NURSERY EDUCATION THEORY and PRACTICE NURSERY EDUCATION THEORY and PRACTICE BY WILLIAM E. BLATZ, M.A., M.B., Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, University of Toronto, Director, St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto AND DOROTHY MILLICHAMP, M.A. Assistant Director, St. George's School for Child Study, Nursery School Division, University of Toronto AND MARGARET FLETCHER Principal, Nursery School of St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto WILLIAM MORROW AND COMPANY NEW YORK I935 NURSERY EDUCATION THEORY and PRACTICE Copyright, 1935 By William Morrow and Company, Inc. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES TO C. M. H. AND E. A. B. ~I PREFACE THROUGHOUT this book the authors have tried to stress principles rather than specific formula. They have emphasized serenity, understanding and non-interference. As the pages mounted in number it began to seem that the practice was at variance with the preaching. They asked themselves how one could escape bewilderment and achieve placidity in such a maze of intricate possibilities, gain understanding when there was so much still to be known and remain aloof when there were so many instructions to be followed. The answers to these questions seemed a stumbling block to the publication of the book until the happy thought occurred that the answers were contained within the book itself and with this thought, or rather, hope, the book is offered. For the past ten years the contents of this book, developed through experience of failure and success, have been used in the training of nursery school teachers and in the enriching of parent education programs. In seminars and staff conferences the various aspects and phases of nursery school procedure have been discussed and evolved. For our own clarification it was decided to collect the results of our labors, not in any spirit of finality or as any permanent crystallization of viewpoint, but rather as a specific starting point for criticism, evaluation and elaboration. We have found the plan as outlined of some value in teaching not only with graduate students in the field of nursery school practice but also with parents of pre-school children in the home. At times the readers may feel that some of the statements are self-evident, trite and perhaps trivial. We have found, vii Vlu PREFACE however, that greater difficulty surrounds the inculcation of training habits of an apparently trivial character than is experienced with the less frequent and seemingly more significant "problems" in child care. Also we are more emphatic about the positive training in the simple things of the preschool child's life because we feel that perhaps we understand these aspects more fully than the complex social and emotional patterns. These latter are still, in a large measure, sealed volumes. The authors feel that they have been afforded a few peeps therein, or rather a few myopic glances. Further research and study will, no doubt, open the book wide and clear the vision. Our motto is: when in doubt as to the mode of specific interference, do nothing. This obviously gives us a good deal of leisure for study and research. The suggestions as to nursery school practice have been found satisfactory by the empirical test of use in the nursery school, in the home and in the clinic. Upon this basis they are offered and recommended. The theories that are appended are the products of the authors' imaginations and ingenuity and are offered only for what they are worth. Although the authors are willing to accept the consequences for all that appears in the book they are indebted to the following for generous assistance and kindly criticism: to Miss M. Husband, dietitian of St. George's School for Child Study, who wrote the chapter on nutrition, and to Dr. F. F. Tisdall, who submitted the chapter on health rules; to Miss A. L. Harris, who has spent many hours on the routine records; to Mrs. E. A. Bott, Mrs. S. Chant, Mrs. S. Cohen, Mrs. H. Johnson and Mrs. F. Bartlett of the Parent Education Staff, who have read the manuscript in detail; to Mrs. H. B. Hedman, who helped in the arrangement of the tabular material; to Miss M. Poppleton and Miss J. Gillies who have assisted in the make up of the book; to Messrs. Mathers and Haldenby, PREFACE iK who drew the plan of St. George's School, and to all the members of the staff and the students whose work in the School made this book possible. St. George's School for Child Study was founded in February I926 through the generosity of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial. Dr. C. M. Hincks, Medical Director of the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene, anticipated the importance of studying young children as an integral part of the larger Mental Hygiene Research program which he initiated at that time and, together with Professor E. A. Bott of the Department of Psychology of the University of Toronto, organized the School, which has since been incorporated under the administration of the University of Toronto. W. E. BLATZ. D. A. MILLICHAMP. M. I. FLETCHER. St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. February 8th, I935. I CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE PREFACE...... vii I. INTRODUCTION I. A THEORY OF EDUCATION. r.... 3 2. THE NURSERY SCHOOL.... 17 Daily Program References II. ROUTINE I. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE.. 31 Principles of Learning Planning for Learning in Routine Situations Motivation Preliminary Attack on Problem Attack Solution Fixation and Elimination,-Habit Formation Routine Discipline Principles Planning the Discipline Routine Requirements Routine Consequences Routine Records Value Making a Record Form Taking a Record Records of St. George's School Discipline Record Table References 2. DRESSING ROUTINE....... 56 Equipment Procedure Behavior Difficulties Dawdling Refusal of Necessary Help References 3. WASHING ROUTINE.......60 Equipment Procedure Behavior Difficulties Dawdling Washroom Record Tables References 4. ELIMINATION ROUTINE...... 69 Equipment Procedure Behavior Difficulties Enuresis Lapse of Control Involuntary Elimination as a Negative Behavior Response Refusal to Urinate Elimination Record Tables References xi Xii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 5. DINING ROOM ROUTINE.... 82 Equipment Procedure General Organization Routine Requirements Serving the Food Adult Instruction Behavior Difficulties Dawdling Food Dislikes Record Forms Tables References 6. SLEEPING ROUTINE....... 6 Equipment Procedure General Organization Sleeping Habits of the Pre-School Child Adult Techniques Behavior Difficulties Failure to Sleep Tics-Mannerisms Sleeping Record Tables References 7. INCIDENTAL ROUTINES...... 124 Nourishment Routine Drink of Water Nurse's Examination and Entrance Routine Relaxation Routine Record Form References III. WORK AND PLAY HABITS I. DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY.... I37 Work Versus Play Characteristics of the Pre-School Child's Play Spontaneity and Freedom Exercise of Abilities Developmental Phases 2. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD... 144 Adult Control Play Equipment Lay-out and Furnishings Quantity of Play Materials Variety of Play Materials Non-dangerous Play Materials Constructive Materials Suitable Play Materials Play Materials for Physical Development Play Materials for Ideational Development Play Materials for Sensory Development Play Materials for Social Development 3. ANALYSIS OF ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD..... 68 Adult Attitude Minimum Interference Indirect Control Direct Control Danger Rules Rules of Play Procedure Re-direction of Activity Assistance Commendation Behavior Difficulties Destructive Play Retardation in "Play" Behavior CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER PAGE 4. ANALYSIS OF SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS. I79 Outdoor Play Equipment Permanent Equipment (slide, jungle gym, packing boxes, swings and seesaws, gymnastic apparatus, natural properties) Locomotor Equipment (kiddy kars, tricycles and wagons) Raw Materials (sand, earth, water, snow) Building Materials (blocks, boards, ladder, saw horse) Junior Indoor Play Material (2-3 j yrs.) Runabout Toys (trucks, trains, etc.) Manipulative and Simple Constructive Materials (peg boards, fitted blocks and boxes, blocks, disc set upon posts, plasticine, paint, crayons, paper, paste, clothes pins, spools, dominoes) Imaginative Toys (dolls and their accessories, toy animals) Books (picture books) Senior Indoor Play Material (3 /-5 yrs.) Manipulative and Constructive Materials (peg boards, blocks, plasticine, paint, crayons, paper, paste, jig saw puzzles, scissors, carpentry, bead stringing) Elementary Kindergarten Materials (picture cutting, animal cutouts, sewing cards, tracing, stencilling, scrap books, necklaces, colored paper, designing, clay work, carpentry) Imaginative Toys (dolls and their accessories) Books (picture books and simple story books) Carpentry Record Form Tables References 5. ORGANIZED PLAY...96 Story Telling in the Nursery School Story Books for the Pre-School Child Content Construction Expression Picture books Techniques of Story Telling Variations of Story Period Music in the Nursery School Instruction in Singing Instruction in Rhythms Appreciation of Music References IV. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD I. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD 217 Stages of Social Development Social Interest Cooperation Leadership Advanced Social Behavior Social Attitudes 2. PLANNING FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT... 223 Minimum Instruction Social Opportunity in the Nursery School Learning Socially Acceptable Behavior The Role of the Adult xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 3. SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND THEIR TREATMENT. 228 Interference Disagreement Social Pressure Social Ostracism "Over Social" Play Behavior Unacceptable Social Dominance Bidding for Social Attention Immaturity of Social Behavior 4. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED ACTIVITY 239 Social Adjustment in the Routine Social Adjustment in Organized Play Record of Social Participation Tables References V. EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE PRESCHOOL CHILD I. A CONCEPT OF EMOTION....... 251 Analysis of Emotional Episodes "Anger" and "Fear" Emotional Behavior of the Pre-School Child 2. PLANNING FOR THE EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD... 259 Arranging the Environment Treatment of Emotional Episodes Crying Hurt Hurt by Another Child Startled Cold Leaving Parent and Entering School Caught in Apparatus Change in Routine Crying During Sleep Routine Requirements Discipline Social Difficulties Inability to Handle Material Satisfactorily Special Emotional Difficulties Fear Frequent Anger Social Crises Complex Types of Emotional Behavior (Jealousy, Sulking, etc.) Record Form Table References 3. THE ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN TO THE NURSERY SCHOOL......... 289 Preliminary Procedure Physical and Mental Examinations Home Report Home Visit Record Form Introductory Procedure Introductory Period Introductory Treatment Records Table References CONTENTS xv CHAPTER PAGE VI. THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT COOPERATION BETWEEN THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT........ 307 Obligations Nursery School Parent Education Groups Parent Observations in the School Parent Conferences Information for Parents Course Outlines History Form and Home Records References VII. THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET (BY M. L. HUSBAND) PLANNING AND PREPARING THE CHILD'S DIET..327 Menu Selection Breakfast Dinner Supper Food Preparation? Cereals Meat Vegetables Desserts Recipes Cereals Meats Desserts Supper Dishes Menu Forms References VIII. PHYSICAL HEALTH (BY DR. F. F. TISDALL) PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM.... 343 Positive Health Program Outdoor Play Nutrition Sleep Preliminary Physical Education Prevention of Fatigue Prevention of Infections First Aid Tables Physical Examination Form INDEX.... & #0 0 0 0 36 1 CHxAPTER I INTRODUCTION I .," 11 el,/, '4, Oil(, , 9 li % -o ~ i. A THEORY OF EDUCATION NURSERY EDUCATION is certainly not new. Some time after the dawn of biological history, parents began to foster their young. At that point in the evolutionary scale where innate instinct failed to provide completely for adequate adjustment to environment, some form of learning under tuition evolved. The higher the animals progressed in the evolutionary scale, the greater became this need. The birds teach the fledglings to fly; the cats teach their kittens to stalk; the wolves teach the whelps to follow a scent. It seems a far cry from snarling to arithmetic, but the difference is only one of degree. Let us examine this primitive form of tuition.' We may distinguish four aspects: an aim or purpose, the asumption of responsibility for carrying out this aim, a technique for achieving it, and finally a result. The aim of tuition at this level may be stated in terms of survival, whether of the individual or of the species, or of both, need not detain us. Nor need we stop to consider whether there is a specific urge or desire for survival; that is a question still unsettled and perhaps insoluble. We can confidently state, however, that a living organism acts in such a way as to preserve its life, and that the young are cared for and taught by their elders wherever the species is so constituted that modification of innate behavior is possible. It is also evident that the behavior of the individual is directed and controlled by the specific urges which are manifestations of the desire for survival, such as hunger, thirst, mating, 1 It must not be understood that all learning is "guided" at this stage any more than at any later stage in development. The implication is that some guidance is apparent even in these early stages. 3 4 NURSERY EDUCATION sleeping, etc. It is possible further to identify two types of behavior in the growing young, which are also to be found in the adult, namely: an aggressive form of behavior-attack, stalking, killing, digging, etc.-on the one hand; and a submissive form on the other-hiding, fleeing, escape. The parent stimulates on the one hand, and protects or inhibits on the other. Thus the aim of primitive tuition is twofold: to develop an aggression which will obtain the satisfaction of needs; and a submission which will avert the probable catastrophes of environment. Both of these aspects must be considered necessary in any one individual; the development of either to an extreme degree would be undesirable. The responsibility for training is assumed by the parents, or parent, depending largely upon the social organization of the species. The main point is that this responsibility is assumed without coercion. The sharing of this responsibility between male and female parent is based on the circumstances of birth, the need for early care, and the specific habits of the two sexes. The degree of sharing also shows infinite variations among the species. The fact that parents frequently turn cannibalistic and eat their young does not weaken the contention that this responsibility for training is assumed without question. This type of behavior is simply an indication that the parent's specific need for food is more powerful than the need for satisfaction in training. That such should be the case is not surprising. The instances where the reverse has apparently happened are more difficult to understand or explain. The technique of training may be described in terms of imitation, and of learning by doing. No doubt commendation, and certainly disapproval, are used by the adult. Vocal as well as physical signals, cautions and reproofs are employed. There is one important aspect which must be stressed and that is that the total repertoire of the lore of the species is imparted to the young. No selection of content is apparent. The "curriculum" is all-embracing. Individual differences no doubt f A THEORY OF EDUCATION 5 exist, but these differences are of an individual character, within a single accomplishment. Thus, there are some fledglings which fly better than others but they all fly. Some will be more skilled in seeking food but they will all seek, if they are to survive. Thus the technique is to learn by doing, to imitate the parent, and to learn all that there is to learn. And what of the result, the finished product? Obviously this result is judged in terms of the aim to survive, to grow up, to reproduce and carry on the cycle. But there is perhaps another aspect which may be mentioned and that is the development of a colleague. This may be far-fetched when referring to lower species, but it would seem that a certain communal pattern of behavior within a species is desirable, even though communal or social patterns of living are rudimentary or absent. Wolves hunt in packs, birds migrate in flights, and a common type of behavior makes for more efficient living. Perhaps this discussion has been too anthropomorphic, but the facts are indisputable. The young of all species strive for survival, and where modification is possible there is evidence of some tuition assumed by the parent, whose behavior serves as an example for the young to emulate, so that they may grow up and assume the responsibilities of adulthood. Tuition in its most primitive form is concerned with safety and protection on the one hand and aggression and seeking on the other. However much organization develops, these two aspects are always manifest. The responsibility is always accepted at first by one or both of the parents. The learning is imitative in character, the tutor doing, the learner trying. Successful learning results in accomplishment and survival, unsuccessful learning in failure and extinction. May we briefly speculate on the development which takes place throughout the evolutionary scale, from primitive tuition to the complex situation among modern civilized human communities. There are two trends, the one dependent upon the other, 6 NURSERY EDUCATION that must be mentioned before we discuss the differences that appear in the four aspects mentioned above. First, there is an increasing cultural inheritance available to each generation. As soon as some means were at hand of preserving in the slightest degree the achievements and accomplishments of a previous generation, whether by word of mouth or by more permanent recording, the accumulation became progressive. Whether the development of recording history antedated social living or tended to preserve the family as a social unit and made for the formation of increasingly larger social units; or whether the increasingly larger units demanded for their survival some form of cultural survival, is a moot question. We are inclined to believe that the former is the truer picture, since large social units can exist without the preservation of records, as witness the bees and ants, which are dominated by innate behavior patterns and manifest little learning. But the evidence of past achievement stimulates investigation, if the individual is capable of appreciating the significance of the record. However, for the sake of argument, let us assume that this developmental factor is important, whatever its genesis. From primitive species through primitive man to modern civilized man, the accumulated record of past achievement has superimposed a peculiar burden upon those responsible for tuition of the young. This burden will be discussed below. The second trend, which, as has been mentioned, may depend upon the first, is the specialization in behavior that is apparent in more highly developed social groups. Whether this specialization arose through necessity or convenience may be questioned, but there is no doubt that in the highly developed social groups specialization must be fostered because complete mastery of all skills and knowledge is now impossible. Keeping these two trends in mind-increasing cultural lore and the necessity for specialization-let us discuss the development of aim, responsibility, technique, and the result of tuition. (As soon as we set ourselves this task we are spe A THEORY OF EDUCATION 7 cializing our behavior in the direction of a specific interest, and we have called this "Education.") What is the aim of education? It cannot be denied that the aim remains the same throughout all ages-the survival of the individual and of the race. But the emphasis has been changing gradually until to-day the survival of the social group, or even the social order, is paramount. The individual is sacrificed to the good of the group, witness war, capital punishment, etc. From time to time the cry for individual "rights" goes up, as if there were any rights absolutely delineated and capable of definition. From time to time an individual attempts the assertion of his own desires at the expense of the group, but he succeeds only temporarily. The group resents the unusual, the extreme, the variant. There is no doubt that this tendency toward resentment has been brought about by education and it is interesting to contemplate the final result. The balance between aggressive and submissive behavior is a problem for the educator to investigate. When the individual was more important than the group, it was relatively simple to determine the adequate ratio between submission and aggression in terms of the relative intensity of individual specific needs. But when the group is paramount, the balance between these two fundamental forms of behavior is distorted. The group demands submission but cannot itself survive without the aggressive domination of some individuals at least. (This problem is still unsolved. Democracy, communism, autocracy, dictatorship, are all being tried with indifferent success.) Modern society differs in one way from the primitive in that it attempts to define its aim and purpose. This examination of, and speculation about, the fundamental aims of living has led to the development of a wholly peculiar type of cultural lore, viz., religion. That we have not answered the problem satisfactorily from the scientific point of view is evidenced by the fact that there are so many answers, each one accepted as the "truth" by its proponents. But, after all, the fact that we 8 NURSERY EDUCATION believe in the truth of a cultural pattern is sufficient. Whether a dogma, or idea, or concept is "true" or not has never daunted the educator, as long as he believed it to be so. And so, as far as aim is concerned, we are in the same situation as the cat and kitten and the wolf and whelp-with a difference only in emphasis. With them biological survival receives perhaps the most emphasis, and with us, social survival. Also, whereas in primitive situations, tuition, although necessary, was relatively subordinate to instinct, at the present day the essential nature of tuition is indisputable. It is the sine qua non of social survival. The human infant is born very young biologically, and very helpless. His repertoire of instinctive behavior is adequate for survival in a simple and beneficent world, but so involved have the mechanisms of social living become that, without tuition, his progress would be difficult if not impossible. When we become aware of this and turn our energies towards understanding its mechanism, the field of education is made plain and one might say that the science of education is begun. The aims of education may be stated differently by many authors, but in essence they would all agree that the chief purpose is to train the growing child for full adult responsibility. His physical survival depends upon the early and continuous care which is taken of his nourishment, his protection from noxious influences of all kinds, cold, disease, danger, etc. This process of growth is outside the direct influence of tuition. But social growth, learning to live with other individuals, is not as inevitable as physical growth, and that is the province of education. Social growth may be interfered with in many ways and frequently is retarded. But before we discuss the technique, we must say a few words about the responsibility for education. In primitive life, the parents, or usually one parent, assumes the responsibility for training as well as caring for the young. In primitive man this arrangement still obtains. In Samoa the child is taught in the home. In pioneer civilizations the adult of the A THEORY OF EDUCATION 9 family gave what training the children received. With the growth in cultural requirements, and the increasing complexity of socialized living, specialization in function and in vocation appeared. Barter as a device of human intercourse made specialization more effective. One could wear clothes made of cloth, the result of another's labor. One could eat bread prepared by another. One could live in a house built by another's hands. But in each case the responsibility for accepting and exchanging rested with the individual. Caveat emptor is not only a maxim of economics but of the law of living. And thus when the problem of formalizing the teaching of the child arose, specialists-teachers, tutors, governesses, nursemaids-were "employed" to perform this function. But the responsibility still rests with the parent; the task may be delegated but that is all. This fact is frequently lost sight of in the present day. Having elected a board of trustees and sent the children to school, the parents feel their duty over. Teachers and principals and boards resent the intrusion of parents. Questions arise. Is the school responsible for teaching the child health standards, art skills, athletic games, character, morals, religion? The answer is, of course, obvious. The school will teach whatever the parent wishes, but the parent is responsible for the finished product. There are two difficulties in the practice of the system: first, the parents being specialists in other fields are ignorant of the field of education, and second, they are anxious to pass the buck to others. It is a relatively simple matter to coordinate the home and the school if the home recognizes its responsibility in the matter of education of the young and cooperates with the specialist, who, working as a delegate, tries to carry out the wishes of his employer. Criticism directed in both directions usually is due to ignorance. The parent who condemns the innovation in his school system as a "fad and frill" is usually ignorant and unwilling to spend time in learning. The educator who resents the sincere interest of a parent who wishes to keep IO NURSERY EDUCATION abreast of the times as an intelligent "amateur" is of course ignorant of his own place in a civilized community. The educator who resents new methods and condemns an innovation before it has been tried and found wanting is obviously an ignoramus. There is then no delegation of responsibility, only delegation of duties, by the parent. The final product should be what the parent has arranged for, but if it is not, the parent can do one of two things: resume the full function of teaching, or change the existing mode of teaching to yield a more satisfactory product. And now for the technique. The practice of teaching, like the practice of medicine, is an art, not a science. Just as the medical practitioner has been aided by the discoveries in physiology, pathology, bacteriology, etc., so the teacher is helped by the knowledge of psychology, physics, etc., in fact by all of the world's knowledge. That is why teaching is so difficult. The ideal butcher knows joints, cleavers, block, refrigeration; the ideal bricklayer knows angles, bricks, design, and the ideal lawyer knows the law; but the ideal teacher should know everything! The social method of teaching remains constant, viz., the student learns by doing or imitating. Various "methods" of improving the efficiency of this function are formulated but the all important matter of learning is constant. In fact it may be asserted with some confidence that the more interference there is with this activity, by active and "direct" teaching methods, the less effective is the whole process. Teaching may then be a distraction to learning. The specific aim of the teacher is to stimulate learning. Under guidance the pupil should manifest interest, develop persistent endeavor and originality. Whatever methods are employed to bring about this result have been accepted as "good" teaching. But it is necessary to study the pupil very carefully, before judgment may be passed upon the method. It is very easy to interest a child in a new situation for a short A THEORY OF EDUCATION II time, and, by the offering of arbitrary prizes and rewards, to obtain short periods of persistent application, especially if inhibitory force in the form of punishment is employed; it is also easy, by a subtle form of suggestion on the part of the teacher, to elicit results which appear to be self-creative. This is especially true if the system arranges for the teacher to have access to the pupil for only a relatively short period of his life, nine to ten months, and then pass him on to another step; an examination of some sort to act as the stepping stone. It is far more important to look upon the pupil as a learner from birth, and to realize that the "learning" and the habits of learning are more important than the actual material learned. Again, if the teacher, delegated to teach a small range of cultural knowledge, concerns himself with this narrow achievement, where will the child acquire the general habits of living which the child must learn if he is to live socially? To be sure, certain learning with reference to these habits goes on in the classroom side by side with the formal learning, because the pupil imitates the teacher, not only in writing and reading but also in emotional control, social outlook, etc. Obviously, the same sort of direction of the child's learning, stimulating interest, persistent endeavor, and originality, should be manifest in the home, where not only the responsibility but also the opportunity lies for teaching the child "how to live." But the difference lies in the fact that, whereas the teacher passes the students on to another every year, the parent must carry the same pupils on to maturity. It is essential then that the method of teaching be the same in both situations. Arbitrary and artificial methods and devices for "holding interest," for "keeping the nose to the grindstone" and "developing imagination" should give way to methods which are intrinsic in the learning situation. These will be discussed below. The second aspect of the technique aside from the method is the content, or curriculum. This is discussed second because it is less important than the method. Primitive edu 12 NURSERY EDUCATION cation had no problem here because the learner tried to embrace all of the parental lore. This soon became impossible and the controversy over curriculum arrangement began and has continued and will continue as long as there are educators. With specialization came the necessity for choice. There are three types of things to be learned: (i) ethical subjects, pertinent to the social requirements; (2) general subjects, pertinent to universal behavior; (3) specific subjects, pertinent to specific skills. Thus a child should develop certain forms of behavior, such as honesty, cooperation, sympathy, etc. He should also learn how to read and write and speak. And he should learn how to operate if a surgeon; cut hair if a barber; ride a horse if a cavalry man, and teach Latin, if a Latin teacher. It must be admitted that in each of these categories the child learns the appropriate forms of behavior whether they be ways of thought or ways of action. It would be absurd to suggest that the learning is different in any of the three divisions. A child learns to be honest in the same manner that he learns to ride a bicycle; he learns to act towards his colleagues in a friendly or unfriendly manner in the same way as he learns to solve an algebraic equation. Let us discuss each division and see whether a content or curriculum may be devised. In the first division, which includes the morals or ethics of the social group, we are rather at a loss to find agreement on standards. If we take any of the accepted traits, as for example honesty, we may say that the ideal standard is absolute honesty. The rub then comes in that adult practice does not correspond to the preaching. The content or curriculum may be comprised of all of the maxims and homilies but they serve only to develop lip service with growing indifference to the practice. If the sum of two plus two were sometimes three and sometimes four and sometimes five, it would be difficult to learn addition. What pertains to honesty applies to all of A THEORY OF EDUCATION 13 the so-called ethical standards. We are pressed then to state our "content" in terms of principles. The difficulty in this division arises in that individual needs, in order to be satisfied, at times conflict with social requirements. The survival of the individual is not always consistent with the survival of the species. And so the problem of ethical and moral learning is reduced to the resolution of the conflict between conformity and nonconformity. Although we have partially crystallized the problem, we have still to arrive at a basis for standards of conformity. Should the child conform to all the details of civilized living? Can every act be regulated? Is there no "freedom" of activity? Proponents of both extremes-absolute conformity and absolute freedom-are common. Obviously there are more in the former camp. But it is probable that the answer lies somewhere between the two. Compromise is always difficult to administer and so we must look for another way to state the problem. We must find a mechanism for teaching the individual to reconcile his own needs with the interest of communal life. We apply the term "discipline" to the method of applying the principles which evolve from this discussion. But discipline is a method; what about the content? There are certain forms of specific behavior which we can agree upon as essential to living in any social group, and in these habits we insist upon "obedience" or conformity. An individual must observe the rules of decency and sanitation and inhibit homicidal acts. This is not an exhaustive list but one upon which we may agree without controversy. But in the scheme of teaching outlined here, we do not stress the imperative nature of learning qua learning but rather the consequences of "learning" and "not-learning." The consequences of learning are acceptance by the group, and of notlearning, ostracism or isolation. The learner has a choice, and having made it, is then in the position of having to accept I4 NURSERY EDUCATION the consequences. The insistence is upon this aspect of the behavior rather than upon the specific form of the behavior selected. This, then, is the basis of discipline. Specifically it means the arrangement of the learning environment in such a way that the consequences of the individual's behavior will be consistent. That makes learning easy, but teaching difficult, because in our social structure the requirements of living together are so complicated that consistent regulation of consequences is often impossible. We should, then, as teachers be very tolerant of mistakes, often called misdemeanors, or crimes, realizing that errors appear in all learning processes, and that the remedy is more efficient teaching, or rather, more efficient conditions for learning. The aim of teaching is to form an individual who will willingly accept the consequences of his behavior. What he will be taught is the minimum essential for social living; what he does will entail pertinent consequences of an impersonal and consistent nature, that is, ostracism for unusual behavior and "belonging" for acceptable behavior. In that way the child from his own experience may choose whether we, as a group, are really worth living with or not. In the second division, the common groundwork of human culture, there is also a good deal of controversy. The three R's (with their obvious disregard of spelling) have become so entrenched that it would be difficult to criticize their inclusion in any curriculum. But that is only because the whole plan of education has been concocted largely by the educated. A vote among the children would not yield the same enthusiasm, and every educator knows that a large percentage of new children will never grow beyond the childhood stage intellectually. Surely there are other cultural skills which would adapt these children more adequately to social living than these "academic" subjects. The proof of this contention is that more and more are other subjects being introduced into the curriculum-dancing, singing, playing, acting, drawing, A THEORY OF EDUCATION I5 painting, sculpture, foreign languages, weaving, sewing, cooking, etc. The interesting point is that the inclusion of these "fads and frills" has not interfered with the general "educational" standing of the pupils and has perhaps made social adjustment happier, if not easier, providing always the teaching is in conformity with the principles laid down above. Less controversy appears with reference to the third division, the teaching of specific skills. It is relatively easy to make a job analysis of any specific vocational pursuit and include the various items in the curriculum. A stenographer must learn how to strike the keys in a certain order. A plumber must learn to wipe a joint. A tailor must learn to sew. A rugby player must learn to tackle, kick, or punt, or to do all three (depending on the degree of specialization). There may be different "schools" which emphasize one or other aspects of curricular construction for such "professional" subjects but these differences are only incidental. To sum up, then, concerning technique: there is (a) a method which strives to direct interests, to develop persistent attack, and to foster originality, and (b) a choice of material that is secondary to the method, and is most important in those learning situations where the goal is specific as in professional and other applicable skills. Now what is the final result of such a teaching program? If survival of individual and race be a basic hypothesis then the ideal finished product is an adult who enjoys living (this aspect is often overlooked), who also, as a colleague, fits into the social scheme where necessary, and still indulges in individual opinions and behavior, striving towards an improvement in the technique by which he has arrived at his adult position, so that the compromise between conformity and individualization will become increasingly more efficient and pleasant. Thus he never arrives at the end of his task, but contributes his share to the accumulated culture of the ages. He has developed certain special skills and accomplishments which serve in a capitalistic economy for bartering with other 16 NURSERY EDUCATION individuals with other skills, for the total needs of social and biological life. He has acquired certain fundamental behavior patterns which permit of easy intercourse and pleasant contacts. Of course, what these patterns are will depend upon the arrangements made for his formal education. (Some educators still think that the multiplication table in the long run is more important for enjoying life than a symphony or neighborly choral singing but we have never seen a mature adult going out into the fields and reciting the eight times table over to himself.) He has learned to accept willingly the consequences of his behavior, to develop judgment and foresight. In other words, he is an individual whom we would welcome as a companion in club, factory, congregation, or home. ~ 2. THE NURSERY SCHOOL AFTER which preamble, we arrive at the pertinent question as far as this book is concerned. What is a nursery school and why? A nursery school is a formally organized institution for beginning the education of children, in an efficient manner, at an age when they should start to learn certain social skills and attitudes which they cannot learn at home. The aim of nursery school education is exactly the same as all educational devices: to preserve the biological integrity of the individual and the social integrity of the group. But there is one important point of emphasis. The nursery school does not set up a specific standard of social organization but prepares the child to fit into the acceptable standard of the group as they grow up together. I Generations change in their standards of acceptable behavior. Few of us would find it comfortable if we were suddenly transported to England in the seventeenth century, Massachusetts in the eighteenth century or Russia in the nineteenth. What will be the acceptable form of behavior when our children reach maturity will be their problem, not ours. But our task is to teach them to accept the challenge and contribute to the transformation. The responsibility for the training of pre-school children still rests with the parents. In the sense that the parents in this connection assume the role of teachers, they, willy-nilly, become specialists in this field and, as all specialists require some specific training, it is reasonable to expect that this field of endeavor should also be provided with opportunities for receiving instruction. The home is the educational milieu for the developing child and the parents constitute the teaching I7 NURSERY EDUCATION personnel. The nursery school, as a demonstration center, becomes, then, as much a training ground for the parent as for the child. One of the most important adjuncts to a modern nursery school is the opportunity it provides for conducting parent education groups for the parents of the children that are attending. The collaboration between parent and nursery school teacher, as it is arranged in nursery school practice, is one aspect which might well be imitated in those institutions set up for the subsequent education of the child. There are, of course, certain aspects of early training which remain specifically the problem of the home. Such cultural patterns as family life, hospitality, intimate communal coiperation and sex education are aspects of our civilization that cannot be delegated to any one but the parent. The technique of nursery school education is, of course, the major topic of this book. A brief outline will be sufficient at this point. IFirst, it is well to deal with one criticism which is usually directed against the nursery school movement, namely, that children should not be taken away from their homes and thrust into group life so earlyl After all, leaving sentiment aside, there is ample justification for group arrangement if the aim of such a procedure is accepted by the group as a whole. In Italy the children are organized into balilla in order that they may be inculcated with the fervor of Italy's awakening. In Russia the young pioneers are organized to prepare the youth for communal living and in the British Empire the Boy Scouts are organized to uphold the hallowed traditions of our economic state. The nursery school organizes children at an age when social living begins and no one can object to the standards of such behavior as outlined above. One may question the age at which social living begins, but most of the evidence at hand points to the necessity of social contacts from the age of two on. \A second criticism which is sometimes directed against the modern nursery school movement is that the children are allowed too much freedom and that the discipline under such THE NURSERY SCHOOL I9 circumstances is necessarily lax. This criticism is usually made by individuals who are ignorant of this field of education.fThe shibboleth of "self-expression" has been prostituted by lay contamination. The problem is not a clear cut one between unquestionable obedience and capricious license. The concept of adjustment imposes the necessity for conformity but it also includes the possibility of nonconformity. It is in the juxtaposition of these two forms of behavior that the problem lies. This problem is usually stated, "How can we make the child conform?" and the efforts of the educator are directed towards this goal. But it can be seen that under these circumstances the individual himself is left out of the picture. The emphasis is placed on the social laws with disregard for the individual's feelings. The problem must be stated in another way. "How can we persuade the child to conform?" But this is only a subterfuge and is open to the same criticism as the first statement. But if the problem is stated, "How can we arrange our tuition so that the child will want to conform?" we have now at least a basis for considering a program which includes individual satisfaction as well as the social needs of conformity. Instead of accepting all of the social demands as rigid, we take into account the possibility of social change and we propose to the child the alternative of conforming or not-belonging. It is then necessary to inspect our rules and customs, and to ask ourselves whether an individual would really be better off by belonging or not. The alternative behavior, however, should also be presented, either implicity or explicitly. The child is faced-with the necessity of living in a world already formed. Attitudes, customs and traditions are formulated more or less rigidly. Learning to behave is as great a task as learning the facts of the physical world, and the facts of behavior are no less real to the child. Just as he must learn by evaluating solid substance and avoiding obstacles and determining distances, to build up his world of space and time, so he must learn to adjust himself to the social and cul 20 NURSERY EDUCATION tural world as he perceives it. There is one difference which may be more apparent than real and that is that in this social world the plan, in detail, changes. The customs of one generation may or may not be acceptable to another, but the basic principle of adjustment survives in perpetuity and upon this principle is based character. It is obvious that such fundamental traits as trustworthiness, integrity, cooperation and sympathy are inherent in our civilization. One can hardly question their importance, but the method of assuring their practice is still controversial. Even a slight knowledge of human nature, whether gained in the clinic, the school, the court, or business, indicates that whatever plan has been employed in the past has not been entirely successful. Usually the technique of such training has been called discipline and it is the concept of discipline which we wish to discuss. It is interesting to contemplate how this term discipline is confused in modern thinking with the term punishment. Discipline, in its logical sense, simply means a plan for teaching the child how to live in a community at peace with his neighbor and himself. To discipline is to teach, not to punish, to bribe, to reward, to cajole, nor to persuade. These -are attempts, usually in desperation, to accomplish the disciplinary aims. The concept of discipline as envisaged in this book is an attempt to teach the child to resolve the inevitable conflict between conformity to group demands and the satisfaction of individual needs. This is a compromise and, as such, is difficult but not impossible. Since discipline is the technique for teaching and since teaching is the direction of learning, a good disciplinary plan is one which makes for most efficient learning. An individual learns by experience, whether in the realm of ideas or in the realm of percepts. The consequences of one's actions or thoughts determine whether that act or thought will be repeated and fixated, or avoided and eliminated. The role of the teacher is to arrange the consequences of the child's acts so that those patterns which are the minimum THE NURSERY SCHOOL 21 essentials of conformity will be fixated and those which are patently undesirable will be eliminated. For the remainder, the child is allowed absolute freedom of choice; that is, "selfexpression." An ideal learning arrangement is one in which (a) the child is motivated, (b) the environment is rich in opportunity for experiment and (c) interference is reduced to a minimum. How can a teacher motivate the child? Fortunately, there is at hand an innate mechanism which can be exploited for this purpose. That mechanism is the phenomenon of attentive adjustment which all infants manifest. The act of attending creates its own interest, not only in the attending, but in what is attended to. Upon this phenomenon is based the possibility of learning. But learning requires sustained attention and the problem is to direct the attentive adjustment of the child along channels that will lead to the acquisition of forms of behavior that are acceptable to the group to which he is to belong. The key to the solution of this problem lies in the interest which the child manifests in all aspects of his environment. This statement, of course, is an inference from the fact mentioned above, namely, the presence of attentive adjustment at birth. We infer further that the child is inherently interested in everything and we must make use of this inherent and universal interest in our plan of education; but we must not lose sight of the fact that the interest is manifested by the child and is not inherent in any specific situation. The child is interested in everything and anything which is capable of being perceived. A single act of attentive adjustment is only momentary in time and must be superseded by another act of adjustment if the individual's interest is to be sustained. Sustained attentive adjustment upon one aspect of the stimulating environment is impossible, but sustained interest is not. In order to be interested, new perceptual situations must follow rapidly upon each other. By percept we mean the total configuration including the thing attended to, the person and his adjustment. The individual adjusts, and 22 NURSERY EDUCATION that adjustment must be looked upon as the use to which an individual is putting the object which he is perceiving, which has been momentarily selected from the total background of conscious experience. Things, by this very selection, have meaning for the individual. These meanings are highly specific and individualistic and when a group of successive acts of attentive adjustment have given rise to meanings that are associated in time and place, a coherent meaning is added to the whole group of meanings which becomes a focal point for further accretion. In brief the problem of motivation is not to develop new interests but to regulate the developing child so that relatively few permanent interests will develop from the infinitely large number of interest patterns at birth. Education is really the limiting and fostering of interests rather than the initiation and origination of them. Following upon such a scheme of motivating children, it is obvious that the environment must be rich in potential meaningful situations. An arid environment leads to boredom which may become a habit. The world around must be so arranged that the growing child will have at hand a sufficient number of situations which change under his manipulation. But when he has, for the time being, exhausted the change-giving aspects he must have an opportunity of moving into another situation. The detailed technique for providing such an environment will be discussed later and also the methods of observing the development of a child so as to forestall retardation in the growth of permanent interests. Finally, but certainly most important, it is necessary to interfere as little as possible with the learning of the child. The child's interest in the learning situation is not so much in the final result as in the learning itself. The intermediate failures that occur in every learning situation provide an opportunity for emotional development in the overcoming of obstacles. Any interference with this mechanism robs the child of the thrill of the final accomplishment or success. This THE NURSERY SCHOOL 23 final success is the incentive for undertaking new tasks with the attendant pleasure of overcoming new failures. Keeping "hands off," by the way, is something difficult for the teacher to learn. WNow what is the final result of nursery school education? It is not the development of genius, nor the acquisition of specific skills, nor the substitution of institutional for parental care. It is an arrangement whereby the child may begin, at the most appropriate age, the cultivation of a plan of living under auspicious circumstances for cultural, appetitive, emotional and social fulfillments DAILY PROGRAM2 ST. GEORGE'S SCHOOL FOR CHILD STUDY (8.45 - 9.30 a.m.) (9.00 - 9.30) (9.00- ii.oo) Nurse's Inspection and Entrance Routine Before entering the school each child is inspected by the nurse. The parent waits until this has been completed and the child's health pronounced satisfactory. The child proceeds alone into the school. Elimination Routine (drink of water) The child proceeds from the nurse's inspection directly to the toilet. Each child makes an attempt to urinate after which he helps himself to a small glass of water. An adult supervises the procedure, assisting with clothing and toilet. Outdoor "free play" period The child proceeds from the toilet routine directly to the playground. Here he plays alone or with other children, and is free to use any available play materials. There is no separation of age groups. Two adults supervise the playground. 2 See references, pp. 53-54. 24 NURSERY EDUCATION (I0.30- II.oo) (I0.30 - II.oo) (I0.30- II.oo) (I0.30- II.oo) (I.oo00- I.35) (II.oo- II.35) Putting away toys Each child is expected to put away at least one toy before going in. The children are directed indoors two or three at a time. Cloakroom Routine (undressing) Each child proceeds to his own locker, removes his outdoor clothing, with or without assistance, and puts on house slippers. There are two cloakrooms, a junior and a senior. One adult supervises the older children, two adults assist the younger group. Elimination Routine Each child makes an attempt to urinate, flushes the toilet and rinses his fingers. (In addition to the regular routine periods a child may be taken to the toilet individually at more frequent intervals. In the case of an involuntary elimination the child is taken to the toilet immediately and is changed. No comment is made.) Mid-morning Nourishment After the toilet routine each child helps himself to one-half glass of tomato juice placed ready at the door of the playroom. Indoor "free play" period Each child upon entering the playroom selects his own play material. He is expected to replace this before commencing upon another. Quieter play is required indoors than outside. There are two playrooms, the division of children being made according to age and ability. One adult supervises each playroom. Washing Routine Each child is directed individually to the washroom. Not more than four wash THE NURSERY SCHOOL 25 (II.oo- II.35) (II.30- II.35) (II.35- II.50) (II.50- I2.00) at any one time (two junior and two senior children). A definite washing procedure is followed. (Washing hands, changing water, washing face, drying hands and face, combing hair). The junior children wash at individual basins arranged on a low bench, the seniors use two low wall basins equipped with running water. Each child is provided with a washcloth, towel and comb. An adult supervises each group. Carpentry Small groups of three to four children are taken to the workshop at regular periods. An adult supervises the group. Putting away toys Each child is expected to put away at least one toy after which he may look at a book until the other children are finished. The older group are expected to be responsible for tidying their playroom. Organized Group Play Books are replaced and the children sit in a circle on the floor. An adult directs the activity. Story periods, including story-telling and reading, "conversation circles," story dramatizing, etc., alternate with music periods including singing, marching, orchestra and rhythm practice. A child need not join the activity but is expected to play quietly. Once a week junior and senior groups have a combined music period. Relaxation Routine Junior Group: Each child takes his own rug from an individual cupboard, spreads it on the floor and lies down. Quiet music is played. 26 NURSERY EDUCATION (I2.00- I2.30) (12.30 - I2.45) (I2.30- 2.30 p.m.) Senior Group: The children proceed to the sleeping room where each child rests on his own bed. A story or poetry is read or a quiet conversation carried on. Each group is supervised by one adult. Dining Room Routine The children proceed from the relaxation routine to the dining room. They are directed to their places, three or four children at each table. Junior Group: Each child is directed to get his dinner from the central serving table. Cafeteria service is used throughout the meal and each child carries his dishes to the serving table when he is finished. Senior Group: The meal is preceded by grace, after which the children sit down and are served by the adult in charge of each table. In both groups each child proceeds with the meal at his own rate (within limits). An adult supervises at each table and has her meal with the children. Cod liver oil is taken as a routine procedure. Elimination Routine Upon finishing dinner each child proceeds to the toilet, attempts to urinate, flushes the toilet and rinses his fingers. (Only those children who ask, or whose parents request it, wait for bowel movement.) Sleeping Routine Each child proceeds from the toilet to the sleeping room, goes quietly to his bed, removes his slippers and lies down (with or without assistance). The children re THE NURSERY SCHOOL 27 (2.30- 2.45) (2.30 - 3.00) (2.45 - 3.00) (2.45 - 3.00) main in bed until the blinds are put up at 2.30. They then put on their walking shoes and are directed in groups of two or three to the toilet. The sleeping room is prepared (cool and dark) before the children enter. Two or more adults supervise during the first hour; one adult remains in the room throughout. Elimination Routine Each child proceeds from the sleeping room to the toilet as he is directed, attempts to urinate, flushes the toilet and rinses his fingers. Dressing Routine Each child proceeds from the toilet to his cloakroom locker and puts on his outdoor clothing, with or without help. One or two adults supervise each cloakroom. Mid-afternoon Nourishment After dressing each child helps himself to a small glass of milk placed ready for drinking. Parents call for the children or they are sent home in taxis. SELECTED REFERENCES Baldwin, B. T., and Stecher, L. I. Foster, J. C., and Mattson, M. L. Greenwood, B., and Waddell, C. W. The Psychology of the Pre-School Child. D. Appleton & Co., New York, I924, 305 pp. Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Co., New York, London, I929, 220 pp. A Six-Year Experiment with a Nursery School. University of California, Los Angeles, I931, I78 pp. Children in the Nursery School. The John Day Co., New York, I928, 325 pp. Johnson, Harriet M. 28 NURSERY EDUCATION McMillan, Margaret Owen, Grace (editor) Iowa Child Welfare Research Station The Nursery School. J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London; E. P. Dutton & Co., New York, 1919, 356 pp. Nursery School Education. Methuen & Co., London, I920, 156 pp. A Manual of Nursery School Practice. State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, 215 pp. Pamphlets National Committee Minimum Essentials of Nursery School Edu. on Nursery Schools, cation. Boston, I930. The National Advi- Bulletin of information from Emergency Nursory Committee of sery Schools. U. S. Office of Education, Emergency Nurs- New York, 1934. ery Schools I. Administration and Program Davis, Mary D. 2. Housing and Equipment Nursery Schools: Their Development and Current Practices in the United States. Bulletin No. 9, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., I933. CHAPTER II ROUTINE ~ i. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE THE child's nursery school day is divided into two main periods, routine and free activity. Routine periods are those in which the child is learning personal care, how to wash and dress himself and how to satisfy adequately the bodily needs of eating, sleeping and elimination. In free play he is developing general abilities and interests. In the one, emphasis is placed upon self-control; in the other, opportunity is given for self-expression. This chapter will be devoted to a description of the planning and supervision of routine. A subsequent chapter will deal with the planning and supervision of the play periods. The adult has two primary objectives in planning the nursery school routine: first, that the child learn certain definite routine skills, which will provide adequately for his individual satisfaction and will, at the same time, be acceptable to society; second, that he should learn self-control, that is, to accept routine requirements and to conform to these as a necessary business of living, and to assume the responsibility for their performance. The first point to be considered in carrying out these objectives and the one most frequently overlooked in pre-school child guidance is that the child should "learn." It is a simple enough task to direct the child in performing certain activities and to insist on his conforming to adult requirements. It is not easy, however, to plan and supervise his routine in such a way that he is constantly learning and thus becoming more and more independent of adult supervision through the acquisition of efficient habits of caring for his own needs and a sense of responsibility in carrying them out. The adult must know 3I 32 NURSERY EDUCATION what takes place when the child learns, in order that she can make of each routine a good learning situation. Following is a brief discussion of the learning process. The principles of learning set forth here are the basis of the procedures outlined in the remainder of the book. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING When an organism permanently modifies its behavior to meet new situations it can be said to have learned. Since learning is a manifestation universal in all living organisms we are not concerned with initiating the learning process but rather in directing it. To learn how to learn effectively is one of the primary objectives of the nursery school. Analysis of the learning process shows it to be composed of a number of steps, each essential to the final attainment of a goal and fixation of the successful behavior pattern. The first step in learning is the manifestation of a motive. Before any learning can take place there must be present in the child a need or desire compelling him to act. Whether or not the goal will be attained will depend in part upon the strength of this motive. The motive entails immediate activity in an effort to bring satisfaction. This activity may be termed the preliminary attack and is the second step in the learning process. Immediate success and satisfaction through this preliminary attack, whether by the child's own efforts or by those of some one else, will of course terminate the whole situation, and no learning will result because the need has been satisfied without the necessity of modification. Failure of this preliminary attack, however, will lead to the third step in the learning process, which is the recognition that there is a problem to be solved if the need is to be satisfied. Every learning situation is thus a problem situation, i.e., a situation in which an obstacle has been interposed between an individual's need and fulfillment. Recognition of the problem will be followed by the attack proper, the fourth step in the learning process...s LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 33 This consists of a variety of attempts towards the goal upon different aspects of the situation. The variations in the attack will depend upon such factors as the mental and motor development of the child, and also upon his specific past experience. Each particular trial will be affected in some way by the consequences which ensue. For instance, the child learns not to put soap in his eyes because it stings and to avoid the hot water tap because it burns. Finally one of these attempts will prove satisfactory, or, in other words, the problem will be solved and the motive satisfied. Solution of the problem forms the fifth step in the process. In repeated performances unsuccessful forms of attack, because of their consequences, will be gradually withdrawn from the series of trials, and adequate response, because of the ensuing satisfaction, will recur with more and more precision. This fixation of the adequate response is the sixth stage of learning. Provided that the problem situation is met sufficiently often the adequate response will become automatic or habitual. That is, a habit will be formed. A habit is an efficient and immediate behavior response acquired to meet a particular situation. PLANNING FOR LEARNING IN ROUTINE SITUATIONS If the child is to learn how to dress and wash himself, to acquire good habits of eating, sleeping and elimination, it follows that the adult must so plan and guide him that his behavior is patterned to follow the learning process as described above. The problem for the nursery school is to decide what adult procedure will best facilitate the learning, step by step. Motivation: First, a motive must be assured in each routine. Where the accomplishment of the act fails to bring any satisfaction to the child the procedure is useless and detrimental. Eating, sleeping and elimination represent fundamental bodily 34 NURSERY EDUCATION needs.' Provided that the routine is arranged to coincide with the rhythmic changes from activity to quiescence characteristic of these needs, motives are already at hand in all three situations. However, in dressing, washing, and other routines, such as the nurse's examination, relaxation, clearing away toys, etc., it is necessary to arrange motivation. These motives, to be of any permanent value, must be intrinsic in the situation. Superficial goals, such as rewards, punishments, social praise and blame, and competition, which have no permanent or logical relation to the situation are not only unreliable but lead to poor learning habits. With ingenuity the adult can always arrange goals depending on fundamental needs, which are relevant to the learning situation. Perhaps the most useful is the fundamental need for play activity. The child may be taught to consider his washing, dressing, and also eating, sleeping and toilet routine as being preliminary essentials to play activity, so that to learn the routine becomes the most efficient means of satisfying his wish to play. The relationship between play and routine is traditional and permanent so that one need not be afraid here of constructing a false situation for the child. A second motive which appears so early in the child's life that it may be considered as basic is the desire to remain with the social group. If the child learns that refusal to cooperate in the routines means isolation from the other children, he will usually accept the former as a necessary corollary to his school life.* This motive is particularly significant with the three- to five-year-old children because of their rapidly developing social life. The desire, on the child's part, to do * B., aged four, was removed from the sleeping room. H., his great friend, also four, had been through this many times and took it upon himself to instruct B. in the true nursery school manner:-"That's too bad, B., but if you want to stay in the sleeping room, you must learn to lie quietly." 1 For reference see The Physiological Appetites, W. E. Blatz. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 35 things without help may be gradually built up by the adult's general attitude toward the child and by suggestion and stimulation. The objective is to make doing and achieving ends in themselves. If each child is provided with his own personal equipment wherever possible, that is, his own clothing locker, washing accessories, play cupboard, etc., each situation will acquire a personal interest and appeal, adding greatly to the thrill of individual effort. If the school is divided into two groups according to general efficiency of behavior in its various parts, graduating from the junior to the senior group may be made an incentive for a better performance. Thus the child learns that when he can direct his own dressing he will use the senior cloakroom, and as soon as he can wash with fair speed he can utilize the "big" basins. This latter method of motivating the child is to be distinguished from competition. Competition implies that one child is attempting to outdo another, and the satisfaction here is not in the efficiency attained but in the social success. On the other hand, the method referred to above sets out to stimulate the child to better his own procedure and so to attain a level of efficiency set by an adult as the standard of efficiency for the older children in the nursery school group. Preliminary Attack on Problem: Supposing that the child is motivated to attempt the routine performance alone, the chief concern of the adult during the preliminary attack is to allow the child to fail in order that he may recognize his problem. It will be necessary to point out to new entrants what each problem entails; that washing implies fairly clean face and hands; the sleeping period, lying quietly; and luncheon, a clean plate. The adult in actual fact sets the problem and must be very sure that success is not beyond the capacity of any child of the group. Final success must be assured for all who attempt it. This means that the requirements in each routine must be very simple, the standards of achievement low and adjustable to individual differences. 36 NURSERY EDUCATION Attack: The attack proper represents that stage at which the child is actually learning the physical skill, whether doing up buttons or wringing out his washcloth. Here, the first requisite for the adult is that she be patient towards the child's blundering and allow him a sufficient length of time for trying and failing. The concept of time has little meaning for the preschool child and to hurry him is only to confuse him. He must be allowed to make mistakes because only by so doing can he eliminate the unsuccessful ways, but it will be necessary to point out these mistakes and direct him towards an easier and better procedure. The right and wrong in routine procedures are largely arbitrary and cannot be recognized by the child. From the child's point of view eating with one's fingers is quicker and better than using a spoon, and to wash his face with a towel is a satisfactory procedure. There are certain maxims for the giving of these necessary directions which are important from the point of view of learning. They should be minimum in number; given by one adult at a time; given very simply and only after the child's attention has been gained. Physical rather than verbal direction simplifies the situation for the younger children. Direction should be given as far as possible in the form of suggestions rather than commands. Suggestion carries with it the implication that the child is responsible and that the initiative for the act remains with him. Such phrases as the following illustrate the point: "Did you comb your hair?" "You have forgotten to rinse your fingers, haven't you?" or, "Where is your coat?" Indirect suggestion, where the act itself is not mentioned, is a variation of the same procedure. Thus, "Where is your spoon?" will remind the child of dinner if his attention has been attracted elsewhere. Considerable assistance will be necessary at first. It may be wise to allow the child to deal with and learn only a portion of the task at a time. Boredom and too many failures must be anticipated and avoided, as they are apt to arouse a negative attitude to LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 37 the whole situation. In giving assistance the adult must maintain the attitude that she is helping the child in his own task, never that he is assisting her, even though she may be doing the entire procedure. "I will help," not "You will help me," should be the slogan. The child will need encouragement to prolong his efforts. This should be given in terms of his actual progress and through strengthening his own motive. Excessive praise is dangerous because it subtracts interest from the task in hand, substituting social success and satisfaction for actual success and satisfaction in achievement. The percentage frequency2 of the various types of adult interference appearing in routine situations is as follows: Per cent Suggestion........................... 37 Physical Assistance.................... 23 Com m and............................ 19 Verbal Instruction..................... o1 Reminding of Disciplinary Consequences.. 4 Commendation..................... 4 Permission......................... 2 Administering Discipline............... I The behavior situations stimulating these interferences were distributed as follows: Per cent Inadequate Performance................ 28 Slow................................ I4 Distraction.......................... 14 Playing............................. 13 Aimless Performance.................. 9 Antagonistic Behavior................. 4 Asking for Assistance.................. 3 No Apparent Reason................... 15 2 Obtained from student observations made in St. George's School for Child Study. (Based on a total of 483 cases of interference.) 38 NURSERY EDUCATION Solution: The solution follows the attack. In the case of a routine, this, of course, refers to the final result of each day's procedure. Since each routine situation is a learning situation for the child, and since the final requisite of a good learning situation is the satisfying of a motive, the result must be measured in terms of the child's own satisfaction, i.e., the adult must regulate her standards of successful achievement to accord with those of the child. It is far more important in the long run that the child should achieve his goal through his own efforts than that the performance should satisfy adult standards. The standards can be raised gradually by progressively interesting the child in more efficient results as accomplishment grows easier. Fixation and Elimination-Habit Formation: Fixation of efficient procedure and the establishment of a durable habit is dependent upon the organization of a routine. The routine should occur daily and at the same hour, the order of procedure should be definite and consistent; for instance, in washing, the same succession of acts should always be adhered to. The adult-teaching, that is the giving of directions and assistance, should be as consistent as possible. Where several adults are alternating throughout the school period a uniform method must be carefully followed. The above factors aim to make of each routine service an ideal learning situation for each individual child, but if the general adult organization throughout the routine is at fault it will be impossible to carry out this project successfully. Confusion, excitement and distraction must be reduced to a minimum, and here the adult is entirely responsible. Any tension in the atmosphere will very quickly affect the child's emotional balance. The daily program should be so arranged that only three or four children are going through a routine at any one time. Children of pre-school age must be under constant supervision. It is advisable to have some sort of time-table detailing the adults to the separate situations, [ LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 39 so that just enough are present in any one situation to handle the children adequately. Four is the maximum number which one adult can supervise, that is, direct successfully, in a routine situation. The adults should be as inconspicuous as possible, moving only when necessary and then without hurry. Sitting down whenever possible on a low chair is a good rule to establish. The children should always be spoken to slowly and quietly and in matter-of-fact tones. It is advisable on the whole not to initiate conversation during the routines as this is too distracting for the child. One is, of course, always pleasant and interested. ROUTINE DISCIPLINE The acquisition of routine skills described above may be compared to the acquisition of skills at any time in the future educational experience of the child. Far more important than the learning of the specific skills, however, is the acquisition (through these) of general habits of behavior commonly discussed under the heading of character building. While he is practicing routine skills the child should be learning to conform to necessary requirements and to accept the responsibility for his own behavior. The same laws of learning apply here as in the acquisition of specific skills. The method used by the adult to establish such general forms of behavior is commonly termed discipline. Discipline, to be effective, must be unobtrusive. Since it must be unobtrusive it is very difficult to enumerate specific rules and regulations of disciplinary procedure. The following discussion of discipline does not attempt to do other than outline some general principles for the arrangement of an environment through which the child will learn certain general habits. The adult should become familiar with the principles so enumerated and use her ingenuity to deal with each situation as it arises in terms of these principles, rather than attempt to find a formula for dealing with specific problems. It requires 40 NURSERY EDUCATION very little experience in dealing with children to learn that an attempt to attach a specific remedy to every undesirable behavior pattern is impossible, because of the myriad varieties of responses which children make. Principles: Discipline as character building is to be distinguished from discipline in the narrower sense of forcing a child, in one way or another, to do what is required of him. The routine discipline to be outlined here, while it aims to achieve conformity in the immediate situation, is actually more concerned with the development of a general attitude of acceptance and of responsibility, e.g., the development of self-control. The first essential of such a discipline is that it should be consistent in character, that is, immediate, invariable, logical and inevitable. These are the characteristics necessary to learning. They are found in all natural learning situations, e.g., in the learning which occurs through experiences in the material world. They are the essence of natural discipline, and the more closely social discipline can be made to approximate this natural discipline the more effective it will be in teaching the child. Every organism must learn to accept those happenings which occur regularly and inevitably, and the possibility of a refusal to accept requirements will increase just in so far as these characteristics are lacking. Learning to accept and to conform is therefore dependent on the consistency of the requirement asked of the child. Wherever he is expected to conform, the requirement should be regular in occurrence, its aspects should be unchanging, e.g., it should be not only presented regularly but in the same form. The requirements should be of a reasonable nature. They should be only those things to which conformity is essential for individual and for social satisfaction, and, to be reasonable, they must be within the child's capacity. Unreasonable demands, depending as they do upon the adult's personal whims, can be neither invariable nor inevitable, so that learning to accept becomes impossible. In other words, every require LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 41 ment must be met, must be finally accepted. Conformity, to be learned, must be practiced consistently. How to make acceptance inevitable is a critical point in the theory of discipline. It is always possible for the adult to force a child through his routine by means of her superior physical and mental ability, but, as previously stated, although such a measure takes care of the immediate situation it goes no further. If anything, it strengthens refusal. The child is not in such cases accepting, he is being forced against his will. In the natural world acceptance is made inevitable, because here the consequences of refusal to accept are, like the situation itself, immediate, invariable, logical and inevitable. It follows that, in setting up a successful discipline whereby the child will learn to accept certain essential requirements, nonconformity must be followed by the administration of consequences, which are consistent in their nature. This means that each time a child refuses to conform to the requirements which have been set up, the result must be such that he will, in the long run, come to prefer acceptance. That the consequences may be immediate the adult must administer them at the time of each refusal, and to be invariable they must be the same consequences, while to be logical the consequences must be a natural corollary to the refused situation and must be graduated to fit the seriousness of this situation. Further, to be inevitable they must be carried through without fail. Experiencing these consequences consistently, the child learns to avoid them by conformity. He learns to choose between nonconformity or taking the consequences of his behavior, and with each choice of acceptance the habit of accepting becomes more firmly fixed.* * A new child in the nursery school found great difficulty in conforming to routine of any kind. During the first days she showed little progress in acceptance of the environmental demands. After it was felt that she knew what was required, the dining room routine was elected as the time and place to 42 NURSERY EDUCATION The second essential characteristic of successful discipline is that it should be impersonal. The requirements should be so presented and the consequences so administered that the discipline becomes for the child an impersonal ordering of certain aspects of his personal and social life. Although the adult is directing the proceedings, her role should be that of administrator, and the discipline, instead of appearing to depend on her arbitrary decision, should be so presented that it assumes a permanency of character quite apart from her. Discipline must be impersonal in nature if the child is to acquire a sense of responsibility in carrying out necessary duties. As long as he is merely following the adult's personal wishes, e.g., being obedient, he is dependent and is leaving all responsibility to the adult. The adult must therefore appear to have no personal feelings in the matter and so allow the child the opportunity of learning, not only to accept requirements, but to make himself personally responsible for them or, in other words, learn to control his behavior in accordance with recognized individual needs and social demands. PLANNING THE DISCIPLINE There are, then, three main principles to be observed in planning the discipline of the nursery school: first, that the "come to grips." She refused as usual to sit at the table and await her turn to get her plate from the serving table. The requirements were pointed out to her. She stood in the center of the dining room and watched all the children receive their dinners. She was ignored by the adults; a few children remarked, "Doesn't J. want any dinner?" After twenty-nine minutes of waiting, looks of supplication, and incipient efforts to come to a decision, she finally sidled slowly over and sat on her chair and asked: "Is it my turn now?" No more difficulty was experienced in this situation with J. and there was no apparent resentment at any time. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 43 requirements made of the child are consistent; second, that consequences following upon refusal to accept these requirements be equally consistent; and third, that the discipline be administered in an impersonal manner. The first point for consideration in the practical application of these principles is what requirements should be made of the child. Such a discipline in which the adult is exercising direct control over the child's behavior, expecting and requiring conformity to a definite procedure, can be exercised only in those situations where conformity is necessary to a good adjustment. Such situations are: routine, danger situations, and certain social conventions. Direct control is necessary in routine because here the child is acquiring personal habits essential to life and social living and the more quickly and more efficiently he is able to master these the more time he will have for creative activities and the happier his adjustment will be. Experimentation in routine procedures holds no advantages for the child. The adult must control the child directly in danger situations because he is ignorant of their probable consequences and learning by experience in such situations is not feasible. Many of the social requirements to be learned by the child are arbitrary in nature and therefore cannot be acquired without direct adult intervention. A plan for discipline in danger situations will be discussed under the heading of adult supervision in the free play periods,3 and a plan for discipline in social learning under adult intervention in social situations.4 Routine Requirements: If the routine is to be set up in accordance with the above principles of disciplinary procedure, then each separate routine, the child's eating, sleeping, elimination, washing, dressing, and the minor requirements, nurse's examination, nourishment and relaxation must take place daily and at the same hour. The requirements of each must be stable, the proce3 See pages I53-154. 4 See pages 225-227. 44 NURSERY EDUCATION dure to be followed must be carefully outlined and adhered to. These behavior requirements must, in order to be reasonable, be within the child's capacity, and reduced in each routine to minimum essentials. Finally each routine must be an inevitable part of the child's daily activity. It must be so arranged that the child proceeds to no other activity until he has acceded to the requirements of the previous one. Having set up such a routine procedure the adult's role will be to direct the child to learn it as efficiently as his capacity permits. In thus directing the child in what he shall do, the adult must not appear personally responsible for the requirement. For the child, the fact that he goes to the toilet at a particular time, washes his hands and then his face, eats his dinner with a spoon, must appear as inevitable rules of the group. For instance, in calling a child to be washed, the adult should announce that it is time for him to wash, not that she wishes him to wash. In addition to being impersonal, the adult attitude should always be one of expecting the child to accept the routine requirement. By thus indirectly suggesting that the child accept, he learns to do so. Even though a child is being consistently negative the adult should in each new situation expect that the child will conform until he behaves otherwise. Routine Consequences: When the child fails to cooperate in his learning it will be the adult's place to administer disciplinary consequences by which he may gradually be taught acceptance and conformity.5 In the nursery school one does not meet with a definite refusal to comply as frequently as with cases of playing, dawdling and inattention.6 These forms of behavior are unacceptable in routine situations because they prevent the development of that businesslike attitude toward routine requirements which is essential to efficiency. If consequences are to be administered immediately and in5 See frequency table, page 52. 6 See frequency table, page 37. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 45 variably, and are to be inevitable and reasonable, some plan of adult procedure is necessary in order to maintain such consistency throughout the nursery school. The most natural and also the most successful consequence for uncooperative behavior in the nursery school is removal from the group, and therefore from group activity, until the child is ready to meet the requirements. Removal is probably the best disciplinary consequence because it fulfills all the essentials of a consistent discipline. It can be carried out immediately and its meaning is invariable. It is a logical procedure because the school routine is a social milieu and if the child is unwilling to cooperate in such a setting then he should not be allowed to remain in the social group. The length of time for which the child is isolated may be graduated to correspond with the seriousness of the uncoiperative behavior. Isolation can be made inevitable because it does not require extra time and attention. Lastly, by this means it is easier for the adult to assume and to maintain an impersonal attitude toward the episode than if she resorts to treatment which entails closer contact between herself and the child. Isolation can always follow immediately upon the behavior and this characteristic of immediacy is an advantage in administering consequences to the pre-school child. His memory is short and unless the consequences follow immediately upon the behavior giving rise to them, the relationship between the two will be lost, and the child will learn nothing. The administration of a second consequence, that of personal adult assistance, is often found useful where the child insists on playing and dawdling. Once the child has acquired a desire and an ability to be independent in his routine he finds assistance unpleasant. When using this treatment the adult should, of course, explain to the child that she is helping him because he is apparently not able to carry through his routine alone. Another consequence which can be used with the older children, provided the routine set up makes it possible, is that 46 NURSERY EDUCATION of moving the child from the senior to the junior section of the routine, because his achievement is not measuring up to the requirements of the older children. In the actual administration of these consequences there are certain rules of a practical nature which it is necessary to follow. First, the adult should always explain the consequence of the child's behavior to him and so allow him an opportunity to choose between cooperation and the consequences of non-cooperation.* By so doing the child must accept the responsibility for his behavior and for what subsequently occurs. Having once given the child a choice, the adult must carry through the consequences if the child's behavior warrants it and should do this with precision. If a child refuses to leave the group it will be necessary to remove him forcibly. Thus, although a child is never made to perform a routine he may be forced to accept a consequence. However, in the case of consequences other than removal the child should wait alone until he is prepared to accept these. For instance, if a child insists upon disturbing the dining room and is therefore removed to the junior dining room to have his dinner under closer supervision, but refuses to go, then he should be left alone until he is ready to eat his dinner in the junior dining room. Except for removal, physical tussles between adult and child are not advisable. They cloud the issue and strengthen resistance to the total situation. In administering consequences, as in directing routine performance, the adult's attitude must be impersonal. She must appear unconcerned as to whether the child cooperates or chooses the disciplinary consequence, and she must carry out * Children soon adopt a philosophical attitude towards their own behavior: Staff-"Are you going to be quiet in the sleeping room to-day?" Child-"I don't know, you never can tell about me, can you?" LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 47 the latter in a calm, quiet and unemotional manner.* The discipline should be couched in impersonal terms, indicating to the child that it is merely the execution of an inevitable rule of the group. For instance the adult might inquire, "Can you wash without playing, or would you rather wait by yourself?" or state, "Unless you can wash without playing you will have to wait by yourself." Thus carried out the disciplining leads to no personal antagonisms between adult and child. Described in so formal a manner the routine periods sound ominous, but in reality they are pleasant periods for both adult and child. They are short and simple and planned to give satisfaction to the child, and because of their consistency the child knows exactly what is expected of him throughout the day. As a result the child develops a sense of security and rapidly adjusts himself to the nursery school environment. ROUTINE RECORDS Value: For each routine situation a record form devised to show the actual learning process of each child in terms of his daily behavior is invaluable. Such a set of records serves several purposes. In the first place, it provides a picture in objective and factual terms of each child's development and adjustment. For instance, if the child's motor development appears to be poor, an examination of his washing and dining room records will indicate his skill in handling and carrying ob* L. had hidden his mitts behind the door and pretended ignorance as to their whereabouts-but the adult's only remark was, that if he had no mitts he could not play outside which was "too bad." L. was left to make his own decision. He suggested, "I think maybe I can find them," and going behind the door exclaimed, "Why, here they are. Wasn't that a funny place for them to be?" 48 NURSERY EDUCATION jects, as exercised in these periods. Any deviation from a norm, failure to develop, or lapse in efficiency will be portrayed, and so behavior difficulties are discovered in their early stages. They can be used not only for checking up present behavior in the light of previous behavior but also in comparing the behavior of different children and thus establishing norms. Records also prevent imaginary problems from developing out of one unusual incident or casual impression. Besides being used for reference on individual children these records can be analyzed in a variety of ways for practical and research purposes. They provide data upon all the important developmental aspects of the pre-school child: how long he sleeps, and the variations with age; how much he eats, and what he prefers; and so on. Making a Record Form: The requisites for a good record form are as follows: It should be easy to handle and easy to fill out, so that errors will be minimized and so that the recording will take as little time and as little labor as possible. Some such device as checks or symbols may be introduced. Spacing and arrangement should be so planned that the record can be read at a glance and any omissions noted immediately. They should also be planned to facilitate summarizing and analyzing. As to the material itself, only the important factors in the situation under observation should be taken into account. The observation, to be of value, must be of an objective and factual nature, i.e., a record of observed behavior, and should as far as possible avoid the necessity of personal interpretations. All the symbols and terms must be arbitrarily defined, and in concrete terminology. Taking a Record: If drawn up according to the above plan, there is no reason why the records cannot be kept by the nursery school staff during their supervision of the various routines, and this actual taking of records during procedure is a helpful device, LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 49 although it complicates the school situation and requires considerable practice. Because it makes of the adult an observer, it leads gradually to the acquisition of an objective attitude in place of the usual feeling of personal responsibility for the child's behavior. Not only does the adult learn to look without concern at the child's behavior, but, because she is often recording her own procedure also, she learns to check and analyze it in an objective manner. Keeping a record during the supervision of a routine is also useful in curbing the tendency of most adults to assist and interfere too much. Further, the child ceases to be the one center of interest, and the adult if necessary can appear as busy at her work as he should be at his. Records of St. George's School: The routine records used in St. George's School for Child Study will be found under the separate routine headings in the subsequent sections, together with tables indicating their value for tracing individual development and establishing group norms. The following records are kept daily: attendance, nurse's examination, sleeping, eating and elimination. Washing and a detailed sleeping record are kept weekly. All these records together with a relaxation and a special dining room record are kept daily for each child during the first twenty-five days' attendance at school or until the child has learned the procedure. This is done because of the daily change in behavior manifested during the period of adjustment, and because it is important from the point of view of supervision that the child's behavior at this time be carefully noted. All the records are planned to show the progress in learning which is being made by the child from two separate points of view, that of attitude-cooperative or antagonistic -and of skill; also they make possible the plotting of individual learning curves for each routine. In addition to the routine records, observations are made periodically of each child's activity during the free play periods. The record on use of play material is devised to indicate development in the 50 NURSERY EDUCATION general habits of concentration and interest and in constructive ability. That on social behavior is devised to indicate development in adjustment to the group. Every emotional episode occurring during the school day, and also specific types of disciplinary incidents are reported on special forms. The child's behavior during the episode and the treatment administered by the adult are recorded. A monthly summary is made for each child. All the data recorded on the above-mentioned forms are collected on this summary sheet. DISCIPLINE RECORD Time of Day io:Io Date Name of Child No. 83* Immediate Situation playground Behavior Necessitating Discipline: (by whom M. I. F.) destroyed another child's block construction. Forms of Discipline: Other Forms Completing Routine Alone Removed to Play Alone-indoor playroom Waiting Adult Takes Through Routine Reconstruct Damage Reaction to Discipline: Struggling, kicking, slumping Duration of Treatment: 45 minutes. * Child No. 83-4 years, 9 months. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 51 DISCIPLIN RECORD For purposes of recording, a disciplinary episode may be defined as a situation into which the adult introduces a type of consequence which is not inherent in the situation. Such situations are: refusal of the child to conform to routine requirements or to danger requirements or other necessary school rules and refusal to behave in a socially acceptable manner. This record is drawn up to indicate the progress made by each child in his adjustment to the discipline of the nursery school, e.g., to indicate progress in learning to conform to routine and other requirements and to accept the consequences of his behavior. Development of conformity is indicated first by a decrease in the total frequency of "discipline" and also by a decrease in the frequency of specific disciplinary situations; secondly, by the type of situation in which the disciplinary episode arises and the type of behavior necessitating the "discipline." Progress in learning to accept consequences is shown by a decrease in the number of refusals and of emotional responses which follow upon discipline. For purposes of analysis the treatment administered by the adult is also recorded. Method of Recording: A record is made of every disciplinary episode occurring in the school day by the adult who administered the discipline. Time of Day -hour of occurrence Immediate -period in which episode took place Situation Behavior Necessi- -the specific behavior manifested by tating Discipline the child Forms of Discipline -the consequence administered by the adult Completing -the child is removed from the group Routine alone to carry out the remainder of the routine by himself Removal to Play -isolation from the group Waiting -the child is not allowed to proceed to another activity 52 NURSERY EDUCATION RD D Adult takes -adult assists child because he refused through routine to complete procedure in the required manner. Reconstruct -child directed to reconstruct damage Damage done before proceeding to other activity. eaction to -the specific forms of behavior maniDiscipline fested by the child in response to the disciplinary measure. uration of -in minutes Treatment TABLE showing the frequency of "episodes of discipline" for a group of thirty children during a six week period AGE LEVELS Occurrence of Discipline expressed in percentage 2-3 3- 4-5 Social Situations 24% 19% 57% Routine Situations 26% 47% 27% Average number per child 4 6 Note: -the high percentage of "disciplines" occurring in social situations at the four year level. (Ch. IV, Sec. 3:-Disagreement; Oversocial Play Behavior; Unacceptable Social Dominance) (Ch. V, Sec. 2:-Social Difficulties) -The high percentage of "disciplines" occurring in routine situations at the three year level.7 (See Ch. V, Sec. 2:-Routine Requirements; Frequent Anger) -the relatively small number of "disciplines" occurring at the two year level. (Ch. V, Sec. 3:-Introductory Treatment) 7 Three children who present behavior difficulties in their adjustment fall within this group. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 53 SELECTED REFERENCES Routine Habit Formation Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-School Child. Wm. MorBott, H. row Co., New York, I928. J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., Toronto, Canada, Ch. II. It is pointed out that the primary purpose of "routine" procedure is to teach the child how to satisfy fundamental needs or "appetites" in an adequate manner. The requisites of a good routine procedure from this point of view are set forth. Blatz, W. E. The Physiological Appetites, A Handbook of Child Psychology: 2nd edition, ed. C. Murchison. Clark University Press, Worcester, Mass., I933, Ch. II. A discussion of the physiological mechanism basic to routine habit formation: namely, hunger, thirst, elimination, change, rest, sex. The Habit of Success. The Visiting Nurse Association of Chicago, I930. The Importance of Failure. Child Welfare Pamphlets, No. 45. December 8, 1934, University of Iowa. Pointing out the importance of both success and failure to learning. Carr, H. A. Psychology. Longmans, Green and Co., New York, I925, Ch. V and IX. A discussion of the theory of learning, set forth in the present book, as a psychological concept. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1933, 322 pp. A dissertation upon how the child learns, what he learns at each age level and how the adult may best stimulate and direct learning. Routine Arrangements in the Nursery School Davis, Mary Dabney Nursery Schools, Their Development and Current Practices in the United States. United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., I933, pp. 5-I0. A general survey of Nursery School Daily Schedules. 54 NURSERY EDUCATION Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, pp. 70-72. Suggested daily schedules for the nursery school. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniverResearch Station sity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, pp. I67-I70; 170-177. i) Typical daily schedules for the nursery school. 2) Abilities of the pre-school child in each routine situation. Discipline Blatz, W. E., and The Management of Young Children. Wm. Bott, H. Morrow Co., N. Y., I930. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, I930, 354 pp. A discussion of discipline in its most comprehensive sense, e.g., as the means of guiding the child's development in habit formation, play activity, social and emotional development and in personality. Certain principles are laid down and their practical application in home and school is discussed. Faegre, M. L., and Child Care and Training. The University of Anderson, J. E. Minnesota Press, Minn., I929, Ch. XI. A discussion of "constructive discipline" in terms of objectives, adult attitudes and practice. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., N. Y., I933, Ch. XVI. A discussion of adult authority, what its final goal should be, in what situations it is legitimate, and how it should be exercised. Blatz, W. E. Discipline Versus Corporal Punishment. Childhood Education, Vol. V, No. 3, Nov. 1928. Record Keeping in the Nursery School Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-school Child. Wm. MorBott, H. row & Co., N. Y., I928, pp. 295-303. Home Record Forms for Parents. LEARNING IN NURSERY SCHOOL ROUTINE 55 Davis, M. D. Nursery Schools, their Development and Current Practices in the United States. United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1933. A summary discussion of record keeping in the Nursery School. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., N. Y., I929, Ch. XI. A discussion of the value of keeping records and of record content. Greenwood, B., and A Six Year Experiment with a Nursery Waddell, C. W. School. University of California at Los Angeles, I93I, pp. I04-I28; I49-I75. A summary discussion of types of nursery school record data, together with typical record blanks. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, pp. I80-203. A Set of Record Blanks. Johnson, Harriet Children in the Nursery School. The John Day Company, New York, 1928, pp. 153 -I67. Record forms and how they are kept. ~ 2. DRESSING ROUTINE EQUIPMENT THE ideal cloakroom equipment is an individual locker for each child, equipped with hooks, and a shelf along the top for hats and other accessories. The locker should be open and adapted to the child's height. It is particularly important that the child have his own section. This not only helps him by making his procedure quite definite, but also reduces general confusion and helps to keep the clothing of individual children separated. (The latter is a real problem in a nursery school, and all school clothing should, of course, be marked.) An apron for play and bedroom slippers for the indoor period may be kept in the lockers, where the child can get them. The procedure is facilitated by means of a separate cupboard in which each child has a compartment to hold the extra set of clothing he needs.8 PROCEDURE The objective for the child in the cloakroom routine is to learn to dress and undress efficiently and within a reasonable length of time. The degree of conformity expected is a cooperative attitude toward learning and participation in the procedure according to ability. Ideally, this routine should be taken slowly, the children entering from the preceding activity in groups of two or three. They very quickly learn to proceed directly to their lockers and to begin to dress or undress, doing this alone or with assistance, according to their ability. The adult can help the children most easily and unobtrusively if seated on a low chair by the locker. 8 See information to parents re clothing, Chapter VI, pages 314-315. 56 DRESSING ROUTINE 57 It is difficult in the nursery school to adapt the dressing routine to the child's capacity. Even a four-year-old child should not be expected to manage all his fastenings, especially those of his winter gear, and a two-year-old should be expected to do little more than get out and put away his clothes. Dressing, from the child's point of view, is a long and intricate process, and occurring, as it does, twice in the nursery school day, the learning should be taken gradually if it is not to become an unpleasant and tedious episode for both adult and child. If the child acquires a negative attitude toward dressing through repeated failure and boredom, learning will be retarded and behavior difficulties may arise. When the two-year-old enters the school he is usually utterly oblivious to and uninterested in the whole affair, and furthermore has not the physical ability necessary for dressing himself. Instruction in the skill itself at this stage may do more harm than good to the child, and the adult expends much energy, which would not be necessary if she waited until the child showed spontaneous effort. The first step, then, is to keep the child's attention on the job in hand, by preventing distraction and play, and by directing him in doing the simplest parts of the routine. Though doing practically nothing, if kept busy he will feel that he has accomplished a great deal. By this method an interest in the proceedings is stimulated and an attitude of personal responsibility is developed. The adult's attitude should always be that of assisting the child, although she may actually be doing everything for him. Once a real interest and desire to try and dress himself appear, together with the necessary physical ability, then teaching how to dress will be easy and profitable. Patience is the main requisite during this period of interested effort, but the adult must be alert to the capacity and staying power of each child, and ready with assurance, suggestions, and timely but unobtrusive assistance. Within the next year the process should become fairly efficient and sufficiently automatic so that the child can dress although his mind is on other matters. It is NURSERY EDUCATION important that the period of interest should be capitalized, and efficiency well on its way by five years of age. With the growth of the child's other interests, and a consequent increase in opportunity for achievement, the dressing process loses its initial attraction for the child. Thus, if this period of genuine interest is not utilized and learning is postponed until the child is over four years of age, teaching him becomes an increasingly difficult task. His lack of skill combined with his divided interest results in dawdling and playing, and the shifting of the responsibility to the adult. Trying to teach a five-year-old child to dress, when he has not been given sufficient previous training, would be comparable to asking the child to tidy his room while a circus is passing on the street. In brief, pre-school development in the dressing procedure may be divided roughly into three main periods. In the first period the child is uninterested and lacking in ability and the adult's role is that of stimulating an interest and developing a sense of responsibility in regard to dressing, while doing the greater part of the dressing herself. The second period appears with the development of an interest in the proceedings and a growing skill in manipulating clothing. For the adult this period is one of instruction and assistance. In the third period the child loses his interest but, if he has been properly instructed, he has become sufficiently proficient to handle the situation with comparative ease. The adult's role is reduced to directing proceedings and maintaining order. BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES Dawdling: This behavior becomes problematic when it is accompanied by lack of interest, refusal to take responsibility for getting dressed, or to attempt self-help. Where ordinary suggestions and stimulation fail, consistent isolation from the group to dress alone, until he can proceed as the other children do, will be found the most successful treatment. In the case of DRESSING ROUTINE 59 an older child who, for some reason, has not learned to dress, and is, at the same time, growing uninterested, individual instruction over a period of time may, by improving his technique permanently, eliminate the dawdling. Refusal of Necessary Help: This is quite a common difficulty, occurring where the child has developed interest and a desire to do things for himself, without having the necessary physical capacity to carry his project into successful practice. The situation can usually be adjusted to the satisfaction of the child by sharing the task with him, but where the refusal continues, firm insistence with an explanation will be needed, followed by discipline if necessary. To finish in a reasonable time is a part of the child's learning. SELECTED REFERENCES Dressing Alschuler, Rose H. Two to Six. Wm. Morrow Co., I933, PP. 26-31. An outline of the stages shown in ability to dress. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton and Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, pp. II9-I20. A discussion of the Care of Clothing in the Nursery School. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, 1934, pp. 69-70; p. I70. A comparison of ability to dress in the four pre-school-age groups. (2 yrs.5 yrs.) Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, I933, pp. II8-I20. A discussion of the young child's ability to dress himself. Waring, E. B., and The Behavior of Young Children, Vol. II, Wilker, M. Dressing-Toilet-Washing. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y., I930. Incidents, Quotations and Questions in regard to dressing are set forth. ~ 3. WASHING ROUTINE EQUIPMENT EACH child should be provided with his own washing accessories. If individual basins are used, a long low bench may be built to accommodate them, with a rack above on which to hang the washcloth, towel, comb, etc. Rings attached to the latter make it possible for the child to replace them on hooks without help. Low basins with running water may also be used. The individual basins are useful as a means of teaching the child physical control in handling and carrying. It is thus possible to have three or four children washing at one time. PROCEDURE The objective for the child in the washroom routine is to learn how to wash himself effectively and speedily. The standard of achievement should not be placed too high. Cleanliness, after all, is a relative condition. Conformity in the attempt is the only requirement. A washing procedure includes certain items leading to the required goal.9 The child is expected to follow these steps in learning. Such a procedure makes the learning more difficult in the early stages, but, once it has been mastered, an efficient washing habit is assured, before the child becomes too much interested in other activities. If he is not supervised in the early stages, however, washing remains a haphazard per 9 For outline of washing procedure, see record form, page 63. 6o WASHING ROUTINE formance, while the water, soap, and mirror lose their initial charm. Washing holds much more attraction for the child than does dressing, so that the two-year-old is interested from the start, and, provided that the standards are sufficiently flexible, will be able to achieve some measure of success. The problem for the adult is not, in these early stages, to develop interest, but to transfer that interest from delight in dabbling in the water to a desire to get the hands and face clean. Here, more than in any other routine, the emphasis has to be placed on finishing the task, and the child needs to be reminded that he plays in the playroom rather than in the washroom. It is especially important to have few children washing together, because the temptation to play is of course greater if there are other children present. Supervision of washing is necessary even for the four- and five-year-old children. The responsibility of washing without accompanying play is too much even for the child of this age to assume. The adult's role in the washroom is, as in all other routines, that of keeping the child's attention on the business in hand, seeing that he follows the required steps in the washing procedure and washes himself as well as he is able. The chief danger which the adult must guard against is expecting more of the child than he can do, and making cleanliness instead of independence and self-help the child's main objective. The washroom is an excellent routine situation for developing self-help because of the ease with which its requirements can be adapted to the character of the two-year-old child; therefore, at the pre-school level the adult should aim to establish independence rather than cleanliness. The latter will follow in due course once the former has been developed. It is a safe routine rule to establish that the adult never washes the child (except in special instances), and directions should be limited to those necessary for guiding him through the procedure. At four years of age the nursery school child should require no assistance from the supervising adult. 62 NURSERY EDUCATION BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES Dawdling: The only treatment for constant playing is to use disciplinary consequences consistently, once the child has learned what is required. Washing the child is usually effective, especially if he enjoys his washing procedure, otherwise removal is effective. WASHROOM RECORD Page: Recorder: Names* #II4a#I24 #117 #I23 #ii6 #119 #ii6 Companions #117 #II9 #II4a #I 8a#I24 #120 Speed 5 7 7 9 5 6 Attitude from P. R. I. Co. 2. Ur. 3. Ant. I I 2 I I 2 SKILL Finding basin + + + + + - Carrying basin + + + - - + + Washing hands + + + + + Changing water + - - - - Finding washcloth + + - - - Washing face + - - + + + Finding towel + - - - + - Combing hair + - - - + + + Hanging up washcloth - + + + + towel + + + + + + comb + + - - + + Attitude in washroom I 2 I I i. Coop. 2. Indiff. I I 3. Playful 4. Antag. 3 3 3 * Children's ages: 2 yrs. 4 m. to 2 yrs. 6 m. during first term in the nursery school. (63) 64 NURSERY EDUCATION WASHROOM RECORD This form has been devised to indicate progress in learning a specific washing procedure in terms of efficiency and "behavior adjustment." Development in efficiency is shown, first, by an increase in the number of separate steps which the child is able to accomplish independently; secondly, by an increasing speed of performance. Adjustment is shown, first, by increasingly prompt acquiescence when required to come from the playroom to wash and, secondly, by increasingly "cooperative" behavior in carrying through the required procedure without play or antagonism. Method of recording: This record is kept daily during a child's first twenty-five days at school, and once a week after this introductory period. It is taken during the washing routine by the adult in charge. Junior Washroom Chart Senior Washroom Chart Companions Speed Attitude from Playroom Skill Attitude in Washroom -to be kept when child is using individual basins. -to be kept when child is using basins with running water. -names of those children washing at the same time as a particular child. -time in minutes taken to complete the washing procedure. -Child's response when required to leave the playroom. i. Co6perative 2. Requires urging 3. Antagonistic. -Ability shown by child in performing each step of the procedure. Performance is considered to be efficient (+) when no adult direction or assistance is given. Performance is considered to be inefficient (-) when adult direction or assistance is given. -Predominant attitude or attitudes manifested during washing routine. i. Co6perative 2. Indifferent 3. Playful 4. Antagonistic. TABLE A showing individual development in the washing routine in terms of attitude and efficiency during the threeyear school period, for three children Uo vO AGE LEVELS First 25 days Remainder of 2-3 2-3 3-4 45 Child #60 Attitude on leaving playroom Co6perative I00 100 88 92 expressed in percentage Requires urging o o 9 5 Antagonistic o o 3 3 Attitude in washroom expressed Cooperative 96 62 9I 66 in percentage Indifferent 4 14 3 I2 Playful o I4 6 22 Antagonistic o o o o Efficiency-Percentage of successful achievement in 55 71 87 95 washroom Average speed in minutes 7 9 6 5 Child #57a Attitude on leaving playroom Cooperative 100 95 77 97 Requires urging o 5 25 3 Antagonistic o o o o Attitude in washroom Cooperative 61 60 68 72 Indifferent I7 i6 23 28 Playful 22 24 o o Antagonistic o o 9 0 Efficiency-Percentage of successful achievement in washroom 38 68 87 97 Average speed in minutes 9 8 7 6 Child #62 Attitude on leaving playroom Cooperative 96 ioo 96 ioO Requires urging 4 o0 4 0 Antagonistic o o o o Attitude in washroom Co6perative 89 ioo 97 90 Indifferent 7 o 0o Playful 4 o 3 10 Anta.gonistic oo o o Efficiency — Pcrcentage of successful achievement in washroom 69 90 93 98 Average speed in minutes 8 6 6 4 WASHING ROUTINE 67 TABLE B showing average performance in the washing routine at the three age levels. Based on the records of thirty children Age Levels 2-3 3-4 4-5 Co6perative 91 91 90 Attitude on leaving playroom Requires urging 9 8 8 expressed in percentage Antagonistic o o o Co6perative 65 86 90 Attitude in washroom Indifferent I8 4 5 expressed in percentage Playful I7 Io 5 Antagonistic o o Efficiency-Percentage of successful achievement in washroom 72 95 96 Average speed in minutes 9 6 5 TABLE A Note -individual differences. The records of Child #6o and Child #57a portray behavior difficulties, that of Child #62 portrays a particularly good adjustment. (Ch. II, Sec. 3:-"Behavior Difficulties.") -the consistent increase in efficiency of procedure with age. -presence of indifferent and playful behavior throughout the three age levels, also the infrequency of antagonistic behavior. (Ch. II, Sec. i:-"Routine Consequences.") TABLE B Note -the consistent increase in efficiency, the greater part occurring at the three year level; also the almost complete efficiency achieved in the final year. (Ch. II, Sec. i:-"Planning for Learning in Routine Situations.") 68 NURSERY EDUCATION SELECTED REFERENCES Washing Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton and Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, 1929, pp. 115-125. A discussion of "habits of cleanliness and order." Waring, E. B., and The Behavior of Young Children, Vol. II, Wilker, M. Dressing-Toilet-Washing. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, I930, pp. I07-I5I. Incidents, Quotations and Questions in regard to the washing procedure are set forth. ~ 4. ELIMINATION ROUTINE EQUIPMENT TOILETS adapted to the child's size, are, of course to be preferred, but if this is not possible various devices10 may be used. Two or three toilets will facilitate proceedings and in order to prevent playing may be separated by small wooden screens. There is no need at the pre-school age for individual privacy or separation of the sexes in the toilet routine. Convenience is the most important consideration. PROCEDURE The objective of this routine is that the child acquire control of his eliminative functions, together with a habit of eliminating at regular intervals, and that he become independent in carrying out the toilet routine. The conformity expected of the child is an attempt to urinate at the routine periods, to manage as much of his clothing as he is able and to rinse his fingers. The older children should be expected to flush the toilet. A regular toilet routine followed by every child in the school is advisable for several reasons. As well as encouraging good health habits, such a procedure, regulated by the clock, takes care of this function as it were automatically, and if adequate, leaves the child free and comfortable to pursue the more interesting activities. It prevents involuntary urination through excitement, cold, or over-interest, which occurrences are not only a nuisance to both adult and child, 10 "Toidey" seats. Steps. 70 NURSERY EDUCATION but might, if frequent, upset control. Even if the child should be capable of asking, going to the toilet at odd times would prove an interruption to his play and other routines. In planning the daily toilet routine of a nursery school, the most important consideration is the defining of regular time intervals for elimination, which will accord with the average span of control for the age groups attending. The more minor considerations are that the regular toilet periods should, when possible, be arranged to fall between the main features of the day's program so as to avoid interrupting these activities. Also, it is more effective to have the child go to the toilet shortly after the outdoor period, especially in cold weather, after a meal, and after sleep. A two-hour time interval has been found very satisfactory at St. George's School. Toilet routine is arranged for the children when they arrive in the morning, when they come in from the outdoor play period, after lunch, and after sleep. The first morning toilet period, while it may upset the regularity of the child's rhythm, is the only way of establishing regularity in the school routine. Children differ in their eliminative needs, and so, though an attempt at voiding should be expected at each interval, no insistence upon urinating should be made. Playing and inattention or refusal to cooperate are treated in the same manner as in all other routines, the child waiting alone until ready to cooperate. Frequently the periods of this regular routine are too long for a two-year-old on first entering the school. It is then necessary to put him on what may be termed a "prescription," i.e., he is taken to the toilet midway between the routine times, which makes the interval of control about one hour in length. It may not be necessary to do this throughout the whole day, only during one particular interval. For instance the child may have control except during the outdoor period or sleeping period. After the child has been dry for about two weeks on the "prescription" routine, the procedure may be changed from "taking" him to merely "asking" him if he wishes to go ELIMINATION ROUTINE 7I to the toilet at the prescription hour, and so gradually dropping this eliminative incident from his rhythm. When a child first comes to school the excitement often upsets his control for a short time, so that it is wise to put him on prescription during the first week. Such a procedure also gives the adult an opportunity to discover the stage or level in the habit of elimination which he has attained. Involuntary urinations are very natural occurrences during the pre-school age, and should be treated as such. The adult attitude should be casual and matter-of-fact, and the child should never be made to feel ashamed or emotionally upset, as this only tends to aggravate the situation. The child should be changed and taken to the toilet without undue comment and the difficulty treated indirectly by regulating his toilet routine. In regard to bowel elimination it is advisable that the parents be asked to establish an early morning routine. If this is done, bowel elimination need not concern the school except when the home routine is upset, at which times the parent can be asked to notify the school. In the elimination routine, as in all other routines, the child should be acquiring a businesslike attitude toward the proceedings, should be assuming responsibility for carrying these through, and should be learning to manage efficiently at the toilet. The eliminative routine is comparatively short and simple so that the child is able to achieve efficiency at an earlier age than is possible in either dressing or washing. A child may have learned to take himself to the toilet at the age of two and a half years and by three years should be fairly efficient. Of course, much will depend upon the clothing worn by the child."l The parents should be given specific suggestions as to the most desirable type of clothing to provide. An adult should be in charge of each elimination routine period. Her role here is similar to that in the dressing period, 11 See suggestions to parents re clothing, Chapter VI, pages 3I4-315. 72 NURSERY EDUCATION e.g., one of assisting and directing each child in carrying through the routine procedure and so guiding his development in the above respects. The adult's attitude toward the elimination routine should be similar to that which she assumes in directing any of the other routines, e.g., casual and matter-of-fact, a task which must be performed but which may be made a pleasant period. In our civilization the eliminative function is surrounded with an atmosphere of individual privacy. Delicacy and decency are desirable components of adult behavior, but it must be remembered that this is a learned form of response. The child of pre-school age cannot be expected to understand the necessity for this attitude in our artificial social world. Any undue emotional significance such as shame, prudishness and shyness is to be avoided during this period. A matter-offact attitude toward what is, after all, a matter-of-fact function is a sound and healthy basis upon which to lay the superstructure of convention. Curiosity is sometimes manifested by the child and should not be emphasized by calling the child's attention directly to this natural tendency. Exhibitionism is rather rare in a pre-school group. BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES Enuresis: If a child is retarded in developing control of the urinary sphincters 12 under the usual prescription treatment he should be placed on an individual schedule of exactly-timed intervals. A record should be kept of the frequency and time of day of the urination of the child and, by analyzing this record, an interval found within which the child can remain dry. The shortest interval should not be less than half-an-hour, and this only for extreme cases. The child is then taken at these 12 For detailed discussion see Development and Training of Control of the Bladder, W. E. Blatz. ELIMINATION ROUTINE 73 times and if not immediately successful, he "waits" until he can urinate, and the next interval is calculated from the time of success. "Waiting" implies that the child is not allowed to return to play or other activity. He should not however be kept on the toilet but should wait near by and try at the toilet at short intervals. After a week of being dry under this regime, the interval is lengthened by fifteen minutes, and with another week's success a still longer interval is used, until the child is ready to go on the prescription routine and finally on the regular routine. There will, of course, be occasional relapses. These are not important unless persistent, when a return to a shorter interval will be necessary. Special care must be taken during such concentrated treatment that a negative attitude is not aroused though the excessive adult attention and control entailed. The adult should be particularly matter-of-fact, putting upon the situation no emphasis which would tend to mark the child as being apart from the group. Lapse of Control: A relapse after control has been well established is usually a carry over from some other situation, i.e., it indicates that there is a lack of adjustment, or an emotional upset occurring somewhere in the child's life. The child's general adjustment throughout the school routine should be investigated, and the home consulted. The behavior may be an unwitting bid for adult care and attention where this is generally lacking or not satisfactory to the child. If this is the case, enuresis should be stressed as little as possible, and the situation readjusted elsewhere. The outside problem is the more important factor to treat. The enuresis, meanwhile, should be dealt with in the usual way. Involuntary Elimination as a Negative Behavior Response: Infrequently a child may respond to discipline by wetting and soiling himself after control has apparently been well established. The main consideration for the adult is not to 74 NURSERY EDUCATION show the slightest annoyance or concern and to carry out the discipline as if nothing unusual had happened. Refusal to Urinate: Sometimes a child will refuse to urinate all day. This cannot be comfortable and is unhealthy for the child. It may be caused by embarrassment in the case of a new child entering the school for the first time at three or four years of age. If this is so, it will be necessary to accustom him gradually to the routine procedure by allowing him to watch. The casual attitude of the other children will usually be sufficient to put him at ease in a short time. Whatever the difficulty the child should wait at the last period of the day until he is able to urinate. When this habit has been dealt with at home in a routine rather than a haphazard fashion this problem seldom arises. When refusal to go to the toilet or to urinate is followed by involuntary voiding, the child should be made to wait, as described above, at those times when the adult, from the records, is sure that urination is possible. Name IIo0* ELIMINATION RECORD Date................ URINATION Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Hour + or - Att. 9.00 - a - a - a + a - 10.30 + b + b + b + b + Routine- --- -- -- I2.30 - c + C + c + c + 2.30 + d - d d + d + + II.30 + II.30 + 9 30t 9.45 + 9.45 + to + ~ 9.45J 12.00 + II.30 + Prescription.50 + Voluntary - - t-ld PH 0 ITj 1-: 114 EVACUATION z c",. C) tj H 0 zl * Child II —2 yrs. 8 mos. t Waited. ELIMINATION ROUTINE 77 ELIMINATION RECORD This form has been drawn up to indicate the development of eliminative habits in terms of efficiency and "behavior adjustment." Development in efficiency is shown, first, by an increasing regularity of elimination; secondly, by a lengthening of the time interval between eliminations to that of the regular "routine"; thirdly, by reduction in the number of "involuntary" wettings and soilings. Adjustment is shown by increasingly "cooperative" behavior in carrying through the routine requirements. Method of recording: The record is taken at the "routine hours" throughout each day by the adult in charge. Routine Prescription Voluntary Urinations or Evacuations Involuntary Urinations or Evacuations Attitude -regular hours at which all children go to the toilet (urinating or not urinating + or-) -special hours at which the child is taken to the toilet individually. -hours at which the child asks to go to the toilet -hours at which the child wets or soils himself -"cooperative" or "uncooperative" toward routine requirements. MORNING WATER ROUTINE RECORD (The child is required to drink a small glass of water as part of the early morning elimination routine.) This record indicates the development of an attitude of acceptance toward the routine requirement in terms of "cooperative" or "uncooperative" behavior. 00 TABLE A showing individual development in bladder control during the three-year school period for four children AGE LEVELS 2-3 3-4 4-5 First Second Third Fourth Fifth Years Years 25 days 25 days 25 days 25 days 25 days Child f61 C2 C/3 t!z Number of Times _ Taken to toilet on prescription* Involuntary urinations Child #6o Taken to toilet on prescription TnlralllntflrlrT llrinnt+: nC~.JV1 JU V.LL OI11 U.1L UlLIlD IJ U. L l I J.I JL Child #67. Taken to toilet on prescription 31 17 52 51 22 0 Involuntary urinations 25 Io 4 3 II o Child #8o......z Taken to toilet on prescription 56 62 47 74 Involuntary urinations 39 22 I5 i2 * Times taken to the toilet in addition to regular routine hours (pp. 70-7I). - I0 80 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE B showing the average frequency of "prescriptions" and "involuntary urinations" at the three age levels, for a group of thirty-one children Age Levels 2-3 3-4 4-5 Number of involuntary urinations per child during one school year Is 2 O Number of times taken to toilet on prescription, per child during one 89 5 I school year TABLE A Note -individual differences. Record of Child #6i indicates early control but an eliminative span shorter than the regular two hour routine; that of Child #80 portrays a behavior difficulty. (Ch. II, Sec. 4:-"Procedure"; "Enuresis") -the decrease in involuntary urinations with increase in "prescription" treatment. (Children #67 and #80.) -the general decrease in involuntary behavior with age increase and under special treatment. -the complete control established in the fourth year. TABLE B Note -the two-year-old child is not usually trained completely in bladder control. This is not achieved until the fourth year. (Ch. III, Sec. 4:-"Procedure") -the significant decrease occurring between the two- to three-year level and the three- to four-year level. -the apparent adequacy of the two hour regular routine for the three- and four-year-old child, indicated by the small number of prescriptions necessary, plus the absence of involuntary urinations. ELIMINATION ROUTINE SELECTED REFERENCES Elimination Routine Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-School Child. Wm. Bott, H. Morrow Co., New York, 1928. J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., Toronto, Can., Chapter V. A method is outlined for training the infant and child in bowel and bladder control. Blatz, W. E. Development and training of Control of the Bladder. Journal of Genetic Psychology Monograph Vol. IV; No. I, July, I928, Sec. 5. A detailed discussion of training in bladder control and the treatment of enuresis problems. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton and Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, pp. I25-I30. Nursery school procedure for establishing bowel and bladder control. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, PP. 72-73. A comparison of Nursery School toilet routines for the four pre-school age levels (2 yrs.-5 yrs.). Wagoner, L. C. Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, I933, Chapter V. A detailed discussion of the training necessary for establishing adequate eliminative habits. Woolley, H. T. Eating, Sleeping and Elimination. Handbook of Child Psychology. Ed. by Carl Murchison, Clark University Press, Worcester, Mass., I93I, pp. 52-68. A discussion of the eliminative functions and of methods of training the infant and child in the control of elimination. ~ 5. DINING ROOM ROUTINE EQUIPMENT AN attractive dining room, furnished simply and designed for the child, is, of course, the desideratum of every nursery school. As in the sleeping routine, a separate room used for the one purpose, and, therefore, adapted for that purpose alone, makes it very much simpler to establish a routine procedure and to inculcate an attitude suited to the particular situation. Small tables large enough to seat from four to six children are preferable to those of larger size. Arrangement in small groups reduces noise and distraction, and makes individual attention possible, and the meal-time, in consequence, is a more pleasant and more leisurely period. Where the number is large and the children vary widely in age, two dining rooms, one for the older and one for the younger children, will be found advisable. The two-year-old child is obviously much less advanced in his eating habits and skills than is the four-year-old child. The two groups, therefore, require two distinct sets of rules of behavior and standards of achievement. For the younger child, eating is a business requiring concentration and effort and he has still much to learn concerning untried foods. The four-year-old child is becoming efficient in this routine and his responses automatic; also, he has learned to like a variety of dishes. The meal hour has therefore become more or less of a social period in the senior dining room. The cutlery and dishes used by the children should, while resembling an adult's, be adapted to the child's ability to manipulate them, and, furthermore, they should be durable enough to allow for the rough handling they will receive. A 82 DINING ROOM ROUTINE 83 small fork and two teaspoons, a small glass, a bread and butter plate, a "dinner" plate, 1 a dessert plate,14 are all the child will need. Paper table napkins are more satisfactory than bibs, because they can be changed as frequently as necessary. If the children are accustomed to clear their own places the procedure will be facilitated by the use of papiermache trays of a size and weight suitable for the child to handle. 15 PROCEDURE The objective for the child in the dining room is to learn to eat the food placed before him readily and with enjoyment. The conformity expected in the dining room is that he eat one serving of dinner and refrain from behavior of a disturbing nature. There are four main considerations in planning a dining room procedure, all of them necessary to the development of the most satisfactory and satisfying eating habits for the child. These considerations are: first, the general arrangement or organization; second, the routine requirements of the child, that is, the standard of achievement; third, the food, what it is to be and how it should be served; fourth, individual teaching and how it can best be carried out. Each of these topics will be considered separately. General Organization: In planning the details of procedure, it is very necessary to avoid any occasion for general confusion, noise, and excitement, all of which are potential behavior patterns in children of this age, who are quite incapable of organizing themselves. This task should be as free from irrelevant distractions as any other activity. Meal-time must be pleasant, leisurely, and devoid of emotional content, if it is to be approached with enjoyment. Such an atmosphere can be achieved and main13 Old fashioned soup plate with shallow bowl and wide edges. 14 Low sturdy sherbet dish. 15 Papier-mach6, 9"X2". 84 NURSERY EDUCATION tained most successfully by arranging to have an adult supervise each table at which four or at most five children are placed. Such an arrangement also gives an opportunity for dealing with special problems. The adult should have her meal with the children, and thus, by making the adult-child relation one of companionship, she is able to establish a rapport which is very effective for indirect guidance of the child. As long as social interest is not allowed to interfere with eating, there is no reason why the meal should not be a conversational and friendly period. Conversation adds greatly to the child's general enjoyment and hence to good eating habits. 16 Grace may be introduced in the senior dining room. It is not only a rather pleasant custom but serves a useful purpose in the routine procedure of the dining room. This unison of activity quiets the group as a whole and acts as a signal for commencing the meal.* It will be found more satisfactory, however, to allow the children to proceed individually through the remainder of the meal, that is, more or less at their own speed. It is too much to expect a child of this age to wait quietly for any length of time. It will however be necessary to set a time limit for the meal-period. Forty minutes should be an ample allowance, with a minimum length of about twenty minutes. This will discourage very rapid or very slow eating. The food may be served to the children in various ways. A procedure in which the child can take part has several advantages, particularly with the two- to three-year-old group. The child must learn to take over the responsibility for his eating as for his washing and dressing, and this can only be accomplished by making the situation inherently interesting * That the children do not take this ceremony too seriously is indicated by the following comment:A three-year-old:-"At school, we say 'Goodness Gracious' before dinner." 16 See for further discussion of the meal as a social situation pages 239-240. DINING ROOM ROUTINE 85 to him. There must be ample opportunity for achievement in motor activity. The "business" of eating is apt to grow boring to the young child once his hunger has been partly satisfied unless there are accompanying interests of a relevant nature. Furthermore, a child of this age can hardly be expected to sit quietly for thirty minutes. If he is allowed to serve himself his boredom is relieved and there is less probability of his becoming disinterested and resorting to irrelevant play. Skill in handling the utensils and carrying the plates and the trays is also acquired by such a procedure. A satisfactory arrangement is a semi-cafeteria service with a central serving table in charge of one adult, to which the children go for their servings. At the end of the meal they may clear away their dishes and pile them on the central table. A child thoroughly enjoys doing these things, and the independent attitude thus developed is carried over to the actual eating of his food. Routine Requirements: A ready acceptance of food, and efficient rather than desultory habits of eating are the necessary standards of conformity. To accomplish them, the child must first learn that he is expected to eat whatever food is served to him. This can be accomplished only if he learns that upon refusal no other food will be given. The alternatives are eating or going without food until the next meal. The general procedure, then, is to serve the child the first course on the day's menu, and allow him nothing further until he has eaten this portion. If he fails to finish his meal by the end of the period he will leave the dining room and proceed with the other children to the next activity. No additional food should be served until the next meal. As in the other routines, the responsibility is upon the child, he is given the choice of conforming and finishing his dinner, or of forfeiting his meal and going hungry. If the standard is "a clean plate," the adult must be very sure that the achievement is within the capacity of each child, that is, this standard must be made sufficiently flexible to allow for individual differences. Children have very different 86 NURSERY EDUCATION capacities for food; there will be day to day variations in appetite, and also special eating idiosyncrasies to be dealt with. Therefore, if each child is expected to finish his meal, the amount of food served must vary with the child. Servings should always be small. If more is desired, a second or more helpings may be given. "Finishing up" then becomes a reasonable requirement, even when the child is faced with a food which he dislikes. Boredom, or a sense of failure, is in this fashion avoided. It is particularly important that younger children should not be confronted with an overwhelming amount of food. The length of time and continued and concentrated effort required to eat this amount may cause a child to give up through sheer fatigue, although he would probably eat the same amount served in smaller quantities. The following procedure is used in St. George's Nursery School: The child is allowed as many small servings as he desires, of the main course, which consists of meat, potato, a cooked and a raw vegetable. He must have each of these foods at every serving. If he fails to finish one serving of dinner he goes without dessert and biscuits. If he finishes one dinner he may have two desserts. If he has two or more "dinners" he may have up to three desserts. As many as four Sunwheat biscuits or quarter slices of bread are served with the dessert. One small teaspoonful of cod liver oil is a routine requirement. This relationship between the number of desserts served and the amount of the first course eaten maintains a balanced diet. The child is not required to finish the serving of dessert since his refusal may be an indication that he has had sufficient food. However he is encouraged, at least, to taste the dessert. This is done in case the refusal is imitative or because the dessert is unfamiliar to the child. A question may arise as to why there should be insistence on eating one part of the meal and not another and why the "clean plate" requirement is not carried out consistently. After all, the children are to grow up into adults, and the development of tastes, in food as DINING ROOM ROUTINE 8? well as other realms of life, is an acceptable form of behavior. Providing an individual conforms within reasonable limits he will be accepted by his social group who will overlook his individual idiosyncrasies with an indulgent smile. It is generally accepted that the meat and vegetables are more important than desserts to the growing child. At any rate a reversal of this procedure, making the dessert compulsory and meat and vegetables optional, would certainly lead to less effective food habits. As a matter of fact, refusal of dessert is very rare. The children very soon learn the above rules, which seem to add considerable interest to the meal, as well as relieving the adult of the necessity for making arbitrary decisions. The dietitian of the school serves at the central table to which the children bring their plates for each helping. From the records the capacity of each child is known and his servings are measured accordingly. Before leaving the discussion of the routine rules a word might be said about what standards of dining room etiquette may be set up for the pre-school child. It is to be remembered that the child of this age is still learning "to eat," e.g., to accept and to enjoy the food which our civilization rules that he must eat. This is not an easy learning problem for the child and it is unwise to complicate the situation by introducing requirements of a less important nature. Teaching formal manners to the pre-school child entails endless adult instruction. The prerequisite for developing good eating habits is a minimum of adult interference in the meal situation. If the instruction of formal table manners is left until the child realizes their social value, they can be taught with relative ease. There are, of course, certain rudimentary requirements which the pre-school child should be learning, as for example, using utensils in place of fingers, eating tidily, asking for his food, etc. Even these necessary attainments should be taught by suggestion rather than compulsion. Nagging must be avoided at all costs. 7 17 For further discussion of manners see Chapter IV, pages 237-238. 88 NURSERY EDUCATION Serving the Food: Diet and menus 18 will be discussed elsewhere in this book but it might be mentioned in passing that the menus of a nursery school should be supervised by a dietitian or other person trained in the nutritional needs of the pre-school child, and if she has had first-hand experience with the eating habits of young children her menus will be a great deal more useful and helpful from the point of view of habit training. There are certain aspects of food planning and preparation other than nutritional needs, which must be considered because of their importance in the building up of adequate eating habits and it is with these that we are now concerned. It has already been pointed out that in determining the amount of food to be served in each portion the effect upon behavior as well as the food value must be taken into account. The selection of foods to be served must also be considered from a psychological as well as a dietetic point of view. It is important that the child should eat a variety of foods in order to obtain a balanced diet, and also in order to meet social requirements, but he must be familiarized with these gradually. As in any learning, the child is faced with problems for which he has no immediate response and must be assisted if he is to adjust adequately. In all his activities the child is inclined to withdraw from situations of an extreme type. In the meal situation foods of a decided flavor or odor, very hot or very cold foods, or those of an unusual consistency, are questioned; therefore it is well to reserve these until the child's experience is more mature. In taste, children tend to show preference for, or at least, do not show definite dislikes of bland foods, and in consistency, preference is shown for foods of smooth texture, and those which are easily chewed and swallowed. Stringy vegetable such as celery and beans often give difficulties at first, as do the tougher meats. Observation has demonstrated that the consistency of the food is the characteristic to which pre 18 See Chapter VII: Planning and Preparing the Child's Diet. DINING ROOM ROUTINE 89 school children react most decidedly.19 These factors, as well as nutrition, should be considered in planning the menu and preparing the food, and even if some deviation from dietetic principles is necessary, for a time, the escape from behavior difficulties and the consequent good eating habits will more than make up for the temporary nutritional deficiency. If a little time and care can be given to their preparation, almost all foods can be reduced to a consistency that is acceptable to the child. All meats should be minced and vegetables chopped, grated, or pureed. 20 In the preparation of a menu, unfamiliar and less preferable foods may be served with preferred dishes. Acceptance will then be more likely, and with each acceptance the habit of eating such food will be more firmly established. When new foods are introduced, and here "new" refers to strangeness of consistency, taste, temperature, smell or color, there are various steps which one may take to insure acceptance. First, the quantity served should be small; second, it should be served with food already accepted; third, it should be prepared with a view to diminishing the strangeness, i.e., supposing that the taste is new, then the consistency should be made familiar and acceptable. For example, it has been found that vegetables which are refused when served in the ordinary way are eaten readily when combined in a stew, where there is familiarity of taste, consistency, and appearance. Adult Instruction: Provided that the first three considerations of the dining room routine, the general setting, the routine requirements, and the food preparation, have been carried out, the child's eating behavior will be so guided through the impersonal control thus established that there should be very little need for personal adult interference except in directing the general procedure. It is particularly important that the adult should 19 For further discussion of food preferences see The Food Preference of Nursery School Children, M. L. Husband. 20 For details as to food preparation see Chapter VII. 9~ NURSERY EDUCATION be as inconspicuous as possible in the dining room, so that she can appear to be taking no responsibility for the child's eating behavior. The child has the advantage in any personal bout between himself and the adult, because, except by resorting to forced feeding, with its incalculable sequels, there is no way of making a child eat, and he knows it. When the child is eating, he will very quickly take advantage of any personal concern or particular attention to build up an interesting and satisfying situation for himself. It is therefore much better, when in doubt, to do nothing. Too little is much less injurious than too much attention. When the adult does interfere, it should always be to teach rather than to correct. There are five outstanding factors which hinder the child's eating. These are (i), too much social interest, shown by watching, playing, and conversation; (2), no appetite; (3), too much food served in one portion; (4), a definitely indicated food dislike; (5), a bid for adult attention.21 These are all every day occurrences. It is often difficult to determine which is the main cause for the interruption, as a lack of interest in food, or a dislike, may be manifested in playing, so that it is necessary to become familiar with each child's general dining room behavior. In general, when interference is required in order to recall the child's attention to his dinner it should be indirect in nature, e.g., he may be gently turned back to the table if he has turned away; his chair replaced directly in front of his dinner if he has pushed it away; his spoon put in his hand if he has replaced it on the table, etc. 22 If the child persistently plays and dawdles he should be removed from the room for a short time, or put at a table by himself for the remainder of the meal. If he is toying with his dinner it may be removed until he wishes to eat it properly. When the child who usually eats with relish shows no inclination for his food and apparently is not hungry, the cause is 21 See list of "behavior," page 102. 22 See list of "treatments," page 103. DINING ROOM ROUTINE 91 probably organic, and it is well to leave him alone. With small children dawdling may be a result of tiredness in which case a little physical assistance by gathering the food on the spoon may be all the help that is needed. Feeding a child, that is, actually holding the spoon for him, is not a wise procedure at any time, as it carries with it a suggestion that the adult is assuming responsibility, and though it may help the child in the immediate difficulty his learning will be impeded. When a child has been given an unusually large serving or is unable to finish a second or third serving because he has overestimated his appetite, it is a good plan to "divide" his dinner. This is done by taking his dish to the serving table or kitchen, removing a portion of the food, and then returning it to him with no comments other than that when he finishes this portion he will be served his dessert. This procedure assists the child without forfeiting the standard of conformity, "a clean plate." It should be used only occasionally, never often enough to become habitual. Single food dislikes are to be expected, and if treated consistently and casually need not become a real problem. The best way to overcome food dislikes is to serve a small helping (a small teaspoonful) to the child each time that the disliked food appears upon the menu, without making any comment which would draw his attention to the fact, and then to give only a usual amount of assistance and encouragement. As usual if the dinner is not eaten no further food is served. As the child shows more ready acceptance the amount of, the serving may be gradually increased until it is of a normal size. The dinner may be "divided" on rare occasions but the above technique is more satisfactory and, provided food dislikes are recorded as they become evident, and the individual who serves the meal is informed, there should be no need to divide the serving. When refusal of food is interpreted as a bid for adult attention, the obvious and most successful treatment is to ignore the child's behavior, i.e., to refrain from any urgings or sug / 92 NURSERY EDUCATION gestions in regard to his eating, and to let him go without his meal as often as need be. When "ignoring" is being utilized as a definite policy it is advisable to serve small portions. It will make concession and conformity on the child's part easier for him. There is seldom any difficulty with cod liver oil because most children have been accustomed to it since infancy. Where a dislike occurs the cod liver oil may be given (in minute quantities at first) as a part of the dinner and before the dessert, the child having no dessert until he takes his cod liver oil. Failing this, it will be necessary to have him wait by himself, as in the other routine situations, until he conforms. Even with cod liver oil it is better to let the child hold his own spoon and thus assume full responsibility. It is a good plan to obtain from the parents of new children some idea of the foods to which the children are accustomed, and any noticeable food refusals. The adults in charge may by this means anticipate any difficulties before they arise. It usually happens, however, that most of the food difficulties reported in the home never appear in the school situation. * They are potentially personal situations between parent and child in which the food itself is not the true cause but only incidental to the emotional upset. A food idiosyncrasy reported by a parent should be substantiated by a doctor's report before the food is removed from the child's diet. If possible some arrangement should be made by which the child's meals at home and school are planned to form a wellbalanced diet. At St. George's Nursery School each parent is sent at the beginning of the week an outline of the lunch menus for the week, together with suggested menus for each breakfast and supper. 23 * One child to another while eating spinach:"I eat spinach at school, but I don't eat it at home because my Daddy doesn't like it." 23 See menu forms-Chapter VII. DINING ROOM ROUTINE 93 BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES Most of the serious behavior difficulties in eating met in a nursery school have their origin in the home. They are the result of a poorly adjusted adult-child relationship in the meal situation and so are complicated by emotional factors. As the child has two out of every three meals at home any treatment administered at school must also be used in the home if it is to be successful. Co6peration of the parents in dealing with eating difficulties is, therefore, essential. 24 Dawdling: Habitual dawdling, i.e., toying with food, utensils, or any other object, talking, watching, or in short, attending to everything but food so that the child's meal goes on interminably, may result from one of two causes: (a) a permanent lack of interest in food; (b) over-interest in things and people. The obvious treatment in either case is to remove all possible distractions. It may be necessary to have the child eat alone, especially if the other children are overstimulating him. This treatment, coupled with small servings, removal of the meal after half an hour, and the knowledge that he may return to the group when he is able to eat without playing, is usually sufficient to overcome the difficulty. If the problem involves a real lack of interest in food the situation is more complicated; not only must the habit of responding to every distraction be broken down, but an interest must be developed in eating itself. Before any definite steps are taken, other than small servings with the usual consequence of having no dessert, it is well to allow a week or ten days to pass without unnecessary comment, so that the child has an opportunity to observe the other children's behavior. Imitation and interest in the other children's activities is of more value in stimulating acceptable behavior in the dining room than in any other routine. If no improvement is shown, and apparently the 24 For methods of dealing with home problems see Chapter VI, pages 312-3I3. 94 NURSERY EDUCATION dessert is no incentive, the child may be told that if he is quite finished with his dinner he had better proceed directly to the sleeping room or wait alone for the other children. Such a treatment is reasonable and logical, and if carried out consistently over a period should result in acquiescence, provided the child is adjusted happily to the school and the social group generally. Such a treatment is, of course, unnecessary when the lack of interest is only occasional. Food Dislikes: A child may show an extreme form of food dislike, refusing practically all foods or all of one type. The behavior which he manifests is varied; throwing food on the floor, gagging, spitting out the food, regurgitation, or holding the food particle in the mouth and refusing to swallow it. This behavior may have been begun during an illness or convalescence, but whatever the origin, it has become a stable response because of the care and attention, or even the anger that the child has been able, through such a means, to arouse in his parents.* The adult's personal reaction to the behavior is, then, of supreme importance in overcoming the dislike. It is absolutely imperative not to show the slightest emotional deviation from the casual manner in which ordinary occurrences are treated. A matter-of-fact comment that such behavior is unnecessary, followed by ignoring, is the safest method. But of course if the behavior is upsetting the other children it will be necessary to remove the child. If necessary the serving should be replaced by a fresh portion, and this * A child who had been denied milk for a period prior to coming to nursery school because of "lack of appetite" refused to drink his portion in the school after it had been returned to his diet. It was felt that resistance and not a specific food dislike was the cause of his behavior. This opinion was borne out when one day while unobserved he quickly snatched the adult's glass of milk (four times as large as his portion) and drank it down. DINING ROOM ROUTINE 95 may have to be done two or three times. The child will, of course, leave the table at the end of the meal, as do the other children, whether he has finished or not. The unacceptable behavior will die out when the child finds that it arouses no attention, but the dislike and refusal may still be present. If the use of positive stimulation together with small servings does not bring a gradual acceptance then it will be necessary to resort to complete removal from the group as in the previous case. It should be remembered that the breaking down of poor eating habits and the establishing of more adequate behavior is a very slow process and requires considerable patience and understanding. In all these treatments, if the consequence of going hungry is to be of any value, it will be necessary to ask the parents to allow no extra food before the next meal. JUNIOR DINING ROOM RECORD This record has been drawn up to indicate progress in learning a specific dining room procedure in terms of motor skill and behavior adjustment. Progress in skill is shown by an increase in the frequency with which a child performs each step of the procedure "efficiently," that is, without adult assistance or direction. Adjustment is shown by a decrease in the frequency of "Uncooperative" behavior or the need for "urging." Method of Recording: This record is kept daily for each child until the record indicates "efficiency" throughout the performance on ten different days.25 Dinner Servings -ability to carry plate to and from cen(three or more) tral serving table, recorded in terms Dessert Servings of "efficiency" and adult help. (See (m a x im u m o f list of categories on record form.) three) Clearing Dishes"(4 -ability to perform each step, recorded steps) in terms of "efficiency" and adult help. (See list of categories on record form.) 25 Record analysis indicates that it takes 34 days (average) for the child to achieve "efficiency." 96 NURSERY EDUCATION JUNIOR DINING Name of Child #I2ia* Date: I. Dinner-Serving (i) vd as e e e e (2) vd e e e e (3) e e vd 2. Dessert-Serving (i) as e e e e (2) vd e e e e (3) e e 3. Getting Tray as as as as vd 4. Piling Dishes on Tray as a as as as as 5. Carrying back to Serving Table as e as as e 6. Piling Dishes on Large Tray as as as as e 7. Utensils (F.S.fs.) S Sfs Sfs Sfs Sfs Symbols: Verbal Direction: vd Keep record until child has been efficient on Assistance: as every item for ten different days. Inefficient: in Efficient: e Urging: u Unco6perative unco *Child #I2Ia-2 years, 6 months. (first 15 days in the dining room) DINING ROOM ROUTINE 9 97 ROOM RECORD e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e u e e e e e e e e e e vd vd vd e vd vd e e vd e e vd e e e e e e e e e e C e e e C e e e e e e e e e vd Sfs S Sfs S S S S S Sfs Sfs ist 2d 3r ist 2nd 3rd 98 NURSERY EDUCATION DINING ROOM Date Name #II8a* DINNERSDESSERTS I 2 DESSERTS z 2 3 Monday Tuesday B d W R D R W W W W T I 2 I I 5 2 2 I 5 R I B d T I R I B T F 2 4 U 3 I F R I 2 3 1 2 3 I 2 3 B UI U T R _TiT Wednesday I l U F F 2 2 2 I Thursday - I ---- 1- I F I 2 3 I 2 3 - I I - I.I — Friday -- 1 I ---- i ] --- - 1 -i — I I-1 -I- - I --- I --- I -I — -- I — I -- F F F F F F I I, * Child #II8a-2 yrs. 5 mos. DINING ROOM ROUTINE 9 99 RECORD REMARKS TJ M Bread C.L.O. Utensil _________ Unco. Dislike Rmv. Tray ist meal at the Nursery School i C Sfs C Sfs II C Sfs I C Sfs V ix C SfsVv I00 NURSERY EDUCATION DINING ROOM RECORD This form has been drawn up to indicate the development of adequate eating habits in terms of "food acceptance" and "behavior adjustment." Increasing acceptance of food is shown first, by an increase in the frequency with which a child finishes at least one serving of "dinner" and dessert; second, by a decrease in the number of definitely indicated food dislikes. Adjustment is shown, first, by a decrease in the number of specific forms of behavior manifested by the child, which interfere with his eating; second, by a decrease in the number of specific forms of treatment necessitated in dealing with the above forms of behavior. For practical purposes the record also indicates the amount of food eaten by a child at each meal and the amount of nourishment taken during the day. Method of Recording: This record is kept daily, during the dining room routine and is checked by the adults in charge of each table. Dinners (i, 2, 3, or more) Desserts (maximum of three) Bread or Biscuits (maximum of four) Cod Liver Oil (C. L.O.) Utensils Dislikes Removed (RMV) Uncooperative in clearing dishes Tomato Juice (T. J.), Milk (M). -the number of servings of the first course recorded as "finished" (F) or "unfinished" (U). -the number of servings of dessert recorded as "finished" (F) or "unfinished" (U). -the number eaten. -child's response when required to take Cod Liver Oil recorded as "Co6perative" (C) or "Unco6perative" (un). -spoon, fork or fingers used (S, F, FS). -any definitely indicated food dislike. -removal from dining room due to unacceptable behavior. -(unco. tray) -child's response when required to take routine nourishment. DINING ROOM ROUTINE IOI Child's Behavior (B) Adult Treatment (T) Result of Treatment (R) -specific forms of behavior which interfere with a child's eating, recorded for each serving. (See accompanying list of behavior categories.) -specific forms of treatment, recorded opposite the form of behavior necessitating Ithe treatment. (See accompanying list of treatment categories.) -The effect of each adult treatment in terms of the child's subsequent behavior. DINING RooM RECORD Categories Behavior Dawdling Watching Playing with food or utensils Playing with biscuit Playing with other children Conversation Noises Asking for dessert or biscuit (with dinner unfinished) Asking for help Food refusals Holding food in mouth Crying Treatment Attention recalled directly to food Attention recalled indirectly to food Attention drawn to group behavior Rules of dining room procedure Need of finishing in time Mixing food Dividing dinner Physical assistance Stopping play Reduction of social activity Temporary removal of food or utensil Removal to Junior dining room Symbols d w pl pb spl c n ad ah r f cr Numbers I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Io II 12 I02 NURSERY EDUCATION Removal to eat alone Instruction (how to eat) Ignored Other treatments: (*) and record under remarks Result Finishes without further urging Temporary return of attention to eating Still inattentive Refuses TABLE A* 13 14 15 16 I 2 3 4 showing the per capita frequency of each type of behavior for a period of nine months (30 children) AGE LEVELS BEHAVIOR 2-3 3-4 4-5 Dawdling I3 9 15.5 3.6 Playing with food I2.4 3.2 3.3 Food refusal ii.6 6.4.7 Watching 8.3 3.1 5 Asking for dessert 5.5.4 1.2 Food held in mouth 2.0.6 o Playing with children I.7 3 I 4.0 Conversation.4 5.9 8.5 Noises ~3 o o Asking for help..2 o * Arranged from an analysis of Food Difficulties and their Treatment, H. C. Brown; unpublished Master's Thesis, St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto, Canada, I935. DINING ROOM ROUTINE I03 TABLE B* showing the treatment distribution expressed in percentages (30 children) AGE LEVELS TREATMENT 2-3 3-4 4-5 Physical assistance 24.2 5 7.8 Rules of dining room 20.7 20.0 7.6 Attention recalled directly to food I8.7 20.7 I9.0 Attention recalled indirectly to food 9.I I2.3 6.8 Dividing dinner 8.6 I. 5 6. i Stopping play 6.2 2.o 15.3 Ignoring 3.6 6.6.8 Need of finishing in time 3.2 7.5 8.4 Asked if finished 2.0.6.8 Removal to eat alone I. I.2 3.I Reduction of social activity I.0 I0.4 30.5 Attention drawn to group behavior.4.6 o Temporary removal of food or utensils.4 o o Mixing food.4 o o Instruction (how to eat).4.6 o Removal to Junior room o.3.8 * See footnote on previous page. IO4 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE A Note -the decrease in the total number of behavior incidents interfering with eating, with age increase. -"playing with food" and "watching" occur largely at the two year level. (Ch. II, Sec. 5: —General Organization; Adult Instruction) -definite food refusals are practically absent at the four year level. (Ch. II, Sec. 5:-Adult Instruction; Food Dislikes) -the increasing frequency of social behavior as a hindrance to good eating habits. (Ch. IV, Sec. 4:-Social Adjustment in the Routine) TABLE B Note -the decrease in frequency, with age, in the use of "physical assistance"; instruction in "rules of the dining room"; "indirect treatments." (Ch. II, Sec. 5:-Adult Instruction) -the increase in frequency with age in the use of "removal to eat alone." -fifty per cent (app.) of adult treatments at the four year level are concerned with reducing play and social activity. (Ch. IV, Sec. 4:-Social Adjustment in the Routine) SELECTED REFERENCES Eating Habits Aldrich, C. A. Cultivating the Child's Appetite. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1928, 127 pp. A detailed discussion of the mechanics of eating, of its psychological aspects and of methods of developing good eating habits. Alschuler, R. H. Two to Six. Wm. Morrow Co., New York, I933, pp. 37-4I. Standards to be maintained in the young child's meal routine. Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-School Child. Wm. Bott, H. Morrow Co., New York, I928. J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., Toronto, Chap. III. DINING ROOM ROUTINE IoS A discussion of the developmental stages manifested in eating habits, and of methods of guiding development and of treating behavior difficulties. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure, D. Appleton and Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, Chap. VII. A practical discussion of the nursery school meal routine in terms of food to be served, procedure and treatment of behavior difficulties. Greenwood, B., and A Six Year Experiment with a Nursery Waddell, C. W. School. University of California at Los Angeles, 193I, Part IV. The description of a nursery school dining room set up and procedure with emphasis upon the means of establishing parent-school co6peration in regard to nutrition. Husband, M. L. The Food Preferences of Nursery School Children. Unpublished Master's thesis, St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto, I933. An analysis of the types of food and methods of preparation preferred by the pre-school child, based upon 2476 record observations made in the Nursery School. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., N. Y., I933, Chap. XIII. A discussion of how the child learns to eat and of methods of adult guidance. Woolley, H. T. Eating, Sleeping and Elimination. Handbook of Child Psychology. Ed. by Carl Murchison, Clark University Press, Worcester, Mass., I93I, pp. 28-40. A discussion of how to develop good eating habits in the child with particular reference to methods for inducing acceptance of required foods. ~ 6. SLEEPING ROUTINE EQUIPMENT A SEPARATE room used for sleeping purposes only has several advantages which are not possible when the children must sleep on beds put up in the playroom. Going to sleep requires a "preparatory set" quite different from that with which the child approaches any other of his day's activities. It requires a subduing of physical and mental activity and the withdrawal of attention from the many interesting factors, both material and social, always present in the environment. It is difficult to build up this attitude if the child's surroundings are those to which he is accustomed to respond actively; with a separate room, however, it is a fairly simple matter to teach the child to associate that particular place with quiet behavior. Also, such a room need contain only the furnishings conducive to sleep so that the child's other interests are not so readily aroused. A number of separate rooms would make it possible to divide the children into groups according to their sleeping habits, and so would reduce the chances of disturbance, but this plan requires more space and more adults than are available in the average nursery school. Such an arrangement is not by any means imperative as children readily become accustomed to sleeping in a large group. Wherever the sleeping quarters, there should, of course, be provision for sufficient fresh air without draft; and darkening the room, although not necessary, is conducive to sleep. Every child should have his own bed and bedding, and if this can be set up permanently in a particular place, his sleep will be more regular. The beds themselves may be either canvas or spring.26 For bedding, a pad and sheet below, 26 Beds 46"x24"XI2" will be found a convenient size. Io6 SLEEPING ROUTINE I07 with two light woolen blankets above will be sufficient. A few wooden or beaverboard screens, which can be moved about as they are needed, 27 are very useful for reducing the amount of distraction and disturbance among the children. PROCEDURE The objective of this routine is to develop in the child the ability to lie quietly and if possible to sleep at prescribed hours. The conformity expected in the sleeping room is that the child be sufficiently quiet not to disturb the other children. The child is not specifically required to sleep. General Organization: Although the objective is that the child sleep, it is not advisable to stress "sleep" itself to the child. Provided that his day's activity has been regulated to give sufficient outdoor and indoor play and that his general sleeping routine is consistent, that the immediate environment is non-stimulating and otherwise conducive to sleep, and that the child has learned how to relax both physically and mentally, he will sleep if he is in need of it. Sleeping is the only adequate behavior response to the basic physical need for rest. It is essential to satisfy this need in the same way that hunger and thirst require satisfaction.28 Children vary, however, in the amount of sleep they require. There are both individual and age variations, and also day to day variations, depending upon general activity. When every provision has been made for sleep, and the child does not sleep, then lying quiet should be considered as adequate and satisfactory behavior. As previously pointed out, the general tone of the child's behavior just before sleep is of particular importance. Special care must, therefore, be taken in the organization of this routine procedure to avoid confusion and excitement. If the room is darkened and otherwise prepared before the children 27 Screens 46"x36" will be found a convenient size. 28 For further discussion see The Psychological Appetites, W. E. Blatz. io8 NURSERY EDUCATION enter, quietness can be maintained from the outset. If the children proceed from the previous situation, i.e., the dining room, to the sleeping room in small groups, the adult in charge has an opportunity to settle each child individually. It is not necessary to remove the child's clothing other than his shoes and any heavy woolen wear. Once all the children are in bed it is a good plan to employ a device for indicating that rest is now in order. This may be done most effectively by dealing with each child in some manner which will compose him to sleep or quietness, such as rearranging the covers or turning him on his side, or merely saying quietly, "It's time to settle down." Sleeping Habits of the Pre-school Child: The adult's part in the sleeping routine of the nursery school is to help and to teach the child how to assume the general state of inactivity which is a necessary preliminary to sleep. It is of particular importance that the adult supervising the sleeping room should be well acquainted with each child's usual habits of sleep, so that she will know where and to what degree she should interfere, and will give no unnecessary assistance. The children will be at various stages in their sleeping habits, and each stage will require a different procedure, if the final results are to be satisfactory. There are three stages noticeable from two to five years of age, though of course a child may manifest individual characteristics. Until he is about two-and-a-half years of age a child usually retains the infant habit of falling off to sleep almost immediately he goes to bed, provided, of course, that he is accustomed to sleeping in the afternoon. At about the age of twoand-a-half years, however, he begins to stay awake, and it is at this time that he must learn how to go to sleep, or at least to rest. 29 This ability to keep himself awake probably results from a general increase simultaneously in mental activity and in interests. The child can be perfectly still physically and 29 See Table, page 120. SLEEPING ROUTINE IO9 yet be so engrossed in his world of ideas that sleeping, which is a behavior response like any other form of activity, cannot function, i.e., the need for sleep is overpowered for the time by more interesting motives. It is usually between the ages of two-and-a-half and three years, then, that the child requires most attention from the adult. At about four-and-a-half to five years of age the child may begin to give up his daytime sleep. It is usual for the child during this period to sleep for his usual length of time on certain days, while on other days he will stay awake throughout the whole of the sleeping period. In addition to these successive stages the children's behavior in going to sleep shows individual differences with which it is necessary to be familiar. Some children are restless for a few minutes before sleeping, but will drop off themselves if left alone; with others, this restlessness if not dealt with will keep the child awake; some may be perfectly quiet, but fail to sleep unless the suggestion is given. Adult Techniques: The adult's treatment must, therefore, vary in kind and degree according to the child. The same techniques may be applied in teaching the child to rest as in teaching any other routine procedure. The child may be verbally or physically assisted and instructed, direct and indirect suggestion used, and the requirements recalled periodically. Here as elsewhere in the routine the child should be allowed to choose whether he will conform or accept the consequences of nonconformity. The same principles of motivation also apply, namely, the desire to remain with the group and the desire to accomplish the task independently, e.g., to rest quietly without adult supervision. In the case of habitually good sleepers all that is needed is an occasional reminder that "This is the time to rest." Other means of suggesting rest are: turning the child; re-covering him; screening the child; touching him lightly; or sitting near his bed for a short time. All these act as indirect suggestions, reminding the child that quietness and IIO NURSERY EDUCATION sleep are expected. These are indispensable for controlling a group sleeping period. As a general rule it is advisable to use physical rather than verbal interference, because the latter is apt to bring a reply from the child and so stimulate rather than quiet him. If a child of the older group continues to be disturbing, removal should follow immediately, this removal being, of course, necessitated by the disturbance to the other children, never because the child does not sleep. When a two-year-old child is being very restless, more help may be given. At this age the objective is to assist him to maintain physical quiet, in which state he will usually drop off to sleep automatically. The adult can accomplish this by sitting beside him and holding his hands, feet, or both, lightly but firmly. If this is done, it must be from the point of view of helping the child, and must be accepted by the child as such, that is, the child must submit to and therefore show a cooperative attitude toward the slight restraint. If, on the other hand, it arouses personal struggle or antagonism, it should not be continued, and removal will again be necessary. With a two-year-old child who is beginning to lose the infant habit of falling asleep, is becoming restless and is able to keep himself awake, e.g., has reached the second stage in his sleeping habits, the same method of physical assistance may be used. In his case, however, it is necessary to seek the child's cooperation in the subduing of mental activity, otherwise physical quieting will be of no avail. This can be done most successfully by stressing individual achievement, that is encouraging him to settle down himself. Physical assistance in the sleeping period is a dangerous technique if the adult is not sufficiently experienced in its use. If too frequently applied it may become a permanent part of the child's sleeping habits, with the result that he is unable to relax without it. The final outcome depends solely upon the adult's general point of view. She must retain here, as in other routines, the attitude that her guidance and interference SLEEPING ROUTINE III are no more than a means to an end, namely, that the child acquire self-direction; and that, therefore, holding the child still is not, primarily, to put him to sleep but is to teach him how to lie quietly. He should be given the opportunity, daily, to lie quietly by himself, and the assistance should be given only after reminding and suggesting that he try to do so. The assistance itself must be gradually diminished as opportunity offers. It should be possible to reduce "holding still" to just "sitting near the child" and giving an occasional reminder; later the reminder alone should be sufficient, until finally the initial settling down should be all the help that is needed. If progress is not being made toward this end then the child, apparently, is not assuming any of the responsibility, and it is advisable to discontinue the assistance, and give him the usual choice of remaining quiet or of removal from the sleeping room. It is not advisable at any time to sit by a child for more than fifteen to twenty minutes. If he does not settle down in this length of time he is either not cooperating or cannot sleep. In addition to antagonism, there is one other attitude which may make adult assistance difficult. Sometimes a child's general attitude toward adults is such that he is constantly aware of their presence. In this case adult assistance in the sleeping room stimulates rather than quiets the child. When this attitude does not disappear as the child becomes accustomed to the school supervision all attention should be withdrawn and the child screened so that he is not distracted by children or adults. This plan failing it will be necessary to place him alone in a room until he has learned to lie still. Removal or sleeping alone has been mentioned frequently as a consequence of disturbing behavior. It is not only the logical but the only possible consequence in the nursery school sleeping period. Unlike the home it is absolutely necessary to the school sleeping room procedure that the child be reasonably quiet throughout the entire period because of the other children, and because it would be impossible to manage II2 NURSERY EDUCATION a sleeping room group if such a standard were not maintained. 30 It happens quite frequently that the child chooses to sleep alone, not only for a day but for a period of from one to two weeks. The only alternative in such a case is, of course, to let him sleep alone once he has been given this choice. It will not last long if he is adjusting himself to the school routine generally, and is progressing in self-dependence. Even in a case of frequent removals, the child should be taken into the sleeping room each day in the routine manner, that is, cooperative behavior rather than uncooperative behavior should always be expected. Special treatment is necessary when introducing a new child to the sleeping room.31 Children are more frequently upset in this than in any other of the school routines. For the first few days it may be necessary to have a new child sleep apart. He should be given an opportunity to watch the other children until he becomes sufficiently familiar with the situation to participate of his own choice and without crying. Even should a new child appear to be happy and at home, it is advisable for an adult to remain near him until he goes to sleep, for the first few days of school, in order to prevent any sudden fear. Such behavior might prove difficult to overcome later. The length of time allowed for the sleeping period differs with the school. At St. George's Nursery School the children sleep or, not sleeping, rest quietly from I2.30 to 2.30 p.m. As the entire group cannot commence the sleeping routine at I2.30 exactly, and as it is necessary to bring certain children out of the sleeping room early for toilet "prescription" every child does not rest for the entire sleeping period. However, 30 When removed the child should rest where he cannot disturb the children in the sleeping room and should be left alone. It will often be necessary, in cases of removal, to use some device for keeping the child in the bed. 31 For further discussion see Chapter V, Section 3. SLEEPING ROUTINE II3 by establishing a two hour interval each is insured at least an hour and a half of rest. BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES Failure to Sleep: Whether this is considered a problem will depend upon one's theory of sleep. If the view is taken that sleep is a response to a biological need then failure to sleep would indicate that there is no need for sleep. (It is assumed, of course, that the general conditions in such cases are those conducive to sleep.) If a child has had a normal night's sleep, sufficient bodily activity, fresh air, adequate food, and in the sleeping room is quiet though awake, there is no apparent need for sleep. Lying quietly may be considered a satisfactory form of response. 32 Tics-Mannerisms: Many forms of stereotyped behavior are to be observed in any group of pre-school children. Certain of these require special consideration because of their prevalence, because they are considered as being socially unacceptable and because they may interfere with a child's normal behavior development. The most significant are thumbsucking and masturbation, but there are many others which appear less frequently such as nose picking, ear pulling, "bumping" and "rocking." These habits are being discussed under the topic of the sleeping routine because they appear most frequently during the sleeping and relaxation periods; however, they may also be manifested during other routine and play activity. The following discussion will deal mainly with thumbsucking and masturbation but the principles of treatment may be applied to all such habits. Whether or not adult influence can be used successfully in eliminating these forms of behavior will depend primarily upon the adult's attitude toward them. It is to be remembered that such habits of behavior have been learned in the same 32 See Table C, page 121. II4 NURSERY EDUCATION way as any of the more acceptable forms. In other words, these tics must have been, originally, responses made to a specific situation or need which, because they were found satisfying, were repeated until they became automatic responses aroused in certain situations. Both thumbsucking and masturbation are a very likely development in infancy. The child's first efficient habit is that of sucking, and his first playthings the parts of his own body. These forms of behavior should not be looked upon askance but accepted as being infantile habits developed in the infant's random search for new interests. As such they may be expected to drop gradually from his repertoire of activities, as do other infantile habits, provided that his interests develop in a normal way and that he is continually acquiring other means of satisfaction and of self-expression. In short, a matter-of-fact and rational attitude must be adopted in dealing with these problems. The second point of importance is that these habits should, at the pre-school level, be treated indirectly, never directly, e.g., the adult should avoid doing or saying anything which will draw the child's attention directly to what he is doing. Discussing the child's behavior with him or before him, reproving him or otherwise emphasizing the behavior may fixate it more firmly by making it a deliberate rather than an automatic act. Furthermore, it is asking too much of the child of this age to expect him to take any responsibility for controlling such behavior himself, and the adult cannot be with him continually. Direct instruction, is, therefore, not only useless but may defeat its own end. The most effective treatment for such behavior is to make sure that the child is busily engaged during his waking hours, e.g., that he has adequate play equipment and a well arranged routine so that there are no long periods of inactivity, that he is tired and ready for sleep at the times when he must rest, and furthermore, that this rest is such that he does not become tired and sleepy during his play and other activities. Thumbsucking and masturbation are usually to be observed in a SLEEPING ROUTINE II5 pre-school group at times when a child is, for some reason, forced to be inactive or when he grows tired, sleepy or bored. In the sleeping room they are more noticeable and continuous when the child has poor sleeping habits, or is not, for some reason, able to sleep. The principle implied is that if the preschool child has a well-arranged routine and is developing normally, the acquisition of new interests and new skills, and of new means of self-satisfaction and of self-expression will result in less need for such behavior and less time for indulging in it. In addition to the above, more specific techniques, also of an indirect nature, may be employed to discourage these habits. If the child is inclined to suck his thumb or to handle himself at intervals during the day he may be stimulated to play or routine activity by recalling his attention to the material at hand, suggesting an activity or placing some new material within reach. If the behavior appears during the story or relaxation period the group as a whole may be directed to put their hands in a particular position, on their knees, by their heads, etc., or may be asked to hold them quietly. In the sleeping room masturbation may be treated as any other form of motor restlessness. The child should be resettled in bed, his hands placed near his head and he should be reminded that it is time to lie quietly. Physical assistance may be given from the point of view of teaching him how to lie quietly. The development of good sleeping habits, e.g., learning to relax physically and mentally and to lie still, tends to eliminate this habit from the period immediately preceding sleep without making it the main issue and therefore without drawing it specifically to the child's attention. Thumbsucking, when the child is going to sleep, cannot be treated in the same way. Removal of his thumb usually increases the child's restlessness and may arouse resistance and emotion and so center the child's attention on the behavior. The thumb can, however, be removed after the child is asleep. If the child acquires good sleeping habits this period II6 NURSERY EDUCATION prior to sleep will be a short one and thumbsucking during this time need not be considered a serious problem. If the tendency diminishes at other times it will be found that, automatically, it becomes less regular and continuous in the sleeping room. When the habits of thumbsucking or masturbation are unusually marked, or are becoming more instead of less frequent with increasing age, the problem is more serious. The adult should, in such cases, make an investigation of the child's total adjustment to his environment. If the child fails to obtain normal satisfaction in his play and routine activities and in his social contacts or if he becomes emotionally maladjusted he may resort to one or other of these forms of behavior as a possible avenue of satisfaction. Mention might be made here of another type of habit similar to tics and one found fairly frequently in any pre-school group. Through some particular circumstance a child becomes attached to a particular article from which he refuses to be parted. These attachments are built up, most frequently,,in connection with sleep. The child must have a certain blanket, towel, a handkerchief or silk stocking, or some particular article, before he will rest quietly. The parent usually insists that the child will be unhappy and unable to sleep if deprived of the possession. * However it will be found that the child, in adjusting himself to the completely new setting of the nursery school, will adapt himself as readily without the article. The fact that it is associated with and has become an essential part of the sleeping routine at home, does not make it a necessary part of the new routine of the school. The habit, therefore, should not be reestablished in the school setting. * S., aged three years, owned toy pussy cats of every conceivable variety. On her first day at nursery school she cried and asked for her "meow." Many times four or five "meows" were brought as far as the school door only to be sent home. SLEEPING ROUTINE SLEEPING RECORD* Date: Recorder: Page: "I7 Names #8o j#I2ia #86 #95 1II9 #I Io Temp. I 2.30 660 I1.30 630 2.30 680 W. B stnr To qs To 12.30 sktlz skth awq awq awr awq awq awq sip stnr qs qs qt 12.35 qs aw~r awq awq awq awr awq stnr qs 12.40 qt awq awq awq awr as awq thot qs 12.45 awq as awq auwr as awq stnr 12.50 as as awq awq as as rmvth 12._55 as as awq as as as *Detailed Record-typical cases. II8 NURSERY EDUCATION SLEEPING RECORD This record has been drawn up to indicate development of adequate sleeping habits. Progress is shown, first, by an increase in the number of times a child sleeps or, not sleeping, by the length of time he lies quietly; secondly, by a decrease in the frequency of specific types of restless behavior; thirdly, by a decrease in the number of "adult" interferences. Method of Recording: WEEKLY RECORD: A detailed record is kept once a week for each child. It is taken by the adult in charge of the sleeping routine. This record is kept daily for the child's first twenty-five days in the school. Interval of time -each space indicates a five minute interval commencing from the time the child gets into bed. Child's Behavior -in each interval the child is recorded as being "awake quiet" (awq), "awake restless" (awr) or "asleep" (as). -specific forms of behavior are recorded in the interval in which they occur. (See accompanying list of sleeping room symbols.) Adult Interference -specific forms of adult interference are recorded in the interval in which they occur. (See accompanying list of sleeping room symbols.) DAILY RECORD: On the remaining days of the week a record is kept which indicates the length of time the child is awake and the length of time he sleeps. The same record form is used. Child's Behavior -in each five minute interval the child is recorded as being "awake" (aw), or "asleep" (as). -a few specific forms of behavior are recorded. (See accompanying list of sleeping room symbols.) Temperature -the temperature of the sleeping room is taken at I2.30, I.30, 2.30. SLEEPING ROUTINE II9 Weather (W) -the weather is recorded as being either "bright" (B) or "dull" (D). SLEEPING ROOM SYMBOLS WEEKLY RECORD Child's Behavior Awake quiet (physical) awq Awake restless awr Asleep as Involuntary Behavior Coughs c Hiccoughs hc Sneezes snz Sucks thumb sk th Thumb out th ot Verbal signs of restlessness Talks t Whispers wh Laughs 1 Cries crs Shouts shts Sings sngs Noises n Motor Restlessness Sits up sip Stands up stp Social play sclpy Adult Interference Screens scns Quiets-word qs Quiets-touch qt Recovers rec Turns over to Sits near stnr Holds hands hdhs Holds still hdstl Sits on bed sob Removes rmv Tucks in tkn Removes thumb rmvth (when asleep) Toilet-voluntary toi vol -prescription toi pres DAILY RECORD Awake Asleep Coughs Sneezes Removes Toilet-voluntary -prescription Temperature Weather aw as c snz rmv toi vol toi pres -60o-65~ (if possible) -Bright (B) -Dull (D) I20 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE A showing the development in individual sleeping habits during the three year school period, as indicated by the child's behavior preparatory to afternoon sleep AGE LEVELS 2-2:6 2:6-3| 3-4 4-5 -; -[- - | Child #80 Average time "awake quiet" in minutes per day 14.0 I0.o 21.5 i8.5 Average time "awake restless" in minutes per day I. 2 I.3 i. 2.2 Average number of adult interferences per day.4 5 7 i.o Child #93 Average time "awake quiet" in minutes per day io.o 8.5 I2.o 10.5 Average time "awake restless" in minutes per day.0 5.0 2. 2 3.0 Average number of adult interferences per day.2.6.5. 6 Child #67 Average time "awake quiet" in minutes per day I8.5 I5.5 26.o 37.0 Average time "awake restless" in minutes per day 13.5 6.5 3.6.8 Average number of adult interferences per day 3. 2 I.5 I.0 I. TABLE B showing the development with age in sleeping habits, as indicated by behavior preparatory to afternoon sleep. Based on the records of 48 children AGE LEVELS 2-2:6 2:6-3 3-4 4-5 Average time "awake quiet" in minutes per child per day I3.0 I3.0 21.2 22.8 Average time "awake restless" in minutes per child per day 2.5 4.5 2.6 I.3 Average number of adult interferences per child per day 1.6 2.3 i.2.8, ~ t SLEEPING ROUTINE 121 TABLE C Showing change with age in afternoon sleeping habits, as indicated by the amount of time slept Age Levels 2-3 3-4 4-5 Percentage of days slept per child based on attendance 91.5 8o.i 73.0 Average amount of daily sleep in minutes per child 65.0 58.0 53.0 TABLE A Note -individual differences. The record of Child #67 indicates some difficulty in the early period and those of Children #80 and #93 show a better adjustment than the average. -the decrease in the length of time "awake restless" at the three year level as compared to the two and one half year level, although in each case the child is awake for a longer period. (Ch. II, sec. 6:-Sleeping Habits of the Pre-school Child) TABLE B Note -the slight increase, with age, in the total time required to go to sleep. -the increase in the length of time "awake restless" and in the frequency of adult interferences at the two and one half year level followed by a consistent decrease. (Ch. II, sec. 6:-Sleeping Habits of the Pre-school Child; Adult Techniques) -the four year group average shows the longest period of wakefulness plus the shortest period "awake restless" and least number of adult interferences. I22 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE C Note -the decrease in the number of days slept, with age increase. (pp. Io8-I09.) -the slight change shown in the average duration of afternoon sleep at the three age levels. (pp. Io8-o09.) SELECTED REFERENCES Sleeping Routine Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-school Child. Wm. MorBott, H. row Co., New York, 1928, Chapter IV. A method is outlined for training the infant and child in good sleeping habits. Blatz, W. E., and A Study of Sleeping Habits of Children. Chant, N. Journal of Genetic Psychology Monograph, Vol. IV, No. I, July, I928. An analysis of records made on the sleeping habits of children in the nursery school and in the home. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, 1929, Chapter VIII. A discussion of sleeping arrangements and of the treatment of sleeping difficulties in the nursery school. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in the Young Child. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1933, Ch. XIV. Teaching the child how to relax and to sleep. Woolley, H. T. Eating, Sleeping and Elimination. Handbook of Child Psychology. Ed. by Carl Murchison, Clark University Press, Worcester, Mass., I93I, pp. 40-52. "Training the child with respect to habits of sleep." Tics and Mannerisms Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-school Child. pp. 86-87; Bott, H. I98-201. Unacceptable habits, their causes and treatment. SLEEPING ROUTINE 123 Faegre,M.L.,andAn- Child Care and Training. The University of derson, J. E. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1929, pp. I44-I49. A discussion of adult attitude and treatment in regard to thumbsucking and masturbation. Blatz, W. E., and A Study of Tics in Pre-school Children. St. Ringland, M. C. George's School for Child Study. University of Toronto Press, Canada, I935. This study indicates the types of tics and their prevalency in a nursery school group, the situations in which they occur, and suggests a theory concerning their manifestation. A survey of the literature is included. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. pp. I73-I74. Masturbation and its treatment. ~ 7. INCIDENTAL ROUTINES NOURISHMENT IT is usual in a nursery school to serve mid-morning and midafternoon nourishment to the children. The amount and type of this nourishment will depend to some extent upon the social circumstances of the children attending. Tomato juice, orange juice, or milk are most frequently given. In some schools, biscuits are also added. The objective of the routine is that the child learn to accept nourishment readily and regularly and the conformity expected of him is that he take the required serving at the prescribed time. In order that the child's free activity is not interrupted too frequently, this routine may be combined with one of the more important routines, such as washing, dressing, etc. It is not essential that it be organized as a group activity. The glasses may be filled and placed on a tray available to the children. They soon learn the proper point in the day's routine at which they may serve themselves. Such a procedure saves time and reduces the amount of adult supervision required. As at meals, this routine is valuable for two separate reasons, first for supplementing the child's diet, and second for fostering routine habit formation. In regard to the latter, with which we are chiefly concerned, routine acceptance will be most satisfactory if the same food is given daily and in a fixed quantity (6 tablespoonfuls). The amount served should be sufficiently small so that all the children may be expected to accept it readily. Usually very little difficulty is encountered in teaching the child conformity to this routine. A new child may refuse 124 INCIDENTAL ROUTINES I25 because the routine requirement, or the food itself, is strange. Here, as in introducing all other routines, encouragement, assistance and example should be utilized. On the first few occasions the least sign of conformity, it may be only a sip, should be accepted by the adult as being an adequate attempt. The next step in the adult procedure is to decrease the quantity and require that the child empty his glass. Having learned this procedure the amount may be increased gradually to the usual size. 33 In the face of continued refusal, however, the child will have to learn conformity by waiting alone until he chooses to co6perate. An acquired dislike of the particular nourishment served should be treated as it is in the dining room, that is, by small servings, positive suggestions, and if necessary by removal from the group. Playing and other forms of dawdling are best overcome by isolation. ROUTINE DRINK OF WATER The objective of this routine is that the child learn to drink water as a regular part of the day's routine. The conformity expected is that he take the required serving at the prescribed time. A drink of water incorporated into the daily routine procedure is valuable, first, from a health standpoint. Water is more necessary to the child than to the adult. Such a procedure insures at least one drink of water a day to each child, and, at the same time, establishes a healthy habit. In the second place this procedure is of practical value in that it prevents interruption at inconvenient times in the day's program, by taking care of the child's average thirst. Here, as in the previous routine, the child can very quickly be taught to include this habit as one step in his daily routine procedure, and the same arrangement for serving will be found satisfactory. If the child is expected to comply with this 33 See Chapter V, Section 3. 126 NURSERY EDUCATION requirement before he may participate in other activities, then the amount of water he is required to drink should be reasonably small (4 to 6 tablespoons), and the amount should be kept constant; e.g., this routine, as all others, must be consistent and within the capacity of every child. Refusal to cooperate should be treated in the manner described in the previous section. This routine and the one above provide excellent opportunities for the child to be taught his first lesson in complete self-dependence. The motor ability required is well within the capacity of the youngest nursery school child, and the task both short and simple, so that the child in this situation may be entirely independent of the adult. NURSE'S INSPECTION AND ENTRANCE ROUTINE The objective of this routine from the child's standpoint is that he submit to the treatment entailed in a physical examination. The degree of conformity expected is a cooperative attitude toward the examination procedure. In a nursery school each child should have a medical examination daily, before joining the other children, as a precaution against colds and other infectious diseases. Such a procedure is of particular importance with pre-school children, because of their inability to discern or describe their own physical well-being.* The examination will entail a survey of wrists, arms, throat, nose, eyes, ears and chest, and should be made by doctor, nurse, or some one trained to do this. If the same examiner sees the children each day he may learn much about their health from their general behavior and appearance. Parents should be asked to cooperate with the school by keeping chil* As witness the following interpretations: G.-"I have a pink pain." H.-"I have such a headache in my tummy." INCIDENTAL ROUTINES 127 dren at home if they show any signs of illness and should be encouraged to report any unusual behavior: lack of appetite, poor sleep, etc. In addition to the routine examination, the staff of a nursery school should be trained to be on the alert during the day for any signs of sickness, should have some knowledge of the immediate treatment necessary at the onset of a sudden illness, and should be prepared to treat accidental occurrences, such as nose-bleeds, cuts, bruises and such childish accidents as getting sand in the eyes or beads up the nose. A doctor should, of course, be on call at all times. The adult's procedure in giving the physical inspection requires as careful study as does that in all other routines, and experience in handling children is essential. The examination should be carried out with sureness and promptness, the examiner being prepared to seize his opportunity for making each survey. A child rather objects to opening his mouth more than once, and cannot stand quietly for long. Combined with this deftness should be an easy and casual manner, and a certain amount of friendly conversation is helpful. It is important that the child be handled gently, not startled by a sudden move or jerk, and that he be made aware of each step in the procedure. From the standpoint of behavior the objective of the physical examination, as a routine, is that the child should learn to acquiesce cheerfully to what is required of him, and this is not easy for any child because a physical examination, contrary to the majority of routines, requires passive rather than active conformity, that is, actual physical submission to the adult. It is, as a matter of fact, often more difficult to accustom the child to this routine than to any other. This is frequently due to the fact that the child has already built up a negative attitude towards doctors and nurses. The situation is further complicated because it follows immediately after leaving the parent for the day. It may be some weeks before complete cooperation is achieved. Behavior will be much I28 NURSERY EDUCATION more stable if the parents are left out of this routine as out of all others, and, as it is not advisable to have them leave immediately, since the child may have to be sent home, they should be asked to remain outside the door of the office. The main difficulties in this routine are, then, usually encountered when a child first enters the school, and the process of familiarizing him with the requirements must be very gradual.34 For the first three or four occasions it may be advisable to have the parent remain with the child, and it is safer to let him watch the other children going through the procedure before taking his turn. If the child is emotionally upset the examination should be very cursory. Forcing the child through the motions when he is crying will strengthen rather than overcome his resistance. The object during the first few days is to show the child how simple and above-board the whole procedure is. This can best be accomplished by omitting any of the steps which cannot be easily carried out and might therefore lead to a struggle, by accepting the slightest indication of cooperative behavior as an adequate performance, and by emphasizing this conformity while ignoring the negative behavior. In this way the whole situation is completed almost before the child is aware of it, and he is given the impression that he has complied, whether he intended it or not, and further, has had neither time nor any reason for emotional behavior. If conformity does not increase under such treatment then a more rigorous form of discipline must be used. Once the child has had a sufficient introduction, so that there is no doubt as to his knowing what he has to do, he must be made to wait alone until he chooses to see the nurse quietly. Very often, if the child is taken into the school and through the first routine with the other children, he will, as it were, reassume his school attitude, and after this short diversion accept the examination cheerfully. The fact that the rou34 For further discussion see Chapter V. Section 3; Adjustment Table, page 298. INCIDENTAL ROUTINES I29 tine physical examination is the first event of the day seems to make cooperation more difficult. The entrance routine will always be difficult as long as leaving the parents upsets the child. In special cases good-byes should be said and the parents should leave before the examination is attempted. It might be mentioned here that if the parents can be persuaded to make their "good-byes" short and casual it will simplify the situation for the child and for the nursery school staff. RELAXATION ROUTINE The objective of this routine is that of teaching the child to relax after a period of strenuous activity. The conformity expected of the child is that he lie reasonably quietly for the required time. A habit of relaxing completely, both physically and mentally, at intervals throughout the day, insures for the child a maximum output of energy during periods of activity. This habit is established through the development of voluntary control and the regulation of the two fundamental phases of behavior, activity and quiescence. We are therefore concerned here with a basic habit. In the relaxation routine the child is being taught how to relax deliberately; in other words, relaxation is here considered as an active form of behavior and therefore one which must be learned. In addition to its teaching value this period may be used to advantage in organizing the day's routine procedures. By using it as an interlude in a long play period it checks the growing emotional tension and excitement so commonly observed in the group play of the pre-school child. It may, on the other hand, be inserted between a play and routine period and so prevent a carry over of the play attitude to the more "businesslike" routine procedure. Held immediately before lunch it prepares the child for the quieter and more leisurely atmosphere of the meal-period and hence aids in establishing good eating habits. 130 NURSERY EDUCATION There are various ways of conducting the relaxation period. Small rag rugs may be provided and a regular procedure outlined in which the children get these from cupboards, spread them out, lie down for the required time and then replace them.35 The children can, of course, rest on their beds in the sleeping room. Soft music played during the period will be found to have a quieting effect. It holds their attention just sufficiently to check physical playing but does not stimulate activity on its own account as a story or conversation may do. A successful relaxation period, particularly with a younger group of children, requires a nicety of balance between environmental stimuli, deliberate effort, and physical and mental set, which it is difficult to attain and to retain. If the child becomes interested in other things he begins to play and talk, if he concentrates upon himself he may become restless. Music provides a setting to which the child learns to respond by lying quietly in the same manner as he responds to the darkened sleeping room. It becomes a signal. Directing a restless child to listen to the music will be found an effective means of quieting him. In the older group where the children have already learned to relax a story may be introduced without interfering with the rest. The adult's role in the relaxation period is that of teaching the child how to lie quietly. The technique for so doing is similar to that employed in the sleeping period. As in the latter she must be quiet, calm and leisurely as she moves about the room and her method of giving instruction must be of similar character. Physical instruction, touching, turning over, etc., will be found more effective than verbal reminders which, if too frequent, have a stimulating effect upon the group. As in the sleeping period this instruction to the child will range from "holding him still," "sitting near him," and "touching him lightly" to verbal reminders that he "hold his hands quietly" or "put his head upon the rug." 35 Records indicate that it takes twenty-one days (average) for the child to learn to perform this procedure efficiently. INCIDENTAL ROUTINES I3I The adult will find the usual incentives for efficiency applicable to this routine, namely, lying quietly independent of adult help, remaining in the group, and joining the older children. As in all routines, if the child is uncooperative he should wait upon his rug until he has conformed to the requirements. When a child is apparently being deliberately uncoiperative during the relaxation period it will often be found effective simply to ignore his behavior, and later, when he wishes to join the other children, to insist that he lie quietly before doing so. The child's restlessness is frequently a bid for adult attention, a game which he plays in lieu of other amusement. When the child is disturbing the remainder of the group he should, of course, be removed immediately, otherwise the whole group will be disrupted. It must be remembered that it is difficult for the pre-school child to restrain himself from physical activity. Learning will therefore progress slowly in the relaxation period. The standard of efficiency must be low during the first stages of learning and it will be found that it is necessary to adjust it to each child's individual capacity. Marked differences are shown in the degree of physical quiet which individual children can achieve. The new child frequently finds his adjustment to the relaxation routine a difficult process.36 A child may accept all other routines and yet refuse this particular one. Fear and unhappiness are often manifested and resistance may continue for some time. The introduction should, therefore, be a gradual one and the child allowed to progress for the first few days at his own rate. It is advisable to allow him to watch for the first period. Later he may be urged to sit on his rug with the adult near by and still later to lie down for a minute or two. From this stage the length of the period may be increased and the standard of quietness raised until he is expected to conform to the routine requirements. 36 For further discussion see Chapter V, Section 3: Adjustment Table, p. 298. Date: Temperature: ENTRANCE ROUTINE AND NURSE'S DAILY INSPECTION Weather: Recorder: Entrance Examination Child's Arriv. _ Examination Admit Reject Absence H.T. S.T. P.I. Vb.M. Name Time. Unco. Co. Unco Data Cause Co. Unco.. 88 9.25 / V/ V ttI7 9.35 V ____ _ 99 9.25 \/ / inflamed throat \/ I24 9.25 V/ v refusing to open V mouth II4a 8.50 V/ / \/ 120 a a cold / -............. -, iM U - - i - - JI I Ill,nl C114 CCn tri U) tt tj C-) 0 z INCIDENTAL ROUTINES I33 ENTRANCE ROUTINE AND NURSE'S EXAMINATION This form is drawn up, first, to provide a continuous record of the health of each child and, therefore, of the health of the nursery school group as a whole; second, to show the behavior adjustment in the routine procedure. The health of each child is indicated by the number of days he attends, by his general condition (specific examination data), and by the illnesses causing absence. Adjustment to the routine procedure is shown by an increase in the frequency of "co6perative" behavior during the nurse's examination and while leaving the parent to enter the school. In addition to the above the following data is recorded for purposes of analysis:-temperature; weather; hour that child arrives (arrival time); frequency of sending a child home (rejected); method by which parents report causes of absence,-home telephones (H tel), school telephones (S tel), parent interview (P I), verbal message (Vb M). Method of Recording: This record is kept daily by the nurse or member of staff in charge of entrance routine and nurse's examination. SELECTED REFERENCES Incidental Routines: Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, pp. 27-30; 33-38; 38-43. Nursery School procedures for nurse's inspection; routine nourishment; and relaxation routine as they are carried out in the four age groups (2 to 5 years). CHAPTER III WORK AND PLAY HABITS ~ i. DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY THROUGHOUT the routine periods of each nursery school day the child is being directed in the formation of habits of personal care designed to provide full satisfaction for bodily needs, in a manner agreeable to society, with the further objective that he learn to accept and enjoy routine performance. The remaining portion of the child's nursery school day is occupied in "play." Not only does physical, mental and sensory development depend on the opportunities afforded by play, but it is during the pre-school period that the basis is laid for general habits of active and creative living which make up so much of an individual's personality. A child should learn to be actively interested, and hence capable, on occasion, of being sufficient unto himself. He should learn to concentrate upon and complete a project. Also, it is during the pre-school period that the individual begins his life in society, and through play that he has the first opportunity to learn the give and take of social life. Until recently such development was left to chance, the child's "play" being considered a childish phase to be indulged until such time as he was ready for more serious things. The fundamental importance of play in the individual's life has become a recognized fact and the need for guiding the child in his play, as in all other learning situations, is now stressed. In this respect the nursery school can do what the average home can never hope to attain. WORK VERSUS PLAY It will be noticed that we have placed the word play in quotation marks in the previous paragraph. This is done 137 I38 NURSERY EDUCATION in order to point the distinction that is usually made when one classifies the activities of children and of adults. To the lay individual the antonym for play is work; hence work and play are usually placed in juxtaposition to each other. The question naturally arises: can this distinction be upheld? In order to be different they must have characteristics which distinguish the one from the other. Let us see whether we can discover any such distinguishing qualities in the "work" and "play" life of the adult. We may say that play is pleasant and work is unpleasant. This distinction cannot be upheld because many people enjoy their work as much as their play and some find play a disagreeable task. Let us say that we are compelled to work and not compelled to play. If we are referring to an inner compulsion, namely, to an individual's wishes and desires, we have on the one hand the desire to conform to the code of industrial life, on the other hand the desire to enjoy activity for its own sake. There is therefore an inner compulsion toward both "work" and "play" activity. If a distinction is attempted in terms of outward compulsion it narrows down to a distinction in terms of economic compulsion. One "works" to earn one's daily bread. Is work dull routine and formulated practice? And is play always interesting and without rules of procedure? An artist who must make his living is interested and allows full freedom to his imagination; a checker player must follow rigidly the rules of the game. Further inquiry into the distinguishing marks of work and play will show that as forms of human activity they are indistinguishable. The only necessity for maintaining the names is to indicate the distinction, made by our present economic system, between those activities for which we are paid and those which are of no economic value. Such a definition is quite satisfactory for adult activity; but can it be made applicable to the child's activity? There is only one solution and that is to throw out the concept as confusing and ambiguous. We cannot however ignore the DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY I39 fact that children are constantly active. In the first chapter we have indicated that our social living demands a degree of routine for this behavior and the steps for accomplishing this have been illustrated. In addition to the time spent by the child in learning to conform to these rules and regulations, a considerable portion of his waking time remains, in which he is also behaving, or acting, or living. We must not, however, make the mistake of thinking that this is free time, that he is under no compulsion whatever, that he is at liberty to do what he wishes. Furthermore, such time is not necessarily pleasant merely because the-child is not learning a routine. He must be taught, or rather he must learn, how to enjoy this kind of activity just as he must learn to enjoy routine habits. Actually, we are presented here with the same problem that was mentioned in the previous chapter, namely, the child must attain a certain skill in the manipulating of his environment and secondly, he must learn to conform, within limits, to the demands made by society. These periods of activity without routine are, from the point of view of the developing child, as important, if not more important than the routine periods. There is opportunity for him to experiment, to choose within limits, what he will do and how he will do it. He therefore develops individual interests and skills and individual means of selfexpression. His experiences during these periods are peculiarly his own. He is, however, learning in exactly the same way as he learns in the washroom. The goal, in the latter case, seems to be specific and the methods for attaining it are limited as far as the child's choice is concerned. The difference in the two situations is one of degree not of kind. Despite the inaccuracy of the term it would be pedantic to insist on deleting the word "play" from the nursery school. Throughout the remainder of the book we shall therefore use the term "play" when speaking of the child's I40 NURSERY EDUCATION activities other than his routine performances, but in so doing we do not wish to imply that this so-called "play" activity of the pre-school child is the antithesis of "work." After all, this early form of active living which we are designating as "play" is the origin from which develop the general habits of activity and the skills which will be practiced in future years, whether the individual is making a living or playing golf. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S PLAY If the nursery school child is to learn as efficiently during his play periods as he does in his routine periods then his play environment and play procedure must be planned to comply with the principles of learning previously outlined, just as the routine is so planned. This means that the adult must know something of the child's needs, capacities and developmental possibilities, as they are related to his play activity, e.g., the adult must be familiar with the features characteristic of the activity of the pre-school child during play. Spontaneity and Freedom: Examining play activity from this point of view we find that its foremost characteristics appear to be its spontaneity and freedom. The child is fulfilling impulse and desires as they arise through his immediate contact with his environment. This is self-initiated activity performed for its own sake and for the immediate satisfaction therein. There is no apparent outward compulsion forcing his activity into definite channels. A second feature characteristic of this behavior is the complete freedom shown by the player to change from one activity to another at will. An activity is never carried on in the face of boredom. As one impulse fades and a new one becomes uppermost this latter is carried into action until it likewise palls. If we consider change as being a basic appetite or need of the organism then play DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY I4I may be thought of as activity in which this appetite is allowed a high degree of satisfaction.' Exercise of Abilities: Because frequent change of activity is natural at the preschool level, one may be sure that, left alone and free in a well-equipped play environment, the child will tend to exercise all his physical, mental and sensory abilities. Thus play is not only the main channel for self-directed activity but is at the same time the means of developing a variety of abilities and interests. Developmental Phases: As was previously noted, the play life of the child develops into the more orderly work and play activity of the adult. Between these two stages a number of developmental phases may be traced. Play life should show continual changing and maturing with age. During the pre-school period certain of these changes occur. There is a gradual appearance of varied interests. The play activity of the two-year-old is characterized by its quick change from object to object, without apparent sequence or discrimination. The average four-year-old, on the other hand, shows a definite increase in the length of time he spends upon his unit activities; he seiects the things to which he attends and this selection tends toward a definite sequence or plan, the final result of one play activity leading to the beginning of another. In place of non-voluntary and involuntary attention his attention becomes more and more voluntary in its nature. Concentration upon a particular activity, following upon the attention to its various aspects and the consequent direction of activity in a regular sequence leads to the formation of interests and the ability to be interested. The development of interests may be explained, first, as the result of the maturing of the child's motivating forces. These become organized, some assuming predominance, the 1For further discussion see Physiological Appetites, W. E. Blatz. 142 NURSERY EDUCATION others ranging behind these in importance, and some dropping out completely, so that there is a certain limiting of objects to which the child attends. Secondly and more specifically, with the maturing of driving forces there occurs a maturing of the appetite for change. Accepting the above statement, that the need for change is fundamental to the organism, similar to hunger or thirst, it follows that control and development of this appetite are possible in the same manner as with the other. When the child is able to concentrate for an increasing length of time, he may be thought of as having learned to control his need for change or, otherwise expressed, the rhythmic interval of the appetite has been lengthened. The same type of learning is involved as that occurring when the infant is trained to regulate his eating periods at increasingly long intervals; or to lengthen his eliminative span. The replacing of random activity by choice and sequence, characteristic of play development, may be compared to the development of the habit of eating a particular kind of food. In both appetites, hunger and change, the individual learns to satisfy his need in a particular manner. Normally in play activity, with increasing age comes not only the development of interests themselves, but an alteration in the objects of interest. The toy of the two-yearold possesses little attraction for the four-year-old child. These specific interests with their accompanying activities, in so far as they occupy the attention of the child for a period of time, will lead to the development of specific abilities. Thus we are presented with the phenomenon of the interest developing the abilities and the abilities maintaining the interest. This inherent mechanism is self-starting and selfperpetuating, providing the environment is auspicious, both socially and materially. The chief aim of the nursery school play periods is to see that the child of five years is well on his way in the development of this mechanism. Growth in ability should be physical, mental and sensory. DEVELOPMENT THROUGH PLAY 143 Physically, the child's play should show development in general bodily control, coordination, and specific ability; sensorily, in the recognition, appreciation and creative use of colors, sizes, shapes, etc.*; and mentally in constructive and more prolonged effort. In this latter regard the child should progress from mere physical manipulation of his play material to the planning and carrying through of a formulated project. While the two-year-old piles his blocks until he.is weary of the game, knocks them down and commences again, or leaves them for a new interest, the four-year-old attempts a garage, completes it and uses it. Such development in play activity, the maturing of impulses, the control of attention and increase in skill is to a large extent the result of learning, and thence dependent upon the possibilities and directing influence of the play environment surrounding the child. * The following titles were given by the children to their paintings: Birds Flying; Rain Drops; Lots of Balloons; Rows of Fences. Moon in the Sky;-"Has the moon got a round bed?" Wind; Rain Falling; Little Things Hanging Down. The Shining Moon With Fire Dripping Down. A Garden of Red Waving Flowers. A Poem of Red Rain Drops. A Picture of a House Burning Down-"but you can't see the house just now as there are so many sparks." A Ball with Two Stands-"so it won't fall over." Two Eels, a Horse and a Fence. It's Part of a Box Car Story.: Mickie Mouse and a Snake. ~ 2. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD IN planning for the play activity of a nursery school it becomes essential, in view of the above, to consider a number of factors. First, the child's activity must be self-directed, the result of spontaneous impulse. Second, the activity must be an end in itself without apparent outward compulsion. Third, the child must be free to change his activity whenever boredom commences or a stronger motive manifests itself. Fourth, play is the natural medium for the exercising of abilities, and so, in play, the child should be given opportunity to use these to their fullest extent. Fifth, play habits show change and development with age. This development will, if adequately directed, lead to the formation of the habits of concentration, voluntary attention, discrimination in choice of activity, and so to the formation of individual interests and their accompanying abilities. A plan for achieving these major objectives will be considered under two main headings, first, adult control, second, play equipment. ADULT CONTROL If the child's activity is to be characterized by spontaneity and by freedom to experiment and to develop individual interests and individual skills, then it is obvious that direct adult control, such as is exercised in routine guidance, should be at a minimum. Should the adult step in with definite suggestions, directions and commands as to what the child shall do then the motive towards self-initiated activity no longer operates. An outer stimulus has been introduced, the child is no longer self-sufficient, and the activity has, in conI44 PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD 145 sequence, lost its inherent interest. The child must choose his own activity. Similarly, the child must be allowed to discontinue his occupation at will; forced activity when an impulse has grown weaker will never lead to a permanent interest because satisfaction and pleasure have been lost. Interference and assistance in creative and constructive endeavor are equally dangerous. The sequence of the child's activity is interrupted, and his attention distracted. It is far more important at the pre-school level that the child practice creation than that his creation approximate perfection. At this early stage of the child's development it is with the growth of general habits of activity and attitude toward activity, and not essentially with a high standard of skill, that the nursery school is concerned. Setting an adult standard for the child's work should be avoided. It subtracts from the child's satisfaction and pleasure in having accomplished a project which he has set himself, makes him dissatisfied with his own ideas and powers, and dependent on the adult instead of on himself for inspiration. The adult must be equally careful in the giving of praise which, as a form of stimulation, may divert the interest and effort of the child from his material activity, with the result that the activity is performed, not for its own sake, but for the praise which it calls forth. In short, direct adult control makes impossible an environment for achieving the goal described above. Make the child play, tell him what to do, or do it for him, and all freedom and individual enterprise are lost. The question remains as to how the play activity of the nursery school child is to be guided in order to make the most of its many possibilities; for it is obvious that there must be careful guidance of some sort. Indirect control through a careful planning of play equipment is the only solution. The stage must be so set that when the child is left free he will be led to indulge in activity of the desired kind. This is the freedom which modern methods of child training advocate and which is so 146 NURSERY EDUCATION frequently interpreted as inferring a complete withdrawal of every restraining influence surrounding the child. The fallacy of this latter interpretation is obvious. In the first place this "freedom" is not a part of routine but only of play-activity; and in the second place, it is circumscribed within a carefully equipped area whose boundaries are widened very gradually as the child's experience prepares him for a greater freedom. It is the adult's part, then, to plan the play environment according to the principles enunciated and having done this to step as far as is possible into the background, leaving the child free to experiment, learn and develop. Such is the general rule of procedure. The exceptions to this rule are, of course, numerous.2 In one respect there can be no latitude allowed the child; direct control is essential and its acceptance by the child obligatory. That is, at all costs the child must be guarded against play that is dangerous to himself or to other children. The adult must maintain close supervision and exercise foresight in preventing accidents. The ever present danger situations can be handled with least adult interference by establishing a set of "danger rules" for each play situation, which rules the child is expected to learn and to accept in the same manner as he learns to conform to routine requirements. It means that there are certain things which are, or are not done, for reasons known to the child, and that, should these rules be broken after the child has learned them, a disciplinary con, sequence will follow. This should be "removal" from the piece of apparatus, or from the group. Examples of such rules are: the child must walk up the slide steps and not up the slide; sand is to play with, not to throw; the ladder is to be used on the boxes, not beside the fence; plasticine is to build with, not to eat; and so on. There are other rules of play necessary to the formation 2 See Analysis of Adult Procedure in the Free Play Periods, Ch. III, Section 3. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I47 of adequate play and work habits and to the maintenance of an orderly play period, which the adult must enforce. In addition to instructing the child in the rules of playground and playroom it will be necessary for the adult to proffer suggestions, assistance and encouragement to individual children and to redirect activity in particular instances. These necessary interferences will be discussed in the following section and their values pointed out. (Adult control in social situations will be discussed in the following section.3) The nursery school worker will find that her control of the indoor free play period must be of a different character from that which she employs in the outdoor play period. In the playrooms it is necessary to restrain the child's energy somewhat. Consequently a number of rules must be enforced. Outdoors the child's energy, provided that it is constructively employed, may be allowed maximum freedom, and requirements are relatively few. However, such freedom increases the tempo of the child's activity in the outdoor play period. This together with the numerous danger hazards involved in the use of outdoor equipment makes it necessary for the adult to be more alert, attentive and efficient in her supervision. These two situations also differ with reference to the amount of adult assistance required by the children in carrying out their play projects. The indoor play materials, particularly in the senior playroom, entail skilled activity of a specific kind. The child requires considerable assistance if he is to become proficient. Outdoors the play consists largely of general physical activity in which the child engages according to his ability. PLAY EQUIPMENT Lay-out and Furnishings: The first problem to be considered in creating a nursery 3 See Social Adjustment of the Pre-school Child, Ch. IV. 148 NURSERY EDUCATION school play environment, is the matter of general lay-out and the furnishing of playroom and playground. Space is a primary requisite, sufficient space, both outside and inside, calculated according to the number of children in attendance. Freedom and variety of activity, without space, are impossible for the young child, for whom free activity implies energetic physical activity. If rooms and playground are small in size it may be advisable to divide the nursery school group into smaller groups, either according to age or to activities; or so to arrange the program that while one such group is playing another is proceeding with routine. (As will be shown later, such a division into groups is often advisable from the point of view of developing good play habits and for reasons of social import.4) The next problem is to organize the space so that it may be used to the best advantage. On the playground the permanent equipment, slides, jungle-gym, sand-box, etc., should be so separated that each may be used to its full extent without interfering with the use of the other, and so that the group is spontaneously scattered over the available space. Crowded together, these things lose their identity as separate units providing for change and new interest. One section of the playground, preferably out of the main thoroughfare, should be set aside for locomotive toys. A paved circular run-way laid in this area will be found very useful. In the playroom the available space should be so arranged that the more strenuous and disturbing play is somewhat apart from the quieter occupations. Thus, if one room only is being used the work tables may be placed at one end, the blocks in the center, the trucks, trains, etc. at the other. With two or more rooms the various toys may be placed in separate rooms, a block room, table work room, etc. As on the playground, materials should be separated, the dolls having a corner to themselves and so on. This arrangement makes attention and concentration easier for the child by 4 See Suitable Play Materials, page 157. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I49 lessening the distracting influences of other children and other toys, as well as diminishing general confusion and social upsets by dividing the children into groups each with a particular interest. Related materials and toys may be placed near to one another in order to foster project work by suggesting to the child new possibilities in the course of his play. Incidentally, such organizing of material also stimulates social play without the help of adult stimulation. Division of activity, and so of the group, is very satisfactorily affected by the addition of a raised platform in a corner or side of the room. As a balcony it provides much enjoyment but the danger possibilities, and consequent need for considerable adult supervision, counterbalance its advantages, so that a low platform reached by one or two steps is more advisable. This structure also adds variety to the playroom. Turning from the lay-out of the play space to the problem of its furnishings there are four main principles to follow. First, every piece must be adapted to the child's size and ability, the toy shelves low, open and allowing plenty of room so that taking out and replacing the toys is a simple matter. The toys themselves should be kept in strong, open wooden boxes easy to handle. Tables and chairs must be of the proper height, pictures hung at the proper level, windows low, if possible, and so on; everything being so planned that a minimum of adult help {required and the child therefore independent in his play environment. In the second place all furnishings must be durable, tables and chairs sturdy, boxes and shelves strong, pictures unbreakable. The child finds as much constructive interest and enjoyment in handling the furniture as in play with his toys, and though his first attempts will be clumsy it should not be necessary to check them. The third principle is that of simplicity and usefulness. There should be nothing in playroom or playground which cannot be made a part of the child's play. The play en I50 NURSERY EDUCATION vironment is the child's place for experimenting and features which make it necessary for the adult to forestall interested activity should be as few as possible. There are, as will be seen later, plenty of such situations which are unavoidable. Fourthly, the play furnishings should be as attractive as possible. The playground may be kept attractive by paint, as well as, where possible, by the addition of flowers, grass and trees; the house by attractively designed and well-kept furnishings and by the introduction of a color scheme for furniture and hangings. All such features are as much a part of the child's experience as his toys, and assist in the establishing of sensory appreciation. Quantity of Play Materials: Having provided a setting for play, the most important problem remains for discussion, namely, what are the requisite features to be looked for in making a selection of play materials in order that these may conform to the aforementioned principles of play activity. The number of toys and of play materials necessary to keep a nursery school group constructively occupied from day to day is, of itself, an important consideration without taking into account, for the moment, variety of material. If freedom to change is considered essential and if boredom is to be avoided, then the number of play possibilities must be sufficient to provide for the rhythmic need of change for each child in the group. The problem is best considered with reference to age groups. Research studies point out that there is, in general, a development of interest span and attentive power, and hence a use of less play material per hour, with increasing a[e. Observation in the playrooms of St. George's School for Child Study shows an attention span of 2.5, 4.5 and 5.5 minutes for two-, three- and four-year-old children respectively.5 From this it can be seen that one two-year-old child will cover considerable ground in an hour's play, making on an average twenty-four changes during that time. Of course 5 See Observations of Play Activity in the Nursery School, H. Bott. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I5I he may return to one material several times. Ten two-yearold children will change ten times as frequently. These figures indicate that there must be at least three or four times as many possible occupations as there are children. With increasing age the required number of units of equipment lessens. However this tendency is counterbalanced by the introduction of selection into the child's play so that, though the four-year-old uses less material in a given length of time, he demands a wider choice. The number required may be considerably reduced if those supplied are carefully chosen. One type of material possessing a variety of possible uses, such as sand, blocks, scissors, paste, etc., is equal to three or four of a more limited nature, such as mechanical toys, trucks, engines. A careful selection of equipment on this basis will save money and also space. Variety of Play Materials: The next topic is that of variety. What should be the determining factors in choosing a variety of play materials? A study of the mechanism of the appetite of change has shown that there is a natural rhythm maintained between strenuous activity and rest. Some provision must therefore be made to maintain a balance between these two phases of activity in the child's play. A logical and convenient arrangement is to equip the playground with the apparatus conducive to vigorous play and movement, running, jumping, climbing, swimming, wading, balancing, lifting, sliding, shouting; the indoor playroom with materials involving quieter occupations, carpentry, painting, cutting, pasting, peg boards, plasticine, books, small blocks and small locomotive toys. Not only does such a division of play activity fit in with the child's natural requirements and help to establish a habit of controlling energy output, but it adds considerably to the pleasantness and, therefore, to the value of the nursery school day. Provided that the child has had sufficient strenuous play outside it becomes legitimate and is not expecting too much of him to demand quieter play I52 NURSERY EDUCATION inside, and to see that this rule of the playroom is carried out.6 A general rule to the effect that each child occupy himself with some article, and that he do so in a constructive manner will, if carried out consistently, very quickly accustom the child to playing quietly, provided that the toys are selected with this end in view. Vigorous activity indoors, while necessary if there is no other provision made for it, creates a confusion and excitement which permeates both adult and child and usually persists through the entire day's routine. Both in the outdoor and indoor periods provision should of course be made for change in play-occupation in terms of activity and quiescence. The child must have opportunity to play quietly out of doors as he must be able, on occasion, to play relatively actively indoors. Outside, sand and blocks provide rest from the more exciting and tiring locomotive and gymnastic apparatus; indoors, trucks, blocks, dolls, form a contrast to the table toys which entail the use of specific muscle groups rather than general bodily activity. It is necessary to take into account the fact that the younger the child the more likely he is to be fairly strenuous and to indulge in activity involving his whole body, so that the quiet play of the two-year-old is not at all similar to that of the four-year-old, and is of a much shorter duration. The four-year-old is able to play contentedly with table toys for fifteen minutes or more, but the two-year-old requires many active intermissions. Hence the selection for junior and senior playrooms must be different. In addition to the change of energy output thus provided for, change, i.e., variety, is required in the form of the play, in both its physical and mental content. There should be opportunity for the exercising of the various parts of the body and the various bodily coordinations, and also for stimulating the imagination. The materials which provide best 6 See Analysis of Adult Procedure in the Free Play Period, Ch. III, Section 3. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I53 for exercising these various functions will be discussed later under the headings of physical, mental, and sensory development in play activity. Here the point to be noted is the need for variety to prevent boredom, non-activity, and consequent lack of progress. It may be asked whether there is not a possible danger, of providing too large a number and too great a variety of play equipment and so fostering aimless activity. In a properly organized play-period such play behavior cannot occur. Each child should be taught not only to choose his play material but to replace it before making a second choice. Such a procedure acts as a control preventing too rapid change of attention and making each separate activity a unit enterprise with a beginning and an end. By means of this procedure the playroom is kept fairly tidy and the play materials in their respective places. It is when the room becomes littered with play objects and the child is no sooner busy at one than another attracts his attention that he will flit from one to another with no particular interest in any. Non-dangerous Play Materials: Two general essentials of play equipment in a nursery school are, then, sufficient number and sufficient variety. The requisite features to be looked for in judging the adequacy of any object as a play material remain to be considered. Each piece of material or apparatus should be judged, no matter what other features are being considered, in terms of its danger possibilities; and this, not because of the hazard only, but because of the constant checking of activity entailed, and the consequent restriction of the child's freedom to experiment. This does not mean that valuable equipment need be sacrificed because there is the possibility of an accident. Almost all apparatus such as slides, jungle-gyms, etc. is dangerous until the child learns how to use it properly; and learning to be careful is a part of the child's necessary experience. But the danger of each should be minimized, and proper use of the equipment well I54 NURSERY EDUCATION within the child's power. A multitude of examples could be cited: the slide should have a sufficiently high wall so that leaning and climbing over are discouraged; sharp-edged toys and tools should be eliminated, swings, jungle-gyms and climbing trees should be low, scissors have blunt ends, paint be non-poisonous, beads be too large to be swallowed or stuffed up the nostrils. Constructive Materials: A second criterion by which to measure the adequacy of a piece of nursery school play equipment is the range of potentialities it offers for self-expression and achievement. These may refer to the physical, ideational or sensory expression or any combination of the three. This means that a toy should be usable, a tool in the hands of the child to be turned to his own purposes, that his capacities should be taxed in the furthering of ends of his own choosing. The best examples of such play-equipment are what may be termed the "constructive materials," the interest of which lies in the use to which they are put. Such materials are sand, snow, clay, water, plasticine, blocks, paste, scissors, paint, paper, and larger equipment such as packing boxes, boards, ladder, jungle-gym, wagons. An analysis of the uses made of such material shows that it provides for a large majority of the play essentials previously outlined. In the first place, because there is very little ready-made interest in it, the child must direct his own play efforts, and so develop the habit of spontaneous activities and interest. Its use promises, more than any other type of play, the development of the habit of doing something worth while for its own sake. Each effort on the part of the child produces some result from which the child experiences satisfaction and which leads naturally to new effort, a new result, and further satisfaction. This sequence of unit enterprises lends continual variety to the child's play, so that the need of change is adequately met without alteration in the direction of attention. The child is not bored with such play ma PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I55 terial nearly as quickly as with that of a less pliable nature. He builds a tower with the blocks, he then has the fun of knocking it down and beginning a garage or loading a truck. He can pile the blocks, balance them upright, put them in rows or create designs. Such material then, as well as stimulating creative and constructive activity, and the desire to do something for its own sake, teaches and fosters the habit of being interested, or, in other words, of attending to the various aspects of one subject for a considerable length of time, and of discovering and tracing its possibilities one after the other. (This is the type of activity which in adult life leads to real and satisfying achievement.) Constructive materials have yet another advantage. If the child is to make use of them he must exercise his abilities. Physical development is provided through the actual physical effort involved in handling and carrying out the endeavor. Outdoors the large blocks give practice in lifting and carrying, a good-sized sand pile affords opportunity for digging, the jungle-gym, ladder, trapeze, etc. provide for physical expression through the unlimited variety of physical activity they stimulate. The smaller materials used indoors, paste, scissors, plasticine, paint, etc., involve finer muscular skill and coordination. Sensory appreciation is stimulated by experiencing size, weight, and shape and in forming patterns, molding materials, choosing and combining colors; constructive thinking is enriched by devising and planning the use of the materials. It can be seen that the use of constructive materials provides for the development of the most valuable play habits and at the same time exercises the child's abilities in a general and multi-varied, rather than in a stereotyped, manner; so that the most important criterion for estimating the value of any material would seem to be its possibilities for encouraging self-expression in the child. Over and above their value to the individual child, these materials are particularly appropriate as nursery school play I56 NURSERY EDUCATION equipment for several other reasons. They may be used either for individual or group play; and they provide opportunity for all stages of social development ranging from the solitary play of the two-year-old to the more complex cooperative activity of the four-year-old. Further, the best constructive materials are not limited to a particular preschool age level, but are adaptable to the abilities of the child from two to five years. The child of two derives enjoyment and interest and develops his powers in the physical handling of sand, blocks, etc.; the older child progresses to a more and more constructive and complicated use, in line with his developing abilities. Thus, these materials provide for an entire nursery school group, or, looking at it from the point of view of the individual child, provide interesting activity for any one of the group from the time he is two until he is five years of age. In this latter respect they have a great advantage over material limited to a particular age level. There is always the danger, with such types of equipment, that the child may continue to play with them after they have been outgrown, and so hamper his development. Constructive materials, on the other hand, develop new possibilities as the child develops ability to handle them. Constructive materials are therefore the most adequate and, at the same time, most economical play equipment for a nursery school. The best constructive materials have already been mentioned7; there are others which possess this quality to a lesser degree. Imaginative play with dolls, for example, may be considered as falling under the heading of selfexpressive activity, belonging particularly to the ideational field; and books provide for verbal expressions and practice in reconstruction of the child's real and imaginary world. Certain materials possess a constructive interest for a particular level of ability but are useless above and below this level, being too difficult for the younger child and becom7 For further discussion of specific play materials see Ch. III, Section 4. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I57 ing static material for the older child. Peg boards are of such a nature. For the two- and three-year-old their use involves purpose, effort and achievement. For the fouryear-old they become an automatic pastime. Elementary kindergarten material-involving tracing, stenciling, cutting prepared pictures, sewing cards, etc.-requires too much skill for the two- and three-year-old to master without undue effort and help; to the four-year-old it presents a problem in the mastery of a new skill and the achievement of a specific project. The five-year-old finds it a stereotyped activity with little possibility for self-expression, unless it can be elaborated by the introduction of new interests. Special materials of this type should, of course, be provided only for the particular group for which they are appropriate. Suitable Play Materials8: This brings us to the third criterion in the choice of adequate play material, the criterion of function and adaption to use. Material which is too advanced or too simple for a particular child will hinder play activity, and so lessen its full value; and may, in addition, foster undesirable habits of activity. Suppose that a two-year-old is faced with materials which are beyond his ability to use in an interesting manner. The probable effect upon him will be as follows: after a series of attempts at manipulating the objects, he will lose all interest, the motive towards continuing the activity will fail and he will become bored. No child will continue to do for its own sake, and enjoy, that in which he fails to have any success. The development of the habit of being busy and constructively active, with the accompanying development of ability, will be checked, and in their place may appear undesirable personality traits. Too many failures may result in a permanent feeling of inability and consequent unwillingness to tackle a new situation, or to test his powers.9 The young child has, at best, few successes 8 For details re specific play materials see Ch. III, Section 4. 9 See Retardation in Play Behavior, page 175. I58 NURSERY EDUCATION behind him to bolster him up when he meets defeat, so that each failure looms large in his experience. Also, the bored child will, necessarily, turn his attention to other sources of possible interest. He may become over-social or over-imaginative and so permanently lose his interest in concrete knowledge and achievement.0 Failure, where final success is within the child's power, is, of course, an integral part of learning and an essential spur to further effort. When the child is surrounded by equipment too simple for him the result will be similarly detrimental to development. Lack of motives, lack of interest and boredom result in this case because immediate accomplishment will leave nothing further for the child to do, no problem for him to work out, nor goal towards which to strive. As in the first instance, general physical and ideational development will be halted, valuable habits of activity have no chance of development; and the child employs his growing powers in a manner unacceptable to society and not profitable to himself. For the nursery school the problem of providing play equipment adequate for each child's individual development is a difficult one, as it is not possible to place each child in a play environment of his own. The two-year-old is apt to observe and imitate what the four-year-old accomplishes with ease. The four-year-old may refuse to rise beyond the level of the younger child's play, or he may progress rapidly and outgrow the play equipment of his group. A first precaution in dealing with this problem is careful division of the nursery school group into smaller play groups. The basis for this division should be physical and mental development and general habits of play rather than chronological age, although, if the children are comparable, a rough age division is useful for a preliminary grouping. For a two- to five-year group, at least two divisions are necessary, two- to three-and-a-half years (approximately) and three10 See Over-social Play, pages 23I-232 and Bidding for Social Attention, pages 234-235. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I59 and-a-half to five years; and three divisions are more satisfactory, two years, three years, and four years. Even with such a division there will be found in each group considerable variation in ability. The safest means of insuring that each child finds something satisfying to him is to provide, for each group, a sufficient quantity of those materials previously mentioned, which can be used in a variety of ways and so adapt themselves readily to any stage of development. Such materials do not set a particular standard of achievement, failing which the child is defeated, or beyond which he cannot progress, but are such that he may gain success and satisfaction whatever his ability. This equipment may then be supplemented by play material involving more limited and particular forms of activity. Where the children in the group are expected to use material requiring a certain amount of skill, cutting, sewingcards, etc., it is an excellent plan to introduce these activities by a series of steps ranging from the easy to the more difficult. For example, plasticine work may be made preliminary to clay work, stringing wood beads and paper necklaces to sewing-cards, practicing on large before small peg boards, cutting paper before pictures. This does not mean that a course of instruction need be mapped out, but merely that the attention of the child may be directed to play activity for which he is capable, either indirectly, by placing equipment within reach, or directly, by adult suggestion. He is always, of course, free to choose whether or not he will participate. If the adult has not some such general plan in mind with regard to her equipment, there is danger that the child will attempt something far beyond his ability, and find himself at a complete loss or, on the other hand, fail to see how he can proceed to more advanced play after the first steps have been mastered. It might be mentioned here that the use of such skilled materials by the four-year-old group entails considerable supervision, though again it must be indirect, e.g., through careful planning and arranging of i6o NURSERY EDUCATION equipment with adult assistance and suggestion only when advisable. It will be found very satisfactory, in estimating the adequacy of equipment for the whole nursery school group, to keep a record upon each individual child which will show play habits and ability development. Such a record taken periodically for a given length of time could be drawn up to indicate the number and types of activities, adult interference necessary, and incidents of socially unacceptable behavior. Breadth and depth of interest could then be gauged by the' number of activities and the time spent on each, development of ability by the kind of toys played with, and the variation of play material with increasing age. Such a record, if standardized, would be of assistance in placing a child in the group where he belongs, and would indicate the need for supplementing the equipment or removing valueless material. It is of particular importance to observe the children of the older group as there are always some who outgrow the standard equipment of a nursery school before the end of their term and require special provision if they are not to become bored and disrupt the group. The importance of providing suitable material having been established, it becomes necessary to outline the general stages of development, physical, ideational and sensory, and the equipment proper to these stages. This then forms the fourth criterion in estimating the value of play material. In addition to examining it from the point of view of its danger hazards, self-expressive possibilities and adaptability to age, its value in exercising and developing the child's separate abilities remains to be estimated. Play Materials for Physical Development: Physical development shows a sequence from the general to the specific. The two-year-old is learning general bodily control, to walk, to run, to jump, all those bodily movements which are taken for granted at a later date. They present a definite problem to him, and to exercise them gives him obvi PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD ous pleasure. He is also learning coordination of the large bodily muscles and use of arms, legs and other large muscu. lar groups. His play material, then, must be planned with this end in view. The space and large equipment, which is possible outdoors, provide, most adequately, for general physical development. Provisions may be made indoors for beginning activities which will exercise the smaller muscles, e.g., the handling of smaller pieces such as peg boards, small blocks, fitted toys, etc. The two-year-old is not able, however, to direct his energy output to a single portion of his body for any length of time. Like the infant, his activity is diffused over his whole body; and concentrated effort of a specific type has to be learned gradually. It is therefore essential that he should not be expected to sit quietly for too long a time, but have plenty of opportunity to indulge in general activity at all times. Following upon the increase of general bodily control three- and four-year-old children show a gradual development in more and more specific abilities and skills. Outdoors, most of the apparatus used by the two-year-old group may, with a little forethought, be so planned that it will, while providing adequately for the experimenting of the younger child, lend itself to more skilled play. The junglegym offers both two- and four-year-olds opportunity to climb according to their respective abilities. Kiddy-kars and wagons can be used in imaginative and constructive play by the four-year-old child. The latter is now sufficiently skillful to learn to handle a tricycle. Simple gymnasium apparatus, low rings, swinging bar, climbing rope, provide the four-year-old with opportunity for more difficult experimental efforts. The indoor play of the older child shows an ever-increasing development in smaller muscular coirdinations, eye-hand coordination and finger coordination and, consequently, a development in the ability to do and to enjoy finer and more detailed work, like cutting, sewing, etc. The standard of this work is, of course, a very low one as i62 NURSERY EDUCATION compared with the kindergarten child. The four-year-old seldom cuts along a line, sews his stitches in a row, or puts his paste in the correct spot, and should not be expected to do so. Play Materials for Ideational Development: Ideational development is manifested in the play of the pre-school child as a constantly increasing ability to plan and to direct his play. In other words, mental activity becomes a more and more important part of play. Thus the aim is not, at the pre-school level, to stimulate the development of particular mental skills (this belongs to the school period), but to encourage the child to a general use of his mental faculty in the handling of his environment. The twoyear-old paints with little indication of forethought or of purpose, beyond the immediate pleasure he experiences in the handling of his brush and the sweep across the paper. The four-year-old, on the other hand, directs his painting project with an eye to the finished product.* The change is a gradual one. The first projects of the child in which he executes some idea, turning the environment to his own purposes and directing his activity to a definite end, are unit enterprises of a very simple nature and of short duration. From this beginning there should proceed an increase in complexity and duration, the ability to work toward more remote ends, and a greater skill in molding the concrete environment to this end, together with an obvious enjoyment of the ideational as well as the physical activity indulged in. As in planning for physical activity, one must select material which will stimulate mental activity of a varied nature. * A child had completed a painting:Adult-"What is that picture?" T-"A picture of a boat." A-"But there is no boat." T-"It just sank." PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD i63 Brief consideration will show that it is constructive materials which, as well as providing for development in several other respects, possess the qualities essential for mental development. Play with such material stimulates the child to have purposeful ideas and, possessing these, to carry them out in concrete form. It is just this that the pre-school child must learn. The skill he portrays or the success he achieves in the reproduction of his idea is of minor consequence at this stage. To have an idea and to attempt to execute it is all-important. Constructive materials have already been classified in terms of those having a general appeal and equal value for all stages of development from two to five years, and those belonging to particular age groups; and some reference has been made to the ages for which the various types are suitable. Those described as having a developmental value for all pre-school age levels (sand, blocks, etc.) because of their infinite possibilities for self-expression are the play materials which will most surely stimulate mental activity in its various stages. Added to these are the constructive materials which lose their value as ideational stimuli after a certain age is passed, or, on the other hand, have no value as such until a certain stage of mental development is reached. The constructive toys of the two-year-old, when physical activity is of preeminent concern, must be of the simplest type. They should entail only manipulative and repetitive activity. For the two-year-old, putting peg after peg in holes, sliding disks one after the other on to a post, fitting a small barrel into a larger, pouring sand from one pail into another, is as constructive a piece of work as he is capable of directing. The older child should begin to produce original constructions; repetition should be replaced by serial activity where one piece of work follows upon another and physical manipulation is accompanied by purposeful skill. The older child is ready to handle tools of various kinds because he has in mind a project whose creation and 164 NURSERY EDUCATION completion interests him, as well as the actual and immediate manual manipulation (e.g., carpentry, sewing, cutting, etc., and more complicated constructive material such as variously shaped blocks and tinker toys). Imaginative play may be thought of as play which is largely ideational in content, that is, in which physical activities with concrete materials form a minor part. Such play may be carried on with no material whatsoever or may be built around an object. Any piece of apparatus, may, of course, become the center of an imaginary game, but some materials lend themselves more readily than others. Dolls and dolls' equipment are numbered among these, also toy animals. Books1l belong under the heading of imaginary play material, requiring as they do activity almost completely mental in content. The two-year-old may, at first, find his satisfaction in turning the pages and piling the books but as he grows older his attention turns more and more to what they contain. The older child reconstructs or elaborates the familiar stories or may even create an entirely new one. Thus there are different types of material stimulating the child to practice and experiment ideationally in a variety of ways; first, those which he may mold to his own ends (blocks, sand, etc.); second, those requiring a physical skill which he must direct in a thoughtful manner (carpentry tools, etc.); third, those which may stimulate imaginative play and pretense (dolls); fourth, those with which play is almost wholly ideational (books and pictures). Play Materials for Sensory Development: The stages of development in sensory ability are more difficult to discern, and have not as yet been outlined in sufficient detail to provide guidance in the choosing of adequate material. Observation has shown, however, that the child begins his sensory learning, not with a consciousness of abstract phenomena such as roundness, softness, redness, 11 See book list, page 20o PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD i65 but in terms of separate concrete examples, a red peg or a round ball; and only through repeated experience does he become aware of the characteristic as something common to many things. It is thus natural that the child learn through his everyday contacts by looking, feeling, comparing and trying out. Learning in this way the sensory world acquires more meaning for him. He finds that a round peg will not fit into a square hole, nor a large block balance easily upon a smaller. The child requires, then, no special play equipment designed to provide this or that sensory knowledge; but rather environment sufficiently varied to provide a wealth of sensory experience so that constant contact with it will bring knowledge and appreciation of its varying characteristics. Color is easily introduced to the child. It is not difficult to have objects brightly and attractively painted. Where there are several pieces of one kind it will be found that by painting these different colors the child learns to recognize them in terms of these colors, for example, "the green wagon" or "the blue kiddy-kar"; and so he is given practice in distinguishing the various colors. The addition of color adds a secondary attraction to a great many materials, peg boards, blocks, paint, crayons, cutting paper, etc. With the younger child no apparent notice is taken of this color variation, but later, the use of color furnishes a further source of interest. Shape and size may be introduced into the manipulative play of the two-year-old in the form of fitting toys, and varied blocks; and in the older group by means of jig-saw puzzles and paper pattern making. Sense of weight comes to the child during his everyday environmental contacts. The handling of large blocks and freedom to lift and move the playroom furnishings are helpful in estimating size-weight variations. The appreciation of and the ability to create pattern and design are more complicated activities and are represented at the pre-school level by block-building, paper cutting, and painting. The developmental stages preceding the first observable evidence I66 NURSERY EDUCATION of "design" have not as yet been outlined and are imperceptible to the casual observer, so that the art appears to develop quite suddenly at the four-year level. The beginning is probably to be found in the impromptu effort of the twoyear-old with brush, pencil, or block placing. These are usually, however, so rapidly effaced, or added to, that any design is lost sight of immediately. In an analysis of the paintings of pre-school children carried on at St. George's School for Child Study, it was observed that the children of all ages invariably began their work with a small design which was immediately afterwards covered by a wash of paint. This study suggested that in the paintings of individual children there were single design qualities such as balance, rhythm, and movement. Play Materials for Social Development12: Materials may be used as an indirect means of stimulating social participation, and this point should be given some consideration when planning a complete set of nursery school play equipment. Here again it is necessary to know something of the stages of development if the proper materials are to be available as the group has need of them. As social development is discussed in the following section it will not be necessary to discuss this development in any detail. The two-year-old indulges in little social play, and only of a very simple nature, usually imitating another child's activity. Therefore little material provision for social play need be made for the junior play group. The older group pass through various stages but never develop beyond very loosely knit cooperative play, so that materials demanding complicated social relationships should not be provided. For example, a four-year-old can "share" a toy simultaneously with another child but "taking turns" is too difficult a social adjustment for the majority to make without adult supervision. The best pieces of equipment, then, for stimulating social 12 For a detailed discussion of social development see Ch. IV. PLANNING THE FREE PLAY PERIOD contacts are:-individual toys of one kind (kiddy-kars, tricycles, or blocks, etc.) where there are enough for several to play at the same thing simultaneously, and where, although each child is free, a certain unity exists; play apparatus such as jungle-gyms, swings or slides, which allow for much or little social organization; and toys such as wagons, which present a well-defined and simple job for each participant. Apparatus involving technical group activity is not suitable for the pre-school age child without constant adult assistance, as, for example, weaving, where two or more children may be working together. Even games as little organized as toboggan sliding, where three or four children must act in unison, are difficult to arrange at the pre-school level and so should not be introduced too frequently. The larger pieces of apparatus, where a number of children participate at one time, should be so constructed that little play organization is required. For example, the slide should be wide enough and low enough for children to slide together without danger of hurting one another, as it is difficult to teach them to await turns. It may be necessary with such play apparatus for the adult to step in and divert a part of the group to other material. This is a more advisable procedure than attempting formal organization. ~ 3. ANALYSIS OF ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD ADULT ATTITUDE THE adult's attitude during the play periods must always be one of casual friendliness and interest, but in general, non-participatory. MINIMUM INTERFERENCE The adult should keep in the background, attracting the child's attention as little as possible, neither directing nor interfering in the child's play except in the particular instances listed below. INDIRECT CONTROL The principal means of guidance should be indirect, through the furnishing and equipment of playgrounds and playrooms according to the requirements of play already set forth, and through a proper grouping of the children. This does not mean that the adult can set the stage once and for all. Constant observation (and record taking if possible) is essential, in order to maintain an adequate play environment. It will be found necessary to add new materials or to remove certain materials, during the course of the year, in order to provide adequately for the individual children of the group. It will also be necessary to rearrange groupings from time to time. i68 ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD 169 DIRECT CONTROL While the general principle of non-interference and indirect guidance should always be maintained, there are still certain play situations which require direct and immediate interference. (Adult interference in social situations will be discussed later.3) The adult, although to all appearances a part of the background, must be alert to every move of the group, and of the individual children. The relative frequency of types of adult interference necessary on the playground is indicated below.l4 For comparison of adult procedures in play-periods and in routine situations the following should be compared with the list given in the chapter on routine. (Page 37) Commands 42% Suggestion 31% Explanations re danger rules, etc. I7% Reminder of disciplinary consequences 3% Assistance 3% Discipline 2 % Emotional treatment 2% Encouragement oo Commendation o% The behavior distribution giving rise to these interferences was as follows: Danger situations 3 % Breaking playground rules 29%0 Anti-social behavior I8% Non-constructive activity I7% Incapacity to manipulate material 3% Emotional episodes 2 % 13 See Chapter IV. 14 The above was obtained from student observations made in St. George's School for Child Study. (Based on a total of 184 observations.) i70 NURSERY EDUCATION Danger Rules: The adult must be familiar with all the play equipment and its possible uses. Thus she is able to anticipate their danger possibilities and to forestall accidents. When a child is experimenting with a new toy or apparatus with which there is possible danger the adult should keep herself in readiness for immediate action. Many accidents can be averted by initiating the child into the proper use of a difficult toy. The adult must assume the responsibility for teaching the child the "danger rules," previously mentioned which are necessary for the safety of the group. This entails explanation, reminders and re-direction, and finally the administration of discipline if necessary. Rules of Play Procedure: Certain rules of play activity have been mentioned as essential to the maintenance of a satisfactory indoor playperiod, and it is the adult's responsibility to establish these rules. The primary essential in a playroom is that every child be constructively occupied. This will best be achieved if the adult arranges for each child to find something to do when first he enters the playroom. This means that if a child fails to find something himself the adult directs him to do so. It should only be necessary to ask the child what he intends to do, suggest that he find something to do, or, more directly, show him what he may do. The child should always make the final choice. Where a child becomes restless during play, interest in his play activity may be revived by drawing his attention to another aspect of the same task or to another task. Quiet play may be achieved by reminding or re-directing the child to a less energetic play activity or, if these means fail, by removing the child for a short time. Similarly, where a child's play becomes non-constructive or destructive, the toy or the child may be removed after milder forms of adult interference have failed. Putting away play material at the end of each play period ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I7I is a necessary routine in every playroom. Although the adult must actually take the responsibility for seeing that this is done, her attitude should be one of helping the children to do what is their job. Her procedure should be similar to that carried on in directing the children in their routine performance. In the junior playroom the adult will, of necessity, do the major part of the work, but each child should put away at least one toy. In the senior playroom the adult should need only to remind and direct, and clearing away may be made a group project. To stop playing is not easy for the pre-school child, so that the adult must not be too hasty but allow the child time to adjust himself to her request. It is advisable to allow five to ten minutes for the proceedings. It is also advisable, if the children are not going to another routine immediately after each has done his share, that some activity be provided to which they may turn; otherwise, confusion and excitement will prevail. Looking at a book, either sitting at tables or on the floor, is a good routine procedure to establish. In addition to the final tidying up the children should learn, in the playrooms, to put away each play material before taking another from the shelves. In the junior playroom this rule cannot be strictly enforced as it would require adult interference too frequently. It should be taught the child gradually so that by the time he is ready for the senior playroom he has acquired a habit of clearing away during play. Each time that the adult directs the child to replace a toy it must, of course, be replaced. The child will usually cooperate if the adult assists him. In the senior playroom this rule should be made a routine requirement and an occasional reminder from the adult should be all that is necessary. Fewer rules of procedure are required on the playground than in the playroom. Outdoors the child should be allowed a maximum of freedom. The only essential requirements are those pertaining to danger situations, to non-con I72 NURSERY EDUCATION structive and destructive play and the putting away of play materials at the end of the period. Re-direction of Activity: It may be necessary to interrupt and re-direct a child's activity for several reasons. When a child is attempting a task beyond his ability it is advisable to suggest an easier activity, of a similar nature, rather than assist him in accomplishing his task. Also, where a child shows a constant tendency to play with equipment below his level of ability it is advisable to introduce him to more advanced work. This may be done most successfully through drawing his attention to the activity of other members of the group of his own age. It is also necessary for the adult to interfere and re-direct a part of the group where too many children are centered about one activity. It is well to do this before, not after, an accident or social upset occurs. Related to this situation is one in which two children are attempting to use the same toy at the same time. In this case, the adult may suggest that a second toy be introduced into the game or some other equally satisfactory adjustment made. Assistance: In general, the adult should refrain from assisting the child at play. There are, however, certain particular instances when assistance is legitimate. Perhaps the best principle to follow is to help the child only in those play occupations which he may ultimately learn to accomplish himself and where, therefore, he is actually attempting the task and needs assistance. In such a case the satisfaction of accomplishment remains with him. It is better, in most cases, for the adult to wait until the child asks for assistance, than to interrupt him while he is attempting to solve a problem himself. On the other hand, there will be a few instances where a slight suggestion or a very little help will give impetus and zeal to his work. When a child first commences on elementary kindergar ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD 173 ten material more assistance is necessary than with constructive toys of a more general nature, because of the skill involved; but here, again, the assistance should be part of a learning process and the child responsible for his own project. The adult may find it advisable to help a child develop his project further, provided he shows sufficient interest in the suggestion to carry it on to completion by himself. Such assistance is inadvisable if the project is initiated by the adult and the child is merely following instructions. Commendation: Excessive praise is apt to do more harm than good but a certain amount of commendation is valuable. It should always be given thoughtfully in terms of the child's work, by pointing out and appreciating successful achievement. If offered thus, and if the adult retains a friendly and impersonal attitude, the child's attention will be directed to his work and the satisfaction he feels will spring from his success and not from the social contact he has established. Very often such commendation, if given only where due, helps the child to appreciate his own creative effort, and to realize the value and pleasure of finishing what he begins. In the case of a child who is timid in attempting anything new, and has no faith in his own efforts, commendation may be necessary for a time in order to bring about a change in his attitude. BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES Destructive Play: To the adult, "destruction" implies a deliberate effort to demolish, and she is inclined to view any so-called "destructive" tendency shown by the pre-school child as being of this nature. However, it is possible for an apparently destructive act to be an interesting project of analysis, of separating a whole into its parts. A great deal of the pre-school child's 174 NURSERY EDUCATION play, interpreted by the adult as "destructive" in our sense of the word, belongs in this latter class. "Destruction" is a simpler process than "construction" and as such may be considered as a preliminary to constructive activity. By the process of breaking apart the child learns the rules of building up again. "Destruction" appears as a definite phase of activity at the pre-school level, preceding and accompanying the development of constructive play. Examples are numerous. The young child just beginning carpentry gets as much pleasure from pulling his nail out of the wood as from hammering it in. After building a snow man the child will break it down with equal zest. One half of the twoyear-old's play with peg board and pegs consists of putting in the pegs, the other half in removing them. "Destructive" play is, then, a natural and a valuable part of the child's play and the child should be allowed an opportunity for such activity. He must learn, of course, that there are certain things which he cannot use in this manner. Play apparatus, books and furnishings must be kept intact. Likewise, another child's construction must not be disturbed. He learns also that there are things which must not be used for constructive purposes. For example, the nursery school child takes much pleasure in piling the whole tray load of tomato juice glasses one on top of the other. His interest is a constructive one but is not legitimate in this instance. The child must learn to recognize these as rules of play procedure and to control his behavior accordingly. "Destructive" activity is not, in the light of the above, to be indiscriminately branded as a behavior difficulty requiring adult intervention. Such behavior requires checking and re-directing only when its increase in frequency is accompanied by a decrease in constructive endeavor, or when it becomes a deliberate form of behavior devoid of play interest. In this latter case the behavior will usually be found to have social implications. "Destruction" of this nature is usually the result of an inadequate play environ ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD 175 ment where normal play development is not possible, and, therefore, should not be frequent in a well-equipped nursery school. When the child is being unduly destructive, he is, presumably, obtaining a satisfaction from this behavior which he should be getting in other ways. In treating destructive activity, of a problematic character, positive methods should be employed. The child should be stimulated to constructive endeavor by suggestion, commendation and assistance. Group example may be used to advantage in re-directing the child's interests. The adult should so guide the child's activity that he is successful in his constructive endeavor. By such methods the child may be taught to obtain satisfaction from constructive instead of destructive play. In addition to the above it will be necessary, when the child has been destructive in his play, to see that he repairs the damage whenever possible. Disciplinary consequences should be introduced by which he may learn to refrain from illegitimate forms of destructive activity. Where the destructive play has arisen as one phase of social maladjustment the problem becomes a social one.15 Retardation in "Play" Behavior: The play habits of the pre-school child may manifest various inadequacies for which a special program of treatment is necessary. A child may be indecisive and lack initiative in choosing what he wishes to play with. Such a child will stand around a great deal doing nothing or will look to the adult continually for direction and assistance; the play of a child may be non-constructive in nature, that is, he may expend his energy running about, holding or carrying objects, but without any manifestation of constructive interest or effort; lack of progressive interest is shown by a child who continues to choose elementary play materials when he is capable of more advanced activity. As a result he fails to learn the skill required for the play projects of the older 15 See Social Behavior Difficulties and their Treatment, Ch. IV, Section 3. 176 NURSERY EDUCATION child; furthermore, a child who insists upon playing with one material day after day does not develop his capacities to the maximum. He may show a high degree of concentration and of constructive endeavor but his experience and practice is of a limited nature. Such inadequacy of play behavior should not occur frequently in the nursery school if the play environment has been set up in accordance with the principles already outlined. Their primary aim is to prevent the development of such habits or, otherwise expressed, to stimulate the formation of diametrically opposite forms of behavior, namely, the development of individual interests involving constructive endeavor and leading constantly to new interests and the acquisition of new skills. The normal pre-school child placed in a properly equipped and organized play environment and with a group of children who are responding adequately to this environment should acquire good "work" and "play" habits without special adult treatment. Therefore, should frequent difficulties of the above nature begin to appear in the play activity of a nursery school group, the equipment and general organization should be examined. A child may and frequently does manifest one or more of these immature habits when he first enters the school. He will usually, however, assume the work and play habits of the group after a few weeks of school life without special adult guidance. In the few cases where such behavior difficulties persist and where the environment itself appears to be adequate in all respects it will be necessary to make an examination of the adjustment of the child to all phases of the nursery school setting. It will usually be found that the particular difficulty characteristic of his play is reflected in all the child's behavior. It is the result of an habitual attitude towards all activity. Lack of self-assurance is perhaps the most usual cause of the various forms of play inadequacy. The child has no confidence in his ability and is reluctant to try anything new ADULT PROCEDURE IN THE FREE PLAY PERIOD I77 or to use his own abilities in constructive and creative endeavor. The same trait will be recognized in his routine performance, in organized play, and in his social contacts, and any policy for treatment must therefore be a comprehensive one. Such a child requires stimulation to attempt activities, encouragement to persist, and commendation to aid fixation of the habit of succeeding. Emphasis should be placed on independent achievement in both routine and play activities. If the adult is able so to arrange the social setting that group example and group stimulation are brought to bear on the child, this will be far more effective in stimulating effort than any direct adult interference. Organized play activity may be used as a means to this end. By organizing an indoor play group around plasticine, block-building, etc., the child may be drawn into a group project in which his interest and effort are sustained by those of the group. A second basic factor which may underlie immature play behavior is the lack of an adequate habit of learning. The child who is unable to analyze and attack problem situations in a satisfactory manner will not be able to sit down and persevere at cutting, pasting or other more intricate skills."6 Accordingly, he will be backward in play interests. Again, the adult is dealing with a fundamental habit underlying all adjustment and must plan a form of treatment to include routine and play in its various phases. The child must learn how to learn. A third cause of play inadequacy is what might be termed "over-persistence" or "over-perseverance." Such behavior is not often met with in the nursery school but requires special consideration. The child in question may play constructively but will occupy himself for days, or even weeks, with one article. The same characteristic will appear throughout his day's activity. The child objects to inter16 See Principles of Learning, Ch. I, Section I. 178 NURSERY EDUCATION ruption of his play for routine requirements, and at the same time he will brook no interference during his routine performances. He does not adapt himself readily to change of activity or interest and treatment must be outlined which will develop this ability in all phases of activity. In the case of play it will mean stimulating him to new interests. Again this can be accomplished most readily through group example and group stimulation. In specific instances it may be advisable to remove a particular toy from the play environment for a time in order to direct the child to seek a new interest. Inadequate play habits may also result where a child is over-social, e.g., where his desire for social achievement outweighs his desire for material achievement. Such a reversal of interests is detrimental during the pre-school years, when so many physical abilities must be developed for adequate dealing with the material environment.7 17 For further discussion see Bidding for Social Attention, Ch. IV, Section 3, pages 234-236. ~4. ANALYSIS OF SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS THE merits of each piece of apparatus or play material will depend, according to our analysis, upon how adequately it fulfills one or more of the above requirements. It may be valuable for one purpose only, in which case it supplements other materials. The pieces most valuable for nursery school use will, of course, be those providing within themselves for the several types of development, physical, ideational or sensory, and for continuous development during the whole preschool age range. Before analyzing each piece in turn, the criteria upon which to make a judgment of their value may be summarized. A complete set of play equipment should provide a sufficient number of separate units of activity to keep every child busily engaged for each day throughout the year. There should be sufficient variety to provide change of interest and change of activity, and to insure both quiet and strenuous play. The materials should present as few danger situations as is compatible with developmental needs and a minimum of adult assistance when in use. There should be ample opportunity for self-expression through creative and constructive endeavor; and for a varied development in physical, ideational and sensory capacities. Provision should be made for social play. Following is a brief survey of the usual play equipment found in a nursery school, analyzed according to these principles: OUTDOOR PLAY EQUIPMENT (Two TO FIVE YEARS) Permanent Equipment: SLIDE This provides primarily for physical exercise and 179 I80 NURSERY EDUCATION JUNGLE-GYM PACKING BOXES SWINGS AND SEE-SAWS the learning of bodily control. The slide has relatively few possibilities for ingenious use and therefore does not lend itself to creative play, nor does it suggest varied activity. It is valuable in stimulating social play of a simple nature; and it is attractive to all ages of the pre-school level. This piece of apparatus provides infinite possibilities for the acquiring of bodily skill and control, coordination and balance, i.e., physical expression. Its possibilities increase with physical achievement so that development progresses with use. Because of the variety of activity possible, the child is stimulated to concentrated play of considerable duration. Over and above its physical appeal, the jungle-gym provides the older group with opportunity for constructive and imaginative play. It can be transformed readily, with the addition of boards, blocks, or ladders, into a train, boat or house. It offers opportunity for social play from simple parallel activity to cooperative games. It has the disadvantage of requiring considerable supervision when used by the younger children but they can very soon be taught to use it safely. These provide for the same type of play as the jungle-gym, but with less possibility for physical activity and greater emphasis on constructive and imaginative activity. Their interest lies, for the child, solely in the use he makes of them, and so they do not lead to stereotyped play. They are constructive materials suitable to all ages. The chief value of these lies in the physical control they develop, and the physical experience they afford. Both are rhythmic activities and so have a value in providing sensory experience; and both promote social play. Their use, however, is fairly limited and so they have not a constructive value, nor do they stimulate activity of long duration; but rather provide a respite SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS I8I from more strenuous and thought-provoking play. The ordinary swing and see-saw are difficult for the two-year-old to handle successfully alone, and are yet attractive to him, which means that the adult is frequently requested to give assistance. They are, therefore, better limited to the older group, and where both groups are combined it is advisable to provide swings and rockers especially designed for twoyear ability. Swings are not only difficult but are dangerous both for the swinger and those playing near, so that their position in the garden should be carefully chosen, and an adult should always be nearby when they are in use. GYNASTIC AP- (Swinging bar, rings, climbing rope.) Such PARATUS simple gymnastic apparatus offers the older preschool child, who has become proficient in ordinary bodily skill, an opportunity for physical expression of a more original and complex nature, and for acquiring further control. Only such apparatus should be introduced as the child can use without instruction. Such material will not be found any more dangerous than other playground equipment for the older group and the younger children seldom show any interest in it. NATURAL PROP- (Garden, trees, hills.) These add variety and inERTIES terest to the child's environment and may be adapted for his use as play material; the trees to climb; a mound, either real or artificial, for running and sliding; the garden for digging and planting. (Supervision will be necessary for gardening.) Locomotor Equipment: KIDDY - KARS, These pieces of equipment seem to possess a parTRICYCLES, ticular attraction for the child, providing for WAGONS busy activity when all else fails. Whether the added speed with which the child can get about gives a sense of power and independence, or whether it is the pleasure in the physical activity itself which accounts for the attraction, is difi I82 NURSERY EDUCATION cult to discern. The younger child uses them, apparently, for the physical satisfaction they provide, the older child as a supplement to imaginary games. They are of special value in providing for energetic play, substituting a more controlled form of activity for running and jumping, which so quickly create confusion in a large group. Developmentally, these toys are valuable in teaching physical coordination and control of arms and legs. Of themselves, they do not stimulate constructive enterprise to any great extent and, therefore, too large a number should not be provided, and they must be supplemented by other pieces. Individual children, if given the opportunity, are inclined to play continuously with this equipment, and so lose the benefit of play with the more constructive materials. Wagons, however, lend themselves readily to constructive games, loading, carrying, building, etc., and so are more valuable pieces of apparatus than the other locomotor toys. Such materials together with the implements with which they are handled-shovels, spoons, pails, rakes, brooms-are attractive to every preschool child from two to five years of age and at the same time, provide innumerable developmental possibilities. Physical power and control is acquired through handling them; and while the two-year-old expresses himself in physical manipulation the four-year-old utilizes them in carrying out his ideas. Their uses are infinite so that they allow for variation in activity when change is needed. They foster interest in work over a considerable period. The various textures and consistencies of these materials, and the discovery of what can, and what cannot, be done with them, adds to the child's developing sensory appreciation. Raw Materials: SAND, EARTH, WATER, SNOW SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS 183 Building Materials: BLOCKS,BOARDS, These possess the same possibilities for the child LADDER, SAW- as the above; they are the raw materials through HORSE which he may express himself. JUNIOR INDOOR PLAY MATERIAL (Two TO THREE AND ONE-HALF YEARS) Runabout Toys: TRUCKS,TRAINs, These small toys should be sturdily built, either ETC. of wood or strong metal; and they should be without engines so that the child directs their progress himself. Their chief use in the playroom is to provide for physical activity of a somewhat less strenuous character than that carried on outside, but, at the same time, of a sufficiently active nature for the younger child's need. These toys have little value from a developmental point of view except when they are used as accessories to an imaginative or constructive game. It is therefore advisable to have only two or three available so that the child will, of necessity, seek out other play material. Manipulative and Simple Constructive Materials: PEG BOARDS, FIT- Examination of these materials will show them TEDBLOCKSAND to have several characteristics in common. BOXES,BLOCKS, None requires any particularly skilled muscular DISK SET UPON effort; they lend themselves rather to handling, POSTS, PLASTI- lifting, carrying, piling, setting up and knocking CINE, PAINT, down, emptying and refilling. Most of them alCRAYONS, PA- low for repetition. The peg board may be taken PER, PASTE, as a formal example. This manipulative play of CLOTHESPINS, the two-year-old represents his first constructive SPOOLS, DoMI- effort and his first use of material for his own NOES ends. The units of activity are, and must be, of short duration, as his purposes are all immediate and do not extend beyond satisfaction in what he is doing each moment; thus with repetition, each success leaves him ready to start afresh. Repetition may be considered as the forerunner of I84 NURSERY EDUCATION serial play where one activity leads to a new one. These materials, then, give opportunity for the beginning of small muscle-control and co6rdination, and the beginning of constructive play with its development of interest, concentration and self-directed activity. Some of these materials, namely, paint, paste and paper, blocks and plasticine, are to be found among the older child's interests. Here they are being used for more advanced constructive play and it is necessary to remember that the two-year-old will not use them thus, and that it is not only useless but detrimental to direct him to do so. He must be allowed to experiment with his material in his own way. Imaginative Toys: DOLLS AND THEIR Dolls offer the child an opportunity to reconACCESSORIES, struct and to reenact those things which are ToY ANIMALS, most familiar to him, and out of which, thereETC. fore, his conversation grows; namely, the events of his daily life. They offer a unique opportunity for combining thought, language and action. There is at first, of course, only a very vaguely defined train of thought running through the play which, as with all two-year-old play, is largely manipulative. Toy animals stimulate the child's imagination because of personal experience which he may reconstruct. The doll accessories should be of the simplest type for the junior group. If they are too elaborate the child continually runs into difficulties which he cannot handle. Unbreakable dolls' dishes will be found a satisfactory accessory. Books: PICTuRE BooKS Books will be discussed in more detail in a later section, under the heading of "Story Telling";but are mentioned here because they may form a very important item in the child's free play activity. Not only do picture books help the two-year-old SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS I85 to construct his world of reality, not only do they act as a stimulus for thought and language, but they are valuable as a retreat from strenuous play and over-excitement; and are a final resort when other interests have been exhausted for the time being. Very often, as in his other play, the interest of the two-year-old appears to be largely manipulative, he turns the pages of book after book, gathers them in piles, takes them off the shelf, and replaces them. This is to be looked upon as the beginning of an interest which will by accretion grow gradually in ideational content; and therefore is not to be curtailed. It is advisable to have a few rules for the handling of books, such as not throwing or tearing them deliberately; and their use may be limited to one section of the playroom. The child of this age, however, is incapable of handling his books without accidents, so that it is well to provide inexpensive picture books for his use. These can be replaced frequently, and others kept in reserve for story telling. SENIOR INDOOR PLAY MATERIAL (THREE AND ONE-HALF TO FIVE YEARS) Manipulative and Constructive Materials: P E G B O A RD S, Such materials are the most suitable construcBLOCKS, PLAS- tive toys for the child between the ages of three TICINE, PAINT and four years, who uses them for more advanced work than the two-year-old's manipuCRAYONS, PA- lative play. To these are added certain tools: PER, PASTE, scissors, carpentry tools, needles, requiring some JIG-SAW PUZ- skill in handling. At the three-year level the ZLES child begins practice with these tools, although he is not capable of employing them for definite SCISSORS, CAR- purposes, and he obtains his pleasure in the act PENTRY,BEAD- rather than the finished product, that is, in the STRINGING cutting and not in what he cuts, etc. The period between manipulative and skilled play is i86 NURSERY EDUCATION the most difficult to provide for, but it is useless to introduce the child to more advanced material until he is ready for it. Elementary Kindergarten Materials: P I CTU R E CU T- The normal pre-school child is usually ready for TING, ANIMAL this type of activity during his last year, that is, CUT-OUTS, SEW- between four and five years of age. His physical ING-CARDS, control has become sufficiently developed so that TRACING he is able to learn particular skills; and mentally he is prepared to direct his activity into specific S TENCII N G, channels and toward definite ends. These maSCRAP BOOKS, terials offer means of sensory experience and an N E C KLA CE S, opportunity for self-expression. They are, thereCOLORED PA- fore, best suited for the development of the PER habit of being interested and of prolonging interest from day to day. Two rules might be menDESIGNING, CLAY tioned here which are helpful to the child in WORK, CAR- learning to carry through his project work. One, PENTRY that he take home a piece of work only when it is finished; two, that he do not start a new piece of work of any one type until the first is completed. (He may of course interrupt a project by engaging in other activities as a change.) It is important to note that the above-mentioned kindergarten projects are constructive and creative projects to the pre-school child because they present to him problems of both a mental and physical nature. To draw or cut along a line, to make stitches, to string paper disks, are actual achievements at his level of ability. The kindergarten child, on the other hand, has mastered these skills and such material leads only to stereotyped activity. He should be using his skill to carry out original creations. There appear then to be three general stages in this type of skilled activity. When the child first begins to handle the implements (scissors, pencil, needle, etc.) it will be for the sake of the activity itself with little thought as to the finished product. Here the constructive value is in SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS 187 physical accomplishment. This stage is essential and not to be hurried; it begins at the three-year level approximately. It is followed by the stage where skill is being utilized and directed by the child towards an end, which is, however, fairly circumscribed. In other words, the activity is limited by the material as in stenciling, tracing, cut-outs. Finally follows the stage of free creation usually commencing at the end of the preschool or beginning of the school period. Here tracing and stenciling are replaced by free-hand drawing, cut-outs by original cuttings, sewingcards by individually designed articles, etc. The materials described in this section belong almost entirely to the second period, that in which the child is acquiring skill; and the pre-school child does not usually progress beyond this stage. If necessary the materials of this group may be made of more creative value by combining them and so forming more elaborate and varied projects. Imaginative Toys: DOLLS AND THEIR The furnishings of the dolls' center in the senior ACCESSORIES playroom may be more elaborate than those for the younger group. Such additions as an iron, telephone, broom, dust-pan, etc., add further interest. In addition to stimulating imaginative play, and being one of the main centers of social contact, dolls provide, for the older group, a respite and a complete change from table work, and at the same time do not lead to noisy activity. Boys of the pre-school age will, in most instances, play with dolls as readily as girls. Books: PICTURE BOOKS The four-year-old is able to appreciate a book for AND SIMPLE its picture and story content, and, unlike the STORY BOOKS younger child, can learn to handle it with care. A book-shelf or book corner containing those books familiar to the child, and available to him at all times, will be found to encourage quiet in I88 NURSERY EDUCATION terested activity, valuable for the social contacts arising, and the verbal activity stimulated. Carpentry: This is the most difficult skilled work to which the pre-school child is introduced, and as such, requires special consideration. The problem facing the nursery school worker is that of how much supervision and instruction should be given, how much free play allowed. This question of direction versus freedom is a critical one in nursery school work at present. Where a definite technique of considerable complexity is required before construction is possible to the child, it is reasonable to argue that some instruction in this technique should be given, before free construction and creation are allowed. The child would then be free to carry out his ideas and to reach the standard he has set himself. On the other side, the question immediately arises, would not such directed activity lead to a curtailing of creative enterprise; and would the skills not develop of themselves as the child attempted to carry out each enterprise in free activity? An experiment is being carried out in St. George's School for Child Study which deals with this problem. For seven years the children attending this school have been given formal instruction in carpentry, and careful records kept of their activity and of the adult procedure. The course requires that the child make a series of models which have been so planned that he progresses from the simple to the difficult tasks. The first model requires the hammering of large nails into a block of wood to form a square. He is given a stencil from which he marks the place where each nail is to go. From this, he proceeds to the hammering of small nails; then joining; screwing and sawing. Models and stencils are provided for each of these steps. Having com SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS 189 pleted these he commences upon simple constructions, an aeroplane, an engine, bed, chair, table and wheel-barrow. Models and stencils are also provided for these. Each child begins the course when he enters at two years of age, approximately, and reaches the constructive models during his fourth year. Freedom is allowed in that a child need not do carpentry unless he wish; and may leave his work when he tires. However, while he is at work he must follow the prescribed course. The adult's duty is to assist the child when necessary, that is, to instruct him in the best way to handle the tools, and to introduce him to the various models. A minimum of supervision is, of course, maintained but, contrary to the procedure in free play, the adult sets the standard of achievement and is, therefore, responsible for the finished article. (It depends upon the adult's attitude and procedure as to how much initiative the child takes, and how far he considers the project to be his own.) Whether such a procedure as the above, by keeping the child's endeavor well within his capacity, by furnishing him with a goal and insuring a skill sufficient for him to reach that goal without danger of failure and boredom, does not produce greater immediate effort and interest and build a foundation for future creative work remains to be seen. From general observation it is obvious that the child obtains a real satisfaction in acquiring the skills and completing each project. The records being taken on this research problem are not, however, completed. A control group, doing completely free carpentry work, is under observation at the same time. I90 NURSERY EDUCATION RECORD OF PLAY ACTIVITY Observations are made periodically upon each child's play with materials in playroom and on the playground. Development is indicated, first, by decrease in passive behavior and hence increase in active use of play materials and in ideational play activity; secondly, by a decrease in the number of activities per unit time and hence increase in continuous span of one activity. Method of Recording: Observations are made once a month upon each child for a period of five minutes divided into twenty, five-second intervals. Following is a list of the categories employed with the corresponding symbols: Categories: sYi Passive Active Routine Passive Routine Passive Plus MiBOL P -where the child is inactive, standing still, idle, or making only small movements such as twitching the hand, nodding head, shifting foot. A -this includes gross bodily movements such as running about, jumping up and down, walking. RP -to be used when the child is passively in contact with material which he is not using, e.g., standing still with a broom in his hand, sitting on a swing. RP+ -signifies that the child is physically active but in passive contact with material, e.g., running across the garden carrying a shovel. RA -where the child is actively using apparatus material for its intended purpose, e.g., sliding on the slide, climbing on the gym. Routine Active SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS i9I Imaginative XM Play with Material Imaginative XO Play without Material -a game for which the child uses material, giving it a meaning drawn from outside experience, e.g., playing train or automobile with wagons. Imaginative play involves using materials for purposes other than those for which they were immediately designed, e.g., playing zoo in the jungle-gym, building castles in the sand. -games and plays without material, invented by the children or adapted from a wider social experience, e.g., telling stories, "pretend" games depending largely on verbalization for stimulus and also for the observer's interpretation. 192 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE A showing the percentage distribution of types of "material play activity." Based upon observations made daily for a period of three months during outdoor "free play." Play Categories P A RP RP+ RA XM XO Child #Io5 2 yrs. 6 mos. 2.4 5.5 29.9 7.2 52.5 1.2 I.3 Child #88 3 yrs. 4 mos. II.3 5.5 28.6 6.8 40.4 7.4 o Child $9Ia 3 yrs. 6 mos. 5.4 9.9 9.4 9.9 26.I 25.2 4.I Child 9#oa 4 yrs. 6 mos. 9.8 8.6 10 IO.9 5.6 47.I I4.3 3.7 TABLE B showing development with age in types of "material play activity." Based upon records made during a three year period in the Nursery School. Play Categories P A RP RP+ RA XM XO 2-3 years Io.5 i2.6 28.1 6.4 40.6 I.8 o 3-4 years 7.4 8.I 20.4 7.9 43.0 11.5 1.7 4-5 years 6.8 II.o I5.3 4.3 39.8 20.4 2.4 SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS I93 TABLE A Note -individual differences and deviations from the age norms. The record of Child #IO5 indicates unusually active play shown by the infrequency of passive activity (P) and relative frequency of active use of material (RA); that of Child #gIa indicates advanced play activity of an ideational nature. Although belonging in the three year group, her score is greater than that of the average four-year-old child. The records of Children #88 and #9oa show, on the other hand, some retardation in use of play equipment, Child #88 by the length of time spent in passive activity (P and RP), Child #oa by the relative infrequency of imaginative play with materials (XM). (Ch. III, Sec. i:-Characteristics of the Pre-school Child's Play; Sec. 3:-Retardation in Play Behavior.) TABLE B Note -consistent decrease, with age, of time spent in behavior of a passive nature (P and RP). -the relative infrequency of play without material (P, A, XO). (Ch. III, Sec. 2:-Planning the Free Play Period; Sec. 3:-Rules of Play Procedure.) -high percentage of "routine active" play and its constancy throughout age groups suggesting adequacy of play equipment. (Ch. III, Sec. 2:-Suitable Play Materials.) -consistent increase with age in the frequency of ideational play activity (XM and XO). (Ch. III, Sec. 2:- Play Materials for Ideational Development.) -the greater frequency at the three age levels of ideational play with materials (XM) as compared to ideational play without materials (XO). (Ch. IV, Sec. 3:-Over-social Play Behavior.) -the individual records of social participation were made upon the same children simultaneously with the above. (Table A, page 245.) I94 NURSERY EDUCATION SELECTED REFERENCES "Play" and Play Materials Baldwin, B. T. and The Psychology of the Pre-school Child. D. Stecher, L. I. Appleton & Co., I924, pp. 186-200. A descriptive list of nursery school furnishings and equipment for play activity. Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-school Child. Wm. MorBott, H. row & Co., I928, New York, Chapter VI. A discussion of the fundamental characteristics of play activity andof the adult's role in guiding the child's play. Blatz, W. E., and The Management of Young Children. Wm. Bott, H. Morrow & Co., New York, I930. McClelland & Stewart, Toronto, Chapters IV, V, VI. A detailed discussion of the various phases of play activity manifested by young children and of the principles of adult control. Bott, H. Observations of Play Activity in the Nursery School. Genetic Psychology Monograph; July, I928, Vol. IV. A report of a series of observations made in the free play period of a nursery school. Faegre, M. L., and Child Care and Training. The University of Anderson, J. E. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, I929, Chapter XIV. Indicating the importance of "play activity" and outlining the requirements of adequate play material. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, pp. 46-63; 72-9I. A descriptive list of play materials and the uses made of them. Garrison,CharlotteG. Permanent Play Materials for Young Children. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, I926, pp. 122. A detailed discussion of play materials for Nursery School, Kindergarten, and Primary Grades. Greenwood, B., and A Six Year Experiment with a Nursery Waddell, C. W. School. University of California at Los Angeles, I93I, pp. 20-74; I31-I33 -A discussion of constructive play materials. A list of play equipment is appended. SEPARATE PLAY MATERIALS AND APPARATUS I95 Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniverResearch Station sity, Iowa City, Iowa, 1934, Chapter IX. A description of play materials suitable for nursery school groups from two to five years of age; and of the adult guidance required in their use. Johnson, Harriet Children in the Nursery School. The John Day Company, New York, 1928, pp. 65 -80; I68-230. Principles of choosing adequate nursery school play equipment; a list of play apparatus and materials and a detailed analysis of uses made of equipment by individual children. Mitchell, Harriet Play and Play Materials for the Pre-school Child. Canadian Council on Child Welfare, Ottawa, 60 pages. Directions for setting up a playroom and choosing play materials. Van Alstyne, Doro- Play Behavior and Choice of Play Materials thy of Pre-school Children. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, I932, pp. I04. Report of an experimental study of play activity in a nursery school setting and of its implications. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, I933, Chapter XVIII. A discussion of "play" as a "vehicle" for learning and of the values of various play materials from this point of view. ~ 5. ORGANIZED PLAY ORGANIZED play should form only a small portion of the nursery school program. Neither the pre-school child's habits of play nor his social accomplishments are developed sufficiently for sustained activity of such a nature. The organized group, however, contributes certain valuable elements not found elsewhere in the nursery school program. It provides variety in the play period and a rest from the more strenuous free play activities as well as teaching the child to enjoy play of a more controlled nature. It teaches the child the first rudiments of adjustment to the more formal social requirements. In this respect it will be discussed in a later section.l8 Lastly, organized activity under the direction of an adult may be utilized for giving definite instruction and to stimulate learning by group example. Certain general rules of procedure must be kept in mind in directing organized activities. In the first place the period must be short, fifteen to twenty minutes at most. Second, an adult must control and direct the proceedings. The pre-school child's social experience has not reached the point where he should be expected to organize formal play. Third, the principles of play activity must be adhered to.'9 There must be variety and change; the form of the activity must be within the child's capacity; and it must be of sufficient interest to him so that he participates of his own choice. Fourth, no child should be forced to join in the group activities or to stay if he prefers not to do so. Fifth, no child should be allowed to remain if he insists upon disturbing the other children in the group. 18 For further discussion see Social Adjustment in Organized Activity, Ch. IV, Section 4. 19 See pp. I44-145. I96 ORGANIZED PLAY I97 The usual organized group play of the Nursery School centers around stories and musical activities. STORY-TELLING IN THE NURSERY SCHOOL Story-telling and story reading may be made a valuable part of the pre-school child's play life. Through stories his experience is enriched. They carry him from the immediate to the more remote. They unify his knowledge by helping him to grasp facts and relationships in the real world. Stories may be made a means of stimulating creative mental activity and of developing an appreciation of words, sounds and language construction. These objectives can be accomplished only if the story is, at the same time, interesting and amusing to the child. This means that it must be carefully adapted to the pre-school child's needs in the same manner as other play material is adapted to this end. To be suitable for nursery school use a story book must possess certain qualifications with regard to subject matter, construction and expression. The majority of the books recommended for the pre-school child are not based upon a knowledge of his make-up, so that care must be taken in selecting from those available. Story Books for the Pre-school Child: Content: Few stories are exact representations of real life but the pre-school story should, in so far as possible, deal with real people, things and facts. The pre-school child is vitally interested in the real.20 He is in the process of building up his world of reality and stories are one of the means by which he verifies and pieces together his experiences. To introduce the unreal21 at this point is to confuse the child 20 Social Science Readers. 21 Hansel and Gretel. I98 NURSERY EDUCATION and to establish a false value. He experiences one thing, hears another and tries to believe both. The unreal can be appreciated as being unreal, and therefore can be enjoyed only when the reader is familiar with what is real. The preschool child knows so little about true facts that he accepts the real and the unreal without discrimination. The pre-school child is not only interested in the real but also in the familiar.22 He enjoys hearing of those things which are a part of his own experience and in which he can therefore participate in imagination, such activities as washing, dressing, eating, sleeping and playing; familiar animals and familiar objects, motors, aeroplanes, trains, street-cars. Stories of everyday life are a source of satisfaction to the child because they express for him what he feels and thinks and knows. They are therefore valuable in that they stimulate him to form concrete ideas based upon his personal experiences. For the two-year-old child the story content should be almost wholly familiar in nature.23 From this point more and more of the remote may be introduced but it should always be linked with the familiar and so with the child's personal experience. This touch of the unfamiliar24 will be found to stimulate curiosity and so sustain interest in the older group.* * A child is telling a story to the group. In the course of his narrative, he says:-"The daddy elephant and the baby elephant went along and came to a tree and up they climbed." A child interrupts:-"But elephants can't climb trees." The answer:-"I know, but I'm telling a story about elephants"-(with a rather belligerent glance)-"and so these elephants climbed the tree." 22 The Three Bears. 23 The Three Little Kittens. 24 Little Black Sambo. ORGANIZED PLAY I99 The pre-school child's story must be one of action.* Whether it is concerned with animals, objects or children his interest is always in what they are doing. He interprets through his own activity and responses and so he understands and responds most readily to action of others. Construction: A story for the pre-school child cannot be made too simple. It should be composed of short units each containing one idea, and these should be linked together in a linear series.25 The child will lose his way in a story which turns back on itself or hinges on complex causal relations and he cannot attend for long if a change of interest is not provided. For the two- to three-year-old child, plot is unimportant. His attention is upon the immediate situation, as in his play it is upon the occupation of the moment. For him each unit of the story should be complete in itself. The older child is able to sustain a central theme and to grasp the larger whole of which the units are a part. He therefore will appreciate a simple plot and his stories may be more closely interwoven.26 Action in the pre-school story should be continuous,27 that is, free from descriptive paragraphs and side issues. Such interpolations divert the child's attention, he loses the sequence of thought and his interest wanes. Pictures are important. A picture corresponding to each unit of action will be found invaluable for maintaining interest. This is particularly true for nursery school purposes where the attention of several children must be held at one time. There is less occasion for distraction when they can both see and hear the story. * One child's comment on the reading of unsuitable poetry:-"Don't sing any more of those old songs-read 'Little Black Sambo.' " 26 Ginger Bread Boy. 26 Peter Rabbit. 27 Little Black Sambo. 200 NURSERY EDUCATION Expression: The story should be told naturally, and both phrasing and language should be simple and easily understood. Short direct sentences, each expressing a single thought, are best suited to the child's habits of thinking. Over and above this simplicity of style there are certain artifices which enhance the child's enjoyment of the story. The use of repetition28 and refrain29 is almost essential. These are the same characteristics that are found in the child's play activities, the doing of some one successful activity over and over again. The attraction probably lies in the growing sense of satisfaction which the child feels as he grasps the idea with increasing ease.30 A refrain, like the recurrence of a usual situation, because of its familiarity gives the child a sense of mastery. Repetition and refrain also increase the child's enjoyment by allowing him an opportunity to anticipate the story and to participate in the telling of it.31 Counting and enumeration, other types of repetition, also intrigue him, as do mimicry,32 the imitation of sounds,33 and the use of odd-sounding words* and names.34 The child enjoys words of which he does not know the meaning and therefore these may be introduced provided they are not important for an understanding of the story. While the pre-school child is bored by irrelevant or lengthy *A child was telling an anecdote during the "conversation group": "I saw a buzz bee Not a busby what soldiers wear but a buzz bee what stings." 28 Little Black Sambo. 29 The Three Little Kittens. 30 See "Play Materials for Ideational Development," Ch. III, Section 2. 31 The Three Bears. 32 The Three Little Kittens. 33 Angus. 34 The Selfish Fox. ORGANIZED PLAY 201 description, colorful phrases35 and words that tell him intimate details about the characters increase his enjoyment. For instance, he is more interested in "Little Black Sambo," than he is in just Sambo; and he is more interested in a Little Black Sambo who owns a pair of "little purple shoes with crimson soles and crimson linings" than he is in a Little Black Sambo who simply owns a pair of little shoes. Picture Books: The picture book for the pre-school child should be of a good size. Too small a picture does not gain nor hold the child's attention nor arouse his interest. Size is particularly important in choosing books for use in the organized story period. Pictures should not measure less than about five by six inches36 and those somewhat larger will be found more suitable for the younger children of a pre-school group.37 The whole picture should be of a simple and well-defined nature. There should be one central subject with very little background or supplementary matter. The objects should be clearly outlined and the detail reduced to a few essentials.38 The colors should be bright and not too varied. A mottled or sketchy picture only confuses the child and so fails to hold his interest. It is possible for a picture to fulfill such requirements and yet be artistic in form and color. Although the child has as yet very little appreciation of design and color harmony, this is no reason for selecting books with clumsily drawn or harshly colored pictures. Inevitably he will come in contact with such pictures, but if the nursery school books achieve a reasonably high artistic standard he will gradually accumulate an all-round pictorial experience which will be the basis of an intelligent discrimination in adult life. As in stories, the subject matter for pictures should be 35 Little Black Sambo. 36 Social Science Readers. 37 First Picture Book. 38 Social Science Readers. 202 NURSERY EDUCATION realistic, familiar, and action of some kind should be depicted.39 Techniques of Story Telling: No specific rules can be laid down for story-telling or reading to children. Unless the story teller is allowed to tell the story in her own way, a stilted and unnatural presentation results and consequent boredom on the part of the listeners. A pre-school child feels no social obligation to the story teller and so will not listen if he is bored. It is therefore advisable to allow considerable leeway in the technique of story-telling. There are, however, a few general principles which will be found valuable in maintaining the interest of a pre-school group. The adult must identify herself with the characters of the story and will stimulate the child's interest more readily if she can appreciate, enjoy and act what she is telling. The story should be presented in a confident and convincing way, which means that the adult must familiarize herself with it beforehand. In either telling or reading a story, a quiet, natural manner with occasional use of such artifices as expressive tone, gesture, pause, will be found effective in sustaining interest. Too much expression is dangerous in telling a story to a pre-school group because, while it arouses interest, it is apt to excite the children, in which case their attention is lost and confusion results. Where artifices are used infrequently they are a means of regaining interest if it wanders, whereas when used continually their effectiveness is lost. Attention should be held and regained through the story itself if possible. Where one or two of the children become distracted or the group begins to be restive the adult should introduce some special form of expression such as counting, enumeration, etc. and so recapture the children's attention. The attention of a single child may be re-directed by address39 We Go To Nursery School, by Wm. E. Blatz and Marjorie Poppleton; William Morrow and Co., New York, 1935. ORGANIZED PLAY 203 ing the story to him individually. Where a group becomes definitely restless it is advisable to stop the story and to begin another. A story should never be continued in the face of definite ennui and lack of attention. Variations of the Story Period: The story period may be used to stimulate the child to original creative endeavor by allowing him to participate. The first step in group participation is usually that of allowing the younger children to name and talk about pictures shown by the adult. For the older group a familiar story may be chosen and the children asked to illustrate it in paint, with crayons or with plasticine, each child choosing his own subject and describing his picture to the remainder of the group. A more advanced step is the story period in which the children actually tell the story, each contributing an idea and illustrating it on a large piece of paper. The older pre-school group is also able to act out the simple and most familiar stories and with practice may learn to play these without adult direction. Conversation circles if carefully conducted will be thoroughly enjoyed and, in addition, provide valuable practice for the children. Some local topic such as a parade or a circus, Christmas festivities, etc. may be chosen and each child given an opportunity to tell of them. A variety of such group activities may be organized depending upon the ingenuity of the adult in charge. Such a period is, of course, more difficult to conduct successfully than is ordinary story telling. The adult must have the group in perfect control and can do this only if every child is interested and cooperating in the enterprise. She must be adept at guiding the children's ideas into a constructive train of thought without curtailing their originality and at making the most of each child's contribution. To be really successful and of most value the adult should have no preconceived plan, but be able to build one to fit the trend of thought suggested by the children. 204 NURSERY EDUCATION MUSIC IN THE NURSERY SCHOOL Music in the nursery school is to be considered as a play activity. It provides another channel through which the child may find self-expression and as such may be made a satisfying part of his experience. In planning the child's musical environment it is necessary to know something of the stages of musical ability possible and probable at the pre-school level. The musical capacity of the two-year-old child is meager. He is in the manipulative stage in this skill, as in all other phases of his play activity, e.g., he is merely experimenting with sounds, voice and rhythmic movement. Music is for him an unexplored field and he has not, as yet, developed the power to control and use it for his own ends. From this beginning, development proceeds in the direction of an appreciation and recognition of melody and rhythm, and an ability to reproduce them, and finally, to create them. It is the same process which appears in other phases of the child's development, a progress from generalized and unskilled activity to a specific skill; from uncontrolled to controlled effort; and from manipulation to construction. The part which learning plays in this developmental process is a point of controversy but it is safe to assume that, whatever the individual difference in inborn capacity, practice is essential to musical skill and will benefit each child according to his capacity. An experiment was conducted in St. George's School for Child Study in which an attempt was made to analyze the learning capacity of young children to reproduce notes. The child was expected to reproduce on one xylophone the note struck by the experimenter on another. Six children from the Nursery School, as well as nineteen older children, were cxamined for ten minute intervals on an average of three ORGANIZED PLAY 205 times a week for approximately three months. The conclusion drawn from this study was as follows:"The evidence suggests that musical capacity as here measured is not a special ability but is related in some degree to one or more of the following: Intelligence Quotient, Chronological Age, Mental Age and Musical Experience, and is a function of learning in general rather than an innate capacity."40 Music may be introduced into the nursery school in two ways, either as a form of free expression, or as an organized activity under adult supervision. In the first instance the objective is to develop an awareness of melody and rhythm and to stimulate the child to spontaneous effort, indirectly, by introducing music and musical instruments into his free play environment. This method is based on the assumption that music is a natural form of self-expression, and, provided that the environment is stimulating, experiment and practice will ensue. In the second method the adult directs the child's musical activities with the definite aim of developing an ability to listen to and to enjoy music, to follow a tune, to participate in group singing, and to recognize and reproduce rhythm. The underlying principle in this case is that, by instruction, it is possible to develop a skill which will increase accomplishment and so will provide a more satisfying experience and will insure progressive development. The use of this method does not imply that free musical activity be curtailed but rather that free activity be supplemented by instruction. Some principles of procedure useful in establishing such group learning in the nursery school will be outlined. Instruction in Singing: As with story telling the primary object of the music group must be to provide a play interest and enjoyment for the child. The music period should be so planned that 40 For reference see An Analysis of the Learning Capacity of Young Children to Reproduce Notes, S. Blumenthal. 206 NURSERY EDUCATION it will fulfill the requirements of play activity, e.g., there must be variety, creative and constructive possibility, opportunity for individual enterprise and careful adaptation of material to interest and capacity. Songs for the pre-school child will be most readily and easily grasped if they are simple, tuneful and have an easily carried melody. They should have a melodic range within the octave E to R1. The songs, like the stories, should be about things with which the child is familiar, and should be colorful and full of action. They should be short and constructed in brief units, each containing a single idea. The language and grammatical construction should be as simple as possible. The use of repetition, refrain, enumeration and mimicry will enhance the enjoyment and make learning easier. Finger plays and action songs, because they give the child something to do, increase his interest and hold his attention more readily than songs without action. In teaching the pre-school child to sing, actual verbal instruction is of little avail, for the child is not sufficiently aware nor in control of his singing faculties. The adult should begin by suggesting that the child listen to the music played, and to the group singing, and urge him to participate in the finger plays accompanying the songs. Later she may suggest that he join in the singing of the other children; interest and imitation, however, will be found the chief means through which effort and progress are sustained. The two-year-old child when he first joins the music group seldom does more than perform the actions. However, from the way in which he will one day suddenly join in the singing, it is evident that he has been absorbing the music and the words during his silence. Thus, although it is necessary to separate the age groups for most of their musical play because of differences in ability, it will be found that the younger group will progress more rapidly if it is allowed to join the other children periodically. The ORGANIZED PLAY 207 two-year-old should not be urged to sing. If the group is interesting he will begin to sing as he becomes familiar with the music and any embarrassment is forgotten. His first singing is seldom tuneful. He repeats parts of the songs in a monotone and at his own rate. The ability to carry a tune and to keep time is developed very slowly in the average child, and largely through interest, imitation and practice. Once a child has begun to grasp tune and time, individual singing will be found a valuable means of increasing his attention and his interest in what he is doing. In addition to tune and time the pre-school child may be taught to sing softly and to vary the intensity from loud to soft on the suggestion of the adult. The child will tend to shout with enthusiasm if not directed otherwise. In the older group the children are able to play singing games in which each child takes a separate part. This is a difficult feat because it demands concentrated attention to the music. Singing without action is an advanced form of musical attainment at the pre-school level and therefore to be attempted only with the older group. Instruction in Rhythms: The music used for instructing the pre-school child in rhythm must be of the most elementary nature. The time should be easily recognized and the beat accentuated. Selections for rhythmic practice should be particularly short. The monotony of keeping time does not sustain the child's attention for long, so that he is easily distracted. Simple instruments may be used as one form of rhythm expression. The drum, tom-tom, cymbals, triangle, bells and tambourine are most easily handled by the small child. Instruction in rhythm is even more difficult than that in singing, and development in the average child is very slow. It is meaningless to suggest to the child that he keep time; and though he may be made to beat his hands he has no idea what is actually being required of him. Again the adult's 208 NURSERY EDUCATION method consists in keeping the child's attention directed towards the music and the group activity and stimulating him to participate. In the two-year-old group rhythm may be begun by having the children beat time on their knees or by clapping hands. One simple piece should be chosen for this and the children given an opportunity to become very familiar with it. Development in rhythmic expression is shown by the increasing ability to maintain a rhythm with accuracy throughout an entire selection, to grasp simple rhythmic variations and to follow unfamiliar rhythms. Some of the oldest children of the nursery school group are able to participate in rhythmic games in which the individual must carry his own time, as when one child beats double and one single time, or where each must adapt his own beat to a particular musical note. Such a development indicates that the child has become aware of the rhythmic pattern and is able to direct his own rhythmic response. It is of little value to introduce instruments before threeand-a-half or four years of age. If they are not used too frequently and if, on these occasions, close attention is expected of the players, they will be found a stimulus to concentrated effort as well as being a great source of enjoyment to the children. Such rhythmic practice as the above may be considered to be regulated rhythm. The child should also be given opportunity to interpret the music by free movement in which he uses his whole body-running, jumping, swinging, etc. and additional interest may be provided by suggesting that the children dramatize the music. Appreciation of Music: In addition to organized musical play with active participation the child may be taught to listen to and to appreciate good music by introducing this in the relaxation period or at other suitable times. The music may be varied to include piano, singing and instrumental music. ORGANIZED PLAY 209 CHILDREN'S BOOKS41 (used in St. George's School for Child Study) Picture Books A Book of Steamers Blackie & Son, Ltd., Great Britain A Book of Many Motors Blackie & Son, Ltd., Great Britain The Big Book of Engines Blackie & Son, Ltd., Great Britain All Round the Farmn Blackie & Son, Ltd., Great Britain Throughout Field and Blackie & Son, Ltd., Great Britain Wood Home Friends Blackie & Son, Ltd., Great Britain The First Picture Book by M. S. Martin Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York, Baby's First Book I930 Saalfield Pub. Co., Ltd., U.S.A. On Our Farm by J. Y. Beaty Saalfield Pub. Co., Ltd., U.S.A. J. C. Allen (illus) Forest Friends by F. N. Shankland Saalfield Pub. Co., Ltd., U.S.A. F. B. Peat Baby Animals by D. Thorne Saalfield Pub. Co., Ltd., U.S.A. F. B. Peat We Go to Nursery School by M. Poppleton Wm. Morrow Co., New York & W. E. Blatz The Real Picture Book Rand McNally & Co., Ltd., U.' Selections 1929 Story Books (2 years to 5 years) The Three Little Kittens Peter Rabbit Series M. A. Donohen & Co., U.S. The Three Bears Peter Rabbit Series M. A. Donohen & Co., U.S. Little Black Sambo Peter Rabbit Series M. A. Donohen & Co., U.S. Old Tales Retold Volland Edition Angus and the Ducks by M. Flack Doubleday Doran & Co., I932 Angus Lost by M. Flack Doubleday Doran & Co., I932 Peter Rabbit Peter Rabbit Series M. A. Donohen & Co., U.S. This Little Pig by H. & A. Evers Farrar & Rinehart, N. Y., 1932 (3 years to 5 years) Ask Mr. Bear by M. Flack Z. Wilkinson Co., N. Y., 1932 Millions of Cats by Wanda Gag Coward McCann, N. Y. The Selfish Fox Peter Rabbit Series M. A. Donohen & Co., U.S. Butterwick Farm by C. Webb F. Warne & Co., London, I933 S., 41 This list includes those stories which have been found most popular in group story telling. The divisions indicate, roughly, for what preschool ages each book is best suited for purposes of group activity. It will be noticed how few are, in their original form, sufficiently simple for the two-year-old child. However, many of those further down the list may be adapted to his needs. The attention of this latter group is held best by discussion and story built around the picture book. 210 NURSERY EDUCATION Social Science Readers by H. S. Reade E. Lee (4 years to 5 years) The Runaway Sardine by E. L. Brock The Twins and Tabiffa by C. Heward S. B. Pearse Grub-His Tale by D. Faber A. Wright The Greedy Goat by E. L. Brock The Story About Ping by M. Flack K. Wiese The Art Book by F. Derrick This is the Book by J. Smalley My Bookhouse by 0. Beaupre Vol I In the Nursery Miller (ed.) C. Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 1931 A. A. Knopf, New York, 1929 G. G. Harrap and Co., Gr. Br. Faber and Faber, London A. A. Knopf, New York, 193I Viking Press, U.S., 1933 Blackie and Co., London B. Blackwell, Eng., 1928 The Bookhouse for Children, Chicago, 1925 NURSERY SCHOOL SONGS, RHYTHMS AND SINGING GAMES42 (Used in St. George's School for Child Study) Baa Baa Black Sheep Peek-a-boo Hush-a-bye Baby The North Wind Doth Blow A Ball for Baby Bell High in the Steeple Dickory, Dickory, Dock Little Chickens Polly Put the Kettle On Up in a Tree I Love Little Pussy Jingle Bells Little Miss Muffet Humpty Dumpty Jack and Jill Sing a Song of Sixpence A Little Duck Cobbler Cobbler I Had a Little Nut Tree Winter Goodbye The Bee Fair Rosie The Ducks Tiny Man I Saw Three Ships I Had a Little Sail Boat Santa Claus The Caterpillar Tirra Lirra A Picnic-3 versions The Three Kittens The Crooked Man The Farmer's in the Dell Looby Loo The Snail Over in a Meadow 42 This list of songs includes those which have been found most successful for group singing and rhythmic interpretation. They are arranged, roughly, in order of difficulty. As they have been collected from various sources they will not all be found in the list of song books above. ORGANIZED PLAY 211 Mary Mary Quite Contrary Little Boy Blue Music Time Little Snowflakes Polly Perkins Christmas Bells Finger Plays-Emilie Poulsson Little Songs of Long Ago -Augener Ltd. Merry Little Tunes, Old and New -Florence Wickins Old Dutch Nursery Rhymes -R. H. Elkin I40 Folk Songs, Grades I, II, III. -Concord Series No 7 Come Little Leaves The Shower The Nightingale The Wind Marches-Soldiers' March Mountain March Comrades' March (Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Co., Boston.) (Bosworth and Co.) (David McKay, 604 South Washington Sq., Philadelphia, Pa.) (E. C. Schirmer Music Co., 221 Columbus Avenue, Boston.) SELECTED REFERENCES Stories and Story-Telling Alschuler, R. H. Two to Six. Wm. Morrow Co., N. Y., 1933, PP. 54-73 -A comprehensive list of story books including a short discussion of the contents of each and divided according to age. Baruch, D. W. The Question of Fairy Tales. Progressive Education, May, I932. When and how Fairy Tales should be introduced. Cather, K. D. Education by Story-Telling. World Book Co., New York, I926, Chap. II, VI, VII. Types of story for the young child and how to tell them. Faegre, M. L., and Child Care and Training. The University of Anderson, J. E. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, I929, Chap. XV. Choosing stories to correspond to the child's stage of development. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, Chap. V. Types of organized group play in the nursery school including a discussion of story telling. 212 NURSERY EDUCATION Freeman, G. L., and The Child and His Picture Book. NorthFreeman, R. S. western University Press, Chicago, 1933, pp. 102. A suggested rating scale for the selection of picture books for the preschool child based upon experimental data. Comprehensive list of picture books. Greenwood, B., and A Six Year Experiment with a Nursery Waddell, C. W. School. University of California at Los Angeles, I93I, pp. 41-48. Introducing stories and poetry into the child's play activity. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. The Research Station University, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, pp. 105-109. The conversation and story hour in the nursery school. Mitchell, L. S. Here and Now Story Book. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1921. An analysis of the subject matter, construction, content, and expression of stories for young children. Shedlock, M. The Art of the Story Teller. Houghton, Mifflin, I924. A detailed discussion of story construction and presentation. SELECTED REFERENCES* Music and Rhythm Alschuler, R. H. Two to Six, pp. 81-95. Methods of stimulating an interest in music and rhythm; list of songs and song books. Blumenthal, S. An Analysis of the Learning Capacity of Young Children to Reproduce Notes. Unpublished Master's thesis, St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto, Can., 1934. Champlin, D. S., Music and the Child. Child Study Associa(editor) tion of America, New York, 1930. pp. 87. A discussion of musical education for the young child together with a comprehensive list of songs, musical selections, phonograph records, and books dealing with musical education. * For publishers see previous lists. ORGANIZED PLAY 2I3 Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure, pp. 98-I05. Mattson, M. L. A discussion of suitable song and rhythm work for a nursery school group. Greenwood, B., and A Six Year Experiment with a Nursery Waddell, C. W. School, pp. 34-4I. A method of introducing music and rhythm into the child's play activity. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice, pp. Research Station I02-I05. A description of the nursery school music period for the four age levels (2-5 years). Johnson, Harriet Children in the Nursery School, pp. 102-150; 28I-3IO. A discussion of the pre-school child's spontaneous use of language and rhythm with suggestions as to how it may be fostered. A list of rhythm selections is appended. CHAPTER IV SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD ~ I. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD THE pre-school age child is not only acquiring the habits of personal care necessary to the satisfaction of his bodily needs, and gaining knowledge and experience in the material world, but is learning to adjust himself to a rapidly enlarging social environment. It is necessary that he learn before adulthood to conform to, or to consider, others, that is, to be obedient, submissive and considerate, through recognition of the commands, rights, wishes and needs of those with whom he comes into contact; he must learn to cooperate with others, to divide labor, to share and exchange objects, services and ideas; and finally, to dominate others, to lead, direct, guide and command. And, more important than the ability to adjust himself to any single social contact, is the development of a general habit of adaptability and versatility toward his social world. An individual's social world can never be as fixed and permanent as his physical surroundings, for no two social contacts are ever exactly alike. The individual must therefore be prepared to make a fresh adjustment in every new social setting in which he finds himself. The habits which grow out of a child's first social experiences are as important to his later social poise as early routine and play habits are to his later material adjustment. As in the latter realms of behavior, therefore, a careful planning of the environment and of adult guidance is essential during the first stages of social development. In the pre-school period the child is beginning to be socially active. Many factors such as increasing mental ability, greater physical control, the power to move about and to talk, bring 217 2I8 NURSERY EDUCATION him into contact with others, and combine to make the social aspect of his world increasingly more important to him. Planning for social learning should then commence at the pre-school age. Opportunity for a diversity of social contacts and experiences, during this two- to five-year-old period, is difficult to provide in the average home where relationships are, naturally, limited to parent-child, older or younger brother or sister, etc. If these are the only social experiences of the child's pre-school years, a time when he is ready and apt for social learning, he will be inclined to develop a few fixed habits of social intercourse arising out of these family relationships which, in addition to being inadequate outside of the home environment, add to the difficulty of learning new adjustments. At this time he should be gradually accumulating social experiences of a varied and increasingly complex nature, such that he will be prepared for his later social life in school and in society at large. The child requires opportunity to participate in a society where he can and must make his own contacts. The social environment of the nursery school provides the necessary supplement to the home environment. In this setting the child is living on a basis of equality with his contemporaries and so has the freedom necessary for experience and experiment. STAGES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT1 Social Interest: Before discussing the requirements of a nursery school from the point of view of social development, it will be necessary to outline, in brief, what social development may be expected of the child between the ages of two and five. At two years of age the child is largely non-social. He plays alone and does not concern himself with the children around him, except when they interfere with his solitary activity. 1 Cf. Table showing development in social participation, p. 246. THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD 2I9 Then he attempts to rid himself of them as he does any material hindrance. Between this a-social stage and that of active social play is a period when the child shows what might be termed a passive interest in the other children and their activities. He interrupts his play at frequent intervals to watch another child or group of children, and sometimes continues to watch for several minutes. Simultaneously with, or following upon this form of behavior, the child begins to take active interest in other children. He will try various means of arousing them to a response, as when one child poked another "to see what kind of noise he made." These first social approaches are usually of a physical nature, pushing, pulling, hitting, etc. The simplest form of actual social play has been called parallel play. Here two or more children carry on the same activity side by side, as when two children sit together in the sand pile filling and emptying their sand pails. Their independence of action is preserved apart from this common interest. The general attitude of the child towards those around him during these first stages of social development is one of self-assertion and ascendancy, similar to that with which he approaches all his environment. He has, as yet, learned nothing of submission to the needs and rights of others as selves similar to himself. They are merely a part of his environment to be used or overcome, as the case may be, in proceeding to satisfy his desires. Life in a group, however, requires before all else that the separate individual should be capable of self-negation, that is, of realizing that the rights and wishes of others are to be taken into account. Thus the pre-school child must, before he is capable of social participation, develop an attitude of social submission. The first step has been taken towards this end when he recognizes the rights of other children to the possession of the toys they have selected and to the privilege of carrying on their own games undisturbed. 220 NURSERY EDUCATION SOCIAL PARTICIPATION GRAPH Cooperation: The first stages of cooperative play are very simple. The young child just commencing seldom plays with more than one child at a time. He is not sufficiently experienced to cope with the complexities of a larger group, and difficulties 'SOCIAL PARTICIPATION 60......... 55 40 - 4- -- - - - 4.0 c tWcthjhi n - - 25 -- Tw Children - t0 Adults I Ir -.000 2-3 3-4 4-5 AGE GROUPS This chart is from Personality Development by H. Bott (p. 27). It is included by courtesy of the author. The advance in social participation with age is indicated by the increasing number of children played with at the three age levels. (For further explanation see Record of Social Participation, page 244.) THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD 221 usually ensue if he is drawn into one of these. There are various degrees or grades of cooperative play and it is not for some time that a child has the social understanding which makes possible actual division of labor, where efforts are combined and unified in working towards a single end. Voluntary submission, where a child cooperates with another to the extent of working under his guidance and towards his goal, also represents an advanced form of group cooperation requiring, as it does, the forfeiting of independence and the acceptance as his own of another's objective. Leadership: The ability to lead in group play does not appear to any degree until the fourth year. It requires, in the first place, the ability to plan and carry through a play project, and in the second, the ability to make oneself understood by others and to control and sustain social relationships. Leadership denotes the development of the ability to dominate others, the third main social relationship inherent in group activity. This tendency to dominate his companions is to be distinguished from the younger child's self-assertion which represents a disregard for society and its rights. The social ascendancy of the older child, on the other hand, implies a growing desire for control of the social world as such. A child frequently develops a desire to control others before he is capable of achieving this adequately, that is before he is capable of leadership. Lacking the latter ability he may employ various other methods of influencing and attracting the attention of the group. Interfering, teasing, bullying, showing off and acting the clown are evidences of this stage of social development. Requests for praise and commendation also indicate an unsatisfied need for social prominence. The group play of the pre-school child in the free period is seldom organized. Rules and definite procedures have no place in their games. The children of a group come and go, the individual parts are flexible and the unity of action 222 NURSERY EDUCATION and purpose incomplete. Any more definite procedure is impossible at this age without adult guidance. Advanced Social Behavior: It is not until the end of the pre-school period that the more personal and complex attitudes and feelings towards others begin to appear. The older child sometimes shows generosity, the voluntary giving up of a desired object or privilege to another, offers assistance when another is having difficulty, shows concern over another child's distress, or a personal interest in another child's activity or story. Such behavior is, however, sporadic rather than usual at this stage. The pre-school period is mainly taken up with the development of general attitudes upon which such behavior and feeling are based. Manners, likewise, are not a usual acquisition at the pre-school level. They express a refined social consideration not yet experienced by the child. He therefore does not feel their need, nor recognize the significance of their use. His social attitudes are still too immature. Manners will be acquired readily at a later date if his early attitudes are favorable to their development. Social Attitudes: These stages of social development are seldom clearly defined, overlapping and combining with one another and varying from child to child. The most important fact from a nursery school point of view is that social development represents a learning process, each phase leading up to and making possible the subsequent and more complicated one. Hence it is not possible to force the child to behave in a particular manner but only to guide him very gradually in forming attitudes and learning elementary behavior responses of social significance. As previously noted, during the pre-school age the adult is largely concerned with forming attitudes because, upon the attitude of the child toward others, must depend his behavior, which is the expression of this attitude. ~ 2. PLANNING FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT MINIMUM INSTRUCTION THE objective of the nursery school, then, is to plan the social environment and to guide the child therein so that he will show a continuous development in social behavior. In controlling and directing social behavior the adult is faced with difficulties similar to those found in controlling play activity. If the child is to learn how to handle and how to respond to the social world, as he learns how to utilize and to react to his material environment, he must be allowed to face, attack and solve his own problems. Each time a child meets a new child he is facing a new social problem of adjustment, and each time he begins a group activity, he is entering upon a new series of relationships. He must have freedom to experiment and must learn to accept the responsibility for his attempts. Thoughtless adult interference in the child's social adventures carries the same risks as interference in his material play activity.2 The desire for group participation must come from the children themselves if it is to arouse genuine social interaction and be of value to them. Hence it is not advisable for the adult to form a group arbitrarily, or insist upon the child joining a group. The group then becomes dependent upon the adult, instead of self-dependent and usually breaks up immediately adult influence is withdrawn. Group play organized by the adult has the further danger of forcing a child into a social situation too advanced for his particular stage of development. The results will be similar to those following a child's continued attack upon a play task too 2 See Ch. III, Section 2: Adult Control. 223 224 NURSERY EDUCATION difficult for him to master; that is, he must either fail completely, and so experience discouragement with the consequence of withdrawal from later social difficulties, or else shift all responsibility at that time and in future upon the adult. Both these results are hindrances to development. Interference by assistance, suggestion, or command, where group activity is in progress, if not duly considered, will, like interference in a child's play, rob the child of valuable practice in adjusting himself to the immediate situation and weaken his sense of responsibility in dealing with future social problems. SOCIAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE NURSERY SCHOOL From the above it is to be concluded that direct adult control should be used only with discretion and in specific situations. The primary policy of the nursery school in social training is to provide, as in material play activity, as adequate an environment as possible and a maximum of freedom within that environment. This environment must offer, in the first place, a wealth of social possibilities such that the child will become interested in those around him and will be stimulated to social activity of a varied nature. Number is the simplest means of insuring variety. Each child in a group is different and therefore contact with a sufficient number is bound to result in as many different relationships. Sex differences and age differences within the group are further diversifying features. Age variations, however, must be carefully controlled if they are to be valuable. It is an advantage for a child to have contact with younger and older children as well as those of his own age. This permits of experience in both ascendancy and submission, in leading and being led. However, the selection must be such that no child will be forced into assuming one social attitude only, as in the case of one older child in a group of younger children, or vice versa. PLANNING FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 225 A second factor to be considered is how, having obtained a suitable grouping, social activity may be made a natural and necessary part of the day's activity and social contacts promoted among the children without the use of direct adult stimulation and organization. This means that in planning play and routine procedure, social participation must be one of the factors considered. Play equipment allowing for various forms of group activity3 has already been discussed and also routine arrangements whereby the'child, though proceeding independently, is working side by side with others.4 (The importance of imitation has been stressed more than once.) These arrangements are of particular consequence in guiding the pre-school child's social development, because he is not sufficiently mature mentally or emotionally nor sufficiently articulate, to establish his social relationship successfully in other than concrete situations. LEARNING SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR In such a nursery school setting the adult principle of procedure is, as previously stated, one of minimum interference; but it is impossible, from the point of view of the child's immediate and future adjustment, to grant him as much freedom in his social environment as in the material play situation. The social environment, from the point of view of learning, is much less satisfactory than the material environment,5 for its consequences are neither as inevitable nor as constant. Once a child has met and solved a material problem, he has learned a satisfactory form of behavior which he may employ whenever he meets that particular set of circumstances in the future. The consequences of his action are invariable so that incorrect responses will be eliminated and adequate ones will be es3 See Ch. III, Section 2: Play Materials for Social Development. 4 See Ch. II, Section i: Routine Discipline. 5 See Ch. II, Section i: Principles of Learning. 226 NURSERY EDUCATION tablished. In the social world, on the other hand, the consistency necessary to learning is to a large extent absent. Each individual with whom a child comes into contact is different, that is, responds to his approaches in a different manner, and hence he must make a new adjustment to each one. Furthermore, the individuals themselves vary at different times and in different situations. The child's experiences are, therefore, inconsistent and contradictory, and the consequences of his approaches to the social world are so varied that the learning of acceptable social behavior patterns progresses slowly and involves many unsuccessful attempts. Moreover, there is a second difficulty, in that the social responses considered by society as being satisfactory are very often not logical and rational responses to the situation. They are arbitrary forms of behavior established by custom rather than individual experience. A child desires a toy; another child has it; he asks for it and is refused; he hits the child and gains possession of the toy. From such an experience he learns that he is able to get what he wants by physical force; and he will, quite naturally, employ this same means in a similar situation in future. Society, however, rules that "might is not right," and so, if the child is to learn acceptable behavior a consequence must be introduced by which he will learn that such behavior is not adequate to that situation. The child wants a piece of bread, he reaches for it and eats it; reaching is a successful solution to his problem. However he must learn that asking for the bread, not reaching for it, is the acceptable form of behavior. THE ROLE OF THE ADULT It is for the adult, then, so to guide the child's learning that acceptable forms of behavior will be established as the most satisfactory means of solving social problems and those forms of behavior which are unacceptable will be eliminated before they become habitual. This does not mean that the PLANNING FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 227 adult should come between the child and his problem and arrange a solution for him. Her role, as intermediary, is to introduce a reasonable consequence to the child's behavior which will facilitate the learning of the desired response. In other words, appropriate behavior must be substituted for inappropriate. In the supervision of social situations in the nursery school the adult in charge must remember that she has a four-fold task. She is adjudicator, prosecutor, and defending counsel and administrator. The difficulties of her task will be more apparent if she keeps this in mind. Children of this age are seldom articulate and never objective. Unless the adult has been observant and has watched the genesis of social crises it is almost impossible to serve in the four roles with equal justice. Several general rules of a precautionary nature may be enunciated. First, interfere only when all hope of compromise, initiated by the children themselves, is lost. Second, refrain from accusations of guilt. "Humanum est errare." Third, when you are not sure of the steps in the development of the crises, save the situation as quickly and as simply as possible and proceed no further in attempting to "straighten out" the social entanglement. The chances are that no matter what you do it will be inadequate. When in doubt under these circumstances it is always the best policy to do nothing specifically. ~3. SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND THEIR TREATMENT6 INTERFERENCE IT remains to discuss the actual social situations arising in the nursery school which demand adult interference, and the most satisfactory method of handling them. The youngest child must learn to control his personal impulses when they infringe on the rights of others; he must, for instance, learn that he cannot take another child's toy or personal belonging. Where the child is making himself and others unhappy, the adult may help him to adjust himself by explaining the situation and stating firmly that he cannot have the toy. This should be followed immediately by redirection to another toy (preferably of the same kind) pointing out that he may have the latter as his. After several episodes of this kind the child gradually grasps the idea that the other children have rights just as he himself has. The positive re-direction substitutes an adequate for an inadequate form of behavior, and so teaches the child a satisfactory means of dealing with his problem in place of crying, fighting, or a temper tantrum. Learning will be facilitated if "not taking another child's toy" is established as an inevitable social rule7 which the child must learn to accept as he does his routine. When a young child persists in interfering, removal until ready to play properly will be a necessary disciplinary procedure. When a young child interferes with or destroys another's constructions he should assist in or watch the rebuilding and then be re-directed to 6 For further discussion see Ch. V, Section 2: Social Difficulties. 7 For further discussion of "rules" of play activity see Ch. III, Section 3: Danger Rules and Rules of Play Procedure. 228 SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND TREATMENT 229 some other activity. The objective of the adult in all these early episodes of discord is to establish in the child an awareness of the other children as individuals having equal rights with himself. DISAGREEMENT When the child begins to cooperate in play, he meets a new set of problems leading to discords and emotional behavior because of his inability to respond adequately. A situation which frequently occurs is that in which one child refuses to play as another wishes. Both wish to play together, but are not able to unify their individual purposes, as when a child came to the adult pleading "that he did not want to be a whistle." The social experience of pre-school children is so limited that they are often unable to arrange a satisfactory agreement unaided. If ignored, the discord grows in intensity, each participant responding to, and in turn, stimulating the other to greater annoyance. In the end either one or both of the children are usually crying. When the episode leads to crying, fighting or other emotional behavior, it is necessary to deal with this aspect of the situation before any adjustment of the social difficulty can be made. This can be accomplished by parting the children or removing the toys, and thus impressing the children with the futility of their behavior. The usual procedure will be to remind the children that there is no need for such unpleasantness and that if they wish to play together they will have to play amicably, and then leave them to adjust their problem. In some cases the deadlock may be a result only of misunderstanding on the part of one or both children, caused by language inability. All that is required of the adult in such a case is an interpretation of the children's intentions to one another. When the play situation is such that continuous disagreement is inevitable, that is, when the social development of one or both children is too imma 230 NURSERY EDUCATION ture for the form of cooperative play which they are attempting, it is advisable to make some suggestions which will simplify the situation. Thus sharing one toy often demands concessions on the part of the children involved which they are not, as yet, prepared to make. When there is disagreement over the use of one wagon the adult may, by suggesting that a second be introduced into the game, direct the children to cooperative play of a simple nature. The adult should be careful in re-directing not to suggest a social compromise which is too difficult for the children involved. Thus, taking turns, when two children play alternately with one toy, is often not a satisfactory method of solving a dispute in the nursery school, as the children are unable to adhere to such a rule of procedure and will only get into further difficulty unless the adult remains in charge which, of course, is not the object of the interference. Continued disagreement between two or more children should be followed by separation of the children in question or, infrequently, removal to play separately and alone. The child should learn that there is no need for unpleasantness. SOCIAL PRESSURE Another difficulty met with in the cooperative group play of the pre-school child is that in which a younger child is coerced into a game by older children. Crying is the usual result. Here the younger child is faced with a situation which he cannot handle. He is not ready for such social participation. The adult can best adjust the situation by explaining to the older children that the younger child would rather play alone; thus protecting the younger child's freedem and preventing his becoming involved in a situation beyond his social capacity. SOCIAL OSTRACISM Contrasted to this latter situation is that in which a child is anxious to join a group from which he has been excluded SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND TREATMENT 231 and appeals to the adult for assistance. Here it is advisable to refrain from interference, merely suggesting to the child that he find some one or something else to play with. Social ostracism indicates that a child's behavior is not acceptable to the group and is one of the best means of teaching him to behave in a more acceptable manner. Also, as previously pointed out, if an adult insists upon a child's being taken into a group, it will usually result in breaking up the selfinitiated play organization. If it should be a case of a group of children taking possession of more than their share of play equipment, then sharing may be insisted upon. "OVER-SOCIAL" PLAY BEHAVIOR There is one other situation characteristic of cooperative play of the pre-school child which requires adult intervention. This might be termed "over-social" play. On occasion it will be found that the play of a group, usually composed of four- and five-year-old children, degenerates from constructive activity into non-constructive play composed chiefly of antics, the calling of names, and indulging in other meaningless conversation, retorts, and mimicry. Shouting, running about and other forms of excitable behavior usually follow. Such social play is unfruitful for several reasons. Its immediate results are frequently unfortunate. The excitement is carried by the originators through the entire group and may continue during the remainder of the day. Also, there is danger of some child being hurt in the general disquiet. While one such episode would not be particularly detrimental to the constructive play habits of the children involved, such play may become habitual, in which case no fruitful learning is possible. The appearance of this form of rather chaotic behavior is understandable in terms of the emphasis in the situation upon self-interest and social interplay. The pre-school child, after all, is learning to be social. His early interests are primarily a-social and con 232 NURSERY EDUCATION fined to the interaction of himself and his material world. As he grows up there is superimposed upon this the interaction between himself and the social world. By the time he reaches maturity the emphasis has been reversed and the social interplay is predominant. An example of this might be the tea hour when the drinking of tea is a tenuous form of material activity subsidiary to the gossip and social interplay which is the characteristic feature of such situations. These boisterous social convulsions of three- and four-year-old children arise when they are attempting to arrange a predominantly social situation without adequate preparation. This is too "heady" a wine for the unsophisticated.* They are not sufficiently mature for activity of a purely social nature. In the first place their language is not sufficiently developed. They require, as previously stated, a concrete basis, a constructive game or project upon which to build their social relationships. They need something definite and immediate to talk about. All things considered, it is therefore advisable to cut short such play if the children show signs of becoming excited and uncontrolled. There are various ways of doing this. It is important to bring the excitement to a dead stop. To do this it is usually necessary to direct the children's energies into an entirely new channel in order to prevent a carry-over of the excitement. In some cases it may be necessary to break up the group. Children of four and five years are quite able to understand an explanation to the effect that their play is foolish and to realize that they are expected to be constructively busy. Such play will not tend to recur frequently if always checked at its outset. * In the dining room one child held up a large spoonful of potatoes and cried "Blonkeys." The others chorused "Eat it" and he popped it in his mouth. The next child took up the game and was half way through the performance when the adult interrupted with a conversational gambit. SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND TREATMENT 233 UNACCEPTABLE SOCIAL DOMINANCE When the child reaches the stage of social development where he is ready and anxious for dominance, that is, to make himself an influence in the group, he may resort to various methods of attracting attention and asserting himself. Many of these are unacceptable and are therefore to be discouraged before they become fixed. Interfering with another child's play, bullying, teasing and hurting are of this nature. They arise because the child has learned no more satisfactory means of attaining his end. The three last forms of behavior are not common to the play of the pre-school child, but their beginnings may sometimes be observed in the older group. Where the child is apparently gaining a vicarious pleasure from upsetting the other children it is necessary that the adult demonstrate, by isolating him from the group, that such behavior is not acceptable, otherwise he may continue to gain his satisfaction through this means and so fail to develop more adequate forms of social dominance. At the same time the child should be encouraged and given opportunity to assert himself in group activity in a legitimate way. This cannot be done to any great extent in the free play periods where the object is that group play be self-initiated, but the child may be given opportunity to be socially prominent, and given experience in constructive leadership during the organized play of the story and music periods.8 These forms of social interference manifested by the older pre-school child are to be distinguished from the younger child's interfering behavior. The two forms of behavior while similar in outward appearance arise from quite different attitudes and therefore require different treatments. For example, the two-year-old takes another child's kiddy-kar because he happens to want that particular kiddy-kar. He pokes a child for the same reason that he 8 For further discussion see Ch. IV, Section 4: Social Adjustment in Organized Activity. 234 NURSERY EDUCATION pokes his finger in his dessert, namely, out of interest. The older child, on the other hand, takes the kiddy-kar, not because he wants it particularly, but because by such behavior he exercises control over another child. He pokes a child in order to stimulate a social response. BIDDING FOR SOCIAL ATTENTION It sometimes happens that as early as the pre-school level a child develops so strong a desire for social ascendancy that this desire takes precedence over other interests. In other words, the child is bidding continually for attention, and everything he does has this end in view. His play and his routine activities are not ends in themselves but are used as a means of attaining social prominence. The child's play will be affected in various ways depending upon the society in which he finds himself. It may be constructive and productive providing that this brings social satisfaction through dominance, praise or attention. However, such apparent interest will wane or change at any moment should the social interest cease; with the result that his play interests are unstable and his general habits of activity not dependable. This same ever-present need for social attention frequently leads the child to indulge in non-constructive play of the type previously described, and to stimulate others to do the same. This is done, apparently, with the object of making himself the center of attention, and in order to stir up social reactions.9 The child's routine performance and his adult contacts will reflect the same dependence upon social attention, as is seen in his free relationships with the children in play. In the routine the child's performance will not be dependable. It will be satisfactory only as long as social approval is sufficiently great, but non-cooperative if by this means social attention can be gained, and inefficient if there are other 9 For further discussion see Ch. III, Section 3: Behavior Difficulties. SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND TREATMENT 235 children with whom to play and to talk. With such a child it is difficult to develop any interest in the routine or wish to carry it out independently. His interests are elsewhere. Because the social interest of the child is always uppermost he is inclined to upset the routine as well as the play of all those with whom he comes into contact during the days' proceedings. In re-directing this child's interest the first step is to guide his activities into constructive channels in both routine and play in order that he may, by practice, learn something of material achievement. This entails in the first place the use of positive adult guidance, such as suggestion, re-direction and encouragement, in order to stimulate behavior of an acceptable and purposeful nature. It is easy enough to obtain such constructive endeavor as long as adult attention is being administered. The problem for the adult is to direct the child in such a way that he is not merely responding to adult attention but is at the same time developing an interest in achievement for its own sake. The success of the adult's treatment will depend solely on her skill in making contacts with the child. Her manner must be sufficiently casual and impersonal, her remarks so expressed, and her interferences so timed that the child's attention and interest will be focused upon the job in hand and upon what he is achieving. Successful achievement should be emphasized in such a way that the child will develop a feeling of satisfaction in having accomplished a project through his own efforts. The adult must, in addition to the above mentioned positive methods of treatment, employ disciplinary measures as a means of checking the child's unacceptable and unprofitable forms of behavior. The same principle should be adhered to in administering discipline as in giving positive stimulation, namely, it should be made as brief and impersonal as possible. Removal from the group and from the adult, to dress, eat, or sleep alone, as well as eliminating the need for constant adult attention, will teach the child the 236 NURSERY EDUCATION importance of independent achievement as a pre-requisite to remaining one of the group. In play, where a child is disrupting constructive activity and creating excitement the most satisfactory procedure again is removal from the group. In addition to teaching him that constructive play is a necessary part of group play, it also relieves him, for a time, from social pressure and so allows him an opportunity for activity of an individual nature. While the adult is thus attempting to develop constructive habits of behavior in the child she must be sure that the child's need for social contacts is being satisfied. The adult may help him to learn how to satisfy this need adequately and in a way which will not interfere with his routine and play habits, by providing incidental contacts of a casual and friendly nature between herself and the child. Constructive leadership should be encouraged on every possible occasion. The adult's procedure in re-directing a child's social interests where these are so powerful that they dominate his total behavior may be summed up as follows: to substitute co6perative social contacts for those directed entirely by selfinterest; to emphasize legitimate social ascendancy and to minimize the satisfaction gained through other means; to develop a desire for endeavor and achievement in order to counterbalance the desire for social achievement. IMMATURITY OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR One phase of social behavior remains for discussion, namely, the more personal social relationships. The immaturity of the pre-school child in this respect has already been pointed out. He does not behave in a generous, thoughtful or sympathetic manner, except on rare occasions. The adult in the nursery school must decide how much emphasis should be placed upon these forms of social behavior, how their development can best be fostered, and what should be expected of the child. As these are expressions of the SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES AND TREATMENT 237 child's attitudes toward other individuals, obviously it is useless to insist that the child behave in a generous or sympathetic manner before these attitudes are sufficiently mature. Such behavior would be meaningless to him and therefore could be nothing more than an artificial and parrotlike response. The emphasis at the pre-school level must therefore be upon developing the attitudes basic to this more complex form of social behavior rather than the behavior itself. Possessed of these attitudes the child will gradually learn to express them in his social contacts if his social environment is auspicious for such learning.* The best technique for developing these attitudes is the one already outlined. In other words the development of a genuine social interest is dependent upon the child's first friendly approach toward others and consideration of their rights, and should be a natural outcome of a well-planned social environment with adequate opportunity for coiperative play, guidance in observing the rights of others, in learning successful methods of playing together, and in leading group activity. As noted above, the pre-school child may show generosity or sympathy on occasion. The adult may foster such behavior by practicing it herself and by suggesting to the child, when an opportunity offers, that he might lend a toy to another for a short time or help another child who is in difficulty. The child will gradually learn that such behavior is expected of him. At the pre-school level, however, such behavior should not be insisted on. The child of this age *After the Christmas holidays a four-year-old with evident pride-of-possession showed his new wrist watch to the staff. Some time during the morning it was noticed that his watch was not on his wrist. He was asked if he had lost it. He replied:-"No, I let L. have my watch for a while. He will take good care of it and I'll get it back after a while." 238 NURSERY EDUCATION is concerned with acquiring more elementary social abilities. Formal manners o are another form of social behavior dependent upon a maturing of social attitudes.* They are, actually, an acquired skill of a social nature expressing the attitudes of consideration, and conformity to the rights of others. During the pre-school age the basic foundation should be laid, but the pre-school child is not sufficiently developed socially to learn the more technical elements.t Respect for the personal rights and needs of others to the extent of restraining his own desires is the first step in being mannerly and is all that should be expected of the pre-school child. Here again, such behavior will be acquired as soon as the child feels the need for, and understands the significance of the custom, e.g., apologizing for unintentional jostling, or thanking a hostess for a pleasant visit, etc. * Some of us may object to the following comment by one two-and-a-half-year-old to another: "In that coat and hat you look a beastly mess." But frankness is a virtue enjoyed only when we are young. t A mother had spent a great deal of time teaching "Manners" to her two-year-old child. On bringing her into school the child hiccoughed-"What do you say, dear?" asked the mother. "Thank you," quickly responded the child. 10 For further discussion see Ch. II, Section i: Routine Requirements. ~ 4. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED ACTIVITY SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN THE ROUTINE THE previous discussion has been mainly concerned with social development in freeplay activity. The school routine also has a certain social importance. In his routine the child is living and acting in a group, learning to behave in accordance with group standards, to abide by group regulations, and to share group property. His conformity to the routine represents a conformity to group requirements and his developing self-control an acceptance of these requirements as a personal responsibility. The adult assists the child in grasping the situation, and in adjusting himself to it, by the manner in which she presents the routine to the child. The group standards and rules of procedure are couched in terms of the group. Thus a child is told he must put away his toys because "it is time for the children to put away their toys" or "the other children are putting away their toys." Similarly a child is removed to wait alone because he "was not able to wash like the other children," and is told that he "must rest quietly like the other children if he wishes to remain with them." The meal hour, unlike the other routines, offers opportunity for free social activity of a unique and valuable nature. As pointed out, group conversation during the free play period at the pre-school age usually ends with confusion and excitement unless founded upon constructive activity. The small groups, the adult supervision, and the fact that the children are hungry all act during the meal as controlling factors preventing this excitement and so allow the children oppor239 240 NURSERY EDUCATION tunity to be quietly interested in talking to one another. This applies mainly, of course, to the older group of children (three-and-a-half to five years of age). The younger group cannot talk and eat at the same time. In order that the period may be a successful one the adult must be on the alert to anticipate and to forestall social excitement before it becomes acute. By entering into the conversation at the critical point and adding a further interest to the topic under discussion, introducing a new topic or bringing attention back to the meal it is possible to maintain a pleasant and quiet atmosphere conducive to good eating habits. The conversation should, of course, always be the secondary factor, the eating of primary importance. It will be necessary also for the adult to guide the child in listening, and in talking by turn. If any child abuses the privilege he should be removed for part or the remainder of the meal, to eat alone. It is necessary, if social activity is being allowed, that a certain standard be maintained, otherwise the children very quickly begin to play and routine habits of eating are upset. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED PLAY11 The music and story periods, when carried on as an organized rather than an individual enterprise, offer still another type of social experience for the nursery school child. This is the only occasion during the nursery school day when the child may participate in formal play activity, that is, play in which there are certain group rules to be observed and definite actions to be carried out at definite times. In organized play the members of the group are working for a common goal recognized by all, and the separate activities of each member supplement each other and combine to form a united effort. The child has much to learn before he is capable of successful participation in 11 For further discussion see Ch. III, Section 5: Planning the Organized Play Period. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED ACTIVITY 24I such activity. He must learn to restrain his personal impulses in favor of the group needs, to assume the group objective as his objective, to recognize and respect the contributions of the other children to the group activity and to make a contribution himself. Such learning is essential to future social adjustment and hence some type of formal group activity is a valuable part of the nursery school program. It is perhaps redundant to point out that this form of behavior is the precursor of a series of social situations which make up a large part of the child's subsequent social experience; for example, formal school classes, listening to lectures, attending conferences, concerts, movies, theaters, church sermons, Sunday schools, etc. However much we are in sympathy with all these situations the child should have an opportunity of learning the acceptable mode of behavior so that he will, at least, be free to choose whether he will assist at them or not. Because pre-school children are too inexperienced to carry on their own organization it is necessary for the adult to assume control of the planning and directing. However, as with all other activities, if the experience is to be valuable, and if learning is to take place the child must himself choose to participate and must meet and solve the problems involved. In the first place the child should be free to enter the group or not as he wishes, and to leave it if he so desires. As well as making the child responsible this principle of procedure is a protection against social pressure. It prevents his being forced into social situations too advanced for him. The young child just entering school seldom joins these groups immediately, for the first few days he watches and then may join for a short time only, and so gradually adjusts himself to the requirements. The adult may assist in this adjustment by drawing his attention to the proceedings, and interesting him in the books or songs. It is, of course, the adult's objective that the children should choose to join the group, and her success will depend upon her ability to 242 NURSERY EDUCATION make the group activities interesting and attractive to the child. His play needs must be considered.'2 There should be plenty of change and variety. The whole activity should be short (ten to twenty minutes) to prevent boredom, and the activities (songs or stories) within his capacity.l3 The adult's attitude is, of course, also important. Unlike her role in the routine, she is here participating with the children and much will depend upon her own interest and enjoyment, and her ability to make the children feel that she is participating in their play and not that they are merely following her directions. The degree of organization possible in these groups will depend upon the age of the children. The youngest children can participate only in the simplest kind of group singing or story period. For the two-year-old child it will be found that the simplest elements, sitting quietly side by side without disturbing the proceedings, and listening, singing or acting in unison, are difficult tasks, and more complex demands are impossible to meet. The first songs, stories and group proceedings for this age must be those in which the group joins as a whole rather than those having individual parts, e.g., simple singing games and stories with pictures. From this beginning the group may be introduced to songs, games, and conversational groups in which there is opportunity for individual action. At four years of age the children should be ready for part songs and rhythm bands in which they have their own particular places; ready to act out familiar stories and rhymes with others, and take their turns in group discussion; to sit quietly and listen to one another and to assume some responsibility in directing the group activity.* * The adult was called away and the children waiting for their story, so P. took charge. With a picture book in front 12 See Ch. III, Section I: Characteristics of the Pre-school Child's Play. 13 For further discussion see Ch. III, Section 5: Organized Play. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED ACTIVITY 243 Such activity when compared to that of the younger group indicates considerable development in the social awareness of the other members of the group, appreciation of their efforts, and adherence to the group standard and group project. When an older child interrupts and disturbs the group proceedings, removal until he is ready to observe the requirements is the most usual form of discipline. It infrequently happens that an older child may refuse to take part in the proceedings other than sitting passively with the others; and when cooperation is suggested, he cries and says that he cannot, or becomes negative. If both ignoring and suggestion have no effect on him and the behavior continues over a period of two or three weeks, it is advisable to remove him in order that he may learn the necessity for taking his part if he wishes to remain with the other children. At the same time that the discipline is being carried out the adult may assist the child in a positive way by introducing the singing into the play period, or singing alone with the child. The new setting and informal atmosphere will often break down the resistance built up in the formal setting. Once the child learns to perform successfully, the negative attitude of him he began:- "Once there were two elephants, a daddy one and a little one. And the little elephant said-'What will we do to-day, daddy?' and the daddy said, 'Let's go and find some bananas' and they fdund some bananas and ate them and then they ate some apples-and then-what do you suppose they saw? (dramatic pause)-two bears and they were fighting." And so went the story for about ten minutes. Occasionally P. was faced with discipline problems but far from being non-plused when the children didn't sit quietly he calmly shut the book and said to one offender in the best nursery school manner: "B., you will have to go away if you can't listen to the story quietly," and B. sat quietly. 244 NURSERY EDUCATION disappears and he is usually pleased and anxious to participate. The above discussion shows social adjustment to be a vital factor in each portion of the nursery school day. It is necessary that both routine and play procedure be planned to provide, in addition to their specific objectives, social experiences of a valuable nature. RECORD OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION Observations are made periodically upon each child's social behavior in playroom and on the playground. Social development is indicated, first by increasing frequency of social contacts; second, by increasing complexity of social behavior indicated in terms of the number of children played with. Method of Recording: Observations are made once a month upon each child for a period of five minutes, divided into sixty, five-second intervals. Following is a list of the categories employed with the corresponding symbols: Social Categories: symbol Alone 0 Watching children W adults W4 Parallel Activity P -where the child is not in spatial proximity to others on the playground, and pays no attention to other children. -directed, as indicated, whether towards children or towards adults. This includes even a glance at a person. -where the child is playing near but not with another child or children. This category is to be used when there is no active play with another but when the child cannot be considered alone since he is adjacent to another child, e.g., when children play side by side in the sandbox but show no overt recognition of one another's presence. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED ACTIVITY 245 Playing with one -as occurring in the next three categories, child I this is defined as follows: two children 2 a. Physical or spatial contact with anmore than two other child, e.g., touching, pushing, caresschildren 3 ing, following. b. Verbal interchange, e.g., talking, quarreling, laughing, shouting. c. Joint use of material. Relations with -where the child Adults 4 a. speaks to or is spoken to by any adult b. follows an adult c. smiles at an adult TABLE A showing the percentage distribution of types of social participation for four children. Based upon observations made daily for a period of three months during outdoor "free play." Social Categories 0 W P I 2 3 W4 4 Child #Io5 2 yrs. 6 mos. 34.7 24.3 I4.I I5.9 3.8 2.2 1.8 3.2 Child #88 3 yrs. 4 mos. 32.I 25.9 I4.9 I6.I 5.4.9 I.9 2.8 Child #9ia 3 yrs. 6 mos. 8.8 3.6 5 5- 9 5199 99 7.7.I 2. Child #9oa 4 yrs. 6 mos. 9.7 5.8 5.8 36.4 20.3 I9.3.7 2.0 246 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE B showing the development with age in social participation. Based upon records made during a three year period in the Nursery School. Social Categories 0 W P I 2 3 W4 4 2-3 years 31.6 23.4 9.8 I5.6 8.o 3.5 4.3 3.8 3-4 years I8.8 I7.0 6.3 28.5 I2.o I0.7 3.1 3.6 4-5 years 9.8 8.9 4.1 32.9 19 9.9 4 39.9 9 TABLE A Note -individual differences 14 and deviations from the age norms. The records of Children 1Io5 and #9oa show fairly normal distribution. The record of Child #88 indicates marked retardation in social play shown by the frequency of solitary play (O and W) which is higher than that of the average two-year-old child, and the corresponding lack of social contacts (i, 2 and 3). Note that in this record parallel play (P) is more frequent than the yearly norms for all age levels. The record of Child #i9a shows advance behavior of a social nature. Her score for solitary play and watching (O and W) is lower than the four-year-age norm and her participation in group play with one or two other children is higher (i and 2). It is interesting to note that this record shows at the same time less play in large groups (3) than is normal to her age. (Ch. IV, Sec. i: Social Development of the Pre-school Child) N.B.-These records do not indicate individual development. 14 The individual records of "material play activity" were made upon the same four children used above (cf. Table A, page 192). SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT IN ORGANIZED ACTIVITY 247 TABLE B Note -consistent decrease with age in solitary play (0), watching (W) and parallel play (P). Fifty-five per cent of the two-year-old child's play is solitary (0 and W) as compared to thirty-six (app.) per cent for the three-year-old and nineteen (app.) for the fouryear-old child. -consistent increase with age in total frequency of group participation (1+2+3). -consistent increase with age in complexity of group play indicated by increasing frequency of play with more than one child (i, 2 and 3). -the most frequent form of group play throughout the three age groups is play with one child, which form increases consistently with age (I). -the consistency of adult contacts throughout the three age levels. SELECTED REFERENCES Social Adjustment Alschuler, R. Two to Six. Wm. Morrow & Co., New York, I933, pp- 47-50 -Standards of social behavior for the two, three, four and five year old child. Baldwin, B. T., and The Psychology of the Pre-school Child. D. Stecher, L. I. Appleton & Co., New York, I924, pp. 235 -254. A description of social attitudes manifested in a nursery school group. Blatz, W. E., and The Management of Young Children. Wm. Bott, H. Morrow& Co., New York, 1930. McClelland & Stewart, Toronto, Canada, Chapter IX. Social relationships among young children. Bott, H. Personality Development in Young Children. The University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada, I934, I39 pp. The analysis of a research study made upon the material and social activities of a nursery school group. 248 NURSERY EDUCATION Bridges, K. M. Ban- The Social and Emotional Development of the ham Pre-school Child. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., London, I93I, Chapters IV, V, VI, VII. A social developmental scale devised in a nursery school setting; with a description of the forms of social behavior included. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, 1929, Chapter IX. "Training in social habits" in the nursery school. Iowa Child Welfare A Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, Chapter VII. A discussion of the forms of social behavior possible at the pre-school level and the role of the adult in promoting these. Jersild, A. T. Child Psychology. Prentice-Hall Inc., New York, I933, Chapter VII. A general treatise on social behavior manifested by children. Johnson, Harriet Children in the Nursery School. The John Day Co., New York, I928, pp. 8I-IOI. A discussion of the nursery school as a social setting. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 1933, Chapter VIII. A discussion of the development of social behavior through experience. CHAPTER V EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD ~ I. A CONCEPT OF EMOTION EMOTIONAL episodes occur frequently in the everyday life of the young child and hence must be considered as factors in a nursery school program. It is necessary therefore for the nursery school worker to develop a consistent method of handling such episodes. To designate emotion as fear, anger or unhappiness and to consider these as entities within the child, causing him to behave in a fearful, angry, or unhappy way, leaves us to cope with an intangible situation for which restraint appears to be the only possible solution. If, on the other hand, emotion is looked upon as a form of behavior, stimulated, like any other response, by a particular set of circumstances, the whole problem of emotional treatment appears in a new and promising light. It then becomes a question of discovering, first, what type of situation gives rise to emotional behavior, and second, how emotional behavior differs from other forms of behavior. In short, the problem becomes that of finding out just what part emotion plays in the total functioning of the individual within his environment. ANALYSIS OF EMOTIONAL EPISODES Emotional episodes occur in situations in which an individual is motivated towards a goal which he is unable to reach because of some obstacle. This hindrance arises because of his own physical and mental inability to cope with some material or social factor in the environment. Whatever the obstacle the impulse persists in the face of the thwarting. The behavior response itself is of an intense, chaotic, and diffuse nature, including a variety of acts 251 252 NURSERY EDUCATION irrelevant and superfluous to the particular situation and many of them infantile in nature, crying, kicking, screaming, struggling, etc. In other words, emotional episodes arise where there is lack of adjustment between an individual's needs, abilities and environment, and they are expressed by a form of behavior not adapted to solve the particular situation but rather one that has been resorted to in lieu of a more adequate response to immediate need. So considered, emotion is closely linked with learning. When an individual finds himself in a new situation he must either approach or withdraw. If he approaches he will analyze and attack with a view to achieving the goal and any obstacles arising will stimulate him to a more energetic attack. The degree of energy will depend upon the strength of the motive and the degree of the thwarting or, in other words, the difficulty of the problem. This heightening of effort is to be considered as an incipient emotional response. It is beneficial as long as it is under control and is directed toward the goal. If, however, the difficulties seem to increase and the goal seems to recede the emotional energizing may get out of control and spill over into irrelevant forms of behavior which impede progress toward the original goal. The individual then gives himself up to this irrelevant and chaotic form of response. When the individual is faced with a situation from which he wishes to withdraw then this withdrawal becomes the goal, e.g., he is attempting escape. Difficulties in the way of this escape will stimulate a release of energy which, if it remains under control, will lead to a more efficient escape. As in the former case frustration may be emphasized, control of the situation lost and the behavior becomes ineffective, irrelevant and confused. Activity is no longer directed toward the goal of escape, it has become useless and is defeating its own purpose. In the first case the individual may be said to be angry and in the second case afraid. It is these final forms of A CONCEPT OF EMOTION 253 emotional behavior which have been most frequently observed and discussed by the psychologist. However, from the point of view of child-training it is the incipient manifestations which are more important. This release of energy in a learning situation lends itself to the more efficient solution of the problem. The individual is "keyed up" to meet the situation. In the light of the above, the basic principle of child-training is not to dominate the emotion but to teach the child to keep it in control. "ANGER" AND "FEAR" The two primary divisions of emotional behavior are then "anger" and "fear." The difference lies in the direction of the thwarted impulse giving rise to the emotion. An examination of anger episodes will show that in each the individual wishes to approach or attain some objective and cannot. In fear episodes the individual is attempting to withdraw or get away from a situation and is prevented from doing so. The behavior manifested in these two forms of emotion is not fixed in character and may be of exactly the same nature. Thus emotional episodes cannot be interpreted from the observable behavior alone.l Accepting this concept, emotional behavior of the chaotic and inefficient stage assumes a new meaning. It becomes a symptom indicating the presence of an underlying conflict. In seeking for its cause it is necessary to go behind the emotional manifestation and to examine the individual's motives and abilities and his environment. The cause of the conflict must be ascertained if the cause of the emotional behavior is to be determined. Maladjustment between an individual's motives, abilities and environment may arise in various ways any one of which may, in turn, lead to emotional behavior. 1 See The Differentiation of Emotional Responses in Infants, Mandel Sherman. 254 NURSERY EDUCATION The frequency of anger episodes will depend, first, upon the number and the intensity of an individual's needs and wishes. The fewer the number or the less intense they are, the fewer problematic situations will be presented to the individual and therefore the fewer the possibilities of such emotional response. Second, the more efficient the individual becomes in evaluating his immediate impulses either to attack where success is imminent or to withdraw successfully where attack seems hopeless, the less conflict he will experience and emotional episodes will decrease to the same degree. Third, increase in mental and physical ability and broadening of experience develops the ability to deal with problematic situations without undue conflict. Where there is little conflict there will be little emotion. Fourth, the number of anger episodes will depend upon the habits of learning which are developed. If each problem is analyzed and systematically attacked then uncontrolled emotional responses will be infrequent. Fifth, all things being equal, the frequency with which an individual becomes angry will depend upon how successful such behavior has been in solving the immediate problematic situation. Despite its actual inadequacy anger may be used by an individual as a means of forcing others to do as he wishes. If this method is successful then angry behavior will become an established response to every problem situation, if unsuccessful it will tend to be eliminated as a method of solution and satisfaction. Fear, like anger, is dependent upon a number of underlying factors. First, the situations most consistently giving rise to fear are those of a new, sudden, or intense nature. This is explained by the fact that in these situations the individual is not prepared to respond adequately. Either he has not learned to respond, or, knowing how, has not time to readjust himself to the new circumstances. A feeling of inadequacy and therefore of insecurity leads to an imme A CONCEPT OF EMOTION 255 diate desire to withdraw from the situation. This withdrawal if uncontrolled is expressed as a fear response. Such a fear response having once been made to a situation because of its new, sudden or intense nature may attach itself permanently to any aspect of the situation and so appear each time this aspect recurs as a part of the same or of other situations. In this way innumerable fear situations may be built up for which there is no immediate explanation. Second, as with anger, the frequency of fear must depend upon the number and strength of an individual's desires to withdraw from situations. Third, the degree of physical and mental ability and the amount of experience in handling the environment must influence the frequency with which the individual is inadequate in his environment and therefore the frequency of potential fear situations. Knowledge dispels fear and superstition. Fourth, if a habit of analyzing and of attacking all unfamiliar situations has been established, then withdrawal from new situations becomes less probable. Fifth, other things being equal, the frequency of fear responses will depend upon their success in attaining what the child wishes. When a show of fear results in constant protection by others then a habit of fear will be established. Fear has then become, for the individual, a satisfactory form of behavior. EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD If the above assumptions are true, an understanding of the child's emotional life requires a knowledge of the state of his needs and desires, of his abilities, of his habits of learning and of the environment in which he lives. The pre-school period is necessarily one of many conflicts. At this time the child's world is expanding rapidly so that he is building up a variety of new interests and desires. 256 NURSERY EDUCATION Although the increase in ability and in experience is also rapid it cannot keep pace with the growth of interests. The pre-school child possesses, therefore, desires which he has not the ability to satisfy. He is inclined also, through lack of experience, to want the impossible. Frequent conflicts between the child and his environment are the result, and the probability of emotional behavior will be proportionately great. Not only is the pre-school child unable to satisfy his impulses, he has not learned to suppress them. From infancy his self-tendency has been one of assertion and the ability to forego an intense desire or even to postpone its completion develops slowly. The child is further hampered in resolving his many conflicts by the immaturity of his learning habits. He is, at this age, only learning how to learn. Given a problem within his capacity to solve, frequently he will not take time to analyze and attack it as a learning situation. Unless the solution is obvious the child of this age has a tendency to resort to the more impulsive and inadequate emotional attack. Society early begins to make demands upon the child which interfere with his freedom. His play is interrupted for routine purposes so that suppression and postponement of interested activity is enforced. Also, his routine requires that he satisfy his fundamental needs in a particular manner rather than in a way more satisfactory to himself. Until the child learns to accept his routine as an inevitable interruption and to satisfy his needs in a socially acceptable manner, routine is a continual source of conflict to him and emotional behavior a likely corollary. It is not only in his routine that the two-year-old child is in conflict with society and its demands. He is just commencing his social life and his social contacts are increasing rapidly. As yet he knows nothing of the rights of others, of consideration or of social compromise and as a result, a A CONCEPT OF EMOTION 257 conflict arises whenever his desires clash with those of some one else. Here then is another source of possible emotional upset. Lastly, the pre-school child almost invariably retains, from his infancy, the habit of crying or of manifesting other emotional behavior whenever his needs and desires are not satisfied. The infant learns to use such behavior as the best means of gaining care and attention. (An analysis of I295 emotional episodes occurring between birth and two years of age showed that some form of adult attention was administered in 80 per cent of these.2) As an infant, therefore, the child has learned to cry and he will continue to use this form of response in problem situations as long as it will enlist adult intervention.* The life of the pre-school child is also fraught with fearproducing situations. Because of his rapidly enlarging environment he is constantly meeting new situations for which he has no ready made responses. An adult will almost invariably find some familiar element in each new situation giving him a clue as to what his response should be; the young child is still too immature for that. He finds himself in many situations which are totally unfamiliar to him. A sense of insecurity and an immediate wish to withdraw are the result. Sudden situations, as well as unfamiliar ones, affect the pre-school child more strongly than they do the adult, because the child does not know what to expect. He is continually inducing sudden happenings upon himself unintentionally because of his inadequate physical control; he stumbles, falls, bumps and knocks things over continually. There are certain factors, then, inherent in the child's development at the pre-school level which make this period * This child is learning: "I cry at home, but I don't cry at school." 2 See The Genetic Development of Emotion in the Infant, D. A. Millichamp. 258 NURSERY EDUCATION one of emotional stress. A rapid increase in needs and desires appears, accompanied by a lack of experience and of abilities and by an immature habit of learning. Moreover, society begins at this time to exert a restraining influence upon his freedom. Accustomed from infancy to have every need looked after, the child is not prepared to suppress his wants nor to submit to outside demands. Conflicts repeatedly occur and emotional episodes of a turbulent sort are proportionately frequent. ~ 2. PLANNING FOR THE EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD IN planning for the emotional adjustment of the pre-school child, the nursery school adult must keep the two following facts in mind. First, it is to be remembered that conflict is the beginning of all learning and, therefore, an essential part of the child's experience. Despite the fact that conflict is the source of unfruitful emotional behavior any policy which aims to eliminate emotion by removing necessary conflict is detrimental. Such a policy would curtail the child's learning and would, moreover, do nothing to further the child's emotional adjustment. Second, it is to be remembered that emotion, under control, is a valuable and indispensable form of response. It may be confidently stated that without this possibility of energizing one's responses learning would be impossible. Thus, the adult is interested, not in eliminating or stamping out emotional behavior, but rather in directing the child to learn how to control or harness this mechanism so that it will further and not defeat his ends. In light of the above the nursery school principle of procedure becomes that of checking chaotic emotional behavior and redirecting attention and energy into constructive channels. In other words, the child should be taught how he may solve situations of conflict in a controlled and efficient manner. The treatment itself involves a consideration, not so much of the emotional behavior as of the factors which have brought about the maladjustment, whether emphasis should be placed upon the child's impulsive forces, his abilities, his learning habits, or his environment. If the adult keeps in mind the basic conditions of emotional behavior during the pre-school period, she will be enabled to 259 260 NURSERY EDUCATION treat them with greater sympathy and understanding and, therefore, with more success. ARRANGING THE ENVIRONMENT Adequate guidance in emotional control and stability in the nursery school involves far more than a consideration of the individual emotional episodes. The policy should be one of prevention as well as cure. Each separate part of the nursery school must be so planned that unnecessary conflict will be avoided and, in consequence, the possibility of futile emotional upsets occurring be reduced. Where conflict is an essential preliminary to adjustment, then the child must be helped to an adequate solution. In other words, planning for the development of emotional control entails the provision of adequate equipment and adequate adult guidance. In routine situations uncontrolled emotional behavior ("anger") will be reduced to a minimum by following the principles already stated.3 If the routine requirements are confined to those essential to the child's needs, if all routine standards are within the child's capacity, if the child is guided to learn and if the routine is made invariable and inevitable, then acceptance, conformity, and ability will develop with the least possible friction. Conflict will be reduced in the child's play if he is allowed legitimate freedom to experiment and to follow his inclinations and his interests, and if the play material is adapted to his needs and his abilities.4 His play will then give him satisfaction, not disappointment. In his social contacts the child requires guidance in learning social conformity and in acquiring acceptable methods of solving social conflict if anger responses are to be avoided.5 3 See Chapter II: Routine. 4 See Chapter III: Work and Play Habits. 5 See Chapter IV: Social Adjustment of the Pre-school Child. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 26I Fear, like anger, can be reduced to a minimum by forethought in planning the child's environment. In the first place, unwarranted situations of a new, sudden or intense nature should be avoided wherever possible. The preschool child's feeling of security is not firmly established and it must be given an opportunity to mature. New situations are, of course, a necessary arrangement for broadening the child's experience and those of a sudden or intense nature are frequent in any normal environment. Forewarning will mitigate the effect of newness, suddenness, or intensity, and prepare the child for a positive response. (For example, much of the emotional behavior manifested by children of this age when taken to see the doctor may be avoided if this policy is adopted.) The child should be introduced to new situations gradually and, where possible, the unfamiliar should be tied up with the familiar. The adult's objective throughout should be to establish a positive approach in place of withdrawal; and, by equipping the child with useful habits, to develop a feeling of adequacy which will stand him in good stead in any situation. The habit of learning, of attacking each new problem with an effort to discover the solution, is the surest means of establishing a permanent state of security. In danger situations caution should be substituted for fear. Caution represents a careful and thoughtful withdrawal from the danger elements adequate to the situation. Fear is an impulsive and uncontrolled withdrawal not adapted to the situation. These procedures have as common aim the building up of positive habits and skills which will make uncontrolled anger and fear responses unnecessary in problem situations. It should be borne in mind that under no circumstances should necessary issues and experiences be avoided because they may result in an emotional upset. Such a system would have no developmental value in establishing emotional control. 262 NURSERY EDUCATION TREATMENT OF EMOTIONAL EPISODES It remains to discuss specifically the adult treatment that has been found most successful in relieving immediate emotional situations and which at the same time is designed to further emotional control. In the nursery school it is necessary for the adult to interfere in the majority of uncontrolled emotional episodes, first, because by their manifestation they indicate inadequacy and second, because it is inadvisable for a child who is emotionally upset to remain with the other children. He will confuse the situation, distract the other children and generally upset the stability of the group. This does not, of course, imply that the adult readjusts the situation to the child's pleasure. It is usually a case of readjusting the child to the situation. Because crying and emotional behavior in general almost always result in adult attention the nursery school child will, if given an opportunity, very readily acquire the habit of using it for that purpose. In order to avoid this, the adult's attitude toward emotional behavior must always be calm, more or less impersonal and matter-of-fact and she should be very careful to show neither anxiety nor any indication of being upset. The amount of attention must be adapted to the seriousness of the episode. For example, a slight hurt requires only a matter-of-fact remark such as "that's too bad." The adult's objective should always be, by manner and attitude, to suggest to the child how he should face the situation. The actual technique most successful in handling various situations will be described below but must be varied to suit the individual child and the particular circumstances related to the situation. Treatment will differ according to age and to the known emotional habits of each child and will depend upon the seriousness of the situation. In the situations described below emotional episodes during the preliminary adjustment of a child to the school setting will be PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 263 omitted. This topic will be discussed in full in a later section. Although "emotion" as it has been defined cannot be described in terms of specific situations because any situation may, theoretically, give rise to uncontrolled emotional behavior, it is possible to list the types commonly occurring in the nursery school. The following is a list which was compiled after an analysis of three hundred and seventyfour emotional episodes recorded in St. George's School for Child Study7: I. Hurt (pain). Accidental. Hurt by another child. 2. Cold. 3. Startled. 4. Leaving parent and entering school. 5. Caught in apparatus. 6. Unusual occurrence; change in routine, accidents, etc. 7. Routine requirements-interruption of activity, etc. 8. Discipline by adult. 9. Wanted toy being used by another child. io. Another child tries to take, or took, toy or personal belonging. 11. Another child destroys a construction. I2. Another child will not let him play. I3. Another child will not play the way he wants. I4. Teasing or other personal interference. 15. Unable to complete a task. Crying: Crying is the most frequent and obvious emotional response in all emotional situations at the pre-school level, 6 See Chapter V, Section 3: The Adjustment of New Children to the Nursery School. 7 See Emotional Episodes in Nursery School Children, A. Starr. 264 NURSERY EDUCATION whether the response is one of anger or of fear. Before readjustment is attempted in any situation the crying must be brought to an end. Crying has a circular effect upon itself, crying leads to more crying, so that nothing constructive can be accomplished until it has ended. There are various ways of stopping a child's crying, any of which may be employed. With a two-year-old child diversion is the most successful method. By redirecting the child's attention a new interest is aroused, the situation causing the crying is forgotten and the child involuntarily stops. Another method is to suggest some immediate action such as getting a handkerchief or having the hurt attended to and so giving the child a substitute for the crying response. At three years of age a child can, in ordinary circumstances, control his crying voluntarily and should be encouraged to do this without the aid of diversion.* He may be told that there is no need to cry, that as soon as he can stop the adult will explain and readjust the situation. If his emotion is too intense and the adult unable to gain his attention he should be separated from the group and the adult should wait until the crying subsides before proceeding further. In the case of a temper tantrum the child should, of course, be left entirely alone. Where a child cries frequently in a particular situation, readjustment can often be effected by discussing the matter with him sometime during the day, asking why he cried, explaining that there is no need to cry, drawing attention to other children's behavior and suggestion that he do as they do. In this way he is helped to build up a new attitude and have a ready response of a positive nature when the situation recurs. Care should be taken that such suggestions are made in a matter-of-fact manner; and that any discus* A four-year-old to a three-year-old: "Don't cry, that's baby stuff." PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 265 sion of the child's behavior with him is conducted in the same spirit; also that the child is made to feel responsible for his own behavior throughout. During this phase of learning casual commendation made upon his success will help him to fix the adequate behavior. In the case of a child who cries very readily, the adult should try to indicate to the child the futility and inadequacy of his behavior. For this purpose it will be found very useful to omit the word "crying" itself and refer to it as "noise," telling the child that he is making too much noise and so is disturbing the other children and that he will have to remain by himself if he cannot be less noisy. By this means the crying assumes very ordinary proportions and the emotional tension of the situation is broken. The adult can do much toward building up the child's control by expecting that he will not cry or that he can stop crying himself and by suggesting that older children do not cry. Hurt: When a young child is really hurt and therefore in pain crying is natural and unavoidable. It is impossible for the child to ignore the pain despite his desire to withdraw from the situation. "Accepting" is the only adequate response to physical hurt and is difficult for the child to learn. In addition to the pain, the intensity and suddenness of the situation result in a loss of security, the ordinary course of events is upset, the child cannot adjust himself satisfactorily and so the situation is complicated by fear. The adult's first aim is reassurance; lifting or otherwise physically reassuring the younger child; verbally reassuring the older child. A word of sympathy is helpful provided that it is matter-of-fact. If emphasized sympathy will increase rather than decrease the emotion. Following upon this first step it will be found better to talk about the episode rather than to ignore it and to attempt to divert the child immediately. By discussing the facts with him, just what hap 266 NURSERY EDUCATION pened and how it hurt him, the child is helped to face and to accept the reality in a rational way. The next step is to suggest and provide for a concrete and positive train of activity. Treatment may be administered which, although it does not actually relieve the pain, makes the child feel that something is being done about the situation. The child should then be re-interested in the interrupted play activity. Where the hurt results from inadequate use of material the child should be shown how to handle this efficiently and encouraged to do so in order to avoid establishing a permanent fear response. Hurt by another child: When a child is hurt by another his emotion is usually the result not only of the pain or shock he feels but includes an anger response directed toward the child who hurt him. The treatment will depend upon which is the predominant element. In the case of a real hurt the child will be treated as described above but where the response is chiefly one of anger matter-of-fact assurance is advisable. Where the hurt child was the aggressor the adult, after reassuring him, and succeeding in stopping the crying, should make him understand, not only that it is unfortunate that he got hurt, but that it is unfortunate that he annoyed the other child and was hurt in consequence. Startled: Frequently a child will cry after a fall or other mishap when he is not actually hurt. Here the emotional response is a result of the suddenness of the occurrence and a consequent loss of security. The adult can best help him to regain this by a calm word of assurance and a brief explanation of what actually occurred. The adult's attitude should imply that nothing unusual has taken place and no fuss should be made to accentuate the event. The child will learn very readily to take such occurrences as a matter of course and to reinstate himself after his fall if he is guided in this way. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 267 He will even learn to control his first impulse to cry, and may learn to be amused at the event. Cold: Cold is a very common cause of upset among the younger children of the nursery school group during the outside play period, in the winter time. They themselves do not always realize why they are crying. Being cold is somewhat similar to being hurt in that there is no immediate means of readjustment and so the situation should be treated in the same manner. Leaving Parent and Entering School: This situation usually gives rise to emotional behavior only during the preliminary period of adjustment to the school. In this connection it will be discussed later.8 It sometimes recurs however after the child has been adjusted for some time and it has then an entirely different significance. It often appears at a time when the child is responding negatively to the routine requirements of the school as a whole and is, in consequence, being disciplined frequently. His refusal to come to school is then due, in part, to the disciplining and is also, in part, an outcome of his total attitude. On the other hand, the behavior may be a bid for parental attention and sympathy arising from poor disciplinary procedures in the home. The treatment should be the same in either case. "Entrance" should be considered as a routine requirement and the child's refusal and emotional behavior treated as a routine refusal. If the child is unable to stop crying and to conform he should be taken away and left alone until he is prepared to cooperate. This is one of the situations which can often be cleared up by discussion with the child during the day. The child himself is often surprised to hear that he cried upon entering and agrees readily to come in like the other children. This 8 See Chapter V, Section 3: Introductory Procedure. 268 NURSERY EDUCATION must be done with casual regularity and not with the intention of inducing the child to promise. It is merely a means of suggesting an attitude of acceptance and conformity. There should be no chiding at his having promised the day before to act differently. The fact that the parent may wait in order that the child can say good-bye after the nurse's examination, if he fulfills the requirements immediately, may be used as an incentive with some success. During a recurrence of this nature it will be found a useful technique for the nursery school worker to meet the child at the school door, take for granted that he is going to cooperate and assist him in doing so. By this means she may succeed in reestablishing his former behavior pattern. The cooperation of the parents is essential. As long as solicitude and sympathy are shown when the child cries such behavior will persist. The parents should not, except where they are unusually capable, be permitted to handle the child's refusal themselves. They should be asked to appear casual and unconcerned and to make their "good-byes" brief. If they are upset by the child's behavior it is wise to allow them to wait until the child is calm but in this case the child should not be informed that the parent is waiting. At the beginning of each term some reluctance may be shown upon entrance by individual children. The treatment in these cases is a modification of that used in introducing new children. The child should be reassured, his attention called to the familiar things in the school, and his interest aroused. The adult's objective is to reinstate a feeling of confidence and and to reistablish an approach attitude. Caught in Apparatus: It often happens that a child climbs too high and cannot get down, is entangled in the slide or jungle-gym, swings too high, or cannot get off the see-saw. He loses confidence in himself, is confused, and starts to cry. In treating such situations the adult manner should be calm and as unhurried as PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 269 the circumstances will allow. In extricating him, the adult's action should be deliberate and should be to assist him rather than "to save" him. As in the case of a hurt child, she should help him to face the situation calmly by talking over what has happened, and, by showing him the proper way to use the equipment, suggest a concrete method of dealing with the situation in future. Change in Routine: It sometimes happens that an unavoidable change in the regular routine procedure will cause refusal and crying. Divorced from his customary habits the child is faced with a situation for which his usual response is not adequate. He is no longer master of the situation and his uncertainty and confusion lead to withdrawal and emotion. The situation is more complicated than an entirely new situation because, not only is a new response to be made, but in order to make this a well-established response must be thrust aside. This the pre-school child is reluctant to do. Examples of such situations are: changing the order of procedure-as when a child is taken to the toilet at an hour other than his regular routine times; omitting a usual routine-a child suspected of a cold is not allowed in the circle; changing the position of a child's bed or cupboard. (Even such a small thing as neglecting to provide the usual table napkin may result in unhappiness.) In treating such episodes it is of primary importance that the child should not be rushed. He cannot make his readjustment rapidly. His crying should be stopped, the situation explained to him, and the familiar elements stressed. If the child is reluctant to carry through the change alone, the adult should assist him sufficiently to give him confidence. When the child continues his refusal to accept the new requirements it will be necessary to treat the behavior as a routine refusal and to leave him by himself until he is willing to accept the change. The pre-school child must learn 270 NURSERY EDUCATION' to readjust his behavior and his attitudes; changes are therefore an essential part of his experience in the nursery school as elsewhere. Closely related to these changes in routine are unusual occurrences of a more personal character. For instance a child may cry upon spilling water on his clothing, when a button comes off, when his clothing is changed or taken off, or it is necessary for him to wear an article of clothing belonging to some one else. Involuntary eliminations, when not a usual occurrence, may cause emotional upset. Here again, these situations seem to be characterized by the fact that they are deviations from personal habits or usual conditions. The child is not able to accept them and adjust himself to them immediately and a fear response is set up. The treatment will be similar to that described above except that, where the change is not essential, no issue should be made. Where the disturbance has already occurred, as in the case of an involuntary evacuation, it should be treated casually. The child should be reassured in matter-of-fact tones, something concrete should be done to readjust things if necessary and the child's attention diverted elsewhere. Crying during Sleep: A young child will sometimes wake himself with a sudden cry, or cry upon waking. It is impossible to ascertain the specific cause of this behavior. It is probably a fear response to a dream situation or a response to a feeling of strangeness and uncertainty on first waking, before the child has fully recognized his surroundings. In either case the quickest way to quiet the child is to turn him over and hold him firmly for a moment speaking to him by name in a quiet and reassuring voice. If not fully awake he will readily fall asleep again. If this treatment is not sufficient it may be necessary to hold the child and to talk to him about the familiar things around him or the other children in order to reestablish his security. This form of behavior is rare in the nursery school after the adjustment period. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 271 Routine Requirements: "Routine refusal" represents a normal phase of pre-school development. The negative attitude may be directed toward all routines or one routine may be singled out. The appearance of this attitude coincides with the first stages of selfdependence. (The analysis of emotional episodes in St. George's School for Child Study indicated that emotional refusal to cooperate in the routine was most frequent between two and three years of age.9) When the child first acquires an independent attitude, that is, when he begins to feel that he is responsible for his own behavior and for looking after himself he has no thought of using it except in doing what he wishes. Routine, as a controlling force coming from the outside, is in direct conflict with this new urge. Hence, until the child has learned that to achieve independence means also to be responsible for the things which must be done as well as for the things he wants to do, the routine is an obstacle in the path of self-assertion and conflict is unavoidable. Since the nursery school routine has been made inevitable the child cannot overcome it and therefore until he accepts it he has no way of solving this conflict adequately. Emotional behavior is the result. An analysis of such episodes discloses the steps as follows: the adult announces the routine requirement; the child refuses; if his refusal were accepted nothing further would occur because no conflict would arise. Discipline requires, however, that the child should conform to the requirement and the adult therefore insists that he comply or accept the consequences of not doing so.10 The child's resistance increases in intensity as he finds himself unable to overcome the obstacle, e.g. the discipline, in the way of his freedom and finally he loses control of the situation and his behavior becomes chaotic and emotional. 9 See Emotional Episodes in Nursery School Children, A. Starr. 10 For further discussion see Chapter II, Section I: Planning the Discipline. 272 NURSERY EDUCATION The treatment consists in leading or carrying the child to a place by himself and leaving him there until he becomes quiet and is ready to co6perate. If the crying continues beyond fifteen or twenty minutes the adult may ask him from time to time if he is ready to stop crying and to proceed with his routine. Any such inquiry should be given with apparent unconcern on the adult's part. By this means the adult may succeed in breaking the circular rhythm of crying which has been set up. A child should never be forced through a routine situation while he is in a resistant or an emotional state. Such treatment strengthens the antagonism, intensifies the emotion, and fixes it as a permanent response to the particular situation and to the adult in charge. In order to eliminate the emotion permanently the child must choose to conform, that is, accept the responsibility for routine performance. While the child must always conform and such issues should never be avoided even when emotional behavior seems certain, it is possible to reduce resistance towards the routine by careful adult procedure. A great deal depends upon the preliminary directions given by the adult. When a child is engrossed in a play activity of his own choosing he must be given time to "come to a period" before adjusting himself to the routine demand. The adult may, for instance, suggest he put his toys somewhere or complete the immediate activity, explaining that it is time for him to wash and reminding him that he will have an opportunity of resuming his activity later. He is by this means prepared for the readjustment. If startled from his play and hurried away, immediate resistance is quite naturally set up. This does not mean that dawdling should be countenanced or further play allowed except as a preparation for leaving. Prompt acceptance of routine is one of its requirements. It is merely a case of giving the child time to face the situation and to deal with it adequately. When the child is being resistant and emotional in a par PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 273 ticular routine each time that it occurs, this habitual response may be overcome by warning him a few minutes in advance of the routine, and asking him if he will get ready. This allows him ample time to readjust himself and if carried out successfully over a period of days the emotional response will be replaced by this new habit of acceptance. Discipline: There are two ways in which a child may make an adequate adjustment to disciplinary consequences. He may avoid the undesirable consequences by behaving in the prescribed manner; or he may accept them as being the just consequence of his behavior and therefore brought upon himself. Resistance and emotion indicate that he has learned neither of these two techniques. He has done nothing to avoid the discipline and yet is not able to face it calmly. In treating emotional behavior aroused by the disciplinary action the adult should keep these two phases of adjustment in mind as being the final objective for the child. The most important principle of treatment in these situations is that of carrying through the discipline in spite of the emotion. The child must learn that emotional behavior is of no avail in warding off the consequences of his behavior. If he is successful in avoiding such consequences by his emotional behavior the latter will quickly become an established form of response. The emotional responses aroused by discipline vary and the specific forms of the treatment will vary accordingly. Ordinary resistance, screaming, kicking, fighting, etc. should be treated by immediate removal of the child from both children and adults until his behavior subsides and he is ready to accept the discipline. Struggling with the child in order to enforce discipline, like forcing a child to perform a routine, is not advisable. It only increases his antagonism and the whole situation becomes a personal affair in which the main issue is lost. Furthermore, if the child is to learn acceptance he must himself choose to conform. 274 NURSERY EDUCATION The response to discipline may include, in addition to resistance, such elements as fear, unhappiness, or shame. Quite frequently a child will conform to discipline but at the same time cry and cling to the adult. In such cases discipline has acquired social implications and is no longer merely an obstacle in the way of the child's freedom. Fear response is usually shown by a child who has seldom been disciplined and therefore is experiencing an unfamiliar situation. The adult treatment in these circumstances will be different. She can best help the child to accept the consequences of his behavior by a matter-of-fact but friendly and sympathetic attitude. In other words, she disassociates herself from the discipline and assists the child in conforming to it by giving him her assurance and support. She must, at the same time, be quite definite and firm, making it perfectly clear to him that the disciplinary consequences are inevitable and that he is responsible, because of his behavior, for their imposition. It is when the child is unhappy that the adult is inclined to refrain from carrying through the discipline. It is however important to realize that this behavior is only one form of resistance. Sulking is a more advanced form of emotional behavior, infrequently brought about by disciplining. The adult can treat this form of behavior most successfully by ignoring it. Social Difficulties"l: As pointed out in a previous section, the pre-school child is in the first stage of social learning and therefore very frequently unable to handle his social environment efficiently. Emotional behavior arises out of this inadequacy. Treatment will vary according to the situation and to the behavior but the adult's objective should always be the same, first, to show the child the futility of his behavior, and second, to substitute a more satisfactory and acceptable form. On occasions it is possible to permit the child to cry and relieve 11 For further discussion see Chapter IV, Section 3: Social Difficulties and their Treatment. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 275 the emotional tension without interference or attention. By this means the child learns more effectively the futility of this behavior. In other instances the adult's first move is to check the emotional outburst and having accomplished this to suggest or carry through some form of readjustment. In the case of a temper tantrum, whatever the situation, the child should be removed until he is quiet. The following are the social situations which give rise to emotional behavior12: i. A child wishes another child's toy: Emotional behavior in this situation indicates that the child has not learned to submit to the rights of others. The situation should be explained and the child re-directed. Usually he will stop crying if he is made to realize by the adult's manner that his wishes are impossible. The adult may suggest to him that if he can stop crying she will assist him to find another toy. If this fails the child should be ignored, and finally removed. 2. Another child tries to take or takes toy or personal belonging: Another child destroys a child's construction: In these situations the child is defending his own rights which is a legitimate procedure. What he requires is a more adequate method of doing it than crying, screaming, or kicking, etc.* The child is usually satisfied and the episode ended by a return of the taken toy. The one point of importance which the adult must bear in mind is that the situation should not be readjusted until the child controls his emotional behavior. For example, the toy should not be returned * S. aged four years was building a house, very intent on his game, when B. aged three years interfered and upset his blocks. S. tried persuasion and ignoring B.; finally he turned to B. and said in a firm voice, "B., you decide, make up your mind and find something of your own to play with." 12 Danger of hasty adjudication-see page 227. 276 NURSERY EDUCATION until the child stops crying. In order that the child himself take part in the readjustment it may be suggested to him that he ask the offender quietly for his toy. It will be necessary, of course, for the adult to oversee the transaction. 3. Another child refuses to play with the child: Another child refuses to play the way the child wishes: When a child is not allowed into a game, or another child does not want to play the way he wishes, the child may cry and appeal to the adult for assistance or may begin pushing and hitting the offenders in anger. These situations should be ignored if possible and the child allowed to learn from the episode itself that belonging to a group involves some concessions on his part. Where he is annoying others it will be necessary for the adult to interfere and point out the consequence of persisting in this way, namely, ostracism. The only way in which the adult can readjust the situation is by helping the child to accept the fact that under certain circumstances he is not wanted and that others need not play as he wishes unless he persuades them to do so by legitimate means. If the child is standing about crying the adult may remark in a casual manner that he had better find some one else, or something else, to play with. If there is a possibility of one child hurting another he should be removed. 4. Teasing or other personal interference: The pre-school child is easily upset by teasing, being called names or otherwise ridiculed. He is inclined to take literally such statements as "you are a bad boy." He may become frightened or angry and will often appeal to the adult for support. The adult can, by her own manner, suggest to the child how he should respond. She should explain in a matter-of-fact tone somewhat as follows, "He is only teasing you, you laugh too." Any more serious attitude would intensify the child's reaction as well as stimulating the teaser to greater efforts. The ability to treat such annoyances lightly will safeguard the child against teasing all his life. This treatment if used in the nursery school serves PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 277 the double purpose of supporting the teased child and discouraging the teaser by spoiling the effect of his teasing. Inability to Handle Material Satisfactorily: A child sometimes becomes impatient and angry, throwing things, stamping, crying, etc. when unable to finish a task which he has commenced. It may be that the child is actually unable to accomplish his task or it may be that he has not learned how to analyze and attack his problem in a sufficiently systematic manner. In either case the result is the same, the child's impulse is thwarted, he cannot get satisfaction by ordinary endeavor, and his behavior becomes emotional. Here again the adult must be careful to make no readjustment in the situation until the child stops the emotional behavior. The readjustment itself will depend upon the situation. Where the child is attempting too difficult a routine task, such as buttoning his leggings, the adult usually helps him immediately after he has calmed himself. If the routine task is within his ability and he is either too impatient or too dependent to complete it, then he should be directed in carrying it out himself or, if necessary, left to himself until he has succeeded. In the playroom the child should be re-directed to an easier activity when he has chosen one beyond his ability, rather than assisted in a task he cannot readily learn. However, if he is capable of successful accomplishment his behavior should be ignored or else he should be given just sufficient assistance to stimulate an attempt. The adult can and should, by forethought, avoid unnecessary emotional episodes of this kind. The pre-school child has a tendency to acquire interests beyond his ability to nurture, and therefore to attempt tasks which he cannot possibly accomplish. By timely assistance and suggestion the adult can forestall too frequent frustration and direct his interests into channels adapted to his ability. 278 NURSERY EDUCATION SPECIAL EMOTIONAL DIFFICULTIES Emotional behavior is a normal part of the child's total behavior pattern and is to be treated as such. It may appear in any situation until the child has learned to adjust himself to that situation. It is an indication that learning is not complete. It is a frequent form of response at the preschool level because of the confused state of the child's motivating forces, his immaturity of control over these, and his inexperience. Emotional behavior becomes a problem requiring individual attention only in the following instances: first, unusual frequency, second, a general increase rather than a decrease in frequency with age, third, the repeated occurrence of emotional behavior in one particular situation over a period longer than about one week, fourth, the appearance of emotion in situations in which the child has previously shown himself capable of behaving adequately, fifth, extremely intense emotional behavior, indicating an unusual lack of emotional control.13 Fear: It sometimes happens that a child shows a fear reaction to a large number of play activities such as sliding, swinging, and "see-sawing." The behavior consists in refusing to attempt these activities or, upon trial, becoming excited, crying, and screaming for assistance. Underlying this behavior must be a strong withdrawal attitude towards these activities. This may have been built up through some specific previous experience but its persistent appearance would suggest that it arises through a general feeling of physical insecurity. The adult's objective, in treating such a case, is to build up in the child a sense of security and to replace the withdrawal attitude with a positive approach. Actually, experience in using the play equipment successfully is the only means of gaining this end. In stimulating the child, social imitation and social participation are 13 See table, page 286. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 279 the best means of arousing a positive response. The stimulation should be given in a casual manner when an appropriate opportunity offers itself. For instance, if the child in question is watching a group on the slide the adult may, after commenting upon the other children's play, suggest that he join them. He should be given just enough help and direction to make him feel secure and he may be commended for his success. Each such success will make him more confident. Careful directions, by providing him with a concrete method of attack, will add to his feeling of confidence. When the child cries in the midst of his attempt he should be given sufficient help and assurance to regain his security. This should always be in the nature of helping him to help himself in some positive way, such as advice to "hold on tightly." The adult must be careful that her treatment does not accentuate the timid behavior by making the child selfconscious. He should never be forced to participate where he is not cooperating in the enterprise. Nor should the child, when he is trying out some new activity, ever be allowed to depend solely on the adult. There is always a danger, when such treatment is being used, that the child begins to use fear response for obtaining adult attention. This is not likely to occur when the adult's attitude and manner are casual and unperturbed and if undue solicitude is never shown. The situations that have been discussed above arise when the child develops an habitual attitude of withdrawal, accompanied by fearful response, toward specific parts of the nursery school environment. The treatment outlined aims to substitute an approach attitude and an adequate response in each of these situations. The two-year-old child's reluctance must be considered in the same genetic series but, as yet, is uncrystallized as far as environmental objects are concerned. This timidity of the very young child is to be 280 NURSERY EDUCATION considered as a factor of age and will usually right itself as the child gains more experience and becomes anxious to join in group activities. It is, therefore, safer to refrain from adult stimulation until the child is over three years of age in order to permit these latter influences to operate. Frequent Anger: Every pre-school child is expected to show a negative response towards interference and routine requirements sometime during his second or third year. In some cases this behavior, instead of decreasing, becomes more intense and frequent and is established as an habitual response of stereotyped nature. The child becomes tense, clenches his hands, clutches the interfering individual, cries, screams, stamps his feet, etc. whenever he is thwarted. It does not seem to matter what activity he is engaged in. It may be either routine or play, the response is the same. This behavior requires more than the usual disciplinary treatment. It is not enough merely to remove him until he is quiet and prepared to cooperate. He will always do this eventually. He has acquired a habit of immediate anger to be followed by cooperation only when he feels inclined. In other words he has learned never to agree to anything immediately. It is this immediate and unreasonable anger response which must be broken down. Various means may be employed. The adult knows beforehand that the emotion is going to occur, and may therefore often check it before the child is carried away. To do this she must get the child's full attention, tell him what he is to do, and then as he commences the emotion check this with firm direction that he need not cry. This should be followed by an immediate explanation of what has to be done and the consequences of refusal. The object is to make the child face the situation and make his choice of behavior in a rational manner. If this can be carried through successfully a number of times it becomes gradually easier to avert the anger response; and the child himself learns to control his PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 28I impulsive behavior. As the child achieves this control an occasional reminder throughout the day that he is going to behave as the other children do will prepare him in advance to meet the situation. Such treatment requires considerable skill on the part of the adult. If this treatment is not possible or successful, it will be necessary to resort to some more forceful measures in order to induce an effort on the part of the child to cooperate. Complete isolation for a part or even the entire day, though it cannot be immediately successful, will initiate the readjusting process. Such treatment will be most effective if the child is told on his arrival, and thus before any issue has arisen, that if he cannot do the things which the other children do it will be necessary for him to remain alone. This treatment should be used only when more usual forms have been found ineffective. During the period when a child is particularly negativistic and is receiving special treatment, all small and unimportant issues should be avoided. Social Crises: When a child is involved in more than the average number of social disagreements and these are sufficiently serious to result in emotional upsets, his social adjustment requires analysis. He is evidently not learning how to fit himself into the group pattern. It will usually be found that he is not willing to submit his wishes to those of the group. He is still at the two-year level of social adjustment and yet has the social inclinations of the older child. If he has had sufficient direction and help in learning how to solve such situations adequately, regular removal to play alone is the most successful treatment. Complex Types of Emotional Behavior (Jealousy, Sulking, etc.): The emotional behavior of the pre-school child is of a relatively simple nature, e.g., it arises when a concrete approach or withdrawal response toward a material situation 282 NURSERY EDUCATION is thwarted by an obstacle also concrete in nature. His behavior response is usually overt and fairly easy to interpret. Occasionally, however, more complex emotional behavior appears. Moody behavior and sulkiness may be characteristic of a particular child. Such behavior is treated most successfully by ignoring it or, where the child insists on acting in a contrary manner,* and so becomes a nuisance, it may be suggested casually that he had better go away by himself until he is prepared to behave more acceptably. Jealousy is manifested infrequently by the pre-school child. Such behavior should not, of course, appear in a nursery school if the discipline is consistent and impersonal, but it arises sometimes in the home situation and its effect upon the child's behavior may be reflected in his school activity. Perhaps the commonest circumstance giving rise to jealousy is the arrival of a new baby in the home. The situation is a simple one. The parents' attention, which was previously centered upon the child in question, is now divided. The child's behavior is affected in various ways. He may manifest increasing negativism or frequent emotional behavior.t In some cases the child will revert to infantile * M. had been difficult for some time and the staff member finally "talked things over with him" suggesting that he would find school more pleasant if he did what the other children were doing. The next morning after the Nurse's examination he stood as if ruminating: "I'm just deciding if I'm going to be cross to-day or not," and then after another interval of cogitating:-"Darn it, I am cross." t Child #88.-Records indicate that the number of emotional episodes for the six months previous to baby brother's birth averaged twenty per twenty-five days. In the twentyfive days following the birth the emotional episodes increased to forty-two. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 283 forms of behavior* such as involuntary elimination, thumbsucking, frequent crying, and refusal to carry through his routine unaided. Such behavior indicates an attempt, on the part of the child, to regain adult attention and care by identifying his behavior with that of the baby. It is not, of course, a deliberate form of behavior. The readjustment must, necessarily, be effected in the home situation but the nursery school influence can be utilized to assist this process. The child should be given specific opportunity to achieve success both materially and socially, that is, he must be stimulated to seek self-assertion and self-satisfaction through mature achievement rather than infantile behavior. The adult may, by initiating casual conversation among the children concerning their younger brothers and sisters, direct the formation of a specific attitude adequate to the situation. No mention should, of course, be made of the child's behavior in reference to the home situation and the behavior itself should be treated in the usual way. * Child #8o.-The number of emotional episodes increased from an average of two per twenty-five days before the baby sister's birth to eight in the following twenty-five day interval. In addition, the washing record indicated a drop from go per cent efficiency in the previous month to 30 per cent efficiency during the month the baby was born. This drop in efficiency, was accompanied by a reversion to infantile behavior in the washing routine. The child cried, clung to the adult, asked for assistance and insisted that he was unable to wash himself alone. 284 NURSERY EDUCATION.. EMOTIONAL EPISODE Time of Day 9.oo Date Name of Child #II4a* Apparent Cause: leaving mother to enter school. Behavior: crying, stamping, kicking, slapping, screaming, hitting, running away, hiding, biting, pushing, slumping, verbal refusal. clinging to mother. Treatment: (by whom) M. I. F................ lifted by teacher, explained situation, asked if she wanted to say good-bye. Reaction to treatment: stopped immediately; cooperative. Duration: 4 minute. Recorded by: M. I. F. * Child #II4a: 2 yrs. 8 mths. 3rd day in nursery school. EMOTIONAL EPISODE RECORD This form is drawn up to indicate development in emotional control and adjustment. Satisfactory development is shown first, by a decrease in the total frequency of emotional episodes and also by a decrease in the frequency of emotional behavior in any one specific situation; second, by the type of situation giving rise to emotional behavior; third, by the types of behavior manifested during an emotional episode; fourth, by the increasing ease of readjustment following upon an emotional episode. For purposes of analysis the treatment administered by the adult is also recorded. Method of Recording: A record is made of every emotional episode occurring during the school day by the adult who witnesses or deals with the incident. PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 285 Time of day-exact hour of occurrence. Apparent Cause-the situation giving rise to the emotional behavior. Child's Behavior-specific forms of behavior manifested by the child during the episode (underlined). Adult Treatment-specific forms of treatment administered by the adult. Reaction to Treatment-effect of adult treatment in terms of the child's subsequent behavior. Duration-length of emotional episode recorded in minutes. TABLE A showing the frequency distribution of emotional episodes from two to five years of age in terms of the o specific situations giving rise to these. (4 children) I Leaving Parent Routine Hurt Discipline Social Situations Others _-.... 2-3 3-4 4-5 2-3 _ _ _ 3-414-512-313-414-5 2-3 3-4 4-5 2-3 3-4 4-5 2-3 3-4 4-5 I 1 I I I I I =I II I- I I I I I i I: I I I Total CHILD 62 # 42 # 48a # 57a Average Duration in Minutes 2-3 3-4 4-5 2-3 3-4 4-5 - -- I - I I I- - - - -I I I I I I-. = 37 6 8 2 I 0 4 o 0 1 I 4 1 2 1 I 0 0 0 2 I -I _II —1 —1I -I-I 1- 1 — I -- I 1 — - -II I 3 o 0 0 0 2 I 01I3 3 1 I 2 I 3 4 3 _ I,,, 8 7 32 5 32 4 0 o 0 o 21 4 I7 I2 I 0 I 23 9 5 o 8 6 I7 o o 3 7 55 32 17 15 I7 46 3 7 25 4 4 3 2 5 2 I 8 2 C Cl t~ c3 M H 0 z1 I I _ _ l _ _ e 0 I - I I I 1. 9 1 0 2 0 0 I5 13 0 4 I -- - TABLE B showing the median number of emotional episodes per child occurring at the three age levels. (20 children) PLANNING FOR EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT 287 TABLE A Note -individual differences in total frequency and in frequency of occurrence in the specific situations. The record of Child #48a portrays a behavior difficulty, that of Child #57a an exceptionally good adjustment. (Ch. V, Sec. I: Emotional Adjustment of the Pre-school Child) -the consistent decrease in the total frequency of episodes with age increase. (Ch. V, Sec. 2: Planning for the Adjustment of the Pre-school Child, pp. 260-261.) -the decrease in the frequency of episodes in the following situations: "Leaving parent"; "Routine"; "Hurt" (one exception); and "Others." (Ch. V, Sec. 2: pp. 265-277.) TABLE B Note -the relative infrequency of emotional behavior throughout the age levels and the adjustment achieved at the four year level. SELECTED REFERENCES Emotional Adjustment Blatz, W. E., and Parents and the Pre-school Child. Wm. MorBott, H. row Co., New York, I928, Chapter VIII, IX, X. A discussion of the nature of emotions, their causes and methods of teaching emotional control. Blatz, W. E., and The Genetic Development of Emotion in the Millichamp, D. A. Infant. St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto Press, Canada, I935. Bridges, K. M. Ban- The Social and Emotional Development of the ham Pre-school Child. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., London, I93I, Chapter VIII-XV. An emotional developmental scale devised in a nursery school setting, with a description of the forms of emotional behavior included. 288 NURSERY EDUCATION Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, 1929, pp. I68-I70. Emotional behavior in the nursery school and its treatment. Morgan, J. J. B. Child Psychology. Richard R. Smith, Inc., I93I, Chapter V. A discussion of the theory of emotion, its developmental manifestations and its control. Sherman, Mandel The Differentiation of Emotional Responses in Infants. Journal of Comparative Psychology 47; I927, and 48; I928. Starr, A. Emotional Episodes in Nursery School Children. Unpublished master's thesis, St. George's School for Child Study, University of Toronto, Canada, I930. An analysis of emotional behavior at the pre-school level and the situations giving rise to this. Wagoner, L. C. The Development of Learning in Young Children. McGraw-Hill Co., Inc., New York, I933, Chapter IX. The significance of emotional behavior and how the child may be treated in emotional control. ~ 3. THE ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN TO THE NURSERY SCHOOL THE introduction of the child to the nursery school setting is one of the most important features of procedure and one of the most difficult to administer successfully. The preliminary adjustment of the pre-school child to school life presents a unique problem. For the child the situation is full of emotional stress. His regular routine is upset; he is faced with the necessity of discarding well-established habits and acquiring new ones. His surroundings are absolutely new to him; the place and the people are unfamiliar and the whole setting, the number of children and adults, the social requirements and the amount of play equipment has no counterpart in his previous experience. Any one of these separate situations is, according to the previous discussion, sufficient to arouse an emotional disturbance. The sum total leaves the child in a bewildered state; confusion, uncertainty, dismay, fear, anger, astonishment, curiosity and interest all play a part in his responses. He fluctuates from one to another in rapid succession. Some children show a predominance of one form of response, some another. Out of this medley of conflicting situations the child is to build up a genuine approach attitude toward the school as a whole, that is, he should learn to enjoy his school life. Such an attitude is essential to all the child's future learning in the school. If it is to be done successfully the adult must have a well thought out plan of procedure. 289 290 NURSERY EDUCATION PRELIMINARY PROCEDURE Physical and Mental Examinations: If the child is to adjust himself to the school life he must be physically and mentally fit for the environment into which he is being placed. This means that each child should be given a complete mental and physical examination before being accepted as a permanent pupil in the school. This may be done through the school doctor and psychologist, the family physician or a health clinic. No child who is not both physically and mentally normal should be placed in an environment arranged only for normal development. Such cases require special provisions-extra adult attention, special play equipment, individual diet, etc.-which it is difficult to provide in the average nursery school. Lack of such provision may result in maladjustment of the child in question; and the presence of special cases in the nursery school, unless properly arranged for, creates a disturbance in the regular procedure. Such examinations as well as protecting the school from unsuitable entries, provide the nursery school worker with accurate information concerning the physical and mental health of the children in the school. She must assume full responsibility for them during the school day and can adjust the situation to their needs only if this information is available. For instance, it is of value to know whether a child has had frequent illness, is susceptible to infection and colds, tires easily, etc., and whether he is of average or superior mental ability. Home Report: In addition to information regarding physical and mental health it is useful to know something of the child's home environment and of his behavior previous to his entrance. It will be found easier to understand and to deal with the child if some knowledge of the home discipline can be obtained; whether it is consistent or erratic and whether the ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN 291 child is encouraged to be independent or dependent, etc. In addition to this general information, specific data should be obtained upon the home procedure and the child's behavior in the routine situations which are common to both home and school. It is important to know how much the child usually eats, whether he accepts food eagerly and if not, what method of treatment is employed; also what food dislikes are shown and whether he is familiar with orange juice, cod liver oil, or other routine nourishment served in the school. Information concerning the afternoon sleep period at home should include data on how frequently and how long the child sleeps; his behavior immediately previous to sleep and any peculiarities as to position, companionship, if any, etc. It is particularly important to know about the child's eliminative habits, whether there is a regular routine and what the time interval is; if the child asks to go to the toilet; how frequently involuntary urinations and evacuations occur and whether any definite plan for training has been used. In regard to washing and dressing the most significant feature to be ascertained is the amount of self-help expected and allowed at home. This information may be gathered either at first hand by actual observation in the home or second hand through consultation with the parents. Whichever method is employed a record form should be used, so devised that facts rather than impressions will be recounted, that is, a concrete picture of the child's everyday life should be portrayed. Considerable experience in dealing with parents is required in order to make a successful contact either in a home visit or in a consultation. These home records are valuable in several ways. They give the nursery school worker some idea of the stage of development reached by the child in routine habit forma 292 NURSERY EDUCATION tion. Thus the school routine requirements may be adjusted to his ability. It is also possible to estimate the differences for the child between the various school situations and the corresponding situations in the home; where routine procedures differ radically in home and school the adjustment may be graduated. School situations for which there is no counterpart in the home should be introduced particularly slowly. In general such records are of assistance in understanding the child's behavior and attitude during this preliminary period. A word of warning is however essential in the use of these home records. They can never be absolutely accurate and are, more frequently than not, quite inaccurate. Furthermore the child may behave quite differently both in routine procedure and in general behavior in the new setting of the school; expected difficulties never appear and new problems evolve. The nursery school worker must be careful therefore not to allow herself to be influenced unduly by any preconceived idea of the child's behavior. The information gathered should be used only as a guide until more accurate knowledge is obtained through actual contact with the child. Home Visit Record Form: A home visit made by a member of the nursery school staff is one of the preliminary requisites for entrance to St. George's School for Child Study. The nursery school worker spends a day in the child's home observing him during his ordinary play and routine activities. The observations are recorded on a form devised to give a complete and concrete picture of the day's activity and so organized that it is comparable to the routine records of the school.14 INTRODUCTORY PROCEDURE Introductory Period: The child's initiation to the nursery school should be 14 See record form (page 30I). ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN 293 gradual. If the introductory period is extended over two or three days and only a portion of the routine introduced at a time, emotional strain and fatigue will be lessened. On the first day about two hours is a sufficient length of time for the child to remain at school. These two hours should be chosen during the free play period as fewer demands are made on the child during this time and playing is the most familiar and pleasing activity for him. He will, necessarily, meet with the dressing and elimination routine on this first day. The following day a longer play period may be allowed and introduction to the other morning routines accomplished. The child should not remain for the afternoon session until the third day. It is desirable for this introductory period to be on three consecutive days, that is, that a weekend does not intervene, in order that continuity may be sustained. When several children are entering the nursery school in the same term it is advisable to have them commence singly and at intervals of two or three days. The more or less constant adult supervision required by each child during his first three days would make it difficult to supervise more than one new child at a time, with a limited staff. Also, each child will adjust himself more easily if he is placed in a group which is already fairly well-organized. The entrance of too many new children at one time upsets the smooth running of the nursery school routine for the whole group. Introductory Treatment: The foremost objective for the child during the preliminary adjustment period is to develop an attitude of approach towards the school as a whole. He must accept the school before he can be fitted successfully into its program of learning. In order to accomplish this the child must be made to feel secure and adequate; he must become interested and he must enjoy learning, that is, find it a satisfying experience. There are various ways by which the adult may forward the growth of these attitudes. 294 NURSERY EDUCATION In order to offset the first strangeness it is advisable to allow the parent to remain with the child on his first day, helping him through the routine and appearing in the background during play. If he becomes sufficiently interested and confident* she may leave him for a time in order to accustom him to her absence. If it seems necessary the parent may stay on the second day but only until the child is playing happily. On the third day the child should be intrusted to the nursery school worker at the door. Such a procedure, by making the change from home to school a gradual one, is a precaution against intense emotional upset. It must, however, be discontinued, before the parent becomes, for the child, an established part of the nursery school setting. Another useful technique by which to stabilize the child's environment until he becomes accustomed to it is that of delegating one nursery school adult to supervise each new child until adjustment is attained. The adult should begin on the first day by doing as much for the child as he will allow and in this way accustom him to her care while the mother is present. It should be her duty to take the particular child through each new routine situation and generally to supervise his activity until he is established in each one. This procedure provides for the child a constant and familiar factor in the rapidly changing environment and therefore gives him some one to depend upon until he is able to deal with the situation independently. This special supervision also insures constant observation for the child. Such supervision is a necessary precaution during this period because the adult is still unfamiliar with the child and cannot anticipate, as with the other children, * On her second day at school R., aged two years, cried an hour for her mother. Two hours later, when her mother did arrive to take her home, she only glanced up to remark: "Hello, Laura, take off your hat." ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN 295 what the responses to the nursery school program may be. The pre-school child's attention and behavior change so rapidly that he may appear to be happily interested one moment and the next moment inexplicably crying. Even in the case of a new child who is apparently adjusting himself without difficulty, this special supervision is to be maintained as a precautionary measure. Physical security is important to the pre-school child. It will be found that by carrying, or at least leading, a new child during his first introduction to the various procedures, most of his resistance may often be avoided. There is another method of helping the child to feel at ease in the new environment and that is by pointing out to him his own personal possessions in the school: his cupboard, his basin, his bed, etc., and so making him feel that he is a part of the environment. Mention of these will be found useful in stimulating a positive interest and in gaining active cooperation in the routine procedures. Active interest, the second essential to a happy adjustment to the nursery school, is most easily aroused through play. Emphasis should therefore be placed on the "free" play periods for the first few days at the school. The routine should be reduced to a minimum, or if necessary, omitted entirely, particularly on the first day, and the school represented to the child as a place for play. For a day or two the adult may find it profitable to play with and enter, tain the child in order to arouse this interest, gradually leaving him more and more to himself as it develops. It often happens that the child shows an attachment to a particular type of play material. This will be found a useful incentive for carrying him through necessary routines or for re-interesting him and diverting him if he becomes upset. The third essential in establishing an approach attitude is that of making the school a satisfying experience for the child. This implies that problem situations giving rise to negative behavior should be avoided. The adult's task is 296 NURSERY EDUCATION to familiarize the child with each routine but in a way that will minimize rather than emphasize the compulsion. Positive suggestion is effective because it introduces the child to the procedure and stimulates him to fulfill its requirement in so far as he is willing. If, on the other hand, the adult should intimate an inevitable rule of conformity, which might be met with active resistance, she would, of necessity, have to go through with the disciplinary technique at a time when it would be wholly unfamiliar to the child. Time would be consumed to no good purpose and the ultimate outcome would be a victory for the child through mere passage of time. Furthermore, a specific negative attitude has thus been aroused before a positive approach has been established. Such are the issues which must be tactfully avoided in this early stage. The safest principle during the first few days is not to require more than the adult is sure the child will accept. The standard of conformity should be, in the beginning, almost negligible. From this beginning, progressively greater demands should be made until the child may be expected to conform to the regular requirements of each procedure. The progress towards conformity will vary in the different routines.l5 Some he will accept readily and others will require a considerable length of time. It often happens that an individual child will cooperate in all but one routine. Of all routines, the nurse's examination and the relaxation and sleeping routines are most frequently resented and therefore special care should always be taken when introducing the child to these aspects of the program.'6 In order to make sure that the child is not taxed beyond his ability in the first few days, he should be given considerable help. This is a precautionary measure against failure and anger, or unhappiness. The new child's social contacts also require regulation if 15 See table, page 298. 16 For further discussion refer to Chapter II, Sections 2-7: Routines. ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN 297 his first days are to be made satisfactory for him. He should be protected from the group, from interference and from the social pressure of organized activities, and so gradually adjusted to his social environment. The majority of twoyear-old children are unaccustomed to being among others of their own age and therefore do not know how to behave when first introduced into a group.7 In applying these general principles of procedure the individual treatment must vary according to each child's particular behavior. There are three general types of behavior manifested during the introductory period: immediate acceptance of the school and its routine; resistance and anger; unhappiness and fear. Where a child has apparently adjusted himself immediately the adult should, despite this, give him special attention and supervision and should be on the alert for signs of fatigue, boredom or unhappiness. Curiosity and interest will often carry a child through the first few days but unless he is building up an active approach attitude during this time he may, at the end of it, feel suddenly strange and insecure. In such a case the adult has to recommence the introductory procedure; valuable time has been lost and a negative attitude perhaps built up. In the case of resistance and anger, routine requirements should be commenced almost immediately. These should be made very simple but it will be necessary for the child to learn that conformity is essential before adjustment can be accomplished. When, on the other hand, the child is unhappy, it will be necessary to give him more individual assistance, guidance and diversion and to make the child's introduction into the disciplinary procedure a more gradual one.18 17 For further discussion refer to Chapter IV, Social Adjustment of the Pre-school Child., 18 For further discussion refer to Chapter V, Section i: A Concept of Emotion. ADJUSTMENT Number of days taken to adjust ade UNCOOPERATIVE Child Entrance WashNurse to School Toilet Water room #II0 7 8 0 5 2 #I05 6 6 0 2 0 #ii8a 0 0 0 2 I Group Average (20 children) 3.3 3.7 -.5 i.2.4 _EMOTIONAL Entrance M~h Nurse toaSch Toilet Water Washto School room #[Io 5 8 0 0 2 #I05 4 0 0 0 0 #ii8a 0 0 0 0 0 Group Average 1.0 3.0.4 -.2.1 REQUIRES Entrance - WashNurse toaSch Toilet Water to School room #IIo 20 9 I 6 3 #I05 6 6 I 3 I #ii8a 2 I 2 I I Group Average - 4.8 4.4 '.9 - '.9 I.5 INCOMPLETE Entrance WashNurse to School Toilet Water Wash to Shoolroom #IIo 23 9 0 5 3 #105 8 6 0 2 0 #II8a 3 0 0 I 0 Group Average 4 -.6 3 5 - 5.2 298 TABLE quately to specific routine situations BEHAVIOR Relaxa- Dining Tomato Play- Playtion Room Sleep Juice Milk ground room 20 7 II 0 0 0 0 7 0 5 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.0 1.4 2.5.7 o.6.4 EHAVIOR Relaxa- Dining Tomato Milk Play- Playtion Room S Juice ground room 17 7 II 0 0 0 5 o 0 3 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 I.3.5 i.8.I 0 _ 3.6 SSISTANCE Relaxa- Dining Tomato Play- Playtion Room Sleep uie Milk ly aJuice ground room 24 8 13 2 I 6 5 5 I 5 I I I 2 3 I I I I I I 3.2 1.9 4.2 i.8 I.1 I.9 1.4 ERFORMANCE Relaxa- Dining Sleep Tomato Milk Ply- Ply to o Sleep Milk -Play- -Playlion Room Juice ground room 24 8 13 2 0 6 5 12 0 7 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 531 i.6 299 300 NURSERY EDUCATION ADJUSTMENT RECORD A record has been drawn up in order that the nursery school worker may keep herself informed of the progress in adjustment being made by each new child throughout the entire nursery school program. It represents a summary of the individual routine records. Method of Recording: The record is kept for each situation from the day of entry until adjustment has been shown on four consecutive days. Each child's 'behavior is checked for each situation in terms of the following: Uncoiperative Be- -refusal to conform to what has been rehavior quired. Emotional Beha- -crying or other manifestations of vior emotion. Need of Assist- -when the child requires more physical ance assistance than is normally offered (carrying, etc.). Incomplete Per- -child does not carry out the entire rouformance tine performance (small tomato juice is given, etc.). TABLE Note -the individual differences. The record of Child #Iio portrays a difficult adjustment, that of Child #II8a a particularly easy adjustment (pp. 298-299). -the different behavior responses shown by the individual children in the various situations (p. 296). -the relatively long time taken to adjust to the nurse's inspection and entrance routine (pp. I27-I28) in the three cases. -the rapid adjustment to the play situations (p. 293). -the number of days required for adjustment, as indicated by the group average. Five is the longest period, found under Relaxation and Nurse's Inspection (pp. 127-128; I3I). ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN 30I HOME VISITS OBSERVATION DATA IN TABULAR FORM Age 2 yrs. i mo. PLAY Case No 124. Types of activity engaged in? shoveling in sand pile (outdoors) sitting on kiddy-kar; manipulative play with blocks, spool, woolly animal, climbing on furniture. (indoors) Incidents which throw light on: Child's relations with other children: none Incidents which throw light on: The parent-child relationship: none Length of play observation? From II.oo a.m. to 12.10. Weather: cool; wet. Child's location: outdoors and indoors. Some child companionship? five-year-old sister; other children. Supervision? V/ By whom? Mother Constant Intermittent x Adequacy of outdoor play place: adequate. Adequacy of outdoor toys and equipment: sufficient variety. Adequacy of indoor play place: played through the house. Adequacy of indoor toys and equipment: not seen. ELIMINATION Bladder Control Day involuntaries? Frequently\/ Occasionally Never Night involuntaries? Frequently\/ Occasionally Never Need usually announced by child? Yes No\/ Child's way of telling: does not ask. Bowel Control Usual time of movement? irregular; often after breakfast. Involuntary evacuations? Frequently Occasionally / Never Need usually announced by child? Yes No'/ Child's way of telling: Did toilet routine present difficulty? Some\/ None Supplementary details 302 NURSERY EDUCATION Constant routine maintained? Yes\/ No Child taken up at night? No\/ Yes Vessel used: Adult toilet Chair Hour Chamber toidey Adult help given in unfastening clothes? Complete / Partial None Adult help given in fastening clothes? Complete \/ Partial None WASHING Child's attitude during washing? Matter-of-fact / Resistant Playful Water got ready by whom? Adu Hands washed by whom? Adu Face washed by whom? Adu Towel used by whom? Adu Towel hung by whom? Adu Hair combed by whom? Adu Suitability of equipment? Adult Child's location? Floor\/ Stool Supervision always? Yes'/ No Distractions permitted? Yes Nature of distractions: it,/ Child Both Neither ilt\/ Child Both it\/ Child Both lt\/ Child Both it\/ Child Both ilt/ Child Both bowl\/ Basin Mother's knee Neither Neither Neither Neither Neither No'/ EATING Child's attitude when called to dinner? Co6perative>/ Resistant Dawdled Food served: Food wholly or partially eaten? Wholly meat, dessert* Partially vegetables Child's attitude while eating? Matter-of-fact\/ Resistant Dawdled Child's facility in eating? Used fork Used spoon'/ Used fingers\/ Spilled little Spilled much\/ Child takes readily: Milk\/ Water\/ Cod Liver Oil'/ Orange Juice'/ Tomato Juice/ *3 desserts ADJUSTMENT OF NEW CHILDREN 303 Child's food dislikes: refused practically all vegetables. Manner of rejection: Oral Pushed Left on plate\/ Spit out/v Setting for various meals: Breakfast high chair Companions sister Dinner high chair Companions sister Supper high chair Companions sister Supervision always? Yes\/ No By Parent V By maid\/ By older child Adult's attitude towards child's eating? Suggesting Coaxing Making a game of it Feeding Offering reward Matter-of-fact / Adult's attitude to child's rejection of food: Suggesting Coaxing Making a game of it Feeding Offering reward Giving substitute Giving next course\' Giving nothing further Omitting from menu Adult's emphasis on table manners? Number of corrections none Occasion of each correction Distractions permitted? None'/ Nature SLEEPING Child's attitude towards going to bed? Matter-of-fact'/ Reluctant Does child usually have nap (or rest)? Yesx/ No How long does child sleep? 12.45-3.00 p.m. Child's night sleeping hours? Child put to bed at 7.00 p.m. Child wakens at 7.00 a.m. Has child separate room? Yes\/ No Preliminaries to sleep? takes a toy to bed (changed to diapers). SELECTED REFERENCES Adjustment of New Children Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton & Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, pp. I59-I6I. Introductory procedure. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, pp. 22-23. Introductory procedure. 304 Mental Testing NURSERY EDUCATION Kuhlman, F. A Handbook of Mental Tests. Warwick & York, Inc., Baltimore, 1922, 208 pp. "A further revision and extension of the Binet-Simon Scale." Stutsman, R. Mental Measurement of the Pre-school Child. World Book Company, New York, I931, Terman, L. M. 368 pp. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton, Mifflin Co., New York, I9I6, 362 pp. CHAPTER VI THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT COOPERATION BETWEEN THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT ACTIVE cooperation between parent and school staff is an integral part of the nursery school program. It is, of course, to be desired in any school, but is essential in the running of a nursery school. The young child is able to take so little responsibility for himself and his belongings that it becomes necessary for parent and teacher to assume this responsibility and neither one can do this without the cooperation of the other. They must meet, so to speak, over the child's head to discuss and plan for him. Furthermore, unlike the later school periods, home and school are dealing, at the pre-school period of a child's life, with the same phases of behavior. Both home and school are guiding and instructing the child in routine and play habit formation, and in emotional and social behavior. It therefore becomes a practical necessity that each be kept informed of what has taken place in the alternate situation, in order that each may carry on where the other has left off. Over and above its practical value in the immediate situation, parent-school cooperation is a vital factor in any nursery school program which aims to establish the fundamental habits of behavior necessary for the adequate adjustment of each child in his later years. These are the habits which lead to stable and consistent behavior and which therefore play an important part in the formation of character. This organization or unification of behavior is a gradual process. At the pre-school age the child's behavior responses are relatively disorganized. (He will say that he does not eat carrots at home, but that he eats carrots at school, without recognizing any discrepancy in his behavior.) 307 308 NURSERY EDUCATION He is inclined to respond to each situation on its own merits without regarding its relationship to the previous one or to the next. The degree to which this medley of contradictory responses is unified, by the development of general habits of behavior, will depend upon the consistency of the child's experiences. For optimum development of such fundamental habits as those of conformity and acceptance, where these are essential, of spontaneity and freedom, where these are possible, of learning appropriate skills, of emotional control and of social adaptability, it is essential that the influence of the home and the school be as consistent as is / possible. The disciplinary or guiding forces within the child's environments must be uniform if his behavior is to become so. It is interesting to note how different a child's behavior will be at home and at school, when these differ radically. The parent will report temper tantrums and difficulties of which there is no indication in the child's behavior at school. It is not sufficient for the nursery school staff merely to establish a satisfactory "rapport" with the parents. This phase of the nursery school program must be organized as a part of the total nursery school procedure. The parents should be required to fulfill certain obligations, and the nursery school staff, in turn, to accommodate the parents in certain respects. A definite program should be established which will insure the parent's becoming familiar with the nursery school aims and methods, and an opportunity for more than casual contact between parents and school staff. OBLIGATIONS Several situations, in which active co6peration on the part of the parent may be expected, have already been pointed out. These may be enumerated. The parent must assist the nursery school worker during the preliminary adjustment period of the child by following THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 309 the latter's advice and instruction with regard to her part in the proceedings.l It will usually be necessary to prepare the parent beforehand in order that she be ready to step out of the situation at the appropriate moment. Throughout the school year the parents may be expected to report to the nursery school staff any information of immediate importance in caring for the child (irregularities of elimination, intestinal disturbances, etc.). Furthermore, each parent must share with the staff the responsibility of protecting the nursery school group from infectious diseases by keeping her child at home when he appears to be unwell, and by informing the school immediately if a contagious illness is developed in the home. It will be found necessary to establish certain clothing rules for the parents to follow.2 The child must be dressed suitably and in clothing which will facilitate the dressing and the toilet routines of the school. Extra clothing must be provided and replaced as need arises and all clothing should be marked. In return, the nursery school staff must show itself sympathetic toward the parent's concern for her child by carrying out the latter's requests and otherwise setting her mind at ease. If the staff are to obtain the cooperation of the parents, it must first gain their confidence and it is by indicating, in a number of small ways, that the child's wellbeing is under close supervision that this confidence will be established. The parent should be advised of any unusual occurrence, however trivial, concerning the child; falls, cuts and bruises, any signs of illness or physical upset. She should, of course, be notified of any contagious diseases developing in the nursery school group. Parents will also wish to find out certain facts concerning the daily routine, how long the child slept, time of involuntary elimination and of bowel move1 See Ch. V, Section 3: Introductory Procedure. 2 See Suggestions to Parents (pages 314-317). 3Io NURSERY EDUCATION ments, food eaten, etc. For this latter purpose a daily report sent home with the child will be found an easy and satisfactory procedure.3 Where meals are served in the school it will be necessary to arrange for the parents to know in advance what is to be on the school menu. They may then plan the home menu accordingly. The most satisfactory method of balancing the child's diet is, of course, to send complete diet sheets to the parents weekly on which the school meal for each day is given, together with a suggested breakfast and supper.4 It cannot be insisted that the parents use these but they should be urged to do so. So much for daily incidents where cooperation between home and school is a practical necessity; the more important problem is that of establishing an interest on the part of the parents in the principles and practices of the nursery school and cooperation to the extent of applying these in the home. NURSERY SCHOOL PARENT EDUCATION GROUPS The first necessity is that the parents understand the significance of the various nursery school techniques, and the underlying principles and theories upon which they are based. The techniques themselves can be of little use to them if they are not aware of the nursery school adult's general attitude toward the child, the nursery school objectives and the principles of guidance and instruction. For this purpose a nursery school parent group should be conducted each year and all new parents required to attend. In this group the nursery school worker should outline in full exactly what is done in each school situation and should emphasize throughout the general principles of learning and of discipline upon which the entire procedure is based.5 The 3 See Daily Report to Parents (page 314). 4 See page 338. 5 See course for first year Nursery School Parents (page 316). THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 311 foremost objective of such instruction is to help the parent to acquire an attitude toward child guidance approaching that of the nursery school worker so that she may view her child's behavior and development from a more impersonal and a broader point of view. In order to sustain the parents' interest it will be necessary to present the material so that it will be of immediate practical value to them. The worker leading the discussion should indicate throughout her dissertation in what way specific nursery school practices might be made applicable in the home. As a social function such a gathering will be found valuable for establishing contacts between the parents; and the group discussion arising from their common interest in the nursery school can, if skillfully handled, be used to emphasize points of principle. A parent will accept principles and techniques more readily if they are indorsed by other parents. The children of the parents attending the group will be at practically the same stage of development so that the group discussion may be made a clearing house for the difficulties which pertain to each level. For this reason it will be found a valuable practice to continue each group in the second year. In arranging the topics for this advanced group the parents may be consulted as to where their interest lies, or various phases of child development and guidance may be treated more fully.6 PARENT OBSERVATION IN THE SCHOOL As a supplement to these discussions arrangements should be made for each parent to observe periodically in the school. Such observations serve a threefold purpose. First, they allow the parent an opportunity of observing her own child's behavior and adjustment from the side lines; second, she is given an opportunity of discovering how children in general behave at the pre-school age, and therefore what 6 See suggested subjects for second year parent group (page 317). 312 NURSERY EDUCATION she may expect and what she should aim to achieve; third, the parent may observe the nursery school principles as they are practiced in each specific situation. It might be mentioned that, if possible, the parent should make her observation unknown to the child, in order that she may get a true picture of his nursery school adjustment. PARENT CONFERENCES In addition to group discussion and school observation it will be necessary to confer at intervals with each parent individually. The preliminary conference (or home visit), in which the nursery school worker obtains information regarding the child's behavior and the home procedure, has already been discussed.7 In addition, the school psychologist or other member of staff must obtain from the parent the information necessary for the history form.8 Throughout the year conferences may be utilized for discussing the child's general progress and any difficulties arising in specific situations. As previously mentioned, parent cooperation depends to a large extent upon the confidence which the parent is made to feel in the school. The nursery school worker should discuss the child objectively but sympathetically. When speaking of behavior difficulties she must be careful that the parent does not gain the impression that the child is a "problem." Most of the behavior difficulties appearing in the school represent normal phases of development and are considered by the nursery school staff as such. The parent, however, is apt to interpret these as deviations from the normal and, in consequence, to take them too seriously. This is particularly true of the over-anxious parent, or the parent who is too subjective in her attitude. The nursery school worker must use her judgment as to what she discusses with the parent in such cases. It may sometimes 7 See pages 301-303. 8 See pages 3I8-323, THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 313 happen that these parents, by attempting to rectify the difficulty, complicate the situation. The parents should be encouraged to discuss any behavior difficulties occurring in the home. Here again it will often be found that the parent is concerned over behavior which is quite normal to the child's stage of development. For example, soon after the child enters the nursery school it is usual for him to begin asserting himself in the home. He refuses to cooperate and will not accept help. The parent is frequently disturbed by such behavior, not realizing that it is the first stage in the development of self dependence and needs only to be regulated. When the problem brought by a parent is of a more serious nature the nursery school worker should, before giving advice, obtain as accurate information as possible concerning both the child's behavior, the parent's treatment and any facts relevant to the situation. For this purpose records, kept by the parent over a period of a week or two, will be found most satisfactory. Although the parent attempts to give all the facts impartially it will often be found, upon examination of these records, that she has either exaggerated the behavior difficulty or has failed to realize what her own influence upon the situation has been. If this is the case, the records alone will be sufficient to point out to her the mistake she has been making; otherwise the observations may be used as the basis for parent and teacher to devise a plan of procedure by which to readjust the situation. By continuing the records the success of this treatment may be accurately estimated. If the difficulty appearing in the home is not manifested in similar situations in the nursery school the parent should be advised to make several consecutive observations in the school in order that she discover where the difference in treatment lies. Should the problem be one of definitely abnormal behavior the parent should be referred to a psychologist if there is not a specialist in this field on the school staff. 314 NURSERY EDUCATION St. George's School DAILY REPORT TO PARENTS Da......2o.Child..D...?.......D ate............. Sleep: Minutes: 8.. 85.... Elimination: Evacuations 12:30:I2:30 at Involuntary evacuation................... at Involuntary urination 930......9..30 at Prescription followed Prescr: Routine and 1o:oo A.M. Routine and 1o:oo A.M. z1:30 A.M.. 11:30 A.M. 2:00 P.M. 2:00 P.M. Remarks: Remarks: M. IF. M.I.F. For Director.*. * This duplicate is retained at school. INFORMATION FOR PARENTS.9 Child's Equipment The following articles of clothing are to be brought to the nursery school on the opening day of the term and renewed as occasion demands. Each article of clothing belonging to the child should be labeled with the child's full name. This includes rubbers, shoes, underwear, stockings, suits, hats, coats, mittens, and any other articles 9 This information is sent to the parents with notification about child's entrance. THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 315 the child may bring. Adhesive tape has been found to be satisfactory on rubber goods. Clothing: I. A complete outfit, including underwear, stockings, dress or suit. This should always be available in the nursery school. If soiled clothes are taken home in the afternoon they should be replaced the following morning. (If thought advisable by mothers, extra underclothing should be provided for children needing a change during the day.) 2. Apron, simple design, easy to fasten, for use in playing with clay, paints, etc. Rubberized cloth has been found satisfactory. 3. One pair of felt slippers, preferably those which button on securely. 4. A sweater for use on cool days. 5. A pair of rubbers is advisable, to be used on the playground in the early morning. N.B. Most mothers find it convenient to place the children's clothing in a small shopping bag which, in turn, is placed in the child's cupboard in the washroom. This may be used for taking clothing home in the afternoon, if necessary. Special Suggestions re Clothing: Clothing should be plain and durable. Waist bands, bloomer elastics and crotch of pants should not be tight. Button holes should not be too large nor too small. It is suggested that there be no fly in the boys' trousers and that the garment be made so that the front can be easily taken down. Coats and sweaters should have tape or chain sewn in the neck line long enough for the child to manipulate in hanging up his own clothes. Mittens should be attached to a cord and placed through the sleeves of the coat. Mittens are preferable to gloves for daily wear with young children. It is important that rubbers and galoshes should be large 3I6 NURSERY EDUCATION enough to slip on and off easily. This facilitates matters in the cloakroom to a great degree. As the children go outside immediately on coming to school they should be dressed for this so that no change is necessary in the cloakroom. Elastic in the top of leggings is more convenient than buttons. Toys: It is not advisable for the children to bring toys from home unless requested. They are not permitted to take these "home" toys into the playroom but must leave them in their lockers. Admission: Children will be admitted from 8.45 to 9.30 in the morning and will be dismissed promptly at three o'clock in the afternoon. The cooperation of the parents in observing these hours is requested. NURSERY SCHOOL AND PARENT GROUPS Course I (Suggested outline for ten lectures to be held fortnightly for parents of new children.) I. Principles of Discipline Basic to Nursery School Procedurewith special reference to the practical methods of carrying these out. 2. How the Child Learns, and the Principles of Adult Guidance. 3. Dressing and Washing Routine. 4. Elimination and Sleeping Routine. 5. Dining Room and Incidental Routines. 6. Planning Menus and Preparing Food for the Pre-school Child. 7. Planning for Play Activity-with special emphasis upon the significance of "play" in the child's development. 8. Providing for Social Development and Dealing with Social Difficulties. 9. Teaching Emotional Control-with special emphasis on positive treatments. io. The Significance of the Pre-school Period in Personality Development. THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 317 Course II (Suggested topics for advanced Nursery School Parent Group.) I. Stories and Story Telling for the Pre-school Child. 2. Introducing Music at the Pre-school Age. 3. Creative and Constructive Activities of the Pre-school Child. 4. Language Development. 5. The Child's Ability to Reason-his understanding, concepts and beliefs. 6. Mental Testing-its meaning and its value. 7. Special Behavior Difficulties and Their Treatment. 8. Sex Education. 9. Unacceptable Habits-their probable causes and their treatment. Io. Progressive Education-its aims and methods. 3i8 NURSERY EDUCATION ST. GEORGE'S SCHOOL FOR CHILD STUDY History Form Name: Date: Number: Birthdate: Address: I. FAMILY a. Parents Father Mother Name Age Birthplace Occupation (before marriage) Education Number in Family Position among Siblings Parents mother father occupation residence Years married Religion b. Siblings Name Sex Age Miscarriages Date Maturity c. Other Persons in Home Name Age Sex Relationship Supervision of Children d. Home Apartment Duplex House Number of Rooms.... Accommodation for child...... Outside garden or playroom...... Equipment........ 2. OBSTETRICAL HISTORY OF CHILD a. Labor place................... duration................ type.................... maturity............... THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 319 b. Pregnancy sequence................ mental state of mother.... specific diseases.......... general health................................. 3. DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY a. Birth -weight breathing malformation paralysis b. Neonate-convulsions ability to nurse feeding-breast-bottle-combination cared for by whom c. InfancyI. weight-at birth -was there any serious loss of weight? -did growth proceed regularly? 2. teething-when did first tooth appear? -how many teeth at i year? 3. general health-what diseases, infections, etc? -specify rickets-(if any)-age4. feeding-breast-bottle —combination -time of weaningdifficulties if any-early idiosyncrasies Acquisition of Habits 4. ATTITUDES special likes-persons things age special dislikes-persons things age 5. MOTOR a. Early History -crawled at........months type-walked at........ months use of artificial methods-was there any appearance of clumsiness or delay? -is child right handed- left handed? Any corrective procedure? 320 NURSERY EDUCATION b. Present Status -does child wash himself? -does child dress himself? -does child feed himself? 6. SPEECH -use of language compared to other siblings-began to talk at........ months a. Early Difficulties-stuttering-baby talk-lisping-faulty enunciation specify b. Present Status7 EATING a. Early History-difficulty (details) at what age? -medical attendance -was forced feeding ever necessary? Method used? b. Present Status (age ) -pediatrician(s) in attendance -special likes or dislikes -foods eliminated by prescription -need of urging -amount eaten -time of meals-breakfast midday evening -companionship at meals -other food given when? -attitude of child towards food (detail) -parental attitudefathermother8. ELIMINATIVE i. Bladdera. Early History-(season of birth F.W.S.S.) -routine began at -method employed -control during day at I2 i8 24 30 36 months -control during night at 12 i8 24 30 36 months THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 32I b. Present Status-(age ) -adequate control -enuresis day timenight time-(see special form) 2. Bowela. Early History-tendency toward diarrhea or constipation-nutritional factors leading to maladjustment-food intolerance, etc. -routine began at -regular routine established at 3 6 9 I2 i8 24 months -any difficulties? b. Present Status-regular movement(s) at........ o'clock 9. SLEEPING a. Early History-inclined to be restless, quiet, light, deep sleeper-stopped day time sleep at........ years -difficulties (detail) -nightmares, sleep walking, throwing off covers, gets out of bed. difficulty getting to sleep-masturbation. b. Present Status (age ) -afternoon nap-in bed upminutes -time of sleeping-in bed at night- regularity -gets up regularity -total hours -preliminaries to sleep-parental-singing-rocking, reading, others....... -child-crying-at bed time....requests.......... -any peculiar ceremony -special toy -parental cooperation -door open or closed -other persons in bed in room. 322 NURSERY EDUCATION io. PLAY a. Early History-did child play alone? -was child picked up when (s)he cried? -how much time spent with adults? -was there any early companionship? b. Present Status (age ) -with whom does he play? -what are the play periods morning? with whom- whereafternoon? with whom- where-what type of toy is provided? -are special constructive tools provided? preferred? -is there outdoor playground? II. SEX a. CircumcisionEarly manifestations (age ) Treatment Early inquiries (age ) Treatment b. Present Status (age ) -manifestations of behavior-instruction if any-attitude of parents12. EMOTIONAL i. Feara. -early objectivation (detail) (age ) -nightmares-(detail) (ages ) -method of treatment b. Present Status2. Angera. -temper tantrums-(detail-age-frequency) -treatment b. Present Status13. SELF TENDENCIES I. Self-assertion-(age-detail) -is child obedient or disobedient? THE NURSERY SCHOOL AND THE PARENT 323 -does childdominate playmates? bully?- whom? tease?- whom? scream and kick? show affection unusually? resist help? 2. Self-negation-(age —detail) -does childavoid playmates? give up a task readily? ask often for assistance? cry easily? -is there deception, lying? (age of appearance) -note-tics, nail biting, thumbsucking 14. DISCIPLINE -are there regular hours in home for recreation, etc? -what methods of discipline are employed? -is corporal punishment employed? By whom? What method? -are there differences of opinion between parents? -does child show preference for a parent? -are servants or others permitted to discipline child? -how? -persons? SELECTED REFERENCES Cooperation Between the Nursery School and the Parent Davis, M. D. Nursery Schools-Their Development and Current Practices in the United States. United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., I933, pp. I0-I2. The value of the nursery school as a parent education center. Foster, J. C., and Nursery School Procedure. D. Appleton and Mattson, M. L. Co., New York, I929, pp. 20I-205. A discussion of the means of familiarizing the parent with nursery school procedure. 324 NURSERY EDUCATION Greenwood, B., and A Six Year Experiment with a Nursery Waddell, C. W. School. University of California at Los Angeles, I93I, pp. 9-12, I49-I70. Educational program for nursery school parents; home record blanks are appended. Iowa Child Welfare Manual of Nursery School Practice. UniResearch Station versity, Iowa City, Iowa, I934, pp. I82-I84, I93, 20I. Home Record Forms. CHAPTER VII THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S, DIET By M. L. HuSBAND PLANNING AND PREPARING THE CHILD'S DIET THIS chapter is intended as a brief, practical guide to the nursery school dietitian and more particularly to the staff Af a small community nursery school which does not include a trained dietitian. Briefly, the essentials of a pre-school child's diet are as follows: FIRST: Sufficient protein to supply the need for tissue growth and repair. This need is chiefly supplied by milk, meat and eggs. SECOND: The following minerals must be included to maintain life: calcium, phosphorus, iodine, iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium, copper, chlorine and sulphur. Of these the first four require special consideration in the planning of a diet because they are not so widely distributed as are the other six. Calcium, especially, is necessary in relatively large amounts at the pre-school age for the development of bone tissue. It is supplied liberally in milk, and is also found in eggs, vegetables, fruit and meat. Phosphorus is an essential constituent of protoplasm and bone tissue. It is found in eggs, whole grain, milk, lean meat, vegetables and fruit. Iron is important in the production of haemoglobin. Eggs, whole grain and liver are rich sources of this mineral. Only minute amounts of iodine are necessary but it is imperative that this mineral be included in the diet. In certain regions where the water supplies insufficient amounts of this mineral, iodized salt should be used in cooking for children. The following table indicates the sources of calcium, phosphorus, and iron in the diet. 327 328 NURSERY EDUCATION TABLE OF MINERALS IN TYPICAL MATERIALS1 Amount per ioo Grams Edible Substance Calcium Grams Phosphorous Grams Iron lligrams Egg yolk 0.137 Egg yolk 0.524 Egg yolk 8.6 Milk 0.120 Entire wheat 0.423 Liver 8.06 Oatmeal 0.069 Oatmeal 0.392 Entire wheat 5.0 Eggs 0.067 Beef (all lean) 0.218 Oatmeal 3.8 Turnip 0.064 Eggs o. 80 Eggs 3.0 Carrots 0.056 Prunes dried 0.o05 Beef (all lean) 3.0 Prunes 0.054 Milk 0.093 Prunes (dried) 2.85 Cabbage 0.045 Potatoes 0.058 Spinach 2.55 Oranges. 045 Turnips o. 046 Beef (medium fat) 2.0 Entire wheat 0.045 Carrots 0.046 String Beans I.0 Beets 0.029 Beets 0.039 Potatoes o.91 Potatoes 0.014 Bananas 0.031 Beets o.85 Bananas 0.009 Oranges 0.021 Carrots 0.64 Apples 0.007 Apples 0.0I2 Bananas 0.64 Beef (lean) 0.007 Turnips 0.52 Oranges 0.52 Cabbage o.43 Apples 0.36 Milk (skim) 0.25 Milk (whole) 0.24 THIRD: Vitamins are essential not only for growth but also for the prevention of nutritional diseases and to stay the inroads of infection. The following table indicates the sources of each vitamin in the diet. 1 Adapted from H. C. Sherman: Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, pp. 302, 303, 324. THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET 329 TABLE OF VITAMINS Chief Sources in Vitamin Order of Effect of Cooking Concentration Cod Liver Oil Egg Yolk Destroyed to great A Spinach extent Carrots Butter and Milk Wheat germ Milk BI & B2 Spinach Slightly destroyed Liver Egg Yolk Orange Juice Tomato Juice C Lemon Juice Destroyed by ordiBanana nary cooking Apple Raw Vegetables D Cod Ler Oil Slightly destroyed Egg Yolk Wheat Germ E Lettuce Heat stable FOURTH: To insure satisfactory digestion and elimination the diet should include roughage. This is the indigestible cellulose in fruit, vegetables and whole grains. FIFTH: The immediate energy needs of the body are supplied by the carbohydrates and fats. An excellent source for the former are fruit and vegetables and for the latter butter, meat and eggs. 330 NURSERY EDUCATION SIXTH: The fluid intake should be regulated but is better administered between meals than supplied at meal times. The following hints and suggestions concerning the drawing up of menus and preparation of food are offered: MENU SELECTION Breakfast Cereal-3 to 4 round tablespoons with milk, no sugar. One egg-soft boiled or poached or as creamyzegg. or One or two crisp slices of side or back bacon. or Dish of stewed fruit (when fruit is served, bacon, or an egg should be given for supper). Buttered Toast up to one slice, or 4 Sunwheat biscuits. One glass of milk. One teaspoon of Cod Liver Oil. Dinner I4r3 round tablespoons meat, fish or eggs. 1-2 round tablespoons mashed potato or potato substitute. I-212 round tablespoons of other vegetables. I/3-I tablespoon raw vegetable. Dessert-2 to 6 round tablespoons. Buttered Bread-up to one slice, or 4 Sunwheat biscuits. One teaspoon of Cod Liver Oil. Water to drink. Supper Soup-made with vegetable, meat stock or milk and vegetables. or One egg-soft boiled, poached, or as "creamy egg" in double boiler or hard boiled and creamed. Salad-3 to 5 round tablespoons. or Scalloped vegetables-3 to 5 round tablespoons. or Cereal-3 to 4 round tablespoons with milk, no sugar, or milk toast. THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET 331 Dessert-2 to 6 round tablespoons. One glass of milk. Buttered Bread up to one slice or 4 Sunwheat Biscuits. Cod Liver Oil-one teaspoon. The bread and biscuits should be given when the main body of meal is eaten-with the dessert. FOOD PREPARATION Cereals In selecting cereals, the whole grain should be used almost entirely because of its superior mineral, vitamin and roughage content. Cereals should be thoroughly cooked, to render them easily digestible. At least one hour's cooking in a double boiler or fireless cooker is necessary for ordinary cereals, which are not pre-cooked. They should be only medium thick and of a smooth consistency. Meats Meat or fish is served each day, and one to two eggs should be included in each day's menu. The pre-school child may have beef, lamb, liver, bacon, fresh fish, chicken or turkey. Pork and veal are not easily digested. The meats may be prepared by stewing, broiling, or roasting. They should be cooked slowly and kept moist so that they will not become toughened. All the natural juices should be served with the meat, unthickened. If the meat is a dry cut, it is well to moisten it with stock from a soup bone. All meats are served minced. This is necessary because the young child does not chew his food thoroughly, and furthermore, can feed himself readily when the food is so prepared. Filleted fresh fish, haddock, whitefish, cod or halibut are suitable for children. They are baked in milk and butter and, when cooked, broken into small pieces with a fork. Eggs are prepared by soft boiling, poaching, or made as "creamy egg" in a double boiler or hard boiled and served in a salad or in cream sauce as "goldenrod" egg. Vegetables The pre-school child may eat a large variety of vegetables. It is well to exclude any unusual vegetables from his diet if they are not to be served frequently, because of his reluctance to attempt unfamiliar foods. 332 NURSERY EDUCATION Vegetables should be cooked just long enough to soften them. They are no more digestible after long cooking and they lose more of their mineral content, their flavor and natural color. Vegetables may be boiled, steamed or baked. It is best to steam or bake them since by these methods little of the mineral, and less of the vitamin content, is lost. For steaming they are prepared as for boiling. For baking they may either be left in their skins, as one treats potatoes or squash, and baked in an open pan with a little water, or they may be prepared as for boiling and baked in a covered pan with a little water. Beans, green or wax 30-40 minutes Beets, young 35-50 minutes Cabbage, young 10-20 minutes Carrots 20-35 minutes Cauliflower 20 minutes Celery 25-30 minutes Hubbard Squash Baked i12- 2 hours Boiled 20-35 minutes Spinach Io-I5 minutes Tomatoes Io-20 minutes Turnips 30-40 minutes Vegetable Marrow 20-30 minutes When fresh vegetables are scarce, canned vegetables are used to replace them. Desserts Simple egg or gelatine desserts with milk or fruit juice base, junkets, stewed fruit, fruit whips with custard sauce, and fresh fruits, comprise the selection of desserts used at St. George's School. (Corn starch, rice or sago puddings are used occasionally.) As in the preparation of all foods for the pre-school child the consistency of desserts is a primary consideration. Prepared desserts should be made just stiff enough to hold their shape, and custard sauces should be the consistency of medium white sauce. Gelatine mixtures are more acceptable and easier to handle if beaten after they are set. Fruits should be cut in small pieces, pureed or served without a great deal of juice or syrup. When flavoring desserts it is preferable to make them fairly bland. Only a small amount of sugar should be used as too much THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET 333 will obliterate the natural food flavors which the child may be taught to enjoy. The cooked fruits which may be included in the diet are prunes, pineapple, apples, apricots, peaches, pears and rhubarb. They should be canned in a light syrup or stewed with a small amount of sugar. Dried fruits should be washed well and soaked overnight in water and then cooked in the water used for soaking. By cooking the fruits they are rendered more digestible since the cellulose content is softened. Cooked smaller fruits are not introduced into the diet until four to five years of age. The pre-school child may be served the following raw fruits: apples, oranges and bananas. These are peeled and cut into small pieces. In the case of oranges the entire membrane is removed and bananas should be scraped before they are cut up in order to render them more digestible. RECIPES CEREALS The fireless cooker or double boiler should be used for cooking cereals. Add the cereal slowly to boiling, salted water. Cook five minutes over heat; then place over boiling water and steam until cooked, or cover tightly and place in a fireless cooker. Long slow cooking develops better flavor. Coarse cereals should be cooked I/2-3 hours. Fine cereals need 45 minutes. For coarse cereals use ic. cereal to 21c. water, for fine cereals i c. cereal to 42 c. water. If fireless cooker is used, less water is required. Use 1/3 tsp. salt to i cup water. MEATS Lamb or Beef Stew i34 lbs. beef, or lamb i small onion I/3 c. turnip 2/3 c. carrot 3-4 potatoes I12 tsp. salt I/8 tsp. pepper 2 c. flour i qt. water Y2 tablespoon chopped parsley. i. Wipe meat, remove fat, cut into tiny cubes. 2. Cover bone with cold water, heat to boiling, allow to simmer. 3. Roll meat cubes in flour and brown under the broiler in a little butter, or meat fat. 4. Add meat to stock, cook just below boiling point for two hours. 334 THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET 335 5. At end of first hour add onions, potatoes and carrots (diced into tiny pieces). Add the potatoes (also diced into tiny pieces) one half hour later. 6. Remove the bone, and thicken the stew with flour and water. Add salt. 7. Cook until thickened. The consistency of stew gravy is that of a thick soup. Liver Baby beef liver may be used. It should be procured in whole pieces, so that the skin can be peeled off and the tendons cut out. I. Put the raw liver through the mincer. 2. Bake in a shallow pan; stir frequently and mix well; press out with a fork. Bake for ten minutes in a moderate oven. 3. Serve immediately. DESSERTS Spanish Cream I tablespoon gelatine I/3 c. sugar 2 c. milk i/8 tsp. salt yolks of 2 eggs i tsp. vanilla whites of 2 eggs I. Scald milk with gelatine. 2. Cook with remaining ingredients (except egg whites) as a custard sauce. 3. Remove from fire, set aside to chill. 4. Beat till foamy, and fold in stiffly beaten egg white. Fresh Fruit Gelatine 2 tablespoons gelatine i c. sugar Y2 c. cold water A few thin shav2 c. boiling water ings of lemon rind % c. lemon juice I. Make syrup by boiling water, sugar and lemon rind five minutes. 2. Soften gelatine in cold water, dissolve in hot syrup. 3. Add lemon juice. 4. Strain through cheesecloth, turn into mould and chill. 5. When set, beat until foamy and smooth. Any fruit juices, or combination of juices may be used. 336 NURSERY EDUCATION Bavarian Cream I tablespoon gelatine 3 tsp. lemon juice 4 c. cold water 4 c. sugar i c. orange juice 3 eggs I. Soften gelatine in cold water. 2. Mix fruit juice, sugar and egg yolks (slightly beaten). 3. Cook over hot water as soft custard. 4. Pour over softened gelatine. 5. When partially set, beat until foamy, and fold in stiffly beaten egg whites. Fruit Whip Whites of 2 eggs i Y c. fruit puree 4 c. fruit sugar I. Beat eggs till almost stiff. Add sugar gradually while beating. 2. Add fruit, beat till stiff. 3. Chill and serve with custard sauce. SUPPER DISHES Cream of Vegetable Soup 2 c. milk 4 tablespoons flour 2 c. vegetable pulp 4 tablespoons butter i tsp. salt I. Melt butter, add flour and salt. Stir until smooth. 2. Add cold milk slowly, cook over hot water, stirring until thickened. Cook 20 minutes. 3. Add vegetable pulp. Cook 20 minutes longer. 4. Vegetables cut up into very small pieces, and vegetable stock may be used instead of vegetable pulp. Plain Vegetable Soup 2 tablespoons butter 4 c. boiling water I/3 c. carrot 12 tablespoon I/3 c. turnip chopped parsley 1/3 c. celery I tsp. salt I/2 c. potatoes I. Prepare vegetables for cooking. Cut into small cubes. 2. Add vegetables to boiling water. Cover saucepan. Simmer one hour. THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET 337 3. Add water or beef broth to keep liquid up to one quart. 4. Add butter, parsley and salt. Creamy Egg 3 eggs Y c. milk 3 tsp. butter 4 tsp. salt I. Beat eggs slightly. Add butter, seasoning and milk. 2. Cook in double boiler, drawing coagulated egg away from sides of pan with a spoon. Remove from stove just before cooked completely. Scalloped Vegetables 2 c. cooked vegetables i c. medium white sauce i2 c. buttered crumbs I. Butter baking dish. Put in vegetables. 2. Pour over this the white sauce. Cover with buttered crumbs. 3. Bake until crumbs are brown in a moderate oven. Goldenrod Egg 3 hard cooked eggs i c. medium white sauce i. Chop whites of eggs. Add to sauce. 2. Reheat. 3. Press yolks through sieve. 4. Serve white sauce mixture. Sprinkle egg yolk on top. 338 NURSERY EDUCATION MENU FORM Date: February 4th to 8th, I935. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Mead's Wheatena Red River Mead's Sunera Sug- Cereal Cereal Cereal gested Poached Broiled Creamy Broiled Applesauce Break- Egg Bacon Egg Bacon fast Buttered Vi tos Brown Br ead or Sunw heats daily. Milk daily. II a.m. Tomato Juice-daily. Roast Beefsteak Liver and Roast Beef Baked Fresh Lamb Bacon Fillets of Haddock Baked Mashed Parsley Baked Potato Potato Potato Hubbard Squash Buttered French Scalloped Green peas Mashed Nurs- Celery Spinach Tomato Potato ery Chopped School Carrots Dinner Grated Raw Shredded Diced Raw Raw Grated Raw Carrot Lettuce Celery Tomato Cabbage Chocolate Spanish Orange Beaten Floating Junket Cream Souffle Lemon Island Gelatine Water-dai ly. Cod Liver O il-daily. Buttered Vi tos Brown B read and Su nwheats dail y. 2.30 p.m. Milk-daily. Lettuce and Mead's Scalloped Goldenrod Buttered Tomato Cereal Vegetables Eggs Cauliflower salad Cream Stewed Preserved Crisp Sug- Cheese Apricot Peaches, Bacon gested Sand- Puree Light Prune Supper wiches Syrup Puree Orange Baked Sections Apple Buttered Vi tos Brown Br ead and Sun wheats daily. Milk daily. THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILD'S DIET 339 MENU FORM Date: February IIth to i5th, I935. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Wheatena Cracked Mead's Red River Roman Sug- Wheat Cereal Cereal Meal gested Coddled Baked Broiled Poached Broiled Break- Egg Apple Bacon Egg Bacon fast Buttered Vi tos, Brown Bread or To ast daily. Milk daily. ii a.m. Tomato Juice-daily. Beefsteak Roast Creamy Roast Beef Lamb Stew Lamb Egg with Vegetables Baked Pureed Parsley Baked Potato Lima Potato Potato Beans Buttered Buttered Green Peas Vegetable Nurs- Green Young Marrow ery Beans Beets School Grated Raw Finely Grated Raw Raw Shredded Dinner Carrot Diced Cabbage Tomato Lettuce Raw Celery Prune Whip Lemon Fresh Fruit Baked Orange Snow Cup Custard Bavarian Pudding Cream Buttered Vi tos, Brown Bread and Su nwheats dail y. Water-dai ly. Cod Liver 0 il-daily. 2.30 p.m. Milk-daily. Mead's Poached Thick Veg- Mead's Lettuce, Cereal Egg in etable Cereal Apple, Spinach Soup Banana Sug- Nest Salad gested Fresh Fruit Preserved Spanish Applesauce Caramel Supper Gelatine Pears Cream Junket (light syrup) Buttered Vi tos, Brown Bread and Su nwheats dail y. Milk daily. 340 NURSERY EDUCATION SELECTED REFERENCES Planning and Preparing the Child's Diet Brown, Alan, and Common Procedures in the Practice of PediTisdall, F. F. atrics. McClelland & Stewart, Toronto, 1932, Section V, pp. 60-o09. A discussion of nutritional requirements, food preparation, recipes and menus. Laird, A. L., and The Household Science Book of Recipes. Park, E. N. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada, I933, pp. I-I24. A book of recipes and general rules for cooking. Lowenberg, Miriam Food for the Young Child. Iowa State College, Collegiate Press, Inc., Ames, Iowa, 1934, pp. 1-142. This book deals with menu planning, food preparation, eating habits, menus, and recipes. For use as a reference in the home or nursery school. McLester, J. S. Nutrition and Diet in Health and Disease. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, I93I, PP. 65-I35. A text reference for nutritional factors of fundamental importance. Pattison, N. L. The Canadian Cook Book. The Ryerson Press, Toronto, 1932, pp. I-416. A book of recipes and general rules for cooking. Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. (Edition 2) The Macmillan Co., New York, I932, pp. I-6I4. A scientific text for the principles of food requirements. Tisdall, F. F. The Home Care of the Infant and Child. William Morrow & Co., New York, I931. J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London and Toronto, Section III, pp. 139-I94. The nutrition of the child from one to six years, for home reference. CHAPTER VIII PHYSICAL HEALTH By DR. F. F. TisDALL PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM* THROUGHOUT this book the emphasis has been placed upon the social, emotional and intellectual training of the preschool child which is primarily the responsibility of the Nursery School. The fact that the discussion of physical health has been left to the concluding chapter does not mean that it is to be considered of minor importance in planning for the pre-school child's welfare. However, in so far as the family physician and the state are becoming more and more interested in the question of pre-school health, the nursery school is only partially responsible for this phase of child development. How much is specifically required of each nursery school in regard to a physical health program will depend upon the community in which the nursery school is centered. There are several possible arrangements. The nursery school may be utilized as one of the means by which a public health organization serves the community, or, where such an organization is needed, the nursery school may be established as a small public health center. In communities where the children are already under medical supervision of a public or private nature the aim of the nursery school health program becomes that of protecting the health of each child during his school day. * St. George's School for Child Study is fortunate in having had since its foundation in I925 the continued interest and advice in health matters of Dr. Alan Brown, chief of staff of the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada; Dr. F. F. Tisdall a member of this staff has been the consultant of the school during the past ten years. Credit for the splendid health record of the school should be given to the Department of Pediatrics of the University of Toronto. (W. E. B.) 343 344 NURSERY EDUCATION In drawing up the minimum essentials of a nursery school health program there are two phases to be considered, a positive and a negative. A positive health program includes such matters as adequate fresh air, sunshine and activity; sufficient sleep, proper nourishment, the regulation of eliminative and digestive functions. Negative considerations would include the following: avoidance of fatigue; precautions against communicable diseases; protection from noxious substances, and safeguards against accidents. POSITIVE HEALTH PROGRAM Outdoor play: As essentials for maximum physical development, the nursery school daily program must be so planned that the child receives adequate amounts of both fresh air and sunshine. Unless there is some special contra-indication every child should be out of doors at least two hours a day and a nursery school program should, in consequence, provide for at least one and one-half hours of outdoor play during each morning. Weather permitting this period may be extended to two and one-half hours. The child attending nursery school is thus assured of a minimum of thirty hours fresh air during the month with a possibility of more than twice as much. In addition to the above, of course, the child may have in his home routine from one to two and a half hours out of doors between his afternoon sleep and his evening meal. In extreme weather, either hot or cold, the adult must assume the responsibility for deciding when a child has had sufficient outdoor play. Children of this age cannot usually judge for themselves and if left alone may be seriously affected before they realize their discomfort. Children vary widely as to the amount of heat and cold they can endure and it is necessary therefore that the adult in a nursery school be on the alert to notice individual differences and to arrange the routine accordingly. PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM 345 It is, of course, equally important to provide proper indoor ventilation. Heat should be regulated by the use of a thermometer, and drafts, particularly floor drafts, prevented. A question closely related to fresh air, temperature, etc., and to be classed with these as a positive health measure is that of suitably clothing the child. The responsibility for dressing the child, in school, as well as at home, rests ultimately with the parent but it will be found that in many instances advice is sorely needed on this topic. The problem is, usually, one of over-dressing rather than lack of sufficient clothing although it is probable that the first is the more harmful of the two from a health standpoint. No specific rules can be laid down as to how the school should deal with the problem of over-dressing, nor is it possible to state what clothing children in general should wear. The decision must depend, in any particular case, upon the child's physique and upon what he is accustomed to wearing. However, the parents should be advised to regulate the children's clothing according to temperature changes as indicated by the thermometer and the school should obtain permission from the parents to follow the same procedure during the day. Warm, but light and well fitting garments permit more freedom of activity and hence are preferred to the heavy, cumbersome and bulky type. Nutrition: The importance of diet to the growth and general health of the pre-school child is an accepted fact. In addition to this phase of nutrition the establishment of good eating habits at an early age is assuming increasing significance as another essential to proper nutrition. Certain guiding principles in providing for these two aspects of nutrition in the nursery school have already been outlined. The main points may be summarized as follows. The meals of a nursery school should be planned by a dietitian having experience in children's diets. Where possible home and school menus should be drawn up jointly to provide a balanced diet. The 346 NURSERY EDUCATION food should be prepared and served in a way acceptable to the child. The routine meal setting should be such that distraction is at a minimum and eating of paramount importance but so organized that the meal is a pleasant experience. The child should then accept the responsibility for eating. The success of such a nursery school program is evidenced by the following figures which indicate the number of unfinished servings occurring in a total of 3762 meals in St. George's School for Child Study.' Thirty children were in attendance at the time. Age Unfinished Servings 2-3 59 3-4 37 4-5 I4 Total Iio Sleep: In order to remain in good health and to develop normally the pre-school child requires sufficient sleep, preferably divided between the day and night periods. The amount of sleep required varies with the individual child as well as with age; however, it is generally recognized that every child under five or six years should have some sleep, or at least rest, during the day, as it is not often that a child of this age is able to forego the daytime nap without showing signs of fatigue in the late afternoon. The average amount of day sleep taken by the pre-school child at each age level may be estimated from the following table. Every pre-school child should, then, be given an opportunity to rest and to sleep some time during the day. This means that a sleeping period should be a part of his daily program. In the nursery school it is advisable to provide 1 Unpublished master's thesis, H. Brown, St. George's School for Child Study, Toronto, Canada. PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM 347 Hours of Sleep Required by the Average Normal Child2 No. of Average Average Average Age cases o-amount of amount of amounttotal Age cases observed day sleep night sleep sleep Hrs. Mins. Hrs. Mins. Hrs. Mins. I year 57 -45 I - 55 13- 40 2 years 59 I -7 11 -36 I2-53 3 years 50 - o6 II - 23 I2- 29 4 years 41 -42 11-19 I2-OI 5 years 54 -15 1 - 34 1 - 49 for a two-hour period. This allows ample time for the initial settling down, which is necessarily longer in the school than the home. Adequate provision should be made to induce sleep, such as comfortable beds, proper ventilation and temperature, etc. The adult has a twofold task in regard to the child's sleep. To plan for sleep is necessary but the development of good sleeping habits is equally important as a health measure. The means by which this latter aim may be accomplished have been discussed above. The child is trained to relax physically and mentally. This habit, by establishing conditions favorable to sleep insures that sleep will occur if it is essential, and otherwise the resulting rest is to be considered adequate. It may be necessary in cases where a child is not sleeping during the day, and yet appears to be over-tired, to advise the parents to shorten his period of night sleep in order that he be enabled to sleep during the day. 2 This table is based upon records obtained through the Parent Education Division of St. George's School for Child Study. 348 NURSERY EDUCATION The following table, based upon records obtained in the Nursery School and in the Parent Education groups of St. George's School for Child Study, suggests that sleeping conditions in a nursery school may be compared favorably with those in the average home. % of days % of days | Average % of days Average Age %ofdays %ofdays no rest or Daily Sleep sleeping rest only sleep N.S. Home N.S. Home N.S. Home N.S. Home 2-3 94.8 76.6 5.2 17.2 - 6.2 70 min. 77 min. 3-4 87.3 67.0 12.7 20.2 - 12.8 66 min. 66 min. 4-5 80.7 45.2 I9.3 34.I - 20.7 58 min. 42 min. Preliminary Physical Examination: It is essential to the success of a positive nursery school health program that the physical condition of each child be ascertained prior to his admittance to the school. This entails a complete physical examination of each child by a medical adviser. Such a procedure discloses potential avenues toward ill-health and protects the other children in the school from possible contagion. Where ill-health is apparent and investigation shows it to have been environmental in origin, two factors are involved, first, unwise and irregular routine, second, the presence of foci of infection, diseased tonsils, decayed teeth, etc. In either case it will be necessary for the examiner to judge whether it is advisable to admit the child to the school before treatment has been administered. If special routine arrangements are recommended as, for instance, special diet, periods of rest, etc., it will usually be found unwise to admit the child because of the individual care and additional responsibility all such arrangements entail at PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM 349 the pre-school age. Because the nursery school program is laid out for a normally healthy child all others should be excluded until adequately treated and restored to health. In communities where adequate medical inspection is lacking the school examination would provide an excellent opportunity for checking cardiac, pulmonary and metabolic conditions at an age when treatment is most hopeful. PREVENTIVE HEALTH PROGRAM Prevention of fatigue: Over-fatigue interferes with general physical functioning, eating, sleeping and elimination, etc., and thence reduces the effectiveness of a positive health program. In addition, it lowers general resistance to disease. One of the most frequent criticisms of the nursery school is that the child is over-stimulated and, in consequence, overfatigued. This criticism is usually made by the casual observer who sees only that the nursery school child's life is a very active one. An adequate nursery school environment is and should be a constant stimulus to interested activity. But activity and business are not fatiguing when thus associated with interest and dissociated from boredom. The environment itself is planned to provide for neither over- nor under-stimulation in any one situation and by careful regulation is kept constant. The healthy nursery school child who attends regularly should never show signs of overfatigue. Certain practical suggestions may be offered as guides in avoiding over-stimulation and thus over-fatigue. Physical activity and social stimulation are the two most general sources of fatigue. A first consideration is the order of the routine time-table. The morning period of free play should not be continuous. The routine procedures, dressing, washing and toilet may be so spaced that they provide periods of change and rest from both physical and social play. In 350 NURSERY EDUCATION addition to the regular ten to fifteen minute morning relaxation, a short story or music provides for rest. The degree of fatigue due to physical activity depends also upon the play possibilities. There should be plenty of opportunity for quiet as well as strenuous play and all play equipment should be within the child's capacity so that it does not stimulate over-exertion. Fatigue due to social stimulation is dependent to some extent upon the amount of play space available and the size of the play groups. Crowded quarters and large groups are, necessarily, more fatiguing than the reverse. The introduction of a few simple rules of play procedure designed to reduce confusion and excitement will be found valuable in preventing over-stimulation and hence fatigue. Over-fatigue during the period of initiation into the school routine is prevented by making this introduction gradual. As previously suggested the ideal arrangement is to have the child remain at school for only a short period on his first day (about two hours) and to lengthen this period on subsequent days. Prevention of Infection: The only sure means of preventing contagious diseases would be by avoiding all contacts with other individuals, which procedure is not only impossible but undesirable. As ideal arrangements for the pre-school child demand that he have more and more social experience a necessary compromise has been made between the social and the physical phases of his training program. In the nursery school, where socialization is a first principle, the policy is to minimize the possibilities of contagion within the group. This phase of its preventive health program involves three main considerations: first, to increase the resistance of each child against specific diseases; second, to take proper precautions for preventing disease contacts and third, to take proper precautions when these occur. The first is accomplished by the use of vaccines or other PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM 35I such substances. The nursery school should require or at least strongly advise parents to take advantage of these. The two most successful examples are vaccination against smallpox and the prevention of diphtheria by the use of diphtheria toxoid. Smallpox can be completely prevented by vaccination. Although this disease is very seldom encountered, still if a susceptible population grows up no one can tell at what time the disease may sweep through the country. We may lay down the rule that no child should be admitted to a nursery school without being vaccinated. The results obtained in the prevention of diphtheria in the city of Toronto during the past five years are most spectacular. In 1929 there were I022 cases of diphtheria with 64 deaths, while five years later, in 1934, there were only 22 cases, with no deaths. This remarkable result was obtained through the widespread use of diphtheria toxoid. It is evident that by the use of diphtheria toxoid, which is harmless, produces no reaction, and is easily administered, this dread disease can be completely eliminated. It is therefore desirable that anti-diphtheria treatment be made one of the entrance requirements of every nursery school. The results to date in the prevention of scarlet fever are not as satisfactory as with diphtheria, and we must regard these as still being experimental in nature. Owing to the fact that children frequently have some reaction to the antiscarlet fever inoculations and, also, because the immunity is not always permanent we cannot insist upon every child being immunized against this disease. Strides are being made in the development of specific immunity against whooping cough but these investigations are also in the experimental stage. Possibly in the near future simple and adequate means will be available for immunization. The most effective precautionary measure for the prevention of contacts in the school is the institution of a daily physical examination. Each child should be examined be 352 NURSERY EDUCATION fore he is allowed to mingle with the others. Such an examination would include careful observation of the nose, mouth and throat, the skin of the face and the chest. Any unusual conditions should be noted; a blocked or running nose; inflamed or spotted throat or gums; skin irritations, etc. It is very infrequent for one to detect any signs of rash without the child showing other evidences of illness. In addition to the above specific examination the examiner should make a general survey of the child's condition, pallor, voice, and degree of energy, etc., all of which may indicate the onset of an illness. The parents should be encouraged to report upon unusual conditions appearing in the home routine, loss of appetite, etc. This examination should be made by a trained person and it will be found more satisfactory if the same individual performs the examination daily as judgments must be based largely upon variations from a child's usual condition. The parent should wait each morning until the examiner pronounces that the child is well enough to remain at school. In addition to the daily examination every nursery school worker should be familiar with the symptoms of illness and constantly on the alert for such signs of its onset as a pallid or flushed appearance, lack of the usual amount of energy, lack of appetite, involuntary wettings and soilings, or frequent elimination and, of course, sneezing, coughing or other signs of cold. If the symptoms are sufficiently serious the child should be sent home immediately, otherwise he may be isolated to play and sleep alone. The chief value of a daily physical examination is to detect oncoming colds and so prevent "cold contacts" among the group. As the constant concern of the nursery school, colds require special consideration. When a cold is definitely diagnosed at the examination the child should be sent home without delay. If the symptoms are slight (huskiness, etc.), the child may be admitted for the outdoor play period and observed during this time. A valuable policy for the PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM 353 prevention of "cold contacts" is that of educating the parents to observe the children for developing colds and to keep them home in such cases. The frequency of colds, which may be expected under such a nursery school regime, is shown in Table B. In order to prevent communicable diseases from spreading through the group the school should, in addition to the above, follow a definite procedure whenever a child attending contracts such an illness. Every parent should be obligated to notify the school when any such occurrence takes place. It will be found a satisfactory procedure to ask that the parents notify the school concerning the causes of all absences on the first day of absence. In this way a daily check can be made. When a parent reports a communicable disease the school physician or other medical adviser should be consulted. The parents of all the children in the school should then be informed concerning the case and the doctor's decision relayed, as to the possibility of infection and the procedure advisable for school and parents. If such measures as the above are adopted and adhered to there should be as little risk of the child contracting disease during school attendance as at home or elsewhere. The following data obtained from the records of St. George's School for Child Study bear witness to this. During eight years (1927-35) there were thirty-six cases of communicable disease, an average of four cases per year. All of these were isolated cases contracted outside of the school except seven cases of measles and three of whooping cough developed after contact in the nursery school. The seven cases of measles constitute the School's only approach to an epidemic during a period of eight years and the only occasion upon which it was necessary to close the School on account of illness. First Aid: Under the topic "danger situations" were discussed the 354 NURSERY EDUCATION arrangements necessary for an innocuous environment for children of the pre-school age. It was pointed out in that connection, that although the physical safety of the child is paramount, nevertheless a spirit of adventure must be fostered, not inhibited. In other words nursery school equipment should combine in its construction the necessary precautions for safety while providing an opportunity for the child to experience the thrill of experiment. How successfully this can be accomplished is indicated by the record of the past ten years in St. George's School for Child Study. With a registration of thirty children three accidents of a more serious nature have occurred, a Pott's fracture, a Colles' fracture and a fractured olecranon process. No precautions can prevent the innumerable scratches and bruises which are the necessary concomitant of vigorous play activity. An adequate first aid kit put up by any of the reputable drug companies should be readily available and all the staff of a nursery school familiar with its uses.3 Every worker should also have some knowledge of the types of minor accident which may occur and of the immediate treatment necessary. A nursery school should have an arrangement whereby a competent physician is on call during the nursery school period for consultation and advice and immediate medical attention whenever an accident is deemed serious is essential. 3 At St. George's School mercurochrome has been found more satisfactory than iodine preparations for use with young children. PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM TABLE A Nursery School Attendance expressed in percentages based on total possible attendance 355 Year Fall Term WinterTerm Spring Term Year I926-27 70.2 66.4 70.4 68.5 1927-28 85.6 68.2 86.6 79.I I928-29 79.2 75.i 67.9 75.0 1929-30 78.5 74.5 77.6 76.5 I930-31 77.0 64.6 72.2 70.5 193I-32 77.6 69.4 76.0 74.4 1932-33 75.5 74.3 78.9 76.0 1933-34 72.6 73.2 77.8 74.4 TABLE B Nursery School Absences Due to Colds expressed in percentages based on total attendance Year Fall Term WinterTerm Spring Term Total I927-28 8.5 17.5 6.6 11.3 1928-29 I5.3 9.5 I0.7 15.8 I929-30 i6.8 17.9 8.5 I5-5 I930-31 1 4.8 22.2 II.4 i6.8 193I-32 12.3 i9.8 I3.0 15.0 I932-33 20.I 19.7 io.8 17.8 1933-34 21.4 i8.8 I4.4 17.9 356 NURSERY EDUCATION PHYSICAL EXAMINATION Name: Date: Physician: INSPECTION: Bright, dull, nervous, choreic, phlegmatic, apathetic. DEVELOPMENT: Good, fair, poor. NOURISHMENT: Good, fair, poor. GENERAL CONDITION: Good, fair, poor. MUSCLES: Firm, flabby. SKIN: Smooth, rough, clear, scars, naevus. MOUTH: Normal, open, cough, herpes. MUCOUS MEMB.: Normal, dull, cyanotic. HEAD: Normal, bosses, prominent, pediculi. EYES: Pupils equal, unequal, react to light, distance, motion, norm., abnormal. CHEST: Normal, barrel, flat, funnel, pigeon, Harrison's groove, rosary. Circumference: Expansion: ABDOMEN: Normal, lax, large, distended, tympanic, tender. SPINE: Normal, lateral, curvature, right, left. SHOULDERS: Normal, round. GLANDS: Normal, enlarged, anterior cervical, posterior cervical. Axillary Epitrochlear Inguinal EXTREMITIES: Knee jerks, present, equal, absent. Oedema, present, absent. FEET: Arches, good, pronated. STATION: Normal. GAIT: Normal. PULSE: Strong, medium, weak. VOLUME: good, fair, poor. RHYTHM: regular, irregular. HEART: Normal, Area dullness, percussed, palpated. c.m. left of midsternal line. Apex in 4, 5, 6 space in nipple line. c.m. outside N.L., inside N.L. Dullness c.m. right of midsternal line. Sounds: clear, impure. Thrill present, none. A2 P2 murmurs none. Soft Systolic (Apex) 'Ant. axillary line Loud systolic (Pulmonic) Transmitted to Mid axillary line Diastolic (Aortic) Angle of scapula LUNGS: Normal, resonance good throughout, respiration good throughout. Adventitious sounds. PHYSICAL HEALTH PROGRAM 357 LIVER: Dullness, space, rib to costal border nipple line. c.m. below costal border. SPLEEN: Felt, not felt. NARES: Clear, crusted, mucous discharge, septum, deviated. TONGUE: Moist, dry, slight, white coat, brownish coat. PALATE: Normal high. PALATE REFLEX: normal, absent, exaggerated. THROAT: Normal, congested, granular, mucous. TONSILS: Normal, large, buried, cryptic, inflamed, absent. TEETH: Good, carious, No. Approximation, good, poor. EARS: Right drum, normal, dull, retracted, bulging, cerumen. Left drum, normal, dull, retracted, bulging, cerumen. WEIGHT: Lbs., Oz.. Normal weight for height, Lbs.,Oz. HEIGHT: Inches. Normal height for age inches. INDEX INDEX Adjustment, 21, 47. in organized activity, 239. emotional, 251. of new children, 289. Adult, interference in routine, 37; attitude, 44, 49, 72, i68, 262. procedure:-in routine situations, 33; in the dressing routine, 57; in the washing routine, 6i; in the dining room routine, 85; in the sleeping routine, o09; in the nurse's inspection, 127; in the relaxation routine, 130; in the free play period, 144, i68; in organized play, I96; in social development, 223, 227. treatment: —of emotional episodes, 262; of new children, 293. assistance in play, I72. commendation, I73. Aldrich, C. A., I04. Alschuler, Rose H., 59, I04, 2ii, 212, 247. Anderson, J. E., 54, I23, I94, 2II. Baldwin, B. T., 27, I93, 247. Baruch, D. W., 2II. Behavior difficulties, elimination routine, 72. dressing, 58. washing, 62. dining room, 93. sleeping, II3. in play, I73. social, 231. emotional, 278. during preliminary adjustment, 297. in the home, 313. Blatz, W. E., 34, 53, 54, 72, 8I, I04, I22, 141, I94, 247, 287. Books, 164, 184, 187. for the pre-school child, 197 ff. picture, 201. lists, 209. Boredom, I40, 158. Bott, H., 53, 54, 8I, I04, 122, 150, 194, 247, 287. Bridges, K. M. Banham, 248, 287. Brown, Alan, 340. Carpentry, I58. Carr, H. A., 53. Cather, K. D., 2II. Champlin, D. S., 212. Chant, N., I22. Choice, 41, I39, I45, I70, 272, 280. Clothing, for the pre-school child, 314, 345. Conflict, 253, 258, 260, 271. Conformity, 13, 40, 4I. in dressing routine, 56. in washing routine, 60. in elimination routine, 69. in dining room routine, 83. in sleeping routine, I07. in nourishment routine, 125. 36I 362 INDEX in nurse's inspection routine, I26. in relaxation routine, I29. to danger rules, I40. during preliminary adjustment, 296. Consequences, 41, 44, 226, 271. Control, adult, I44, i68, I69, I96, 223, 224. direct vs. indirect adult, 43, I44, I45, 146, i68, I69. emotional, 253, 259, 27I, 280. self, 3I, 42. Daily Program, 23, 54, I29, 344, 349. references, 53. Danger, rules, 146, 170. non-dangerous play equipment, I53. Davis, Mary Dabney, 28, 53, 55, 323. Dawdling, 58, 62, 93. Diet, 88, 92, 327, 345. minerals, 328. vitamins, 329. cereals, meats, vegetables, 331. desserts, 332. Discipline, 13, i8, 19, 20, 39, 271, 273, 3Io. rules of play procedure, 170, I 7I. of the home, 290. Emotion, 25I; a concept of, 25I; of the pre-school child, 255. fear, 253, 278. anger, 253, 280. influence of the environment, 259. adult treatment of, 262. types of episode, 263. the hurt child, 265. the startled child, 266. on entering school, 267. on change in routine, 269. on routine requirements, 27I. on discipline, 273. on social difficulties, 274. on physical inability, 277. behavior difficulties, 278. during preliminary adjustment, 289, 297. Enuresis, 72. Equipment, cloakroom, 56. washroom, 60. elimination routine, 69. dining room routine, 82. sleeping room routine, 0o6. playroom furnishings, I47. play materials, I50, i8o. Examinations, physical, 290, 348. mental, 290. Exhibitionism, 72. Faegre, M. L., 54, 123, I94, 2II. Food Dislikes, 88, 91, 92, 94. Foster, J. C., 27, 54, 55, 59, 68, 8I, I05, 122, I94, 2II, 213, 248, 287, 323. Freedom, 13, i8, I9, 140, 145, i88, 218. Freeman, G. L. & R. S., 212. Garrison, C. G., I94. Greenwood, B., 27, 55, 105, 194, 212, 213, 324. Habit Formation, 38. Health, 309, 343. positive program, 344:-nutrition, 345; sleep, 346, 347. INDEX 363 preventive program, 349:-fatigue, 349, 350. first aid, 354. Home Visit, 292. Home Report, 29I. Husband, M. L., 105. Interest, 256, 295, I53. development of, I4I. social, 2I8, 231. span of interest, 150. development through constructive materials, 154. lack of, I95. in carpentry, I89. in books, 197. Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, 54, 55, 59, 8i, I33, I94, 212, 213, 248, 324. Isolation, 45. Jersild, A. T., 248. Johnson, Harriet M., 27, 55, I95, 213, 248. Kuhlman, F., 303. Laird, A. L., 340. Leadership, 221, 236. unacceptable social dominance, 233. Learning, Io, 31. principles of, 32. planning for, 33. through discipline, 39. in play, I39:-physical, I60; ideational, I62; sensory, I65. in music, 104. learning socially acceptable behavior, 225. relation to emotion, 252. Lowenberg, Miriam, 340. McLester, J. S., 340. McMillan, M., 28. Manners, 222, 238. Masturbation, 113. Mattson, M. L., 27, 54, 55, 59, 68, 8i, I05, I22, I94, 2II, 213, 248 287, 323. Menus, 88, 92, 3Io. Millichamp, D. A., 288. Mitchell, H., 195. Mitchell, L. S., 212. Morgan, J. J. B., 288. Motivation, 21, 33. Music, 204. appreciation of, 208. songs, rhythms and singing games, 209. Nagging, 87. National Advisory Committee of Emergency Nursery Schools, 28. National Committee on Nursery Schools, 28. New children, in the relaxation routine, IoI. in the sleeping routine, I 12. introductory period, 292. introductory treatment, 293. in nurse's inspection and entrance routine, 127. Nursery education, I8. aims of, 8. Nursery School, aims of, 17. and the parent, 17, 307. obligations of, 309. health program, 343. Owen, J., 28. Parents, 7I, 92, 95, 29I. cooperation with the Nursery School, 17, 307. 364 INDEX during preliminary adjustment, 294. obligations of, 308. parent education groups, 3I0, 3I6, 317. school observation, 3I1. conferences with, 3I2. problems, 313. information for, 314. Park, E. N., 340. Pattinson, N. L., 340. Play, 36. versus routine, 31, I37. versus work, 137. characteristics of, I40. developmental phases, I41. adult control of, 144, I68. materials, 150:-non-dangerous, 153; constructive, I54, 163; suitable, 157; for physical development, i60; for ideational development, 162; for sensory development, I64; for social development, i66; description of, I79. behavior difficulties, I73. destructive, 173. organized, I96, 240. Recipes, 334. Records, routine, 47. discipline, 50. washroom, 63, 64, 65. elimination, 76, 77. dining room, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99. sleeping, 117, ii8. nurse's daily record, I32. of pay activity, i60, I90. of social development, 244, 245, 246. emotional, 284, 286. adjustment, 300. home visit, 30I. early history form, 318 ff. menu form, 338, 339. physical examination, 356. Retardation, in play behavior, 175. Rhythm, 207. Ringland, M. C., I23. Routine, versus free play, 3I, 137. learning in, 31. adult procedure in, 33. discipline, 39. dressing, 56. washing, 60. elimination, 69. dining room, 82. sleeping room, io6, 347. incidental, 24. nourishment, 124. drink of water, I25. nurse's inspection, 126. entrance, 126. relaxation, I29. social adjustment in, 239. emotional behavior in, 27. preliminary adjustment to, 296. in physical health program, 344, 346, 349. Shedlock, M., 212. Sherman, H. C., 340. Sherman, M., 288. Singing, 205. Social development, 217. play materials for, I66. stages of, 2I8. planning for, 223, 226, 227. learning acceptable behavior, 225. social difficulties, 228:-interference, 228; disagreement, 229; social pressure, 230; ostracism, 230; oversocial play, 231; unacceptable social dominance, 233; bidding for social INDEX 365 attention, 234; immaturity, 236; emotional behavior, 256, 274, 275, 281. adjustment in routine, 239. preliminary adjustment, 297. in organized play, 240. Starr, A., 288. Stecher, L. I., 27, I93, 247. Story Telling, I97. techniques Of, 202. variations of, 203. Stutsman, R., 304. Terman, L. M., 304. Thumb Sucking, ii5. Tisdall, F. F., 340. Tics, 113. Tuition, 3. Waddell, C. W., 27, 55, I05, I94, 2212 2I3, 324. Wagoner, L. C., 53, 54, 59, 8i, 122, 195, 248, 288. Waring, E. B., 59, 68. Wilker, M., 59, 68. Woolley, H. T., 8i, 105, 122. Van Aistyne, D., I195.