University of a- University of Michigan - BUHR. f.. l L i:~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I L 7 1 1- 79 l i,I 1. r*u ~ — _w — ~..U- -l L __-1 1 I l -- I _ U-~-~- I II New.; REPORT PUBLIC SCHOOL FUND COMMISSION OF THILE TERRITORY OF HAWAII APPOINTED UNDER AUTHORITY OF THE JOINT RESOLUTION PASSED BY THE LEGISLATURE OF 1909 IHONOLULU IBULLETIN PUtIISTIN(G CO., LTD. 1911 I M I I i, I' 'I He ~~~~-~...... S-H a. __..::~:L.I L. F~l' r \i, i I i ij REPORT O F TH I E PUBLIC SCHOOL FUND COMMISSION OF TlE TERRITORY OF HAWAII APPOINTED UNDER AUTHORITY OF THE JOINT RESOLUTION PASSED BY THE LEGISLATURE OF 1909 IIONOLULIU BTULLETIN P-UBIISHING C,, LTD. 1911 ~r II, ERRATA The following should be inserted in the proposed bill as Section 6, and the numbers of Sections 6, 7 and 8, as they now appear, changed to correspond. ISECTION 6. The Treasurer of the Territorv shall, from time to time as may be necessary, pay over to, the Treasurer of the several Conmties, and the Treasurer of the City and County of Honolulu, as the case may be, the amounts approved by the Legislature for the items of the "Special Fund" of the budget for "New Buildings (school houses, cottages and outbuildings)" and for "Repairs and maintenance of buildings, and grounds and new grounds". Such amounts shall constitute and be held as special funds in the treasuries of the said several counties and the city and county of Honolulu and shall be expended by their respective Boards of Supervisors only for the purposes approved by-the Legislature. New buildings shall be erected on locations and in accordance with plans and specifications approved by the Department of Public Instruction. The other items constituting the school budget shall be expended from time to time on vouchers approved by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. m a I ( " I ii I:~ L I ii ) 11 " " IO "',, TABLE OF CONTENTS COMMISSION'S REPORT. Page. Commission's Convictions...................................... 3 One Per Cent. Tax............................................ 5 Comm ission's Proposal........................................ 5 School Budget................................................. 6 Providing the Funds........................................... 7 Poll T'ax. Income from Public Lands Property Tax. Permanent Fund. Continuing Appropriations................................... 8 Reasons Why........................................... 9 Apportionment............................. 11 Territory and County.......................................... 11 Local Control-School Agent..................................... 11 Sum m ary....................................................... 13 Federal Appropriation.......................................... 15 A n A ct....................................................... 7 ork of Com m i ion........................................... 19 Work of Commission..19 r APPENDIX HAWAIIAN SCHOOL FACTS. Page. Enrollment of Hawaii's Schools, 10 Years................... 22 Amounts Spent on Public Schools Exclusive of New Buildings from Loan Fund, 10 Years. Cost of Instruction in Public Schools Per Capita, 10 Years..l.... 23 Teachers' Salaries, 1909. Overcrowded Rooms in Regular Public Schools, June, 1909...... 24 Additional Teachers Needed. Comparative Increase Pupils and Teachers in Public Schools, 10 Y ears.................................................. 25 Scope and Purpose of Manual and Industrial Training in the Public Schools. Schools Hiaving Domestic Science Department.................. 26 Manual Work In Public Schools, 1908-1909. Printing Department in Public Schools.......................... 27 Agricultural Work in Public Schools........................... 27 Sewing in Public Schools..................................... 28 Lace and Weaving in Public Schools........................... 29 The Problems of Race in Teaching.............................. 29 Schools Which Have Adopted the School County or City Plan 31 New Buildings Needed for School Purposes at Beginning of Present Biennial Period..................................... 33 Need of Medical Inspection in Schools of Hawaii................ 34 Age, Attendance, Compulsory and Voluntary-Public Schools, Hawaii-Compulsory Six to Fifteen Years............... 36 Inadequate School Accommodations a Cause of Juvenile Delinquency................................................. 38 Taxes Collected................................................ 39 Expenditures for School Purposes, "Hawaii........................ 40 Expenditures for School Purposes, "United States".............. 41 Education in the Hawaiian Islands............................. 70 Public Lands and Public Education in Hawaii.................. 73 Hawaii School Revenue, 1850-1896.............................. 72 Point of View of Hawaii Commissioners on Education of Aliens, 1899.................................................. 77 Agricultural and Industrial Pursuits in School................... 123 Apportionment of School Funds in Hawaii.................... 130 Question of Local Funds...................................... 132 Page. Amounts Appropriated, 1905.................................... 137 Salary Schedule............................................... 138 Average Expenditure for Ten Years, 1898-1908.................. 140 Enrollment in Public Schools of Hawaii........................ 142 UNITED STATES SCHOOL FACTS. EXPENDITURE FOR SCHOOL PURPOSE'S, UNITED STATES. Duty of the State to Educate Its Citizens....................... 43 The Public School Is a State and Not a Local or Municipal Institution.............................................. 44 The Public Lands and Public Education......................... 46 The Financing of Public Education............................. 49 Method of Taxation for School Purposes in Indiana............ 67 Technical Secondary Education in Agriculture, Merchanic Arts, and Home Economics.................................. 79 Our Chilldren, Our Schools, and Our Industries.................. 95 More Useful Schools................................. 122 Apportionment of School Funds in America..................... 125 Enrollment in Public Schools of 100, American Cities............ 141 '' i o_ I 1 llono1ldu, T. 11., December 10th, 1910. 11oiN. WVAT-TE-i F.!FREAR,~ Governor of Ila-waii, Honolulu. SiR:-Thc Public School Fund Commission herewvith. subnui-ts its final report imad~e under authority of the Joint. Resolutionl of April 28th, I1 909, anrd an Act, emabodying its conclusions. In, addition to, the general re~port is submitted a, considerable amount of (lati baving a. direct lbearing on the work delegated to the: Commniissioni. Some. question has arisen as. to the, advis~ability of p)r~nting all tbis mt-atter, on account. of its, making too, large a voliune which would, not. b~e generally read. The Conmnission begs to suggest that, tiem information contained in this rehport h~as a (hirect, bearing on its conclusions and will be of inhportance when the subject. is, up before the., Legislature for discussion. Therefore, we wvould respectfully suggYest, that the. documents; accompanying the report 'be! printed so, that there may be, one coIpY f or each rierimber of 'the Leg~islatu~re, and a reasonable un mnber' for gener-al distribution among those inte-rested. inl the public schools. Respectf ully submitted, W. A. BOW EN, Secreta~ry. B 3 SCHOOL FUND COMMISSION'S PLAN FOR FINANCING HAWAII'S PUBLIC SCHOOLS. lION. WALTEti. Fi. ]FR EAR, Governor of Hawaii, Honolulu. Sn:- The Public School Fund1 ( (Comrnission, acting under authority of the Joint Rlesolution of the Legislature of 1909 of the Territory of I-awaii, herewith submits its conclusions and proposed legislation to carry out the findings of the Commission. The Joint Resolution of the Legislature directing the work of the Commission, is as follows: "JOINT RESOLUTION. "BE IT RESOLVED by the Legislature of the Territory of Iawaii, that the Governor of the Territory shall as soon as practicable, after the approval of this resolution, appoint a commission of three members, who shall be experienced and competent persons, to be known as the 'SCHOOL FUND COMMISSION' who shall thoroughly examine and investigate the methods of raising and apportioning school funds elsewhere and who shall consider ways and means for the revision and betterment of the methods now employed in this Territory for such purpose. "The Commissioners shall serve without pay but the sum of Two Hundred and Fifty ($250.00) Dollars is hereby appropriated for its expenses. "The Commission shall not later than July 1, 1910, report to the Governor their conclusions, with their recommendations pertaining thereto and such bill or bills as it may deem necessary for the effectuation of such recommendations. "Approved this 28th day of April, A. D., 1909. "(Signed) WALTER F. FREAR, "Governor of the Territory of Hawaii." The Commission finds: FIRST: That throughout the American Mainland the public school has a recognized prior claim upon the revenues of the country, in the National, State and Municipal divisions, 4 SEcoND: That the demands of public education are principally met by a specific tax on real property and personal property levied in sufficient amount to meet the requirements of the public schools. Only in the backward communities are the needs of the developing youth of the country, in common school education, cut and pared and pinched according to an arbitrary dictum of what share of the income shall be used for educational purposes. THIRD: The income from the public lands is almost invariably turned over, in a large measure, at least to the cause of education. A part goes to the common schools and a liberal portion is devoted to higher education as developed in the colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The Commission believes that the needs of the public schools in this Territory should be met by a specific tax upon real property and personal property, supplemented by fifty per cent of the income from public lands and water leases, and by setting aside as a separate fund the money derived from the personal school tax that. now goes into the general realizations of the Territory. This Commission believes that the public schools should be cared for first. The taxes should be levied, the income adjusted, and the appropriations made to meet the legitimate requirements of the, department of public instruction. This will secure for the children of Hawaii an adequate and trained teaching force, modern equipment, industrial training and commodious permanent school houses. The Territory should never repeat the record of recent history when our public schools, and therefore the coming men and women of these islands, were the victims of a short-sighted policy that sacrificed the teacher, and therefore the pupil, in order that the taxpayer might save a few dollars or that the strictly material interests might be dealt with more kindly. If there is one branch of the public service of any colnmonwealth that should be absolutely free from the barter and trade of legislative log rolling in the division of appropriations, it is the public schools. We would respectfully call the attention of citizens and legislators to the settled policy of the 5 Federal Government, that each year devotes millions of dollars to education. The only legislative discussion of the matter, the only question raised being whether the amount is sufficient. The Federal Government, instead of reducing its expenditures for education and searching for ways and means to place a heavier burden on the teachers who direct the youth of the Reipubllic in the search for knowledge, is each year devoting a larger share of its income to provide better paid teachers, more adequate equipm.ent, and therefore broader opportunities for the pupils. The Commission is unanimous in its conviction that the specific tax on real and personal property is the best method by whicl the needs of the public schools in the Territory of HIawaii can be met. ONE PER CENT TAX. In pursuing its investigations and in the developing of publie opinion on the matter, the commission has encountered a strong sentiment among the representatives of large corporate interests against any tampering with the one per cent tax on real property and personal property. It therefore presents in its report a scheme for raising funds that is more complicated than the commission -would prefer but mnav be better suited to the sentiment of property interests as existing at the present moment. It is a compromise. The Commission is not delegated with authority to revise the taxation system of the Territory, much as such a revision could be made to work out to the general benefit of the public schools, In the Territory there is a very powerful element both openly and covertly declaring that too much education is being given the children of lowly birth. THE COMMISSION'S PROPOSAL. The plan the Commission offers as presenting the! best adjustments in its estimation of the demands of the public schools may he briefly outlined as follows: That for every biennial period the Department of Public Instruction shall prepare a budget of estimaites setting forth the needs of the Public Schools for the ensuing years. This budget shall be prepared under two divisions, namely, the GENERAL FUND and the SPECIAL FUND. The GENERAL FUND shall include the salaries of teachers and supervisors, salary of the Superintendent, salaries of the office force and the general incidental expense, supplies incidental to instruction in the various subjects of the course of study, the expense of manual and industrial training, medical inspection, libraries and books. The SPECIAL FUND shall include supplies for maintenance and upkeep of school houses, shops, cottages and. outbuildings and construction of now buildings and care of grounds, furniture, fixtures and janitor service, and all suipplies not included under the General Fund. This budget when comlpleted by the Department of Public Instruction shall be submritted to a (Cfo.mmittee of 'Estimates consisting of six members, four of whom shall be the Chairmen of the Boards of Supervisors of the Counties of the Territory, one the Secretary of the Territory and the sixth, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex-officio. The (Committeee shall serve without pay, except mileage to cover expenses. The duty of the Comrmirttee of glEstimnates shlall be! to go over the Special Fund of the ]Budgetl and make such revisions as may be deemed proper. This Comrmittee of Estimates shall not have authority to change! any part of the General Fund. School accomnmodattion shall be estimrated, on the basis of not more than forty pupils per teacher for centers of population. Provision must be made for children in outer districts by new school houses or suitable transportation to a central-school. The SCH-OOL BUDGET having been passed upon by the Committee of Estimates shall then be presented thirtvy days before the, opening of the Legislature to the Governor, who shall submit the same to the Legislature within ten days after it opens in regular session, with his recommendations. Should 7 the Committee of Estimates fail to act within the time specified, the estimates of the I)epartment of Public Instruction shall be submitted to, the Legislature by the Governor direct. PROVIDING THE FUNDS. The FUNI)S to meet the appropriations called for in the SCH-OOL BUTI)GET shall be derived from the following sources: The SCHOOL TAX of two dollars paid by every male inhabitant between the ages of twenty and sixty years; FIFTY PER CENT' OF THE INCOME FROM PUBLIC LANDS sales, leases and water licenses; A SPECIFIC TAX ON THE REAL PROPERTY AND PERSONAL PROPERTY OF THE TERRITORY represented by a levy of as many mills on the dollar of real property and personal property as may be necessary to meet the difference between the sum called for under the General Fund of the School Budget and the total of the School Personal Tax, the Public Lands income and any other permanent sources of income devoted to public schools. For instance, if the General Fund of the School Budget called for $800,000,-$100,000 might be secured from the personal tax, $250,000 from the fifty per cent of the income on public lands, leaving $450,000 to be raised by a specific tax of three mills on the dollar, estimating the -assessed value of the real and personal property at $150,000,000. PERMANENT FUND. By reference to other sources of permanent income the Commission has in mind the creation of a permanent school fund by donations of land or other income bearing property the proceeds of which shall be used for the support of the public schools. 8 CONTINUING APPROPRIATION. The amount necessary for salaries of teachers, supervisors and inspectors shall be appropriated under an act authorizing a continuing appropriation. It makes available each biennial period without further specific act of the Legislature the funds required to meet an approved schedule of expense. This is permissible under the Organic Act as amended. This obviates the necessity of the Legislature taking up the details of the teachers' pay rolls at each session. This will also avoid the possible difficulty of the County constructing buildings and the Territory not having funds to pay the salaries of needed teachers. When the revenues of the Territory are sufficient the County will have adequate funds for needed enlargement of buildings, and the Department of Public Instruction will be able to employ the teachers made necessary by increased accommodation. At the. present time and under the laws proposed the County has the construction and maintenance of the school buildings while the! Territory has the paying of teachers' salaries. In this arrangement there is the possibility of frequent disagreements between the Counties and the Territorial authorities. This condition is undesirable and does not contribute to the best educational interests of the Territory, but rather to a condition of strife that retards the progress of our schools. At present the school authorities are handicapped by the lack of funds and at the same! time held responsible for the successful carrying on of the work. Under the plan suggested the Territory is safeguarded by an authorized salary schedule and the construction of buildings by the County; while on the other hand the Commissioners of Public Instruction are guaranteed the necessary funds to meet the legitimate educational needs of the country and the administration can spend their energies on planning the work of the schools rather than, as now, spending valuable time on salary adjustments that with adequate funds would be automatically attended to by the salary schedule. 9 THlE REASONS WH-Y. The aim of the Comnmission in setting aside the, specific sources of income as in the SCHOOL TAX is to secure a definite revenue from the large numb1er of non-property owning males who have none of the respcfsonibilities of citizenship, hut whose children gain the; benefits of the pu-blic schools. In taking a portion of the revenue from PUBLIC, LAND)S. we devote the incomie from t.he Public I)omain to the puirposes which the Amer"ican p-eople andi, in earlier (ays, the people of Hawaii believed. to be its proper nse. From Ii850 and to the year 1294-, Haawaii gave thle funds (lerived from onetwentieth of its pulblic landls to public school purposes. In the United States, frora the time of the admission of Ohio as a State onle-thirtyN-sixth of 'all thle la-nds of thle, State was devotedl to the support, of publice schools. This continuedl until the admiission of California au-il in the ease of California and each State, sublsequently admitted, one-eighteenth part of the whiole arear of each State was set apart for educational purposes. The uneaa~rned incremi~ent of our Pub lMc Lands belongs to the children, of the soil. -WhIat better heritage canx~ we, theljr trustees, (live them than- the facilities for a, liberal education.? In the VAR- IABLE TAX ON REALU PROP-E.RTY AND PERSONAL P~P-,pO1'ErpY we -aimi - to establish within the Territory of H'lawaii the unassailabbe and righteon- prineiple that the Public, Schools should he provided' for first. If other sou1rces of revenue do not produce the necessary funds, the tax shall be levied in such amount each year as will providlc liberally and adequately for public education. Should the people of the Territory be! unwilling to adopt this principle of taxation in connection with their schools, they indicate that they lack respect for the fundamental principle thlat. high character of citizenship 'and government can only be naintained tbhrou~gyh efficient public education. According to the scheme worked out by the commission the: SCHO0OL, BUI)GET originates in the Department of Public Instruction where we find the detailedl information and expert Iknowledlge of educiational levelopment in the Territory. 10 It then goes to the (CODMMIT'TEE OF ESTIMATES made up of members from the various Counties who, from approximately two years of service in public office should be closely in touch with what the people of each County desire and thus best able, with the exception of the items of the General Fund, to make a practical revisi;on-should it. be' de(emed that the educational experts are leadi'lng on more rapidly than the people can follow. The Governor reviews the SCHOOL BUDGET and it then goes finally to the representatives of the people in the Legislature, a competent and complete statement of what should be furnished by the taxpayers of the Territory in order that the children of I-awaii may have that which is the birthright of every child born in America as well as the first essential of futnre good citizenship,-a good common school education. The items of the GENERAL FUND are not included among those to be revisedJ by the( COMMIITTEE OF ESTIMATES lecaullse the salaries of the teachers, supervisors and inspectors should be dete!rmined by a permanent schedule, and the details of school supplies and gradllal expansion of industrial training and dome'stic science and art, agricultural and mechanic arts and medi'cal insp)ection are better left to the I)epartment, of Public Instrru(ction. A commonwealthl that will not follow the recon.mrendations of its school managers in matters of technical detail is setting its children a bad example. Manual training in its various branches is placed under the GENERAL FLUINI) becanse work of this character should be carried on ulnder a system that is identical throughonut the Territory. Under the SPECIAL FUND we have those items that might be termed particularly local and therefore of special moment to the officers of the (Counties. Before children can be taught they must be properly housed and the buildings properly equipped. On this matter the people and officers of the individual counties should have authority to determine the character and cost of this work. In the event of a decision to erect permanent buildings of brick or stone, the expense should be distributed by a loan. appropriation. 11 APPORTIONMENT. The Commission recommends that the appropriation for salaries be made in a lump sum to cover the schedule provided under the rules and regulations of the Department of Public Instruction. It also recommends that the items under the head of School Supplies be appropriated as a lump sum under a schedule prepared by the Department of Public Instruction that shall consider: (a) Grade of School, as Primary, Grammar or HFigh School; (b) Number of teachers; (c) Enrollment of School; (d) Schools having regular industrial instructors. This Commission recommends that the appropriation for special schools as Lahainaluna, Boys' Industrial, Girls' Industrial, be placed under the General Fund of the 13Budget. TERRITORY AND COUNTY. One of the problems facing the people of the Territory at the present time is the adjustmenlt of the reslponsil)ilities of the Territory and the Counties. Of late years there has been a steady drift towxard assumption of greater authority over the schools by the Counties. The causes for this are too numerous and complex to cover in a report of this character, but the Commission is satisfied th.at except for occasional lapses of executive capacity a large share of the complaint against the present system of school management is primarily due to the fact that for the last ten years, or since the public revenues were, reduced through the loss of the custom house collections, the Department of Public Instruction has been without sufficient funds to carry on its work. The Department has been as frequently criticised for shortcomings due to legislative neglect as it has been for administrative incompetence. LOCAL CONTROL SC(THOOL AGENT. In adjusting the demand for greater local control without doing injury to the general system of educaltion, the Commission has concluded that the greatest, sources of friction and 12 dissatisfaction may be eliminated by giving the school agent of each district more authority. A great many people fail to realize that education in Hawaii has passed through the stage of absolute local control. The form of centralization which was brought about under the. law of 1894 and which is now largely in vogue, may be termed Excessive centralization. In ridding the Territory of the errors of this system great care should be taken that the pendulum does not swing to the opposite extreme. Reference to the brief outline of education in Iawaii submitted with this report will show that in the early days the public schools were under a localized system. The Chiefs provided schools in their various districts in much the same manner as the township schools in countries of more advanced civilization. The next step was the levy of a local school tax, raised and used in the district. The school agent came into existence in 1841 and remains at. the present time, but he is practically shorn of all authority. Under the scheme in vogue in the early days the local funds raised in each school district were expended in that district, but. the school agent had to write to the central authority for permission to make the smallest expenditure. This was not satisfactory because the school agent. had no power to act on his own initiative. Later the administrative scheme moved toward centralization and the apportionment of funds without giving the school agent any greater authority for independent action. In 1894 all school funds were centralized in the general realizations of the Territory and the school agent became more of a figurehead than. ever. Ile expended the, funds that were parcelled out to him. in the manner d(irected by the, entral authority. This Commission does not urge a return to the old condition, but recommends the development of local control through the; school agent according to the best recognized systems developed in America. This Commission proposes that. the school funds shall be distributed among the districts according to the schedule prepared under approved methods, the,appropriation to be apportioned to each school district and the school agent given the authority to use the funds for his district as the needs of the 13 district become manifest, subject of course to proper accounting and auditing. This will give a large measure of local control without taking away the necessary supervision from the Central Authority of the, Territory as represented by the DeIpartment of Public Instruction. Following is tbe summary of the scheme proposed by the Commission: SCHOOL BUDGET Prepared by the Department of Public Instruction under the following heads: GENERAL FUND Salary of Superintendent. Salary of Office Force and General Expense. Salaries of Teachers, Supervisors, Inslpectors and Medical Inspectors. Supplies. Libraries and Books. Industrial and Manual Training. SPECIAL FUND New buildings (school houses, shops, cottages and outbuildings). Repairs and maintenance of buildings and grounds and new grounds. Janitor Service. Furniture and fixtures. The items under the GENERAL FUND should be grouped as follows: a. Administration. Salaries of Superintendent, Office Force and general expense. b. Instruction and supervision. Salaries of Teachers, Supervisors and Inspectors and Medical Inspectors. c. School supplies. Equipment and material for Industrial and Manual Training. Libraries, desk books and general supplies. It is recommended that the Department purchase its supplies of text books from local firms. The cost of books for primary grades should be at list price, and those for Grammar and High School Grades should not exceed ten per cent above list price. A. Administration. The items under the head of office force and general expense should be appropriated as a lump sum, 14 B. Instruction and Supervision. The items under the head of instruction and supervision should be appropriated as a lump sum. This amount should be distributed according to salary schedule prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. The amount necessary for salaries under this head, based on salary schedule should be appropriated under an Act making the amount necessary under salary schedules available from year to year without further specific Act of the Legislature. Any cutting that may be necessary should be on the physical side of the school work, e. g., supplies, repairs, etc. C. School supplies. The items under the head of school supplies should be appropriated as a lump sum and distributed among the schools according to a schedule prepared by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. This schedule should consider:-(a) Kind of schools as, Primary, Grammar and High School. (b) Number of teachers. (c) Enrollment of school. (d) Schools having regular industrial instructors. The apportionment shall be made annually for the fiscal year, July 1st to June 30th. Each school or district shall be credited with the amount of the apportionment and each school agent and supervising principal held responsible for the proper distribution of the funds. Supplies are purchased through the Department. Each principal should be supplied with a copy of authorized price list. All requests for supplies must be in accordance with term outline and be approved by the Superintendent of Public Instruction or his authorized agent. The items under the SPECIAL FUND: The items under the SPECIAL FUND are required expenditures by the Counties under the authority of the Legislature and have to do with the strictly local needs and demands. The expense of new wooden buildings should be provided for out of the current revenues of the Counties. The expense of new buildings of a permanent character in centers of population should bie provided for under a loan fund or bond issue. (Supreme Court decision, N. Y., 1898). COMMITTEE OF ESTIMATES. How constituted. There shall be a Committee of Estimates for the Territory of Hawaii consisting of six members, four of whom shall be the chairmen of the Boards of Supervisors of the Four Counties, one the Secretary of the Territory and the sixth the Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex-officio. The Secretary of the Territory shall be the chairman of the Committee of Estimates, and in case of his absence, any member of the Committee may be chosen to preside over the meetings of the Committee. All members of said Committee shall serve without pay except that mileage expenses may be allowed for outside members. Duties. The Committee shall examine the Budget prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. They may approve the Bud'get or may with the exception of the items under the head, of the General Fund reduce the estimate. They cannot add to the budget. The Committee must submit the approved budget to the Governor thirty 15 days before the opening of the Legislature. The Governor submits it within ten days after the opening of the! Legislature, with his a;prproval or with his recommendations. School accommodations shall be estimated on the basis of forty pupils per teacher for centers of population. Provision must be made for children of school age in outer districts either by the construction of suitable school buildings or by providing transportation to most conveniently located school. REVENIUE. School Tax. An annual tax of two dollars for the support of public schools shall be paid by every male inhabitant of the Territory between the ages of twenty and sixty years, unless exempted by law. This tax shall be collected and used exclusively for the public schools. Land Rev'ente. Fifty per cent of the net proceeds of the public lands whether from sale or licenses should be set aside for the use of public schools. School Tax on Real Prbperty and Personal Property. There shall be assessed on all real property and all the personal property within the Territory an annual tax of as many mills on the dollar as shall be necessary to meet the difference between the amount of the Gen eral Fund of the Budget and the estimated income from the poll school tax, the proceeds from the permanent fund, and fifty per cent of the net proceeds of public lands whether from sale, lease, or licenses (except such as may be so!; apart for the construction oW roads, survey, and purchases of land for public purposes.) PERMANENT TERRITO IAL SCHOOL FUND. Purpose. For the purpose of affording the advantages of a free education to the children of the Territory, the Territory shall establish a Permanent School Fund, the interest of which shall be used for the public schools. POSSIBLE SOURCES OF REVENUE FOR PERMANENT FUND. 1. Money from donors 2. All fines for violations of school laws. 3. Escheated property. 4. Property forfeited to the State. 5. All land sold and bought in for taxes. FEDERAL APPROPRIATION. Early in the sessions of the Commnission a suggestion was made that the Territory appeal to Congress for the! appropriat.ion of one-third of the revenues of the custom house of the customs district of Hawaii to the uses of the Public Schools of the Territory. This involved such far-reaching possibilities in connection with exceptional legislation for this Territory that active promotion of this subject was dropped. There are *at present, however, before Congress, two bills which have for 16 their purpose the appropriation of Federal Funds to aid the public schools of the States and Territories. There is no question but that Hawaii should under any circumstances cordially and actively campaign for the passage of such measure if it be deemed inadvisable to appeal to Congress for a Special Appropriation. Theoretically one of the most fitting pieces of legislation that could be accomplished would be an appropriation by the Federal Government of a sum sufficient to establish throughout this Territory, either schools in manual training, agrieulture and domestic science and art, or the inauguration in the Territory of vocation schools having for their purpose the education of every child in the Territory in agriculture and house work as well as in the three "R's." This Commrission recommends that work be undertaken for a Federal appropriation through the Davis Act or any other similar measure to be used to establish and support industrial schools in each island that will offer lines of work in harmony with our peculiar conditions. Such a Federal appropriation would be derived from funds that come indirectly from the aliens whose education, many of our fellow citizens feel and claim, is too heavy a- burden for the citizen to carry. It would also support a system of education that is needed, and one which will in a comparatively short timre show the error of the critic who claims that too much education ruins the child for work. If children could be taught the dignity of manual labor, and learn that by the application of intelligence they can increase the returns obtained from the work of their hands, they would certainly turn to, the soil where they are needed as against the! walks of life in cities and towns that are overcrowded. The people of this Territory ha;ve thie power in their hands. If the boys and girls are not raised aright they wi'll in the near future be a menace to the Territory. On, the training given them rests the economic future of this Territory. Our children and our wvork are interdependent, and on the training of the one rests the progress of the other. The Act embodying the views of the Commission, and which will in its estimate *accomplish the purpose of the resolution under which the Commission was appointed, is as follows: 17 AN ACT To PlOVIDE FOR TILE MAINTENANCE OF TIHE PUBTIC SCHOOLS. Be It Enacted by the Legislature of the Territory of Hawaii: SECTION 1. The Department of Public Instruction is hereby authorized, empowered and directed to prepare a salary schedule to cover the compensation to be paid all teachers, supervisors and principals. Such schedule shall be based upon a classification of schools, classification of teachers' certificates and length of service, provided, however, that the schedule as to salaries of principals and supervisors shall be based also upon the number of teachers under their direction. Such schedule when approved by the Governor and published: at least three times in some newspaper of general circulation, printed and published in I-onolulu, shall have: the force and effect of law. Hereafter all salaries of teachers, supervisors and principals shall be paid according to such schedule. The total number of teachers; including supervisors and principals who may be continuously employed by the Department in any one year shall not exceed one for every twenty-five (25) pupils enrolled in the public schools during the preceding year. Such schedule may from time to time with like approval and publication be altered, amended or revised. FOR SCHOOL BUDGET. SECTION 2. Prior to December 15, 1912, and every second year thereafter, the Department of Public Instruction shall prepare a budget to be known as the School Budget showing the estimated expenses, other than salaries of teachers,, supervisors and principals, of the Public Schools and of such Board for the next, ensuing biennial period. Such budget shall be in the following form: GENERAL FUND. Salary of Superintendent. Salaries of Office Force. General Expenses. Supplies. Libraries and Books. Industrial and Manual Training. 18 SPECIAL FUND. New buildings (school houses, cottages and outbuildings). Repairs and maintenance of buildings and grounds and new grounds. Janitor service. Furniture and fixtures. SECTION 3. Not later than December 15, 1912, and every second year thereafter, such budget shall be submitted by the Superintendent of Public Instruction to a Committee of Estimates consisting of the Secretary of the Territory, who shall be chairman, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Mayor of the City and County of Honolulu and the Chairman of the Boards of Supervisors of the several counties. Such Committee shall meet in tHonolulu at the call of the chairman and shall consider such budget. It may, in its discretion, revise or change any item appearing under the general heading "Special Fund," but, it shall not change any item appearing under the! heading "General Fund.". The members of such Committee shall serve without pay, but shall be entitled to their.actual traveling expenses, to be paid out of the funds provided for the general expenses of the Department. Not later than January 15, 1913, and every second year thereafter, such budget, as revised by the: Committee of Estimates, shall be submitted to the Governor of the Territory, who shall submit the same without change, but with his own recommendations, to the Legislature within ten days after the opening of its next, regular session. In case the Committee of Estimates fails to, act upon the school budget, within the time above specified, the Superintendent of Public Instruction shall submit the budget as prepared by the Department to the Governor as aforesaid, and he shall, as aforesaid, submit the same to the Legislature. Such budget, when acted upon by the Legislature shall determine the amounts which may be expended for such purposes during the succeeding biennial period. FIRST CHIARGE ON REVENUES. SECTION 4. All revenues derived. from time to time from the collection of the school tax levied under the provisions of Section 1200 of the Revised Laws of Hawaii shall be deemed to be and are hereby appropriated for the payment of the salaries 19 of teachers, supervisors and principals as determined by the salary schedule, and for the support and maintenance of the public schools for the objects and in the manner designated in the school budget approved by the Legislature, which are hereby made the first charge upon such revenues. SECTION 5. Out of the revenues derived from time to time from the taxes on real property and personal property there shall be deemed to be and is hereby appropriated, such an *amount as shall be necessary to provide sufficient additional funds to meet the requirements of the aggregate of the salaries of teachers, supervisors and principals as fixed by said schedule and of said school budget, which are hereby made the first charge upon such revenues. In order to determine the amounts to be added under this section, the Superintendent of Public Instruction shall notify the Treasurer in writing not later than September 1, in each year of the total number of teachers, supervisors and principals engaged for the ensuing year and the aggregate of the salaries to be paid them under the salary schedule. SECTION 6. -Pending the preparation of the school budget as in this Act required and for the next ensuing biennial period, the school budget shall for all purposes be the following: (Herein insert items). SECTION 7. All other laws and parts of laws are hereby amended or repealed in so far as necessary to conform herewith.' SECTION 8. This Act shall take effect on July 1, 1911. WORK OF COMMISSION. The foregoing covers in general outline the conclusions of the Commission and its recommendations. The Commission has held very many meetings both of formal and! informal nature and has used every endeavor to, secure the views of as many citizens as possible on each island. The first meeting was held on the 29th day of June, 1909, in the, office of Mr. W. A. Bowen in the Stangenwald Building, and organized with Mr. Wallace R. Farrington as Chairman, Mr. Edgar Wood as Statistical Secretary, and Mr. W. A. Bolwen as Recording and Corresponding Secretary. 20 The original plan for study was outlined under five heads: 1. Work for a suitable Federal appropriation; 2. A publicity campaign for the information of the people; 3. An investigation of means and methods of raising and apportioning elsewhere; 4. An investigation of conditions existing in the Territory of Hawaii; and 5. Recommendations for the solution of the educational problems of I-Iawaii by the adaptation of approved methods in vogue on the Mainland to conditions as they exist in this Territory. The Federal appropriation matter gave rise to possibilities of so many complications that the Commission dropped the active promotion of it for the time being. In the publicity campaign the Commission has used the press of Honolulu freely and found the editors and publishers of our papers very willing to help in any way. The Chairman of the Commission has published a strong series of brief statements under the caption of "Hawaii's School Facts," which are made a part of this report. A number of carefully-prepared articles have been published in different newspapers with very emphatic editorial notes appended. The Commission also printed a comprehensive statement in twelve pages and mailed it to about one thousand representative men and women throughout the islands, asking not only their attention but also their suggestions as to the best solution of the problems involved. In the study of methods employed elsewhere and in our own Territory, we have drawn upon the! reports and publications of the Department at Washington, the various State departments, sundry school commission reports, and publications by the leading educational authorities throughout the country. In connection with the investigation of the conditions in Hawaii, the Commission has studied the Hawaiian reports both educational and financial. The former Superintendent of Public Instruction, Mr. W. H. Babbitt, and the present Superintendent, Mr. W. T. Pope, have been consulted freely and they have! given of their time 21 and attention without stint and have made many valuable suggestions which have materially assisted the Commission in its investigations. Very valuable suggestions have been submitted by citizens of the Territory and these have been gladly welcomed and carefully considered. The members of the Commission have endeavored to consider every phase of the subject again and again in their weekly meetings. They are under obligations to the Governor of the Territory of Hawaii, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and other leading officials and prominent business men who have met the commission in conference and gave without reserve their views on the educational situation in the islands. The commission has been very materially assisted in its work by the Rev. C. N. Pond, who volunteered his services and who did a great amount of detail investigation which brought matters before the commission in reference to the conduct of public school systems on the Mainland in a concise and, striking form. The Commission acknowledges the cooperation and assistance given by the University Club in the al)po'ntment, of a, commnittee to advise in regard to the legal phase of the report, and to! assist in the drafting of an act embodying the recommendations of the report. 1Mr. Chas. R. THelmenway, the Chairman of the committee, consulted with the Commission and with the individual members giving valuable assistance on the legal phase of the report, and drafted the Act here'with submitted. The Commission wishes to, express formnally its recognition of the public spirited, services of Mr. Iermenway. The detailed minutes of the sessions of the C'ommission, together with the correspondence carried on and the suggestions gained from many different sources are submitted herewith as a part of this report. Respectfully submitted, WALLACE R. FARRINGTON, Chairman. EDGAR WOOD, Statistical Sec'y. WM. A. BOWEN, Recording and Corresponding Sec'y. 22 HAWAII SCHOOL FACTS. No. I. ENROLLMENT OF HAWAII'S SCHOOLS 10 YEARS. 1898 1900 1902 1904 1906 1908 10,965 11,501 13,760 14,813 16.651 19,474 19,474 10,965 Increase.......... 8,509 Percentage increase.......77.6 per cent. No. II. AMOUNTS SPENT ON PUBLIC SCHOOLS EXCLUSIVE OF NEW BUILDINGS FROM LOAN FUND 10 YEARS. Jan. 1, 1898, to Dec. 31, Jan. 1, 1900, to June 30, July 1, 1901, to June 30, July 1, 1903, to June 30, July 1, 1904, to June 30, July 1, 1905, to June 30, July 1, 1906, to June 30, July 1, 1907, to June 30, July 1, 1908, to June 30, 1899...........$569,188.53 1901............ 508,663.25 1903........... 780,409.92 1904........... 409,048.84 1905............ 336,358.59 1906............ 361,458.99 1907........... 349,933.14 1908........... 467.232.85 1909........... 446,832.60 23 No. III. COST OF INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS PER CAPITA, 10 YEARS. 1899.................... $33.:18 1900..................... 31.24 1901.................. 27.45 1902..................... 30.11 1903..................... 28.28 1904.....2.......... 28.27 1905................... 22.12 1906..................... 22.42 1907................. 20.41 1908................... 25.16 1909..................... 22.90 Decreased cost of instruction due) to disproportionate increase of school attendance to appropriations. No. IV. TEACHERS SALARIES 1909. 1........ 13........ 15........ 40........ 5... 17....... 15........ 32........ 84........ 64........ 32...... 22% rece: 58% rece 73% rece 83% rece 94% rece 6 % rece $ 10.00 38............ $ 70.00................. *........ *.*.....*................. *oooo............. 25.00 34................. 27.50 1................ 30.00 20................. 35.00 2................. 40.00 1................. 45.00 46................. 50.00 14................. 55.00 7................. 60.00 7................. 65.00 2................. 75.00 80.00 83.33 85.00 90.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 200.00 225.00 iving less than $50 per month. iving less than $50 to $75 inc] iving less than $75. iving less than $100. iving $100 or less. iving over $100 per month. lusive. 24 No. V. OVEPRCROWDED ROOMS IN REGULAR PUBLIC SCHOOL, JUNE, 1909. Rooms. Enrollment of over 45 but under 50............ 57 Enrollment of 50 or over but under 55............ 38 Enrollment of 55 or over but under 60........... 23 Enrollment of 60 or over but under 70........... 24 Enrollment of 70 or over....................... 12 T otal.................................... 154 154 out of 439 rooms, or 35%, overcrowded. No. VI. ADDITIONAL TEACHERS NEEDED. M oiliili................ 2 M anoa............... 1 Pohukaina............. 1 Kauluwela............. 5 Kaiulani.............. 2 Royal................. 3 Kahuku............... 1 W aiahole.............. 1 Waimanalo........... 1 Central Primary........ 1 High School............ 1 HIonouliuli............. 2 Waipahu.............. 2 Kalihiwaena.......... 2 Kaahumanu....... 1 Central Grammar....... 1 Aiea.............. 1 Kaneohe............. 1 W aialua............... Wahiawa.............. 1 Boys' Industrial........ 1 Haena................ 1 Hanamaulu........... 1 HIanapepe............ 4 Wailmea..... 4 Koolau............ 1 Kapa.a............. 1 Lihue2................ 2 Kalaheo............ 2 Koloa......... 1 Makaweli............. 1 Hilo Union........... 2 Hakalau.............. 2 IHonokaa.............. 1 Makapala............. 1 Honomakal.......... 1 Kaumana.............. 1 Olaa 9 Miles............ 1 1Kaapahu.......... 1 Pepeekeo............. 1 Papaikou2............ 2 Hilo High........... 1 Paia................. 2 Spreckelsville.......... 1 Haou............... 1 K eanae............... 1 Forty-t;hree thousand and, two hundred dollars per year needed if above teachers have no higher than first-class primary certificates and no allowance for length of service; otherwise larger amount needed. No. VII. COMPARATIVE INCREASE PUPILS AND TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 10 YEARS. Pupils. Teachers. 1898........................... 10,965 316 1900........................... 11,501 352 1902........................... 13,760 382 1904.......................... 14,813 400 1906.......................... 16,651 443 1908.......................... 19,474 489 Increase number pupils.................... 77.6 pet. Increase number teachers.................. 54.7 pet. Result: Overcrowding. Thirty-five per cent. rooms from receiving to eighth grade overcrowded. No. VIII. SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. I. Collective (for the school). 1. Manuala. Carpentry work. b. Painting, whitewashing, etc. c. Construction of stone walls, fences, ditch making, walk building, etc. 2. Printing. 3. Cooking. 4. Agriculturea. Clearing land. b. Keeping grounds in order. c. School garden. d. Tree planting. 26 II. Individual (for the pupil). 1. Manual-,a. Carpentry work. b. Knife work. c. Polishing nuts, etc. 2. Sewing. 3. Lace work. 4. Weaving: Lauhala and bamboo. 5. Individual gardens. No. IX. SCHOOLS HAVING DOMESTIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENTS. Holualoa. Kaahumanu. Honokohau Kaiulani. Olaa 12 Miles. Waialua. Lahaina. Hauula. Kaluaaha. Normal. Pohukaina. Royal. Aims of this department: Refinement and culture in home, making. Knowledge of simple cookery. Relative value of the staple articles of food. It is needed in every school, but the public schools must have proper financial support to allow expansion of practical education. No. X. MANUAL WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1908-1909. Seven thousand five hundred and seventy-five pupils engaged in manual work other than sewing and agriculaure. Twenty-one schools have equipment, for carpentry work. 27 Some of the things made: Chairs and stools. Tables. Desks. Sewing cabinets. Aquariums. Yard and meter sticks. Insect cases and cages. Work benches. Tool chests. Pointers. Eraser boxes. Blackboard frames. Water troughs.and supports. Seed and cutting boxes. Canes. Foot rules and cubes. Picture frames and trays. General repairing, etc. No. XI. PRINTING DEPARTMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Seven schools have outfits and are doing regular printing: 1ionomu. Kaahumanu. Papaikou. Normal. Lahainaluna. Kaiulani. Wailuku. Partial output of school press: Two thousand seven hundred copies Hawaii's Young People each month. Index to Hawaii's Young People. Course of Study. Domestic Science Manual. Suplemental Reports of Department. HIilo High School prospectus. County Government Literature. Programs of Exercises. Stories and Songs. Lesson outlines, schedules, etc. No. XII. AGRICULTURAL WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Clearing,and preparing land. Keeping grounds in order. Vegetable gardening. Flower gardening. Tree planting. 28 Nine thousand three hundred and nine pupils engaged in gardening. Practically all children doing some yard work. More than 125 schools actively engaged. Two schools planting sugar cane on commercial basis. PLANTS. Taro. Corn. Potatoes. Onions. Tomatoes. String beans. Pineapple. Beets. Cabbage. Cucumbers. Carrots. Melons. Parsley. Turnips. Egg plant. Sisal. Lettuce. Various flowers. TREES. Silver Oak. Ponciana. Monkeypod. Palms. Bougainvillia. Ironwood Algeroba. Eucalyptus. Pride of India. Camphor. Pepper. Lemon. Orange. Mango. Avacado, Pear. Papaia Banana. Lime. No,. XIII. SEWING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Eight thousand three hundred and fourteen pupils in sewing classes last school year. Plain sewing taught to boys and girls in primary grades, cutting, fitting and more complicated forms of sewing taught in grammar grades. Pupils taught stitching, seaming, over-casting, hemstitching, gathering, sewing on ruffles, buttonhole stitching, darning, patching, special stitching, etc. Articles made: 29 Towels. Napkins. Chalk bags. Iron holders. Bags for pencils and rulers. Aprons. Caps. Underclothes. Handkerchiefs. Skirts. Dresses. Table covers. Pillow slips. Quilts. Drawn work. Fancy work. No. XIV. LACE AND WEAVING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Twenty-one schools give instruction in lace making. Five hundred and seventeen pupils doing lauhala, bamboo and grass weaving. Last year the following were enrolled in the lace classes in Honolulu: H awaiian.................... 67 Part Hawaiian.............. 51 Chinese...................... 24 Portuguese................... 24 Japanese..................... 16 American..................... 12 Germ an...................... 2 During the last two, years $317 worth of lace has been sold by Honolulu pupils alone. No. XV. THE PROBLEMS OF RACE IN TEACHING. It is a matter of observation that there are in the Territory of Hawaii a very gratifying number of exceptionally efficient teachers. Exceptional efficiency may bei evinced in exceptionally favorable environment, or, as not infrequently has happened, 30 it may be discovered or developed by exceptionally untoward circumstances. Complicated international relations have developed the great diplomatist, a crisis in the affairs of a people has produced the great statesman, hard times and a fight for existence have colmpelled, an industry into reorganizations and new methods that have made for it a, great future. So it may conceivably be! in the matter of teaching. If, failing to find an explanation of efficiency elsewhere, one should set out to look for difficulties sufficient to, put the teachers on their mettle, one need not look in vain. The school proposition of Hawaii has been a growing population-a very rapidly growing one. School attendance is four times as great now as it was in 1876. This is an increase of 300 per cent. in thirty-three years. The number of available teachers has in all that time and earlier been far below the need. Salaries of teachers have been always inadequate and,at times distressingly low. Uncertificated teachers of deficient qualifications have been employed in large numbers. Overcrowding of buildings has been perennial. Appropriation of money have been estimated on the basis of past requirements rather than of the growing present or the greater future. Per capita cost of education has been kept below that of other progressive communities-below AVERAGE cost in the United States-notwithstanding the fact that, in Hawaii the cost of educating a public school pupil is distributed among ten of population as against a ratio of.a little less than one to fivel in the United States as a whole. Stated in other words, though the men of I-Iawaii have had less than half the burden of public education than men elsewhere are bearing, yet they have not been willing to bear even this half burden either capably or with entire cheerfulneiss. Inspection of our schools has been scant and intermittent.. Supervision in any general sense' has not been obtained. - Principals of schools have been held, down to, an exacting routine of grade work. Medical inspection of schools has been inadequate and infrequent, and at times pretty nearly given up. 31 Public school pupils have for the most part been children of very poor and sometimes of improvident parents. I-ome interest in the bringing up of children is deficient, nutrition is defective, and child labor is in many cases excessive. The poverty of the home and the parsimony of the State have kept equipment of school children far below that required for the best results.-School Agent Cox in. Address to Teachers' Association. No. XVI. SCHOOLS WHICH HAVE ADOPTED TIHE SCHOOL COUNTY OR CITY PLAN. Hamakuapoko. Kaahumanu. Kealahou. Normal. Waihee. Waimea. IHanapepe. Kaiulani. Lahainaluna. Papaikou. Wailuku. Royal. A-PURPOSE. The, purpose of the school county or city is to, give the pupils some knowledge of the working of the government under which they live and in which they are soon toi take an active part; to beget in them the, power of self-control which means the power to be quiet, to be orderly, to, be neat, to be busy, to be helpful and to be saving. Exemplification of all of these qualities is sought in the course of the school day by the performance of duties assigned to each pupil in keeping the school premises clean, in maintaining quiet and order in the rooms, halls and on the grounds, in exercising kindness and patience in dealings the one with the other, and in caring for the property of the school. The great lesson sought to be inculcated in all of this is that of individual personal responsibility for the community good; each one is made to, feel that upon his individual acts rests the highest welfare of the community; that habits are formed by doing things over and over again; -and that. the time 32 to form good habits is while one is young and in school; that the character is the sum and substance of habits, and that the future, of the boy or girl in the community of real life: will depend upon the kind of habits that boy or girl acquires. The educative value of the school city comnes by way of talks made by the teachers and invited speakers upon various subjects relating to. duties of citizens in the community. In these talks all of the pupils of voting age profit, but those engaged in the actual administration of the affairs of the school county or city get valuable experience in written and oral expression by way of clerical duties in keeping records, making reports of parliamentary usage and more or less practice in discussing questions before the Board of Supervisors. The disciplinary -value of the school city is derived from the way the pupils submit themselves to the authority of those in office; in the manner in which they endeavor to secure personal responsibility for the place, order -and cleanliness of the school premises and in the zeal they evince in earing for the school property. B —SOME RESULTS. The Principal of the Kaiulani School, Honolulu, says: "I particularly like the training of the child in the duties of citizenship that in the course of tire devolve upon him." The Principal of the IHanapepe School, Hanapepe, Kauai, writes: "It certainly forms a good training for future civic duties and citizenship." The head of the Wailuku High School, Wailuku, Maui, says: "The influence of this system has been really re, markable." The Principal of the Papaikou School, Papaikou, Hawaii, writes: "The system gives an opportunity for broad teaching in social and political ethics. I find it worth while." The Principal of the Kealahou School, Waiakoa, M, aui, says: "He learns the value' of system and practices the virtues as well as the duties of citizenship." The head of Lahainaluria School, Lahaina, writes: "One of the most pleasant results of the,school county is the fact; that to a marked degree it has developed in the students the feeling of responsibility. With us it has practically solved the question of discipline." The Principal of the Kaahumanu School, Honolulu, says: "The! discipline of the Kaahumanu School has improved. The boys,are more gentlemanly and the girls more ladylike." The Principal 33 of the! Royal School, 1-onoluiu, says,: "The educative; and disciplinary va-lue~s of the system are so great, it: has become necessary to the success of the. school." No. XVII. NEW BUILDINGS NEEDED FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES AT BEGINNING OF PRESENT BIENNIAL PERIOD. OAT-ru --- E'ahuku-2 room. school building, te~acher's, cot-tage. Kaaawa-1 rooin school building, teacher's cottage. Kailua-t4 room school building, te~acher's cottage. Waipalhu-2 room addition. Kauluwela-i4 ro~om school building. Manoa-i room school building. Mloiliili-2 room school building. Norma~l-science -and laboratory rooms. Waialuia-4 room school building. Wahiawa-i ro~om. school building. KAUAIWaimea -4 room school building. Hanapepe-iO room school building. Kala heo-2 room school building. Makaweli-i room addition. Koloa,-i room addition. L-ihue-3 room school building. HAWAIIHrflo-i4 room school building. P~apaikou-3- room addition. Pahoa,-1 ro~om addition. Ola~a, 9 Mliles-i room addition. M~t. View-i roo~m addition. Na~po~opo~o-i room addition. Konawaena-i room addition.. Mahuko~na,-i room school building. Laupahoeho&-l3 room addition. Pohakupuka- 2 room,11 school building. H-akalauL-2 room addition. 34 Honomu-1 room addition. Opihikau-1 room with teacher's apartments. MAUIHana-4 room school building. Keanae-2 room school building and cottage. Keokeo-teachers' cottage. Kaupakalua-teacher's cottage. Olowalu-teacher's cottage. Total public revenue collected in the Ulnited States, $1,487.234,578. Expenditure for public cormmon schools, $307,765,659. Expenditure for all public schools, $399,688,910. Total public revenue collected in Iawaii, $4,276,733. Available for Territorial uses, $2,669,748. Expenditure for public common schools in Hawaii, $379,567. Expenditure for all public schools, in Hawaii, $470,632. Expenditure for public common schools in the U. S. is 20.7 per cent. of the total revenue. Expenditure for public common schools in Hawaii is 8.8 per cent of total revenue. Expenditure for public common schools in Hawaii is 14 per cent of revenue available for Territorial uses. Expenditure for all public schools in the; U. S. i's 27 per cent of total revenue. Expenditure for all public schools in Hawaii is 11 per cent of total revenue. Expenditure for all public schools in Hawaii is 17 per cent of revenue available for Territorial uses. No. XVIII. NEED OF MEDICAL INSPECTION IN SCHOOLS OF HAWAII. Mainland statistics show that: Twenty to twenty-five per cent of children in country schools havel defective eyes. Approximately thirty per cent of children in city schools have defective eyes. 35 Five per cent of children in city schools have defective ears. Teachers can discover 75 to 85 per cent of cases needing treatment. Fifty to 75 per cent of parents notified of defects of children afford means of relief. Ninety-five per cent of children affected can under proper treatment be allowed toi attend school withonut danger of spreading infection. Medical inspection and treatment reduced absenteeism in New York City 72 per cent in two years. LOCAL. During the last year the Board of Health has examined 15,599 school children, refused 1,832 health certificates, vaccinated 3,724 school children, given 17,967 treatments for trachoma and conjunctivitis. In one year the Honolulu Dispensary gave; the following treatments for children from only twelve of our city schools: Tonsilitis.................... 2 Asthma...................... 12 Bronchitis..................... 10 Scabies.................... 18 M/umps..................... 24 Eczema...................... 6 Cough....................... 59 Heart trouble................. 20 Toothache...................... 25 Extraction.................... 65 Boils.................. 17 Styes..................... 19 Earache...................... 20 Folrty-one other causes necessitating 658 treatments. If twelve schools show the above results, what will the 153 public schools show? 36 No. XIX. AGE, ATTENDANCE, COMPUILSORY AND VOLUNTARY-PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HAWAII-COMPULSORY SIX TO FIFTEEN YEARS. AGES FOR FREE ATTENDANCE AT PUBLIC SCHOOLS. (1904) Report Commissioner of Education at Washington.) Five to twenty-one years —Maine, New York: Mississippi, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Idaho, Virginia, South Dakota. Six to twenty-one, years-Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Florida, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Ohio, Indiana, Colorado, Arizona, Washington, Oregon and California. Six tol seventeen years-District of Columbia. Six to eighteen years-Georgia, Louisiana, Utah and Nevada. Six to twenty years-Kentucky, Missouri and North Dakota. Four tol twenty years-New Jersey and Wisconsin. Five to. twenty years-Michigan. Seven tol seventeen years-Texas. Seven to. twenty-one years-Alabama. Unlimit.ed-Vermont, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Five to unlimited-New Hampshire. COMPULSORY. Six to fourteen years-Indiana and California. Seven tot thirteen years Rhode, Island. Seven to, fourteen years,-M.assachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Kentucky, Illinois,, Wisconsin, Iowa and New Mexico. Sevent to, fifteen years-Maine, Michigan and Nebraska. Seven to sixteen years-Wyoming. Eight tol fourteen years —Nelw Hampshire, District of Columbia, West Virginia, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and Colorado. 37 Eight to fifteen years-Vermont, Kansas and Washington. Eight to sixteen yea.rs-Pennsylvania, Maryland,, Ohio and Minnesota,. No compulsory law-Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Indian Territory and Missouri. No. XXII. "It is all right to teach them reading, writing and arithmetic," said Moir. "At least, enough to, get, along with, but I believe that that is practically -all the, book studies they need, and that the time which the children put in at school would be spent to, far greater advantage to them if they were instructed to a greater extent than is done at present in various trades, such as carpentry, blacksmithing -and so forth, so that they would know something by which they could, make a living when they left school. The schools have in the past turned out a lot of educated loafers. They all want positions as bookkeepers and clerks, and they can not get such jobs; at least, only a few of them can. "While the boys should be' taught trades, the girls should be given thorough instruction in the various housekeeping arts, such as sewing, cooking, etc., so they would be able! to take care of a house, when they left school. The trouble in this country is thatl so many of thel young girls know nothing whatever about housekeeping. Then they get married, and when it comes to getting up a meal they don't know holw to do, it. Then there is a row and unhappiness."-Interview with John T. Moir, Commissioner of Public Instruction, Territory of Hawaii. 38 No.. XXIV. INADEQUATE SCH-OOL ACCOMMODATION A CAUSE OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY. "IDuring the: last year the, attendance! at the Boys' Refo~rm School increased from 95 t~o 149 and at the Girls,' Reform School from 37 to, 5,3." (Extract from let~t~er of Sup~erintec-ndent of Public Instruction to, Chairman of Education Committee, House of IRepr'esent~atives,, Ma~rch 22, ~1909.) To, suitably acconunodate. in school all children now applying for admittance, 82 additional te~achers are, required and much additional buiidin~g. TAXES COLLECTED. No. XXV. Fiscal Year June 30th 1901...... 1902...... 1903...... 1904...... 1905...... 1906..... 1907...... 1908...... 1909...... 1910...... tReal Property..................$ 448,059.63.................. 532,637.09...................560,456.31................. 618,890.81.................. 609,343.72................. 961,433.76................. 654,737.94.................. 640,051.42.................. 668,721.89.................. 709,943.35 Personal Property $ 490,392.69 571,248.69 592,325.37 607,589.82 570,654.55 928,841.53 631,326.36 635,265,81 678,886.40 720,252.68 Total $ 938,452.32 1,103,SS5.78 1,152,781.68 1,226,480.63 1,179,998.27 1,890,275.29 1,286,064.30 1,27,317.23 1,347,608.29 1,430,196.03 IRoad, Poll and School $ 249,604.00 231,485.00 255,043.00 240,736.00 249,990.0i0 243,955.00 239,001.00 244,832.00 235,520.00 248,663.00 $ 2,438,829.00 N. B. $ 6,404,275.92 $ 6,426,783.90 $12,831,059.82 ' Change in tax date. N. B. $975,000.00 of this was realized, from school tax of$2.00 per capita. 40 The foregoing figures do not include the specific property tax, inheritance tax, insurance tax, income tax, or penalties,, costs and interest;. Fiscal Year June 30th. EXPENDITURES FOR SCHIOOL PURPOSES. 1901-2..................$ 324,020.81 1903.............. 403,913.66 1904.................... 409,048.84 1905.................. 336,359.59 1906..................... 361,458.99 '1907............. 349,933.14 1908.................... 467,555.05 1909................... 446,832.60 1910.................... 433,818.92 $3,532,941.60 The sums above have been spent out of Current Funds. Thesse figures are for the, carrying on of thei Department of Public Instruction and do not include money taken from the Loan Fund on account, of school buildings. The figures herewith show an expenditures of 271/2% from the real and personal property tax of 1% and of 13 9-10% from the total Current; Revenue of the Territ;orry. For every dollar of real and personal property taxes collected the schools have had 271/2 cents; folr every dollar of the entire revenue (current) of the Territo;ry thel schools have had 13 9-10 cents for the last ten years. The: Current Revenue of the Territory by fiscal years has been from all sources: 41 June 30th. 1901-2........ 1903.......... 1904.......... 1905.......... 1906.......... 1907.......... 1908.......... 1909.......... 1910................... $ 2,549,161.78 2,648,262.58 2,560,356.33 2,354,813.02 3,320,998.90 2,716,624.00 2,669,748.32 3,051,526.81 3,494,412.57 25,365,904.31 No. XXV1. EDUCATION REPORT, 1906. (Page IX.) Total disbureinments by the United States Government (estimated).................$ 747,234,578 Estimated expenditure by the States........... 130,000,000 Estimated expenditure by minor civil divisions 610,000,000 Total Public Expenditure...........$ 1,487,234,578 Public expenditure for common schools.....$ Expenditure for private elementary and secondary schools (partly estimated)....... Expenditure for universities, colleges and technological schools............... Expenditures for normal schools........... Expenditures for professional schools (partly estimated).......................... Expenditure for schools for the defective classes............................. Expenditure for reform schools........... Expenditure for commercial schools estimated 307,765,659 21,370,309 44,783,326 6,748,924 3,000,000 7,639,503 5,381,189 3,000,000 Total Expenditure for Education.......$ 399,688,910 42. Of the total amount expended for all public purposes by the States, counties, cities, towns, etc., ($740,000,000) over twofifths (41.59 per cent.) was paid, for common schools. 'The growth of this form of public expenditure, in recent years is significant. Since 1870 the increase per capita of population has been from $1.64 to $3.57, or a gain of almost 124 per cent. For each pupil in average attendance the expenditure, has increased from $15.25 to $26.27, a. gain of almost 70 per cent. In the same; time the amount of money invested in school property has in terms of per capita of population increased about 175 per cent. The sources of this incorme for school purposes are to be found mainly in the taxable property of the country. The gross value of this taxable property has,,also increased greatly since 1870, but the per capita increase has not been equal to that of school expenditure. The.average per capita wealth of the nation (in terms of taxable property) in 1870 is given as $624.00, whilel in 1904 it had increased to $1234.00, or an increase of nearly 100 per cent.; but in the meantime the per capita expenditurle for schools had increased 124 per cent. Increased outlay of money is involved in almost every advance, step that is proposed in public education. Better teachers can only be had through the expenditure! of more money for salaries; a, reduction of the number of pupils per teacher in cities means greater outlay; and the development of new types of schools and school facilities alsoi involves increased expenditure. School expenditures per capita of average attendance during 1907-1908 in the United States. was $30.55; NTorth Atlantic Division, $42.88; Western Division, $44.65. 43 DUTY OF THE STATE TO EDUCATE ITS CITIZENS. (From the Educational Review.) The right of the state: to educate is in this country almost. universally admitted. That right rests upon no unsubstantial or visionary foundation. It is implied in the, end for which men have established government. The end of government is to accomplish the objects of organized society. Among the chief objects of organized society are, first, the development of the best powers-intellectual, moral,and physical-of the individual; and second, equality of opportunity in the pursuit of whatever makes life worth living. Universal education is the one essential condition under which these objects may be realized. Without universal education there can not be equality of opportunity for all. 'To proovide, to insure, and to compel universal education is an undertaking far beyond the powers of any authority short of the state itself. As John Stuart Mill argued, because parents are unable or unwilling to, provide the best, education for their children, or being able, and willing to provide education, do. not know what the best edueation is, the statel mustl undertake the work. Without universal education, moreover, no government that rests upon popular action clam long endure. Where the people are sovereign, the people must be schooled in the knowledge and in the virtues upon which free, institutions depend. If for no other reason, public schools are necessary to keep alive the traditions of our history; are necelssary lest we forget the glories of Yorktown and Bunker Hill, the principles of the Ieclaration, and the. memories of Washington and Lincoln. 44 THEu PUBLIC SCHOOL Is A STATE AND NOT A LOCAL, OR MUNICIPAL INSTITUTION. (From the Edaucational Review.) Judge Chester of the Supreme Court of the State of New York handed down a decision on December 4th, 1898, tlhat is of great interest to all students of our educational system. The City of Watervliet has a, population of about twenty-five thousand, and one of those ingeniously bad modern devices known as a bi-partisan school board. Two members of this Board were Republicans and two were Democrats. This Board fixed September 7th as the date for the opening of the schools. During August many attempts were made to, elect a, superintendent of schools, a corps of teachers, janitors, and truant officers, but every proposition brought forward was defeated by a tie vote, cast on party lines. September 7th came and went, and the children of Watervliet were not in school. Matters dragged along in this intelligent and praiseworthy condition until October 1st, when the Mayor of the city took the matter into his hands and, designated teachers to open. the schools. He was promptly enjoined by the Court. Then the matter was carried where it! should have gone long befolre, to State Superintendent Skinner. This officer at once ordelred the Watervliet bolard of education to appoint the necessary number of qualified teachers and to open the schools. These political patronage hunters paid no, attention to, Mr. Skinner, who, straightaway, on October 4th, took charge of the situation himself. He, designated -an ad ineri uperintendent, teachers, janitors and truant officers. On October 5th, the schools opened, and fifteen hundred Watervliet children have, despit.e their worthy board of education, been receiving instruction ever since. One-half of the board of education then asked the Court to enjoin the State Superintendent from pursuing their policy, and as, a result to turn the; children of their neighbors into the streets again until they could carry their political point. The decision of Judge Chester denied the application for an injunction and upheld Superintendent Skinner's action absolutely. In his opinion Judge Chester lays down the incontestable rule that the public school is a state and not a, local, or munici 45 pal, institution. This is a, hard lesson for many school boards, politicians, and newspapers to learn, but it is true nevertheless. Indeed, upon it depend the safety and the very existence of the public schools. In this particular case the local scho6l board, representing not their own whims but the people of the State of New York, refused to do their duty, and a, higher officer, representing those same people of the State of New York, stepped in and did it for them. The Supreme Court has now sustained his action. The case has attracted wide attention, and may have in it the means of at least partially enlightening those reiterant persons who keep up a perpetual clatter about, "home rule" in school administration. 46 THE PUBLIC LANI1D)S A ND i PtUBLIC EDUCATION. In order toi realize the, relation of the public lands of the United States to public education, it m-ay bei well to review briefly some of thel legislation and history of our country. When, in the year 1777, the Continental Congress had framed the "Articles of Confederation," and submitted them to the several States for ratification, six of the thirteen States claimed the ownership of the immense tracts. of unsettled country extending from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi. Massachusetts clainmed a strip of land equal in width to. the width north and south, of the state, based upon the Charter of the, Colony, granted by William and Mary in 1691, which described the lands granted thereby as extending "from the Atlantic or Western Sea and Ocean on the east, to. thel South Sea on the west parte." In this condition of affairs the State of Maaryland, ably represented in the Continental Congress, and, with a State Legislature comlposed of able and eultivated citizens, came to the front and took high and strong grounds against thel claims of all.and each of the States that asserted titles to the lands between the Alleghenies and the Mississippi. First Mfove: for Schools. The first move that was ever made in Congress toward the assertion of national sovereignty over this western country was made by Maryland "that the United States in Congress assemble!d shall have the sole and exclusive right and power to ascertain and fix the western boundary of such States as lay claim to, the Mississippi or South Sea as a western boundary, and (to,) lay out the land beyond the boundary so ascertained into separate and independent State!s, from time to time as the numbers and circumstances of the people may require. The credit of suggesting and successfully urging in Congress that policy which has made this country a great national co.mmonwealth, composed of "free, convenient, and, independent governments," bound together by ties of permanent territorial interest, the credit of originating this policy belongs to Maryland, and to her alone. 47 Grants of Public Lands made, by Congress of the United States, for Public Education, to the Trans-Allegheny States. An ordinance adopted by Congress May 20, 1785, provides for the division of the publie lands into townships of six sections each containing one square mile and numbered, from 1 to 36; and then provides that, "there shall be reserved the Lot No. 16 of every township for maintenance of public schools within said township." This left open the question whether the public schools that, the United States had endowed should be under National or State control. By an Act approved March 3, 1803, Congress disposed of this open question by vesting in the legislature all lands granted, to Ohio for the use of schools 'in trust for the use aforesaid, and for no, other use, intent, or purpose whatsoever." Larger Donations In the enabling acts passed by Congress, as each State west of the Alleghenies wasl admitted into the Union, substantially the same provision was engrafted, until the State of California was admitted. Congress donated for the maintenance of public schools to California, and to each State admitted subsequently up to the present! time, two, sections, No. 16 and No. 36 in each township. The public lands so, granted by the United States for public schools to the several States, beginning with Ohio, are equivalent, therefore, to one thirty-sixth part of the whole area, of each State until the admission of California; and in the cas;e of California, and elach Statel subsequently admitted are; equivalent to! one-eighteenth part of the whole area. of each State, and amount in the aggregate to 67,893,919 acres. Besides, vast quantities of public land have been granted to the Trans-Allegheny States for State universities and for other educational institutions,. Dakota Lands and Schools. By way of example!, the enabling act for the State of South Dakota, and three other statles, passed. by Congress and, approved February 22, 1889, grants public lands to, the State of South Dakota as follows: for the school of miners, 40,000 -acres; for the reform school, 40,000 acres; for the agricultural college, 40, 48 000 acres; for the university, 40,000; for the State normal school, 80,000 acresl; for public buildings at the capital of said State, 50,000 acres; and for such other educational and charitable purposes as the legislature of said State may determine; 170,000 acres-in all, nearly 500,000 acres. Secdtion 11 of same act provides that "all lands herein granted for educational purposes shall be disposed of only at public sale, and at a price not less than ten dollars per acre." (The value of the grants aggregating nearly $5,000,000, besides the lands for common schools.) Want Their Share. The States west of the Alleghenies that have received only one section of land for every township for public schools are very properly moving to, obtain an equivalent for the other section received by the States admitted later, beginning with California. As the result of this general movement, three bills were introduced at the last session of Congress providing for the equitable adjustment of the claims of all the States, to the proceeds of the public lands for public education. There are other States which have received none of the public lands for public schools, -and still other States that have received only one section in every township. It is to be hoped that there will be broughti about through the action of Congress, a, just and fair equalization of the distribution of the public lands still owned by the; United Statesthe common property of all the citizens of the union —for the support, of public schools. After such equalization, or contemporaneously therewith, we arel ready to, join our brethren of all the Staters in favor of the propo.sition of Judge Draper, that the 600,000,000 acres of public lands still undisposed of by the federal government "shall be sacredly devoted to, the cause of education of the massels"-the causle which, Horace Mann declared t.o be the greatest ever proclaimed by man. 49 TFl FIN,\ANCING OF PUBLIC EDUTCATION. (From School Administra'tion by Dutton and Sned den.) Ji,`-,.rpeind1[iture for Education,?. The: United, States, Cormi".m-ssioner of Education estimates in his report, for 1906 (p. ix) that the! various States had spernt, diring the precerding fiscal year, the sumn of Over $307,000,000 on- public eleuentlary and sc-eondary schools. This represents over two-fifths of ialt expenditures for public purposes by state, connties, cities, towns', etc., andl is over 20 per cenlt. of all forms of )llblie expenditure', includling that of the United Stat(:s government. Of tbhis amount, -abonut 3.5 per cent. is derived froul inc me on perntaneint, statel or local funds, 15 per ecut. from state taxation, 7() per cent.. from local (county, town2 o~r district) taxation, antl the reuiainder from. various special sources, usually fines, licens~ei fees, etc. Thei value of school propeirty is given at, $783,000,000. Estlimated, in terms of population, the amount annually raised folr the support, of public education is equ.ivalent, to, 3.67 per capita, or, in terms, of the, number of pupils in average' daly attenlanee, $26.27 per capita. The, value of school property is over' $9 per capitia, of iopulation and. almost $70 per capita of average, attendance. Sjtlea~dy Growth. TIhe, growth of this fo~rml of public expenditure in recent years is significant,. Since, 1-870, the increase per capita of population hasl been from $1.64 tol $3.57, or a gain of almost 124 pelr cent. For ea~eh pupil in aveirage attendance the: expenditure has increaseid from $15.25 to $26.27, a gain of almost 70 per cent,. In the same time the, amount- of money, invested in school propelrty has in terms, of per capita of poplulation increased about, 1t75 per cent. T'ax Property for Schools. The sources of this incomei for school purposes are t~o be found mainly in the, tsaxable property of the countery. The gross value of this taxablei property has, also; inereaselI greatly since 1870,q but the per capita, increase has not, been equal to, that of 50 school expenditure. The average per capita wealth of the nation (in terms of taxable property) in 1870 is given as $624, while in 1904 it had, increased to $1234, or an increase of nearly 100 per cent; but in the meantime the per capita expenditure for schools had increased 124 per cent. Money to Improve. Increased outlay of money is involved in almost every advance step that, is prQposed in public education. Better teachers can only be had through the expenditure of more money for salaries; a reduction of the number of pupils per teacher in cities means greater outlay; the lengthening of the school year in rural districts can bei purchased only through higher local or state taxation; and the development of new types of schools and school facilities also involves increased, expenditure. Otheir matters, like more adequatel supervision, the increase in the size, of the -area of even distribution of school funds so as to, confer larger support, on the poorer regions, and the more extensi've provision, of free text-books and better material facilities for education, can only be purchased through very materially increased financial outlay. EDUCATION A SOCIAI I NVEsSTMENT. The enormous outlay for education already made by thel United States is not always sufficiently regarded as a fo.rm of social investment,. Altogether apart from moral and other considerations, it should be! evident that money wisely spent on education ultimately returns to the commnunity excellent interest. Commissionelr Harris has produced some! figures which tend to show that in Massachusetts the productive capacity of the, averagel individual is considerably greater than in the country at large, and thei inference that this is due to the superior educational facilities enjoyed by the State isl at least tentatively justifiable. It is not always as easy for the community to see the direct: returns that come from money invested in education as in the case of expenditlure for roads or other public improveh ment. Yet in the long run this must ble true, and, it is the funcTion of those; who seek to justify increased public expenditure for schools tol make it clear. In this connection, owing to the 5.1 increasing mobility of population, there is reason to justify the existence of larger taxing units. A small town may not desire to tax itself heavily, for 'example, for industrial education if it finds that its best men steadily drift away to other centres after receiving their training. But for the state at large, or even thei nation, to assume! a part of this burden would be entirely justifiable, since in the larger unit the benefits resulting from heavy outlay would ultimately tend to be felt by those who have paid the taxes, or at least by the community of which they are -a part. 1. SOURCES OF REVENUE IN DIFFERE:NT STATES. Invested Funds. Besides several minor sources, the public schools of the; various States derive their chief revenue! from three directions: income on permanent funds, largelv created bby lands donated to the States by the national government; state, taxation, and taxation in local areas under authorization of Statei law. Of the $322,000,000 raised by the various States in 1905 -1906 for the common schools, 3.6 per cent. came from income on permanent funds, but this amount varied largely among the different States. Nevada derives over 46 per cent.; Texas over 28 per cent., Michigan over 23 per cent., and Wyoming over 21 per cent. of their school revenue from permanent investments; while seven other states (Alabama,. Mississippi, Oklahoma, Minnesota, North Dakota, and Oregon)' derive more than 10 per cent of their income from these sources. Naturally the North Atlantic States have very small invested funds, having had littlei public land, while in the Southern and Western states, where care has been taken of the donations madel bv the National Government, revenues from this source are relatively large. State Taxation. State taxation for school purposes also varies greatly. In some States apparently no provision is made, as Oklahoma, Michigan, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, Wyoming, Colorado, -and Oregon. In other States, like Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Illinois, Minnesota, and Nebraska., the con 52 trihution to, scho~o~l revenues from State taxation is less, than 5 per cent. On the other hand, in nearly all the Southern States this source of revenue is larger, varying from 20 to 70 per cent. California raises over 45 per cent,. of the school revenue hyv various formrys of Sta-te taxation, New Jersey over 30 per cent., Indiana 15 per cent., anid Missouri over 12 per cent. Later discussion. of the various. sources of revenue will shlowNN, that whereas State taxation has the adlvantage over local taxation of relieving the schools from the fluctuations of local suppo)rt, it nvay or may not elqnalize educational opportunity, accordling to the manner of its distrihution within the State. Local School Taxes. Local Taxation, obviously is the! mainstay of public education. But local taxation, too, takes, several foirms. It maya he county taxation, in which case there, may be tendencies towards equalization of educational opportunities within, the; countyor it may bei pnrely local to three town, city, or, disitrict, in which case pbpular opinio-n plays, a, considerable part in dleteerrIInining its amount and in appreciating the results of its expenditure. In New H1 ---ampshire and Massachnsetts over 90 per cent:. of all school reovenue is raisled bhy pnrely local taxation; in Rhode Isilanrd, Ohio,, Illinois, Iowa, Souith Iakota,, Kansa,s, Colorado, Arizona, and Oregon fromnl 80 to 90 per cent. In North Carolina, South Carolina, and Mississippi the amouit so, r~aised is less than 20 per cent,., and besides these only in Geo~rgia, Kentncky, Alabama, Texas,, iMontana, NIevada-, and Washington is it less than 50 per- cent. TOTAL REVENNUE. Bnt thei full significance! of sttate and local taxation can only be appreciated when taken in connection with the; entire relative outlay of the States, for public education. Since totals are quite meaningless unless taken in co-nnection either with popnlation o~r number of children to, be etducatied, we can simuply refer to the comnmissioner's reliolrt for the former, and give the latter in abridgeid form. 53 Taking all the, Stla~tes together, the amonunt raisecd for public education, in 1905-1490( was equivalent, to $12.89 for each person between, five and, eighteen years of age, the ordinary limits of attenidance iii public schools. But, in one State (Nevada) the amount so raised was in excess of $30; while in _Massachusetts, N-j~ew York, Colorrado, and (California it, exceeded $25; ancd; in Noirth l)akota, MNontiana, and Washington it was in excess of $20. But in three States (Ni\orth Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama) this amounts Awas, under $3; while in four others (Georgia, Kentucky, Thssissippi, and Indian Territory) it, was under $4-. In all. the States. of the South Atlantic, and South Central divisions the amount, was under; $10, aveiraging $4.04; wh'lile in all the, N orth Central States it was ofver $10, averaging $14.74; and in all the Statees of the 'Westeirn division, except NeTw Mexico, it was over $12, averaging $21.19. Excepting M~a[ine alnd. New _ If amnpshire, which respectively raised over $1 2 and over $1.4 ~e~r child of from five to eighteen years of age!, no, State of the North Atlantic division raised less than $15 while the average, for this gr onp is $21.50. In other words, if estimtated4 in terms of money raised, the e~ducational olppolrtunities of the; child in the, Western division o~r the: NoTrtlh Atlantic division are from four to, fivei times as good as those of the child of the- Soutth Atlantic or South Cent-ral division. 2. STATE jLEGISLATION RIEGULATING TITE I{ASIENG ANI) ExPENDITURE OF Sen:IooL FUNDS. Varllieties of Financial Lej'islation. In the course of the evolution of the school systems within the various States, legislation in regard to, financial mInatters. hass been varied, and extensive. A considerable part of the co4dified school law, of the States delals with the, raising and disbursements of funds. This legislation mnay be studied under several he~ads,: (a) A primitive stage affecting, schools everywhere is that whi ch perinits or legalizes tbhe action of local communiti es; 54 (b) Legislation fixing maxima,and minima in matters of taxation, representing on the one. hand the desire of the State to protect the local communi'ty, and on the other to hold the latter up to its obligations. Under this head may be studied the legislation which, without specifying the anmount to, be raised, compels the district to provide. certain types of facilities; (c) Laws determining taxing bodies, and locating responsibility; (d) Laws fixing the machinery for the distribution of funds; and (e) Laws controlling form of expenditure, under which head may be studied legal control of bond issules. Permissive Taxation. (a) Long before the State reaches the stage where it, may enforce the establishment of certain types of educational facility, it is importuned to permit progressive communities to tax themselves for the new form of expenditure. An analysis of currentl laws shows; that a wide range is permitted in powers of local taxation; cities arei conceded privileges, in the establishment of evening schools, vocational schools, and playgrounds; country districts are permitted to expend money for the! transportation of pupils,; towns and districts are authorized to supply free text-books; towns of certain size may provide expert supervision; training classes may be established; libraries may be formed; and numerous other kinds of local expenditure become authorized. In many States public secondary schools have first been established by permission extended t;o localities; desiring them. In time the establishment of high schools in certain types of districts may become compulsory, and the last stage is found when all school territory is attached to some high school district and is obliged to contribute' to the support of secondary education. Pre'scriptive Taxation. (b) A second stage is; found where legislation prescribes limits of taxation, or compels the performance of certain functions which involve expense. In many cases the law fixes a rate of State taxation or an amount which the State must raise. 55 Of such.a nature is, the one-mill tax on all property, prescribed by the laws of Virginia, AMinnesota, Maine, and Ohio among others; the two-mill taxes of Illinois, the one-and-a-halfmill tax of Tennessee, and the one-and-oner-tenth mill tax of Indiana, and the two-rriill tax of New Mexico, lirited to salary puirposes. The constitution of Pennsylvaniai fixes the sum of $1,000,000 as the minimum amount which the Assembly must annually levy. North Carolina requires that the State government: appropriate, in addition to; the interest: on regular funds, the sum of $100,000 annually among the counties, and an additional $100,000, '"or so, much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated *annually out of the State treasury for the! purpose of bringing up the constitutional requiremrent of a four months' public school term in each district" which can not otherwise raise enough money for that term. Of this nature, also, is the "sum of $7 for each census child betweien the ages of five and seventeen in the state," which must be raised by a, property tax in California.. For the aid of secondary education California provides a State tax of one and one-half cents on each hundred dollars of valuation, but which, after 1906, shall be "estimated by determining the amount of $15 per pupil in average daily attendance" the preceding year. Prescribed Miniminum Rate. 'The State may impose a, fixed mininum on local conmmunities. In Oregon each county is required to, levy a, tax on,all property of such amount as will raise at least $7 for each person from four to, twenty years old in the! county. In Connecticut towns are, nnder certain conditions, entitled to State assistance, but not until they shall have raised a tax of aat least four mills locally. In California the county must raise such a sum as, added to the State appropriation, will make $550 for each teacher (or group of seventy census children requiring one teacher.) In Nevrada where the; State tax is large (six mills), the county must levy a tax of at least one and one-half mills and not exceeding five mills. 56 In NewN Hampshire "the selectmen of each town shall assess annua~lly upon-i the polls, andi ratable real estate, taxable therein, a sumii to, be coumputed -at the rate of $750 fo~r every (lollar of public taxes apportioned to such town..." ard "the town may raise an amount, exceeding the aforesaid whieh shall be assessed in the same manner." The County BoIard of South Carolina is obligeld to~ levy a tax of three, mills. In Mfaine each town, iust, raise: for school purposes "not, less than eighty cents for each, inhabitant, accord ing to the census," "under penalty of fo-rf eiting' not less than twrice. nor more than four times the amuiouutt of its deficiencv." In Ohioi the. local tax levy may not excexedl twelve mills, "and ii cit y school (listricts shall nIot bc less than six mills." In New York the so-called Davis, law fixes theo rate, for — New York City -at three mills, and special legislation has also provided Philadelphia with a, fixed rate of taxation for school purpo0ses. Prescribed Maxim~um. Tbec fixing of a, rnmaximinm.rate, which local communities may no~t exce,!ed is very common in State laws. Und-oubtedly it has been the experience of somne States, especially wherei district or town meetings are not influential in fixing rateis of tlaxation, that abusles have crept in and extravagance has resulted,. It has alrea,dy been noticeld that, with the; development of legislation in the South following thei Civil War, there was a, strong disposition to, protect, local coimmunities, from the extravagancei of prope"rtyless votelrs. lawss of this nature; are illustrated, by the example of Indiana, which permits town trustees to levy special taxes, "but no, tax shall exceed_ fivei mills on property and one dollar 6n poll"; Ohio, where the, "local tax levy for school pur poses shall not exceedl twelve mills on the dollar"; V'irgiuia, whe~re the, supervisors may levy 'a special schouol tax, but not, to exce~ed(,1 twvo ard a half mills; Utah, where! in regard to, city taxatioi time law provides "that' the tax for the suIpport anld mainteinaue of such schools sihall uot, exceeid. in any one -year six and one-half mills... of which at lelast, thrTe;e mills shnall not; be used otherwise, than for the playrmient of teachers..d.." and in Minnesota, where 5 7 "In common school. district such district school tiax sha~ll noti exceed fifteen mills on the: dolla~r for the suplportl of s;chools, or t~en mills for the purchase, of school sites *andl the erection and the! equipmentl of school bnildings; but, in such districts in which such t~en-m-ill tax produces six huntdred (lollars, a, greater tax may be levied for school sites and buildings, not, to exceed twenty-five mills nor six hundred dco:ll.ars." Basis of Distribution. (d) When the State has funds, to, distribuite for the sm.lp1)ort of schools, or when, similarly, the county (listributes~ money among the towns or (listricts, the method of distribution has a very important bhearing on the! provision of school facillities. Comi-munities vary greatly in their ability to pay taxes as related. to their educational needs. Larbe: cities, for eXamplle, frequently have a high per cazpita wealth, wNlhile rural communities not infurequently have ai small per capita wealth, yet, in the latter the, number of children to, b~e edmcated in proportion to population niay be in e~xess of the formiler. in rural (istricts, even -where, the per capita, wealth may be equal, thel numbers of children may vary considerably, all of whom in each ease, however, can be taught by one teacherr. It costs nearly aas much to! conduct. a school. in a, district, with ten childrren as, in one with forty-five. Fence, if County and State: pay over to districts amnounts,of m-oney pioportional to what they, r~aise., the larger districts. with a low per capita wealth will be at, a, relatively disadvantage, a~s will also districts, witjh lit~tle weaalth -and few children to be educated, who will, howeveir, t~ake thei full tiime, of a telacher. Since the: amiount, of school money raised in. many States by the State, or by the County is large, the methods of distributing this money comte to be of great importancel. First Miethod. The, firs~t method of distribution is that found; in coutnties whefre ehdcational admin istlraftion6 is highly Centmalized, a-nd where; the, goveining boar'd is -a~u.t-f~holrize-d to dist riblbutct! coulnty mnoneys to the districts, according to the; option of such boar-ds. Byv the County School IBoa~rd of Virginia, "the, cou-nt1y school 58 fund shall be apportioned among the several districts of the county, according to, its judgment, having due regard to maintaining as far as practicable, a uniform term throughout -all of the districts," and providing that a term of four months be maintained for all primary and grammar schools before funds may be used for the establishment of schools of a higher grade. The complete control over the schools of the, Louisiana parish (thel equivalent of the county) by the parish board is, in effect, the same as giving that body powers of distributing school moneys at will among the districts, which here have trustees (auxiliary trusteeis) only if the paris'h board deem it desirable. Second Method. The second method of distribution, and one characterizing primitive! educational conditions, is for the State or the County to return to, thel school area exactly its share of taxes relative to its taxablel valuation. In this casei the State, or the County be, comes simply the taxing body, but no districts profit or lose by this centralization. As a rule, this form of distribution belongs to the earlier stages of the developmentl of State funds raised by taxation, though whenever a, change in existing schemes of distributionl is, proposed, there is always considerable pressure on the part of wealthy cities for some form of material recognition of the contention that their larger payments somehow entitle themm t;o larger returns. In Pennsylvania "one-third of (the state money) shall be distributed on the basis of the number of teachers employed, for the full annual term of the district,.... o.ne-third on the basis of thel number of children of school age,....and onethird on the basis of the number of taxables." Thrird Method. A third method of distributing State or County funds is, the very common one of taking as the basis of educational need either total population or school population, the, latter meaning the number of children supposedly in need of schololing. The method of distributing funds -according to total population is little used, largely owing to the greater convenienee and satisfaction of taking the census only of school children and, per 59 haps, owing to a vague. notion that the number of school children is a more reliable basis than total population. If States are tempted to use the national census as a basis, it is found that changes in population take place rapidly in some sections, and the need of a more frequent census becomlels apparent. Hencen in a large number olf States, the so-called school census basis is used in distributing school money to, the, Counties, and frequently by the counties to districts or towns. Sometimes State funds are distributed -among thel Counties on the basis of their school census population and by the Colunties to the districts on the same basis; or the' counties, receiving the State funds, distribute them on some other basis. The school census, basis of apportionment works out pecullar results in the case of the rural district, since the expense of the single teacher to the rural school is, or ought tol be, substantially the same, whether the number of children in the district is large or small, so, long as they can well be taught by one teacher. But where Counties distribute money to! rural districts in proportion to: number' of children, a district with ten children will receive only one-fourth as much as a district with forty children. The consequence is that, within the County, this method of distributing funds fails manifestly to secure equality of educational opportunity. Again, where Counties vary considerably in the relative number of rural districts they contain, the, system of Stat;e distribution among counties, on the census basis, also tends to produce considerable inequalities. The County which has a large number of its children in village schools, obliged to employ not more than one teacher for each forty or fo'rty-five children in attendance, will receive proportionantely to. numbelr of teachers employed a much larger sum than is receive)d by a County with a, large number of its children in rural schools requiring teachers for each group of ten,' fifteen, or' twenty children. Notwithstanding this inequality, all of the North Central States, except, Indiana and Nebraskal, distribute their large State funds, both from State to County and from County to town olr district on the strict; census basis. Thel consolidation of schools, of course, tends to remove the inequality, for, apart from thel small rural school, the census basis of apportionment serves its primary purpose fairly well. 60 To Correct Inequalities. To0 coirrect the inequalities of the school cenisus, method', various devices. are e~mrployeld by a, few States. In Indiana, the State, fund is distributed among the counties on the census basis, but the county auditor, in apportionung this among the cities, to-wns, and towniships "shall ascertain the amount of ( ngressional towuship school revenue belonging to each city, town, or township, and shall ' apportion the other school revennue for tuition to, each city, town, and township according to the enume-ration of children the~rein." TIn Oregon the funds raised in the Counties (there is no State tRa'x) are distributed on tbhe census ba~sis afte~r- a quota of $50 is allowed to each district and $5 for each teachlier who has, at.. teinded, institute. In — N eiraska the Stateo distributes f-und~s to CoIunttiels on cecnsus basis, and within the Counties, after adding -whatever Co-unty school fund is available, the' entirei taunt is distributed, as follows.: "Oneffourthi of the, whole amount to, be distributled equally to, the( several districts in the County, and the remainig threeourths," to be distributed on census basis. The California syst~em provides, for a teacher qu-ota of seventy cen1sus children (oir any number between that and fifteein in rural dcistricts), and the State fund is distributed toi thei counties on the, basis of $250 foir each teacher on the teacher quota ba-sis, and the; rema~inder on thei basis, of average, dlaily attendance during the, preceding year in the various schools of the Statc. Within the county enoiutgh must be raised by local taxation to marke, $5,50 for each teacher quota; after this, is distributed to, the districts, the. recmainider is di'stribunt~ed on basis of average, daily attendance,. Othier Distributionn Schemes. Other base- of distribution are school enrollment or average attendanee, The latter, it will be' noticed, is partly employed in California. Ke~w -an imps-hire provides an "equa-liza'tion- fund" fo~r poorer (listricts, which is distribute d "in. direet proportion to, said average attendance and in invverse proportion to equalized valuation 61 per child (belo-w three thousand dollars)." T'he "State liter~ary fund" of the: same State, is apportionedl among the towns proportionDed to the number of "children of at, least, five years, who have attended nolt less than two wee(ks." In Minnelsootla, both from State to, County and from County tol distriet, funds are, apportioned on thei basis, of school enrollment, hut; no pupil may he counted more thfan oncel, and not unless he has attended school at least forty days in the yve~ar. iBut Mfinnesota, provides, also, some formns of special aid for certain typ~es of districts, including rural schools. Arizona, requires the appropriation of $400 to, each district havving fromin ten to twenty census children, and $500 for each district, htaving nmore than twenty children. In addition, $20 must, be, appropriated for each child in average daily attendance in excess, of tvwentyv-five. T-he constitution of Flo0rida l)rovides, that apportionmient, of State school funds shall be "in proportion to the average attendaince upon such schools.":3. Puonxs O FINANCE IN ANERIcaN EDUCATIION. Several large problems of educational finance are constantlyv claiming the attention. of students of American education. Littie can be done here except, to formulate them and to call att;entioin to certain aspects of nio~re than usual interest. These arc: (a) Possible sources of increased revenue, as education becomes more expensive; (b') The relatrive proportion and kinds of school revenue w.hich various taxing units should produce; (c) The distribution of County funds to. lesser units. KSources of, Increased Revienue. (a) It has already been pointed out, tha,t the expenditure in Aimerican States on education has grown during the last forty years.Irore ra-pidfly than lpopulation, and somewhat more rapidly than per capita w ealth. Not* only is this true of outlay fo r education, but, it is, also true in other chian - nels of public expenditure. In. short, the fields of state and 62 ]ublic action are increasing, as every student, of social condition knows', and the cost of.administration is increasing proportionately. The share of public money demanded, by education, however, is; so, large that the administrator is peculiarly concerned with changes in the system of taxation which make the burdens more easily borne. So far, the taxation, of private property has been the chief source of revenue of American States and localities. In the Southern States a variety of fines, licenses, and poll taxes, have contributed to the support of schools. Inheritance taxes have been made considerable sources of revenue in some cases. Special tax commissions in New York and Pennsylvania, hae wrought extensive changes to the extent, at: least, of largely relieving real property from the burden of State taxation. It is the belief of many students that some foirms of indirect taxation like corporation and franchise taxes, should be developed within all the States, for the sake of taking from. real property, to somYe extent, the burdens now put upon it. This may be of greater importance in proportion as, the State assumes a larger share in the raising of the school revenue as it will undoubtedly tend to do in time. Territorial Distribution of ITax Burdens. (b) The advantage of large over small units of taxation are two,: (a) giving greater unifocrmity and stability to. the supply of revenue; and (b) the equalization of educational opportunities throughout the larger unit; irrespective of local ability to pay taxes, by distributing revenues in proportion to educational needs. But in all discussions of the expediency and social soundness of raising school money in larger units, it has seldom been urged that the local community should be entirely relieved of responsibility. At present this is only possible, -and that not uniformly, in some of the Southern States with Co;unty school administration as the chief solurce of authority. Except for certain forms of higher education, the National government does not serve as. a, taxing body for school purposes, but. it has been shown that the relative per capita. valuation of different States varies greatly, and at times it has been claimed that a 63 National fund, should be provided to aid those States which, like the Southern States after the Civil War, have been abso]utely too poor to provide good educational facilities. In other words, if for the good of the commonwealth the State should tax-' itself and distribute the revenues with reference to local needs, so, it is argued, should the Nation, which is only a. larger expression of the State. This question assumes new interest with the growing demands for industrial education and the increasing mobility of labor, since States will, possibly like smaller localities, developincreasing reluctance to tax themselves for the support of ex pensive forms of industrial educat.ion if they see the trained men and women, results of that training, drift regularly away to other States. State Institutions. Notice must be taken of the fact that many new types of education at once make demands upon the State asi a whole. State universities, normal schools, State schools for depenennt, delinquent, and defective children, and State industrial schools come within this category. Of necessity the entire State becomes the taxing unit for their support. Tendencies. Undoubtedly, as the cost of education increases, much of the expense will be borne by the larger rather than the smaller units. The National government; now supports varieties of *agricultural and mechanic arts education; it is being asked to develop local agricultural schools of a secondary grade, and to provide for the training of teachers of agricultural arts and science. The actual contributio'ns of the various States increase, and the development of County control and township and consolidated districts means, the enlargement of the taxing unit. This seems inevitable, in view of these facts: (a) the more satisfactory administration of fiscal matters in the larger unit; (b) the increasing mobility of populations, causing the larger rather than the local units to experience the benefits of education; and (c) the increasing heterogeneousness of the community 'as regards the distribution of wealth, which, coupled with the growing tendency to appreciate the obligation of 64 the State to offer equal educational opportunities to all, makes only the larger unit feasible. But no systeem whieh fails to, put. also, a premiumn on purely loal effort will finally suffiee. In many eases it may be that responsibility for material equipment of buildings and furniture and cost; of plant; maintenance will be sufficient burden; but even this the State will have the right to bring up to, effective standards. (c) The Basis of the Distribution, of State Funds to localities and of county or township funds to schools has always been a problem of importance. Especially where the relative amounts raised by the State and Colunty are large, does it become of supreme importance to sop disburse this as to produce the nmaximum of educational result. We have already seen examrples of the primitive tendency to have localities receive back from the State an amount proportioned t;o the atmounts they have paid in, taxes. Since this takes no account of local educational need, and, in fact, gives the largest returns tol the localities able to raise the largest ]ocal tax, it has been recognized as out of harmony with the working of a true State system of education. In the great majority of States it has been replaced by the census, or average,attenlance, or gross attendance, basis of distribution. The plan of distributing money according to the number of children, whether in the area or actually in school, has proven fairly acceptable except., as has been noted, in the case of the varying sized rural districts each of which requires one teacher. Various attempts to, adjust thls have been made of which the California system is probably the most effective. But there is a widespread, feeling among educators and others that tlhe State should, use its funds not mrerely to equalize educational opportunities, but also tol stimulate local effort. We have already noted that the enrollment, basis, or the average atr tendance basis tends to put a premium on attendance at school, as does the Florida system of giving additional aid tol schools mlaking eighty per cent. of average daily attendance. The Washingt;on system- of distributing money on aggregate attendance stimul a;tes l.ength of attendance and length of term. But all of these affect, only certain factors of educational well-being. 65 From the standpoint of the State, educational excellence, as found in any community, is a very complex thing. It is made up partly of the relative number of children who can be induced to come to school, and of the regularity and persistency of that attendance, and of the length of school year maintained. Educational Factors. But other factors enter in: the grade of certificate held by the teacher, the salary paid, the stability of the teacher's position, the character of supervision, the number of teachers in relation to! the number of pupils, the length of the school day, the character of the school building and material equipment, the degree to which consolidation and transportation replace the isolated district, the excellence of the upper grade work, the character of the text-books supplied, and many other elements. Furthermore, the progressiveness of the locality in providing educational facilities' of a modern kind, as instruction in agriculture, manual training, domestic work, and the like, may seem to deserve not merely recognition but aid. State Inspection. It would seem that., owing to the many factors. which enter into the making of an effective school system, and the difficulty of providing for these by general legislation, it will prove difficult to utilize the distribution of funds, as. a. means of raising educational standards, without the development of a State system of inspection. This, at present, is in its infancy so far as our non-urban education is concerned. It may be that beginnings of inspection, provided in Massachusetts, New York, Wisconsin, and Minnesota (where a provision. has lately been made for.a special inspector of rural schools), indicate further developments in this field. Certainly existing systems of inspection by locally elected officials are insufficient to, meet this need. Definite legal provisions providing for the encouragement of local effort soon reach their limit. Fixing the minimum of taxation to, be met before State aid can be rendered, or the term of school to be supplied locally, or even the salaries and the number of teachers, can only bring pressure to- bear on the poorest districts and counties. State aid for special features of excellence, as the provision of new forms of education, 66 the decrease in relative number of pupils per teacher, the increase in the salaries of teachers, and the provision of supervision can only be effective with close inspection from without. To leave the form of distribution to the discretion of officials as in townships and some Southern counties, is not possible in the larger areas, without systematic and professional inspection. RPEFERENCES: Black, S. T. The California System of School Maintenance, Proc., N. E. A., 1897:505.-Bowman, IH. M. The Administration of Iowa. New York 1903.-Buffum, H. S. Federal and State Aid to Education in Iowa (University of Iowa). -Cubberly, E. P. School Funds and Their Apportionment. New York, 1905.-Dyke, C. B. The Economic Aspects of 'Teachers' Salaries. New York,-Eliot, C. W. More Money for the Public Schools. New York, 1904.-Elliot, E. C. Some Fiscal Aspects of Education. New York, 1905.-Fellow, H. C. A Study of School Supervision and Maintenance. Topeka, 1896.-Harris, W. T. The Political Economy of School Finances, Ed. R:ev. 29:486.-Jones, D. R. State Aid to Secondary Schools. Berkeley, 1903.-Lane, A. G. Taxation and Teachers' Salaries, Proe. N. E. A. 1902:323.-Mayo, A. D. Original Establishment of Public School Funds. U. S. Com. of Ed. Rep. 1894-1895:1513.-Prince, John T. Sehool Administration, Appendix D. Syracuse, 1906.-Rawles, W. A. Centralizing Tendencies in Indiana. New York, 1903.Rowe, L. S. Educational Finances, Ann. of Am. 14:186.Schaeffer, N. Taxation for School Purposes, Proc. N. E. A. 1902:314.-Seaver, Ed. P. Expenditure for Public Schools, Ed. Rev. 25:475.-Strayer, Geo. D. City School Expenditure. New York, 1905.-Swain, J. State Aid to Higher Education, Proc. N. E. A. 1900:457.-Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in Educational Administration. New York, 1897. (See also Ed. Rev. 13:23, 134.) Corn. of Ed,. The Justification of the Public High School, Rep. 1900:629.-N. E. A. Report of Corn. on Taxation -as related to Public Education. Chicago, 1905. 67 VIMETHOD OF TAXATION FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES IN INDIANA. In respect to use, taxes for school purposes in Indiana, are of two kinds tuition school tax and special school tax. The former yields a fund that can be used only to pay licensed teachers for teaching; the latter for all other purposes for which school expenditures, are made, including the erection of buildings, payment of superintendents of schools, special teachers, etc. If any considerable sum remains in the special fund at the close of the school year it is transferred, to the tuition fund. If there is a balance in the tuition fund it can not be transferred to any other fund, but must be used to pay teachers' salaries. The balance may be carried over to the next year, but this balance is never large. M2ETHOD OF LEVYING SPECIAL SCHOOL TAX. In all towns and in all cities except Indianapolis, the school boards, consisting of three members, levy the special tax. In amount it varies from nothing to 50 cents on the $100 of assessed valuation of property, and not to, exceed 25' cents on each poll. (The property is usally assessed at about two-thirds its actual value. Poll tax is levied on males between the ages of twenty-one and, fifty.) In townships, the levy is made by the township trustee, and must be approved by the township council, which consists of three members. Indianapolis; is governed by special charter and the school commissioners, five in number, levy a certain amount for all school purposes not: to exceed 57 cents on the $100, which can be expended for school purposes as the commissioners direct. The special tax is always expended in the corporation (town or city) in: which it is levied. MiEANS OF SUPPLEMENTING THE SPECIAL SCHOOL FUND. There are only three ways of supplementing the -amount raised by direct taxation for special school purposes: (a) Sale of property owned by the school corporation. (b) Temporary loans made by school boards or township 68 trustees. Such loans can be made for only small amounts and for a short time. The legality of such loans has never been passed upon by the supreme court. (c) Sale of township, town, or city bonds. Such bonds are issued by the township trustee and approved by the township council in the case of townships, and by the town trusteesi or by the mayor and common council of cities. In no case are school boards authorized to issue bonds. The special funds derived, from the sale of such bonds are used for some specific purpose-usually the purchase of school sites and the erection and equipment of school buildings. SOURCES OF TUITION R1EVENUE. There are two sources of revenue that may be used for tuition purposes-state and local. 1. State revenues. There are four items that go, to make up the state school revenue, as follows: (a) A school tax of 11 cents on the $100 of taxable property of the state. (ib) Interest on common school fund loans paid by borrowers. The constitution of 1851 provided that certain funds and revenues and all fines and forfeitures should go to this fund, the principal of which is kept inviolated, the interest only being used for school purposes. This fund is apportioned.among the different counties and loaned at 6 per cent. interest on first mortgages on real estate. (c) Interest on the Congressional fund. In 1903 this amounted to $144,981.53. At the time Indiana was organized as a State, Congress appropriated the sixteenth section of land in each Congressional township for school purposes. By an act of Congress passed in 1828, the State was authorized to sell these lands and to create a. trust fund to be loaned for the benefit, of the schools. Most of these lands; were sold, when the lands were very cheap. As a result, the Congressional fund amounts to only $2,465,983.65. In a very few instances the lands have been kept, and now the income is almost sufficient to support the schools in those localities. Other States. who have school lands should see to, it that they are kept; and properly managed for the benefit of the schools. 69 (d) A special tax of three-eighths of a cent on the $100 for the benefit of school corporations which are now unable to, pay the minimum wages to teachers and to maintain schools for the minimum term, six months. 2. Local tuition. The State funds are inadequate to -pay teachers' salaries, so the law provides for raising funds locally, to supplement those provided, by the State. There are four different ways in which money is raised locally for tuition purposes, as follows: (a) Local tuition tax. This tax varies from nothing to 50 cents on the $100 of taxable property, and from nothing to 25 cents on each poll. (b) Surplus dog fund. (c) Revenue derived from liquor license tax. (d) Local tuition. EXCELLENCY OF THE INDIANA SYSTEM OF SCHOOL SUPPORT. The Indiana, system of school support isi accepted by educational experts as one of the very best that has! ever been invented. The fact that the levying of taxes for school purposes is intrusted to, the school officers who are responsible for the management of the schools, and who know most; about them, is unique and can not easily be improved upon. School sys. tem in other States that must depend upon city councils or other officers not in touch with the schools to provide support for them are decidedly handicapped. If the people elect good officers to administer their school affairs they will usually have good schools. 70 EDUCATION IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. Brief Historical Outline. "Although the early explorers put forth some efforts to enlighten the Hawaiian in the learning of the civilized, world it remained for the missionaries of the Cross tol reduce their language to written form and, to introduce a, system of schools. established for the purpose of teaching the common school branches as generally understood." In 1825, a system of public schools was established in Hawaii and lasted folr about ten years. The pupils of the schools were adults rather than children and consisted of the big chiefs with their immediate attendants. Each chief sent the best scholars of his attendants to the lands, under his. control with an order for his tenantsi to attend, school. It is recorded thatl almost the whole population of both sexes and all ages, went to school. These primitive schools at the time of their highest prosperity reached the number of 900, and were tol be found in nearly every district; of the grolup. The day was two hours long and the teacher was provided with a home, food and clothing by the head man of the village. This is a remarkable instance of a body of despotic rulers' (themselves educated.) exerting themselves for the education of their subjects. In 1841, the king and his chiefs in council enacted the first school laws in the history of the HIawaiian group. These laws provided school agents for each island and for the election of a school committee who, in consultation with the school agent, arranged for the appointment and support, of the teacher, and construction of school, buildings. A general superintendent visited each islandiand inspected the various schools. Attendance -at school was made compulsory on all. children between the ages of 4 to 14. In 1843, a department; of public instruction was organized under the charge of a minister of the crown, whose duty it was to organize the schools of the islands in accordance with the written laws, to instruct the school agents, to, hold public examinations, to make reports to, the Legislature and in every way 71 to promote the efficiency of the schools. This position was first filled by Mr. F. Richards, at whose death, in 1847, it was conferred upon Mr. Armstrong. In 1855, the department was remodeled and placed under the Board of Education, whose president had the same duties as those formerly imposed upon the Minister of Public Instructionl. This board regulated all the educational affairs of the kingdom. It prescribed the studies used in the schools, it appointed the teachers, it expended all moneys available from legislative appropriations, rents of school lands, interest of school funds and other sources. The islands were divided up into twenty-three school districts each in charge of a school agent who, had charge of the local school fund of his district; upon' proper representation the board supplemented the local fund from the general fund,. The agent had charge of all school property in his district. Up to, the year 1894, the school tax of each district was expended in the districts in which it was collected. After that year the law was changed and the school tax was absorbed into the general treasury. Up tol the time of this change in financial management the school agent of each district, under bonds, took charge of the school fund of his district. He administered the fund under the guidance of the Board of Education. Ile could not; spend it as he saw fit; he could only spend money under authorization. In many cases, in fact in most cases, the school tax of the district, did not suffice to pay the salaries of the teachers in that district, and as soon as the tax was exhausted the general fund for support of schools voted by the ITegislatuLre was drawn upon. In 1896-English was made by law the medium of instruction in all public schools of Hawaii. Since 1900, ---The powers of the school agent have been gradually taken away, until the last session of the Legislature failed to make any appropriation and thus. practically abolished the office. At present the duties of the school agent -are performed by the principals and Commissioner of Education in the respective districts. Under the present organization the counties have the construction of new buildings, repairs and maintenance of build 72 ings and grounds, furniture and fixtures and janitor service. This expenditure is met by the setting apart of Territorial revenue to be expended by the counties. The other expenditures for the support of schools are met; by the Territorial share of the revenues. 73 HAWAII. PUBLIC LA NDS AND PUBLIC EDUCATION IN HAWAII. By an Act passed July 9, 1850, it was enacted that about "One-twentieth part of all the lands then belonging to, the Governmentl should be set apart folr the general purposes of Ed,ueation." On the 23rd of the following December, certain lands and school sites were designated and set apart by the Privy Council for these purposes. At, the Privy Council of December 23, 1850, the following Resolution was, adopted. Vol. IV, p. 143-5. RESOLVED that in accordance with section firstl of the late Sehool Act to provide for the better support and greater efficiency of the public schools, the following lands be and are hereby appropriated for the general purpose of education on the Islands, to be disposed of as provided in said Act, viz: ON THE ISLAND OF HAWAII. Lands. Hianaloli 1....................... Kona Hawaii Hianaloli 2..................... Kona Hawaii Auhaukeae....................... Kona Hawaii Kahului (whatever remaining)....... Kona Hawaii Kiloanui.............Kona Hawaii Kiloa iki..... Sold to...... Koana Hawaii K'auahia...... Capt....... Kona H1awaii Waipunaula 1. Cummings....... Kona Hawaii Waipunaula iki..... Kona Hawaii Kalama......................... Kona, Hawaii Kahuku (sold C. C. H.)..............K.au Hawaii Nanawale................... Puna Hawaii Mokuhona.u..................... Hilol Hawaii Papaa...................... Hilo Hawaii One-half Kauhiula,.................... Hilo Hawaii Kauhiula...................... ilo Hawaii Waialaeale (sold to Mlr. Parker..... Hamakua, Hawaii Puanui (sold to Mr, Parker)......... Hamakua Hawaii 74 Waikoloa (sold to Mr. Parker)....... Hamakua Hawaii Puopaha (sold to Mr. Parker)........ Hamakua Hawaii Puopaha (sold by Lyons)..............Hamakua Hawaii Keaa, first and second............... I amakua Hawaii Pualoalo (all sold by Bond)........... Kohala Hawaii Apuakohau....................... Kohala Hawaii Kekiki.................... Kohala Hawaii IMATI. Waikapu (whole)..................Waikapu Maui Hamakuapoko..................... Honuaula Maui Kahana, first and second................Kaanapali Maui Mahinahina, first and, second.......... Kaanapali fMaui MOLOKAI. Lfpehu.......................... Kona Molokai Onoiulimaloo.........................Kona Molokai Onouliwai.......o.............. ona Molokai AMoanui......K............ Eona ] iMolokai Manowainui......................Kalea Molokai Kipu............................ Kalea lMolokai OAHU. Twenty-five Kalol patches to be selected from the Fort Lands near Honolulu. Kapano........................... Koolauloa, Oahu W aimea.............................W aialua Oahu One-half Wahiawa (remainder)......Waialua Oahu KAUAI. Koula, Ili no Hanaepep...............Kona Kauai Moloaa, H. A. W. sold............... Kona Koolau Papaa, H. A. W. sold..................Kona Koolau Alioimanu, H. A. W. sold............. Kona Koolau And all lands now occupied by the Government Schools and known as having been appropriated to their use either by Individual Chiefs or by the Government. 75 By the third section of the above mentioned Act,, the Minister of Public Instruetion was authorized to "dispose by sale, lease, or otherwise of any of the lands which have been or hereafter may be set apart, for the general purposes of Education." The same authority is given to the Board of Education by section 749 of the Civil Code, which was re-enacted in Section 23rd of the Act approved January 10, 1865, "To regulate the Bureau of Public Instruction," (Laws of 1864-65, p. 45). Under this authority most of the School lands have been sold in the same manner as other Government lands, and Royal Patents or "Grants," signed, by the King and countersigned by the Minister of the Interior have been issued to the grantee, as is expressly provided in the Act approved August 13, 1880. Thle sales of Government lands have always been made by metes and bounds, and the original surveys and plans placed on file, except in the case of certain Ahupuaa,s sold by the Board of Education, for which Grants by name have been issued. The total number of Grants issued before January 1, 1882, was 3,312. It may be added here that "All fishing grounds appertaining to any Government land, or otherwise belonging to the Government, excepting only ponds," were granted to, the people for the free and equal use of all persons," Miay 15, 1851. (Laws of 1.851, p. 23.) The same privilege is confirmed by Section 384 of the Civil Code. HAWAII SCHOOL REVENUE-1850-1896. Besides the school tax and tuition fees, there was set apart for educational purposes in 1850 one-twentieth of all the government lands not; appropriated at that time and the Minister of Public Instruction was authorized to, "dispose by sale, lease, or otherwise, of any of the lands which have been or hereafter may be set apart for the general purposes of Education." And the fund thus created gradually increased as, shown below: 76 1852 amount realized was.....$ 6,813.75 1853 amount increased tol..... 10,839.26 1855 amount increased to..... 19,147.04 1858 amount increased to...... 32,511.00 1860 amount increased to...... 35,040.51 1862 amount, decreased to......26,634.85 1866 amount increased to....... 26,732.38 1868 amount increased to...... 29,379.38 1876 amount increased to..... 44,600.00 1884 amount decreased to..... 37,100.00 1888 amount increased to..... 46,100.00 1897 amount decreased to..... 14,100.00 * (Land sold reclaimed.) (By Act 22 and 23 of Aug. 12, 1895, the Legislature authorized the delivery and cancellation of $32,000 in Hawaiian Government Bonds for purchase of Keaua Hale.) 77 POINT OF VIEW OF HAWAIIAN COMMISSIONERS ON EDUCATION OF ALIENS. —1899. During the period, several important matters touching general policies and principles of the Department have been under discussion, with the result that they have been more clearly defined. First in importance among these fundamental principles is that all classes, whether citizen or alien, are entitled, without condition, equally and alike to the benefits of state education: a principle that contemplates a single system of schools, with equal privileges, open and accessible to all. The fairness of this principle depends naturally upon its acceptability in the community, that is, upon an equal capacity in all for its enjoyment. As yet it can not be said to be generally acceptable. Such obstacles exist as the antipathy between nationalities and the inbred experience of the dominant race, obstacles which may be grouped under the head of lack of disposition to. allow the general application of the principle. Other obstacles exist which may be ascribed to present conditions, such as the heterogeneous character of the population, and the differences of languages. The general application of the principle is becoming, however, more and more acceptable in both senses of the word. In the future it is to be hoped that those obstacles which arise from lack of disposition may be steadily set aside and those obstacles arising from present conditions may become constantly diminishing necessities. Consistently with this policy the following action was taken on Thursday, May 18, 1899, in. regard to, tuition fees in Select Schools.* - * *xThe removal of the fee has not in any manner affected the standard or character of the select schools. The educational system of these Islands has benefited thereby. All our schools are now free public schools. The necessity of nationalizing the diverse components of our community through the medium of our schools has also found expression during the period. English was made by law in 1896 the medium of instruction in all government schools; 78 and as a further factor in the application of this principle, which is of vital interest to the State as well as to the cause of education, English during the present period has been recognized as a measure of qualification in promotion. The solution of this problem of nationalization has been suggested in the expedient of educating a part of our alien population, the part most amenable to education to act as a, barrier against the rest. The tendency arises, however, to make this a policy and not a part of.a policy; not a means to 'an end, but the end itself. Good government policy dictates the general education of all classes, and more particularly those classes most in need of ecrucation. All classes should be brought to an equal realiziation of their duties to each other and to the State. The State is Anglo-Saxon and its institutions must be Anglo-Saxon all through. As has been well stated by Mr. Dressier, the security of the State is to be found in the intermingling of children in the schools common to all. The attitude of the Commissioners on this question was clearly defined in their refusal of an application to allow certain Japanese children to be dismissed from the public schools two hours before closing in order that such children might attend a Japanese school. The application was refused on a technicality, but the discussion brought out and defined the policy. 79 "THE DAVIS BILL. The following is the speech of the Hon. Charles R. Davis, Representative from Minnesota, in which he outlines the different provisions of the Davis Bill: TECHNICAL SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE, MECHANIC ARTS, AND HOME ECONOMICS. SPEECH of HON. CHARLES R. DAVIS of Minnesota, IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, Saturday, March 2, 1907. SUNDRY CIVIL APPROPRIATION BILL. Mr. DAVIS of Minnesota. Mr. Speaker, I have introduced, during this session of Congress, a certain bill which I deem, if enacted into law, one of the greatest importance to all of the people of the United States, and I feel confident that when its provisions are fully understood by the Congress it will almost unanimously meet its -approval. During this short session, owing to the vast amount of other business which has engrossed attention, little opportunity has been given for consideration of this measure; and my purpose at this time in addressing myself, as I shall, to the provisions of this bill is that the Congress and the country at large may in the interim consider it and, be prepared to place a just estimate upon it, and that we may, during the first session of the Sixtieth Congress, act accordingly. The bill as introduced is known as H. R. 24575, and entitled "A bill to provide an annual appropriation for industrial education in agricultural high schools and in city high schools and for branch agricultural experiment stations, and regulating the expenditures thereof." Speeifically its language is as follows: This has lately been somewhat amended and is now known as the Dolliver-Davis Bill. 80 Be it enacted, etc., That there shall be, and hereby is, an- nually appropriated,, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be p'aid, as hereinafter provided, to each State and Territory for the maintenance of instruction in agriculture and home economics in agricultural high schools of secondary grade and instruction in mechanic arts and home economics in city high schools of secondary grade, a sum of money equal to 10 cents per capita of the population of each State and Territory, respectively, as shown by the last preceding national or State census, as shall be apportioned by the Secretary of Agriculture and estimated for in the annual estimates submitted to Congress for the Department of Agriculture: Provided, That the funds thus appropriated shall be used for instruction in agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics, and that all States and Territories and all schools,accepting these funds shall provide other funds with which to pay the cost. of providing the necessary lands and, buildings and of instruction in all general studies required to make well-rounded high school courses of study: And provided further, That not less than one-half of the sum thus *appropriated to, any State or Territory shall be expended for instruction in agriculture and home economics in agricultural high schools maintained under State authority in rural communities, and the number of such agricultural high schools which shall be entitled to receive the benefits of this act in any one State or Territory shall not, exceed one school for each ten counties in that State or Territory. Sec. 2. That there shall be, and hereby is, annually appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be paid, as hereinafter provided, to each State and Territory for the maintenance of branch agricultural experiment stations under the direction of the State agricultural experiment stations now established or which may hereafter be established in accordance with the act of Congress approved March 7, 1862, the sum of $2,500 for each branch experiment station already established by legislative enactment of the respective States and Territolries, or which shall be established by said States or Territories in connection with agricultural high schools as appropriated for by this, act: Provided, That no State or Territory shall be entitled 'to the benefits of section 81 2 of this act until its. legislature shall by law provide for the establishment of such branch stations and shall provide annually for the equipment and maintenance of such branch stations a sum at least equivalent to that appropriated annually to the State or Territory under section 2 of this act; and the sum paid to each State or Territory under section 2 of this act shall be applied only to paying the necessary expenses of conducting at such branch experiment stations experiments bearing directly upon the agricultural industry of the United States, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs of the respective States or Territories and the respective agricultural regionsi therein. Sec. 3. That the sums hereby appropriated to the States and Territories for the maintenance of branch agricultural experiment stations and for instruction in agriculture, mechanic arts, and, home economics shall be annually paid, onehalf on the 1st, day of July of each year and one-half on the 1st day of January of each year, by the Secretary of the Treasury, upon the warrant of the Secretary of Agriculture, out of the Treasury of the United States, to the treasurer or other officer duly.appointed by the governing boards of siaid experiment stations and schools to receive the same, and such, officers shall be required to report to, the Secretary of Agriculture on olr before the 1st day of September of each year a detailed statment of the amounts so received during the previous year and of its disbursement on schedules prepared by the Secretary of Agriculture. The grants olf money authorized by this act are made subject to legislative assent, of the several States and Territories to the purpose of said grants. Sec. 4. That if any portion of these moneys received by the designated officers of any State or Territory for the maintenance of instructioln in agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics or for the maintenance of branch experiment stations as provided in this act shall by any action or contingency be dismissed, or lost or be misapplied, it shall be replaced by said State or Territory concerned, and until so replaced no subsequent appropriation shall be apportioned or paid to1 such State or Territolry: Provided, That no portion of said moneys shall be applied directly or indirectly under any pretense what 82 ever to the purchase or erection of any building or buildings or to the purchase or rental of lands. Sec. 5. That it shall be the duty of each of said city high schools, agricultural high schools, and branch experiment stations annually, on or before the 1st day of February, to. make to the governor of the State or Territory in which it is located a full and detailed report of its operations, including a statement of receipts and expenditures, a copy of which report shall be sent to each of said agricultural high schools, city high schools, and branch experiment stations, to the Secretary of Agriculture, and to the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, said reports to be made on blanks to be supplied by the Secretary of Agriculture. Slee. 6. That on or before the 1st day of July in each year after the passage of this act the Secretary of Agriculture shall certify to the Secretary of the Treasury as to each State and Territory whether it has complied with the provisions of this act and is entitled to receive its share of the allotment herein provided for branch experiment stations, for agricultural high schools, and for city high schools under this act and the amount thereupon which it is entitled to receive. If the Secretary of Agriculture shall withhold a, certificate from any State or Territolry for the whole or part of its appropriation, the facts and reasons; therefolr shall be reported to, the President and the amount involved shall be kept separately in the Treasury until the close of the next Congress in order that the State or Territory may, if it shall so desire, appeal to Congress from the determination of the Secretary of Agriculture. If the next Congress shall not direct such sum to, be paid, it shall be covered into, the Treasury, and the Secretary of Agriculture is hereby charged with the proper administration of this law. Sec. 7. That the Secretary of Agriculture shall make an annual report to. Congress on the receipts and expenditures and on the work of the agricultural high schools, city high schools, and branch.agricultural experiment stations in all of the States and Territories to which allotments are made, and also whether the appropriation of any State or Territory has been withheld, and, if so, the reasons therefor. 83 Sec. 8. That Congress may at any time amend, suspend, or repeal any or all the provisions of this act. A Federal appropriation is sought for the purpose of encouraging the several States and Territories in the promotion of industrial and agricultural education, and with their cooperation. It is mainly for the purpose of encouraging a type of education for the mass of our people that will train them for the practical affairs of life; and while the Morrill Act of 1862 has undoubtedly stimulated great activity along this line, the present measure supplants it andl to a large extent will consummate the purpose desired. The science of agriculture is basic in principle, and sooner or later we should return to, first principles, and in the last analysis we must recur to the soil as the fundamental source of our wealth, prosperity, and happiness as a people. The practical training to (be obtained, if this bill becomes a law, for the young men and women on the farm will undoubtedly make country life more attractive and beneficial, and the industrial training sought to be encouraged in city schools add, very materially to the prosperity and happiness of all those who will avail themselves of the opportunities thus provided. The measure therefore responds to the needs of both rural and city conditions. This bill is designed especially to secure simple justice to the workers and home makers of our country. We have too long confined technical education to the professional classes. Let us carry out the wise plan by Congress in 1862-the landgrant act establishing colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts -and provide, along with general schooling, industrial education, not only to the privileged 5 per cent., but also, to the 95 per cent. who,,are doing the world's work. The increase of knowledge, the specialization of industries, and the close division of labor have made a new world, into which the graduates of our schools are precipitated. The old education leads the pupil to believe that he is prepared for life. His preparation is only general. The new education must prepare the pupil for some specific line of life. It must be both broad and practical. It must combine the theme written in the book, the theme written in the soil and in the machinery, with the inspiration for the best living which modern conditions can provide. 84 The Congress of the United States and other legislative bodies in the world ere long will have spent more than $100,000,000 in agricultural research. Along other lines much greater sums are being expended in university laboratories, in laboratories supported by our great industrial organizations, and in private laboratories devoted to research and inventions. The utility results of science have gained recognition in agriculture, in the non-agricultural industries, and in home making. The much enlarged body of knowledge rapidly becoming available in all vocations has made necessary such organization of our school system that the rising generation may have the key to this new knowledge. The old forms of education, which have so wonderfully aided in bringing forward our civilization, must be rearranged, that the curriculum of our schools may be broadened and enriched with this rapidly accummulating new knowledge. We shall soon have about 90,000,000 of people in this country, one-third of whom, or 30,000,000, will be of school agebetween 5 and 20 years-and entitled to school privileges. The Twelfth Census, using round! numbers, showed that one-half the persons of school age attended school in 1900, and, thus we may calculate that we shall soon have 15,000,000 pupils in schools. Since practically one-third of our population is engaged in agriculture and two-thirds in nonagricultural pursuits, we may roughly say that we shall have 5,000,000 pupils preparing for country life and 10,000,000 preparing for city life. Since three teachers are required for each 100 pupils, we shall need 150,000 teachers in country-life education and 300,000 teachers for schools leading to, city life, or -a total of 450,000 teachers. With the material increase in the numbers of pupils taking secondary and higher courses of study, we may hope to have 7 per cent. of American youth entering high school of secondary grade, and of these 2 per cent. entering higher institutions of collegiate grade; but the great educational problem will remain-the training of the 93 per cent. who will stop with the primary city school and the primary rural school. As our schools are improved in their general educational work and in their efficiency to. aid the pupil to, make a good living, we may expect to, increase the proportion of children attending school. Since the teachers in the primary schools are mainly 85 trained for their work in the secondary schools, the most important means fo'r improving the primary schools is better to provide for the preparation of their teachers. Our high schools have three important functions, viz: (1) To give to a large number of people a better education that individually their success may be greater; (2) to place among the people of the country a large number of trained workers wholse success, example, and help will enable all people with whom they a,ssociate to become more efficient and more successful, and (3) to prepare the necessary teachers to, conduct the primary schools in the most efficient manner possible. Our educators, farmers, professional, and business classes are of one mind in a, desire that the evolution of our school system shall be directed into, lines which shall carry t.o all the people our accumulating technical knowledge 'and thus add efficiency to our workers. When our population reaches 90,000,000, we shall have engaged in gainful occupations 33,000,000 of people. Of the latter at least 30,000,000 wVill be interested in agriculture and mechanic arts education. and at least, another 25,000,000 in home economics education. At $1 a day the industrial and home-making value of these 55,000,000 people, counting 300 days as a, year, is $16,500,000,000. It would seem easy by sharply turning our school system somewhat more toward technical instruction to, increase the economic efficiency of our workers 1 per cent., or $165,000,000 annually. This bill proposes to devote $8,000,000 to this purpose. In 1862, the Congress of the United, States ventured upon an experiment by providing for the establishment in each State of a college devoted to agriculture and the mechanic arts. Out of this a,ction has grown not, a, theory, but, a condition. The situation demands that we utilize the results of these experiments and the new knowledge thus secured. The knowledge is of more value than any dozen mechanical inventions ever devised. Our American educational machine must be so evolved and, even reorganized as to, reach every industry 'and every home in the lanxd. This bill undertakes to point the way and to provide the funds with which to accomplish this purpose. The undertaking is too important to be left to, sporadic action, and is too expensive to, be inaugurated systematically throughout, the United States under any auspices less able to provide 86 funds and to secure co-operative action than the Federal government. We now have over fifty State colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. Their past growth warrants the hope that before long they may have an average of 1,000 students each in collegiate courses related to industry, 500 in mechanic arts courses, 300 in agriculture, and 200 in home economics, or a total of 50,000 students, where there are now 20,000. Minnesota, Nebraska, Alabama, Georgia, and other States have demonstrated that the industrial education started in our State colleges should be extended into a system of agricultural high schools and into our city high schools. The trend has been to organize an agricultural high school for each group of about ten counties, as has been done in Alabama and Georgia, and to develop mechanic: arts, education, both in separate city high schools and as courses of study in general city high schools. Minnesota, and Nebraska led in devising and developing schools. of agriculture of high school grade articulatmng with the college above, and with both the rural schools and the farms below. Alabama. and Georgia, have recently taken the lead in establishing one of these schools in each Congressional district. Minnesota and, Nebraska have agricultural high schools with 600 and 300 students, respectively. The graduates of these schools nearly all go, back to, the farm. A very small number go into other vocations, and probably 10 per cent. go, forward into collegiate courses in agriculture, most of them to become agricultural technicians. These schools have demonstrated so, effectively that farm boys and girls can be educated for country life and returned to country life that everyone who looks into the work of these institutions is ready to promote this.kind of schools for the entire country. To Georgia, belongs the credit and honor of first; taking the step thoroughly to establish a sufficient number of well-equipped agricultural high schools to meet the needs of the farm boys and farm girls of the State. Last July the Georgia legislature authorized Governor Terrell to establish an agricultural high school in each of Georgia's eleven Congressional districts. A State appropriation of $6,000 was provided annually as a current expense fund with which to begin each school. The districts securing these schools were required to provide at 87 least 200 acres of land and to erect buildings and equip the schools. The different, localities sought to secure the location of these schools. The result was such that, it is inspiring the entire country with an interest, and faith in high school education in agriculture and home economics. By private subscription Georgia has; raised $800,000 with which to establish and equip these eleven schools. Never before have the Arnerican people so emphatically expressed their faith in agricultural education. In no, way has. the South better expressed the fact that she is rising from the difficulties! and, depression which resulted from the civil war. The passage of this; bill will precipitate a similar movement in every State in the Union. If all of the States will follow Georgia's example, we shall have 300 agricultural high schools for our 3,000 agricultural counties. With each of these schools averaging 500 students we would have a total of 150,000 students in agricultural high schools, an average of 3,000 in each State. This number of students would provide a large number of men technically trained in agriculture to! become leading farmers, and a large number of young women trained in home economics to, develolp exemplary farm homes. It would also provide a body of young people who, could rapidly be developed into teachers who could carry instruction and inspiration in agriculture and home building into all the rural schools of the la.nd, and thus carry this education to all farm youth. There may be a difference of opinion as to, whether we shall make our rural schools more efficient by retaining the present unit —the isolated rural school-or whether we should consolidate these into larger units. Which ever plan is pursued, all must agree that this class of schools must be improved by providing teachers trained both in general studies -and in the subjects relating to the future life work of that 85 per cent of rural youth which will remain in country life. It may be presumed that the expense will not be very greatly different whether we develop the rural schools under a plan of consolidation or by adequately improving the little rural schools. At present, we have no body of people in our rural communities who have either knowledge or faith to reorganize our country schools. Probably the chief function of the provisions of this bill will be to provide a large class of leaders in our rural communities who, as progressive 88 farmers.and home makers and as rural school-teachers, will press to, a successful issue the development of our rural primary school system. The State colleges of agriculture -and mechanic arts established by the Congress have developed mechanic arts education even much more rapidly than agricultural education. The engineering courses of these colleges have been very successful and popular from the start, and this class of instruction has extended, into numerous city high schools, as in the mechanic.arts high school of St. Paul, Pittsburg, Philadelphia, and Washington. The graduates of these colleges and high schools have profoundly modified our mechanical and transportation industries. Our manufacturing and transportation companies are in touch with these local mechanic arts high schools and. with these State colleges and are offering good positions to every young man who shows technical instincts and ability. Graduates of these mechanic arts high schools in turn have carried, the elements of this line of instruction under the name of "manual training" into, very many of the primary city schools of the country. Most of these mechanic arts high schools are as yet relatively small because of the difficulty of securing local appropriations sufficient, to, pay the larger expenses of these more practical studies which require laboratories and shop practice as well.as class-room instruction. This bill is designed, to meet this difficulty. Our State colleges were more tardy in developing education in home economuics than in either mechanic arts or agriculture, but, even in this line it may be said that the Congressional act of 1862 has developed a revolution in education in domestic economy. M.any of the State colleges having successfully organized instruction in domestic-science subjects have provided teachers whol have successfully introduced this line of education; into city high schools, agricultural high schools, and into, a large proportion of the colleges and academies attended by women, and even into, city primary schools and intol some rural schools. It is found that this line of technical education is relatively inexpensive and yet very important for the future home makers. Under the movement for industrial education and research started in the 'sixties, including the Federal Department of Agriculture, the State experiment stations, the State agricul. 89 tural colleges, and the two or three dozen agricultural high schools, we now spend, exclusive of inspection and other general work, something like $10,000,000. These expenditures have added not less than a billion dollars in value to the products of our American farms, shops, and other industries, and greatly improved, the social conditions of our workers and of all our people. Thus for the price of one battleship there is created sufficient additional wealth to pay two or three times over our direct and indirect expenses incident to war. I maintain that we should have,a properly equipped Army and Navy that we may have stability and peace for our industries; but, on the other hand, those who advocate large expenditures for the Army or for the Navy should be the first to see the importance of expenditures which create individual efficiency and wealth. Now that our national wealth has reached nearly $100,000,000,000, our annual production nearly $30,000,000,000, and our Federal appropriations nearly $1,000,000,000, are we not ready seriously to consider the proposition of making it possible for every boy and girl in the entire country to secure at least the rudiments of technical industrial education? The relatively small cost is clearly within the scope of our public financial ability. Of the three great wastes in the economics —land, material, and labor —by far the greatest waste is from inefficient labor. It has been truthfully said that while America wastes land the Old World, wastes labor. In America labor commands $1 to $2 a day; in Europe one-fourth of-that amount, and in the Orient one-tenth of that amount. The greatest economic need is that our industries be sol changed that labor' be not wasted. The recent wonderful and far-reaching developments in transportation of all kinds is suddenly bringing together, in close economic competition, all the people of the entire world. The nation that uses its labor, lands,, and products to the best ad, vantage will take the lead in civilization and in power. Can America afford to continue the kind of education which cultivates tastes too expensive for the earning capacities of her people, while other peoples are willing to, labor cheaply and live within their means? Even more than with boys we are making the mistake of educating the tastes of our girls more rapidly than we are training them in the ability to secure 90 those things which satisfy their tastes. Our most important racial and national institution-the home-can be developed along with our other institutions only as we give to, it the discoveries of science and build it up, through education. It; is not enough that America has homes averaging better than homes of other parts of the world; they should be very much better. The leadership assumed by Congress in 1862 brought with it responsibilities. These responsibilities may now be clearly seen. There is only one organized body competent to deal with the question of the rapid development of technical education for the workers in the industries throughout all of the States, and that is, this Congress. This bill provides for the inauguration of a movement, in industrial education second, only in importance to the original bill of 1862 creating in America this class of education. It provides for introducing throughout all our public schools of a secondary or high school grade education in mechanic arts, agriculture, and home economics. The sum it is proposed to appropriate is less than 1 per cent, of the revenues of the Government, and is based upon an appropriation to the various States and cities of 10 cent per capita of the inhabitants thereof provided that a, like sum is raised by them. This means practically appropriating for the industrial education of each pupil of school age 30 cents per annum, or for each pupil actuallv in school 60 cents per annum. The bill provides that the money allotted to each State shall be equitably divided between the city people and the country people. Each city will receive 10 cents per capita on its population at the last national or State census. The money thus *allotted to the respective States and not; apportioned to city high schools will be available for use toward the maintenance of one agricultural high school in each rural Congressional district, or its equivalent. Thus, my own State of Minnesota, with a population of about 2,000,000, half of whom are in cities, will receive $200,000 -annually, $100,000 to be apportioned to the respective cities according to, their population and $100,000 to be used in eight or ten agricultural high schools distributed, throughout the State. Under this bill thousands would be provided with industrial and agricultural education 91 where now hundreds receive this kind of instruction in the one or two schools of each class now in operation. The course of study in agricultural high schools and mechanic arts high schools, having now been under trial and development for' nearly twenty years, has been nearly as well worked out as the general courses of study in our city high schools, and are also successfully articulated with the rural school and the primary city school below and with the college courses above. Passing the land-grant act of 1862 was an experiment, because no, argicultural or mechanical college had then been successfully started. The passage of this measure would not be an experiment, because agricultural high schools and mechanic arts high schools, both including industrial work for women in relation to, the home, are recognized as among our most successful institutions. It is believed by those well informed that every dollar appropriated for the Federal Department of Agriculture and for the State experiment stations and State college returns to the American people, or rather earns for the American people, at least, $20. There is no reason why the appropriations under this act shall be less productive. The farmers of America, have rapidly changed from an indifferent attitude toward so-called "book farming" to a, high appreciation of and a profound respect for agricultural science and institutions devoted to improving agriculture. Education in mechanics and home economicsl has likewise risen to a plane of high appreciation. It requires no, prophet to predict that within ten years after the passage of a law as outlined in this bill the entire point of view recently held by the farmers of this country toward agricultural schools and by the practical men of affairs toward city high school education will ha've been changed. The feverish desire to leave the land and go to the city will have been removed. Farms as places, of business and farm homes as places to develop splendid families will be appreciated at their true American value. With the great Federal Department of Agriculture, with fifty State agriculture colleges and experiment stations, with two or three hundred agricultural high schools and branch experiment stations, and with tens of thousands of improved consolidated rural schools and with other educational machinery as college-extension work, 92 and with highly developed agricultural literature, and with a like equipment for education in city industries, the American people will be so informed and inspired in industrial affairs and home making that we shall have a new America. The pivotal place in turning the education of our workers, whether in country or city, more towards the things with which they must deal is, in the high school, because here the teachers for primary schools are trained in those subjects in which they are to instruct the primary pupils. The provision in this bill which appropriates $2,500 to be placed with an additional amount to be supplied by the respective States for branch experiment stations for each agricultural high school is important from two standpoints. It is necessary that the teachers of agriculture, horticulture, live stock, and dairying in these agricultural high schools have as p:art of their instructional machinery actual Efarm operations and, such research work as the State experiment stations and the Federal Department, of Agriculture may properly delegate to these institutions. The working out of crop, rotations and farm plans, the testing of commercial fertilizers, the testing and breeding of plants,, the demonstrating of methods of destroying insects, and many other similar lines will have a large value, both as part of the school education and as a, means of working out improvements in agriculture. The question is often asked, Why should the Federal Government take up the burden of the State? Will not the use of Federal money tendi to retard activity along educational lines in the States and cause them to depend on Federal aid? Is Congress not already doing too much for the people of the States? Congress, and especially the State legislatures, have not taken full cognizance of the fact that the Federal Government raises and expends more than three times as much money as do all of the State governments combined. The fact that the Federal Governmenti has the indirect, and, therefore easy, methods of raising taxes, while the States have the direct, and more difficult methods of raising taxes is the best of reasons why the Federal Government should lead general co-operatl've movements in bringing about important changes affecting the entire length and breadth of the country. Congress,, with $800,000,000, offering to co-operate with the States with their 93 aggregate of $200,000,000, will help, the States so to increase their $200,000,000 that they will have means with which to improve their secondary and. primary schools, tasks which now seem so large as to, well-nigh paralyze effort in many States. iMaterial Federal aid will greatly encourage and, inspire State and local efforts. If this bill is passed, and the States duplicate the amount of money thus appropriated, American education can be put upon a new plane in every State in the Union. Georgia's experience shows that the States are willing to supply the equipment and part of the current-expense fund. Let the Federal Government meet Georgia half way, and every State will follow the noble example set by that vigorous Commonwealth. Does not this plan of using some of our. immense national funds with which to, build up local institutions decentralize rather than increase the tendency to, centralization? How can we better strengthen the States than by turning over to State management funds with which to strengthen their educational institutions, around which local interest and local pride center? This bill does not establish a new precedent in principle, because it, simply carries out the precedent established in our country in organizing State colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in 1862. The British Government; several years ago, from their large income from taxes, passed an almost identical act, thus building up local institutions. Under that act technical education, for the most part, secondary in grade, has been supplied, to, the people of the cities of the British Islands, and numerous agricultural high schools have been organized in individual counties or by groups of counties. Through the legislation provided in I-I. R. 24757 America will not only keep pace with the most progressive nations, but will be in a position to take the lead in industrial education for the masses. We need to build up a class of people educated in distinctive industrial and agricultural schools, highly organized, so as to give instruction and to, inculcate pride in industrial affairs and in the American home. So. long as the teachers of our schools are trained in schools devoted mainly to nonindustrial interests they can not well build up an industrial community with full knowledge and inspiration for their life 94 work. Let us have as -a dominating force in the education of our country youth and, our city youth teachers; who are chosen as trained leaders in building up rural and industrial science and practice and in home making. There is encouragement in the fact tha.t year by year the strong men of the world's legislative bodies are joining the ranks of those who, favor larger appropriations for research and education related to the industries. The time has arrived in many States when the farming interests demand that legislative bodies counteract the tendency to pile up the largest part of our annual increase of permanent wealth in our largest cities. Labor too, under wise leadership, is ready to demand more of the fruits of science and art in the form of technical training for their children. The proposition in this bill at first seems radical. When carefully considered it is not as radical as the proposition to build new battleships. It is a plan of investing money in the higher industrial efficiency of the nation's 60,000,000 workers and in the better living of all people of all classes. It proposes that we give our workers a square deal by giving them a chance to secure technical training, as we now provide technical training for the professional classes. It looks to universal technical education. This kind of education is not a net expense. It is a net profit. It is an expenditure such -as we make in business, only here the economic return plus the social benefit is greater than the expected profits in business. This plan is not' an experiment. It will bring the results. No other solution has been offered to the problem of bringing to a free people the results accruing from their own expenditures in scientific research. If another plan superior to this can be devised, let us adopt it, and, failing in that, let us perfect. and utilize the plan outlined in this bill. (Taken from the Congressional Record, Fifty-ninth Congress, Second Session.) 95 OUR CHILDREN, OUR SCHOOLS, AND OUR INDUSTRIES. (Andrew S. Draper, Superintendent of Public Instruction, New York State.). It is putting- it not a whit too strongly to say that it is quite,apparent to all who! think about it that provision must be made for public vocation or trades schools,, and, also for schools of a general character which meet the continuing needs of young people in the stores and shops and factories; that these schools for the industrial masses must operate at times which will allow pupils to, engage in regular employment, but employers must plan for the regular attendance olf young employees upon the schools at certain hours; that; the schools must keep, hold of all pupils until they have received a training which will fit them for some definite employment; and that the different parts of a more extended school system, must balance each other more exactly and support the industrial as well as the professional activities of the country. The recognition of the need of all this grows out of manifest moral, industrial, and economic conditions that are widely prevalent among us, and out of a growing knowledge of what other peoples, harder pressed and more painstaking than we, have done to meet the conditions which are now asserting themselves, here. It grows; out of our clearing vision that simple and balanced justice, as well as the progress and happiness of the people, and the strength and poise of the nation, alike make it necessary to give to the wage earning masses, and to the common industries, such equivalent as we can for what the present schools are doing for the wealthier classes and for the professional and managing vocations. The recognition of the need is opening the door to a decisive educational advance in America; and the time seems ripe for a review of the reasons for it and for a serious discussion of the plans and arrangements for it. 96 LOOKING BACIKWARD. In the beginning there was no thought that the common schools should do, more than teach the 'three R's," the mere elements, which would enable one to gain the knowledge vital to citizenship. Farming was the very general employment. Many of the trades were followed on the farm. There was no thought of leaving the farm. Boys were happy in the thought of having a farm and following their fathers from whom they learned, the business of farming. In the towns there was a system of apprenticeship by which the boys were bound out to tradesmen and artisans for a term of years to give service in return for instruction in a trade. There was no, employment, and little schooling, for girls outside of the home. The girls in every home were made expert in the household arts by their mothers and by the ordinary needs of the home, and they were not unhappy about it. Few boys and no girls went to college. The college was the instrument of the relatively rich, and provided rather exclusive instruction in the higher classical and culturing studies. It can hardly be said to have prepared for the professions and certainly it did not train in professional knowledge and skill. There was no connecting link between the college and the common school, which stood for the masses. The early English system persisted as it persists in England still. They are having a row about it; over there now, and seem likely to have a yet larger one. A system of academies which was really a system of fitting schools for the colleges, developed in the better towns. Even the academies connected but very little with the elementary schools. Accordingly there was no educational outlet for the children who; completed the elementary schools. If a son of the poor got, into, an academy there was some shock about it; and if he broke intol a, profession it was because the fence was low and he had some unusual qualities in hi's outfit. This could not long be, and the public high school system came. It came very near supplanting the academies in the older states; and it kept them from ever being in the newer states. It took their place as college feeders; the colleges came to be glad to condescend to the high schools also; indeed, their work of itself developed many colleges. The public high school 97 system became the strong connecting link between the elementary schools and the colleges. Every effort was made to have the connections close and smooth. The road fromr "the kindergarten to the university" was made continuous and easy. The colleges and, universities were broadened in their work and liberalized and popularized in their character. The scientific. interests made a great fight against classical exclusiveness, and slowly got the better of the old Romanlike resistance. At all events, science broke in. Professional expertness came to, have a scientific basis and came to require a higher scientific training. The universities came to, have professional schools, and got the laws changed so, that students, headed for the professions found it to their advantage, or were absolutely required, to go to them. Mechanical anld agricultural schools and colleges grew up, and often in association with the older literary colleges and universities. The ideal of a university came to be one that could supply the best instruction in any study. There are very considerable areas in the country now, where every boy and every girl in the elementary schools thinks of the high school, and every one in the high school debates; the matter of going to college. The stronger of both sexes feel injured if denied the advanced learning. That is not all. The influence of the teachers of all grades is exerted to, send all of the children to the grade above, along the road that leads, to the university. They are told of the equal rights of every one and of the increased resourcefulness and efficiency, and therefore of the better chance, which is provided by the higher training. Acting upon the American spirit and temperament, the result, is quick and strong. On the whole it is well. Sometimes it is pathetic, for it often leads parents to sacrifice more than they ought, and, sometimes it directs youth into places already well occupied and for which they have no special adaptation. It is, saying nothing against the students most concerned, and nothing against the claims of the universities, to say that there can be no, doubtl about the fact that many get into them who would be better off in the end if they would put the qualities they have into, other work, when they are without the factors which are requisite to, success in undertakings which practically exact university training. There is serious, question about many going to college who, do go. In 98 schools, particularly the secondary schools and above, every one is told that he is. lacking in every desirable quality if he is not hitching his wagon to, a star. That, is all right enough if there could be some discrimination about the kind of star that it would be well f'or the particular individual to, try to! harness up with. The true standards of value concerning positions and fitness for positions are often but. poorly understood. There are many failures through misfits. In the indiscriminate scramble for placesl which will enable one to wear fine clothes and live in. a great house or at the clubs, some get into places they can not fill, many who manage to make a living in such places would be far happier and make a better living in other places, and, many more lose their best chances in life by a mistaken race after a, fleeting vision when substantial opportunities are actually and easily within their reach.!There would be quite as, much of this, as we can well afford if the educational system did not lead so exclusively to professional employments and to, the quasi professional positionsl and the managlng positions in the business,,and industrial vocations. As it is, there is so much of it that, it is actually making us poor. NOTHING LIEADS TO CRAFSTSMANSHIP. But that is not all. Any hand work that is found in the elementary school-and on the whole it is. very little-is sustained on the theory that it is a, desirable accomplishment, an intellectual quickener, rather than that, all the.world must work, and that work with the hands. must be much more common and quite as reputable as work with. the head. Instead of leading to a trade it prepares for the manual training high school, if there be one, an,d that, leads to the technological college, if it; leads anywhere, and that to one.of the engineering professions. Nofthing in the comnmon schools leads to a. trade. The manual training high schools are too elaborate, too expensive in a way, too, dilettante, to lead to, anything other than one of the industrial professions; often they do not even prepare for training in one of these. They are much more like schools than shops, whereas they should, be more like shopps than schools. In buildings that have nothing of the appearance of a shop, they have machinery, tools, equipment,.atmosphere, 99 theory, and practice, which differentiate them widely from the shop. They are managed by men who are more teachers than workmen, when they should be managed by men, who are at least quite a.s much workmen as teachers. Often the machinery and tools make an interesting show without being needed or effectually used, because there is not a skilled workman to use them. AMany a time a principal or teacher pleads for an appropriation with which to buy machinery, tools, and other equipment, without any definite theory, or plan, or end, in view. If refused,, he would feel outraged and become a martyr. If given, he studies the catalogues and sees the agents for the purpose of spending the money in ways that will look well and make an impression upon the people, who always love an object lesson and are often susceptible and, superficial about, industrial training. Real tradesmen and workmen discriminate; and they are amused by what they see. There is not, enough substantial result to it. I know very well that this is; not always true, but quite as well that it is often true. It is true also that the overwhelming influence of American technical schools, from lowest to highest, is, quite as much in the direction of t-urning out1 men for professional and managing employments a.s is; the influence of the purely literary and scientific schools. Of course it is for profressional employment in one of the industrial professions and, for managing positions in one of the leading manufacturing industries, but it is none the less for a, professional and managing vocation. It does not train wolrkingmen. It is saying little against the system to, say that it is one-sided, in the effort to bring up the other side and develop a system that is better balanced. The unskilled labor in American cities is trained but very little in the American schools. It, is now derived very largely from the less favored countries of the old, world. American children are taught that they must hold themselves above unskilled labor. It, is, however, no, uncommon thing to find young men and women in industrial and domestic service in. this country, who were better trained in elementary knowledge of reading, writing, and mathematics, as well as. in the simple arts which make for ordinary efficiency, before they came to, this country, than the young people of similar age and social plane who have always lived here. They are happier and of more 100 value to, the country for it. It is due to, the fact that the elementary schools, of the lands' from which they ca.me had much less to; do than our elementary schools here have, and were required to do it more exactly; and to the f'urther fact, that those schools had in mind the training of youth for work, rather than for professional or managing employments, or for mere accomplishments. It is the fact that, our unskilled labor does not come out of our own schools, joined to the fact that the skilled labor that we have is so largely trained not, in the schools but in a very haphazard way in the shops, that is disturbing the equilibrium of our factories, impeding our industrial productivity, and raising so, much criticismn upon the unbalanced curriculum of the schools. The lines in all the schools, above the element,ary schools, are set hard 'and fast, for professional employments, and for managing posltions. in industrial employments, not only through the continual stirring of the ambitions which are buoyant in American youth, but, also, through the large provision. for the literary and scientific, training which is naturally incident thereto or is actually required by such employments. In the high schools, the colleges, the professional schools that are independent as well as those related to the universities, in the business and commercial schools or independent schools of every kind, in the universities, and even in the technical schools of every grade, the whole scheme is set to, turn out professional men, and managers, and ca.ptains of something or other, rather than skilled workmen. It is so, too, in the elementary schools where the lines are set at all. From the bottom to the top of the school system the eye is on the school above, and the school above leads to, a professional or a managing' employment rather than to a trade vocation. If the manutal training in the high schools or the separate manual training schools of secondary grade, or the little indus, trial drawing or other simple industrial work in the elementary school.s, be advanced in refutation of this statement, it is insisted that they do not refute it. The little industrial work in the elementary schools has been looked upon as a, diversion, or as a preparation for the manual training in the high schools, and the enthusiastic advocates of manual training in the high schools have been content tlo rest, their interest in it, upon its 101 all-around culturing and educational value, meaning thereby its value to intellectual virility and energy, rather than upon the fact that it would make a more skilled craftsman and therefore an individual of more character and a citizen of more strength in the ease of the man who works by himself alone and not as one of an organized force, and with his hands alone and not, through the use of a complicated machine, The technical schools are of course to be encouraged, but the very interests of capital will encourage them, and, at the most, when we think of their bearing upon men and women, they tend to make the human a part of the machine, or they lead to one of the engineering professions or to the captaining of workmen. From first to last, there has been little about the American educational system, and there is now little about the American industrial system to dignify and, uplift craftsmanship, or toi multiply and train the physical qualities of the individual man. Wholly apart from the one-sided tendencies of our educational system, the fact is that if any mechanical tendencies which a child may have are neglected until he gets into the high school, they are never likely to come to. much anyway. And the further fact is that so, long as manual training has to, be dominated by the method and, atmosphere of the school rather than of the shop, and managed by one whom the capable workman regards as a sort of dilettante theorist rather than by one who likes to wear a blouse and overalls and actually does fine work with his hands, it is not likely to, stimulate the best, character in workmanship nor to turn out any considerable number of justly selfsatisfied and abundantly desirable workmen. It may in part fit men for the work of the engineering colleges, which may make engineers of some of them. And in some of the engineers there will develop qualities, which will make for leadership in great constructive enterprises. But it all leads away from independent craftsmanship. In -a general way the same thing is true-perhaps more is true-of the commercial courses and the commercial schools. Doubtless they inspire some and aid a few to enlarge their efficiency, but it is surely within the fact to say that the ratio, of captains, or even of finished business men, they produce is, from an educational standpoint, discouragingly small. In saying this it is not. intended to urge that the literary, 102 and professional, and commercial, and, technical schools of all grades are worthless or not worth all they have cost. On the contrary, they each minister to a class and are, generally speaking, invaluable. It, is only intended to urge that they are onesided, that they meet. the needs of the situation only partially, and that their theories and plans and methods are such that it is impossible for them to meet it completely. (They are so ample in numbers and good in character that. they are turning out quite all of the professionals and captains that the country requires, and are beginning to do it quite as thoronghly as is being done anywhere in the world.) Nor is it intended to imply that, the public schools are not doing the work they are arranged to do, in an efficient manner. On the contrary, again, the buildings average far better, the equipment is many times better, the courses are more complete and more logically related, and the teachers much better prepared and certainly no less conscientious, than ever before in the history of the country. It is only suggesting that, in the interest of the common people and of the co;untry, the kinds of schools must be multiplied, that the educational scheme must be broadened, that attendance upon schools must be longer and moore universal, and that the work of the lower schools must have much more bearing upon the labor of the masses. NEITH.En1 SCi-EOOLS NSor WORxK roir CHILDREN. As the schools have developed on the literary, scientific, and professional sides, the indenturing system has practically disappeared. Few boys are now apprenticed to a trade. Indeed, many of the trades have either disappeared, or so changed as to, render the apprenticeship, system impracticable. This leads to a shortage of skilled workmen, and to the complaint by manufacturers that they can not get competent; workmen. People also complain that the schools do not fit children for any ordinary duties in the stores and, offices and factories. It also keeps children from getting work of any kind when they leave the elementary schools. If they get work it amounts; to little, and too often leads to, nothing. All of the conditions taken together almost; force children to keep on in the school system and go on toward the professional and managing vocations which are more than full, and for which they lack.adaptation; or else be 103 out of any kind of work for several years. As a fact, masses of them are out of school and also out of work for a long time, if not for all time. I shall not leave the entire responsibility for this either upon the parents or the children. Some of it. must, fall upon the provisions of the law; some of it is chargeable to the inefficiency with which school attendance and, child, labor laws are enforced; and some of it must be attributed t.o the overloading and the slowness of the schools, and in some measure to the want of alertness and energy in school administration. Parents face hard problems concerning the family support, and are much influenced by the fancies of the children. The children can not know what leaving school means to them. Neither the cont.rol of the home nor that of the school. over children is what it once was. Both homes and schools: are awfully profligate of boys and, girls. The break comes at a critical timle in the physical life of the child; the time when he most needs control, restraint, guidance, -and. cheer; the time when he most needs to be occupled, to be shown the need and the method of application to serious work, and to, be directed into some work, never mind what, it. is, which he can do completely and be happy in the doing of it. Instead, of that he is often running wild at this time; frequently impolite, mannerless, and sometimes impertinent; forgetting the things of value he has learned, learning what he ought not, to know until he is older, if at. all, and developing uncontrollable, unambitiouls, and inefficient, if not vicious, qualities, which are more than likely t.o preclude him from ever becoming very much of a man. Does some one say that this is too highly colored, that it. is not true of many, and that, it. is pessimistic? Rational optimism never shuts its eyes to the truth. What I have just said is literally and conmpletely true of more than half the children of our people. And if true of only a much smaller number, it would be well worth my attention and my protest. There is fault in the law. It should, require that children finish the elementary schools, or at least remain in them or in a trades school to, the end of their sixteenth year, before they go to work. It might well gather them into the schools before the eighth year, and it might. well require us to make attendance more regular and more resultful. 104 There is fault, much fault, in the plan and in the work of the schools. If they do not have too many studies, they certainly consume too much time upon some of the studies they do have. There are too many grades of books in the same study. The thing is drawn out regardless of time and, almost, of interest, and certainly of educational efficiency. The day of reckoning is hardly anticipated at all. For example, there is almost enough time of the child put upon such a study as geography to enable him to learn a foreign language, when the fact is he will learn -all the geography it will ever be necessary for him to know in a few minutes when it is desirable for him to know it. The reason why so many children leave the elementary schools before finishing the course is not so much because their parents need. their labor, or because the law says they may, as; because there is too much wandering around in tall grass, too much time wasted in the mrerely incidental accompaniments of schools and of teaching. It is because the work of the schools is behind, the ages of the children. It is because the work which we set to, be done by a woman teacher in the fifth grade and the way we expect her to do it can no longer be tolerated by a boy passing into his: fifteenth year. The hard fact is that we ought to get children well started earlier and push them along from one grade to, another more rapidly than we do, and I entertain no doubt but that, we ought to do the work in the elementary grades, or such plarts of it as are fundamental and potential, in at least one less year than we take for it. In any event, if our elementary school system is to continue to do, about the work which is now assigned to it, it must make a point of getting children to the end of it by the time they finish their fourteenth year. It is monstrous that two4thirds of the children of the State do not go, through the elementary schools. If great, numbers of them do it at all they will have to, do, it by the time they are fifteen. Long before that their minds should be directed toward, definite work which they may do, and may like to do; and when that time comes, they shduld be put to doing it and helped to do it exactly and well, to the end that they may have some pleasure in it. To that we will now direct our attention. 105 GOOD CITIZENSHIP DIEPE)NDENT UPON WORKMEN. I hesitate not a moment in saying that good, citizenship and the thrift and morals of the country are quite as dependent upon the mass being trained to skilled work with their hands, as upon a class being advanced in scientific knowledge or in professional accomplishments. The greatness of the nation is contingent upon bringing the truths which science unlocks to the life, and particularly to, the vocations, of the people. But that can be done only where a people is inured to worki; where they have, and love, vocations. The successful workman is a. happier man and a more reliable citizen, a much larger factor in giving strength and balance to his country, than the unsuccessful or the only half suc-. cessful professional man. It adds little to one's value as a civic unit that he be elaborately trained in theory, or in science; or in skill., if hi's training has been at the cost of his balance; if he knows one thing at the expense of many other things which every good citizen is bound to know, and of that balance which every good citizen is bound. to, have. And it, makes little addition to, the strength of a nation that, some of the people have the highest learning, even that the advanced schools and the professional life are overcrowded, if the masses have not love and capacity for growing things and for miaking things. The scientific habitl and the zeal for exact knowledge and the superior work of the gymnasia and of the universities, caused Germany, thirty years ago,, first to note the educational difficulty which we are beginning to, realize. It was this which led the young Emperor to say to the Berlin Conference on Secondary Education, in 1890, "The course of training in our schools is defective in many ways. The chief reason is that since the year 1870 the classical philologists have laid the chief emphasis on the subject-matter of instruction, on learning and knowing, not on the formation of character and the actual needs of life. * * * The demands made in the examinations show that less stress is laid on practical ability than on knowledge. The underlying principle of this is that the scholar must, above all things, know as; much as possible; whether that knowledge fits the actual needs of after life is a, secondary consideration... The chief defect in our schools is the lack of a. national 106 basis for the instruction.... Our schools have undertaken a task beyond human strength, and have, in my opinion, caused an over-production of highly educated people,-more tILain the na'tion canr bear./" LACK OI? INDUSTRIAL TrRAINING IN AMERICAN SCI-OOLS. There is nothing which now appeals to the popular fancy in.America so much as "industrial training." The newspapers are full of it. Every public audience responds, to it. quickly. The authorities of charitable and penal institutions are trying to install it. The school boards are all in favor of it, but hardly know how to accomplish it. They do, something about it because they dare not, do nothing. They do not do, much because the pedagogical mind is not, very clear about policies and plans, because the professional and capitalistic classes are too often uninformrted, uninterested, or selfish about, it, and because the labor organizations are skeptical albout its ultimate effect upon the scale of wages. The confusion and uncertainty are -widespread. Nor is this all. Up to this time the American spirit. has made "industrial training" a very different thing in the American miund from what it is in the rinds of other peoples. In ouxr mind'it, is, in plart, culturing, an aid to industrial or engineering leadership, something that will lift one to, a place above that of the ordinary workman. Accordinglv. we have installed it at the top of the educational system and left the bottom tol take care of itself. In the minds of other peoples it means craftsmanship, the training of the masses in good workmanship. Accordingly, they have intrenched it at the bottom of their educational systems and left the top to meet its own needs. The top is more able than the bottom to get, wat.ift needls. Whatever the motive or the logic, Germany is educationally more democratic than the United States. We have never tol any extent undertaken, to provide vocational training, or even any direct preparation for craftsmanship, in the public elementary schools. There have been movemnents for the extension of both freehand and mechanical, drawing, on the groundl that we must give art its opportunity and prepare for the manual training work in the high schools. In very few places have we gone farther in the lower schools. 107 In the city of Cleveland, fifteen years ago,, some phases of mechanical and domestic work were introduced into every grade of all of the elementary schools, and I am informed that it still continues. In the four grades, lower grades, it eonsisted of sand molding, clay modeling, paper folding, outlining with the needle, construction through the use of cardboard, and all phases of elementary drawing. The aesthetic taste was incidentally commenced to be developed by combining colors and arranging objects. In, the fifth and sixth grades simple geometrical forms, derived from the study of paper and clay forms in the grades below, and cut in wood by the use of the knife, rule, square, compass, and pencil, were given the boys, and sim.ple needle work, involving'the principal stitches in plain sewing, were given the girls. This was done by the class at their desks, under the direction of the elass teachers after they haid been instructed at grade meetings by the special supervisor. In the seventh and eighth grades the boys were given light bench work, and the girls plain cooking,.and for that purpose were sent from each of several buildings at appointed times to central rooms specially prepared, and to teachers specially trained for the purpose. The system operated smoothly and was enthusiastically received in the schools and in the city. There was nothing new 'about the work itself, but the adaptation of it to all the grades in a large city system was doubtless unprecedented in the country. It certainly attracted much discussion and comment, and some official and pedagogical protest. At the National Meeting of Superintendents at Richmond, Virginia, in 1892, after a, supervisor in the Cleveland schools had presented a paper describing it, one of the most, experienced and progressive school men of the country went directly over to the apprehensive and subdued superintendent from Cleveland and, asked, "Is there anything you don't propose to do in the primary schools?" But the industrial conditions in Cleveland were unusually favorable to it. Moreover, it taught no trade. It led to no particular craft. It was more in the direction of general accomplishments than of specific efficiency and skill. This much was true of it, however; it formeed some basis for the work of trade schools, as well as of manual training schools. and technological colleges. Yet the skepticism expressed at Richmond has been widely and well intrenched. Even 108 the very simple phases of preparation for industrial vocations which aroused it have found little more than theoretical,and halting acceptance in American elementary schools. Above the elementary schools, industrial and vocational work has been given larger opportunity. In a great many of the high schools there are courses in manual training, and in all of the larger city systems there are manual training high schools. No one claims that this has much bearing upon craftsmanship. At the most it can relate only to a small part of the children who go to the public schools, and as to, them, it is for intellectual quickening or preparation for one of the engineering professions, or for the training of men to direct other men who work with their hands. In recent years some special vocations, like stenography and typewriting, and other things relating to office work, have found their way into the public secondary schools. Three or four public vocational schools, of secondary grade, supported by a municipality or p-artly by the municipality and partly by the state, like the,Washington Irving High School of New York City, the Textile School of Lowell, 2Mass., the Central Hiigh School of Commerce of Philadelphia, and some of the evening high schools of Buffalo and New York City have been established. But their very names, prove how far they are from the training of the masses in workmanship. Many of the universities, particularly the land grant and tax supported universities, have great engineering sehools, but their work all leads essentially to the industrial professions rather than to craftsmanship, although doubtless the sense which they drill into the heads of their students concerning the honor which belongs to. the man who; can do fine work with his hands, and likes to. work in a blouse, is -adding somewhat to the attractiveness of skilled labor. Private business schools which, for profit, have undertaken to train pupils in simpler mathematics, bookkeeping, stenography, business forms, and the like, have been a great help to many for a long time. MIany of the Young Men's Christian Associations have established schools of this kind, and some of them are beginning to include trades schools in their scheme. Several correspondence schools have attracted thousands of pupils and developed the existence of a widespread desire for self 109 improvement. In New York City there is, one company of financiers, merchants, and real estate men, and another company interested in house furnishing and decorating, and yet another interested in the building trades, and still another interested in the automobile trade, and doubtless many others, have set up schools or lecture courses for the special training of competent assistants. Some of the great manufacturing or construction comparnies, like the 'Westinghouse Electric Com,pa:ny and the Baldwtin Locomotive Work7s, have set up schools of their own. They have prepared schoolrooms, employed efficient teachers, and laid out very considerable courses of work in order to train men for their own service. They take young men on trial for perhaps six months, and if they show some proficiency,and aptitude, and will bind themselves to remain and follow their work for a term of three or four years, they enter into written agreement with them to that effect, and during the period they work in the shop they are under instruction and receive moderate pay upon a schedule which gradually advances as the apprentice may be assumed to, grow in cormpetency. But all this, if it illustrates anything, shows the general lack of preparation for vocational employments in the United States, and the disconnected, very often unsubstantial, and, ordinarily self-interested and sporadic movements to, overcome the difficulty, rather than any general plan for meeting a. very wide and very imperative demand. I have been speaking in a general way of vocations common to boys, but the situation is no, less urgent as to girls. While -the old apprenticeship system has been gradually disappearing, and boys have been going from the country to the cities, and machinery has wrought such changes in men's work, the oldr fashioned kind' of housekeeping which trained girls to expertness in the household arts, has been disappearing also. Vocations which were formerly open only to boys are now open to girls,, with the result that by the tens of thousands they know nothing of good home making, and, worse than that, they are proud of it. It is bad enough for an,attractive young miss to be unable to. make a loaf of bread, or broil a, steak, or use a needle; the limit is passed when a, college makes her such a little idiot as to, think it is smart to boast of it. The schools 110 are not so responsible for this as the mothers are, but perhaps the schools ought to join,with the mothers in the effort to cure it. And aside from the employments of women relating to, the household, the business employments which women are entering in such great numbers may well concern the schools. And moreover, the principle that all educational opportunities, or their unquestioned equivalents, are to be extended to, girls and boys alike, is to have acceptance and expression in -all parts of this country. The public school system has had but little thought of craftsmanship, by which the greater part of the people must live, and upon which the moral and intellectual health of the people and the greatness of the nation must depend; the work of the schools has led allmost exclusively to mere culture and to professional and managing employments; the efficiency of the teachers has been measured by the number and training of the pupils they sent to the grade above, and thus the pupils have been led to think that the grade above was the goal of life; and the grade above has led to literature -and the sciences and to professional and managing vocations. This has taken a great many into situations for which they were not adapted, and has overstocked the professions; has resulted in too many partial or complete failures, and is operating both to, the industrial and intellectual disadvantage of the country. AMERICAN AIMS. It is clear enough that we will nott only have to, reckon with German industrialism, but also that we may learn much to our advantage from the German system. of education, and -I shall therefore not hesitate to draw as many comparisons with Germany as I may. We must distinguish a difference in aim and purpose, however, and can do it none tool clearly, nor too soon. It is a difference which is of national concern to us. The German purpose seems to be to train boys and girls so as to add to the physical and therefore t.o the military strength of the empire. The American purpose is to train boys and girls so as to enable them to, make the most of themselves. Our ideal seems the noblest, but as yet the Germans are widely and more uniformly realizing their ideal better than we are ours. Of .11 course, in the one case, the traiining for national strength incidentally makes useful and. potential men and women; and of course, in the other case, training for the highest possibilities of manhood and womanhood incidentally makes for the greatness of the nation. But a national policy which gives every man his opportunity ought to! make a larger percentage of productive, and therefore happier men, 'and in the end, an infinitely more versatile and potential people, if it can be carried out in ways which will not give youth a beclouded outlook and lead to too many misfits between adaptation and opportunity. It can not have escaped our observation, moreover, that one who starts out for a professional or managing vocation and fails, never takes up craftsmranship afterwards and succeeds; while a, good craftsman sometimes develops into an excellent professional man, and very often develops into the very best kind, of a manager of his craft. And it is worse than idle, because it is justly productive of false standards and of ill-will, to put one to managing any business or any work, who has not learned the business by exploiting its processes from the bottom up to the place which he has come to occupy. Right there is one of the essential weaknesses of our American business life. Through our ambitions, through a rather hazy notion that we can hold any place we can get into, and do anything we can get a chance to do, through fortune or favoritism coupled with a fallacious logic about preparation, men get into positions where they exercise control over other men who really understand the details of the craft or the business better than their overseers do. It all illustrates the vital need of broader training for craftsmanship at the foundations of the craft and in the early years of the youth's life, if all are to have an equal chance, and if boys are not to, advance to pitfalls ebecause handicapped with superfi.ciality. WHAT ARE WE To Do? While the schools are providing every conceivable kind of instruction for the head workers, the hand workers leave instruetion altogether when they leave the elementary schools, and that is commonly before they are prepared for work or are mature enough to plan for themselves. What little has been done for these has been isolated and unsystematic, and done by pri 112 vate enterprise. Thus the public school systern is one-sided,unjust to the greater number and inefficient in meeting an ofverwhelming phase of the nation's educational need. rTo be consistent we must do, less for the head workers, or more for the hand workers. We will not go back. All, not some, education is a passion in America. We will go forward. But just how? It is a large matter. It means much more expense-but that. is the least of it. It involves a large new chapter in our educational theory, a serious study of other educational systems, radical changes in schoolhouses and courses, training of a different class of teachers. Before that can be commenced~, or while it is; being done, there will have to be much discussion, a. great deal of missionary work, a consolidation of sentiment, and many new laws. The people of the schools may well have a plan, and one that is well fortified by theory and by fact, if they can. It is but just to ourselves to say that the problem seems less difficult, in other countries because the social cleavage is more distinct, children expect, to continue upon the plane in which they were born, and the masses expect to, work with their hands. Moreover, the governments are beginning to see that the strength of the nation depends upon training workmen, and the outlook of the government settles things. We do0 not worry about the strength of the United States. We take that for granted. We are for giving every one his chance, and for helping every one to make the most of himself. The course of other nations leaves out individual possibilities. It cares little for the individual as such. It! neither reckons with nor promotes such an ambitious, buoyant, confident, aggressive national temperament as is; common, in the United States. Nevertheless, our course is producing a temperament which is top-heavy with self-satisfa.ction, and doubtless needs more ballast in the hold. We would not lose our optimistic temperament if we could: we will restore the balance. If we compare with Germany we shall do it with the best of them so far as training for hand industry is concerned. There is no other great nation where education is at once so scientific, so balanced, so effective, and so free-scientific through research and the habit, of taking pains-balanced because the educational system has come to be a pyramid with industrialism 113 at its base-effective because the habit of sending children to school with regularity is universal-and free through the clear appreciation of the fact that, the arbitrary power of the state is entirely consistent with the purest democracy in learning. WnAT TIE GERz.MANS SAY OF UJS. Germany sent an educational conmmission to the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 with instructions to, study the school exhibits at the exposition and quietly investigate the educational system of this country, and then report with particular reference to the bearing of the educational systems, of their country and ours upon German and American industry and trade. The commission pursued its work very quietly. It. did not seek the lime light; it did not proclaim its route of march by the use of a military band; it circled the educational conventions; it did not have itself invited to dinners and make speeches at us; in some way it even escaped the alert, and aggressive attentions of the press. The commission's report may be alike interesting to German and American readers, but it is not altogther satisfactory to, American corplacency. It declared that America, is abundant in resources. filled with energy, exceedingly quickwitted and resourceful; that a vigorolus people is possessed of such mighty and largely undeveloped physical resources, and has such splendid advantage in coast lines and commlercial situation, that undoubtedly it will have to be reckoned with in the trade and commerce of the solmewhat distant future; but that the United States is soi seriously handicapped with manifest disadvantages, of which Americans are unconscious, that no, American industrial competition at any early day need be taken seriously by the German nation. They said these disadvantages make a buoyant confidence without sufficient ulnderpinning for it. a, "feeling of complacent, satisfaction with everything American," an expectation that, without much planning, and without much philosophical study, or concerted action, or definite plan, or co-operative efficiency, everything will come out all right whenever the need of it arises. They emphasized the entire absence of provision for public schools supplying systematic instruction in craftsmanship, and asserted that this lack is sufficient to overconme any natlural ad 114 vantage in resources or geographical situation. This commission was not constituted exclusively of teachers, but of teachers, merchants, manufacturers, economists, publicists, and constructionists. They were thinking much of German trade and they advised their people not to be disturbed about any Ameri.can interference with it at any early day. That is certainly enough to make the children of our "Uncle Samuel" sit bolt upright, and look all around the horizon. Our ideals are not those of Germany. We are not primarily concerne( about breaking down German trade. We have nothing but good will toward,s our flaxen-haired and interesting German cousins. We are not apprehensive about the physical strength, or, in other words, the war power, of our nation; and we are not going to, bend our educational and industrial policies very exclusively to. that end. All of that will take care of itself, notwithstanding 'the self-satisfaction and complacency which the German commission saw clearly and reported co'rrectlv. IBut we are concerned that, every American child shall have his or her chance; that, that, chance shall be at least as good and great as the chance of any child in any nation upon the earth; and that, there shall be nothing in the policies of the country to mislead any child about his chance. We do: believe that the greatness of this nation, the political attributes of its citizenship, and the measure of its influence upon the thought of other nations and upon the good of mankind, depend upon making all that can be made of every son and daughter of the Republic; and we do, know that the physical.andi moral strength of men and women depend upon their having and loving work, and that their having and loving work depend upon their being able to do it well, more than upon any other factor in human life. SOMETxIN oG 0n NOTHITNG. If the time has come and the conditions are ripe for the movement we have in mind, let us try to organize it upon a plan that will work, and in the working will produce continually enlarging results for all the children, all the schools, all of the industrial, and therefore all of the moral and intellectual, activities of the country. Nothing can come from a plan that fails to reckon with all of the interests concerned, that does not 115 call to its support the aid of both employer and employee, or that is incapable of results amply commensurate with the labor and the cost. If we should have to compromise logic, efficiency, coherency, and completeness out of. it in order to avoid issues, either with capital or organized labor, let us assume that we are not yet ready, and, notwithstanding the continuing and, increasing disadvantages, let us wait until we are. To, be successful, this movement must sustain organic relations with the public school system. It can not succeed unless it is to articulate with that system. To articulate with it, it must be under the same management. It must appeal to the civic pride, the pedagogical sense, the practical experience, the democracy, and the enthusiasms of the country. Then it must have a share in the passion of the country for education, and it must be part and parcel of the system of the common schools, which is enshrined in the hearts and the usage, the constitutions and the laws, of the land. It can not be shunted off to state commissions and local boards, which are out of legal relations, and possibly out of sympathetic relations, with the established educational organization of the people. To' be resiultful it must get from, and it must give to, the public schools. That, of course, means that there must be nothing about the movement which does not accord with the fundamental basis of the common schools, and it also, means that there must be some modifications in the present plan of the schools in order to, give it a comfortable and useful place. I am not at all sure that that may not be done with quite as much advantage to our common intellectual education, as to, our industries. To be successful, it, must not make the mistake of ministering to the highly technical and highly organized industries, carried on in great factories, so, much as to the mechanical trades which may appeal to the independence and satisfy the ambitions of the individual. It must, of course, do what it may for the employees of the factories, but it must know that that will have to be very general, and will have to apply to general intelligence rather than technical efficiency, because the work which has to be done in a factory, which relates to a single feature of a complicated process, will have to be learned, in the factory it, self. The main point of the proposition must be the development of workmen rather than of professionals or managers, and the vital basis of it must. be the inherent right of every American child to his chance to make the mostl of himself in the industrial, as well as the intellectual, life of the country. REECOMA ME N:I)ATION S. Then my suggestions and my tentative plan may perhaps be stated as follows: 2. Require attendance at seven years, of age, instead of eight, and let it continue, in elementary school or trades school, to seventeen, but, excuse from attendance before eight, at the parents' request, on the ground of immaturity, and also excuse from attendance whenever the work in the elementary school and, trades school is completed, or after fifteen if the child is regularly at work. 3. Establish schools for teaching trade vocations, the work to begin at the end of the elementary school course, and continue for three years. 4. Let the trades schools, be open both in the day time and evening. 5. Establish continuation schools, to be open mainly in the evenings, where the work shall be of a, general character, suited to the needs of youth who, are employed through the day and are not doing the work in the trades schools. In other words, make our evening schools more general and better. Let the work in the continuation schools, go perhaps half way or moore through the high school course, but, with less formalism about it. 6. Shorten the time in the elementary schools to seven years. Take out what it. is not vital for a child to, know in order to learn or t,o do other things for himself. Assume that, he will learn and dol things on. his own account, if' he has the power. Strive to give him power, and expect that. through it he will get knowledge. Stop reasoning that mere information will give him power. Stop the dress parade and pretence about teaching, which consume time unnecessarily. Push the child along and aim to, have him finish the elementary school in the fourteenth year. When he is fifteen send him to, the trades school whether he has finished the elementary school or not,. 7. Assume that. if the child does not go to the high school, 117 his school work may end with his sevent.eenth, and not in his fourteenth, year. 8. Put into the elementary schools, from the very beginning, some phase of industrial work. Up to, the last year or two let it be work that can be done in the schoolroom, at the desks, under the ordinary teachers, and will occupy two or three hours a week. This might proceed from folding paper, molding sand, modeling clay, outlining with a needle, to the simple knife work in wood, plain sewing, knitting, and the like. In the last year or two send the classes to central rooms specially prepared, perhaps to the trade schools, for more complex wood work, cooking, etc. Always emphasize the drawing. 9. As the child comes to the end of the elementary schools, expect) him to elect whether he will go, to, the high school, to a trades school, or to, work. 10. Wherever he goes, expect that, the schools will keep track of him until he is at least seventeen. If he goes to the tradesschool, expect him to, get into the possession of the fundamental knowledge and something of the skill of a trade by his seventeenth or eighteenth year. If he goes to work in a, store or factory, expect him to, come to, the continuation school till his seventeenth year is, completed. Have him and, his parents nnderstand that he is responsible to the schools until he is perhaps eighteen years old. 11. Set up trades schools in spacious, but not necessarily ornate buildings. Start the particular kind of trades schools that the business of the town and the interests of the trades call for. Let it be understood that wherever there are a sufficient number of children to learn a, particular trade, there will be a school to teach it to them. Let the trades school partake more of the character of the shop than of the school..flHold to books, somewhat, particularly books which the pupils will be glad to, read by themselves, carry mathematics a, little farther, lay emphasis upon work with a, pencil; let the main part of the work be with the hands; and let the atmosphere of the place be free and comfo rtable, so that young people will like it. Let the teaching be done by real artisans, who are intellectually balanced and can teach, rather than by teachers who can use tools only indifferently. Above all, have teachers who are not afraid of youth, 118 and so are not under the necessity of brow-beating and badgering them a, great deal, but rather who commandl respect, because of what, they are, and can lead the way tot the pleasure of really doing things. 12. Keep the trades schools open afternoons and evenings. Have their pupils attend from four or five hours to as many hours a week as the pupil can give. Let the training be individual and let the progress of the pupil depend upon himself and upon the time he can give; but allow him to engage in other work for pay if he must. 13. Modify the child labor laws so they will articulate with the plan, and, enforce them. Require employers to regulate their affairs so that employees, may attend continuation schools or a trades school at least four or five hours per week. 14. Let the trades schools be supported by the town, but give them sufficient state aid to, encourage their organization and dispose them to, conform to, the needs of the situation. 15. Meet any demand on behalf of girls as well as on behalf of boys. 16. Make it quite possible for one in a trades school to go to a manual training high school, and vice versa, but be careful to avoid the inference that one is to prepare for another. Let it be understood that each stands upon its own footing and leads to very different ends. 119 CONCLUSO1x. We hae exploited the fundamental principles of ouvr democracy in our politics, and in our religion much, more completely and satisfactorily than in our educationr or i ur industries. The application of those principles to our training and our work of hand is now to be pressed to conclusions. It is a matter of great moment to the country and to what the country stands for in the world; and it is a matter of preeminent concern to the State which has the largest population and i's first in finance and in publication, as well as first in the commercial and manufacturing activities of the Union. The people of the State have the power in their hands. They have millions of boys and girls to raise aright. Nothing is clearer than that results turn upon the training. They have business to promote. The outcome is determined by the course that, is taken. Our children and our work are interdependent,. One interest must help the other if we would grow in the elementsi which make a commonwealth great. It is becoming more and more obvious every day that, whether we would wish it so or not,, a, steadily increasing weight of responsibilittv must rest upon the schools. The usefulness of our society to the individual depends upon the character and the efficiency of the units who comprise the mass. The worth of the individual to the State, on the other hand depends upon the common acceptance of the principles of the Golden Rule, as well as upon the ambitions which are inspired by the common thinking and the prevalent anxiety and aptitude of the people for work. Whether the work be intellectual or manual has; nothing to do with the right, of the toiler to respect and regard. Individual success and the growing strength of a people must come, if it comes at all, through steady application by growing numbers, through increasing competency, through sound living, and through the slow accretions of goods and of esteem. It would be an appalling and pathetic mistake for a people to, think that subtlety and greed can become the basis of either personal or national prosperity. 120 Economic conditions have forced combinations. The disappearance of individual responsibility in the corporation and the labor union, has wrought havoc with old-fashioned thinking and with moral fiber. The time must soon come when the man in the corporation shall be stopped from using the common power of the people to, oppress rather than to, aid the people, and -when the man in the union shall be stopped from using the organized strength of his fellows to do the least he can for his, wage, and from debasing himself through subtle antagonism to the people for whom he works, or a heavy shadow will rest upon the pathway of the Republic. The man in the union, and all the rest of us, both in this generation and the next, must be aided, more completely by the schools, and to do that some radical, changes in the basis, the thought, and the plan of the schools seem imperative. The child must have his chance,-an equal, open, hopeful, chance. But he must, not be misled. I-lis chance is in work. It is in his becoming accustomed to, discipline, to direction, to industry, and to persistence, before he is sixteen years of age. The chance is lessening rather than enlarging through too munch sentimentality in the schools. I do not think our young people are more immnoral,-I think they are more moral, than the young people of the last, generation, or the one before that, were, but I think they are distinctly more irresponsible, falsely polite on occasions, and distinctly impolite and often impertinent the rest of the time, than their predecessors were; that they have more information and less power; and that it is due to the weakening control of the home, and to pedagogical philosophies which are either fallacious or are unwiselv applied, as well as to work which is undesirable or too much attenuated, in the scho,ols. Let, us resume some old-fashioned notions about work, about the child as! well as the teacher doing his part, of the work, and about, the direction and, the control of children. Even though we regret the fact, I arm confident that the chance of the American child depends upon the school supplying opportunities for his physical, as well as his intellectual, faculties, which were formerly supplied outside of the schools. He must have a wider range olf things to do, he must be allowed 121 to choose when he can; and he must then be required to do( what he undertakes. His training must, be more exact and definite. He must be trained in a vocation and taught that he must uplift his craft and help his craftsmen, while he allows no one less worthy than himself to rob himt of the benefits of his individual skill, or of his fundamental right to use it in the way which will bring him the most advantage. H-e must be distinctly told that he can not have the profit -which belongs to other men through their knowledge, skill, and thrift; that shiftlessness can bear none but bitter fruit; and that there is no probable chance and nothing in. the thought of his country which will make it otherwise. Our schools can no;t long continue to give an advantage to a minority, nor to give more aid to the intellectual than the induistrial interests of our life. Let us bring about as much of it, as we can for our State. To that end let us not be afraid of new plans. Let us not think that the trend of events ought not to be. Even though we depart fromn the thought and the practice of the past, let us work out the foundation principles of our democraecy in our education, and let us make our knowledge and our training potent in our industries. And let us make our industries contribute not only to our wealth and, to our strength, but. to our manhood as well. Then we shall assure the free American chance to, every one, and we shall give a. new interpretation and a new power to the essential factors of our common life. 122 AORE USEFUL SCHOOLS. "Of all the larger educational movements of the time probably no other i's destined to have so farreaching influence as that wThich seeks to introduce into our school work a more distinctly utilitarian purpose than has before been recognized. The general object of the introduction of this purpose has been so much under recent discussion that it is hardly necessary to repeat this here. We are learning, however, from the experience of other people, that it pays in every sense to train for efficiency in action as well as for efficiency in thinking, and that, T conceive, is the underlying motive of a right sort of vocational training. We are recognizing that in the discharge of its duty to! itself the State is bound to consider as much the man who, is to, work with his hands as it does him whose labor is to be of the head; indeed that is the rightly organized industrial state; there can be no comrplete separation of one from the other, and, therefore, that productive industry is entitled to men trained to, co-ordinate hand and brain in a higher, better and, therefore, more profitable workmanship. "It is perhaps not easy toi say to' what extent this new educational ideal implies a reorganization of our school system. It, is my opinion that so far as the elementary school is concerned such reorganization is hardly demanded except in so far as hand work through manual training is given greater emphasis. I do not, believe that it implies new obligation on, the community to, give in special schools, in night and continuation schools the same opportunities to; the great majority who, are to serve the world by the toil of the hands that are now freely given to those whose service is to give through the more distinctly literary callings." —Maine Superintendent, of Public Schools. 123 AGRIXCULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS IN SCHOOLS. Sec. 224. TAUGHIT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. It shall be lawful for the department of public instruction to include agricultural and industrial pursuits among the branches of instruction taught by the public schools of the Territory. Sec. 225. AS PRESCRIBED BY DEPARTMENT. The department of public instruction shall have power to. prescribe the manner and designate the places in which such pursuits shall be conducted, and also, to determine the extent to which they shall be followed, either generally or to, suit particular places. Sec. 226. USING PUBLIC LANDS. For the purpose of this chapter it shall be lawful for the department of public instruction after due notice to the commissioner of public lands or superintendent, of public works, a.s the case may be, tol use free of rent as much of any government land,, not otherwise employed, as, shall be advantageously cultivated by the teachers and pupils of any public school, and the teachers and pupils aforesaid shall have the ri'ght to continue to cultivate such government land so long as the same shall not, be otherwise disposed of by the commissioner of public lands, or superintendent of public works, as the case may be, or otherwise ordered by the department of public instruction; and, in case of disposal of the same by the commissioner of public lands o'r superintendent of public works, as the case may be, sufficient notice shall be given toi enable the removal of improvements, and the gathering of growing crops, without loss to the owners thereof. Sec. 227. OTHER LANDS. Whenever it, shall deem the same desirable, the department of public instruction may also acquire, on such t,erms as may be agreed upon, land other than government, that may be advantageously employed for the purposes herein stated. Sec. 228. PROFITS TO TEACHERS AND PUPILS. All net, profits arising from agricultural and industrial pursuits, under this chapter, shall belong to the teachers and 124 pupils actually engaged in such pursuits, and shall be divided amnong the same in. such proportions as the department of public instruction shall deem proper; but the provisions of this section shall not be deemed applicable to schools otherwise regulated by law. Sec. 229. PUBLIC SCHOOL LAWS RPELATE TO THIS CHAPTER. All laws for the government, discipline and welfare of the public schools of the Territory, shall in their operation be construed to include the enforcement of the provisions of this chapter in relation to agricultural and. industrial pursuits in said schools. 125 APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNNDS IN AMERICA. In the discussion on School Funds, and, their apportionment by E. P. Cuhberlv, the f ollowing points are given a-s the basis of distrihution of schoiol fufnds: 1. IDistriblution with reference -to taxes and wealth. 2. Distribution with reference to total population. 3. The scho~ol census basis. 4. The enrollment, and average, membership basis. 5. The daily atitendance, basis. 6. The district and teacher b~asi~s. 7. The teacher b~asis,. The appo~rtionmtent of school funds on the basis, of taxes paid or pro~perty valuation is one! of the earliest and, poorest, of mnetho~ds. It, is. really only a form of compulso~ry local taxation and. has no. educational value. The ap~portionmyent, of funds a~cco~rding to, the basis indicated in 2, 3, 4-, 5, 6 is, in advance of numnber, one. It, is; considered, that the seventh, the teacher basis, is, the most, equitable. single basis for- the apportioning of. school f-unds..APPORTIONMENT OF SeCn-ooLs FOUND INS83 C"ITIEs SOF AMERICA. (-Report, of Commissioner of Education, IT. S'.) An apportionment, of money for the~ maintenance and -operation of city school system for, specific purpo~ses, expressed in the per, cents. of the tot~al expenditures. The cities from which reports were received are classilied on the basis, of population according to, the census of -1900 into seven gro-ups. I First, gro-up: (Cities having a population of m~ore than -1,000,000. Second g ron p: Cities having a, population of' 500,000 'to I1,000,000. Third. group: Cities havinig a, population. of 200,000 to 500,000. 126 Fourth group: Cities having a population of 100,000 to 200,000. Fifth group: Cities having a population of 50,000 to 100,000. Sixth group: Cities having a population of 20,000 to 50,000. Seventh group: Cities having a population of 10,000 to 20,000. As an illustration, the three items, salaries paid high-school teachers, elementary-school teachers, and for supervision in the cities named run as follows;: Chicago, 78.3 per cent. of the total operating expenses; Philadelphia, 73.6 per cent.; St. Louis, 74.8 per cent.; Boston, 72.99 per cent.; Baltimore, 77.1 per cent. Comparing the three items separately: Chicago,: 7.4 per cent., high school; 61.1 per cent., elementary teachers; 9.8 per cent., supervision. Philadelphia,: 9.9 per cent., high school; 56.02 per cent., elementary teachers; 7.7 per cent., supervision. St. Louis: 6.6 per cent., high. school; 55.7 per cent., elementary teachers; 12.5 per cent., supervision. Boston: 12.57 per cent., high school; 52.32 per cent., elementary teachers; 8.07 per cent., supervision. Baltimore: 9 per cent., high school; 62.5 per cent., elementary teachers; 5.6 per cent., supervision. The per cent. paid to high-school teachers, is: First group.. 8.8 Third, group.. 9.0 Sixth group.. 11.3 Second group 9.7 Fourth group 10.8 Seventh group 14.3 Total paid elementary teachers: First group.. 58.5 Third group.. 55.5 Sixth group.. 52.00 Second group 56.8 Fourth group 52.3 Seventh group 46.49 Fifth group.. 54.0 127 Supervision costs in each respectively: First group.. 8.7 Third group.. 9.9 Sixth group.. 10.6 Second group 9.1 Fourth group 9.9 Seventh group 9.6 Fifth group.. 11.4 Putting the three iterms, high-school salaries, elementaryschool salaries, and supervision, under the head of instruction, the percentage of cost in each group of cities, is as follows: First group.. 76.0 Third group.. 74.4 Sixth group.. 73.9 Second group 74.9 Fourth group 73.0 Seventh group 70.39 Fifth group.. 75.2 There is little fluctuation in janitor service taking the cities in groups as in the previous cases. Service costs: First group.. 7.5 Third group.. 6.8 Sixth group.. 6.1 Second group 6.4 Fourth group 6.7 Seventh group 7.37 Fifth group.. 6.5 In the department of repairs there seems to be no determining factor, judging from the outlay of each individual city, but by groups; the mean averages are not so very divergent. The percentages are: First group.. 5.6 Third group.. 4.8 Sixth group.. 3.9 Second group 5.5 Fourth group 3.9 Seventh group 3.0 Fifth group.. 4.1 As to the matter of free textbooks, there is not sufficient data to warranti a general statement, yet from a partial investigation, it is estimated that, after the pupils are once supplied, 4 per cent. will be an adequate allowance for this item. There is no data, as to, whether the same care is taken of the free textbooks as when the parents supply them. The amount required for school supplies, judged entirely from the reports submitted, can, with safety, be put at, 3 per cent. Miscellaneous. Fuel.......... 128 1-n C>t - in C ~L Ci -i VD 11!~H = Vh T-n ut tr (1 cc U- r --- r~ 0) Iz v~ C- Z~ T t- 0 0 Ci ~1-~ - C C,~t -~ ~C 4 )-t Ct- 0= - I Supplies...... cc -~ c: ti CBi. t- C. Text Books.... Il c. 'C ~o!1 T m C10 I-r -j~ U- U- r- Vz I —0 it r —I r — 4l ~ -, )~ zi CCl V/; - CC C tI ~ r T- C'A f — vr'j ~Lr-i: 4 i- ci 4 c- c-i L, -i H h-4 0 H pr1 Repairs....... 1- cc C CMl CC r- Cl C - CVJ t- O C lc 0G CC '.c... *M * t *i Janitors..... r- cI T C I d.C G CO C C, - t Z- GC Q c - c co Supervision... Elementary Teachers.... - Cl cl ) lC l c C Cl U- CC C CM i-O Os i-l T' 1z o b c: o cO 0 oo0 T- Tf HT-( Ti T T rr CC t rH CG 0 0 X + - > H U 1- lC C Ct cC 1I U- U- r C CC CC 0 1 c O CX 0 -7O U- U - ':l I i:t c: C C C C -C lU -'tU -ii i0 CM High School C. C C 0 Cl o - o U cd C UTeachers... U C U - C cs U- - i c - 8^P^8Vt$; U-. oo ~ ' O 8 *? rd ^ ~.s s ^ | ^ *iv'C cfp^c^s: ^pFflpqMr GROUP VI.-CITIES OF THE WESTERN AND PACIFIC SLOPE STATES. NAME OF CITY. g n CD 0 O:m o 1M O ci2r San Francisco....... 7.8 Denver, Colo... 13.74 Los Angeles, Cal...... 8.6 Oakland, Cal......... 14.7 Tacoma, Wash.... 9.0 Spokane, Wash... 10.0 Sacramento, Cal...... 5.5 Pueblo, 'Cal... 11.4 San Jose, Ca..... 15.4 Colorado Springs, Col. 36.4 Ogden, Utah........ 41.3 Cheyenne, Wyo...... 53.9 C D 52.9 54.2 62.1 52.9 56.0 49.9 73.0 47.4 12.6 11.3 14.6 5.0 ' 7-. 0 - 2 cr/ * I '0 10.3 6.72 9.4 12.4 11.6 8.9 7.2 11.8 2.7 4.0 7.9 4.0 0 3.8 5.68 5.3 1.0 2.7 4.0 4.7 7.9 2.1 2.0 3.2 2.0 2.0 CD 0/2 1.2 8.37 5.3 1.0 2.7 4.0 4.7 -7.9 2.1 3.0 2.6 H i-t0 0 r/1.5 3.25 1.4 1.3 2.3 3.8 1.6 1.8 1.3 6.8 2.0 2.6 5w 02 CD.4 2.41 1.9.9.5 3.4 1.1.. 4.0 4.9 4.0.t 0 1.6 1.54 3.2 2.2 1.1 5.5 1.7 4.5 3.1 6.8 2.0 2.6 b2 0 0 19.1 G.79 o 2.2 1O 8.5 9.7 5.7 2.0 8.4 5.0 21.4 14.2 12.0 130 APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS. In Hawaii until 1894 the central government imposed a school tax that was collected and used in the district by the school agent under the authority of the Department. If the local school tax sufficed for the local-needs, the school was practically independent in financial matters. If the 'school tax exceeded the school needs there was a surplus that was allowed to accumulate, but if, as it was in the large majority of cases, there were not sufficient funds the legislative appropriation was drawn on to supply the deficiency. This was found to be unsatisfactory, and in 1894 all of the revenues were collected and deposited in the general treasury. Biennial appropriations were made for the schools. The items under the head of supervision and instruction were distributed according 'to a salary schedule prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. The main features of this schedule are in accordance with the best practices on the mainland (Cubberly-School Funds and Their Apportionment,). The practice previous to; 1894 (Hawaiian Educational Report, 1900, on question of Local School Funds) was simply a first step in the development of our school system. It is described as one of the earliest and, poorest of methods and has no educational significance (Cubberly, page 83-92). Previous to 1894 the school agent knew the amount. of money at, his disposal, although he was not allowed to use it at his own discretion. Since 1894 the school agent has not known the amount of money available for use in his district, and in addition has not been able to use it at his own discretion. This has lessened his effectiveness, if he economized others reaped the reward, if he was lavish in his expenditures the Territory suffered. This has proven unsatisfactory. The school agents were generally men of large interests who gave up their time to the cause of education. Had they known the amounts; available, the department would have had the advantage of their expert knowledge of conditions' and as a, result the schools certainly would have been better cared for than they were under conditions where the agent, shorn of his power of initiative and ignorant 131 of the amount at his disposal, was unable to, map out his work or to carry out any definite policy. It is recommended that the amount appropriated under the head of 'School Supplies" be distributed among the schools according to a schedule prepared by the Department of Public Instruction. This schedule considers the number of teachers and the class and enrollment of the school.' In this way each school agent and each supervising principal will know the amount, available for his schools for the year and can then plan to use it to the best advantage. Economy or wise administration will give definite and immediate results. The disadvantages under the system of "Local Funds" will be obviated and each school will get, its share of taxes according to its needs and not according to the community's actual;tax-paying power. This adjustment, it is felt, will appeal to the sense of justice in this community. Give each school its share of the money appropriated and if there is not sufficientl for the needs of the work then it is very clear that the appropriation should be increased to meet the needs. The authorities on the apportionment of school funds in America claim that ithe method, previous to, 1894 was a crude way of apportioning the school funds of any community. The method now in vogue is an advance over that used previous to 1894. In the matter of school supplies the lack of a well balanced schedule renders a good system less effective than it would otherwise be. It is felt by this comimssion that the apportionment of the funds, for school supplies according to a schedule based on the most approved methods should, correct the chief defects in the existing plan and meet the reasonable demands of the taxpayer. The funds available fo'r school purposes are apportioned in Hawaii as follows: a. The legislature by the act of appropriation apportions the funds in a general way. b. The appropriation under the head of "Teachers and Supervisors' is distributed, according to a schedule prepared by the Department of Publie Instruetion. c. The distribution of school supplies to localities and schools is left to. the executive officers of the Department of Public Instruction. 132 THE QUE'STIO2N OF LOCAL FUNDS. (Report 1900). (REPORT OF FORMER SUPT. ATKINSON.) Up to, the year 1894 the school tax of each district was expended in the district in which it was collected. After that year the law was changed and the school tax was absorbed into the general treasury. The theory was that the Government should be completely centralized, and that there would be an advantage to the general public. I considered the step a bad one at the time. I was then an executive employee of the Board. Time has shown that I was correct in my view. The putting of the local school funds into the general treasury has caused more friction and discontent in the outer districts than will be allayed for some years, and the Commissioners and, Minister of Public Instruction, as he was called until annexation took place, have had to bear the results of that discontent. Up to the thime of thi's change in financial manamngeinent, the school agent of each district, under bonds, took charge of the school fund of his district.; He administered this fund under the guidance of the Board, of Education. He could not spend it as he saw fit; he could only spend money under authorization. In many cases, in fa,cit in most cases, the school tax of the district did not suffice to pay the salaries of the teachers in that district, and as soon as the tax was exhausted the general fund for support of schools, voted by the Legislature, was drawn upon. But in some cases, especially where there were large plantations, the school fund more than paid the salaries, and. a surplus was left over, which, being husbanded, served to build new school houses, when required, and repair those which were already in existence. I can well remember how much was able toi be done o'ut of the local school fund in Makawao, when Hon. C. H. Dickey first took charge as school agent. Also, how well the Hamakua and North Kohala schools were kept in repair and painted under the agencies, of Rufus Lyman and B. D. Bond. At the present time no school district can be forehanded, no school district can be economical in its management for the purpose of nursing a fund for its local improvement. The general school appropriation in the Legislature appears consider 133 ably larger than it would if the school tax were spent in each separate district, and as I have said, there is justifiable discontent in some districts which do not have their full school tax paid out in the district. I have had prepared a schedule of the school tax collected for 1900, and. also the expenditure upon schools for the same year according to districts and islands. It is worth careful study by any one taking an interest in the school system and the needs of the future. ScHooL TAX AND EXPENDITURES FOR EAChI SCHOOL DISTRICT IN TTHE TERRITORY OF HIAWAII. District OAHU: Honolulu.......... Ewa and Waianae... Waialua............ Koolauloa........... Koolaupoko......... Total for Oahu.... School Tax Expenses on Schools......$ 22,652.00..... 11,498.00..... 44,458.00...... 22,240.00..... 2,876.00.....$ 43,724.00 $102,568.11 8,965.02 3,154.72 1,909.73 4,113.21 $1201,710.79 HlAWAII. Hilo and North Hilo......$ 21,544.00 Puna.............. 6,754.00 Kau.................... 3,820.00 South Kona.............. 1,270.00 North Kona............. 2,850.00 Soluth Kohala........... 530.00 North Kohala........... 3,576.00 Hamakua............... 7,328.00 Total for Hawaii.......$ 47,672.00 $ 24,877.08 4,125.00 5,942.20 8,270.64 10,584.14 1,758.00 10,512.00 10,389.00 $ 76,458.06 134 District M5AU[XI, MOLOKAI AND LANAI: School Tax Expenses on Schools Lahaina and Lanai........$ 5,072.00 W ailuku................,390.00 Makawao......... 4,748.00 Hana.........3... 3,756.00 Molokai............... 1,894.00 Total for Maui, Molokai and Lanai...,......$ 21,860.00 IKAUAI: Waimea and Niihau......$ 6,390.00 KIoloa and Lihue.......... 8,788.00 Kawaihau............ 3,522.00 Hanalei................. 2,276.00 Total for Kauai.........$ 20,976.00 $ 9,214.76 10,127.75 16,541.60 7,734.03 4,412.50 $ 48,030.64 $ 9,754.90 8,071.75 3,970.33 5,222.50 $. 27,019.48 From this table it will be seen that no, Island is able to pay entirely out of the school tax for the school system. There are, however, five districts which can do so, and would have money in hand. One of these districts is that of Puna, Hawaii, and this district, has a distinct grievance under the present system. Years ago, before the kiss; of the Prince of Industry awoke the Sleeping Beauty of agricultural possibility, the district was one which yielded the smallest, school tax in the group. But with the development of the district the school tax has increased, as the school needs have increased. Last year the expenditure upon the district for school purposes was but $4,125, though the collection from school tax alone was $6,754, and the total tax collection of the district amounted to, $31,748.75. Now Puna is in dire need of school houses, but the Superintendeint and the Commissioners of Public Instruction have had no means of supplying Puna with the requisite houses, and what is just as necessary in a newly settled district, with cottages for teachers. And this has occurred, in face of the fact that the school tax from Puna not only paid for all its educational expenses, but had over $2,500 surplus which might have 135 been used to erect buildings, instead of, as novw, being dependent upon the good will of the plantation people for the premises occupied. This, one would think, would be sufficient commentary upon the system of centralization inaugurated in 1894. But Puna is by no means the only case in point. Take the district of Ewa and, Waianae. The school tax amounted to $11,498, the expenditure for 1900 was $8,965. Here again is a, surplus. of $2,500. This district has had urgent need of a teacher's cottage at Oahu plantation, and a change of a school site at. Waiawa. There has been no, appropriation for the Comniissioners to, draw upon, and the district ha.s had to lose valuable teachers in the one case, because they had no means of finding a proper and convenient home, and in the other there has been distinct loss of efficiency because the school has to be maintained in what is now an utterly unsuitable place. Yet, if the district had had partial control of its own school fund, it would have easily been able to make these improvements. Again take Waialua of Oahu. The school tax for 1900 was $4,458. The expenditures for school purposes was $3,154.72, and there would have been a surplus of $1,300 for the year. It is urgently necessary that, the site of the school should be changed, owing toi the changed conditions of the concentration of population. A site has been obtained from the Bishop estate, but nothing can be done until an appropriation is obtained from the Legislature for the erection of a. new school, by the sale of the old, school buildings, and the balance in hand a good step towards putting the new arrangement into proper order might have been made this year. What I have been dealing with is this year alone. Had there been accumulations for years past, the story would tell much worse than I have told it. Can any one wonder that, there is discontent in certain districts:? I must confess that I sympathize thoroughly with the people of Puna, of Ewa, and Waianae, and of Waialua of Oahu. They have a. perfectly just grievance. At the same time it has not been the fault of the Ministers and the Commissioners any more than it is at present the fault of the Superintendent and, the Commissioners, but it would personally be my fault, if in this present report I did not, put my finger upon the spot, and show that a trouble lies there. 136 I am quite aware of the arguments which can be brought forward in favor of the present system,, but I believe them to be utterly unsound. I believe that the system prior to 1.894 was infinitely superior to anything that we have had since., Not only did the change of system take away the local control of the funds, but it practically confiscated a large amount of school property. Little pieces of land, the rent from which served to fill the local coffers;, were swept into, the general fund. The bonds held by the School Department, the result of land sales and interest of which the law said was to be applied to educational purposes, were swept, into the same insatiable maw, and the Educational Department was left a suppliant at the knee of centralization. I considered it wrong then; now returning to the full administration of the Departmnent, which I then served, I still consider it a wrong. It can never be completely undone, something can be done to remedy it. This, I hope the coming Legislature will do, and I trust that it, will have your Excellency's assistance. If our present educcational system is curtailed and hamivpered, the entering wedge wtas made by those who. engineered the change of 1894. Note. This difficulty under olur scheme is overcome by the present county control of school buildings and the Territorial continuing appropriation. The Boiard of Public Instruction can include school agents in its appropriation scheme or counties may do so. 137 AMIOUN TS APPROPRIATED 1905. CURRENT EXPENSES. Furniture and Fixtures................$ 6,400.00 Industrial and Manual Training.......... 3,000.00 Book Fund..................... 10,000.00 Stationery and Incidentals.......... 3,000.00 School Supplies..................... 8,000.00 Repairing School Buildings: Oahu................................ 10,000.00 H awaii.............................. 9,000.00 Maui, Molokai and Lanai............... 6,000.00 Material for Manual Work Girls' Industrial School......................... 2,000.00 Expenses and Material for Lace Making.... 3,000.00 Support of Lahainaluna Seminary.......... 15,000.00 Support of Kona Orphanage.............. 3,000.00 General Expenses, Boys' Industrial School... 15,000.00 General Expenses, Girls' Industrial School... 6,000.00 I I 1..1 v - 1111~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~-:~;I~ u 1~~:1"11.;; I lr:: ' v -,:..' M" I ~111;-';",.s11 1"" I;. ",:".~~, Enrollment 500-600..... 400-500..... 300-400..... 200-300... 150-200..... 125-150..... 100-125..... 75-100..... 45- 75..... 1st yr. $2000 1800 1200 1000 1000 1000 900 720 660 PRINCIPALS ELEM:ENTARY SCHOOLS. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. $.... $.... $.... $2400 $...................2000..........~........... 1800..... 1200......................... 1200.......................... 1200.......... 1000.......... 1200..... 840 900.......... 1000..... 720.........840 10th..... 1500 1200 900 16th. 1500 21st. $.... *. *.. 1500 1500 139 Assistants Elementary Schools: 1st year......................$ 600 3rd year.................... 660 6th year...................... 720 9th year..................... 780 12th year...................... 840 15th year.................... 900 Normal Critic Teachers: 1st year..................... $ 900 2nd year...................... 960 3rd year..................... 1020 4th year...................... 1080 5th year...................... 1200 HI-IG; AND NORMAL SCHOOLS. First year, $1000. Second and third years, $1200. Fourth to tenth years, inclusive, $1500. After tenth year, $1800. Holders of }Normal diplomas begin at salary of $660, and reach maximum in twelve years. AVERAGE EXPENDITURES FOR TEN YEARS-1898-1908. (1 kverage enrollment of pupils, 14,51 Total Expenditure...............*$2,770,321.35 I -1 Purpose. Teachers and Janitors... Supervision............ Teachers' Conventions... Buildings............. Repairs............... Furniture and Fixtures... Book Fund........... School Supplies........ Industrial and Manual Tr. Administration.......... General Expenses.................................. 71,833.06..........................10,089.59....................,.... 337,960.84....................... 151,986.69........................ 34,060.49....................... 59,472.45....................... 34,347.47 aining.................. 27,507.95....................... 94,731.90....................... 41,765.96 Av. Annual Expenditure Percentage Expenditure per Pupil of Total $277,032.13 $19.07 $76.24 7,183.31.49 1.93 1,008.96.07.28 33,796.08 2.33 9.03 15,198.67 1.05 4.19 3,406.05.23.91 5,947.24.41 1.64 3,434.75.23.92 2,750.79.19.76 9,473.19.65 2.61 4,176.60.29 1.15 $363,407.77 $25.01 $99.64 s to be resold. The Territory is there Totals................................... $3,634,077.75 Expenditures under "Book Fund" are for the most part for book fore largely reimbursed, in this item of expenditure. The above statement includes cost of teaching in elenentary schools, high schools, normal schools, the reformatory schools and Lahainalhma, but does not include $110,322.30 for support of Boys' Industrial School, $31,881.08 for Girls' Industrial School, and. $49,708.15 for Lahainaluna School. 141 ENROLLMENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF 100 AMERICAN CITIES. (Report 1907.) The type and variations of approximately the hundred largest cities of the United States with respect to the number of students (in actual attendance) per teacher. As reported for 1907, the number of students in actual attendance per teacher in these cities ranges from 22 to 54. The most typical condition is 32, classes of 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34 being nearly equally common. IHalf of the cities range between 30 and 35. Nine-tenths of them are between 27 and 41. The case of 54 students per teacher is, we may hope, the result of error, the next worst record being only 46.7. Table E gives the type in detail. TABLE E.-FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF PUPILS (IN AVERAGE ATTENDANCE PER TEACHER). Quantity: Pupils per Teacher. 21 to 22.9............ Frequency: No. of Cities............. 23 to 24.9................... 25 to 26.9................. 27 to 28.9.................. 29 to 30.9................... 31 to 32.9.................... 33 to 34.9............. 35 to 36.9................... 37 to 3.9................... 39 to 340.9................... 41 to 42.9................... 43 to 44.9................... 45 to 46.9................. 47 to 48.9................... 47 to 48.9............. 49 to 50.9.................. 51 to 52.9................... 53 to 54.9......................... 2...... 214..... 14..... 19..... 20..... 18..... 11..... 5..... 4..... 2..... 1..... 1...... 1 Total....................... 100 142 ENROLLMIIENT I'N PUBLIC S.CHOOLS OF' HAWAII. OVERC'ROWDED ROOMS IN REGULAR PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF HAWAIl, JUNE, 1909'. Enrollment of Enrollment of Enrollment of Enrollment, of Enrollment of over over over, over over 45 610 55 60 70 but under 50...........57 rooms or over but under 55... 38 rooms or over but under 60..... 25 rooms or over but, under 70..... 24 rooms.......... -,. c... 12 rooms Total..15............... -.......154 rooms 154 out of 439 rooms, or 35%/0 overcrowded. Figures approximately correct. I,J I a r k.; *: I, ii II, i ~t~l, i:r 1!r, 1( ( n' ' r r 1* it Ir ~i u I '' r "ii ~"I: i I' i' i 1 Ir,.(i i ill' iv i ~. " ' ' "'"Y'' i?I ii j r j. '3 i I xl~,illrnl ' P i "I * YI 'II' ' i: I jl ' i;, "ur J~:i Ir ur i i" t'rli ~ I ~ I I J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DATE DUE APR 30 1997 ' UND. RY 777?rrm — I~~~~~~~~~~1