own against the weeds and grasses,
except by the vigilance of man. It is for this reason
that so soon as they escape to the feral state they lose
the conditions by which man surrounds them, and by
which they were formed; that they degenerate, or are
destroyed.
It has been erroneously stated that when domestic
breeds become feral, they revert to the original wild
stock. Who can say what the wild stocks were?
Have the horse and ox of South America reverted?
Assuredly not to the quagga or aurock!
Perhaps no plant shows the effect of cultivation in
inducing diversity more than the common cabbage.
It was originally a rough-leaved plant, growing by the
seaside; and still shows its original habits by the manurial effect of salt on its perfect maturing. Commonly, its leaves are compressed into an enormous
solid head, which to the plant is of no benefit; and
only through the care of the gardener in sheltering and
transplanting the stump in the spring, are the seeds 
244     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
obtained. One variety, kale, does not form a head; but
its large leaves grow vigorously apart. In another,
brussels sprouts, the buds at the axis of the leaves
are enlarged; from this last the transition is easy to
cauliflower, which forms a head entirely of a consolidated and abortive mass of flower-buds. The Kohlrobi, at first sight, appears to be a consolidated head,
but really is an enormously enlarged stem, at the expense of the leaves.
The turnip, if not a remote descendant of the cabbage, at least sports in numerous varieties.
The parsnip is derived from a wild and poisonous
root.
All our fruits are derived from unpalatable wild
stocks: the apple from the crab, the pear from the
choky crab-pear, the cherry from the sloe, the peach
from a poisonous shrub of Persia. Such have been the
effects of cultivation; remove it, and the effects vanish,
and only the original productions of Nature remain.
She cannot furnish sustenance for these children of
man.
Of our domestic animals much has been written,
and their origin is one of the most unsettled problems
of natural history. The sheep, dog, horse, ox, have
been supposed by some authors to descend each from
one original parent; while others suppose that each
had many stocks: as instance one writer who thinks
the sheep of England descended from at least nine
original wild breeds or species.
There can be no doubt that the dog belongs to several species; but what great variations it has undergone! The bloodhound, bulldog, lapdog, greyhound, 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD. 245
etc., do not exist in nature, but are strictly creations
of man.
It is a received opinion that all the numerous vari eties of pigeon are derived firom the wild rock-pigeon;
yet how great is the difference between a tumbler and
pouter, a fan-tail and carrier I
No intelligent breeder will dispute the possibility
of effecting great changes in animals. The shepherd,
by selection, produces such a character as he desires,
be it fine, coarse, long or short fleece, or proportion
and weight of body. It is known-that by skilful
selection the Merino and Leicestershire breeds of
sheep were produced. In regard to the pigeon, Sebright remarks that in three years he can produce
a given feather; and in six, a prescribed form of head
and bill.
The enormous prices paid for the prizes of Vermont
flocks, and for those of celebrated foreign animals,
prove how much proper selection has effected, governed by accurate scientific knowledge. The same
principle has been at work, unconsciously, since savage man domesticated the first animal. He ever kept
those individuals which best fulfilled his desires, and
destroyed those which did not. This process is continued by the masses at present; each strives to obtain a good breed, without any forethought or knowledge of the method pursued in producing the best.
Here and there a Collins or a Bakewell arises, who
bring acute observation to bear on the subject, and in
their own lifetimes produce very great changes.
The savage, allowing his animals to be at large in
forest or plain, can exercise little influence in pairing. 
246     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
All that he can do is to destroy the poorest.  Ilence
their domestic animals, having to conform to climate
and supply of food just as do wild animals, partake more of the character of species than those of
civilized man. Change must go forward very slowly.
There has been no sudden change, but each one
who reared an animal, or sowed a seed, has sought the
best, and reserved the best; and hereditary descent
has preserved every slight change, and handed it
down to the offspring.
This selection differs from that of nature in being
pursued directly and solely for the good of man, and
having little or no relation to the welfare of the
species on which it operated; while'the latter aims
only at the good of the species undergoing change.
Very often what man calls improvements would be
decidedly unfavorable to the animal if thrown from
under his care. The Durham could not remain true
to breed if turned into the wild; nor could any of our
thoroughbreds.  These changes have not been effected by the conditions of nature, and hence have no
relations to the natural state of these animals. Man
forestalls nature, and himself becomes the condition
on which their existence depends. Hie selects from
external indications, for he cannot from internal;
and hence it is that while domestic races differ so
widely in external form their anatomy remains unchanged. When the farmer observed the first parent
of the celebrated "otter" sheep, he thought its short
legs desirable, as it prevented its leaping fences. So
he, by selection, produced a breed having short legs
and long bodies. Such a form might be very desira 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD. 247
ble to the farmer, but to a flock of wild sheep it would
insure destruction by wolves. Had such a lamb as
the first of this breed been produced by a wild sheep,
the first hungry fox or wolf would have killed it, and
thus the breed have been at once destroyed. The farmer shelters the lamb; his pastures afford ready sustenance, and the short legs are not serious impediments
to a lamb thus situated; but if wild, then, should it escape the fox and wolf, its short legs would seriously affect its scaling rocky heights and travelling over the
scanty pastures, and, when brought in contact with
longer legged rivals, would effectually insure its rapid
extinction.
When fine wool became more desirable than short
legs, this breed was suffered to die out, and not one
is left.  The  King  Charles  spaniel  has greatly
changed since the age of that monarch, and the setter is believed to be derived from it. The races of
dogs are highly differentiated and abnormal. The
thoroughbred setter, in the wild state, would have a
poor chance of catching game by setting for it. That
habit has direct relation to the hunter following him.
The poodle would fare still worse, and would probably
become extinct by the second generation.  The hound
might maintain himself if thrown into the wilds.
If man, working for a short period, and, as it were,
creating the necessary conditions, can effect so much;
if he can with his imperfect knowledge and superficiality of observation blot out the parent types of
all his domestic animals by the magnitude of the
changes he effects, assuredly Nature, in the greatness
of her power, her keen insight, taking advantage of 
248     THIE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
the structure of a single muscular fibre, an atom
of bone, or the color of a hair, during the elapse of millenniums of ages can compass changes incomparably
greater. From the earliest dawn of life to the present,
the vigilant eye of Nature has watched incessantly for
the slightest variations. Those which yielded good
to the being, have been and are preserved; and the
new beings, thus having advantage over those which
remain unchanged, supplant and extinguish them, to
be in turn supplanted and extinguished.
"Natural selection will modify the structure of the
young in relation to the parent, and of the parent in
relation to the young. In social animals it will adapt
the structure of each individual for the benefit of the
community, if each in consequence profits by the
selected change." - Origin of the Secies.
To illustrate this process, suppose a family of wolves
introduced into a country abounding with deer or
other fleet game: Lamark would say the wolves, by
constant pursuit, would develop muscularity, and thus
become easily enabled to catch the game. This, in a
measure, may be true; but the impress on their offspring by this constant chase would be incomparably
greater. When there was scarcity, only the fleetest
of these offspring would be preserved, the others
being remorselessly cut off by hunger. Those who
endured privation best, who were strongest and
swiftest, would transmit those traits to their offspring.
We see this law of descent affecting remotest progeny; and great allowance must be made for its iron
conservatism. It stores up every gain, and never
loses an old form until a better is supplied. 
NATURAL SELECTION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD. 249
I think the subject of natural selection will be
understood, and its immense influence recognized, by
this rude sketch. Darwin has developed the matter
in an incomparable manner, and stands before the
world as the Newton of Natural History.  Here I can
only sketch a few of his principles, which I desire to
apply to man. 
CHAPTER XII.
C O N C L U S I ON.
The Geographical Seat of Man's Origin. - Natural Selection applied to Man.
THE original seat of man's origin "has been  a
vexed question," and as it has usually been discussed
theologically, and not scientifically, little knowledge
has          been derived.  Mankind, when first they became
historically known, were distributed over the greater
part of the Eastern hemisphere; yet they appear to
have originated in a common centre, and traditions of
different nations indicate that that centre of dispersion was located on the high central regions of Asia.
From this area, all man's dogmatical knowledge, early
inventions, and traditionary records emanate. HIere
the dog, the horse, ass, camel, ox, sheep, goat, cat,
and gallinaceous fowls were first domesticated, and
in and around it many of them still exist in a wild
state. Here must have been the seat of man's first
development, or these high lands must have afforded
protection to a portion of mankind when a more ancient zoology was swept away by convulsions, of
which mention is made by the traditions of all nations. The latter is probably the correct opinion;
for we find this region skirted by lofty mountains,
such as a people fleeing from destruction would natu           250
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CONCLUSION.
rally seek, and these still bear the sacred names
which a grateful people would bestow.  To the south
of these highlands, far into the Indian Ocean, everywhere are written the records of the grandest and
most prolonged convulsions, which probably gave rise
to the myth of the Deluge. On the islands of the
Indian Sea, which appear to be the crests of mountains rivalling Dhawalaghiri in height, and which
may have escaped those convulsions which destroyed
the then existing fauna, by depressing the land below
the level of the sea, we find the PITHECUS, or OrangOutang, in stature as large as a man, and in strength
equalling eight or more, which from its strong human
resemblance has received the name of "wild man of the
wood," and which, of all brute creation, approximates
nearest to man. Still more remarkable, on the eastern coast of this southern border, the transition from
brute to man is made by degraded Papua tribes, cannibals so low in the scale of humanity, that in them
gleams not a ray of spirituality or morality.
" Man probably originated near the Equator, where
the climate was better adapted to his defenlceless
condition, and food abundant. If facts continue to
support the present theory, that the Simile- manlike apes -of the Oceanic islands are a remnant of
an earlier zoology, the seat of man's original development should be placed on the submerged continent,
the tops of whose mountains those islands represent.
"If we admit that man derived his origin from the
animal world, then that region whose fauna approaches nearest the human type should be the one
to claim his birth. This fauna is the Asiatic, or
251 
THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
Asiatico-Oceanican.  Thus the inductions of science
beautifully harmonize with the sacred traditions of
mankind."
Applying the principles which govern the production of species of animals to savage man, to whom the
names brute or man are alike applicable, we shall
endeavor to show how from this savage sprang the
various races into which mankind are divided.
That any two savages should be born exactly
alike, contradicts the experience of the present, no
two individuals being precisely the same. Some of
these individual characters will be preserved by offspring; others will perish with the individual. Which
shall be preserved, which perish, is decided by the
conditions which surround  the individual.  If he
gain any thing by them over others who do not possess them, they, by giving greater vigor, and by imparting greater strength to his offspring, will be
preserved; but, if he gain nothing by them, or, as
is often the case, they are injurious to him, then they
perish.  Applying this general statement, we can see
how much a savage, in his strife with beasts and
other savages, would gain by superior strength, by
swiftness of foot, by keenness of sight, and immeasurably more by predominant intellect. All these
advantages would be constantly felt, but at some
periods much  more than others.   When  there  is
scarcity of game, the most wily hunter, he who has
keenest sight, who is swiftest or strongest, secures
and safely holds a supply of game, while less favored
individuals perish. In these endowments we see an
approach to animals, but in no case as great swiftness,
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CONCLUSION.
as keen sight, or equal strength. This is because the
pre-eminence of even savage man is based on mental
and not physical superiority; and, according to the
laws of correlation of mental and physical powers, as
much as one gains the other must lose.  All gain in
intellect is so much loss to the body. From his type
of organization, more especially his upright posture,
strength sufficient to grapple with the denizens
of the forest cannot be attained; and, from the
same cause, equal swiftness is denied him. If, in
the struggle for life, the existence of the savage
wholly depended on these, the savage would certainly perish. He cannot equal, much less exceed
them.   But there are points in which he can equal
them.  In quickness of the senses, in endurance of
vicissitudes of climate, of extremes of temperature,
and the pangs of hunger, he is their equal. Savages
are proverbial for quickness of sight and hearing; and,
so acute is their sense of smell, that they are enabled
to track animals by it with the certainty of the hound.
The Esquimaux can withstand the temperature of
freezing mercury. He can endure weeks of starvation,
or gorge on a dozen pounds of blubber, washed down
with a gallon of train oil. From the precarious means
of subsistence afforded by hunting, the capabilities of
enduring hunger is of material benefit. It is equally
so to all carnivorous animals, and in all we find that
the same endurance has been attained.
The acuteness of sense is connected with superior
mentality, and points to greater dependence on mental acumen than physical powers.   The savage cannot overtake his game by running, nor grapple with
253 
254     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
the less fleet, conquering by power of muscle; but he
decoys them into pit-falls or ambuscadc-s, and, by a
mentality slightly surpassing them, he holds them all
in his hand. The bent bow and reed arrow give
him dominion.  But of the vast duration necessary
for him to acquire even these, I cannot speak. The
club would be the first weapon for him to acquire, a
weapon used by the man-like apes.  Some chance
may have discovered it; and we can readily comprehend how rapidly those who did not or could not use
it must disappear before its possessors.   This skill
of invention introduces a new element into the struggle for existence, which, although pursuing the same
course as that of Nature, in a measure sets it aside.
As man penetrated the wild in every direction
from his primeval seat, he met diverse conditions.
As the migration was extremely slow, no abrupt
changes would be wrought; and the problem is moro
difficult to study than it would be were a tribe suddenly broken off and set in an entirely rnew climate.
To simplify, let us suppose a clan of savages thus
placed in a new locality.   The negro  is now  in
perfect equilibrium with the climate of the tropics;
he has become so by insensible degrees. Let us suppose that previous to his acquirement of this adaptation, he is at once placed in torrid Africa, thus
annulling the ages during which he has been acquiring his peculiarities. We will not consider him as a
negro, but simply as a savage.  The members of this
clan are no more acclimated to the African climate
than the European, but possess the hardy malleability
of savages.   When they are first introduced they
I
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CONCLUSION.
are subject to fevers and other tropical diseases, of
which  many perish.   The  hardiest, or  those  favored by some peculiarity of constitution, survive
and propagate.  Offspring born under direct influence
of opposing conditions are necessarily impressed by
them.   Those who do not conform eventually perish,
while every gain in conformity is avariciously husbanded and multiplied in more vigorous offspring.
The endurance of heat depends considerably on color;
hlence, as a dark skin is best able to endure heat,
every increment of color would be preserved.   The
latest psychological researches show that form of
body and cast of features are correlated with development of mind.   The woolly hair of the negro is
probably related to the color of skin.  In a clan thus
situated, every gain made by an individual in adaptation is a means of preservation, and those who do
not or cannot conform inevitably perish.
The principle of" Natural Selection" applied to man
is precisely the same as that whereby the hardy constitution of the Spanish Merino is acquired. These have
long journeys to make from pasture to pasture, over
desert mountain tracts, in performing which the weakest perish. I-ence the strong are preserved; and this
cause operating for ages has given this breed a surprising endurance.
Here we must remark that any gain, to be preserved, must confer a benefit, or be directly related
to the.wants of the individual. The albino peculiarity,
which is of frequent occurrence among negroes, and
all races, as well as animals, is seemingly the result
Il defective constitution, and, although said to have
255 
256      THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
been in some cases hereditary, being detrimental to the
well-being of the individual are never preserved. A
school of naturalists seek to derive the white race from
the black, through the albino, ignoring the defective
constitution of the latter, whereby it rarely is capable
of propagation. When exposed to the sun, the skin of
the albino, born though he be under the tropics, blis ters and cracks, instead of darkening, and his eyes
cannot  endure  the  light.   A  constitution  worse
adapted to his position cannot be imagined.  Hence
no albino race has ever been produced.
The same remarks apply to "porcupine men," and
"six-fingered" individuals. These peculiarities are
hereditarily transmitted for several generations, and
might become permanent, nlo doubt, did the possession
of a "porcupine slkin," or of "six fingers," confer a
vital superiority on their possessors.
Here we notice the difference between selection by
man, and selection by Nature. Man selects according
to his pleasure, and supplies the conditions necessary
for preservation. Nature selects by means of the conditions of preservation. Hence, as there is no yielding
of the means, her mandate is rigidly enforced, and
every being out of harmony is lopped off.
This process of acclimation we can study in
America. There was a frightful mortality with the first
emigrants; even now, from one-half to three-fourths
of the infants die before reaching the age of four
years.  Fg- -?-astoms may have something to do with
this, but the great cause is climate. Already the
American type is different from the European. The
American is tall, spare, nervous, the opposite of his
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CONCLUSION.
Anglo-Saxon grandfather.   Some  high authorities,
mistaking the operation of this principle, by which
weaker forms are destroyed, predict that only by the
constant emigration from the Old World can the white
population of this continent be sustained.
I___________
Every gain in mentality, by conferring a greater
superiority, would be preserved. The individuals
who first united in tribes were greatly benefited
thereby,.and would supplant those who did not. So
the acquisition of every new weapon, every new instrument, or of the canoe, would place the possessors
above those who did not employ them. HIence, they
could occupy the best localities, and become, in a
measure, independent of the vicissitudes of the time.
It has been shown by history, founded on philological research, in previous pages, that the great races
of mankind flowed out in broad streams from a common source. Our field is narrowed to the consideration of his origin from the highest members of the
animal world. We have seen how his progress flows
from the inevitable "struggle for existence."
1. The same p]an is found to pervade the entire
realm of organized beings; and man does not depart
from the common type, but is its ideal attained.
2. There is no more difference between the lowest
man and highest Simile than between the highest and
lowest Simis, or between the lowest and highest man.
There is a perfect gradation in bony structure and in
b)rain.
3. History unites mankind at a common source;
17
257
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258     THE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
locates their origin where the highest members of the
animal kingdom are found.
4. "The struggle for existence" indicates the pro cess by which the progress observed might have been
evolved.
This "struggle" pervades all history; in fact, is its
key. A people isolated, like the Australians, between
a desert and an ocean, without competitors, remain
stagnant. When scattered through vast forests, as
the American Indians, the effort required to secure a
mere subsistence is so great, that no energy. remains
for mental expansion.  The fate of the Indian, who
requires three thousand acres of forest for his support, is easily foreseen when he is brought in contact
with the European, who by agriculture can maintain
himself on a single acre.  So speedily does he vanish,
that it can scarcely be said that he offers any opposi.
tion to the invader. Crowded into narrow spaces, like
the Grecian or Italian peninsulas, and subjected to excessive competition, superior civilizations flash out,
the admiration of all coming time.
Darwin remarks that vast continental areas favor
the multiplication of species of animals. The same
holds good with man. See how the Negro of Africa,
the Tartar of Asia, the Indian of America, break
into innumerable tribes, differing widely in appearance
and in language. But this belongs to the science of
history, to which a future volume will be devoted, to
which this is intended as an introduction.
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