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PRIMARY
OBJECT LESSONS
FOR A
GRADUATED COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT.
A.
MANUAL FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS,
WITH
LESSONS FOR THE PROPER TRAINING OF THE FACULTIES OF
CHILDREN.
BY N. A. CALKINS.
Present to children things before words, ideas before names. Train
them to observe, to do, and to tell.
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
FRANKLIN SQUARE
1861.
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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred
and sixty-one, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York.
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PRE F ACE.
"INSTRUCTION must begin with actual inspection, not with
verbal descriptions of things. From such inspection it is that
certain knowledge comes. What is actually seen remains
faster in the memory than description or enumeration a hundred times as often repeated."
Thus wrote John Amos Comenius, an exiled teacher of
Austria, about the middle of the seventeenth century. And to
the introduction of his works Germany is largely indebted for
the great progress in her schools which commenced during
that century.
Said the great Swiss educator Pestalozzi at the close of
the eighteenth century,
"Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge.   The
first object, then, in education, must be to lead a child to observe with accuracy; the second, to express with correctness
the result of his observations."
On the philosophical principles taught by those two great educators, and confirmed by the experiences of subsequent observers, is based the system of mental development illustrated
in the present work. In the application of these principles,
however, there have been successive changes resulting in the
various forms of the inductive methods of education now practiced in this country and in Europe. Not to those noble educators belong all the credit of the present system of teaching
from objects, the unknown from the known; they developed
principles only; the systems have grown out of the study and
application of those principles by succeeding educators. And
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PREFACE.
to no other persons are we so largely indebted for rendering
practical the educational ideas of Pestalozzi as to the Mayos
of England.
With an earnest desire to contribute something toward a general radical change in the system of primary education in this
country - a change from the plan of exercising the memory
chiefly to that of developing the observing powers -a change
from an artificial to a natural plan-one in accordance with the
philosophy of mind and its laws of development-the author
commenced the following pages.
In the preparation of a work upon a subject of such importance as one claiming to be a guide in the early education of
the young, he felt it his duty to avail himself of the best sources
of information by which he could add to his own the observation and experience of the most successful educators. He has
accordingly examined the various systems of infant education
of Europe, and especially those by Wilderspin, Stow, and Currie, and that practiced by the "Home and Colonial School Society" of London, as presented by Elizabeth Mayo in her
"Model Lessons" and "Manual of Elementary Instruction."
The plan of developing Object Lessons contained in this book
corresponds more nearly to that given in Miss Mayo's works
than to either of the other systems.
In our own country this system has been successfully introduced into the Primary Schools of Oswego, N.Y., and has also
been adopted in the course of instruction for the Public Schools
of Chicago, Ill.
The present volume is designed to embrace a period of about
three years of training preceding that point at which the pupil
begins to gain knowledge from books by study and the usual
lessons and recitations of school. It is the intention of the author to prepare a second volume which shall embrace lessons
in Natural History adapted to a portion of this same period,
also extending them, with notes of lessons on other objects,
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PREFACE.
through some two or three years of that period during which
the pupils are assigned lessons in books, and thus to illustrate
how this system of training may be applied to the entire course
of common school education.
This work differs from others prepared for teachers in this
important feature: it illustrates how the teacher should proceed
at each successive step in developing the minds of children.
In telling what ought to be done, it proceeds to show how to
do it by illustrative examples.
Special attention is invited to the" Classification of Colors,"
also to "Elementary Reading."  The mode of treating both
of these subjects, it is believed, will amply repay a careful study.
In preparing this work, the aim of the author has not been
to produce a faultless composition, but rather a book adapted
to the wants of teachers in presenting a natural, simple, and
philosophical system of primary education so clearly and minutely that no teacher can fail of gaining from it not only its
principles, but a knowledge of how to apply them under the
varying circumstances in which he may be placed. With the
hope that he has not failed in this respect, this volume is earnestly commended to the kind consideration of teachers, parents, and all friends of education.        N. A. CALKINs.
New York, June, 1861.
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CONT E NTS.
Page
DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION................................... 11-40
Introduction........................;1............... 11
Preparation for Lessons..............................................20
Sketches of Lessons.................................................... 21
Suggestions for writing Sketches................................... 24
Conversational Lessons............................................... 26
List of Subjects for Observation and Conversation............30
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORlI.....................................    41-93
Apparatus for illustrating Form................................... 42
Introductory Exer?cises for teaching Children to observe Form.
I. Distinguishing Shapes............................................. 49
II.      "       Corners and Sides..............................50
III.      "      Straight and Curved Sides................... 51
IV. Combining Forms................................................... 51
Illustrate Form with Common Objects........................,3
Less. I. To develop the Idea of Straight Lines.................... 55
II.     "         "    Curved "..................57
III.     "         "     Surface, plane and curved....58
IV.     "          "    an Angle......................... 60
V.      "         "    Right, Acute, and Obtuse An           gles.............................................................63
VI. To develop the Idea of Triangles.......................... 66
VII. Position of Lines-perpendicular and horizontal.......68
VIII. Slanting Lines.................................................. 71
IX. Parallel Lines.................................................. 72
X. Square, Rhomb, and Parallelogram...................... 74
XI. Pyramids......................................................... 77
XII. Prisini-s............................................................ 78
X1II. Cube and Cubical Forms....................................80
XIV. Circle and Semicircle......................................... 81
XV. Circumference and Arc...................................... 83
XVI. Centre, Radius, and Diameter............................. 84
XVII. Cylinder and Cylindrical Forms........................... 86
XVIII. Cone and Conical Forms....................................87
XIX. Spherical Forms............................. 89
XX. Oval............................................................... 91
Concluding Suggestions..................................... 92
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING................................. 94-98
How Drawing may be introduced into Primary Schools.....94
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR...................................  99-134
Importance of training the E y    e................................... 99
Preparations for illustrating Color............................... 104
Classification, Combination, and Description of Colors.....  105
Harmony of Colors............................................. 111, 134
Less. I. Distinguishing the Primary Colors....................... 112
II. Naming the Primary Colors............................... 113
III. Distinguishing the Secondary Colors..................... 114
IV. Naming the Secondary Colors............................. 115
V. Red and Yellow............................................... 116
VI. Blue and Shades of Colors................................. 118
VII. Hues and Tints of Red..................................... 120
VIII.    "        1'  Yellow................................. 121
IX. Hues of other Colors........................................ 122
X. Orange-mixing Red and Yellow........................ 123
XI. Green-mixing Blue and Yellow......................... 124
XII. Purple-mixing Blue and Red........................... 125
XIII. Indigo-mixing Blue and Purple........................ 126
XIV. Primary and Secondary Colors........................... 127
XV. Citrine.......................................................... 129
XVI. Olive............................................................. 130
XVII. Russet........................................................... 130
XVIII. About AVhite and Black.................................... 131
Reviewing....................................................... 133
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NiUMBER...............................  135-159
I. First Ideas of Number....................................... 138
II. Figures..........................................................  141
III. Formation and Succession of Numbers.................. 144
IV. Comparing Nu      mbers......................................... 145
V. Order of Numbers............................................ 146
VI. Addition........................................................ 148
VII. Subtraction.....................................................  151
VIII. Multiplication.................................................. 154
IX. Division......................................................... 155
X. Fractions....................................................... 156
XI. Teaching the Tables by Objects........................... 158
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE....................................  160-173
I. To develop the Idea of Size in general.................. 160
II.     "         "    Length............................ 162
III.     "         "    Measure.......................... 163
IV.      "         "    relative Distance............... 165
V.      "         "    measured Distance............. 166
VI.      "         "    Width............................. 168
VII.      "         "    Thickness, Height, etc......... 170
VIII. To show the Necessity of Standard Measure.......... 171
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CONTENTS.                      vii
Page
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF WEIGHT................................ 174-181
Less. I. To develop the Idea of Weight............................ 176
II. Weight compared............................................. 177
III. Necessity of Standard Weights........................... 179
IV. Weighing....................................................... 180
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SOUND................................. 182-188
I. Distinguishing Common Sounds................ 183
II. Classifying Common Sounds.............................. 184
III. Character of Sounds......................................... 185
IV. Miscellaneous Exercises.................................... 186
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HU-IAN BODY.................. 189-228
I. Distinguishing the principal Parts of the Body....... 190
II. Touching Parts of the Body............................... 190
III. To distinguish Parts of the principal Parts of the Body 192
IV. The Limbs............................................. 194
V. The Joints............................................. 196
VI. Parts of the Limbs........................................... 198
VII. The Feet............................................... 199
VIII. The Feet of Animals........................................ 201
IX. The Hands....................................................   203
X. The HIead...................................................... 205
XI. The Eves....................................................... 207
XII. The Eves and Sense of Sight.............................. 209
XIII. The Ears and Sense of Hearing.......................... 212
XIV. The Nose and Sense of Smelling.......................... 214
XV. The Mo              uth..................................................... 217
XVI. The Sense of Touch.......................................... 220
XVII. The Teeth of Animals...................................... 222
XVIII. The Hair....................................................... 224
XIX. The Bones...................................................... 225
XX. The Blood...................................................... 226
PHYSICAL TRAINING............................................... 229-241
School Exercises, with Illustrations and Descriptions...... 230
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE................................. 242-268
I. To develop Ideas of Place.................................. 245
II. Points of Compass............................................ 247
III. Showing the Nccessitv of Fixed Points.................. 250
IV. Representing the Position of Objects on the Black             board, and applying the Points of Compass......... 252
V. Playgrounds, Streets, and relative Distances.......... 256
VI. The Scale of a Map......................................... 258
VII. Land and Water, Hills, Mountains, Plains, etc....... 263
VIII. About Rivers, Lakes, and the Ocean.................... 266
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ELEMENTARY READING........................................... 269-290
The A B C Method.................................................. 269
The Phonic Method................................................. 271
The Phonetic or Phonotypic Method............................ 272
The Word Method................................................... 272
The Word-building Method........................................ 273
Objects of Teaching Re     ading...................................... 274
The Object Method................................................ 278
OBJECT LESSONS, their Nature and Design................. 291-348
A Graduated Course oqf Object Lessons.
First Series.-Naming and Describing Objects................. 298
I. A Chair......................................................... 298
II. A Watch....................................................... 301
III. A Pin........................................................... 302
IV. A Thimble..................................................... 303
V. Review-Chair, Watch, Pin, Thimble.................. 304
VI. A Key.......................................................... 305
VII. A Cart.................................................... 306, 307
Second Series.-Developing Ideas of the Qualities of Objects.. 308
I. Glass............................................................. 308
II. Slate............................................................. 310
III. Water........................................................... 312
IV. M i l k............................................................. 314
V. Review-Glass, Slate, Water, Milk...................... 316
VI. India-rubber................................................... 317
VII. Sponge.......................................................... 318
VIII. Whalebone..................................................... 321
IX. Wool............................................................. 322
X. Review-India-rubber, Sponge, Whalebone, Wool... 325
XI. Sugar............................................................ 326
XII. Glu               e.............................................................. 328
XIII. Coal.............................................................. 329
XIV. Lead............................................................. 331
Third Series.-Developing Ideas of the Materials, Formation,
and Resemblances of Objects....................................... 335
I. Paper............................................................ 335
II. Leather........................................................ 338
III. Honey-comb................................................... 340
IV. Rose Leaf...................................................... 342
Subjects for Object Lessons................................ 347
Use of Pictures............................................... 348
DEVELOP3IENT OF MORAL IDEAS.............................. 349-358
Less. I. To develop theldea of God as a kind Father............. 351
II.     "       "      "    the Maker of all Things 353
III. "           "  of the Soul..................355
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CONTENTS.
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HOW TO USE THTIS BOOK.
THIS book is to be used as a guide for the teacher in preparing
lessons for a systematic course of development in training the faculties of children to habits of observation and the acquisition of
knowledge from the objects around them.
Although the subjects of the lessons herein presented are designed to be given in nearly the order in which they here occur,
yet it is by no means intended that each subject shall be continued
separately until finished. The lessons on Form, Color, Number,
Size, Weight, Human Body, Elementary Reading, Place, and Morals, may be considered as so many branches, or school studies, and
should be introduced in their proper time and appropriate places,
as reading, writing, geography, grammar, arithmetic, philosophy,
etc., are introduced into school both successively and continued at
the same time. No teacher would think of finishing instruction
in spelling and reading before giving lessons in writing and geography, or of insisting upon the pupils "going through" geography
before commencing arithmetic and grammar; yet there is a propcr succession of these branches, and an appropriateness in commencing and gaining some knowledge of one before attempting to
learn another. This same principle should guide in the use of
this book. The child would not be able to take so simple an object even as a chair, and describe it properly, until it had learned
the appropriate terms which are given under the separate heads
of Form and Color. Hence the propriety of giving some lessons
in those subjects before introducing the Object Lessons proper.
Again, the pupils tire of monotony; they are interested by a
variety; so lessons on different subjects should succeed each other.
NVith the preceding explanations, the manner of using this book
may be readily understood, and the teacher of the Primary School
will be able to arrange her order of exercises from the following
DAILY PROGRAMME (FIRST TERM).
(Conversational Lesson.           (Moral Instruction.
\Reading and Spelling.      \        Reading and Spelling.
Form.                              Human Body.
i /Human Body.                   g   Physical Exercise.
Reading and Spelling.      A      Reading and Spelling.
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HOW TO USE THIS BOOK. -
(Conversational Lesson.. f(foral Instruction.
~~~~~~~ Redng                      and Spelling.
Readig and Spelling.                     Reading    and Spelling.
~  JForm.                C                /Color.
Physical Exercises.      P              Physical Exercises.
e            Number.                      Psie.
=  Reading and Spelling.                  Reading and Spelling.
iFriday, review the lessons of the week, adding something interesting to each.
The following will suggest changes proper for the second term:
DAILY PROGRA:MME  (SECOND  TERM).
Moral Instruction.                      Reading and Spelling.
Reading and Spelling.                   Color.
Form.                                   Physical Exercises.
Physical Exercises.                      Size.
C  olor.,Reading and Spelling.
IIuman Body.                             Number.
Reading and Spelling.                  Place.
Sound.                                 Drawing.
~  Conversational Lesson.                Moral Instruction.
Reading and Spelling..   Reading and Spelling.
>' 5 ~Form. t~Number.
Physical Exercises.'   Drawing.
t  uman Body.                           I  Size.
Sound.                                      Physical Exercises.
O ()bjects-lst Series.                    Place.
Reading and Spelling.                   Reading and Spelling.
Friday.  Review.
The following programme for A and B classes of the Primary
Schools of Oswego, N. Y., for two days, will indicate the range
of topics, and the number of minutes devoted to each lesson.
TUESDAY MORNING.
8 30. Opening Exercises.
8 45. Lesson on Form, B, sub. 2.
9 00. Lesson on Weight, B, sub. 1.
9 15. Gymnastics.
9 20. Spelling, A class.
9 35. Recess.
9 45. Reading  B, sub. 2.
10 10.  SB, sub. 1, Drawing.
10 20 Gymnastics.
10 25. Lesson on Number, B, sub. 1.
10 50. Recess.
11 00. Lesson on Objects, A class.
11 15. Reading, B, sub. 1.
11 35. Lesson on Number, A class.
12 00. Intermission.
2 00. Lesson on Number, B, sub. 2.
2 15. Drawing, A class.
2 30. Gymnastics.
2 35 Reading, B, sub. 1.
2 55. Lesson on Weight, B, sub. 2.
3 10. Calling roll.
3 15. Recess.
3 30. Lesson on Number, A class.
3 45. Lesson on Form, B, sub. 1.
4 00. Spelling, A class.
4 10. Lesson on Number, B, sub. 1.
MOIDAY NMORINIG.
8 30.  Opening                                           Exercises.
8 45. GMoral Instruction.
8 55. Reading, B, sub. 1.
9 15.                      Gymnastics
9 20.                      Lesson on Number, B, sub. 2.
9 35o  Recess.
9 45.                      L      esson on Place, A class.
10  00.                     Reading, B, sub. 2.
10 05. Gymnastics
10 30. Le sson on Number, B, sub. 1.
10 50. Recess.
11 00. Reading, A class.
11 20. WVriting on slates, B, sub. 1.
11 40. Lesson on Number, A class.
12 00. Intermission.
2 00. Lesson on  Number, A class.
2 20. Lesson on Animals, A and B.
2 30. Gymnastics.
2 35. Reading, B, sub. 2.
2 55 Lesson on Number, B, sub. 1.
3 10. Calling Poll.
3 15. Recess.
3 30. Spelling, A class.
3 45. Reading, B, sub. 1.
4 10. Reading, A class.
4 30. Dismission.
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DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
INTRODUCTION.
THE first step toward a preparation for training
the minds of children should be to ascertain the nature of the beings to be educated, and the processes
adapted to the development of their faculties. When
this is understood properly, it will be an easy matter
to adapt instruction to them. As an introduction to
this step, we will state, at the outset, a few important
facts as a basis of the development of the intellectual
faculties.
1. Our knowledge of the material world is derived
through the senses.  Objects, and the various phenomena of the external world, are the subjects upon
which the faculties first exercise themselves. Knowledge begins with experience.
2. Perception is the first stage of intelligence. Primary education begins with the culture of the perceptive faculties; this culture chiefly consists in affording
occasions and stimulants for their development, and
in fixing perceptions in the mind by means of representative language.
3. The natural and most healthful incentive to attention and the acquisition of knowledge, with chil
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12     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
dren, is the association of pleasure with instruction.
Curiosity, or the desire of knowledge, and the love
of the beautiful and of the wonderful, are great actuating principles of early childhood, and their gratification is always accompanied by pleasurable emotions.
Children possess a natural craving for knowledge as
well as for occupation. Success affords them pleasure. Self-dependlence is another powerful agent of
culture.
4. Instruction should give pleasure to children, and
where it does not there is something wrong, either in
the mode of presenting it or in the subject-matter selected for instruction.
5. All the faculties are developed and invigorated
by proper exercise; they may be enfeebled by being
overtasked, or by being exercised on subjects which
do not come within their proper sphere.
6. The chief object of primary education is the development of the faculties. The period of development is emphatically that of the first ten years of the
child's life.
7. Some faculties are as active and almost as vigorous in the child as they are in the man. Among
these are sensation, perception, observation, and simple memory. Other powers of the mind do not attain
their full development until the child has arrived at
the period of maturity. Among these are abstraction, the higher powers of reason, imagination, philosophical memory, generalization, etc.
8. The habits of attention and concentration are
Ireat main-springs of education.  Habits are formed
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INTRODUCTION.
by repetitions of the same act. The great secret in
fixing the attention of children is to interest themto mingle delightful associations with learning-never
to overstrain their faculties, or to fatigue them by
keeping them too long directed to one particular subject.
9. The natural process of education is from the
simple to the complex, from the known to the unknown, from facts to causes, principles before rules,
ideas before words, things before names.
10. Explanations of some of the leading terms employed in treating of the action of the intellectual
faculties:  Sensations-impressions  made  upon  the mind
through the medium of the senses.
Perception-cognizance of sensation; taking notice
of the data presented to the mind by the senses.
Attentioin-a bending to, stretching toward; a
process of the mind by which it detains the thoughts
and directs them to the one object in view.
Observaction-attention to perceptions for the purpose of complete conceptions and perfect recognition;
holding before the mind with attention.
We are now prepared to state more definitely the
order and process by which the minds of children gain
knowledge, and to point out the steps to be taken in
developing their faculties. We do not attempt here
to account for all the actions and phenomena of mind,
but simply to mention the leading faculties which are
employed by children, and to indicate the order irp
which these act.
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14     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
The senses furnish to the mind its means of contact
with the external world. Through sensations the
mind gains perceptions fiom the objects around it.
Perceptions lead to conceptions of ideas, which are retainedcl or recalled by memory.  Imagization takes
up these ideas, combines and presents them in new
forms. Reason proceeds to investigate them by more
definite modes, and jzu(gmenzt is the result.
Again, sensations give perceptiogns; attention to
percep)tions constitutes observation.  -By means of
observation knowledge is obta2ied.
It follows, then, that the first aim of the primary
teacher, and of the parent, at instruction, should be
to cultivate cin the child habits of accurate observation.  Such habits-clear perceptions, fixed attention,
and watchful observation-become a guaranty for the
acquisition of knowledge in after years.
Nature suggests the true plan for accomplishing
this desirable end in the course which the child itself
pursues in the examination of the various objects
which surround it. The instructor should fall in with
the child's desire to know, and allow it to exercise its
senses upon each new object presented to it, by seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, or smelling it, as the
case may be. This is Nature's method of teaching,
a    nd man never ha   s     been able to improve it.  By the
use of its perceptive faculties on the objects around it,
the child acquires a large stock of ideas before it goes
to school. The teacher should begin her instruction
at the point at which the child has arrived when
school-life begins, and lead the mind gradually for
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INTRODUCTION.
ward from one degree of knowledge to another. She
should begin with things that are familiar to the child,
and lead it to use the knowledge already acquired in
obtaining new ideas. Words and their uses will naturally succeed a knowledge of things, because language will be needed to express the ideas derived
from them. Here we perceive Nature's method to be
things before words.  If, then, we would improve the
language of a child, we must first give it ideas, then
words to enable it to express those ideas.
Sometimes children employ original terms to express their thoughts; these should be accepted, and if
faulty, let errors be pointed out and right words be
given. Whenever a new word or term is to be
taught, the thing or idea of which the term is a sign
should be taught first, and be understood by the pupil
before the word is presented. In all cases let the
teacher present first to her pupils a clear picture of
the idea, then its name will have a meaning which it
would not otherwise possess; and when used it will
call up a distinct conception in the mind. The opposite method-that of giving first the sign of the idea,
and in too many instances the word only-is opposed
to the first principles of education, and its results may
be witnessed every day in the mere word knowledge
of our schools.
All our ideas are primarily derived from nature;
books merely represent the knowledge thus obtained;
therefore it must be evident that books instruct us
only so far as we are able to connect the words contained in them with the ideas which those words rep
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16     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
resent. Since ideas are not derived primarily from
words, but fi'rom things, it follows that our teaching
should begin with things, ideas, and principles.
No man becomes a good farmer, or carpenter, or
painter, or engineer, or surgeon, from books alone; he
must have observation and practice-in other words,
experience, to make what he reads in books a living
reality, so that words shall be to him as pictures to
represent those realities.
If habits of accurate observation are ever attained,
the foundation must be laid in childhood. Since chil dren delight in natural knowledge-a knowledge of
things-and since a constant impulse to know seems
to urge them to acquire correct ideas of the objects
about them, a little encouragement will lead them to
employ this useful and divinely-implanted desire so
that observation will become a most valuable habit.
Thousands of evidences exist around us proving that
this noble impulse, if neglected or checked in childhood, becomes greatly diminished in activity, even so
far as almost to cease to take notice of the beauty and
wonders of the world.
From the lack of habits of observing the properties
of common things, and deriving therefrom those lessons to which such observation leads, the most lamentable errors are committed. Without this habit nature is a sealed book; the varieties of animal and vegetable life appear but a mass of confusion; the stars
tell no wonders, mark no seasons. To remedy this,
habits of observation must be commenced in infancy,
carried forward in youth, and confirmed in manhood.
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INTRODUCTION.
If we would take for our guide in education those
laws which God has prescribed for the development of
mind, and follow them, we must begin with things, and
go from them to words, teaching words as representative symbols, or signs of the things themselves. This
course would render the path of the learner pleasant,
as God intended that the acquisition of knowledge
should be.
The most important period in education is that of
the primary school. Hence those who undertake the
charge of training children during this period should
be especially qualified for it; they should understand
the cultivation of the senses, and know how to teach
real things, real forms, real colors, real sotuncs, and
how to lead the mind to correct conceptions. Before
teaching the word ctbe as the name of an object, they
should see that the child is familiar with and can readily distinguish the form of a cube; before teaching the
word greets as the name of a color, they should know
that the child has a distinct idea of the color itself;
and, instead of teaching first the words rough and
smooth, and then their definitions, the mind should be
made acquainted with the sensations of rough and
smooth, and the words taught to enable it to express
those sensations. If teachers will learn to carry out
this idea in all their primary instruction, words and
books will come to have a significance to the young
which they seldom or never attain under the present
methods of education.
Observation teaches that the full use of our senses
is to be acquired by suitable training. Their cultiva
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18     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
tion is one of the important duties of both the parent
and the primary teacher.  On this subject Miss Edgeworth justly remarks:
"Rousseau has judiciously advised that the senses
of children should be cultivated with the utmost care.
In proportion to the distinctness of their perceptions
will be the accuracy of their memory, and probably,
also, the precision of their judgment. A child who
sees imperfectly can not reason justly about the objects of sight, because it has not sufficient data. A
child who does not hear distinctly can not judge well
of sound; and if we could suppose the sense of touch
to be twice as accurate in one child as in another, we
might conclude that the judgment of these children
must differ in a similar proportion.
"The defects in organization are not within the
power of the instructor. We may observe that inattention and want of exercise are frequently the causes
of what are mistaken for natural defects; and, on the
contrary, increased attention and cultivation some.
times produce that quickness of eye and ear, and that
consequent readiness of judgment, which we are apt
to attribute to natural superiority of organization or
capacity."
The more we spread and enlarge these roots of
knowledge by such practical means, the more rapidly
the future tree will grow, and the more abundant and
perfect will be the fruits thereof.
"A little child has sensations which we ourselves
had, but which we now forget. It walks in the world
as we might do in a new country; the sky, the chang
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INTRODUCTION.
ing lights, every class of natural objects, give rise to
new sensations, for each of which it seeks a name;
and long before it has words to characterize them, it
is acquainted with many qualities and circumstances
relating to them. But its faculties are chiefly employed upon those things most closely allied to its
own nature. Every thing that lives has a special interest; motion invariably attracts as a sign of life, but
it is human society and all its relations that come
home most fully to its sympathies."*
Whatever the child sees done he wants to know
about, and to do; and so great is his love of knowledge, that he will gladly throw aside the playthings
which delight him to watch his papa or mamma in operations where tools are employed. He wants to know
about the food he eats; the uses of each article of furniture; the uses of tools which he sees; about his
clothes-how they are made; and about every thing
relative to man, animals, and plants. In fact, his curiosity is insatiable, because a knowledge of these
things is necessary to existence and well-being. Now
it is evident that by taking advantage of this propensity to know, while gratifying a natural desire, habits
of observation may be established, a great amount of
knowcle(Ige impcarted, and, at the same time, the coznception, imcginction, reason, and ju(gnment cultivated,
and the foundation laid for a thoroughly practical,education.
Books for children will never accomplish this; it
should precede books; it is the work of the parent
* Young's Teacher's Manual.
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20     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
and of the primary teacher. To aid them in their endeavors to properly develop the minds of the children intrusted to their care is the design of this book.
It is not expected that these lessons will be followed
literally, but it is hoped that they will serve as models
to suggest plans adapted to the wants of teachers and
parents under the varying circumstances in which
they may be placed.
PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON.
No teacher should give a lesson before she has
made herself thoroughly acquainted with the subject.
How it should be treated, both as to arrangement and
method, should first be fixed in her own mind. It is
well to practice drawing out sketches of lessons in
the form of notes, that the presentation of the subject
may be in a concise and methodical manner; but the
notes thus drawn out should seldom or never be used
while giving the lesson. These ought to be so well
fixed in the mind before beginning the lesson that
there will be no occasion for reference to them. The
notes should present the leading points to be developed in the subject, and indicate not only the successive steps of development, but the leading train of
ideas which are to constitute the real knowledge to
be given to the pupils. We will endeavor to illustrate this point by a few simple "Sketches of Lessons."
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PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON. 
SKETCHES OF LESSONS ON FORM.
I. Object of the Lesson.-To distinguish different
forms.
Steps.-1. Point to a form on the "chart of forms,"
and let the child select one like it from the box
of forms.
2. Pick up a pattern of form, and request a child to
point to one on the "chart" or blackboard that
resembles it.
3. Place three or four forms in a row, and request
the children to select similar forms and place
them in the same order.
II. Object of the Lesson.-To teach the different
kinds of sides.
Steps.-1. Show figures bounded by straight sides, as
a square, triangle, etc. Require the children to
point to similar sides in the drawings upon the
board and in the objects about the room.
2. Show figures or forms bounded by a curved line;
let the children point out similar sides as before.
3. Teach the names of straight sides, and round or
curved sides. Let the children point to each as
the name is given.
Ill. Object of the Lesson.-To develop the idea of
an angle.
Steps.-1. Show an angle; draw one like it on the
board; then require the children to point out the
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22     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
same or similar shapes in other objects; to repre  sent the shape with two sticks or with their fin  gers.
2. Teach them to describe the position of the lines
which form the angle in relation to each other.
3. Teach the name of the form represented by two
lines which meet in a point.
SKETCHES OF LESSONS ON COLOR.
I. Object of the Lesson.- Teaching the names of
color.
Steps.-1. The children select a color according to a
pattern shown, and are told its name.
2. The teacher names a color, and the children se    lect the color named.
3. The teacher points to a color, and the children
give the name.
II. Object of the Lesson.-Teaching the shades of
color.
Steps.-1. Develop the idea of light and dark shades.
2. Shades of blue, as dark and light blue.
3. Hues of red, as crimson, scarlet, vermilion, pink.
4. Hues of yellow-lemon, straw, cream.
5. Hues of green-grass, pea, apple, etc.
6. Hues of purple-violet, lavender, lilac.
7. Hues of orange-salmon, buff.
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PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON.'
MISCELLANEOUS SKETCHES.
I, Object of the Lesson.-To teach the children to
observe the parts of a watch.
Steps.-1. Let the children point to the parts of the
watch, as the face, the glass, the hands, the case,
etc. Tell them the names of each, if they do not
know them already.
2. Let the teacher point to the parts, while the pu    pils tell the names.
3. Lead the children to tell the position of the dif    ferent parts.
II. Object of the Lesson.-To develop the idea of
crumbling.
Steps.-I. Show the children a lump of salt, of sugar,
and stale bread. Lead them to observe their
crumbling by rubbing them in their hands.
2. Lead them to compare these substances with a
piece of wax, a stone, and a piece of metal.
3. Tell them the name of the quality by which a
substance comes into little pieces.
4. Require the children to tell when a thing is said
to be crumbling.
III. Object of the Lesson.-To develop an idea of
what sleep is, and of its use, and of God's wisdom
as manifested in its adaptation to man.
Steps.-I1. Lead the children to consider what sleep
is, their helpless state when asleep, their uncon    sciousness; would not know if danger approach
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24     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
ed; who watches over them; whom they should
thank when they rise in the morning.
2. The use of sleep. We go to bed tired; how we
feel after a night's rest. The time for sleep; the
position for sleep.
3. God's appointment of night and day suitable to
our wants.  How beautiful and wise that there
is a time particularly suited to sleep; when dark  ness prevails-quiet. How bright and cheering
the rising sun in the morning; the air of morn  ing. He who made sleep necessary made a sea,
son suited to sleep.
SUGGESTIONS FOR WRITING SKETCHES.
1. Style.-The style should be pointed, terse, clear,
so as easily to catch the attention. There should be
nothing superfluous, and nothing should be stated
which a teacher would do in the ordinary course of a
lesson.
2. MVatter.-All the facts or ideas which are to form
the materials of the lesson should be briefly stated in
the form of suggesteive hints. If those facts or ideas
are such as fall within the range of the children's observation and discovery, the sketch should show, first,
by what means they are to be drawn from them; seconclly, how the children are to be led to exercise their
minds on them, and in what order.
3. Arrangement.-First, the principal point or object of the lesson should be put down, then the successive steps by which the process of development and
instruction are to be conducted. Subordinate points
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PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON..
tending to illustrate the subject should be given.
Some subjects require several heads; in others, many
divisions lead to confusion.
Too much importance can hardly be given to the
preparation of sketches of lessons by teachers who
have not had extensive experience in this system of
object training. It enables the teacher to go before
her class with a definite object in view, and to take
the proper steps for attaining it; besides, the preparation imparts freshness and interest to the subject.
When a teacher is about to give a lesson on any
proposed subject, the first inquiry should be, "Am  I
sufficiently acquainted with the subject?" The next
inquiry should be, " How should I treat the subject?"
If not sufficiently acquainted with it, she should at
once seek information* upon the subject, and study it.
The following lessons have been prepared as a guide
to the teacher and the parent in making the necessary
preparations for a systematic and graduated course of
development of the faculties of children, and for training them to use. They are intended to be studied by
the teacher, and used as notes should be used; or,
more appropriately, to suggest how the teacher should
proceed after the subject has been studied and the
sketches prepared. They may also serve as a guide
in the preparation of sketches.
* A list of books adapted to furnish information on the subjects
with which primary teachers especially need to be familiar is
given on page 361.
TB
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26     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.
The child's first lessons should be conversational, and
imparted in the simplest manner, aiming to awaken
the mind, develop habits of observation, and furnish
language. This work should be preparatory to a
knowledge of the uses of objects, and of their properties and qualities.
That subject in which the child manifests the greatest interest is the one about which the conversations
should commence, and it also marks the point where
that child's instruction should begin. As the lessons
proceed, the interest in that particular subject should
be made the key-note for drawing attention to other
subjects having a kindred interest.
Conversations about things at home - every-day
things-will usually prove interesting. These lessons
should be conducted without formality. The children
may be led to talk about the things which they daily
see, and use, or wear, and to ask and answer questions
concerning them. Those subjects should be chosen
at first that are very simple, and with which both children and teacher are familiar.
1. Suppose the teacher's first conversation with the
children be about a cat: let her ask how many feet a
cat has; how many ears; what a cat does; what a cat
is good for. Encourage them to talk about their cat.
The same inquiries may be made about a dog. Care
should be taken to encourage children to tell about
whatever thing may form the topic for conversation.
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.
2. They may be led to talk about their playthings,
in the next conversation, telling what playthings they
have, and what they do with them; who gave them
their playthings.
3. As children are fond of telling what they have
seen, at the third conversation let them tell what they
saw on their way to school; what birds they have
seen; what animals they have seen, and where they
saw them.
4. After a few familiar conversations of this kind,
which win confidence and remove restraints upon the
expression of their thoughts, let them be led a little
farther, and asked to name some objects that have a
common resemblance in the material of which they
are made, or in use; as, what things are used to sit
upon?  "Chair, sofa, stool, bench," probably would
be the reply. Ask where they sit upon sofas, where
on chairs, where on stools, where on benches.
5. What things are worn on the hands?  "Mitts,
gloves, mittens, rings, muffs." Who wear mitts? Who
wear gloves?  When are mittens worn?  How are
rings worn?  When are muffs used?
6. What things are worn on the feet? "Stockings,
slippers, shoes, boots, overshoes." Why are stockings
worn?  When are slippers worn?  Who Wear shoes?
Who wear boots? When are overshoes worn? What
else is worn on the feet?
7. What things are worn on the head?  "Cap, hat,
bonnet."  Who wear hats?  Who  wear bonnets?
Do girls wear caps?
8. What things can you see in the schoolroom that
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28     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
are made of wood?  "Chair, bench, table, desk, floor."
For what is the table used?  For what are the desks
used? Do you think the scholars could walk in the
schoolroom without a floor?  What, then, is its use?
9. What things are seen in the sky?  "Sun, moon,
stars, clouds, rainbow." When may you see the sun?
Point where the sun is in the morning. Point where
the sun is at sunset. When do you see the moon?
Can you see the moon every night? Can you see
more than one moon? Can you see more than one
star at one time? Do you see the stars in the daytime?  When can you see clouds?  Did you ever see
a rainbow?
10. Tell me some articles of dress. "Coat, vest,
pantaloons, gown, apron." Do girls wear coats and
vests?  Who wear pantaloons?  Who wear aprons?
Who wear gowns?  Of what are coats made?  Of
what are gowns made? Are vests made of calico?
Are aprons made of cloth like that used for coats?
In conducting these Conversational Exercises, care
should be taken to select at first those things with
which the children are familiar, and not to lead them
to observe things which are beyond their comprehension. The course may be pursued for some time,
gradually taking up subjects which require a wider
range of observation, as the pupils become more capable of telling what they have seen, and thus they may
be led to a more thorough and definite knowledge of
all the ordinary objects around them.
Exercises of this character are especially adapted
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.
to children that have not learned to read; and they
may be introduced with profit in immediate connection with their reading lessons. They are also appropriate to introduce as occasional exercises, for variety,
or to fill up the time usually devoted to a lesson,
which, from some cause, has not occupied the full time
assigned to it.
For the purpose of aiding the teacher or the parent
in readily selecting subjects for exercises in conversation, also to illustrate how fruitful this plan is in its
variety and adaptation to the wants and different conditions of schools, we have prepared lists of subjects
for Conversation, to be used in developing observation.
It is by no means proposed that these lists shall be
repeated for the children to learn; that would be
teaching words before things, instead of things before
words, and defeat the very object of these lessons.
The lists are given to suggest more minutely and definitely how these exercises should be conducted.
Some teachers may find objects named here with
which their pupils are not acquainted; those should,
of course, be omitted. It may sometimes be thought
best not to limit the number of objects to be named
in a list. Calling for a given number has some advantages; however, the most important idea to be
kept in view is, that these exercises are intended to
develop habits of observation by means of conversations; to lead the children to see the things around
themselves, and to guide them in their efforts to gain
knowledge by means of their senses. During this
stage of development their attention should be direct
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30     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
ed only to those things which the senses readily perceive.
LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMPLE OBSERVATION AND CON                    VERSATION.
5. Four parts  of a  win         dow.
Glass,
Putty,
Sash,
Sill.
1. Tell me four things
seen in a schoolroom.
Blackboard,
Slate,
Book,
Chalk.
2. Four things clone at
school.
Reading,
Spelling,
Singing,
Writing.
7. Five rooms of a house.
Kitchen,
Pantry,
Parlor,
Bedroom,
Chamber.
3. Five things we eat.
Bread,
Mleat,
Potatoes,
Cake,
Pie.
8. Five parts of a barn.
Floor,
Granary,
Stable,
Manger,
Loft.
4. Tell what we drink.
Water,
Milk,
Tea,
Coffee.
a
6. Foutr parts of a door.
Panel,
Hinge,
Latch,
Lock.
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.                31
9. Five things tseed at  13. Fotier principal parts
dlinner.                  of a tree.
Plates,                 Roots,
Knives,                 Trunk,
Forks,                  Limbs,
Spoons,                 Leaves.
Tumblers.
14. Five kinds of trees
growing in forests.
Pine,
Oak,
Elm,
Maple,
Beech.
10. Six fruits good to
eat.
Cherries,
Plums,
Peaches,
Apples,
Pears,
Oranges.
15. Six kinds of nuts good
for eating.
Chestnut,
Walnut,
Butternut,
Hiazlenut,
Pea nut,
Hickory-nut.
11. Five kinds of meat
used to eat.
Beef,
Lamb,
Veal,
Pork,
Chicken.
16. Five  sweet-smelling
flowers.
Rose,
Pink,
Sweet-pea,
Honeysuckle,
Violet.
12. Foyer roots which we
eat.
Beets,
Turnips,
Carrots,
Radishes.
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1)DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
21. Five things used by
housekeepers.
Broom,
Pail,
Flat-iron,
Dishes,
Spoons.
17. Six trades or em      I-)oyments.
That of the Shoemaker,
Carpenter,
"     ] Mason,
"     Painter,
"     Tailor,
"4    Farmer.
22. Five tools used by gar         degzers.
Spade,
Rake,
Hoe,
Trowel,
Watering-pot.
18. Five ways of cook         ing.
Boiling,
Roasting,
Frying,
Baking,
Stewing.
23. Five tools used by car        penters.
Saw,
Plane,
Square,
Hammer,
Chisel.
19. Five ways of clean         ing.
Sweeping,
Washing,
Scouring,
Brushing,
Dusting.
24. Five tools used by
shoemakers.
Awl,
Hammer,
Knife,
Pincers,
Last.
20. Five wcays of sewing.
Basting,
Stitching,
Hemming,
Running,
Overcasting.
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.'             33
25. Five things  tsed to  29. Five actions with the
give heat.                   hand.
Wood,                      Holding,
Coal,                      Squeezing,
Coke,                      Pinching,
Pitch,                     Boxing,
Gas.                       Pulling.
26. Five things used to  30. Five actions with the
give light.                  feet.
Tallow,                   Walking,
Oil,                      Running,
Fluid,                    Jumping,
Camphene,                 Kicking,
Gas.                      Stamping.
27. Five  things  that  31. Five movements of an     mlett with fire.                imals.
Ice,                       Creeping,
Butter,                    Swimming,
Tallow,                    Flying,
Wax,                       Climbing,
Lead.                      Hopping.
28. Fivethinygsproduced  32. Five sounds made  by
by cold.                 animals.
Frost,                    Mewing,
Sleet,                    Barking,
Hail,                     Crowing,
Snow,                     Bleating,
Ice.                      Neighing.
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34     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
3 7. Five things r i ght to cdo.
Obey parents and teachers.
Be kind to companions.
Be attentive to lessons.
Tell the truth.
Pray to God.
33. Five things thatfire
does.
It warms,
" melts,
"burns,
" scorches,
" dries.
38. Four things wicked to
do.
To quarrel,
To tell a lie,
To steal,
To swear.
34. Five things that wa        ter does.
It wets,
" cleanses,
"quenches thirst,
" dissolves,
" flows.
39. Three things in which
birds and fish clier.
Birds have feathers,
Fish have scales.
Birds have wings,
Fish have fins.
Birds are warm,
Fish are cold.
35. Five moces of trav-.
elii g.
On horseback,
In a carriage,
By rail-road,
By steam-boat,
In a sleigh.
40.  Opposite  quatities  in
taste.
Sweet,
Sour.
Delicious,
Bitter.
Salt,
Fresh.
36. Ten vessels that will
holdc water.
Tutb, kettle,
Pail, pan,
Cup, tumbler,
Basin, pitcher,
Barrel, bucket.
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.
42. Ten ways offastening
things together.*
By a. pin,
"  a needle and thread,
" paste,
" glue,
" a wafer,
"  sealing-wax,
" nails,
" solder,
" putty,
" dove-tailing.
41. Ten substances used
in building a house.
Stone,
Brick,
Iron,
Glass,
Putty,
Pine,
Oak,
Lime,
Sand,
Paint.
43. Ten things bought at a grocery.f
Sugar, tea, coffee, starch, soap, cheese, butter, eggs,
raisins, flour.
What grows in the garden?
What grows in the field?
What things are made of wood?
What things are made of iron?
What things are made of leather?
What things are made of tin?
What things are made of glass?
* Question the children as to the particular advantage of each
of these kinds of fastenings. When a pin is better than a needle
and thread; when we use glue; when paste; when putty, etc.
t Let the teacher introduce an exercise of this kind by asking
the children if they have ever been in a grocery. Then request
them to tell what they saw there. Ask what use is made of the
articles bought at the grocery. Of some of the things, the children may be asked to tell where the grocer gets them.
35
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
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36      DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS,
On which more extended Conversational Exercises
mnay be had.
These should not ordinarily be introduced before
the second or third year of this training process.
Name things made of wool.
Things made of India-rubber.
Five things that are soft.
Five things that are hard.
Ten things used on the farm.
Ten things used in the house.
Ten different trades.
Ten pointed instruments.
Ten agricultural employments.
Ten domestic animals.
Ten wild animals.
Five animals with hoofs.
Five animals with claws.
Five birds with webbed feet.
Five birds with toes separated.
Five birds  that s ing.
Five things that birds do.
Five uses of a cow.
Five young of animals.
Five insects.
Five difierent relationships.
Five good habits.
Five bad habits.
Five good dispositions.
Five bad dispositions.
Ten sounds made by man.
Ten sounds made by animals.
Five cutting instruments.
Five habitations of man.
Five things used in the kitchen.
What is the work of farmers? To till the soil.
What is the work of carpenters? To build houses
and barns.
What is the work of masons?
What is the work of painters?
What is the work of the blacksmith?
What is the work of the shoemaker?
What is the work of the cabinet-maker?
Who made the chairs that you sit on?
Who made the table and the sofa?
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. -
What is the work of the saddler?
What is the work of the miller?
What is the work of the milliner?
What does the merchant do?
What are the parts of a bed?
What can you buy at the baker's?
What can you buy of the grocer?
What is the work of the tailor?
Who made your clothes?
Who prepared the leather for your shoes?
What do you call the man who made your hat?
What is the name of the street on which the schoolhouse stands?
What streets cross this street?
What different kinds of shops have you seen?
What meeting-houses or churches have you seen?
Who make tables, bedsteads, and bureaus?
Who made your hat?
Who makes bonnets?
Who makes shoes?
Who makes the paper for books?
Who prints the books?
Who binds the books?
Who makes wagons?
Who makes saddles and harnesses?
Who makes things of iron?
What things do farmers plant?
What things do farmers sow?
When do farmers sow wheat?
When do they sow oats?
When do farmers plant corn and potatoes?
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38     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
When do they mow grass?
In what month do farmers harvest wheat?
In what month do they harvest oats? corn?
What berries get ripe first?
When do apples get ripe?  Do all apples get ripe
at the same time?
Which get ripe first, plums or grapes?
What fruits grow on bushes?
What fruits grow on vines?
What fruits grow on trees?
What nuts grow in burrs?
What nuts have hard shells?
When do nuts get ripe?
What seeds grow in pods?
WThat trees shed their leaves in the autumn?
What trees shed their leaves in the spring?
What trees have leaves all the year?
Hiow many teeth have you?
HIow many front teeth has a cow on her upper jaw?
In what direction do hop vines wind?
Do other vines wind around in the same direction?
In what direction does the bean vine wind?
Does the grain of winding timber usually wind with
the sun?
Do flowers shut themselves up at night?
Do any flowers close at noon?
What flowers open in the afternoon?
Are there any flowers that open only at night?*
* See Habits of Flowers in "Child's Book of Nature."
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CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS.'
Many of the foregoing questions should be given out
before the class exercise, and the pupils encouraged
to give as many answers as possible to such as admit
of several. The teacher may often find it best to
vary the form of the question, and to add others on
the same subject. Those here given are intended to
furnish a sufficient variety on different topics to make
it easy for the teacher to prepare those that will lead
the children to a great number of useful observations.
It is not supposed that these questions embrace all
that are necessary to be asked, nor all that may be
profitable. The teacher who has tact will readily see
their tendency and importance, and will carry out the
plan successfully.
It will be observed that these exercises can be extended almost without limit, and that the interest of
the pupils can he kept up by such variations as will
readily suggest themselves to the ingenious teacher.
It would sometimes add interest to the conversations
to tell the children beforehand what class of things
they will be called upon to talk about at the next lesson; but this should only be done where the interest
is very great, and where it seems to afford additional
pleasure to the class.
Children possess active minds; they are constantly
changing from one thing to another, and it must not
be expected that they can consider a subject for a considerable length of time as older persons do, or that
they would think much about a lesson, should they be
told what it will be, before they are called upon to
talk about it, especially if they do not manifest more
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40     DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION.
than ordinary interest in it. It requires skill on the
part of the teacher to keep up a lively interest, even
during a class exercise, when the subject has all the
attraction of novelty.
The teacher who has an enthusiastic love of her
work, and who is possessed of tact, will succeed, even
with poor methods, but far better after a few suggestions relative to good ones. It is to such teachers
that we look with hope for a successful introduction
into our schools of methods for cultivating habits of
accurate observation.
The importance of cultivating such habits in childhood, and the consequent love for nature, are beautifully expressed in the following words from an article on the "Cultivation of the Perceptive Faculties,"
by Prof. William Russell, published in Barnard's
Journal of Eclucation:
"The'pliant hour' must be taken for all processes
of mental budding, grafting, or pruning, as well as in
those of the orchard. An early dip into the study of
nature will serve to saturate the whole soul with a
love for it so strong as to insure the prosecution of
such subjects for life. The season is auspicious; the
senses are fresh and susceptible; the mind is awake;
the heart is alive; the memory is retentive; nature is
yet a scene of novelty and delight; and application is
a pleasure. The twig may now be bent in the direction in which the tree is to be inclined."
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
IN the natural order of the development of the human faculties, the mind of the child takes cognizance
first of the forms of objects. It is this quality, in its
simplest conceptions, which earliest attracts the attention of the child to the things around it. By form it
learns to distinguish the chair from the table, the bell
from the book, the cat from the dog, long before it
gains any knowledge of the properties and nature of
these objects.
Endeavoring to follow nature in this respect, we
took the first step toward the development of mind
by simple observation. Our aim therein was to secure to the pupils greater familiarity with objects,
their shapes, resemblances, differences, and uses, and
by that means to enkindle a desire to know more than
merely looking at them in the usual unobserving manner will teach.
linder the head of Foam we come to a more minute examination of objects for the purpose of obtaining clear conceptions of their shape, and to learn the
names by which their different forms are designated.
Here we shall endeavor to show how to lead children
to use those names properly in their descriptions of
things. It is the more important that attention be
given to this subject at this early period in the intellectual training of children, because, if left to them
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42       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
selves, they will be very liable to grow up with wrong
ideas, or without clear conceptions either of forms or
their names, and would never be able to describe any
thing intelligibly.
To teach these names of form may be deemed
somewhat arbitrary, yet it is far less so than to teach
children the letters before teaching them words. By
exercising a little skill in illustrating each form with
a variety of objects, diagrams on cards and on the
blackboard, and teaching its name after its form is
understood, these lessons will prove attractive and interesting even to young children.
APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM.
As a means of illustrating form, and developing
ideas of it clearly, there should be provided a chart
or card containing drawings of the principal forms to
be suspended before the pupils, and the same shapes
should be made of wood* or cut from pasteboard.
The card of forms should contain a
Straight line.                       /      Horizontal line.
Broken line.
Wa~~~~~uved line.
Waved line.                        Slanting line.   Perpendicu                  Spiral line.                       lar line.
* "Charts of Lines and Forms" have been prepared for illustrating these lessons, also a "Box of Forms" containing two specimens of each form represented on the "Chart."
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APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM.   43
Parallel lines.
Right angles.
Acute angle.
Obtuse angle.
Forms botunded by Straight Lines.
Triangle.
Equilateral
triangle.
I!
Rectangle or
Parallelogram.      Square.
Tr apezium.
Rhomb/       /oid.
Rhomboid.
a
Right-angled
triangle.
Isosceles
triangle.
Rhomb.
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44      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM'
Heptagon.      Octagon.
rms bounded by
Crescent.  Sphel
Ellipse.
0
Ring.
Forms bouncded by Straighty and Curved Lines.
t~i
Radius
Semicircle..        " -
; I
\    Quadrant. 
Sector.'.'
Segment.                                           Diameter.
Pentagon.
Hexagon.
Curved Lines.
Circle.
Oval.
Arc.
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6 
APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM.   45
Solids.
Prisms.
Tetrahedron.
Hemisphere.
Among objects for illustrating form there should
be a yoniigrctl)h and the Chinzese tangram; and the
child should also have provided for amusement at
home little bricks-blocks made of some hard wood,
as cherry or maple, four inches long, two inches wide,
and one thick. These bricks form suitable toys for
the child firom two to six or eight years of age. It
may be taught to pile them up and break joints in imitation of brick-work.  By the time a boy has played
with these blocks for one year, it will be astonishing
to see what a variety of square and circular buildings,
pyramids, towers, bridges, arches, gateways, etc., etc.,
a
CuLbe.
Pyramid.
Cylinder.
Cone.
Spheroid. 
46      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORD.
he will construct with them. Such amusement develops the observing powers, cultivates imagination,
and imparts skill to the eye and hand of the child,
while it furnishes an almost exhaustless means of entertainment.
GO0IGRAPH.
The gonigraph is a small instrument resembling
somewhat a jointed carpenter's rule, but made so as
to bend in only two directions. It consists of ten
short rulers, or joints of iron or brass, hinged together
by pivots. With it may be formed all the geometrical figures that consist of straight lines and angles,
some of which are illustrated by the accompanying
engravings:
Rhomb.
;.i le~                                                 O
Parallelogram.
Pentagon.
0
Square.
Trianigle.
Octagon.
0 
APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FOR1M.  47
CHINESE TANGRAM.
The tangram may be made of metal, wood, or pasteboard. It consists of seven pieces, as seen in the accompanying drawings, each having three or four angles. With these pieces several hundred figures may
be formed. At first the child may observe how the
seven pieces can be placed so as to form two perfect
squares; then it should be allowed to take the pieces
When it is able to do this
readily, let it learn how to
form a larger square with
all the pieces. Afterward
outlines of figures may be
(given,* and the child re qutested to form the same
figures, or to arrange them
in shapes according to its
own fancy. It is said that
the tangram was one of
the amusements of Napoleon.
* There is a small book published showing some three hundred
figures that may be formed with the tangram.
\~~~
and form these squares.
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48       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
1        2        3        4,  The above drawings represent the surfaces of several of the solids on a plane, and show how they may
be formed by cutting these figures of pasteboard. The
outside lines give the shape of the pasteboard after it
is cut, and the dotted lines indicate where it is to be
cut half through, that the parts may be easily turned
up and brought together to represent these solids.
The outlines given here will form, 1, a quadrangular
pyramid; 2, a triangular pyramid; 3, a cube; 4, a tetrahedron; 5, a triangular prism. Children who are
old enough to form these figures will find profitable
amusement in making them at home.
The apparatus here described for illustrating form
is simple, and may be easily prepared, or purchased at
a small expense. In addition, every teacher should
have and use a blackboard, and the children slates and
pencils. They should be encouraged to imitate the
lessons and figures drawn on the blackboard, or those
represented upon the "card."  At first, however, they
may be allowed to use the slate and pencil pretty
much as they please, until they have obtained sufficient skill in their use to enable them to copy with
some degree of success the simplest forms in outline.
Thus they will find pleasing employment for many
otherwise weary hours in the school-room.
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INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES FOR TEACH   ING CHILDREN TO OBSERVE FORM.
I. Distinguishing Shapes. -1. Place before the
children several different forms cut from wood or
pasteboard; also suspend a card on which those forms
are represented by diagrams.
Point to a form on the card, and require the pupil
to select one from the objects, or "box of forms," of
the same shape. Appeal to the other pupils to determine if the right figure has been selected. The
teacher proves it to be correct by applying the figure
to the picture on the card. Call upon each pupil to
do the same thing at two or three different times.
2. The teacher picks up a pattern of form next, and
a child points to the one on the card that corresponds
with it. The correctness of the child's pointing is decided by appealing to the class as before. Each pupil
should go through with the same exercise.
3. Capital letters may be used in teaching children
to distinguish form. For this purpose, those letters
which are the most simple in shape should be selected. The teacher may place before them cards, each
containing one of the letters, as 1, H, L,V,T, N, X,
K,Y, 0, D, U, C, P, B, 8, Z, F, E,W.   She may
point to one of the letters on the "card of letters,"
and request them to select one like it from the letter
cards, proceeding as with the form patterns. This
should be made simply an exercise in form, not for
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49
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50      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
teaching the names of the letters at this stage of the
process.
II. Distinguishing Corners and Sides.-1. Take a
square and a triangle, and lead the children to observe the difference in the number of their sides and
corners. Let them point out the same difference on
the card of forms. Proceed with other forms in the
same way. Lead the children to find sides and corners in the objects about the room by showing them
a book, a slate, table, etc.
2. Let them select forms that have more than four
sides and four corners, and point to the drawings
which represent them.
3. The teacher may draw figures on the blackboard
to represent all of the forms selected, then call upon
the pupils to point to the sides of each; then to the
corners of each; then to tell how many sides and corners each has.
4. Ask the pupils to tell what a side is between.
"Two corners." Hold up a figure with three sides,
and inquire how many corners it has; then how many
sides. Proceed in the same manner with figures of
four, five, six, seven, and eight sides. Thus lead them
to observe that the corners and sides of any figure are
always equal in number.
5. Request a pupil to select a figure with three
sides; another, one with five sides; another, one with
eight sides, and so on. Proceed in the same manner,
and select figures with four corners, three corners, etc.
Request the pupils to point to figures on the black
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INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.
board or card with five corners, or three sides, or
eight corners, as the teacher may direct. Let the
children arrange all the figures in order according to
their number of sides.
III. Distinguishing straight and curved Sides.
-The teacher may select a figure with straight sides,
as a square, also a circle and a semicircle. Request
a pupil to point to forms on the card that have a side
resembling a part of the circle. Let them select objects that have the same form; also point out letters
having these shapes, as 0, D, P, B, U.
IV. Combining Forms.-Lead the children to make
new figures by combining two or more of these forms,
as uniting two right-angled triangles to form a rectangle. By uniting them differently a trapezium may be
formed, containing obtuse, acute, and right angles.
Show them that two equilateral triangles will form
a rhomb. Thus they may be led to make several of
the regular forms, and a great number of fancy figures.
Leaves.*-An interesting exercise can be had on
form by means of leaves of plants and trees. Request the children to bring leaves of different shapes;
then direct them to assort and arrange them in piles,
placing all the leaves of the same shape together.
For one exercise, let all the pupils bring leaves that
are heart-shaped, as those of the common violet, the
* Suggestions that will aid in carrying out this exercise may be
found in the chapters on Leaves in the "Child's Book of Nature,"
by Dr. HOOKER.
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52       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
basswood, currant, etc. On another day let them
bring arrow-shaped leaves; on anotlhcer, egg-sbaped
leaves, and so on. Exercises of this kind can be varied so as to furnish many entertaining lessons.
It may be remarked here that the names of forms
ought not to be taught during these introductory exercises, unless the pupils ask for them. The giving
of the name to the child may be omitted until the
forms are taken up in the subsequent lessons, and the
ideas more fully developed.
These introductory lessons are intended for children
of four or five years of age, and they will indicate how
parents may commence the early training of their children in a knowledge ofform; also suggest steps for
the teacher to take when she finds her pupils ignorant
of these simple ideas of shape.
In commencing the lessons on form, the teacher
should ascertain as soon as possible, by some preliminary exercises, to what extent the child has already
learned to observe and distinguish shapes, and how
far it has become familiar with their names.  As soon
as this has been found out, let the exercises for that
pupil begin at the point to which its development has
already attained, and proceed gradually, taking care
not to weary by too slow teaching on the one hand,
nor to confuse by proceeding too rapidly.
It is presumed, when the following lessons are presented in school, that most of the children will have
previously acquired ideas of sides, corners, edges,
straight, crooked, top, bottom, and similar parts and
forms of objects. Wherever this knowledge is want
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0 
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 
ing, however, steps should at once be taken to supply
it before proceeding farther.
It is impossible to be so minute in suggestions as
to indicate precisely how each pupil should be trained, or where the exercises of every class should commence. Here the teacher's judgment is indispensable. It is proper to say, however, do not dwell upon
that with which the child is already familiar; but begin with what the child knows, and proceed by mneans
of that to teach something that is not known to it.
It does not interest the child to be told repeatedly
what it already knows, but it does afford it pleasure
to hear allusions to this knowledge, and to learn new
facts which bear a relation to it. It also gives greater pleasure to the mind to discover the fact than to be
told it.  It is evident, then, that the true process of
training is to lead the child just far enough to enable
it to obtain the idea or fact to be learned.
Illustrate Form with common Objects.-It may
be well to remark here, that during all of the lessons
on form the interest of the learner should be kept up
by a continued exhibition of things. At every lesson,
in addition to the apparatus provided, several common
objects should be shown to the pupils, and they be required to name the different forms which the objects
represent, as far as they have been taught their names.
For this purpose, a book, a slate, pen, pointer, pencil,
knife, table, stool, chair, bench, box, comb, window,
and door, may be shown during exercises on the lines,
and with forms and solids bounded by straight lines.
53
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4 
54      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM,
A cent, a dime, a quarter, cup, pail, ring, wheel,
saucer, tumbler, bottle, pillar, stove-pipe, spoon, candle, tub, bell, key, drum, cheese, egg, moon, cherry,
apple, orange, and watch, may be shown during exercises on curved lines, circles, cylinders, etc.
In all of these lessons the several things should be
associated with each form, and a conversation had
about the form while the things are before the eye.
It is not a proper development of the mind to show
the object, and point out and name the shapes of it;
the child must be taught to see the form, and tell its
name himself.
Herein lies the principal difference between the two
systems of teaching now in use. One continually tells
the pupils, pours knowledge into the ear, and that not
the best avenue to the mind, simply leading to accumulation without use. The other leads the pupil
to gather knowledge for himself by seeing, employing
the best avenue to the mind, and continually requires
him to Tese it, and tell it, thus placing it entirely within
his control, and rendering it available through life.
One process makes the mind a passive recipient of
knowledge, like a bag to be filled, leaving it almost
as incapable of adding any knowledge to itself, as the
bag of adding to its contents. The other trains the
powers of the mind to activity, and accustoms it to see,
and gather, and use knowledge. When thus trained,
the mind is like a man who has become master of his
trade, able to go forth in the world and accumulate
for itself.
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STRAIGHT LINES.
LESSON I.*
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF STRAIGHT LINES.
The teacher, holding a string straight between her
hands, says, What have I in my hands?  "A string."
How do I hold it?  "Straight."  Now what can you
say of it?  "It is crooked; it bends."
I will draw marks on the blackboard to represent
this string as I hold it. [Makes two points, and draws
a straight line between them; then makes two more
points, and draws a curved line between them.]
Now one of you may come and point to the mark
which represents the string when I
hold it straight.
Now point to the mark which
\                represents the string when I hold
it so that it bends.
I will now make several marks, and I wish you to tell
me which marks are straight and which are crooked.
I hold a book in my hand. Does any part of it
represent a straight mark? "Yes, the edges do."
Tell me other things that represent such a mark.
"The sides of a slate; the edges of the desk."
I will now tell you what to call these straight marks.
What shall I tell you?  "What to call those straight
* Although these lessons onform may be commenced as early
as the child's fourth or fifth year, yet, with the majority of children, all the ideas of figures that are given here probably could
not be mastered before the child is seven or eight years of age.
a
5
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6   DEVELOPiNG iDEAS OF FORM.
marks." Straight marks are called straight lines.
What are straight marks called? "Straight lines."
[Pointing to straight lines on the blackboard, on the
card, and in objects about the room] What is this
line called? and this? and this?  "Straight line."
"Straight line."
You say straight marks are called straighyt lines;
now what would you call crooked
marks? "Crooked lines." [Pointing to crooked lines.] What is this line called? and
this?
When I hold this string straight, what line does it
represent? If I hold it crooked, what line will it represent?
NOTE.-It will be observed that in these lessons the answers
supposed to be given by the pupils are quoted; this is dine that
the questions and remarks of the teacher may be readily distinguished from those by the learner. It is not presumed that the
answers that will be given by the pupils will be in the same words
as those introduced here. Our object is not to direct precisely
what questions shall be asked and what answers should be given,
but to illustrate how the teacher ought to proceed to develop correct ideas of the subject, so that the pupils shall not only understand it, but be able to give such intelligent answers as wilI show
that they do understand it.
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CURVED LINES.
LESSON II.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF CURVED LINES.
Pointing to a curved line on the card, or to one
~. / cldrawn upon the blackboard, the teach               er says, Here is a line that bends like
a bow; it bends alike in all its parts. I will hold this
string so as to represent such a line. Is the string
straight?  "No, it is crooked."  How does it bend?
"Alike in all its parts."
I will now make a line on the blackboard which
shall bend alike in all its parts. The name for this
line is a curved line.  What is the name of this line?
"A curved line." How does a curved line bend?
"Like a bow."
The teacher makes two points on the blackboard,
and draws a straight line and a
~~f~-~  curved line between them. Which
of these lines is the longest? Let
us measure them. You perceive that the curved line
is longer than the straight line.
Here is a crooked line between the same points.
Now let us measure and see which line is the shortest. "The straight line." Can you make a shorter
line than the straight one between these points, which
shall extend firom one point to the other? Then what
may be said of a straight line?  "It is the shortest
line between two points." Very well; but you may
call it the shortest distance between two points.
C2
0
57
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58      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
What is a straight line?
"A straight line is the shortest distance between two
points."
Suppose I should pass this string around your hat,
would it represent a straight line? What line would
it represent?  "A curved line."
At this point it would be well to show the children
how to make straight lines on their slates by the aid
of a rule; also how to make curved lines by the use
of a string. Then give each pupil a rule and a string,
and request them to make straight and curved lines
on their slates while at their seats.
LESSON III.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SURFACE, PLANE AND
CURVED.
[The teacher holds up an apple or an orange before
the children.] What am I holding in my hand? "An
apple."  What part of this apple do you see?  "The
skin." Where is the skin of the apple? "On the
outside of it." Instead of outside, say surface, which
means the outside. Where is the skin of the apple?
"On its surface."
You walk on the surface of the floor; you mark on
the surface of your slates.  On what part of the blackboard do I mark?  "On its surface."  On what part
of the window-glass does the fly crawl? "On its
surface." That is right; the outside of any thing is
a
0 
SURFACE, PLANE AND CURVED..
its surface; but a surface may have several parts;
such parts are called faces, because they are the parts
which we see. Now how many faces has this box?
Six."
How many faces has your slate? "Two." How
many faces do you see on the blackboard?  "I see only
one."  How many surfaces has this apple?  "One."
How many surfaces has this sheet of paper?  "Two."
How many faces has this brick?  Count them.  "One,
two, three, four, five, six; it has six faces."
1. Plane Surface.-Now examine the surface of this
apple, and the surface of this box, and tell me if they
are alike. "The surface of the box is fiat, and the
surface of the apple is curved." Very good; but when
you see a fiat surface, call it a plane surface; plane
means fiat.
What kind of a surface has the blackboard?  "A
plane surface." What kind of a surface has the wall
of the room?  "A plane surface."  Tell me other objects which have plane surfaces.  "The book-covers,
the ceiling, the glass, the floor."
2. Curved Surface.-What do you call the surface
of the apple?  "A  curved surface."  What would
you call the surface around your hat? "A curved
surface."
Now tell me things that have curved surfaces.
"Pails, cups, oranges, stove-pipes, barrels."
Can you mention some object that has two plane
faces and one curvedface?  "A drum, a barrel."
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59
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60      UDEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
LESSON IV.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF AN ANGLE.
[The teacher draws two straight lines on the black               board.] What have I done? "Drawn
two straight lines." What kind of
lines are they?  " Straight lines."
[The teacher now draws two more straight lines,
meeting in a point.]  What have I done
now?  "Drawn two more straight lines."
What difference do you observe between
the first two lines and these?  "The last two lines
come together, or meet; the first two lines did not
meet."
[Teacher holding up a pair of scissors.] What is
this?  "A pair of scissors."
[Pointing to the blades.] What are these parts
called?  "The blades."  What did you say the last
two lines do?   "The last two lines meet."  Now
what can you say of these blades?  "The blades
meet."
Look about the room, and tell me what parts of it
meet. "The floor and walls; the side walls and the
end walls; the walls and the ceiling."
Do you observe any lines that meet in the windows?
"Yes, the wood of the window-frame at the corners of
each pane of glass."
[Opening the scissors.] What am I doing? "Opening the scissors." Yes, I open the scissors; now what
0
6 
THE IDEA OF AN ANGLE.
would you call this space between the blades?  " The
opening."
[Opens the blades to the full extent, then nearly
closes them.] Is each opening of the same size?
"Sometimes it is large, and sometimes small."
I will draw some lines on the blackboard to represent these blades when open. One of you may come
and show me the opening between these lines. Now
show me the place where the lines meet.
You observe that these lines meet in a point. I
will now give you a name for an opening between two
lines which meet in a point. For what am I to give
you a name? "For an opening between two lines
which meet in a point." Show me such an opening
in some part of the room.
When the children are able to point out the angles
in the room, calling them "openings," the following
definition may be given:
The  opening between
two lines which meet in a
point is called an angle.
This definition should be repeated several times by
the class, also by the pupils singly.
[Pointing to an angle.] What is this?  "An angle."
Why do you call this an angle?  "Because it is an
opening between two lines which meet in a point."
Point to some angles in the room.
[The teacher now draws angles of various sizes on
the blackboard.] Look at these angles, and tell me
what you observe. "They differ in size."
Come and show me the largest angle on the board.
Which is the smallest?
61
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62      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
How many lines have I used to form an angle?
" Two."
What must these lines do to form an angle?  "Meet
in a point."
Can I make more than one angle with two lines?
Come and try it with this angle. _       You see that
by extending one of the lines beyond the
point where they meet, two angles will be
formed, thus:
Now if you will extend the other line beyond the point of meeting, it will form four angles,
thus: 
Here are two lines [pointing to an angle] making
one angle. What must I do to make two angles from
this?  "You must extend one of the lines beyond the
point of meeting."
Here are two lines [pointing to another angle] making one angle. What must I do to make four angles
from this?  "You must lengthen both of the lines so
that they will cross each other."
The teacher, having provided several narrow slips
of pasteboard, or small sticks, gives two to each pupil, saying, " You may take these sticks to your seats
and make angles with them; also draw angles on your
slates."
This will, perhaps, prove the most interesting part
of the exercise to the pupils, and that very interest
will fix the instruction which has just been given to
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RIGIET, ACUTE, AND OBTUSE ANGLES.   63
them about angles more thoroughly in their minds
than an hour's drilling in the class could do. Besides,
the primary teacher finds great difficulty in keeping
children employed between their lesson exercises; this
plan will furnish a profitable and pleasing employment
for the time usually wasted in idleness and mischief,
and will prevent much annoyance to the teacher.
LESSON V
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF RIGHT, ACUTE, AND OBTUSE
ANGLES.
What did you learn in your last lesson about angles?  "How angles are formed; that they are of
different sizes, and that we can make one, two, or four
angles with two lines."
Now observe me.  [Draws a horizontal line on the
blackboard.]  What have I done?  "Drawn a straight
line." [Draws a perpendicular line to meet the hori      zontal line in the middle.] What have I done
now?   "Drawn another straight line, which
meets the first line, and forms two angles."
What do you observe in these angles? [Points to
others on the card of forms.]  "They are of the same
size." Yes, they are equal. When you see two angles of the same form and size, call them equal angles.
1. Right Angles.-[The teacher calls two pupils
to her, places one at her right side, and the other at
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0 
64      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
her left side.]  How have I placed these girls?  "On
each side of you."  Where am I?  "Between them."
Now show me a line between two angles. What
can you say of the position of these two angles?
"They are on each side of the line."  What can you
say of their size?  "They are equal."
Now I will tell you a name for these angles. They
are called right angles.  What are these angles called?  "Right angles."
When aC line beets another so that the angles on
each side of it are equal, such angles are right angles.
Let the class repeat this several times, also the pupils singly.
[Pointing to right angles on the card.] What do
you call these angles?  " Right angles."
Now show me right angles in the window and
about the room.
2. Acute Angle.-[The teacher draws two lines
making an acute angle.] Is this a right
angle?  "It is smaller than a right an           gle."  What  must  I do  to ascertain
whether it is a right angle or not? "You must
lengthen one of the lines where they meet, so as to
make two angles." I have done so; what now?
"These two angles are not of the same size, so neither can be a right angle."
How do these angles differ from a right angle?
"The first is smaller than a right angle, the other is
larger than a right angle."
One of you may come here and make an angle
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6 
RIGHT, ACUTE, AND OBTUSE ANGLES~  65
smaller than a right angle. Now make one larger
than a right angle. Would you like to know the
name for this small angle?
For what angle do you wish a name?  "For an
angle* that is smaller than a right angle."
An  angle that is smaller than a right angle is
cctlled an acute angle.
What is an acute angle?  "An angle that is smaller than a right angle is an acute angle."  Now make
a right angle with your two fore-fingers; make acute
angles with your fingers.
3. Obtuse Angle. —How many kinds of angles do
you  know?   "Two."   What  are
they called?   "Right  angles and
acute angles."  How  do these an                gles differ?  "The  acute angle is
smaller than the right angle." Show me these angles
on the card.
[The teacher points to an obtuse angle on the card.]
What can you say of the size of this angle?  "It is
larger than a right angle."
One of you may come and make an angle on the
board like this. You want a name for this angle also.
For what kind of an angle do you want a name?
"For an angle that is larger than a right angle."
An a2ngle that is larger than a right angle is called
an obtuse angle.
* It will be observed that the plan of these lessons is to show
first the idea of the form, so that the child understands it, and
then to teach it the name.
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66      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
You observe that a right angle has a square corner, and that an acute angle has a sharp corner; but
that an obtuse angle has neither a square nor a sharp
corner, but a blunt one. Now tell me what an obtuse
angle is. "An angle that is larger than a right angle."
[The teacher now draws upon the board several
angles of each kind, right, acute, and obtuse; then
points to them, also to the same kind of angles on the
card.]  What  angle is this? and this? and this?
[The pupils answer, telling the name of each.]
Now make all of these angles with your fingers,
imitating me.
Now imitate with your fingers the angles that I
make with these scissors.
The teacher may now give the children the sticks
to take to their seats, as before, with which to make
these angles. Also tell them to make the angles on
their slates. The gonigraph is adapted to illustrate
these lessons on angles.
LESSON VI.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF TRIANGLES.
One of you may come here, take these two sticks,
and see if you can make a pen around the inkstand
with them. You can't do it? Well, how many sticks
must you have to make a pen?  "Three."  Now
make three lines on the blackboard to represent your
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0 
TRIANGLES.
pen.  What kind of angles do these three
lines form?  "Acute angles." 
Can you inclose a space with two straight
lines?  "No, we must have three."  Here
are two short sticks and one long one; make a pen
with these. Now tell me what kind of angles you
have formed. " One right angle and two acute angles."
Shall I tell you the name for a figure with three
angles?
All figures with three angles are called tri-angles.
Tri means three, and tri-azgle means a figure with
three angles. What do you call figures with three
angles? "Tri-angles."
What must you have to form a triangle?  " Three
lines."  How must those lines be placed?  "So as to
form three angles."
1. Equilateral Triangle.-[Teacher points to an
A equilateral triangle on the card.] What
can you say of the size of these angles?
\  "They are all of the same size; they are
equal." What can you say of the lines?
"They are all of equal length."
Now what would you call this figure?  "An equal
triangle."  That is not a bad answer; but I will tell
you what it is called in the books, and by learned
men.  It is an equilateral triangle.  This is a hard
word, but I think you can remember it. You observe that the sides of the angle are all equal; equilateral means equal-sicled.  All its sides are of the
same length.
6
67
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68       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF' FORM.
Now I will show you how to make such a triangle
with a stick and a string. Take a string, and tie the
ends to the ends of a straight stick one half as long
as the string; then hold the stick in one hand, and
take hold of the middle of the string with the finger
of the other hand, and pull it tight, and you will have
an equilateral triangle. By moving the finger nearer to one end, it will form a right-angled triangle.
These are called righyt-anygled triangles
because one of the angles is a right
angle.
Here are some sticks which you may take to your
seats, and with them make triangles like those which
you see on the card of forms; and after you have
made all of them with the sticks, I wish you to draw
them on your slates.
LESSON VII.
POSITION OF LINES-PERPENDICULAR AND HORI                   ZONTAL.
The teacher places sticks in the hands of the pupils,
and requests them to hold their sticks in an upright
position, imitating her. She then holds them horizontally, and the pupils imitate it; then in a perpendicular position again.
Now she proceeds to draw several straight lines on
the blackboard to represent the position in which the
sticks are held-perpendicular and horizontal lines.
AVhat have I done?  "Drawn some straight lines."
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PERPENDICULAR AND HORIZONTAL LINES. 69
In what are these lines alike?  "They are all straight."
How are they not alike?  "They go in different directions."
1. Perpendicular Line.-[Draws a line across the
slate.] In what direction have I drawn this line?
"Across the slate."  I will draw another to meet it.
WVhat have I now made?  "A right angle."  In what
direction must a line be drawn to form a right angle
with a line across the slate?  "It must be up and
down-upright." Call it aperpendicular line. What
shall we call an upright line?  "A perpendicular
line." Now I wish you to repeat this: A line that
mtakes a right angle with another is called a perpenclicular line.
Which part of the slate represents the perpendicular line?  "The side."  What parts of the room are
in a perpendicular position? "The walls or sides."
To what are the walls perpendicular? "The walls
are perpendicular to the floor."
Tell me other perpendicular lines that you see about
the room.
Now take these sticks, and place them in a position
perpendicular to the floor. Let each pupil hold a
stick in a perpendicular position. When does a man
represent this position?  "When he stands upright."
2. Horizontal Lines.-[The teacher ties a string to
some heavy object, as a piece of lead or iron.] You
observe that this string hangs straight from my hand
toward the floor. What kind of an angle does it make
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70      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
with the floor?  "It makes a right angle with the
floor."
[Draws a chalk line on the floor, and holds the
string over it so as to touch it.] What kind of an
angle does the string make with this chalk line? "A
right angle." When we suspend a weight above a
surface, thus, and the surface makes a right angle
with the string, we say the surface is horizontal.
Now I will draw a line on the blackboard,
and hold this string perpendicularly above it, and if
it forms a right angle with the string, the line must
be horizontal.  What is the result?  "The line forms
a right angle; it is horizontal." A line is called horizontal because it is level or even with the horizon.
Now let us see if the top of the desk is horizontal.
"No, it does not form a right angle with the string."
Let us try the table.  "Yes, the top is horizontal; it
forms a right angle with the string."
What did you say of the walls of the room? "They
are perpendicular to the floor." What can you say
about the position of the floor?  "It is horizontal."
You learned something about two kinds of lines in
your first lesson. Can you tell me what those lines
are called?  "Straight lines and curved lines."
You have also learned two positions in which the
straight lines may be placed. What are those positions?  "Perpendicular and horizontal."
Now request the pupils to hold the straight sticks
in these several positions, as you call the name of the
position.
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SLANTING LINES.
LESSON VIII.
SLANTING LINES.
You have already learned about two kinds of lines,
and the two directions in which they may be placed.
What are these two kinds of lines?  "Straight lines
and curved lines." Show me a straight line on the
card; now a curved line.
What are the two directions in which the straight
lines may be placed? "Perpendicular and horizontal."  Show me a perpendicular line; now a horizontal one.
[The teacher draws several lines in each of the positions, and requires the children to represent the position of each by holding the straight sticks. She then
points to the lines, requiring the pupils to name those
in positions which are perpendicular and horizontal.]
Here are some lines that are neither perpendicular
nor horizontal. What will you call them?
Slanting or oblique lines.  Did you ever
see a house which had slanting lines?
Yes, a house with  a slanting roof."
Why is the roof made to slant?  "So that the water
may run off."
Do all slanting lines lean in the same direction?
" No, they slant in different directions."  How does
this slant? "From the right toward the left." And
this?  "The  same way."  And this?  "From  the
left toward the right."
6
71
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72       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
What can you say of this line which I have just
made?  "It slants firom left to the right."  What of
this?  "It slants from right to the left."
Now tell me in what positions straight lines may
be placed, and in doing so I wish you to represent
each position with these straight sticks.  "Straight
lines are eitherperpendicular, horizontal, or slanting.
Slanting lines may lean or incline from left toward the
right, or from right toward the left."
Now, as I call for these different positions of straight
lines, I wish all of you to represent them by holding
your sticks in the positions named-horizontal, slanting, perpendicular, slanting, horizontal, perpendicular. Now take your slates and draw these lines.
LESSON IX.
PARALLEL LINES.
[The teacher draws with a rule parallel perpendicular lines, parallel horizontal lines, and parallel curved
lines with a string.] What are these? "Straight
and curved lines." What more do you observe?
"Some are perpendicular, some are horizontal, and
a 
PARALLEL LINES.
some are curved."  Any thing more?  "Some  are
slanting; you have placed two of each kind together."
[The teacher lengthens all of these lines.] What
have I done?  " Iade the lines longer."  Examine
them, and see if they come nearer together. [Lengthens them still more.]  What do you observe?  "The
lines are still the same distance from each other."
If I should continue adding to these lines, would
they ever meet? If any pupil thinks these lines will
meet by extending them, let him come and try it.
You find that they will not meet.
Now observe me. I am measuring the distance
between these two lines at dififerent parts. What is
the result? "The distance between them is every
where the same."
[The teacher measures other lines, or, what is better, calls upon pupils to measure them, and learn that
the distance between them is uniform at different
parts.]  Now I will tell you a name for these lines,
which you see are equally distant firom each other in
all their parts.
Lines which are equally distant from each other in
acll their ]parts are called)aractllel linles.
Parallel is another hard word, but I think you can
remember it when I tell you that it means by the side
of. Parallel lines are lines by the side of each other.
Can you show me parallel lines in the writing-book?
"Yes, the ruled lines are parallel."
What lines are parallel on the slate-frame?  "The
two sides, and the two ends." WVhat lines are parallel in the door?
D
6
73
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74      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
What other names may be applied to the sides
of the door?  "They are perpendicular parallel
lines."
Now you may take these sticks and place them
parallel to each other; then draw lines on your slates
to represent them.
LESSON X.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A SQUARE, A RHOMB, AND
A PARALLELOGRAM.
[The teacher draws a square on the
blackboard.] What have I done? "Made
a square." How many straight lines did I
use?  "Four."  How many straight lines
did I use to make a triangle?  "Three."
Could I make a square with less than four straight
lines?  " No."  What do you observe in this figure
on the board? "All its sides are equal, and all its
angles are right angles." Very good.
Now tell me what book resembles this form. "The
geography." What do these four lines which form
the square show? "Its shape." Does the square
extend beyond these lines? " No." Then these lines
mark the bounds of the square, so we may call them
the boundaries of the square.
What do the lines of this square on the board
show?  "The boundaries of the square."  What do
the lines of the triangle mark?  "The boundaries of
the triangle."  Now you may describe a square.
0 
SQUARE, RIAOMB, AND PARALLELOGRAM. 75
A square is bounded byfour equal sides, and has
four right angles.
2. Rhomb.-[Points to a rhomb on the card; shows
the form.]  How many angles has this
figure?  "Four."  What can you say
of its sides?  "It has four equal sides."
You say it has four angles and four equal sides; now
is it a square?  "It is not a square."
How does it differ from a square?  "The angles
are different. The angles of a square are all right
apgles; none of the angles in this figure are right angles."'  What kind of angles has this figure?  "Two
acute angles and two obtuse angles."
What more do you observe?  "Its opposite angles
are equal-two of each of its angles are alike and
equal. It looks like a square leaning over." What
would you call it?  "A leaning square."  That is an
appropriate name, but the name by which such a figure is called is a rhomnb. Now what is this figure
called? [pointing to a rhomb on the card.]
Here is a rhomboidl.  What does it look like?
How does it differ from a rhomb?
~/ / You may make a rhomb and a
rhomboid on your slates.
3. Parallelogram.-[Draws a parallelogram on the
board.]  Here are squares, and rhombs,
J and rhomboids on the board, and now I
have drawn another figure. Is this a square or a
rhomb?  "It is not either."  Does it look like either?
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7   DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
"It looks most like the square." How is it like the
square?  "It has four right angles."
How does it differ from the square?  "It is longer
in one way than the square. Its sides are not equal."
What do you call a square?  "A figure that has
four equal sides andfour right angles."
How does a rhomb differ from a square? "A
rhomb has equal sides, but tenequal angles."
Observe this figure again, and tell me whether any
of its sides are equal?  "Yes, its opposite sides are
equal, and they are parallel."
This figure is called a pacrallelogram, because its
opposite sides are equal and parallel. Do you see any
thing in the room that resembles a parallelogram?
" Yes, slates, tops of the desks, sides of books."
How many angles has a parallelogram?  "Four."
What kind of angles has this figure?  "Right angles."
Then we will call it a right-acgled parallelogram.
What may you call the shape of the door?  " A
right-angled parallelogram."  Tell me other objects
that have this shape.  " Window-glass, table, blackboard."
Frequent use should be made of the forms from
the box during all of these exercises.
Here are six sticks for each, two long ones and four
short ones. You may take these to your seats and
make parallelograms, squares, rhombs, and rhomboids;
also draw those figures that you see on the card on
your slates.
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1'YRAMIDS.
LESSON XI.
PYRAMIDS.
Place pyramids of three and of four
sides before the children.  Now  look at
this, and tell me how many sides it has.
"Three."   How  many  sides has this?
" Four."
James may tell me the shape of one of these sides.
A "Its shape is that of a triangle." Are the
sides all of the same shape?  What more can
you say about these sides?  "They all meet
in a point."
We call the bottom of a solid its base.
A  solid is a body that has no hollow
inside of it.  What is the shape of the
base of this solid?  "It is a triangle."
What is the shape of the base of this
solid? "It is square."  How many triangles has this?
"Four."  How many triangles has this?  "Three."
How many sides has its base?  "Three."  How many
sides has the base of this which has four triangles for
its sides?  "Four."
Now you observe that you can tell how many sides
the base has by counting the triangles. Now count
the triangles on the side of this, and tell me how many
sides its base has.  "Three."  Now count the sides.
Would you like a name for these solids? I will
tell you one.  They are called Pyramids.   [Holding
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77
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78      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM,
up the triangular pyramid.] Henry may tell me the
shape of this pyramid.  "It has three triangles for its
sides, and a triangle for its base."
William may describe this pyramid. "It has four
triangles for its sides, and four sides for its base."
[Holding a cone before the pupil.] Here is a solid
that comes to a point at the top somewhat like the
pyramid. Can you tell me the difference in the sides
of the two figures?  "One has a curved side, and the
other has fiat sides."
Suppose now you should see a pyramid with five
triangles for its sides, how many sides would its base
have? "Five."
The teacher should show the children pictures of
the Egyptian pyramids, and talk about them in a familiar manner.
LESSON XII.
PRISMS.
[The teacher places before the children parallelograms, squares, triangles, and triangular and square
prisms.] Takes up a parallelogram, and inquires what
it is called.  How many angles has it?  What kind
of angles are they?
Holds up a triangular prism, and asks, How
many sides has this?  "Three."  What can
you say of their shape?  "They are all alike,
and all parallelograms."
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0 
PRISMS.
What can you say of the ends?  "They are alike,
and both ends are triangles." Now if you were going
to make a figure like this, how many parallelograms
would you take?  "What would those three parallel ograms form?  "The three sides."   What would you
take for the ends?  "Two triangles."
Here is another figure.  How does it differ
from the other?  "This has four parallelograms
for its sides, and squares for its ends."  How
many sides has it?  "Four."  How many sides
has its ends?  "Four."
IHow many sides has the other figure?  "Three."
How many sides has its ends?  "Three."
What, then, can you say about its ends? "The
ends have as many sides as there are parallelograms
in the figure."
Now I will give you the name for these solids. They
are called prismns.
What is the shape of the side of a prism?  "A
parallelogram."  Upon what does the shape of the
ends of the prism depend?  " Upon the number of
parallelograms there are in its sides."
Did you ever see a prism of glass? Let the teacher show a prism, and let each pupil look at objects
through it. She may also give them slips of pasteboard, cut in the form of parallelograms, triangles,
and squares, for them to place together in the shape
of prisms; or, what would be better, cut the pasteboard as indicated in the diagram No. 5 on page 48,
and let the pupils bend it so as to form the shape of
the triangular prism.
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79
0 
8DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
LESSON XIII.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A CUBE AND OF CUBICAL
FORM.
[Holding up a cube.]  How many sides has the ob          ject which I now hold in my hand? Count
them.  "One, two, three, four, five, six; it
has six sides."
What do we sometimes call the sides or
surface of objects?  "We  call them faces."  Very
well; what is the shape of these faces?  "They are
all flat, or plane, and square." What can you say of
the size of these faces?  "They are all equal."
What more can you say of this object?  [PToints
to the corners, angles, and edges.]  "It has eight corners; all the angles are right angles; it has twelve
straight edges."
Did you ever see any thing else that resembled this
form?  "Yes; soap - boxes, chests of tea, boxes of
goods."   This object, you observe, has six equal
squcre sides; its name is a cube.
What is a cube?  "An object with six equal square
sides."
Many objects with six sides resemble this in shape,
but some of them are not cubes, because they have
not six eqztctl sides; such objects are called cutbical in
fo} 21n.
What is the shape of the stove? What other objects can you mention that resemble this form?
0
6 
CIRCLE AND SEMICIRCLE.
LESSON XIV.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A CIRCLE AND SEMICIRCLE.
[Hlolding up a piece of money, or a O ring.] What
is the shape of this object? "Round." Can you
mention any other objects with this form?  " Hoops,
wheels, plates, buttons." Call one of the pupils to
point to a figure on the card with the same form.
[The teacher draws a circle on the blackboard with
a string, holding one end of it tight against the board,
while the other end is carried around on the surface
of the board with a piece of chalk attached to it.]
What have I done?   "You have made a ring"    "made  a round"-  "made a circle," some
may thus correctly answer.  You may call it
a circle.
What do you call this line which forms the circle?
" A curved line."
Will one of you come and draw a circle on the
board as I did? Two children might be called out
to form a circle on the floor, one being required to
place himself at the centre, and hold a string, while
the other pupil holds the other end to a piece of chalk,
and marks the floor as he passes around the centre.
These practical illustrations greatly interest children,
and fasten the subjects in their minds; they should
always, as much as is compatible with order, be actors
in their less88os.
Suppose a boy should tie a string to a post so loose                        D2
a
81
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82      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORD.
ly that it would slip around it, and, taking hold of the
other end, should walk around the post as far from it
as the string would reach, what would be the shape
of his path?  "Circular."
Now look at this piece of money, and tell me what
you observe.  "It has flat sides or faces."
What kind of a line represents the edge of this flat
surface?  "A curved line."  What does this curved
line bound?  "A circle."
Surfaces of this shape, bounded by curved lines, are
called circZ(ar.  Show me figures on the card that
have a circular form. Mention objects that have this
form. "The top of a hat-top and bottom of a pail
-a button-door-knob-sun-moon."
2. Semicircle,-Now I will draw a line through
this circle on the board, and rub off all on one side of
it.  What part of the circle is left?  "One half of
it." Then what might we call this? " Half a circle."
Point to one like it on the card.
Now find half a circle among the forms.
Did you ever see any thing in the sky that resembled this shape?  "Yes, the moon."
I will now tell you the name of this half circle;
it is called a semicircle.  Semi means
half, so that semicircle means what?
"Half a circle." What is half a circle
called?  "Semicircle."  Show me a semicircle on the
card of letters.
You may draw circles and semicircles on your
slates.
0 
CIRCUMFERENCE AND ARC.
LESSON XV.
CIRCUMFERENCE AND ARC.
The teacher draws a circle on the board,
and asks, What have I made?  "A circle."
What do we call this line? "A curved line."
What can you say of this curved line?  " It bounds
a circle."
Show me such a line on the card. Here is a cup;
can you show me such a line on it? Show me such
a line in other objects.
The curved line that bounds a circle is called a circztmference.  The figure bounded by the circumference is called a circle.  The circumference is the distance around an object.
Point to the circumference of the circles on the
chart and on the blackboard. Where is the circumference of this ring? of this apple? of this cup? of
this hat? of this button? etc.
2. Arc.-What have I made on the board?  "A
short curved line." Suppose I should continue this
curved line, what would it form? "The circumference of a circle." Does this line form half of a circumference?  " No."
Here is a circumference. Now if you should take
three or four of these short curved lines, could you
make a circumference?  " Yes."  Then what may we
call this curved line?  "A part of a circumference."
83
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84      DEVELOPING IDT)EAS OF FORM.
/    I will tell you a shorter name for a part of
a circumference; it is called an arc. What is
.  called an arc? "A part of a circumference."
Show me an arc on the card.  Point to one on the
blackboard.
What have I in my hand?  "A paper ring."  What
does it represent?  "The circumference of a circle."
If I cut off a part of it, what will it form?  "An
at~l'."
The teacher should lead the children to distinguish
between a semicircle and an arc by drawing several
figures on the board, also by pointing to them on the
chart, and by requiring the pupils to select each from
forms, which may be cut from paper. The card of capitals and the letter cards may be used for an exercise in
distinguishing the semicircle, circumference, arc, etc.
LESSON XVI.
CENTRE, RADIUS, AND DIAMTETER.
[The teacher points to the circle on the card with a
dot in the centre, or draws one on the board
andl makes a dot in the centre.]  In what
i   *I )part of this circle is the dot?  "In the mid        dle." We call the middle of a circle its
ceRitre.  What shall we call the middle of the circle?
"Its centre."
Show me the centre of the circles on the chart and
of those on the board.
a
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CENTRE, RADIUS, AND DIAMETER.
Which part of the circumference is nearest to the
centre?  "N Not any part; one part is just as far from
the centre as the other." Yes, the cenitre is equally
distant from all parts of the circumference of a circle.
A point would not be called the centre if it was not at
the same distance from all parts of the circumference.
[Makes a point at one side of the centre of a circle.]
Is this point the centre of the circle?  "No."  Why
not? "Because it is nearer to one part of the circumference than it is to the other parts."
The teacher should continue similar examples until
the idea of centre is comprehended.
2. Radius. -[Points to the radius of a circle.]
What line is this?  "A  straight line."
In what part of the circle is it?  From the
, centre to the circumference."
How many such lines would it take to
reach across the circle?  "Two."   Let us measure it
and see. You are right. Then this- line is one half
of the distance across the circle. Now show me such
lines in the circles on the board and on the chart.
A straight line extending from the centre of a circle
to its circumference is called its r(adius.
If you should draw several lines from the centre to
the circumference of a circle, all of those lines would
be of the same length.
When the boy holds the string which is fastened to
the post, and walks around it, what does the string
represent?  "The radius of the circle inclosed by the
boy's path."
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6 
86      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORIM.
3. Diameter.-[The teacher draws a line across
,,-"'  the circle through its centre.]  What have I
;-        - done?  "Drawn a straight line across the
.-_ -/ circle." Through what part of the circle
have I drawn this line? "Through its centre." A
line passing through the centre of a circle is called the
dliameter of the circle.
Now come and point to the diameters of these circles on the "chart" and on the board.  Where does
the line representing the diameter begin? "It begins
in the circumference."  "WVhere does it end?  "It
ends in the circumference on the opposite side."
Through what does it pass?  "Through the centre."
Now take these strings and straight sticks, one
string and one stick each, to your seats, and with
your pencils draw circles on your slates as I did on
the blackboard [shows them how to do it on their
slates], and then place the stick across the circle to
draw its radius and its diameter.
LESSON XVII.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A CYLINDER AND OF A
CYLINDRICAL FORM.
[Holding up a cylinder.]  What do you
observe in this object?  "It is round."
Can you say any thing more about it?
"It has circular, flat ends."
What can you say of the surface of its sides? "Its
sides have a curved surface."
l 
CONE AND CONICAL FORM.
Tell me of something that resembles this object.
"A stove-pipe-a round ruler-a pencil."
This is called a cylinder. Any thing that resembles
this in form may be called cylindrical, or like a cylinder.
Did you ever see any thing growing in the field or
forest that resembled this form in any of its parts?
"Yes; trees-stalks of wheat-oats-sugar-cane."
Suppose you wished to roll an object along the
floor, which shape would you prefer, that of a cube or
that of a cylinder?  "The form of a cylinder."
Now will you describe a cylinder?
A  cylinder has twto pclane, circular ends, and one
curved sur facce for its sides.
If the idea of the form of a cylinder is not yet clear
in the mind of the child, let other and similar illustrations be given.
LESSON XVIII.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A CONE AND OF A CONICAL
FORM.
I have here an object [holding up a cone] that
somewhat resembles the cylindrical form,
yet you observe that it is not a cylinder
[showing a cylinder], because a cylinder is
of the same size around throughout its entire length. How does this differ from a cylinder?
"It tapers to a point at one end."
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88      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM,
Did either of you ever see the fruit or seed of a
pine-tree? Well, can you tell me what that seed is
called?  "A cone."  Which ofthe objects does it resemble, the cylinder or the other?  "The other object."
Now if this object is like a cone in shape, what
would be a good name for it?  "A cone."  Yes; all
objects that are round or circular like a cylinder at
one end, but which taper to a point, or nearly, at the
other end, are called conical in form, because they resemble the shape of the cone, from which the name is
derived.
You observe that this cone will stand upon one end.
What is the shape of that end?  "It is circular, with
a flat or plane surface."
2. Base, Solids, Apex.-This end upon which the
cone stands is called its base, which means the bottom
of a solid.
A solid is a body that has no hollow or space inside of it. This cube is a solid; so is this cylinder
and this cone. All such bodies are solids. Is a cup
a solid? "No, because it is hollow on the inside."
Mention a few solid bodies. What did I say the bottom of a solid is called?  "Its base."  That is correct.
The top of a cone is called its ap)ex.  Which end
of the cone is its csex?  "The small end, or top."
Now describe a cone.
"A cone has aflct circular base for the bottom, and
one curved side extending to a point at the top or
apex."
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SPHERICAL FORMS.
[The teacher may make a cone of paper, and inquire
if it is a solid. Then he may roll it and show how it
turns round in a circle.] Would a cone be a good
form for a body which you wished to roll?
What is the form of some church steeples? What
is the shape of a beet? of a top?  Can you mention
other objects which have a conical form?
LESSON XIX.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SPHERICAL FORMS.
i1  ~     [Holding up a ball.]  What is this?
"' A ball."  What is its shape?  "Round."
Here is a cylinder.  You told me that
this is round.   Now are these two objects alike?  "No."  How do they differ?  "The
cylinder is round in only two ways, but the ball is
round in every way."
31ention other objects that are round in all directions.  " Grapes-currants-oranges-all balls-dewdrops."
You say these objects are round like a ball when
you describe them, but I will tell you a name for this
shape which is better to use.  A ball is a sphere. All
objects that are round like a ball are
spheres.   If they are nearly round,
like an apple or a peach, they are said
to be spherical, or spheroids.
What is the form of a plum?  "A  spheroid."
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90       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM.
What is the form of a sphere?  "Round in all direc tions." What, then, is the form of your marble?
"A sphere, or spherical."  What is the shape of this
globe?  "A sphere."
Now look at this sphere, and tell me how many
surfaces it has. "Only one surface." What is the
shape of the surface?  "It is a curved surface."
You told me the other day that a cylinder is a good
form for an object which you wish to roll; now which
will roll more easily, a cylinder or a sphere? "A
sphere."
Why will a sphere roll more easily than a cylinder?
"Because its surface is curved in all directions, while
the surface of the cylinder is curved in only two directions."
Why are marbles made in the form of spheres?
"So that they will roll easily in any direction."
What parts of your body are of this shape?  "The
eye, and the head."
Mention other objects that have the shape of a
sphere.  "Turnips - onions - shot - beads - many
kinds of seed-drops of water," etc.
2. Hemisphere.-What would you call the shape
of this apple?  "A sphere."  I have cut it into two
equal pieces. What part of the whole apple is this
piece?  "One half of it."  What part is this
piece?  "One half."  Now what part of a
sphere is one of these pieces?  "One half of
a sphere."
-   Can you tell me the shape of this half of a
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sphere?  "It has one circular flat face and one curved
face."
There is a word for this shape; shall I tell you
what that word is? Well, first tell me what that
word is the name of.  "It is the name of one half of
a sphere." Very good; the name of half a sphere is
hemiisphere.
What is half of a sphere called? "A hemisphere."
remi means half, so that ]hemisphere means half of
a sphere.
Hlow many hemispheres can you make out of one
sphere?
LESSON XX.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF AN OVAL.
[Holding v
beca      use it  is ]
Here is a 1
their shape?
Are all app
like a sphere.
[Draws an oval figure on the blackboard, and makes a dot for the middle.] What do we call the line which
bounds this oval?  "The  circumfer
OVAL.
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92       DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOlM.
ence."  What does this mark in the oval indicate?
"Its middle."
Are all parts of the circumference of this oval at
the same distance from the middle? NVhat do you
observe?  "The oval is longer in one direction than
in the other." What would you call those parts of
the oval which are farthest from the middle?  "Its
ends."
Several objects may be shown and figures drawn to
illustrate this shape.
CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS.
There should be a great variety of objects provided
for illustrating the forms which are described, and the
children should frequently be exercised in selecting
and classifying those with similar forms. Whenever'
practicable, several objects should be shown to illustrate each form, so that the child may not suppose
that the name of the shape is the name of the object.
It would be well to call for the selection of objects by
the names of their shapes; then to take up objects and
tell the names of their forms.
Very little importance should be placed on repeating the names of forms, but a yrecet dleal upon the actual selection and classification of the objects by their
different shapes. It is the seeing and doing that perfects knowledge in this department, not repetition of
names merely..,.The three should be combined; the
child should be led to see, trained to do, and required
to tell what it sees and does.
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CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS.
It may be found that some of these lessons are too
long for a single exercise, or too difficult to engage
the attention of some children. When the first difficulty is encountered, the lesson may be divided at the
sub-heads.  Indeed, for young children, this course
will be preferable, as the lessons should be very short.
When, however, such divisions are made, the exercises under each sub-heading should be expanded by
means of a greater variety of illustrations and comparisons.
When the lesson is found too difficult, the teacher
should prepare the way for it by introducing a greater number of lessons similar to those which precede
the difficult one. Here, as in very many other instances, the judgment of the teacher must decide the
precise steps to be taken.
We have endeavored to point out the course to be
pursued, and illustrate the principles on which a true
system of training for the development of the faculties
of children is based. The success of the teacher in
using this system of training will depend upon her
ctbility to observe the course, and to modify and adapt
the plans for applying theprinciples to the conditions
of her ptpils.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING.
"Doing can only be learned by doing; drawing by drawing;
writing by writing; painting by painting."-COMENEUS.
HOW DRAWING MAY BE INTRODUCED
INTO PRIMARY SCHOOLS.
THE ability to use the pencil or the pen, so that
with a few strokes of either one can represent to the
eye that which he can not describe, is an acquisition
the value of which is too well known to need any
commendation here; but that children may be trained
to acquire this ability at school is not so generally understood.
It is believed by the ablest educators that children
will learn to write in less time, if they are taught drawing and writing at the same time, than when taught
writing alone. It was a saying of the great Swiss
educator, Pestalozzi, that "without drawing there can
be no writing."
The use of the slate and pencil should not be postponed for a single day after the child has entered the
primary school; indeed, the use of it should be learned long before the child is sent to school at all.
The teacher may introduce the subject of drawing
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HOW TO INTRODUCE DRAWING.
to her pupils by requesting them to draw upon their
slates two lines in as many different positions as they
can place them. That the children may understand
this request, the teacher might illustrate some of the
positions in which two lines can be placed by drawing
them upon the blackboard in the following positions:
XA\# \/J%*
>< X/
Examples with two lines.
At first only a few of these positions should be
shown, just enough to make the pupils understand
what is desired of them. They should be encouraged
to discover other positions for themselves by occasionally adding a new one to those shown at first. When
the children have become familiar with, and can readily represent the several positions in which two lines
may be placed, give them an exercise with three lines.
Examples with three lines.
Examples with three lines.
Request them to find how many angles can be made
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96    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING.
with three lines; how many acute angles; how many
right angles; how many obtuse angles.
When the children have become familiar with the
representations by these lines, proceed to give an exercise with four lines.
Ix —alWM
Examples with four lines.
How many right angles can be made with four
lines?  How many acute angles?  How many obtuse
angles?
Examples with five lines.
By thus introducing an additional number of lines
from time to time, the lessons may be continued to an
almost indefinite extent; yet care should be taken not
to go so far as to confuse the learner. In each lesson,
such figures should be drawn upon the blackboard as
will be most likely to suggest other forms to the
pupils.
The straight lines may be followed with figures
composed of curved lines. The teacher should piroceed as with the straight lines.
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HOW TO INTRODUCE DRAWING.
Examples with curved lines.
Another change in the exercise may be made by
combining the straight and curved lines, thus:
Examples with straight and curved lines.
Exercise with these lines combined will readily suggest a very great variety of forms.  Of course, the
teacher will vary the mode of presenting this exercise
whenever the interest in it flags, and make it both a
means of amusement and development.
It would be well if the pupils could learn to use the
chalk and blackboard during these elementary drawing exercises.
By the time the pupils have gone through with the
preceding steps, they will have attained a sufficient
command of the hand in the use of the pencil, and so
trained the eye that it will readily distinguish different forms and positions of lines. Then the exercise
may be varied by introducing drawings with the simplest outlines of plain objects for the children to copy.
They will now be ready to use to advantage the elementary drawing cards.*
* The drawing cards best adapted for this early instruction are
the modern ones with black ground and white lines. These furnish copies that resemble the drawings upon the slate.
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98     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING.
By a skillful introduction of such lessons as the preceding, the foundation for more scientific instruction
in the art of drawing may be successfully laid, and as
many children may become skillful in the use of the
pencil in drawing as now become good writers firom
instruction in penmanship.
The practice of drawing on slates should be interspersed with all the exercises of the primary school
as one means of employment for the children while
sitting on their seats, also as a recreation. Care should
be taken not to have them come to regard these exercises as tasks.
Lessons of this kind, properly given, will furnish
constant practice in the knowledge which the children have acquired from the Lessons on Form; besides, that knowledge will add interest to these drawing exercises, and these exercises will furnish excellent opportunities for reviewing the ideas developed
in those lessons.
These simple exercises will prove an excellent foundation for the subsequent course of instruction in
drawing, and add great efficiency in obtaining a thorough knowledge of this important art.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
IMIPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE EYE.
THE senses are the doors and windows of the mind,
and through them all its knowledge of the world is
obtained. Through these same avenues all instruction must pass, if it ever reaches the mind.  Some
kinds of knowledge are designed for entering at the
doors, while others must pass through the windows.
It becomes those, then, who would communicate with
mind to consider how it can be most successfully
reached, and which of the avenues is adapted to the
kind of instruction that is desired to be conveyed.  It
would be folly to attempt to pass through a window
that which was designed only for a door, or to carry
through a door that which could more easily be passed through the window.
Strange though it may seem, just such foolish things
are attempted daily by methods of instruction in common use. Efforts are continually made to pour into
the ear knowledge which God designed should enter
,it the window of the soul. To this error may justly
be attributed most of the unsatisfactory results in edication.
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100     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
Sight is the most nearly perfect of all our senses;
its conceptions of whatever properties of objects can
be seen are more vivid and complete than when ideas
of the same properties are conveyed to the mind by
either of the other senses. Horace understood the
importance of this sense when he sang:
"Sounds which address the ear are lost, and die
In one short hour; but that which strikes the eye
Lives long upon the mind; the faithful sight
Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light."
This principle should be heeded especially by instructors of the young, and greater attention paid to
teaching from things by sight, and less from words by
hearing. Nevertheless, both should be combined, as
one serves to aid the other, but never should one be
allowed to take the place of the other.
The subject which we now present is emphatically
one for the sense of sight. A knowledge of color
must pass through the window, or never reach the
mind.
One of the most striking qualities of objects of
which sight takes cognizance is that of color. To
teach this, the colors themselves must be shown. No
descriptions will convey any idea of them to one who
has never seen a color.
A blind man once told us that the best idea of black
which he ever received was from a remark made to
him one day by his little sister. She was describing
some object that was black. Her mother, hearing her,
remarked, "Your brother can not understand you;
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I 
TRAINING THE EYE.
he does not know what black is."  "Don't you know
how black looks, brother? It looks like the darkest
night that you ever saw." Nothing could have been
more simple and better adapted to convey the idea of
black to a blind man, yet to his mind it was only like
something that could not be seen; it gave him no definite conception of black.
Notwithstanding a knowledge of color is important in the various avocations of life, and a nice discrimination of it is a source of great pleasure to the
mind, yet the subject is entirely neglected in our
schools, whereas it should have a prominent place in
primary instruction.
It is a well-known fact that individuals possess in
very different degrees the power of distinguishing
not only shades of the same color, but the colors most
strikingly opposed to each other. Indeed, the same
color will be called by entirely different names by different individuals. Comparatively few persons can
distinguish a scarlet from a vermilion, or a crimson
from a carmine. Many confound a blue with a green.
Public attention has of late been directed to this
subject of the difference in the power of distinguishing colors. Philosophical investigations have been
made by Sir David Brewster, and Dr. George Wilson
of Edinburgh, and others, which have resulted in the
discovery that a deficiency in the power to discern
color is more prevalent than was supposed.
The name color-blindness has been given to this remarkable condition of sight. From calculations based
on various examinations made in England and Scot
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102      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
land, it appears that one person out of every fifteen is
unable to distinguish all of the ordinary colors; one
in fifty-five confounds red with green; one in sixty
brown with green; one in forty-six blue with green.
Of the three primary colors, red appears to be the
most difficult to be distinguished; it is the distracting
color of the three. Some persons can not see it at all
as a color, for it appears to them as black, but most
commonly it is mistaken for green. Yellow is the
color which least frequently escapes perception. There
are but a very few persons, even among those who are
called color-blind, that do not see yellow perfectly.
A pure blue is in the next degree least likely to be
mistaken, and with some it is the most vivid color of
the three.
When we combine the yellow and blue into a green,
we have the greatest of all stumbling-blocks in color.
Green is frequently mistaken for red, often for blue,
by those who are color-blind.  Those who can not distinguish red regard purple as a blue; not perceiving
the red in orange, that color is called a yellow.
Red and green are the two colors which are most
commonly not distinguished, yet it so happens that
these are the two colors used as signals on rail-roads
and ships. This renders it most important that every
person employed on rail-roads, whose position has any
thing to do with signals, should be carefully tested as
to his powers of distinguishing between the colors of
red and green.  A  fearful catastrophe might occur
from mistaking a signal implying danger for one denoting safety.
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TRAINING THE EYE.
Bartholomew, the sculptor, could not distinguish
between a crimson curtain and a green one. Yet he
began his artistic career as a portrait painter, and once
he gave the cheeks of a female sitter a hue of bright
green. He put the two pigments upon his palette,
and mistook the green for the red, and did not discover his mistake until it was pointed out to him.
Yet, blind as he was to the differences of color, he had
the most exquisite perception of the beauties of form.
The celebrated chemist, Dr. Dalton, thought the red
gown in which he was installed as Doctor of Civil
Law at Oxford was a blue one. Some of his friends,
in order to test this peculiarity of his vision, substituted red stockings for those he usually wore.  The
doctor put them on without noticing any thing remarkable in their appearance, and when his attention
was directed to them he only said they looked rather
dirty.
How far this remarkable defect in distinguishing
colors can be remedied by early training and careful
education of the eye, it is impossible to answer from
present experience; but we know that by cultivation
the ear may be rendered much more capable of perceiving and distinguishing sounds.   Judging then
from analogy, we may reasonably suppose that the
eye also, by proper training, might be greatly improved in its power of discriminating colors. At all
events, it is of sufficient importance and probability to
deserve greater attention, and to render it highly important that the subject of color should have a place
ill school training.
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104      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
Preparations for Illustrating Color.-Before commencing the exercises on color, the teacher should
make herself familiar with the descriptions of color
given under the following head: "Classification, Combination, and Description of Colors;" also, as far as
possible, with the colors themselves.  The "chart of
colors" and "box of colors," colors in worsted, pieces
of ribbon, three good water-colors representing red,
yellow, and blue, colored crayons for the blackboard,
a prism, wafers, colored paper, flowers, leaves, fruit,
etc., etc., should be provided for illustrating these lessons. The frontispiece will serve as a guide in selecting the leading colors.
If the teacher can not easily obtain more suitable
apparatus for illustrating the lessons on color, she
might procure a large sheet of perforated pasteboard,
and work upon it squares, each about two inches in
size, with colored worsteds, leaving a space of an inch
between the different squares. In this manner all the
colors might be represented very well. The following descriptions of them would aid in selecting the
worsteds.
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COLORS.
CLASSIFICATION, COMBINATION, AND DE              SCRIPTION OF COLORS.
ALL colors exist between the extremes of light and darkness.
These extremes are represented by wvhite on one side and black on
the other. Light is transparency, darkness is obscurity. From
white we pass to yellow, which most nearly resembles light; thence
to red, the representative of warmth and life, the most perfect
color; then to blue, which is related to shade or darkness, as yellow is to light, and finally ending in black.
In the rainbow are found the purest colors, and a key to the
whole science of coloring. That is Nature's chart of colors, and
the only true standard for artists and colorists. Newton first discovered that the sunlight can be separated by the prism into the
seven colors seen in the rainbow, red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, purple. It has since been ascertained that four of these
colors-orange, green, putrple, and i;ldiyo-can be produced by mixing the other three, red, yellowzv, and blue; but these three can not
be obtained by any mniixture of the other colors.
]Red, yellow, and blue are called the priniary colors, because all
the other colors, shades, hues, and tints, from light to darkness,
may be produced by the combination of these three in different
proportions, with the aid of their extremes, white and black, as
modifiers. The addition of black to a color gives shades; white
gives tints.
If we could obtain perfectly pure red, yellow, and blue, of equal
depth of color, and combine them in their proper proportions,
they would produce white.  However, artists have not been able
to secure these colors in a sufficiently pure state to obtain white by
their mixture.   Ultramarine is the purest representative of a primary color known; its lightest and darkest shades are pure blue.
No paint or coloring material of red or yellow has been produced
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105
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106      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
without a slight mixture of one of the other colors. Even car mine, the purest type of the prismatic red that color-makers have
produced, contains some yellow. The color obtained by purest
chrome yellow, or by gamboge, may be taken as the best represent ative of the prismatic yellow. Yet so far do these materials for
red and yellow fall short of being perfect primary colors, that a
mixture of the three representatives of the primary colors produces
only a gray.  However, for practical purposes,  carmine, chrome
yellow, and iiltramarine may be taken for the standards of red, yelloiv, and bluze.
In the present state of our knowledge of color and light, it is
difficult to answer satisfactorily the questions, "Why does grass
appear green?  Why  are some apples red?  Why  do different
things possess different colors?" It might be interesting, at this
point, to consider the wisdom of God in the beautiful and harmonious adaptation of colors in different objects; but it must suffice
for the present to give the usual scientific answer-all bodies absorb certain colors and reflect others: thus, if a body is red, it absorbs the yellow and blue rays, and reflects the red; if yellow, it
absorbs the red and blue rays, and reflects the yellow; if blue, it
absorbs the red and yellow rays, and reflects the blue; if green, it
absorbs the red rays, and reflects the yellow and blue; and so with
the others: the colors which the body appears to possess are reflected, the other colors are absorbed.
[The following definitions and combinations of color are not designed to be communicated to the children during the period for
which the lessons in this volume have been prepared. They are
given here for a convenient reference to aid the teacher in conducting the exercises on color. It will readily be seen by their
combinations which colors present the greatest contrasts, and are
therefore best adapted for the first lessons in distinguishing colors;
also which most resemble each other, and thus suggest those to be
selected for teaching shades, hues, and tints. The descriptions
given of the colors and hues known by different names will aid in
determining them by the eye. The use of the plate of colors will
prove of great assistance in this study.]
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CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS..
CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS.
Primary Colors.-Red, yellow, blue.
A mixture of equal parts of two primary colors produces a secondary color.
Secondary Colors.-Orange, green, purple.
A mixture of two secondary colors, or three primary ones in the
proportion of two parts of one color and one part of each of the
other two, produces a tertiary color.
Tertiary Colors.-Citrine, olive, russet.
The various combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors produce the
Irregular Colors.-Browns, maroon, claret, chocolate, auburn, chestnut, snuff; drab, gray, slate, etc.
Shade.-The graduation of a color or hue in depth from its
perfect state to a black, usually produced by the addition of black
to a color.
Hue.-A color made lighter by combining with it another color
or hue in various proportions, as a little yellow mixed with pure
red gives a scarlet, a hue of red.
Tint.-The attenuation of a color by mixing with it white.
Tinge.-A slight coloring or tincture distinct from the ground
or principal color or hue.
CIONS OF COLORS.
ispiece for Illustrations.
Pe y.    Secondary.           Tertiary.
Orange 
and    produce Citrine.
Green
Primary.        Secondam
Red f
and    produce          Orange.
Yellow 
Yellow 
and    produce Green.
Blue 
Red  )
and    produce          Purple.
Blue
Gree n 
and   produce Olive.
Purple
Orange
and    produce Russet.
Purple
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108     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOI.
DESCRIPTIONS OF COLORS, SHADES, HUES, AND
TINTS.
Hues of Primiary Color-s.
Pure RED.-CARMINE, the purest deep red.
CRIMsON-pure red, with a slight tinge of blue, giving it a
purplish shade: the common color of red apples.
SCARLET-a bright red, with a slight tinge of yellow.
VERMILION-a brilliant yellowish red; it contains more yel       low than scarlet.
VENETIAN RED-the darkest shade of the reds; a dark, dull
red, approaching the red browns: a common name applied
to a paint made of earth.
Pink-tints of crimson.
Rose-tints of carmine.
Flesh Color-light tint of scarlet.
Pure YELLOW.-Chrome yellow, a rich deep yellow.
CANARY-a light hue of chrome yellow, the color of the ca      nary-bird.
SULPHUR-a yellow with a bluish tinge; a cold yellow.
SAFFRON-a deep yellow with a slight reddish tinge.
Straw-a deep tint of pure yellow.
Primrose-a very light tint of pure yellow.
LEMON-a greenish shade of yellow.
OCHRE-a dusky yellow; sometimes it has a reddish tinge.
Pure BLUE.-Ultramarine, the deepest blue.
COBALT BLUE-next in purity to ultramarine, but not so
deep a blue.
PRUSSIAN BLUE-a dark blue with a slight greenish tinge,
from its containing a minute portion of yellow.
INDIGO-a very deep shade of blue with a slight purplish
tinge; a shade between the darkest blue and the darkest
purple.
MAZARINE-a deep purple blue.
Aztre, or Sky-blue-the light clear blue of the sky; a tint of
ultramarine.
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DESCRIPTIONS OF COLORS..
-ues of Secondacry Colors.
ORANGE.-Equal parts of pure red and yellow. A redder
orange is produced by mixing three parts of yellow with
eight parts of red. This name comes from the color of the
fruit when ripe.
AMIBER COLOR-a shade of yellowish orange.
BurFF-a yellowish orange, and several of its deeper tints.
Salmon-a tint of reddish orange.
Cream Color —a tint of yellow orange.
GREEN.-Equal parts of pure blue and yellow; the brightest
grass green. A darker green is produced by mixing three
parts of yellow with eight parts of blue.
SEA GREEN-a dark shade of green with blue predominating.
OLIVE GREEN-a very dark shade of yellow apple green.
APPLE GREEN-a yellowish green.
EMERALD GREEN-a very rich green, usually of a light color:
the color of a precious stone.
Pea Green-a tint of grass green.
Tea Green-a tint of olive green.
PURPLE.-Equal parts of pure blue and red. A darker purple
is produced by mixing five parts of red with eight parts of
blue; this, however, becomes a shade of violet.
ROYAL PURPLE-the purest purple; it has a reddish tinge.
VIOLET-a purple with a bluish tinge.
Lilac-a tint of pure purple.
Larvender-a light tint of violet.
Peach-blossom-a very light tint of reddish purple.
Tertiacry Colors.
CITRINE.-Equal parts of green and orange united; or two
parts of yellow, one of red, and one of blue. Yellow is the
ruling color-a greenish dark yellow. This name is from
the citron, a fruit somewhat resembling the lemon.
OLIVE.-Equal parts of green and purple united; or two parts
of blue, one of red, and one of yellow. A dusky shade of
yellowish green.
109
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110     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
RUSSET.-Equal parts of orange and purple united; or two
parts of red, one of blue, and one of yellow. A light red      dish brown; the red predominates.  This color is seen on
russet apples.
IIties of Irregular Colors.
BROWNS.-Shades,  hues, and tints produced by mixing red,
yellow, and blue in different proportions. These are called
dark browns, deep browns, red browans, gold browns, light
browns, etc., according to the prevailing color.
MAROON-a red brown with a purple tinge.
CLARET-a lighter hue than the maroon.
CHOCOLATE-a dark reddish brown.
AUBURN-a very dark shade of red orange, or a brown with
red predominating. This name is applied to hair.
SNUFF-a brown with yellow predominating.
UMBER: this color is classed with the browns. Raw umber
gives a yellowish hue; burnt umber a reddish hue.
Tan Color —a tint of red brown.
Drab-a tint of a dull brown.
GRAY.-Equal parts of red, yellow, and blue united, or mix      tures of white and black.
PEARL GRAY-a light hue of gray.
STEEL OR IRON GRAY-dark shades of gray.
SLATE-a shade of pearl gray.
Colors as applied to Horses and Cattle.
BAY horse-a reddish brown.
CHEsTNT horse-a shade of reddish brown.
SORREL horse-a light yellowish brown.
CREAM. COLOR horse-a light yellowish orange.
ROAN horse-a prominent mixture of white hairs with either
of the preceding colors.
GRAY horse-a mixture of white and black or brown hairs,
usually with the white hairs greatly predominating.
REF  cattle-a redder brown than a bav.
0 
HARMIONY OF COLORS.
BRINDLE cattle- a mixture of light and dark browns, or
brown and black in stripes or spots.
DuN cattle-a very light hue of dull brown.
FAWN-cOLOR-a tint of chestnut.
HARMONY OF COLORS.
Among colorists it is an axiom that every color, when placed
beside another, is changed in appearance; each modifies the one
with which it is in proximity. It is the observance of this law, or
the violation of it, in dress, in the decorations and furniture of a
room, and in the arrangement of flowers in a bouquet, that constitutes the chief distinction between taste and the lack of it in these
departments. True taste, therefore, is the observance of philosophical laws; and it is these laws that determine what colors are
"becoming to" certain complexions; also, which colors harmonize
in the decorations of a room. As illustrations of this law, we will
mention the effect of a few colors in dress upon the complexion of
the wearer.
Rose can not be put in contact with the rosiest complexions
without causing them to lose some of their freshness.
Green of a delicate hue is favorable to all fair complexions which
are deficient in rose.
ellozv imparts violet to a fair skin: it best suits brunettes.
Violet imparts a greenish yellow to a fair complexion: it is one
of the least favorable colors to the skin.
Blue imparts an orange tint, and is suitable to most blondes: it
will not suit brunettes.
Orange makes fair complexions blue, and whitens those with an
orange tint: it is too brilliant to be elegant.
Vhite exalts all colors, consequently is unsuitable to complexions that do not appear better when made more prominent: it is
suitable for a fresh or rosy complexion.
Black lowers all colors and whitens the complexion.
The observance of this law in the arrangement of flowers in a
bouquet will lead to the separation of pink from both scarlet and
crimson, orange from yellow, red from orange, pink from violet,
blue from violet, etc
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112     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR,.
LESSON I.
DISTINGUISHING THE PRIARY COLORS.
I am going to give you a lesson on colors to-day,
but first I wish to know what enables you to see colors? "Our eyes." True, you could not see them
without eyes; but if your eyes enable you to see colors, how does it happen that you can not see them at
night?
Now tell me, since you can not see them in the
dark, how it is that you can see them by day?  "The
light enables us to see them." Yes; for without light
you could not see any thing.
Having placed before the children objects representing the three primary colors, reel, yellow, and blue,
as colored cards,* worsteds, or pieces of ribbon, etc.,
let the teacher, without naming it, point to red on the
"chart of colors,"* and request the pupils to select the
same color from the colored objects. When all the
pupils are able to select readily this color, proceed
with yellow in the same manner, then with blue.
Next let the teacher select the card or colored object, and request the pupils to point to the same color
on the "chart of colors."
After the pupils have become somewhat familiar
with these three colors, the teacher may arrange the
* A "chart of colors," also a set of "colored cards," with two
of cach color represented on the "chart of colors," have been prepared for illustrating these lessons.
O
4b 
PRIMARY COLORS.
colored objects in a row, as yellow, red, blue, and require the pupils to place other colored objects in the
same order. Vary this until the pupils can readily
imitate any given order of the three colors.
NoTE.-The teacher should not say any thing about primary or
secondary colors during these lessons on "distinguishing and naming colors." This division of them should be taken up by itself
after the lessons on mixing colors. The terms are employed here
as a guide to the teacher.
LESSON II.
NAMING THE PRIMARY COLORS.
The teacher will point to a color on the "chart of
colors," and require each pupil to select from the cards
or worsteds the same color; then she will tell its name,
and request each child to repeat it.
Next she may ask them to mention some object
which has the same color, and to point out the color
in their dresses, or in objects seen in the room.
Proceed in this manner with each of the three primary colors, first requiring the children to select the
color; then tell them its name, and require each one
to repeat it; then to mention other objects with the
same color.
The teacher may next call upon the pupils to point
to these three colors upon the "chart of colors," as
she calls their names. Then require them to select
the colors from the objects, as she calls their names.
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113
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114     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
Colored crayons may now be used, and these colors
made upon the blackboard, and the children requested
to name each as it is drawn upon the board. Similar
practices and illustrations should be continued until
all are familiar with each color.
When it is practicable, it will add interest to these
lessons if the teacher will provide three boxes to contain objects of the primary colors, and give the pupils
colored cards, worsteds, wafers, beads, pieces of ribbon, etc., and request them to assort these, placing
those of different colors in separate boxes, as an
amusement. The same might be done with the secondary colors. This will gratify the child's desire
to do.
LESSON III.
DISTINGUISHING THE SECONDARY COLORS.
Let the teacher point to green on the "chart of colors," and request the pupils to select the same color
from the objects. Then ask them to mention other
objects that have this color. Proceed in the same
manner with orange and purple.
Next let the teacher select an object possessing
one of these colors, and require the pupils to point
out the color on the card. Proceed in this manner
with each of the secondary colors, showing as many
objects for illustration as possible.
The teacher may now arrange the colored objects
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SECONDARY COLORS.
in rows, as in the first lesson; and it might be well to
add the three primary colors to the row when they
can readily arrange secondary colors alone. Require
them to practice on these until they can arrange them
in the order of any simple pattern that may be given
them, as red, blue, yellow, green, orange, purple;
green, yellow, blue, orange, red, purple; blue, purple,
red, orange, yellow, green, etc.
LESSON IV.
NAMING THE SECONDARY COLORS.
The teacher will now point to a color, as green, and
request the pupils to select from the cards or worsteds
the same color; then she will tell its name, and require each child to repeat it.
Next she may tell them to mention objects which
are green, and to point out the color in their dresses.
Proceed in the same manner with orange and purple.
Let the teacher call upon the children to point to
orange, green, and purple on the card, as she repeats
their names; then require them to select such colors
from the worsteds, etc., as she calls the name.
Next, the colored crayons representing orange,
green, and purple should be used, and the name of
each color repeated by the pupils as the teacher draws
it upon the blackboard
Call upon a pupil to select a crayon, and make a
mark upon the board resembling the color of grass.
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0
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116     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLQR.
Request another to make a mark like the color of an
orange; another to make a mark resembling the color
of the sky; another the color of a canary-bird, etc.
Let the teacher next call up a pupil to select two
colors, red and blue; another to select yellow and
green; another red and orange; another blue and pul'ple, etc. Practice this and similar exercises until the
pupils are familiar with and can readily select each of
the six colors already presented.
LESSON V.
RED AND YELLOW.
One of you may come here and select pieces of
cards, ribbon, and wafers that are red, and give one
to each pupil. Another pupil may come and select
from the same objects those which are yellow, and
give one to each pupil. I wish you to hold the red
piece which you have in your left hand, and the yellow piece in your right hand, and then compare them
with the objects that I name.
Now look at my lips, and tell me which color they
are like.  "They are red."
Look at each other, and see if you have red lips.
Which object are they like?  "Like the red one, in
my left hand."
What is the color of your mouth and tongue?
"Red." Can you tell me when the tongue is not red?
"WVhen we are ill." What is it then?  "It is white."
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RED AND YELLOW.
What should you then say of the tongue?  "It is red
when we are well."
Did you ever see a bird of this color?  "Yes; a
robin." Do you mean to say that the robin is red all
over? "No; it has red feathers on its breast." What,
then, should you have said?  "The robin has a red
breast."
There is a very common and useful bird that has
some red about it; what do you think it is?  "The
rooster has a red comb on its head." Is this comb
feathers or flesh?  "It is flesh."
Are there any more such pieces on the rooster?
"Yes; some pieces that hang down under its head."
These pieces of flesh are called gills. What more can
you say are red?  "The gills of the rooster are red."
WVhat have you seen red in the garden?  "Roses,
pinks, and many other flowers." Are all roses and
all pinks red?  "No; sometimes they are white."
Can you tell me other things that are red?  "The
fire is red; sometimes the sky is red."
What do you think makes the sky red? "The
sun setting."  When is the sky red?  "The sky is
red at sunset." Is the sky always red at sunset?
"No."  When is it so?  "In fine weather."  Now
repeat this together.  "In fine weather the sky is red
when the sun sets.
Yellow.-We might mention a great many more
things that are red, but we will now talk about some
that are like the object in your right hand. What
color is that? "It is yellow."
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOQR.
Tell me some objects that have this color.  "Some
gloves, ripe corn, sun-flowers."
Can you tell me any part of the house that is painted with this color?  "Yes; the floors are yellow, and
sometimes the walls."
Did you ever see a bird of this color?  "Oh yes;
the canary, and the yellow-bird."
WVhat fruits have you seen of this color?  "Apples, plums, tomatoes."
Are all apples, and plums, and tomatoes yellow?
"No; a great many of them are red." Then what
should you say of the color of these fruits?  "Some
apples, and some plums, and some tomatoes are yellow."
When are leaves yellow? "In the autumn."
Now tell me all the things that you can see in this
room which resemble the color in your right hand.
Point to this color on the card; point to the color
on the card like that in your left hand. Select crayons, and make these colors on the board.
LESSON VI.
BLUE AND SHADE OF COLOR.
What colors were we talking about in our last lesson? "Red and yellow."  To-day we will talk about
bhee. Each of you may take an object that is blue,
and hold it during the lesson. Now look at each
other's dresses, and tell me if you see any color like
that which you hold in your hand.
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4 
BLUE AND SHADE OF COLOR.
Now look at each other's eyes, and tell me what
you see.  "Some eyes are blue."  Are they all dark
like this card?  "No; some are light blue."
Now look in the sky, and tell me what you see.
" The sky is light blue." Yes, the sky is a pale blue;
it is a very pleasant color to look on. God has made
many things in nature of this color.
Did you ever see a lake or the sea?  " Yes."  If
the sky, and the lakes, and sea were a bright red, they
would be painful to the eye. Do you think the sky
would look as beautiful as it does now were it a bright
yellow?
God made this beautiful world pleasant for us to
look at, and we should remember how good he is to
paint every thing with the color best for that thing.
To teach the dark shades and light shades of colors,
the teacher might inquire what they would say at
night when the light and fire are put out. "It is
dark." What would we say in the morning when the
sun has risen? "It is light."
Show them a very dark color, and ask, Does this
look like the night or like the morning? "It looks
most like the dark." Then we will call it a dark color
or shade.  A shadow, you know, is a dark shade made
by placing some object between the light and it.
[Shows a dark blue, and points to a similar color on
the card.]  What can you say of this color?  "It is
a dark blue." [Pointing to a light blue.] What can
you say of this?  "It is a light blue."
Now here are objects that are red, yellow, and blue;
some are dark and some are light. I wish you to se
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119
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120     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
lect the dark colors and place them in one box, and
select the light colors and place them in another box.
LESSON VII.
HUES AND TINTS OF RED.*
Wvhen the children have had sufficient exercise in
distinguishing between light and dark colors to become familiar with this distinction, proceed to take up
a single color, and teach its hues and tints. Give them
samples of crimson, scarlet, vermilion, pink, rose, etc.,
and request them to select others to match these in
hue.
Let them next try to match these colors with objects which they may see in the room, with their
dresses, etc.
Require them to select the same hues on the card
of colors. At first one may be distinguished from
the other by the terms dark red, light red, very light
red, pale red, etc. Subsequently the names of the
most prominent hues and tints may be taught, when
the children are able to distinguish them readily.
There should be a great deal of practice in selecting
and naming these hues and tints.
This exercise may be varied by allowing the children to try exercises with their companions in judging
of colors.
* See descriptions of shades, hues, and tints of color, on pages
108, 109, and 110.
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HUES AND TINTS OF YELLOW.     121
The teacher may arrange the hues of red in their
order, from the darkest to the lightest, and require
the children to select and arrange these hues in the
same order. In all of these exercises, the teacher
should first train the eye to discriminate the hues of
color, then to assort and match them, next to teach
their names.
LESSON VIII.
HUES AND TINTS OF YELLOW.
Let the teacher select the hues of yellow, as saffron,
lemon, sulphur, straw, primrose, etc., and request the
pupils to match them; then to point to these colors
on the card. At first these hues and tints may be
designated as dark, light, and pale yellow; subsequently, when the children have become so familiar
with them as to be able to readily select and match
them, their names may be given.
The teacher should be guided by the ability of the
children to distinguish color in deciding how minute
a distinction of hues should be made. With the younger pupils it may be well only to make two or three
distinctions, giving them the names yellow, canary,
straw, and lemon.
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122     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
LESSON IX.
HUES OF OTHER COLORS.
Exercises on shades, hues, and tints of color, similar to those in the lessons on the primary colors, may
be given, chiefly for the purpose of securing much
practice in discriminating them. Green, orange, purple, russet, brown, and their hues, may be used for
these lessons.
During all of these exercises, the greatest variety of
objects, representing the distinct colors embraced in
the lesson, should be provided for illustrations-ribbon, worsted, cotton, pieces of silk, beads, different
fruits, flowers, leaves, etc.
The worsteds used for illustrating these colors may
be wound on pieces of white cards, and two of each
color and hue should be prepared.
The ability to distinguish hues of color is of the
first importance, for when this is obtained the learning of their names will be an easy matter.
By requiring the children to give examples of color
from recollection, they may be trained to apply correct names to them, while an opportunity will be furnished for correcting many vague and inaccurate impressions.
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I 
MlIXING COLORS.
LESSON X.
ORANGE-MIXING RED AND YELLOW.
See Frontispiece, Fig. 1.
Now I am going to show you something more curious than any thing you have yet seen. I have here
some paints.  What is the color of this?  "Red."
And of this?  "Yellow."
What am I doing?  "Mixing some red and yellow
paint together."  What do you see now?   "You
have made another color."
What is that color like? It is a dark or reddish
yellow, like an orange." What is the name of this
color?  "Orange."
How did I make the orange color?  "By mixing
red and yellow."
The teacher may now make two broad marks on
the blackboard-one with a red crayon, and one with
a yellow crayon, in the form of an acute angle, and at
the point where these two lines meet let him mark
with both crayons, and rub the marks together so as
to produce an orange color.
Let the pupils take crayons and imitate the teacher,
that this fact-mixing red and yellow produces orange
-may become fixed in their minds. It is what the
children do that they remember longest, not what they
'epeaet.
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123
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124     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
LESSON XI.
GREEN-MIXING BLUE AND YELLOW.
See Frontispiece, Fig. 2.
What colors have I here?  "Blue and yellow."
What am I doing?  " Mixing them together."
What  do you see now?  "You have made a
green."
How did I make it?  "By mixing blue and yellow
together."
Which color does green look like, blue or yellow?
"It does not look like either."
Now I wish each pupil to come and select objects
of the colors which produce green, and hold them in
one hand, and select another which is green, to hold
in the other hand.
Now let me see if you have them right. John has
red in his hand with the yellow. Is that right?
"No." What color would he have, should he mix
these?  "Orange."  Try it again, John.
Mary, let me see yours. You have yellow and green
in one hand, and blue in the other. Ella, you may
show her how to hold them.  Now all have the right
colors, I believe.
What two colors have you in your left hand?
"Blue and yellow." What color have you in your
right hand?  "Green."  If you mix blue and yellow
paint, what color will you have?  "Green."  Very
well.
6
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MIXING COLORS.
I will draw two lines on the board to represent
these colors. What color is this line which I have
just made? "Yellow." What other line shall I
draw by the side of it to show what two colors I
must mix to produce green?  "A blue line."
Now from this point where they meet, what line
must I draw to show what these two colors produce
when mixed?  "A green line."
Now each pupil, two at a time, may put the objects
which you hold in this box, and go to the board and
draw these lines as I did. Let each one tell me what
is the color of the two lines which unite in a point,
and what is the color of the other line.
LESSON XII.
PURPLE-MIXING BLUE AND RED.
See Frontispiece, Fig. 3.
What colors did we mix at our last lesson?  "Blue
and yellow."  WVhat was the result?  "They produced green."
What did we mix in the other lesson?  "Red and
yellow."  What was produced?  "Orange."
What colors have I now?  "Blue and red." What
am I doing?  "Mixing them together."
What do you observe? "You have produced a
dark reddish color."  What do you call this?  "A
purple."
Sometimes purple has more blue in it; then we call
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125
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126     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
it violet.  How did I make this purple?  "By mixing
red and blue."
Now select objects that are red and blue, and those
that are purple. Let me see what you have. When
wrong selections have been made, show them to the
class, and ask the pupils to tell what is wrong, and
how to correct it.
It would be desirable, after the class have told how
to make the correction, to call upon one of the youngest pupils to select the colors that had been designated. The young pupils should be brought forward
when any thing is to be done, especially when there
is any simple exercise of the senses.
LESSON XIII.
INDIGO-MIXING BLUE AND PURPLE.
See Frontispiece, Fig. 4.
What two colors did we mix at the last lesson?
"Blue and red."  What was the result?  "Purple
was produced." Which does purple most resemble,
a blue or a red?  "It most resembles a dark red."
What are these colors?  "Blue and purple."  You
observe that I have mixed them together. Can you
tell me what color I have made?  "A dark blue."
Yes; we call this color incdigo. It is a very dark blue,
with a red tinge.
Of what is purple composed?  "Of red and blue."
You observe that I have now taken the purple and
put more blue with it, and produced indigo.
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PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS.   127
LESSON XIV.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS.
Now let us examine and see how many colors we
had at first, and how many we produced by mixing
those. What were the first two colors that we mixed? "Red and yellow."  I will make red and yellow
marks on the blackboard to help you to remember
these.
How many marks have I made?  "Two."  How
many colors do these marks represent? "Two."
What are those colors?  "Red and yellow."
What color did I produce by mixing red and yellow
together?  "Orange."
I will make a mark for this on the other side of the
board. How many marks have I now made? "Three."
Hlow many colors have we on the board? "Three."
What two colors did I mix next?  "Blue and yellow."  Have I any new color here that is not on the
board?  "Yes; the blue."  Very good; I will mako
a blue line for that.
How many lines have we  on the board now?
"Four." How many colors? "Four." What color was produced when we mixed blue and yellow?
"Green."
I will make a green line for this under the orange,
to indicate that it is one of the colors formed by mixing other colors. Now how many colors have we?
"Five."  What are their names?   " Red, yellow,
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128    -DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
orange, blue, green." Which were formed by mixing
other colors?
What two colors did I mix at the next lesson?
"Blue and red." Have we both of those colors on
the board?  "Yes."  Well, what color did the mixing of these two produce?  "Purple."
Where shall I place the line to represent this color?
"Under the orange and green." Very good. How
many colors have we now on the board?  "Six."
Repeat them.
What two colors did I mix at the last lesson?
"Blue and purple." Have we both of those colors
represented on the board?  "Yes."  What color was
produced by mixing them?  "Indigo."
Where shall I place the line to represent this color?
"Under the purple." How many colors have we
now?  "Seven."  Repeat them.
How many colors did we use to produce all of these
seven colors?  "Only three."  Which are those colors?  "S7e(, yellow, and bllue."  These three colors
are called prinmary colors, because the other colors can
be produced by mixing these together; but we can
not produce these three by mixing the others together.  Which are the primary colors?  "Red, yellow,
and blue."
What colors are produced by mixing these three
primary colors? "Orange, green, andpurple."  These
colors thus produced are called secondary colors. How
many secondary colors have we produced?  "Three."
Repeat them.
These, with indigo, are the seven colors that you
see in a rainbow, or when you look through a prism.
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COLOR.
Here is a prism; I will place it so as to allow a ray
of sunshine to pass through it, and show you all of
these colors on this white paper. Now each one may
look through it and see the same colors.
LESSON XV.
CITRINE.
You have now learned something about all the colors which may be seen in the rainbow, or found with
the prism in the sunbeam; but there are still other
colors seen in the objects around us. These, however,
are all produced by mixing those already named in
different proportions.
You have learned that by mixing red and yellow it
will produce,* and that by mixing yellow and
blue it will produce.*  Now, if we take the
orange and green and mix them together, we shall
obtain another color, which is called citrine, because it
resembles the color of the citron fruit. This color is
a greenish dark yellow. [The teacher points to it on
the card of colors.] Now I wish you to select this
color from the colored cards, also from the worsteds.
Tell me what you have seen that resembles this color.
Let each pupil describe citrine.
* It is intended to let the children name the color, and thus fill
these ellipses. In some instances of reviewing a previous lesson,
for the sake of variety, it may be well to use this elliptical method
of asking questions, but it should seldom be employed as a mode
of conducting a lesson.
TFl
129
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130      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
LESSON XVI.
OLIVE.
In our last lesson you told me that by mixing yellow and blue together it will produce. Now,
if we mix red and blue together, what will it produce?
We will take the green and the purple, and mix*
them together. Now we have a dark yellowish green,
which we call olive. You will see it upon the card
of colors here. [Points to it.] Now select the olive
cards. What is this dark yellowish green called?
"Olive." Show me a piece of olive-colored worsted.
Let each pupil select this color from the cards and
from the worsteds; also point it out on the card of
colors.
Next request each to describe olive.
LESSON XVII.
RUSSET.
If we mix together red and yellow it will produce
-.  If we mix together red and blue it will produce.  Now, if we take orange and purple
and mix them together, we shall have a dark reddish
color, which is called russet. This color is seen on
russet apples.
* The teacher should provide herself with good colored crayons,
or with a box of water-colors, to illustrate these lessons.
0 
COLOR.
I will show you the color here. [Points to russet.]
Now I wish you to select this color from the cards
and from the worsteds.
Let each pupil in turn point out the color on the
card, and each one select it from the worsteds and the
cards.
Request them to bring to school russet apples, also
leaves of this color.
LESSON XVIII.
ABOUT WHITE AND BLACK.
We are now to have one more lesson about colors.
Who can tell me whether all things have color or not?
"They do"-" they do not."
You do not seem to agree about this. Let us see
if we can not determine whether every thing has color. Can you see color? "Yes." Then you can see
an object that has color?  "Yes."
Well, can you see the air?  "No."  How do you
know there is any air?  "We can feel it."
You say you can see an object that has color; also,
that you can not see the air: then has the air color?
"No."
Now, are all things colored?  "No."
If you can see through any substance, and it does
not change the color of the things which you see
through it, that substance has no color. Let us see
if this is so. Here is a piece of window-glass. Look
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOB.
through it at this wafer, and tell me the color of the
wafer when you see it through the glass.  "It is red."
Now look at this ribbon; what is its color?  "Blue."
You observe that all of these objects have the same
color when seen through the glass that they have
when seen without it. Then what may be said of
good window-glass? "It has no color."
I have put a blue marble in this cup of water. Does
the marble appear blue now?  "Yes."  What, then,
may you say of water?  "Water has no color."
But I am now going to tell you something about
white, which will seem strange to you.   White is all
colors. Let us see if you can understand this. You
know that when we take this prism, and let a small
beam of sunlight through it, you can see the seven
colors about which we have been talking. Who will
tell me the color of the sunlight? "It is white."
Yes; bright daylight is white.
Well, the prism separated the colors of the sunlight,
so that we can see each one distinctly. The sunlight
is white, so white must contain all colors.
A very wise man, who lived many years ago, thought
if white contains all colors, he could mix all the seven
colors of the rainbow together and produce white.
So he tried it. Hie took powders of seven different
colors, and ground them together very finely; and
when they became thoroughly mixed, the seven colors
all disappeared, and the mixed powder was a gray
white. It would have been entirely white could he
have obtained pure colors, and mixed them as thoroughly as God does in the sunibeam.
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COLOR.
I have one more strange thing to tell you-blacck is
no color. What did I tell you that the little girl said
to her blind brother about black?  "That it was like
the darkest night."
Can you see in the dark?  Can you see any color
where there is no light? Black is the absence of
light. You may think about this, and when you become older you can understand it.
Reviewing.-One of the most important points in
teaching color, as well as other subjects, is to pursue
a graduated and systematic course. The first steps
should be simple-something within the children's experience; and no succeeding steps should be taken till
they are firm in the preceding one. For the want of
this slow course, children are often bewildered and
obliged to retrace their way, which is annoying to
them, and in the end the ideas gained are seldom clear
and vivid; besides, bad habits of mind are often formed thus.
As a mode of reviewing these lessons, the teacher
may show objects and require the children to tell all
their colors; afterward name objects, and require them
to mention their colors, and to make marks on the
board with crayons to represent these colors; also, to
select them from the cards and worsteds. If they do
not give the correct colors of absent objects, request
them to examine and tell at the next lesson.
At other times an object may be named to-day for
the lesson to-morrow, requesting them to examine it
so as to be able to tell all its colors, and how those
colors may be prodio(o1.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR.
Harmony of Colors.-Something may also be done
to give the child a perception of harmony in color.
Here the eye should first be trained to observe this
harmony by frequently arranging patterns or groups of
colors in harmonious combinations, as red and green,
yellow and purple, blue and orange, green and russet,
orange and olive, etc.
When the eye has become accustomed to these, it
will be offended by combinations which are not harmonious, as yellow and orange, blue and green, red
and orange, blue and purple, orange and russet, and
the like.
After the children have learned to perceive a sense
of harmony in colors by frequent practice in observing and arranging them, as a sense of concord in music grows up after hearing it frequently exemplified,
they may be taught the names of colors which harmonize and those which do not harmonize.
One of the best and most entertaining means of
teaching this harmony to girls is for them to arrange
flowers in bouquets, and let the teacher point out those
which do not harmonize.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
THE child comes by its first notions of number
through the medium of objects; on the observation
of objects, then, should be based its training in number. It does not use numbers for their own sake, but
for the sake of the things to be numbered. It counts
by sight, and readily learns what five balls and five
apples are, but can not reason about the number five.
If it be understood by the teacher that it is with number as a property of bodies that the child is to deal,
and not with the science of number, it will be very
clear that it must not be occupied with rules or technical operations.
Veritable ideas of number belong to the early discipline of the eye, and are dependent on the actual
presentation of objects. This method of teaching
number, when well conducted, is a valuable way of
preparing for future study. From the habit of close
association between number and things which it imparts, this preliminary training will give the pupil a
great advantage in his subsequent lessons.
It is said that the inhabitants of one group of islands in the Pacific have no definite ideas of any number over five. But we need not leave the shores of
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136    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
our own enlightened land to find thousands of instances where, from the practice of requiring pupils
to depend upon the mere verbal memory of the words
which represent numbers, those pupils have no distinct knowledge, nor definite conceptions even, of any
number whatever.
The fundamental error in teaching arithmetic in
school is the abstract manner in which it is presented,
and owing to this, the pupil never thinks of finding
illustrations of what he is taught in the things that he
sees about him daily.
How shall the teacher make his lessons in number
and arithmetic real, living transactions, in place of abstractions, is the important inquiry for him to make.
Hiow can he so train his pupils, when the question
considers men and horses, or bushels and dollars, that
they shall see the real men and horses, and bushels
and dollars, thirough their representative figures and
numbers? How shall the lessons for mental discipline at school be associated with the real transactions
of life outside of the school-room?  These are questions of the first moment, if he would give practical
instruction along with the discipline of the faculties.
To answer these questions satisfactorily, the teacher
must go back of the usual course of instruction in
arithmetic. Hie must prepare the way for the introduction of the science of numbers. To suggest the
steps for that preliminary work will be the object of
these lessons on number.
Abstract numbers, and even what is termed mental
arithmetic, should not be taught before the child is
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NUMBER.
eight or nine years of age; but training in counting
and the fundamental ideas of number, through the
medium of objects, may be commenced as early as
the age of four or five.
It is a lamentable fact that the science of number
is taught backward in a majority of primary schools.
The pupils are required to begin with reasoning and
abstractions, instead of observation on real things, and
many never progress so far as to see any realities
through the fog of abstractions, and leave school without a single clear idea of what the science of numbers is.
The teacher of the common school may say, I have
no time for this objective teaching. Then better dispense with other subjects termed "higher studies,"
for it is of vastly more importance that the first steps
be rightly taken than that you attempt to teach the
abstract studies in which your pupils spend so much
time in trying to rear structures on sandy foundations.
Although the so-called "Primary Arithmetics" are
abundant, there are but few from which the teacher
can derive aid in these early primary lessons. She
must depend mainly on the resources of her own mind,
aided by experience, and such suggestions as she can
gather relative to the process for developing first ideas
of number. The most comprehensive suggestions to
be given are, teach by means of objects; illustrate
every lesson; make frequent use of the blackboard;
take a new step forward as soon as the last one has
become familiar.
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138    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
LESSON I.
FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBER.
The first ideas of number are best communicated
by reference to familiar objects; and these should be
of several kinds, to prevent the association of the num ber with one class of objects only. The use of the
common numeral frame or ball-frame, alone, might
lead the children to connect the idea of number with
one branch of objects, and prevent their acquiring the
abstract idea of numbers.
Let the younger children learn to count balls, books,
pencils, cents, pebbles, beans, apples, or any objects
which may be at hand; the greater the variety, and
the more familiar the objects, the better. They may
also count their fingers. Each pupil in the class may
hold up one finger, then each one finger on each hand,
then each two fingers on each hand, then three fingers
on each hand, and so on to five.
Having placed several objects on the table, as books,
pencils, pebbles, beans, buttons, cents, etc., require
each pupil in turn to select three objects of such kind
as he may choose. When all have done this correctly, let each put back two objects and hold one; next
place the remaining object on the table with those of
its kind.
Now the teacher may hold up two objects of a
kind, and ask how many she holds; then three objects.  They may be required to hold up two fingers
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FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBER.
each, three fingers; then to clap hands once, then
twice, then three times.
Next three children may be put in a row, and the
class required to tell how many there are.
Then two lines I I may be made on the blackboard,
then three dots - - -, then one cross X, then two
dots - -, then three lines I I 1, and the pupils required
to tell how many of each, as they are made.
Representing Numbers.-Let the children place
beans or other objects in groups of two, three, four,
etc., and then represent the number in each group by
lines or dots on the blackboard.
They should also be required to repeat the numbers, thus: "Two lines, three dots, one cross, two
dots, three lines;" then to repeat the name and number of the objects selected to represent these lines,
clots, etc., thus: "Two cents, three beans, one book,
two pencils, three buttons." This exercise should be
varied and continued until the children are perfectly
familiar with all numbers up to ten.
Sometimes require all the pupils to make lines, dots,
or crosses on the board, indicating the numbers called
for.
Ask the children how many eyes they have, how
many ears, how many feet, how many toes on one
foot, how many hands, how many fingers and thumbs,
how many wheels a cart has, how many a wagon has,
how many a rail-road car, if they have seen one, etc.;
and then request them to represent these numbers
with lines and dots.
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140    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
Meaning of Numbers.-In teaching the meaning
of the several numbers, do not proceed by arranging
objects to be counted in order, as one, two, three,
four, etc., but begin by placing one thing, and then
one more, for two; then one object, and one more,
and one more, for three. Proceed in this manner:
Put down one bean, and say, "There is one;" then
put down another, and say, "There is one more-one
and one more make two." Then take both up, and
let the several pupils do the same, repeating the numbers as they do it.
Let the pupils put down one, saying "One;" and
put down another, saying "One more-one and one
make two."  Then put down the third, saying, "One
and one are two, and one more makes three."
All may now be taken up, and the process repeated
by the pupils. Be sure to put down only one at a
time in proceeding to the next higher number, that
the pupil may comprehend that all numbers are made
up of ones.
During these first lessons, as has already been suggested, a variety of objects should be used to prevent
the limited association of number to a particular object. Marks, dots, etc., should be made on the blackboard in the same manner.
Counting Objects,-When the children have learned to comprehend the numbers from one to five, a lesson may be given somewhat in the following manner:
Here are five pencils, five sticks, five marbles, five
books, five apples, on the table. Now I want you to
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FIGURES.
count them with me. One apple and one apple are
two apples, and one more apple are three apples, and
one more apple are four apples, and one more apple
are five apples. Proceed in the same manner through
each class of objects; then count one, two, three, four,
five books, etc.
Next let one of the pupils take one book and two
marbles; another, two pencils and three books; another, three sticks and one apple; another, three pencils and three marbles; another, four apples and two
sticks, etc. Thus should the teacher resort to a great
variety of exercises with different objects, presenting
them in such a variety of ways that the pupils may
have a clear conception of all the numbers from one
to ten inclusive.
To accomplish all that has been suggested under
the head of "First Icdeas of NVuniber" will require
several exercises with young children; but thesefirst
ideas should be thoroughly understood before another
step is undertaken.
LESSON II.
FIGURES.
When the children have become familiar with the
first ideas of numbers, figures may be introduced as
representatives of those numbers. In doing this, great
pains should be taken to lead the pupils to understand
that the figures 1, 3, 5, 8 represent one, three, five, or
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142    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
eight objects, or things, or animals, or dollars, as the
case may be.
The teacher may make one line on the blackboard,
then the figure 1 to represent it; then two dots and
the figure 2, then three lines and the figure 3, then
four dots and the figure 4, and so continue to represent all the numbers up to ten.
Then the children may select different numbers of
objects, and the teacher make figures to show how
many each has.
Then the teacher may make figures, and require the
children to select the number of objects represented
by each figure. Thus the notion of real objects will
soon become so associated with the figures which represent the numbers as to cause them to appear as realities to the child.
If a child has learned to count as far as ten, and has
a conception of these numbers from counting objects,
it may be taught all the figteres, firom one to ten inclusive, in thirty minutes.
On returning home one evening, my little girl came
to me with a primary arithmetic (she could read only
a few common words), and asked me to tell her what
those marks were, at the same time pointing to a page
where the nine digits were repeated in their order in
the following form:
1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10
1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10
1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10
Requesting her to hold up one finger, I pointed to
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FIGURES.
the 1, and told her that it is the figure one. Then I
requested her to hold up two fingers, while I pointed
to thefigutre 2. In this manner I proceeded as far as
the figure 4, then commenced at the 1 again, pointing
at and speaking the name of each figure, thus: "Figure 1, figure 2, figure 3, figure 4. Now observe,"
said I, "this is the way you count, and the names of
these figures are what you say when you count. Now
see again-one, two, three, four." As I came to the 4
this time, she seemed to comprehend the whole process, and continued herself to point at and name 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, asking once or twice if she was right. In
less than ten minutes she could name either of the
nine digits at sight, in any order.  The entire time
spent at this exercise did not exceed fifteen minutes,
and no previous lesson had been given with figures.
A few days afterward I placed before her pieces of
money as counters, and, as I pointed to the figure 1,
requested her to put as many pieces on the book which
I held as the figure 1 represented. In this way I proceededcl through to the 9, in order; then I pointed to
figures at random, each time requesting her to place
as many pieces of money on the book as the figure
represented. In every instance she selected the number expressed by the figure.
The same plan might not always be successful, yet
it shows what may be easily accomplished in teaching a child if we observe the method in which nature
is developing its mind, and shape our instruction in
accordance with that method.
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144    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
LESSON III.
FORMATION AND SUCCESSION OF NUMBERS.
To lead the children to an accurate idea of the formation and increase of numbers, and of their succession, the teacher should use a numeral frame, with the
balls placed in the following manner, or arrange dots
on the blackboard thus, and require the children to
name the number of balls or dots in succession as she
points to them:
*
*   X
X *  X
X  *  **
*  *  *    
If the teacher has no numeral frame, she can place
characters-say the figure 1-on the blackboard in
the same form. It would be well also to arrange
beans and other objects in this form, for a change in
the exercise. Let the teacher point to the row representing three, and ask the pupils to tell what number
comes before and what after it; then to five, six, eight,
seven, etc., in the same manner.
Again, numbers might be announced and the children required to tell from memory what number comes
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COM3PARING NUMBERS.
before and what after them. Then they may be required to state, from looking at the balls, or the characters on the board, or the beans upon the table, what
number is between any two numbers; then to tell the
same from memory.  For instance, 5 may be mentioned, and the children requested to tell what number
precedes and what follows it. The pupil will say,
"Four comes before it, and six after it."
Then 6 and 8 may be mentioned, and the pupil required to tell what number comes between them. The
pupil will reply, "Seven comes between six and eight."
LESSON IV.
COMPARING NUMBERS.
In teaching children to compare numbers, it is not
intended to show the actual difference between them,
but to lead them readily to determine which is the
larger and which the smaller number.
The teacher may proceed in this manner: Tell me
a number which is more than three; now one that is
more than six; another that is more than seven; one
that is more than five, etc.
Now you may tell me a number that is less than
two; one that is less than four; one less than eight;
one less than six, etc.
Tell me all the numbers you know that are less than
four; all that you know that are less than six; all less
than three; all less than eight, etc.
Now tell me the numbers that you know which are
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146    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMB3ER.
more than seven; those which are more than five;
those more than six; those more than four, etc.
Which is the largest number, three, six, or five?
Which the largest, eight, four, or seven? six, nine, or
five? two, five, or seven?
Which is the smallest number, four, one, or three?
two, six, or five? eight, seven, or nine? six, four, or
three?
Which is the smallest number that you know?
which the largest?
Here are four cents in this pile, and six cents in
this; which pile contains the greater number of cents?
I have placed eight beans in one place, and eight cents
in another; which contains the larger number?
The teacher will readily perceive how these exercises can be extended in an almost unlimited variety,
and she will vary them according to the attainments
and progress of her pupils.
LESSON V
ORDER OF NUMBERS.
Children should be taught that the names are given
to numbers according to the relative position or order
in which the objects they represent are placed, as
first, second, third, etc. The importance of a specific
lesson on the order of numbers arises from the circumstance that frequently the idea of one, two, three,
etc., is conbfounded with the notion which properly be
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ORDER OF NUMBERS.
longs to first, second, third, etc. Every separate and
distinct idea should be made a distinct object of at tention, if accuracy and vigor of mind are to be cultivated.
One of the most successful modes of developing the
ideas of first, second, third, fourth, etc., is to procure
a small ladder with ten rounds in it. Being a new
object, this will arrest the attention and interest the
children.
Let them first count the steps; then lead them to
see that in speaking of these steps, or in climbing the
ladder, we do not say one step, two steps, etc., but
first step, second step, third step, etc.
If the terms are new to the children, one of the
class may be requested to stand before the others,
and place his hands on the successive rounds as if
climbing to the top. As each round is touched, the
teacher will give the appropriate number, thus: First
round, second round, third round, etc.
After several pupils have gone through with this
exercise, the different members of the class may be
called upon to "touch the third round, the fourth
round, the eighth round," etc.
Afterward objects should be counted thus, as first
finger, second finger, third finger; first book, second
book, etc., until a sufficient variety of exercises have
been given to enable the children to clearly understand the order and names of numbers. They may be
asked, Which is the first meal in the day? which the
second? the third? Which is the first day of the
week? which the second?
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148    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
LESSON VI.
ADDITION.
We do not purpose to give here all the lessons for
the teacher to use before her pupils, but enough to
suggest how this subject may be taught objectively;
how the operations in addition may be made to convey to the minds of children the idea of putting together real things. For this purpose, we shall indicate
several steps in this process by exercises, each of which
is intended for a distinct lesson.
Probably the best apparatus that can be procured
for teaching addition is a quart of beans, a numeral
frame, a blackboard, aided by such other objects as
can be readily procured in any school.
First Exercise.-Let the pupils add one bean to
one bean until they clearly comprehend that one and
one are two; then place one ball alone on the frame,
and add one more ball to it, to impress more fully the
fact that one and one are two. Add in this manner,
by using the beans or the numeral frame, one to all
the successive numbers from one to nine, thus:
1 bean and 1 bean are 2 beans; 2 beans and 1 bean
are 3 beans; 3 beans and 1 bean are 4 beans; 4 beans
and 1 bean are 5 beans; 5 beans and 1 bean are 6
beans; 6 beans and 1 bean are 7 beans; 7 beans and
1 bean are 8 beans; 8 beans and I bean are 9 beans;
9 beans and 1 bean are 10 beans.
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ADDITION.
Change the form of the addition, and add all the
successive numbers from one to nine, thus:
1 ball and 1 ball are 2 balls; 1 ball and 2 balls are
3 balls; 1 ball and 3 balls are 4 balls; 1 ball and 4
balls are 5 balls, and so on.
If it is found necessary to go over with this lesson
again, the teacher might use the blackboard, making
lines or dots, proceeding as with the beans or balls.
Second Exercise.-For the second exercise add all
the numbers to two, as 2 balls and 1 ball are 3 balls;
2 balls and 2 balls are 4 balls; 2 balls and 3 balls are
5 balls; 2 balls and 4 balls are 6 balls, and so on.
Change by adding two to each of the numbers from
one to five, thus: I bean and 2 beans are 3 beans; 2
beans and 2 beans are 4 beans; 3 beans and 2 beans
are 5 beans; 4 beans and 2 beans are 6 beans, etc.
Third Exercise.-For the third exercise add three
to all the numbers from one to nine, thus: 1 bean and
3 beans are 4 beans; 2 beans and 3 beans are 5 beans;
3 beans and 3 beans are 6 beans; 4 beans and 3 beans
are 7 beans, and so on.
Then add all the numbers to three, thus: 3 dots
and 1 dot are 4 dots; 3 dots and 2 dots are 5 dots; 3
dots and 3 dots are 6 dots, etc.
Proceed in this manner through the entire number
of digits, making a lesson for each figure, as above.
Afterward the same number may be repeated in
lessons, omitting the names of the objects, as 1 and 1
are 2; 2 and I are three; 3 and I are 4, etc.
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150    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
These exercises may be interspersed with a few examples to be answered, as, James had two apples, and
John gave him one more; how many apples had he
then?
Other Exercises. Other lessons may be given in
addition by requiring the children to find how many
must be added to a given number to make another
given number, as, How many beans must be added to
3 beans to make 4 beans? how many to 5 beans to
make 6 beans? to 7 beans to make 8 beans?
How many balls must be added to 2 balls to make
4 balls? to 3 balls to make 5 balls? to 4 balls to make
6 balls? etc.
As a means of amusement, the children may be requested to find in how many ways they can arrange
five beans, so that when added they will produce five.
At another time, to find in how many ways they
can arrange six beans, so that when added they will
produce six, as one and five, two and four, three and
three, etc.
Proceed in the same manner with seven, eight, nine,
and ten. By this process the children will learn firom
observation and experience that two and two make
four; that three and two make five, and two and three
make five; that four and three make seven, and three
and four make seven, etc.
By thus combining numbers in various ways, they
will obtain a clear idea of their combinations by addition while engaged in entertaining exercises. Of
course, the precise manner in which these exercises
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SUBTRACTION.
shall be conducted must be left to the tact and judgment of the teacher, as it is highly important to success that they be adapted to the circumstances of the
school.
NOTE.-It may be thought by some teachers that these exercises in addition are so minute as to require too much time-that
the children should go over more in one lesson. This might be
better for some children, but the true policy in teaching is, "Make
haste slowly." There is no danger of erring here so long as the
interest of the children can be kept up, while, by attempting to
go forward too rapidly, fatal errors may be committed.
It is very much to be regretted that so few teachers show by
their labors that they understand the infant mind, or pursue any
systematic course of mental training. Primary teachers, above
all others, should possess great skill and tact in discovering the
condition and modes of development of the mind of each individual pupil; and they should so thoroughly understand the laws of
mind as to be able readily to adapt a course of systematic training
to the condition of every pupil.
LESSON VII.
SUBTRACTION.
Much of what has been said about methods in addition will apply to subtraction by simply reversing
the processes, and subtracting instead of adding.
However, we will indicate these processes more definitely by suggesting a few exercises to be practiced.
First Exercise.-Let the pupils take 1 bean from
2 beans, 1 bean from 3 beans, 1 bean from 4 beans,
and so on through all the numbers to ten, thus:
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152    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
1 bean from 2 beans will leave 1 bean; 1 bean from
3 beans will leave 2 beans, and so on.
Then use the numeral frame, and let them take 1
ball from 2 balls, 1 ball from 3 balls, etc.
The blackboard may be used, and marks, or dots,
or crosses, and the process conducted by rubbing out
I dot from 3 dots, etc.
Second Exercise. —Request the children to take 2
beans from 3 beans, and so on, as before.' Then use
the blackboard, and rub out two dots or marks from
the marks representing each of the digits.
Other exercises may be added, and these processes
continued until each number from one to nine has
been subtracted from all the numbers greater than itself up to ten.
Addition and Subtraction combined.-When the
pupils have become familiar with subtraction, let them
combine it with addition in this manner:
2 beans taken from 3 beans leave 1 bean; 2 beans
and 1 bean are 3 beans. 2 beans from 4 beans leave
2 beans; 2 beans and 2 beans are 4 beans. 2 beans
from 5 beans leave 3 beans; 2 beans and 3 beans are
5 beans, and so on.
These exercises may be continued until the children
have subtracted and added, in this manner, all the
numbers up to ten, as 3 from 4, 3 from 5, etc.; 4 from
6, 5 from 6, etc., using various objects; also the blackboard, with dots and lines.
If desirable, the exercise can be made more difficult
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SUBTRACTION.
by taking one number from another, and adding still
another number, thus: 3 from 5 leaves 2; 2 and 4 are
6. 3 from 6 leaves 3; 3 and 5 are 8, etc.
Again, take 2 from 6, then 2 more, and how many
will remain?
Another change: add two numbers, then subtract
one, thus: 4 and 2 are 6; 3 from 6 leaves 3.
Thus the teacher can devise a sufficient variety of
exercises to keep the interest up until each subject is
understood, and the combination of numbers familiar.
Arithmetical Game.-As an arithmetical amusement for little children who have learned to count,
add, and subtract, the game commonly called "Hull
Gull" may be made interesting and instructive.
Distribute beans among all the children in the class;
let each in turn take a part in the right hand, and ask
the child next on the left, " How many?" If the child
guesses exactly, it takes them all; if it guesses more
or less than the exact number, it must give as many
beans as the number is more or less than the number
in the hand to the one who asked the question.
When this game has become familiar, let it be varied by one of the pupils holding a number of beans
in his hand, and asking each of the others to guess
how many he holds. When all have guessed, the settlement is made as before.
This game may be played without a word being
spoken aloud, the child holding up its closed hand,
and the others holding in their open hands as many
as they guess are in the closed one.
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154    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
LESSON VIII.
MULTIPLICATION.
IMultiplying is an artificial process derived from addition. Children usually tend in their reckoning to
fall back on the natural process of addition. To obviate this, the artificial process should be taught through
the natural one.
Do not stop to inquire whether the child knows the
multiplication table before you introduce multiplication to him, for in these primary lessons they will best
learn it while applying it, if properly trained.
Let the pupils proceed something after this manner:
1 bean and 1 bean are 2 beans, then 2 times 1 are
2; 1 bean and 1 bean and 1 bean are three beans, then
3 times 1 are three, and so on.
When the pupils have had sufficient practice with
objects, as beans, buttons, panes of glass in the windows, to become familiar with multiplying, the numbers only may be used, thus:
1 and 1 are 2, then 2 times 1 are 2.
1 and 1 and 1 are 3, then 3 times 1 are 3.
1 and 1 and 1 and 1 are 4, and so on.
2 and 2 are 4, then 2 times 2 are 4.
2 and 2 and 2 are 6, then 3 times 2 are 6.
2 and 2 and 2 and 2 are 8, then 4 times 2 are 8.
3 and 3 are 6, then 2 times 3 are 6.
3 and 3 and 3 are 9, then 3 times 3 are 9.
3 and 3 and 3 and 3 are 12, then 4 times 3 are 12.
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DIVISION.
Proceed in this manner until the children have
learned to multiply all the numbers from one to ten.
Experience will suggest other steps in training children in multiplication, but care should be taken not
to dispense with objects too soon. Indeed, the exercises in number for children under eight years of age
should be clearly illustrated by the use of objects.
LESSON IX.
DIVISION.
Let the teacher give the pupils each four beans or
buttons, to divide into two equal parts or numbers,
and to tell how many in each number; then six beans
to be thus divided, then eight beans, and so on.
Next require them to divide six beans or buttons
into three equal parts, and to tell how many there are
in each part; then nine into three equal parts, then
twelve.
Next request them to divide four buttons into four
equal parts; then eight, then twelve.
Give them six beans to be placed in two equal rows,
and require them to tell how many are in each row.
Request them to place nine buttons in three equal
rows.
Exercises combining multiplication and division
may be conducted in the following manner:
2 times 2 are 4, then 4 contains 2 twos; 2 times 3
are 6, then 6 contains 2 threes; 2 times 4 are 8, then
8 contains 2 fours, and so on.
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156    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
3 times 2 are 6, then 6 contains 3 twos; 3 times 3
are 9, then 9 contains 3 threes; 8 times 4 are 12, then
12 contains 3 fours, and so on.
4 times 2 are 8, then 8 contains 4 twos; 4 times 3
are 12, then 12 contains 4 threes.
By repeating similar exercises, using objects to illustrate the examples, children may be led to comprehend that multiplication and division bear the same
relation to each other that addition and subtraction do.
LESSON X.
FRACTIONS.
It is important that children should early obtain
clear perceptions of the comparative size of halves and
quarters, of thirds and sixths, of halves and thirds,
and of thirds and fourths. The first two may be easily illustrated with apples, but lines will better serve
in showing the comparative sizes of the others.
Let the teacher draw parallel lines on the blackboard, dividing one into two equal parts, the other into
three equal parts, thus:
Halves.
I
1* 5                                     hrs                     
When the children understand a half arrd a third
so well that they can divide lines thus, also can readily tell which is the larger, a half of an apple or a third
of one, the teacher may proceed to illustrate third,l
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Thirds.
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FRACTIONS.
and fourths in a similar manner, with parallel lines,
thus:
Thirds.
......                                                                                                                                    I    
Fourths.
It might aid in fixing the idea of the comparative
sizes of halves and thirds, and of thirds and fourths, to
take sticks or strings, or slips of paper of equal lengths,
and cut one into two equal parts, one into three equal
parts, and one into four equal parts.
It would be well to illustrate each example by dividing lines, or strings, of different lengths, to prevent
the possibility of leaving an impression that either a
half or a third is a fixed length, like an inch.
The object in comparing these fractions is not to
teach their exact difference, but to early fix the fact
in the children's minds that a half is greater than a
third, that a third is more than a fourth, and that two
thirds is less than three fourths. Let them see that
the more parts any thing is divided into, the smaller
each of those parts must be.
It is of much importance that these early impressions be correct, for they greatly influence the mind
in comprehending subsequent relations of numbers.
NOTE.-The  "Numeral  Frame"  furnishes a convenient and
excellent means of illustrating fractions, as well as other lessons
in number. For suggestions relative to plans of the room, apparatus, etc., for teaching number, see "What is desirable for successful object teaching" on p. 359.
157
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158    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER.
LESSON XI.
TEACHING THE TABLES BY OBJECTS.
In teaching the decimal currency, the teacher should
provide ten cents, ten dimes, ten gold dollars, and one
eagle. Let her then explain that ten cents are only
equal in value to one dime, that ten dimes are only
equal to one dollar, and so on.
In order to show why the dimes are smaller than
the cents, and the dollars smaller than the dimes, the
teacher may explain that silver, of which dimes are
made, is worth more than copper or nickel, and that
gold is worth still more than silver.
One thorough lesson given with the currency itself
is worth more to the child than the repetition of the
table alone for a whole year.
If the teacher could arrange some simple exercises
by which the children might play buying and selling,
and the making of change by actual counting and
handling of money, it would add greatly to the interest and the usefulness of the lesson. Even if buttons
of different sizes were used to represent money in
these operations, it would prove a valuable exercise.
Square Mleasure.-It will be easy to illustrate
square measure by the aid of objects. Cut pieces of
pasteboard or heavy paper one inch square, and pieces
one foot square. On the latter draw lines across at
right angles with the sides, one inch apart, to represent the number of square inches in a square foot.
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TEACIHING THE TABLES BY OBJECTS.   159
Then cut from a large sheet one piece three feet
square to represent the square yard, and draw lines
across to show its divisions into square feet.
Let the children apply the square inches to the
square foot, and learn how many it takes to make a
square foot. Then let them apply the square foot to
the square yard, and learn how many it takes to make
one square yard.
They may also be requested to measure the tops of
their desks, their slates, the floor, and the school-yard,
and to tell the number of square inches, or square feet,
or square yards in each.
Mleans should be devised for teaching each table by
the things themselves, and in this manner the children
will come to possess clear and definite ideas of the
tables, and easily learn to remember them; whereas,
by the methods commonly used in teaching them,
they slip out of the mind almost as soon as committed
there. Being memorized without being understood,
they are but dry facts, and consequently slippery so
long as they are not used; hence it should not be expected that the child will really knowt any thing of the
tables until it learns to use them, and sees their relation to things. But, with an understanding of the
objects used or referred to in the several tables, and
the processes of using them, the child will easily commit the tables to memory, and acquire readiness in
their application.
Methods of illustrating long measure, cloth measure,
liquid and dry measures, and weight, are given in the
divisions of "Size" and "Weight."
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE.
"Let children measure, count, weigh, and compare."
LESSON I.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SIZE IN GENERAL.
TO-DAY we will learn to distinguish things by their
size. Some things, you know, are small, some large.
Children are not all of the same size, nor of one height.
See, I have placed these boys in a row before you;
now tell me which is the tallest. Here are three
books; which is the largest? Let all answer.
One of you may come here and pick out the largest
block on the table. Is that right, children?
Another may come and select two blocks that are
of the same size. Will the class tell me which of
these blocks that have just been selected is the larger?
"Neither; both are of the same size."
Now another may come and select two small balls.
It may be added that, in all these exercises, the entire class should take an active part by voting on the
correctness of each selection made, or in some similar
method whereby each pupil may have an opportunity,
and be encouraged to express his or her ideas.
Is a cat as large as a dog? Which is the largest,
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m 
IDEA OF SIZE IN GENERAL.
a dog, a sheep, or a cow?  Is a cow as tall as a boy?
Is a cow as tall as a man? Could a cow walk through
the door?
Have you ever seen an elephant? Is an elephant
as large as a cow? Could an elephant come into this
room at the door?  Do you think an elephant* could
stand in this room?
Is a cat as large as a rat? Is a mouse as large as
a rat?  What is the smallest animal you have ever
seen?
Suppose you should try to catch mice to make a
pile as large as a cat, it would take a great many
mice; then, you know, it would take a great many
cats to equal the size of a cow; but an elephant is
larger than a great many cows. Hiow would a mouse
look by the side of an elephant?
You drink from a tin cup; will a pail hold more
water than a cup? Which will hold the most milk, a
tea-cup or a bowl?
Which will hold the most water, this cup or the
tumbler? Let us try it. I will fill the cup with water, and then pour it into the tumbler. See, the tumbler is full, and the water is not all out of the cup.
"The cup holds the most."
Here is a grain of sand, this is a gravel-stone, and
that is a pebble; which is the largest?  "A pebble."
There is a stone; compare the pebble with the
stone, and tell me the result.  "The stone is the
larger."
* An elephant is from ten to twelve feet in height, and from ten
to fifteen feet in length.
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161
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE.
Which is the larger, one of your marbles or this
pebble?  "Some marbles are larger than this pebble,
and some are smaller."
Now one of you may come and select the smallest
thing on the table, and tell me what it is.  "A grain
of sand."
Now let one come and select the largest fruit. "An
apple."
NOTE.-Before introducing the subject of these lessons, the
teacher should provide a variety of objects of different sizes,
widths, and lengths. Large and small books, large and small
marbles, bullets and shot, large and small balls, large and small
boxes, grains of sand, gravel-stones, pebbles, fruit of various sizes,
straight sticks and strings of various lengths; also foot-rules, yardsticks, cups and measures.
LESSON II.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF LENGTH.
To give the idea of length, the teacher may show
the children strings or sticks of different lengths, inquiring which is the longest and which the shortest.
The pupils should also be directed to take these sticks
and place them together, and thus determine their
relative lengths.
Next let them draw lines on the blackboard of various lengths, and call upon the pupils to point to those
which are shortest, or longest, and to select laths of
the same lengths as the lines.
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162
6 
IDEA OF MEASURE.
Ask which girl has the longest hair, which boy has
the shortest hair.
Require the children to divide lines, drawn in different directions upon the blackboard, into two, three,
or four equal parts. This is an important exercise,
and should be practiced frequently.  The other pupils
may be required to express their opinion of the correctness of these divisions; the question may be finally determined by actual measurement.
[Holding up two books.] Which of these books is
the larger?  Here are two hats; which is the larger?
Which is the longer slate? This exercise may be
continued, thus directing attention to all the prominent objects about the room.
LESSON III.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF MEASURE.*
Which is the longer, this inch-rule or your little
finger?   Is  your  pencil  as  long  as  your  thumb?
Which finger is the longest?
* It is of little use to require children to repeat the tables of
measures unless we first make them familiar with the units of
measure upon which the tables are based. A child can have no
idea that twelve inches make a foot until it knows what one inch
is, nor that three feet make a yard until it learns the length of
one tfoot. It can not comprehend the quantity of fluid that it takes
to make a gallon, or four quarts, until it knows how much is one
quart. These things or units the child can never learn by repeating them; it must see themn, measure them, before it can understand
and know them. Young children can readily learn these things,
if they are rightly presented, even before they can read.
163
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE,
Now I will draw a straight line on the blackboard,
and after you have measured its length with your
eyes, or guessed at it, you may apply this inch-rule,
and thus determine its true length.
Here is a book; how many inches long is it? "Six,
seven, five." Let us apply the inch-rule, and see who
is right-one, two, three, four, five, six, seven; seven
is right. James, you guessed seven; take the rule
and measure the next object. The girl or boy that
guesses nearest to the correct length is entitled to
take the rule and test the accuracy of the guesses on
the next object.
How many inches long is this knife?  "Four, two,
three, four, three." James measures and counts "one, two, three, and almost another inch." Say then
that it is nearly four inches long.  "The knife is nearly four inches long."
After the children have become familiar with the
length of one inch, two inches, and three inches, so as
to measure quite accurately with the eye, give them
a foot-rule, tell them to apply their inch-measure to it,
and learn how long it is. In this manner they will
come to know that twelve inches make one foot by
actual experience.
Children may amuse themselves in this way for
hours and days by guessing at lengths and distances,
and then measuring them to ascertain how nearly
they had guessed. While the amusement is profitable to the child, the most valuable feature of this exercise is that it trains the eye and the judgment in
determining length and distances.
164
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IDEA OF RELATIVE DISTANCE.
Occasionally the teacher might give each pupil a
three or a six-inch rule while at their seats, and allow
them to amuse themselves by measuring their fingers,
slates, etc. They might be requested to draw lines
on their slate, guess at their lengths, and then measure them.
LESSON IV.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF RELATIVE DISTANCE.
Which of you resides nearest to the school? Who
has the greatest distance to come? Does James reside as near to the school as Henry? Which boy has
the longest walk to reach home from school? Which
is the nearer to the school-house, the store or the grocery? Which would be the longer walk, from here
to the church, or to the post-office?
Lucy, whose house is nearest to the one where you
reside? George, can you tell me which is nearer to
your house, the drug-store or the shoemaker's? Mary,
what streets must you cross to go to the milliner's?
Which is the farther, the bridge or Mr. Smith's orchard?
A great number of similar questions should be asked, until the idea of relative distance seems to be
clearly understood by every child.
165
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE.
LESSON V.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF MEASURED DISTANCE.
Place in the hands of the children foot-rules, and
let them measure these with an inch-rule until they
]earn to know how many inches make one foot.
Next, let them measure the table, a door, a bench,
and other objects, and thus become familiar with the
length of a foot, and its use in measuring.
Draw marks on the blackboard one, two, or three
feet long; request the pupils to guess at the length
of the line, then to determine the accuracy of the guess
by actual measurement. The pupil who guesses nearest to the length has the honor of applying the rule to
determine the guesses at the length of the next object.
When the children have had sufficient practice in
measuring with a foot-rule to be able to judge quite
accurately of the length of a foot by the eye, and in
applying the rule for determining length, a yard-stick
may be given them, with directions to measure the
length and width of the school-room, also of the playground.
Give them sufficient examples in applying the foot
to the yard, that they may clearly understand that
three feet make onte yard. In their measurements
with the yard, require the pupils to state the number
of feet which any object or distance exceeds the full
yards, as two yards and one foot, three yards and two
feet, etc.
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IDEA OF MEASURED DISTANCE.
If the yard-sticks which are placed in their hands
are properly made, the children can also be taught,
while measuring strings or tape, to tell how many
yards and parts of a yard are in each piece, as five
yards and one half, etc.
Distances in the field or in the street may be measured with the yard-stick, and these may be extended
as far as a hundred yards. The exercise of guessing
at any given distance, in yards, should be practiced,
and the accuracy of the guess determined by measurement. Too much importance, in training the child in
a knowledge of distance and of measurement, can
hardly be placed upon these exercises, which require
the actual use of the rule and yard-stick in measuring.
It is what the child (oes that it learns to know.
How to measure a Quarter of a Mile.-Give two
boys a string ten yards long. One of the boys takes
hold of one end of the string, and walks along the
sidewalk or in the street, or wherever they are to
measure the distance assigned them, until the string
is drawn out to its full length, while the other boy
stands still at the place where the measurement is to
commence.
The boy who takes the lead carries eleven sticks
and four pebbles. When he has carried his end of
the string to its entire length, he drops a stick on the
walk, or thrusts it into the ground at the end of the
string, then proceeds as before. As the boy who follows comes to the stick, he holds his end of the string
at that point until the leader has drawn it straight
167
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6 
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE.
again and deposited another stick. The second boy
now picks up the stick and goes forward to the place
of the next, and proceeds as before.
When the following boy has picked up eleven sticks
in this manner, he exchanges them with his leader for
a pebble, and they proceed again as before. When
the following boy has exchanged his sticks four times,
and obtained four pebbles, they will have measured
forty-four lengths of their string, or four hundred and
forty yards, which is a quarter of a mile.
The same process may be continued until half a
mile or a mile has been measured. If more than a
quarter of a mile is measured, the boys should be instructed to place some mark to indicate the quarters,
half a mile, and the mile. In the same manner they
may be required to measure the distance around a
block in a city, or to some neighbor's, if in the country.
Subsequently, pupils may be sent out singly to walk
a quarter of a mile and back, or half a mile, or even a
mile. By experiences such as the foregoing, children
may learn to know what a mile signifies. Thus they
early acquire a standard by which to judge of distances.
LESSON VI.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF WIDTH.
Probably the most successful way to develop the
idea of width, breadth, narrowness, etc., is to select
pieces of ribbon, strips of paper, or shingles of various
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168
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THE IDEA OF WIDTH.
widths, and require the children to pick out the wide
and the narrow ones; then to select the widest, then
the narrowest; then two of the same width, calling
upon the class to decide in each case on the correctness of the selection made.
Show them narrow books and wide books, and require them to exercise their observation in determining which are widest and which narrowest.
Draw parallel lines on the blackboard an inch apart,
others two, three, and four inches apart, and request
them to point out those which have narrow spaces
between them, also those with wide spaces.
Here is a slate, a book, and a ruler; which is the
widest?  What can you say of the slate and this
sheet of paper?  "They are both of the same width."
Which is theE widest aisle in the school-room?
Which is the wider, the blackboard or the top of the
desk?  Let us measure and see.  "The blackboard
is wider than the top of the desk."
Which is the wider, the school-room or the street?
You may take these strings and measure during recess. One boy may stand close to the fence on one
side of the street, while another takes the other end
across and pulls it straight, then cuts it off close to
the fence on that side. Then take the other string
and measure the width of the school-room in the same
manner. At the next lesson you may tell me the resu]t, which is wider, this room or the street.
NOTE.-During all of these lessons on size, the "chart" containing the standard for an inch and a foot, and illustrations of width,
should hang before the children, and frequent reference be made
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169
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE.
to them in measuring lengths and widths by the eye. Foot-rules,
yard-sticks, strings, tape, ribbon, strips of paper, and pasteboard,
also laths, should be used in illustrating length, width, etc.
LESSON VII.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF THICKNESS, HEIGHT, AND
DEPTH.
Provide tissue paper, the thinnest and thickest
writing paper, cards, pasteboard, binder's board, a
piece of clapboard, a piece of flooring, and a piece of
plank; also pieces of gauze, thin muslin, silk, linen,
sail-cloth, sacking, and of carpet; wafers, buttons, different coins, a three-cent piece, half dime, dime, quarter and half dollar.
After a variety of exercises with these objects, selecting the thin and the thick ones of each class, and
exercises in comparing one thing with another, as the
paper with the pasteboard, the wafer with the silk,
the carpet with the gauze, etc., talk with them about
the thickness of other objects, as thick and thin bread
and butter, thick and thin cake and pie, thick and thin
shoes, and coats, and hats.
Height.-When the idea of thickness is familiar to
all the children, they may be led to compare heights;
as, which is the tallest boy or girl in the class?
Is a horse as tall as a cow? Is a tree as high as a
house? Did you ever see a tree as high as the church
steeple?
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170 
NECESSITY OF STANDARD MEASURE.   171
Depth.-In the same manner the idea of depth
may be taught. Is the pail deeper than the cup? Is
a tub as deep as a pail? Which is the deeper, a tub
or a barrel?  Is a cistern as deep as a barrel?  Is a
well as deep as a cistern?
LESSON VIII.
TO SHOW THE NECESSITY OF STANDARD MEASURE.
One of you may go to the table and bring to me a
long string; another may bring a long stick; another
a short stick, and another a short string.
Now let me compare this long stick and the long
string.  What is the result?  "The string is much
longer than the stick." Now we will compare the
short string and the short stick. What do you observe?  "The stick is longer than the string."
Now suppose your mother or your sister wanted
some ribbon for her bonnet, and she should go to the
store and ask for a long piece of ribbon, the storekeeper would not know how much to give her.
You see, what one of you called a long string was
a great deal longer than a stick which another called
a long stick; and what one of you called a short stick
was a great deal longer than the string which another
called a short string.
If I should tell you to give me a thick board, you
might hand me this piece of flooring when I wanted
the plank; or if I wanted a thick piece of cloth, you
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE.
might give me a piece of sail-cloth or carpet when I
only wanted a piece of linen or of broadcloth.
Suppose you should ask for a thick piece of bread
and butter, and Bridget should cut it as thick as this
plank, you would tell her that you did not want it so
thick: you wanted a thinner piece; then she might
cut it almost as thin as the knife-blade.
After such examples, or similar ones, using other
illustrations, the teacher may proceed to an application of the idea of a necessity for a fixed standard of
measurement, to determine how long a long object
is, or how short a short one is.
I presume that you now understand the importance
of learning to measure the length of objects by inches,
feet, and yards. Short lengths we measure by inches and feet, and tell how many feet and inches long
they are; but longer distances we measure with rods
and miles; but when we measure cloth and ribbon
we use a yard-stick, and tell how many yards long
they are.
Now if you should go to the store to buy ribbon, you
would ask for some number of yards. If you wanted
to buy boards, you would tell how many inches thick
you wanted them, and how many feet long. Every
storekeeper has a yard-measure, and when any one
asks him for a piece of cloth three yards long, he
knows just how much to send.
The teacher should mark a line a foot in length on
the blackboard, and another on the floor; then another line a yard in length by the side of each of these;
also inch-lines by the side of the foot-lines.
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NECESSITY OF STANDARD MEASURE.   173
By a few illustrations the children may be shown
that they can determine the width of ribbons by inches,
and that with these same measures the length, breadth,
height, and depth are measured; also the distances
between objects.
This plan should be pursued and similar illustrations given with gill and quart cups, and quart and
peck measures, to explain liquid and dry measures,
and show that we also have standards for these.
WVater and sand are usually so abundant that there
can be no lack of materials. It would amply repay
the trouble if the teacher would borrow a small bag
of grain, a half bushel, a peck, and quart measure of
some farmer or grocer, to illustrate dry measure.
During all these lessons the eye and the hand of the
pupil should be exercised as much as possible; the
eye in observing shape, length, width, and dimension
of objects, and the hand in representing and handling
what the eye has perceived. Care should be taken
not to tell children any thing that they may be led to
see or ascertain for themselves from objects, illustrations, and questions.
It will be profitable for them to practice the lesson
in form, drawing large and small angles, long and
short lines, large and small squares, triangles, parallelograms, circles, etc. These exercises, while they prove
a present amusement, will be of invaluable benefit to
them in the different manual labors at which they
may be employed in after life. Require the children
to do as well as to tell, for it is thus that the labor of
the teacher becomes most valuable.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF WEIGHT.
THE motto, "Things before words," should be con stantly before the primary teacher, and especially so
when developing ideas of size, distance, and weight.
Words alone can inot convey to the mind of a child
the weight of a single pound or ounce, nor of the
length of a foot, a yard, or an inch. There are things
that must be handled and seen before they can be
known.
Individual instances there are of astonishing accuracy of judgment in regard to the weight of objects,
of animals, etc.; but this accuracy has been attained
by cultivation, by early and long-continued attention
and practice, never by repeating tables of weight.
Probably not one person in ten, whose only knowledge of weight has been derived from repeating the
table, could determine the weight of an object, either
by judgment or actual weighing, of two pounds and a
half.
In making provision for conducting exercises on
this subject, a great variety of objects should be furnished: balls and cubes of the same size, but of different substances, as wood, cork, lead, iron; light objects
of large size, and heavy substances of a small size, but
a 
IDEAS OF WEIGHT.
of the same weight; small bags of wool or cotton, of
bran, of beans, and shot; one vial filled with water,
and another with quicksilver.
These various objects the pupils should be allowed
to handle freely, and to compare the weight of one
with that of another of the same size but of lighter
substance, as wood and iron, cork and wood, lead and
iron, a bag of bran with a bag of wool, a bag of beans
with a bag of shot.
Bodies that are lighter and those that are heavier
than water may be distinguished by actual experiment. The resistance of the air to falling bodies may
be illustrated by letting fall at the same instant such
things as a bunch of cotton or wool and a piece of
lead, and watching their unequal descent.
Another step in developing ideas of weight, and the
most practical one, is to procure a pair of common
scales and let the children weigh. Of some of the
weights there should be several, for the purpose of
showing equality, as two 21 oz., eight 1 oz., four 4 oz.,
two 8 oz., and one each of 1 lb. and 2 lb. weights.
With these teach the children to weigh an ounce, four
ounces, half a pound, a pound, a quarter of a pound,
etc. Let them guess at the weight of an object, then
weigh it and test the accuracy of their guesses.
Some idea of mechanical powers might be given, in
connection with this subject, by means of a few simple experiments.
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176    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF WEIGHT.
LESSON I.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF WEIGHT.
What do you see in my hands?  "TwQ balls."
What can you say of their size?  "Both balls are of
the same size."
Of what are these balls made?  "One is made of
cork and the other of lead."
I wish some one to take them and tell me which is the
lighter of the two.  "The ball of cork is the lighter."
If I let this ball of lead drop from my hand, in which
direction will it go? " It will fall to the floor." Yes,
we never see any thing fall up to the ceiling or to one
side, but always downward, because the earth (draws
things which are near to it toward itself. The earth
draws all children, and men, and animals toward it.
If you should climb a tree and jump from it, you
would fall to the earth.
Now observe what takes place when I let this ball
of lead fall from my hand.  "It strikes the floor and
makes a loud noise." Now see if the same takes
place when I drop the ball of cork.  "No, it makes
only a faint sound."  Why is this?  "Because the
lead is heavy and the cork is light."
I have here two more balls, one of wood and one
of stone. Who will come and try their different
weights? This boy says the ball of stone is heavier
than the ball of wood; now I wish each of you to try
them and see if he is correct. All agree with him.
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WEIGHT COMPARED.
Now take this ball of cork and the ball of wood,
and tell me whether the cork is as heavy as the wood.
" No, the cork is lighter than the wood."
Objects Compared with Water.- I am now going
to place these four balls-the cork, the wood, the lead,
and the stone-in this pail of water, and you must observe what takes place.
" Two of them sink, and two swim."
Why do the balls of cork and wood swim? You
can not tell?  -Vell, I will try to explain.  Wood and
cork are lighter than water, and because of that they
stay on the surface; but lead and stone are heavier
than water, therefore they sink down in it.
A fish can swim in water because it is about the
same weight as water, but an oyster has a heavy shell
and must lie at the bottom.
LESSON II.
WEIGHT COMPARED.
What did you learn at the last lesson?  "Something about weight." Are all things of the same
weight? "No; cork and wood are light, but iron
and lead are heavy."
Did you learn any thing more?  "Yes; that cork
and wood will swim on water, and that lead and iron
will sink."
I will now tell you more about weight. If objects
had no weight, men and animals would not need to be
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178    DEVELOPING IDEAS OF WEIGHT.
so strong as they are now. Large animals must now
have more strength than small ones, to be able to
move about.
Could one of these children lift me from the floor?
No, I am so heavy that you are not strong enough to
lift me; but I could lift either of you, because you are
lighter than I am. A horse can carry a man, because
it is larger and heavier than a man, hence has more
strength.
Some objects, you observe, are very light compared
with others of the same size. Tell me some things
that are light.  "Cork, cotton, wool, feathers, chaff of
wheat."
Now tell me some that are heavy.  "Stones, iron,
lead, corn."
Here is a dime, and there is a quarter of a dollar;
which is the heavier? "The quarter of a dollar."
Which is worth the most?  "The quarter of a dollar."  Why?  "Because it is larger and heavier than
the dime." Yes; metals are valued by their weight.
When I put this iron weight into one scale, and
this piece of wood in the other, what happens? "The
scale with the iron sinks down, the other rises." Why
is this?  "Because the iron is heavier than the wood."
What, then, may you say of wood? "It is lighter
than iron."
I will now put a package of wool into one scale and
the wood in the other.  Which appears the heavier
now?  "The wood."  Which is the larger?  "The
package of wool." What, then, can you say of the
wool?  "It is lighter than wood."
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NECESSITY OF STANDARD WEIGHTS.   179
LESSON III.
THE NECESSITY OF STANDARD WEIGHTS.
I presume you remember the lesson about length,
and how we could tell the shopkeeper the length of a
piece of ribbon or cloth which we desired him to cut
for us.
It was, you know, because all have a yard-measure
of the same length, so that when a person wishes to
get a piece of cloth, he first finds out how many yards
he wants, and then tells the storekeeper the number
of yards desired.
Now, when I want to buy shot, or flour, or sugar,
or wool, I can not measure them with the yard-stick;
I must use a different measure for these things. Who
can tell me how we measure these, since we do not
find how long they are?
"We  see how heavy they are."  IHow can we do
this?  "With scales and weights."  Yes: what is
one of the smallest weights we use?  "An ounce."
What is the heavier weight called? "A pound."
If you should go to the grocery for sugar, would
you ask for a yard?  "No, I should ask for a pound."
Very well. You see now why people use measures
and weights.
Can you tell me why they use them?  "So as to
tell how long things are, and how heavy they are."
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180     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF WEIGHT.
LESSON IV.
WEIGHING.
You have learned that some objects are measured
and others weighed. Now I will show you how to
weigh.
[Place the scales and weights on a low table before
the children.  Let each pupil compare, by their hands,
the weight of four 1 oz. weights with one 4 oz.] Now
tell me which is the heaviest, the largest weight or
the four small ones.  "They are just alike."  Let us
weigh them and see. I will put the large weight in
this scale, and the four small ones in the other. What
is the result?  "The scales are even."  Then both
weigh the same.
The small weights are one ounce each, the large one
is four ounces.
Now let us put the four-ounce and the four oneounce weights into one scale, and this large weight
into the other.  "The scales are even again."  Then
these five small weights are equal to, or weigh the
same as the large one.
Let us see how many ounces the small ones weigh,
one four-ounce and four one-ounce - eight ounces.
Then the large one weighs eight ounces.
Here is a large weight-[takes up the 1 lb. weight]
-which I will place in one scale, and then put the
smaller weights in the other. The scales balance
again.
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WEIGHING.
Let us now see how many ounces this large one
weighs.  HIere is one eiyhr-oezce weight and eight
o?unce-weights- sixteen outnces all together. Then
this large one weighs sixteen ounces.
Proceed in the same manner to compare four fourounce weights with the pound weight; then compare
two half-pounds with the pound; then two quarters
with the half pound, etc., etc.
When the children have had several exercises of
this nature, and become familiar with the different
weights, let them practice weighing objects, as bags
of beans, shot, sand, etc. Let them first guess at the
weight of the object, then weigh it and ascertain
how near they have guessed. Let the correctness
of the guessing be decided by the pupil that weighs
the object, and the one who guesses nearest to the
true weight may weigh the next object.
All things which we see have weight. If it were
not so, we should not have power to move or to work.
Even the rain could not fall from the sky to make
things grow, if it had not some weight.
If we find it difficult to carry heavy things, we
should remember how useful it is for things to have
weight, and that God, in his wisdom and goodness,
made every thing just as heavy as it should be. He
made the air light for us to breathe and to move
about in, the stones heavy for our houses, light wool
and cotton for warm clothes, and heavy metals to
make our tools.  Let us thank Him that He has made
every thing just as it should be.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SOUND,
THE importance of early attention to sounds is not
understood by most teachers and parents. We do
not refer now to musical tones, but to the discrimina tion of ordinary sounds. It is impossible to teach a
child to become a pleasing reader until he can readily
discriminate and imitate sounds of the human voice.
It can not do these well until it has learned to observe
different sounds. A child that is entirely deaf can not
learn to talk, because it can not hear. It has all the
organs of speech perfectly formed, but it can not learn
how to use them, because, when it makes any sound,
it does not know what that sound is.
A great many people hear sounds, but take no
pleasure in them, simply because they never have been
taught to discriminate and appreciate them. In giving this sense, God gave us with it the ability to derive pleasure from its exercise; but, like all other faculties, it needs culture. Hearing is one of the avenues through which the mind gains a knowledge of
the external world, and, as such, it is deserving of the
attention of all who have any thing to do with the
training and development of children.
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DISTINGUISHING SOUNDS.
LESSON I.
DISTINGUISHING COMMON SOIUNDS.
It is doubtful whether one child in five could name
ten sounds made by the human voice and animals;
but let attention be directed to the sounds made by
the cat, the dog, the cow, the sheep, the pig, the hen,
the rooster, the goose, the duck, and in a week or
two the same children will be able to enumerate ten
times ten sounds.
I.-Let sounds be made by familiar objects, and the
children required to observe the sound, and tell objects from the sounds they produce without seeing
them. Blow a whistle, a flute, or a fife; ring bells,
ring an empty glass, then one filled with water; a
triangle, and various pieces of metal, requesting the
children to tell the name of the object from its sound.
If the teacher has two bells, let the attention of the
pupils be directed to the different sounds produced by
ringing them. Direct their observation to the different sounds produced by the church bells which they
hear, and lead them to distinguish the bells of the different churches and factories by their sounds.
II.-Place several children out of sight, or require
those in the class to close their eyes, while those selected speak in succession or repeat some sentence,
and the class try to discriminate their different voices,
and to call by name the boy or girl who spoke.
III.-Let the children mention sounds produced by
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SOUND.
men and animals, as laughing, crying, sighing, sobbing, shouting, singing, barking, growling, mewing,
purring, bleating, lowing, squealing, cackling, hissing,
etc.*
LESSON II.
CLASSIFYING COMMION SOUNDS.
When the children have become familiar with distinguishing common sounds, they may be led to classify them; as, voices of man, sounds made by beasts,
notes of birds, sounds produced by the steps of man
and animals, sounds made by insects, sounds made by
the motion of carriages, by machinery, by workmen in
their different employments, sounds produced by the
motion of water, of air, by electricity.
Sounds may also be divided into kinds, as roaring,
rumbling, crushing, crackling, murmuring, rolling,
tinkling, echoing, and so on.
Children should be taught to distinguish all these
various sounds, and to apply the appropriate name
to each. They may also be encouraged to imitate
different sounds, and even to mimic those of birds
and animals, as the note of the cuckoo, the quail, the
sounds made by sheep, by cats, dogs, etc.
* The practice of allowing children to caricature sounds of crying, moaning, sobbing, and the natural expressions of feeling, is
objectionable.
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184 
CHARACTER OF SOUNDS.
LESSON III.
CHARACTER OF SOUNDS.
If the teacher can sing-all primary teachers ought
to be singers-she may sing some simple melodies
which are quick and lively, others which are slow, requesting the children to listen and tell which they like
best.
Teach them to enunciate the elementary sounds of
the language. Begin with the four principal sounds
of a. Msake the sound of a in bale, and require the
pupils to imitate it; then the sound of a in bar.
When they can imitate these, proceed with a in ball
and a in bat.  After they have learned to give these
four sounids of ac, let them imitate the sounds of e in
Fe and fiet, and follow with other elementary sounds.
But do not introduce this exercise as the sounds of
letters; children may be thus drilled long before they
know the name of a single letter. Do not even say
any thing about the sound of a in bale, bar, ball, bat;
but simply enunciate the sound and request the children to imitate it.
If properly conducted, this will prove a very useful
exercise in preparing for subsequent lessons in reading, and especially so for phonetic exercises.
When the children have become familiar with the
leading vowel sounds, they may be trained to distinguish between those that are loud and soft, high and
low, long and short, quick and slow.
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186     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SOUND.
Attention may also be directed to the various feelings expressed by the human voice in exclamations
of joy, sorrow, mirth, contempt.
The kind and amount of instruction given in each
lesson must, of course, depend entirely upon the age
and advancement of the pupils. The subject may as
easily be treated in a way to suit a child of three
years as one of ten years of age. Such preliminary
lessons are an excellent preparation for correctness of
ear in speaking and singing. Indeed, the imitative
powers of children, when developed, are so great that
no refinement of tone or inflection of voice is difficult to them, and hence the importance of a pure pronunciation and correct manner of speaking in the
teacher, as defects in this respect are as readily imitated and bad habits contracted as are correct ones
under good examples.
LESSON IV.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.
When a hot day renders the children languid, or
their spirits flag, enlivening and interesting exercises
may be had in requiring the pupils to imitate sounds
of nature, machinery, or employments.  In this manner, amusing exercises may be introduced that will
cause the children to forget that the school-room ever
is a weary place. One exercise may be introduced
called
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MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.
The Winds.-The teacher says, "A calrn." All
immediately become quiet and motionless, and continue so until the teacher says, "A breeze." All then
rub their hands in imitation of the rustling of the
leaves. "A gcale." The children add to the rubbing
of the hands a slight hissing. "A stormn." The rubbing of the hands and hissing are continued, and a
slight noise with the feet added.  "A  hurricane."
All the movements are continued with greater vehemence. At a given signal all cease, and a calm follows.
The Steam-boat.-To imitate the noise of the engine, all clap their hands twice, then give one beat on
their knees, at the same time making their heels give
a slight blow on the floor. These motions are continuously repeated.
Accelerated Motion.-This is produced by clapping hands, at first very slow, and gradually doing it
quicker and quicker, until it is done as rapidly as possible, when the teacher gives the signal to stop. It
may be repeated several times.
Sawing.-The children are arranged in two equal
rows, facing each other, and standing.  All put out
their arms, and the pairs move toward and firom each
other, hissing in imitation of sawing a log with a
cross-cut saw. Or they may imitate the wood-sawyer,
bending their bodies up and down, making a hissing
noise as they move.
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187
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188     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SOUND.
Counting, with Movements.-Count from one to
twenty, and slap the hands upon the knees at every
other number; from twenty to forty, slapping the
knees at each number.
Change Voice in Counting.-Count from one to
twenty, raising the voice by ascending the scale from
o,ze to three and five at each three numbers: (1) one,
(3) two, (5) three, (1) four, (3) five, (5) six, (1) seven,
(3) eight, etc.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
LESSONS on the human body form a good introduction to the study of natural history of the animal creation. They are thus adapted to carrying out the
principle of starting from the known to teach the
,ttizknzoin.
"Children should be somewhat familiar with their
own frame; they ought to have correct ideas on that
which so intimately concerns themselves. The subject is also ever present, requiring nothing for its
illustration other than that which is common to all.
Such lessons will furnish opportunity for correcting
any vague and imperfect notions which the children
may have acquired, for supplying them with a vocabulary of expressive terms, and for giving them such
an acquaintance with their own organization as may
make it a standard for comparison with that of other
animals, thus preparing them to understand many
wonderful details in the modification and adaptation
of the organs of animals to their peculiar habits, propensities, and localities."
In conducting these lessons, care should be taken
not to be too minute. The simple outlines of their
various forms and obvious uses, also the natural dependence of one upon the other, embrace the chief
points which should be presented.
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190 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
LESSON I.
DISTINGUISHING THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE BODY.
Let the teacher call upon children to imitate her as
she points to the different parts of the body, at the
same time repeating the name of the part; as, headface - forehead - eyes - ears-nose-mouth-neckshoulders - trunk - sides-back-arms-hands-legs
-knees-feet.
Next, the teacher may name the part and request
the pupils to point to it. Then a boy may be called
out before the class, and each member allowed to
name one part of the body for the teacher to point
out on the boy. Then another pupil may take the
same position, while the teacher points out the part
of the body, and the pupils name the parts. If a mistake is made, let the class correct it.
LESSON II.
TOUIJCHING PARTS OF THE BODY.
The pupils may be called upon to imitate the teacher as she touches different parts of the body while
naming it. Right hand on the head; right arm;
right eye; left eye; nose; chin; left cheek; right
cheek; left shoulder; right knee; left ear; right side;
left elbow; forehead; neck, etc. [The teacher touches
each part as she repeats the name of it.]
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TOUCHING PARTS OF THE BODY.
When the children have learned to imitate a sufficient variety of movements, the teacher may repeat
the name of the movement at the time of performing
the motion. Right hand up; left hand up; touch
shoulders; touch ears; touch eyebrows; forehead;
chin; nose; elbow; wrist; knee; fold arms; turn
head to the right; head to the left; head back; head
forward; head erect; touch crown of the head; back
of the head; nostrils; upper lip; neck; breast; armpits; sides; back; knuckles; wrists; nails; thumbs;
fingers; stamp with right foot; with left foot.
Care should be taken that the children learn to imitate these movements exactly, and that all do them
at the same time. It may be necessary to go through
with them several times.
Second Exercise.-The teacher may name the parts
of the body, and require the children to touch them,
without being led by the teacher. Left wrist; left
elbow; shoulders; neck; chin; nostrils; ears; eyebrows; crown of the head; back of the head; forehead; cheeks; armpits; sides; breasts; back; knees;
raise left foot; raise right foot; hands above the head;
clap hands; extend fingers; close hand; clap hands
once, twice, three times; fold arms.
Nlow let one of the pupils stand before the class
and go through with similar exercises, while the children imitate the movements. At first the teacher
may dictate the movements, while the pupil repeats
the name and performs for the class to imitate.
This exercise may be varied by each member of the
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191
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192 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HIUMkN BODY.
class calling in turn for some movement, while the pupil represents it. Again, he may be allowed to call
for movements, or parts of the body to be touched,
while the class perform in accordance.
Third Exer0cise.-Next, the teacher may touch
different parts of the body, and request the children
to name the parts touched. Afterward they may be
required to imitate the teacher, and repeat the name
of the movement; as, I am touching my head; I am
touching my chin-my nose-my cheek-my shoulder-my ear-my elbow, etc.
This exercise teaches them to express the idea of
the movement in words as well as to perform it.
LESSON III.
TO DISTINGUISH PARTS OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF
THE BODY.
Calling one of the children to her, the teacher proceeds to touch the arm, asking at the same time,
What part of the body am I touching? [Taking hold
of the wrist.] What part of the arm am I touching?
Touches the elbow and hand, making the same inquiries successively. Touches a finger, thumb, knuckle,
nail, joint, and successively asks, What part of the hand
am I touching?
Next, call out another pupil, and request him to
touch parts of the arm of the first pupil, and the class
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THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE BODY.  193
to tell the name of the part touched. As the pupil
touches successively the hand, wrist, elbow, shoulder,
the class may say "hand," "wrist," " elbow," "shoulder," etc.
Suppose the pupil should touch that part of the
arm between the elbow and shoulder, and no one in
the class could tell what the part is called, the teacher
should tell them that it is the upper arm, or the arm,
and that the part between the elbow and wrist is
called the fore-arm.
Second Exercise.-Next, the class may be called
upon to point out the parts of the arms, while the
teacher speaks the name; as, left elbow; right elbow;
left shoulder; right shoulder; left wrist; right wrist;
left upper arm; right fore-arm; left hand; right upper arm; left fore-arm; right shoulder; left elbow;
right wrist; left shoulder; left thumb; right knuckles;
fingers of left hand, etc., etc. Should mistakes be
made by the pupils, let the class decide what is right,
and make the correction.
The teacher may now point to the different parts
of the arm, while the children repeat the name-left
elbow; right shoulder; upper arm; wrist, etc. In
this manner all parts of the arm and hand should be
pointed at and named.
Third Exercise.-The exercise may be varied by
counting the joints of the arms, and telling how many
ways each joint will bend; then by counting the fingers and the joints of the fingers.
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194 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
Questions on the use of each part of the arm and
hand may follow. Beginning with the shoulder, show
that it is a universal joint-one that will bend in every
direction.
Call a child, and hold its arm so that it can not
move it at the shoulder, and then let the child see
how few motions could be made with the arm without that joint. Let him try to touch the top of his
head without moving the shoulder-joint.
The movements of the other joints of the arm, and
hands, and legs should be pointed out, and illustrated
by similar experiments.
The teacher can add a great variety to these lessons
by such movements as those already given will suggest to her. If rightly introduced, they will lead to
a knowledge of the names and uses of the different
parts of the body; also, to the utility of the various
joints, and to an acknowledgment of the wisdom of
God in so admirably fitting each part for its particular use.
LESSON IV.
THE LIMBS.
The upper part of the body is called the head; the
largest part of the body is called the trunk; and the
arms and legs are called the limbs. Now tell me
which are the three principal parts of the body. "The
head, the trunk, and the limbs." We will now talk
about the limbs.
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THE LIMBS.
How many arms have you?  How many legs?
What are the arms and legs called? " Limbs." How
many limbs have you? "Four." What are your
upper limbs called? What are your lower limbs
called?  How many legs have you?  How many
legs has the dog? the cat? the horse? the cow?
What other animals have four legs?  How many
legs have these animals more than we have? What
limbs have we?  "Two legs and two arms."  How
many limbs have the animals which we have mentioned?  What are their limbs?  What is the difference between the limbs of these animals and our
limbs? Yes; they have two legs where we have
two arms. What do you call those legs which they
have in the place of our arms?  "Fore legs."  What
do you call the other pair? "Hind legs."
Can you tell me some other animals, besides men,
that have only two legs? What have birds in place
of arms? Can birds do any thing with their wings
which they could not do if they had only legs?
There are some animals that move without either
legs, or arms, or wings; can you tell me what these
are?  "Snakes-worms-fish."
"Hfow can snakes crawl without legs?"* This is
not an easy question to answer so that children can
understand it; you will know better how it is when
you are older; but I will try to tell you. Snakes
* This question is supposed to come from the pupils, and on
that account we answer it. But it would be well for the teacher
to avoid asking such questions as would require in their answers
a knowledge of other terms than the pupils already understand.
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196 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
have scales on their bodies, and they can move each
scale a little, so that by crawling with a crooked or
winding motion they are able to push themselves
along quite rapidly.
Where do fish live?  How do they move?  What
have fish in place of limbs?
You have now told me some of the animals that
have two legs, and some that have four legs, and
some that have no legs; can you tell me any thing
that has more than four legs?  "Yes, the fly and the
bee."
How many legs has a fly or a bee?  Let us look at
a fly and see. IIere is one. It has three legs on
each side, or six legs in all. Can you tell me of any
others that have six legs?   "A  butterfly."  Yes,
and the wasp, the beetle, and ant each has six legs.
These animals we call insects. How many legs have
insects?  "Insects have six legs."
LESSON V.
THE JOINTS.
We have been talking about the legs of animals;
now can you tell me what these animals do with their
legs?  "They walk with them."  That is true; but
do they keep their legs straight all the time? "They
bend them." In how many places can we bend our
legs? Try it, and find out. At the knee, one; at the
hip, one; and at the ankle, one. "In three places."
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THiE JOINTS.
In how many places can you bend your arms? At
the shoulder, one; at the elbow, one; and at the
wrist, one. " In three places." Can you bend your
arm in more places than you can your leg?
Now look at your fingers, and tell me in how many
places you can bend each. In how many places can
you bend your thumb?
The place where we bend our limbs is called ajoint.
What do we call the place where we bend our limbs?
What can we do at a joint?  Could you walk if you
had no joints in your legs?
What could you do with your arms and fingers if
you had no joints in them? Here you can see the
wisdom and goodness of God in giving us limbs with
joints, so that we can use them.
Where is the lowest joint of the leg? Move your
leg and find out. "At the ankle." It is called the
ankle-joint. How many ankle-joints have you?
Which is the highest place at which you can move
your leg?  "At the hip."  It is called the hip-joint.
How many hip-joints have you?
Where is the middle joint of the leg? How many
knee-joints have you?
Now tell me all the joints of the legs. "Two ankle-joints, two knee-joints, and two hip-joints." How
many joints have you altogether in your legs? When
do you use your legs without bending any joint in
them? When do you bend your hip and knee-joint
only?  "When  sitting."  When  do you bend all
three joints of the leg?  "When walking."
How many joints are there in one arm?  How
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198 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
many in both arms? Which is the lowest joint of the
arm? " At the wrist." Which is the uppermost
joint of the arm?  "The shoulderjoint."  Which is
the middle-joint?  "The elbow."
Now I wish you to use all of these joints when you
go home, and then tell me all about them to-morrow.
I want you to tell me how many ways each joint will
bend.
LESSON VI.
PARTS OF THE LIMBS.
What parts of the body do we call the linmbs?
Where are your arms?  "At the upper part of the
body, on each side of the trunk." What do we call
that part of the arm between the shoulder and the
elbow?  "The teter arm, or the arm."
WThat do we call the part between the elbow and
the wrist?  "The fore-arm."  Point to the tpper
arm —to the fore-actrm.
Where is the fore-arm?  Tell me where the upper
arm is.  What is above the uplper arm?  "The shoulder."  What is below the wrist?
You have now learned how many parts there are
in your arms; now let us ascertain how many parts
the lower limbs have.  "Two parts."
What do we call that part between the hip and the
knee?  "The thigh."  How many thighs have you?
Where are the thighs?  "Between the hip and knee."
What is that part between the knee and ankle call
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THE FEET.
ed?  "The leg."  The bone in front is called the shinbone; the fleshy part at the back of the leg is called
the calf. What is between the knee and the ankle?
"The shin and the calf." In what part of the lower
limbs are the shins?  In what part is the calf?
LESSON VII.
THE FEET.
Upon what do you stand? What is the shape of
your feet?  "Long, flat, and wide."
Suppose your feet were narrow, short, and round,
do you think you could stand on them as well as you
do now?  Where are your feet?  "At the lower
part of the body, at the end of the legs."  For what
do you use your feet?  How many feet have you?
Now tell me what are the different parts of the
foot. "The toes, the heel." How many toes have
you on one foot?  How many on both?  What can
you do with your toes? When do you bend your
toes? What do you call the places where you bend
your toes?
What have your toes besides joints? Have you
nails on any other part of the body? Does it hurt
you when you cut your nails? What, then, may you
say of your nails? "They have no feeling." Where
are your nails placed?
When you walk, what part of the foot is in most
danger   of striking against objects?  "The toes."
Now can you tell why the nails, which have no feel
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21)0 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
ing, are placed at the end of the toes? "To protect
from injury that part which is in most danger."
What is at the back part of the foot? What part
of the foot is attached to the leg? On what part of
the foot are the toes? "The toes are on the front
part of the foot." Where is the heel?
There are some other parts of the foot which you
have not mentioned. The upper part of it, between
the leg and the toes, is called the instep. Where is
the instep?  "The instep is the upper part of the
foot, between the toes and the ankle. It rises up
from the toes to the ankle."
The bottom part of the foot, back of the toes, is
called the sole. WVhere are the soles of the feet?*
"Under the feet, behind the toes."
You have told me the principal parts of your feet;
now will you tell me what you can do with them?
"Walk-run-jump-hop."
What is the difference between running and walking? Let me see one of you walk; now let me see
you run.  How did you move your feet when running?  "Fast."  How did you move your feet when
walking?  "Slow."  Now can you tell me the difference between walking and running?
What do you do with your feet when you jump?
What do you do when you hop?  What do naughty
boys sometimes do with their feet?
* It has doubtless been frequently observed, during these lessons, that as soon as the child is in possession of a clear idea, he is
required to give it utterance, that he may acquire the habit of easy
expression of his thoughts.
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FEET OF ANIMALS.
LESSON VIII.
THE FEET OF ANIMALS.
In our last lesson we talked about the different
parts of your feet; we will now talk about the different kinds of feet which animals have.
How many feet have birds? What do hens do
with their feet? Yes, they scratch up the earth with
their long claws. How do birds use their claws when
they sleep? I will tell you. The claws of birds are so
formed that, when sitting down, they shut up tightly.
When the bird alights on a limb of a tree, and sits
down, his claws cling tightly to the limb; so, when
they sit down to sleep, there is no danger of falling off.
The bird can not fly from the limb until it first
stands up, so that its toes will loosen their hold.
When the bird sits down, it bends the legs, and the
bending makes the cords of the legs pull the toes so
that they grasp the roost very tightly.
Taking hold of the cord of a chicken's leg above the
middle joint, and bending the leg, will show how the
cords pull the toes shut.
Are the feet of all birds alike? In what respect
are the feet of ducks and geese different from those
of a hen?  "They have a skin stretched between the
claws."  Yes; this kind of foot is called a web-foot.
"Why do ducks and geese have such feet?"  That
they may swim in the water. When the birds with
web-feet swim, they use their feet for oars to push
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201
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202 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
backward against the water, and that makes them
move forward. Now, when they move their feet forward, the toes shut up together, so as not to pull
against the water. When they push back their legs,
the feet spread out again, forming a fan-shaped oar to
push against the water. This is the way that ducks
and geese swim.
Do hens swim? Why not? Their feet are not
webbed, so they can not use them for oars to push
themselves along in the water.
The Foot of a Cat.-What kind of feet have cats
and dogs? Are the claws of the cat and the dog
alike? "The cat has very sharp claws; the dog's
claws are not sharp."
There is something very interesting about the foot
of a cat. If you will take one in your hands, when
your cat is asleep in your lap, you will find it very
soft, and the sharp claws covered up.  IIer feet seem
like cushions.
Now why do you suppose God gave her such feet?
Let us see what the cat does, and perhaps we may
then understand why she has such soft feet.
When a dog or a sheep walks on a floor, you can
hear their steps; but you do not hear the cat walk,
because her soft, cushioned feet touch the floor so
quietly. Cats, you know, catch rats and mice. Now,
suppose the feet of a cat were like those of a sheep,
could she creep near the rat without being heard?
Now can you tell me why the cat has such soft feet?
Why has she such sharp claws?
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4b 
THE HANDS.
Animals with Hoofs.-What kind of feet have
horses and cows? What is the difference between
the hoof of a horse and that of a cow?  "One is parted in front, the other is whole." The hoof of a cow
is called a cloven hoof.
Tell me some other animals that have cloven hoofs.
What do animals with hoofs eat? How do they obtain the grass?  "They put their heads down to the
grass and bite it off." Do they need claws to hold
their food?
When you look at the feet of the different animals,
and see how each kind has feet best fitted for its use,
you can see how God shows his care for the animals,
and gives them what is necessary. He also takes
care of us.
LESSON IX.
THE HANDS.
Look at your hand, and tell me some of its parts.
"Thumb-fingers-joints-knuckles —nails."  How
many thumbs have you? How many fingers have
you? How many joints are there on one finger?
How many on all the fingers of one hand?
What kind of substance is the nail? "Horny."
Does it hurt you to cut the nail? Then what may be
said of the nail?  "It has no feeling."
Where are the nails placed? Can you tell me any
use of the nails?  "They protect the ends of the fingers."
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204 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
What are the names of the different fingers? I
will name them, and you may repeat them after me.
The thumb, fore finger, middle finger, ring finger, little finger. You may repeat their names again.
I will hold up a finger, and you may tell its name.
Which  hand do I hold up?   "The right hand."
Which hand is up now?  "The left hand."  As I hold
up a finger, you may tell me what particular finger it
is, and of which hand.  "Middle finger, left hand."
"Fore finger, right hand."  "Ring finger, right hand."
Which is the longest finger? Which the shortest?
What is the shape of the fingers?
The joints where your fingers unite with the hand
are called knuckles. The upper part of the hand, between the knuckles and the wrist, is called the back
of tlhe hacanc. WVhat can you do at your knuckles?
"Bend the fingers."
Show me the inside of your hands.  These are called the palmns of the hands. Where is the palm of the
hand?  "The inside of the hand, between the fingers
and the wrist."
Where is the back of the hand?  "The upper part
or outside of the hand, between the knuckles and the
wrist."
Now tell me things that you can do with your
hands.  "Rub- pull-lift-throw-push-strikepinch-squeeze-pound-feel-mark-point," etc.
Can you use your toes in the same way as you do
your fingers? " No." This is because the toes are
.all placed in a row. In the hand the thumb can be
brought opposite to the fingers, and thus the hand is
a 
THE HEAD.
well fitted to take hold of things. The hand is made
to take hold, but the foot is made to support the body
when standing or walking. For what do women use
their hands?  For what do men use their hands?*
Are there any animals that have hands?  " Monkeys." They live in trees. Can you tell me any use
for their hands?  "They use them to lay hold of the
branches." Thus you see that they also are well fitted for their mode of life.
LESSON X.
THE HEAD.
What was our last lesson about?  "The hand."
Tell me the parts of the hand. Tell me the parts of
the arm. Tell me the parts of the foot-of the leg.
You have now told me about your hands, and feet,
and limbs, and next we will talk about the head, the
highest part of the body. One of you may stand here
before the class.
Now each pupil may tell me some part of the head
which you can see.  "Face —hair- ears-crownforehead-temples." Very well; now tell me parts
of the face.  " Eyes-nose-mouth-chin-cheeks
lips-eyebrows."
Where is the face? "In front of the head." Where
are the ears?  "At each side of the head."  Where
* Here the teacher may talk about the different occupations of
men and women, if the pupils are old enough to understand it.
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206 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
is the crown?  "On the top of the head."  Where is
the forehead?  "Above the nose and eyes."  Where
are the temples?  "At the sides of the head, between
the eyes and ears."*
Where are the eyes?  "Between the temples, below the forehead, above the cheeks, on each side of
the nose."
Where is the nose?  "In the middle of the face,
below the forehead, above the mouth, between the
eyes and cheeks."
Where is the mouth?  "Below the nose, above
the chin, and between the cheeks."
Where is the chin?  "Below the mouth, and between the lower part of the cheeks."
Where are the cheeks?  "Below the eyes and the
temples,-between the ears and the sides of the nose,
mouth, and chin."
Where are the lips?  Where are the eyebrows?
"Above the eyes and below the forehead."
* It is not expected that the pupils will give their answers in
the same language as those here; but, when necessary, their descriptions should be corrected by the teacher, and simple and accurate expressions given them, and these they should be required
to repeat together and singly. In this manner these exercises
may be made to cultivate ready and precise observation and correct expression.
In conducting these exercises, the pupils who think they can
answer should raise their hands, but none should speak except
those whom the teacher requests to answer.
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THE EYES.
LESSON XI.
THE EYES.
How many eyes have you? What are your eyes
for?  What do you call this eye?  "The right eye."
And this?  "The left eye."
Now look at the eyes of the child next to you, and
tell me what you see. Look at the middle of the eye.
"I see a small round black spot."
See if the spot is the same in other eyes. This spot
is called the Stpil.  It looks black, because the inside
of the eye, into which we look, through it, is dark. It
is through this opening that the light enters the eye
and enables it to see.
What do you observe around the pupil?  "A colored ring." Look and tell me if this ring is of the
same color in every eye. " No; in some it is blue, in
some black, in some gray, and in some brown."
When it is blue, what would you say of the eyes?
"They are blue eyes." Yes; and when quite dark,
we say the person has black eyes.
This colored ring around thcptjipl is called the iris.
Now look at each other's eyes again, and tell me
what you observe outside of the iris. " Something
that looks like a white ball." That is called the eyeball.
How many eyeballs have you?  What have you on
your eyeball?  "The p?tpil and the iris."  On what
part of the eyeball is the pupil?  "On the front part,
in the middle; the iris is aroundl it."
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208 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
Now I wish you to examine the position of the eye
in the head, and tell me what you observe. "It is
placed in a hole in the head."
That hole is called a socket. Now tell me once
more how the eye is placed. ",It is placed in a socket, with bones all around except in front."
Now observe how the forehead juts over the eyes,
and how the nose rises between them, and how the
cheek-bones protect them from injury. If some one
should strike you over the eyes, you see how admirably they would be protected from severe injury.
Can you tell me what covers the eye? "The eyelid." How many eyelids have you to one eye? What
do you call the eyelid nearest to your forehead?
What the one under the eye? Which eyelid am I
touching?  "The upper eyelid of the right eye."
What is in the edge of the eyelids? What do you
call the hairs at the edge of your eyelids? Are there
any other hairs near your eyelids?  What  are they
called? Where are your eyebrows?
Of what use are the eyebrows?  "For good looks."
Well, that may be one of the uses, but it is not the
most important one. You have sometimes perspired
so that the water would drop from your forehead;
now can you tell me where the water drops off? "At
the end of the eyebrows, on each side of the face."
You have seen an eave-trough in which the water
is carried along the eaves to the corner of the house,
and there poured down in one stream. Well, the eyebirows are the eaves to the forehead, and they prevent
the perspiration from running down into the eye.
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THE EYES AND SENSE OF SIGHT.
The eyelashes also are a protection to it, besides
making it look well. There are a great many small
particles of dust flying about in the air, and the eyelashes, by winking, keep these from going into the eye.
There are a great many more interesting things
which I might tell you about the eye, but we will
leave them for another lesson.
LESSON XII.
THE EYES AND SENSE OF SIGHT.
What can you tell me about your eye? "It has a
pupil in the front, and an iris around it. The eyeball
is round and white." What is the use of the pupil?
"To let the light into the eye, so that we can see."
Did you ever look at the pupil of a cat's eye in the
night?  You must have found the opening very large;
but if you would look at it in a bright daylight, it
would be very narrow, almost like a line. The cat
has need to see at night to enable it to catch mice and
rats. So God has provided its eyes with pupils that
will open very wide, to let in enough light for it to see
when it is dark to us.
Now let us talk about the protections for the eye.
What is above them?  "The forehead."  What is
on the sides?  "The temples and the nose."  What
is below to protect them? "The cheek-bones." How
do these bones protect the eye? How do the eyebrows afford them protection?
209
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210 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
What do you do when any thing comes near the
eye? Observe what you do when I put my hand
quickly near your eyes.  "Close the eyes."  Yes, you
close your eyelids before you have time to think that
your eye is in danger of being hurt.
What keeps the dust that is floating in the air from
your eyes? "The eyelashes." Yes, the fringe of
your eyelashes brushes away the dust that comes near
your eyes.
But does not the dust sometimes get into your
eyes, notwithstanding your eyelashes try to brush it
away? WVhat immediately happens to your eyes
when dust gets in them?  "The tears flow."  Yes,
and the tears carry the dust out of the eye-they
wash it clean.
Do the tears ever flow when there is no dust in the
eyes?  "Yes, when we cry."  Why do people cry?
"Sometimes because they are hurt, sometimes because they are sorry."
Let me  tell you  something more  about tears.
They flow into the eye all the time and keen it moist,
so that the eyelids will move easily. Perhaps you
wonder where the tears go to when you are not crying. Look at each other's eyelids, at the end of the
edge toward the nose; can you see a small hole there?
"Yes."  The tears which go to the eyes to keep them
moist and to wash them run into these little holes,
which are called ducts, and pass down into the nose.
But sometimes the tears flow so fast that these holes
or ducts can not take them all in; then they run over
the lids and down the cheeks.
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THE EYES AND SENSE OF SIGHT.     211
The next time that you cry, just think about the
tears, and see if they do not run out of your nose as
well as down the cheeks.
Seeing.-WVhat is the chief use of your eyes?
Now I wish you also to think of the shape of the eye
-round-how admirably fitted to turn easily about,
so that we can see in various directions.
What do you say of people who can not see?
"They are blind."  Can you see at all times?  "We
can not see in the dark." What, then, is necessary
to enable us to see?  Where does light come from?
When do we lose the light of the sun? What sometimes gives us light during the night? How can you
see when there is neither the light of the sun nor of
the moon?  "By the light of a candle or lamp, or
from burning gas."
There are a great many more curious and interesting things which might be said about the eye, and I
hope you will think about all I have told you of its
shape and use, and what great care God has taken to
guard it from accidents; and when you are a little
older you may read about the wonders of the eye,
and learn a great many more curious things concerning it.
NOTE.-The teacher will find the subject of the eye and seeing,
of the ear and hearing, and of smell, taste, and touch, explained
in a familiar and interesting manner in Part II. of the " Child's
Book of Nature," by Dr. Hooker.
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212 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
LESSON XIII.
THE EARS AND THE SENSE OF HEARING.
How do you know that I am in this room?  "We
can see you." Shut your eyes; now how do you
know that I am in the room? You do not see me.
"We can hear you." Very good; can you tell me
what you hear with?  "Our ears."  Where are your
ears placed?  "On the two sides of the head."  How
many ears have you?
One of the boys may come and stand here, so that
all can see his ears. Now look at him, and tell me
the parts of the ear.  That lower, soft part, into which
ear-rings are sometimes put, is called theflap. Where
is the flap of the ear?  "The lowest part of the ear."
You observe how the edge curls over the ear; that
is called the hem-sometimes the "rim of the ear."
The opening or passage leads to the clrumn of the
ear. This part you can not see; it is placed in the
head, and it is called so because it is something like
a drum. When you hear sounds, the vibrations of
the air go into the ear, and strike against this little
drum in the ear; this is what makes sound. When I
ring the bell it shakes the air, and the motion of the
air comes to the ear-drum, and you hear its sound.
The ear is very delicate, and the entrance to it is
well guarded. The passage leading to the drum of
the ear is always open, and you know that flies and
bugs could easily crawl in. But they seldom do.
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THE EARS AND THE SENSE OF HEARING.  213
God has taken care to prevent this annoyance. There
is in the ear a sticky substance that we call wax,
which is so bitter and unpleasant that insects avoid
it. Besides, the wax would stick his legs so that he
could not crawl far, nor make a noise with his wings.
Hearing.-But I want you to tell me something
about the shape of ears. "They are hollow on the
side of the opening which leads to the ear-drum."
This is the best shape for collecting the sound and
bringing it to the passage of the ear.
Did you ever see a rabbit when the dogs were
chasing it?  What was the direction of its ears?
"They turned backward." This was to enable it to
collect the sounds that came from its pursuer. Animals that are pursued by others have their ears standing backward, that they may hear what is coming
from behind.
Now look at the ears of the cat, and tell me how
they stand.  "The ears of the cat point forward."
This is so that she may readily catch the sound of the
game for which she is in pursuit.
Which has the larger ears, the cat or the rabbit?
"The rabbit."
The rabbit is a very timid animal, and never stops
to fight when attacked, but always tries to run away.
Hence it is very important for it to have large ears,
that it may catch the slightest sound, and be warned
of danger before it comes near. Did you ever see
the rabbit moving about its ears while eating? That
was to listen for sounds from different directions.
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214 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
What do you say of a person who can not hear?
"He is deaf."
Are all sounds pleasant? Tell me some that are
not pleasant. Name some that are pleasant. Sometimes you are told not to make a noise. Is a noise
pleasant? That is why it is called a noise, because
the sound is not agreeable to the ear. Is the song of
a bird a noise?  Why  not?  "Because it is pleasant."
Children should always try to remember that a
noise is not pleasant to grown people.
LESSON XIV.
THE NOSE AND SENSE OF SMELLING.
What is in the middle of your face, above your
mouth, and below your forehead? What is on each
side of your nose?
Tell me some of the parts of the nose.  "The holes
in the end." Those holes are called nostrils. They
lead to a passage back of the mouth through which
we breathe.
There are also passages to the eyes. Can you tell
me the use of these passages?  "They are to conduct
the tears from the eyes."
That other part of the nose do you observe?
"Something between the nostrils." That is called
the cartilage; it separates the nose into two parts.
What other part do you observe?  "The end, and
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THlE NOSE AND SENSE OF SMELLING.  215
the high part outside." The end is called the tip; the
high part is called the bridge of the nose. Now you
may repeat the names of all the parts of the nose.
"Nostrils, cartilage, tip, bridge."
Smelling.-Of what use is the nose?  Do you use
your nose only in smelling? Take hold of your nose,
and press the nostrils together, and tell me how you
feel. "I can not breathe easily." Then for what do
you use your nose?  "For smelling and breathing."
How do you know that there are objects in this
room?  "We can see them."  Suppose I should tie
a handkerchief over your eyes so you could not see,
would you be able to tell whether there are any objects in the room?  "We  could feel them with our
hands." Yes, you could learn it by feeling, when you
could not see.
Now how many ways are there by which you can
tell what objects are in this room?  "Two."  What
are those ways?  "Seeing and feeling."
Suppose you should stand still where you could not
touch any thing with your hands, and should close
your eyes while I ring this bell, could you tell that
there was a bell in the room?  "Yes."  How could
you tell?  "By hearing it."
Now how many ways are there by which you can
tell that objects are in the room?  "Three."  What
are those-? "By seeing, feeling, and hearing."
Once more close your eyes. What object have I
held before each of you? "A rose." Did you see
it?  " No,"  Did you feel it? " No."  Did you hear
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216 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
it?  "No."  Then how do you know that it was a
rose? "We could smell it."
Now what other way have you learned by which
to tell what is in the room?  "By smelling."  How
many ways in all? "Four."  What are those?  "Seeing, feeling, hearing, smelling."
Yes, these are four of the ways that God provided
by which we can learn. We learn by seeing; we
learn by feeling; we learn by hearing; we learn by
smelling. We learn a great deal by all these ways,
but we learn most by seeing and hearing.
Some animals learn a great deal by smelling. Can
you tell me the name of some of these animals? "The
dog and cat." Yes, dogs are very remarkable for
their sharp smell. A dog that had lost his master
has been known to follow his steps through the crowded streets of a city by smelling.
Can you tell me any other use that the dog makes
of his sharp smell?  "He follows his game by it."
Some birds have a remarkable scent, and can discover where there is any putrid flesh when they are a
great distance up in the air. These birds are very
useful in clearing away what would make the air very
unhealthy. Can you tell me what these birds are
called?
What animal has a long nose, called a snout? How
does the pig use its snout? What has the pig at the
end of its snout? That rim or ring of gristle helps it
in rooting up the earth.
Can you tell me what animal has a much longer
snout than a pig? What is this long snout called?
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THE MOUTH.
"A trunk." What can the elephant do with its
trunk? It can bend it about in every direction.
The elephant feeds upon grass and green boughs
of trees. Look at this picture of an elephant. Do
you think he could put his mouth down to the ground
to bite off the grass?  Now can you think of any use
for this long snout? "To pull up the grass, break off
the small branches of trees, and carry them to its
mouth."
Yes, and it uses the trunk when it drinks. It
draws up the water in its trunk, and pours it into its
mouth.
Now tell me what use you make of your nose.
What uses do different animals make of their noses?
Smelling affords us great enjoyment, and God has
made this world pleasant for us by scattering so
many sweet-smelling flowers all over the earth. He
has done much to make us happy, and we ought to
love him for it.
LESSON XV.
THE MOUTH.
Where is your mouth? "Below my nose, above
my chin, and below my cheeks."
What do you call the edge of the mouth?  How
many lips have you? What do you call the lip nearest the nose?  What the other lip?  What do you
do when you smile? How do you use your lips to
show that you love a person?
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217
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218 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
Tell me what you see in the mouth.  "Teethtongue."  What can you say of the teeth?  "They
are white-hard-sharp."  What is the use of their
being so hard?
Are your teeth all alike? What difference do you
observe in your teeth? How many kinds of teeth
have you?  "Two-three."
Let us examine. In the front of your jaws you
have teeth with sharp edges; how many on each
jaw?  "Four."  How many on both?  "Eight."
These are the cutting teeth.
On each side of the cutting teeth you will see some
with a point at the centre. How many do you find
of this kind? "Three on each side of the cutting
teeth-twelve in all." These are for tearing the food;
then what would you call them?   "The tearing
teeth." Yes, you may call them the tearing teeth, or
the canine teeth. The two pointed teeth in the upper jaw, next to the cutting teeth, are called eye-teeth.
Now see what other teeth you have. How many
on each side of your jaws? Those teeth at the back
part of your jaw are called double teeth, or grinders,
because we grind our food with them.
Now how many kinds of teeth have you?  "Three."
What is the use of each kind? The cutting teeth are
to cut up our food when we take it into the mouth,
the tearing teeth are to tear it in pieces, and the grinders are to grind it up ready for swallowing.
In what are your teeth set? How many jaws have
you? Of what use are the jaws? Which jaw do
you move when you eat?  What covers the jaws?
What is that flesh called?  "Gums."
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THE MOUTH.
What is in the middle of the mouth? When do
you use your tongue? "When talking and eating."
Yes; when you eat you use your tongue to bring
your food between your teeth, and to help you to
swallow it.
Speech.-Now tell me when you open your mouth.
"When we eat-drink-talk-laugh-sing-scream
-whistle," etc.
What part of the mouth do you use when you talk?
Pronounce some words and see. "We open and shut
the mouth when we speak." True; but what do you
do with your tongue and lips when you speak?
Look at my mouth, and make the same sounds that
I do.* A-e-i-o —t-d-b-h-k-l —-n-ps-t.
Now can you make these sounds by only opening
and shutting the mouth? Try it again, and see what
more you do. What do you use besides your lips
when you speak?  "Our tongues."
When hungry, we open the mouth-to eat; when
thirstyf-to drink; when we have any thing to say,
we open it-to speak; when we are merry and feel
happy, we open it-to laugh, or sing, or whistle; when
sleepy-to gape or yawn.
* Here the teacher should give the sound of the letter, not
speak its name. It may be made a very interesting and profitable
lesson by teaching the pupils habits of observing how sounds are
produced, while it cultivates the hearing.
t The teacher may say, "When hungry we open the mouth"waiting for the pupils to supply the ellipsis with the words in italics. "When thirsty," etc.
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220 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
To whom has God given the power of talking?
How should we use this power? When do people
make a bad use of it?
Do all animals make the same sound? Do the
same animals always make the same sound? When
the dog or the cat is hurt, do they make the same
sounds that they do when they are happy?
Taste.-The sense of taste should be explained to
the children in connection with some of the lessons on
the mouth. A few experiments might be made in
giving them pieces of sweet and sour apples, oranges,
raisins, sugar, cinnamon, etc., to taste while their eyes
were closed.
LESSON XVI.
THE SENSE OF TOUCH.
The sense of touch may be agreeably and profitably brought into exercise by the parent as soon as
the child can walk and talk.
Remove the light from a room in which the child is
familiar with the furniture, and lead it around while
engaged in a cheerful conversation about finding the
different objects in the room, and let it distinguish the
chair, sofa, table, bureau, etc., by feeling them. This
will give it pleasure, and the while teach another important lesson unawares-that there is no terror or
danger in darkness except in coming in contact with
objects
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THE SENSE OF TOUCH.
The teacher may also introduce interesting experi ments with the sense of touch. It may be quickened
by placing the hands behind, and having various kinds
of cloth, coin, and other articles placed in them, to
be named from feeling. In all these exercises there
should be fair play and no tricks.
Lessons in distinguishing coins by touch alone
would lead to the prevention of mistakes, in subse quent years, in paying away gold for silver, and ena ble one to distinguish most of the usual counterfeit
coins.
The touch may also be instructed in the systematic
discovery of good and bad conductors of heat. In
the same atmosphere, metal, earthenware, glass, or
marble will feel colder than flannel or the carpet;
linen will seem colder than cotton. Substances conduct heat with different degrees of rapidity, and when
the hands feel one thing colder than another, it is because the former absorbs heat from the hand more
rapidly than the latter. Smooth marble seems colder
than rough marble, from its presenting more surface
at once to the skin.
If a child places its right hand upon the cold hearth,
and its left upon the carpet by the side of it, holding
them there for a minute, then putting the palms of
the hands flat together, the right hand will feel the
left one to be warm, and the left one will feel the
right to be cold.
This shows how much more heat has been conducted away from the skin of one hand than from the
other; yet a thermometer placed upon the hearth and
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222 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUIAN BODY.
upon the carpet would indicate no difference in their
temperature.
Again, substances may be warmer than the hands,
and the difference in their conducting powers may be
observed by touching the hot metal tea-pot and the
handle of ivory or wood; the metal, being a good or
rapid conductor, feels hot, while the wood, being a
poor or slow conducter, feels cool, or not uncomfortably warm.
An interesting experiment with the sense of feeling
may be performed in the following manner:
Take three basins, and half fill them with cold water.
Let the water in the first basin remain cold; pour a
small quantity of hot water into the second, just to
make it comfortably warm; add to the third basin as
much hot water as the hand can bear. Having thus
prepared the three basins, let one hand be held in the
cold water, and the other in the hot water, for about
a minute; then place both hands in the tepid water,
and it will feel cold to one hand and warm to the other.
These experiments cultivate keen perceptions of
touch, while they amuse those engaged in them.
LESSON XVII.
THE TEETH OF ANIMALS.
Here is a cat; now let us see what kind of teeth it
has.  "They are long, sharp, tearing teeth."  What
does the cat eat? Why, then, does it need sharp,
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THE TEETH OF ANIMALS.
tearing teeth? Lions and tigers have the same kind
of teeth, to tear the flesh of other animals which they
kill for food.
Now do you remember what was said about the
feet of the cat?  Look at them, and see how soft they
are, and examine the claws. They are sharp, and fitted to catch and hold mice and rats.
Have cows claws on their feet?  Do they need
them to catch their food?  What do cows eat?  What
kind of teeth has the cow?  She has no tearing teeth;
her food-the grass-does not need to be torn; it
needs grinding, and for this purpose she has large
grindiezg teeth to bruise up the grass till it becomes
a soft pulp.
Did you ever see a cow lying down and chewing?
How did she move her jaws?  "From side to side."
Now you observe that the cat has teeth fitted for
eating its food, and the cow teeth fitted for its food,
and they both have teeth adapted to their modes of
life. God gives to every animal the desire for the
particular kind of food that is good for it; also the
means of procuring that food, and the proper teeth to
chew it.
Suppose you wanted to find out the kind of food
that any animal eats, you might look in its mouth.
If it feeds on grass and vegetables, what teeth would
you find?
Suppose it lived chiefly on the flesh of other animals, what would be the shape of its teeth?
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224 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE tHUM4N BODY.
LESSON XVIII.
THE HAIR.
What is on the top and back of your head? Is
the hair of all persons of the same color? Has every
body the same number of fingers?  Perhaps you
would like to ask why every body's hair is not alike,
when they have hands and feet so nearly alike.
Four fingers and one thumb are the best number
that could be given us, but it is of little consequence
what is the color of the hair. God made us alike
where it was best that we should all be alike.
Where do animals have hair? What is the use of
hair to animals? Hair is their clothing. What can
man do to supply the place of a covering of hair?
"Blake clothes."
Do animals know how to make clothes? If they
knew how to sew, could they do it?  " They have no
fingers."
Is the hair of all animals alike? Tell me what animals have different coverings. What has the cat?
"Soft hair."  What has the pig?  "Coarse, stiff bristles." What do sheep have for a covering? What
do men do with their wool?
Is the hair of all animals of the same color? What
is the color of the hair on the cow? What is the color
of horses? What is the color of cats? Did you ever
see a green cow, or a green horse, or a green cat?
What is the difference between the hair of a horse
and the hair of a dog?  Is the hair of all dogs alike?
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THE BONES.
LESSON XIX.
THE BONES.
The bones are the frame-work and support of the
body. In this lesson we will talk about them, and try
to learn their names.
You can feel the bones in your fingers and arms.
If you will pass your hand up the arm to the shoulder, you will find it connected with a flat bone which
extends partly across the back. This fiat bone is
called the shoulder-blade.  How many shoulder-blades
have you?
By passing your hand from the neck to the shoulder, you will feel the collar-bone. How many collarbones have you?  The bone that you can feel just below the neck is the breast-bone. What is the bone
just below your neck called?
Can you feel any bones on each side of your body?
Those are called the ribs. What is the shape of the
ribs?  "That of a curve."  They form a hollow place
for your stomach, into which you receive your food.
The lungs, with which you breathe, and your heart,
are also in this barrel-shaped cavity.
Pass your hand along the middle of your back, and
tell me what you feel. That is called the back-bone.
Where is your back-bone? Can you bend the backbone?
How is the back-bone formed? It is formed of a
great number of small bones most beautifully joined
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226 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
together. If it were formed of one bone, like this
stick, could you bend your back? Can you now bend
your back easily?  Let me see you make  a bow.
Did you bend your backs then?
Now one of you may stand up against the wall so
that your back can not bend, and then make a bow.
What do you think of such a bow? Is it not very
awkward?
In what direction is the back-bone when we stand
erect?  "Perpendicular."  In what direction is it
when we lie down?  "Horizontal."  In what direction is the back-bone of most animals?
The skull and the jaw-bones belong to the head.
Now let us repeat the names of these bones. You
may speak their names as I point them out.
The principal bones of the body are the skullthe jaw-bones-the breast-bone-the shoulder-bladesthe collar-bones-the ribs-the back-bone-the bones
of the hands, arms, thigh, legs, and feet.
LESSON XX.
THE BLOOD.
Can you tell me what flows from your finger when
you cut it, and from your nose when you give it a
hard bump?  "Blood."  What is the color of blood?
What do we call the little tubes in which the blood
flows?
Listen to me, and I will tell you about the blood,
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THE BLOOD.
and the journey it makes. The food which we eat is
turned into blood and carried into the heart. The
heart sends the pure blood, through the arteries, to all
parts of the body. It carries out nourishment, from
which the body grows. In returning through the veins
to the heart it gathers up and takes back impurities.
This blood is then sent through the lungs, where it is
made pure by the air in breathing, and is again returnec(l to the heart to be sent out through every part of the
body as before, giving it nourishment and strength.
While we live it regularly flows on, without our
thinking or troubling ourselves about it. When it
stops flowing we die.
Did you ever observe a watery liquid in a plant
that you had cut? That liquid is called sap, and it
flows through the plant, and gives it nourishment very
much as the blood gives nourishment to the body.
Now who will tell me something about the blood?
"It comes from the food we eat; the heart sends it
through all parts of the body." Can some other pupil
tell any thing more about it?  "It brings back impurities; is sent to the lungs to be made pure by air."
Who will add more? "From the lungs it flows back
to the heart, and is sent out through the body again."
Very well.
I can not explain to you how all the bones, and
flesh, and every part of the body is made from the
blood. Wise men have studied this a great deal, and
yet they do not know how it is done. But God has
so formed us that all this takes place without our assistance.
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228 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE HUMAN BODY.
A very good man, of whom we read in the Bible,
said, "I will praise God, for I am fearfully and won derfully made." God made us, and therefore we
ought to praise him. He also takes care of us every
day we live. If he should cease to take care of us
we should die. Do you wish God to take care of
you? What would you say if you desired one to do
something for you?  "I would ask him to do it."
What ought you to do when he had done it for you?
"Thank him for it."
What, then, should you say to God for taking care
of you yesterday and to-day, and that he may take
care of you to-night and to-morrow? "I should thank
him for taking care of me yesterday, and ask him to
take care of me to-day, to-night, and to-morrow."
In his Word, the Bible, he has promised to hear us
when we tell him our desires.
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
IT is the body as well as the mind which we educate, and we should not attempt to train the one to
the neglect of the other; both should be guided in
uniform action, and trained to equal development.
Few parents are aware of the great extent to which
the seeds of disease are sown in our schools, simply
from neglecting the physical condition of the children, and the proper adaptation of the school-room to
the purposes for which it is used.
Were suitable physical exercises made an essential
and indispensable part of education for both sexes,
many diseases which are the consequences of neglected bodily development or of constitutional debility
might be prevented, and, at the same time, the mental
faculties be more fully developed.
It is now customary, in our best primary schools,
to introduce singing, marching, and various evolutions, such as clapping hands, standing and sitting
alternately, folding arms, etc. These exercises are
found to be of great utility, yet they do not bring
sufficiently into action the various parts of the body
to answer the ends of more distinct physical exercises.
Nevertheless, they indicate that the importance of
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
attention to the physical education of children is generally acknowledged, and would be better attended
to were the teachers provided with more specific directions for introducing suitable exercises without the
trouble and expense of apparatus.
SCHOOL EXERCISES, WITH ILLUSTRA     TIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS.
HEAD MIOVEIENTS.
The position during these movements should be
standing, with heels together and toes turned outward.
m?    m       No. 1. lecta( rotating; 3 times
firom right to left, and 3 times from
left to right.
No. 2..[eadl sidewise turnting; 5
times each way.
No. 3. Heacl backward and for         _4A   wardl bending; 5 times each way.
1.     2.      These head movements should be
performed slowly at first.  They are useful as a remedy against vertigo and giddiness, headache, etc.
SHOULDER MOVEMENTS.
No. 4. Shoulder raising; 3 times left shoulder, 3 times right, and 3 times both together.
Raise the shoulders with force as high as possible, but lower them gently, to prevent too
great jarring of the head. If any pupil has
one shoulder lower than the other, this movement should be performed only with the defective shoulder.
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ARM MOVEMENTS.
No. 5. Shouldersforward and backward bending;
5 times each way.
ARM MOVEMENTS.
Position-Standing upright, heels together, toes
outward, and shoulders thrown back.
No. 6. Arms  sidewise raising; 5 times slowly.
Carry the arms, without bending, from the sides to a
perpendicular position over the shoulders, and down
again slowly. This exercise greatly aids respiration.
No. 7. Arms sidewise swinging; 5 to 10 times
each way, rapidly.
No. 8. Arms twzsting; extend the arms horizon
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.......... )   O:,........
..:.
6.
7.
9.
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
tally, and twist them forward and backward 10 times
each way.
No. 9. Arms swinging together; carry the arms
horizontally slowly outward sidewise, and bring them
together forward with force 5 to 10 times.
.......
10.
No. 10. Arms swinging apart; place the arms together horizontally in front, and swing them backward with force 5 to 10 times.
No. 11. Arms swinging forward  and backward,
without bending the elbows, 5 times each way. As
the arms are thrown backward, the shoulders should
incline forward, as in the cut.
No. 12. Arms downward stretch
ing; 5 times. Count one as the
hands are drawn up, and two as
they are stretched downward.
No. 13. Arms upward stretching; 5 times with force. As the
arms are brought downward, the
hands may strike the breast near
the shoulder.   Count one as the
up to the breast, two as they are
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i
-Rslr
12. 13.
hands are drawn
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HAND MOVEMENTS.
stretched upward, three as they are brought down
upon the breast again, aind four as they are returned
to the side.
No. 14. Arms sidewise stretching; 5 times.  Count
one as the arms are brought to the breast; two, stretch
outward; three, back to the breast; four, at the side
again.
No. 15. Arms backward stretching; 5 times with
force. Count one as the arms are drawn up, and two
as they are stretched backward.
No. 16. Armsforward stretching; 5 times. Counting as before.
No. 17. Arm-stretching cornmbined; upward, one,
two, three (leaving arms at the breast); sidewise, one,
two, three; forward, one, two, three; backward, one,
two, three; downward, four.
These arm movements facilitate the circulation of
the blood, give free action to the joints of the arms,
promote expansion of the chest, and aid respiration.
HAND MOVEMIENTS.
No. 18. -lZands open and shut withforce; 10 times,
spreading the fingers as the hand opens.
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15.
16.
14.
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
18.               19.              20.
No. 19. Hands  describe figure A;  5 times with
hands closed, and 5 times with hands open. Good
exercise for the wrist and muscles of the arm.
No. 20..cancls together, palms rubbing; draw the
hands the entire length of each other alternately,
without bending the elbows, 5 times each hand. An
excellent exercise for the shoulders.
TRUK 31OVEM31ENTS.
Position-Heels apart, toes outward, shoulders back.
21.           22.         23.
No. 21. Trzunk forward and backward bending;
hands on hips; bend the trunk forward and backward,
as if the hips were the hinge, 5 times each way, slowly. The tendency of this movement is to strengthen
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TRUNK MOVEMIENTS.
the lower muscles of the back and abdomen, and to
relieve constipation.
No. 22. Trunk sidewise bending; 5 times to the
right and 5 times to the left. The hands may be
placed on the hips, as in the cut, or clasped above the
head, or extended sidewise.
No. 23. Trzink twisting; hands on hips; turn as far
as possible to the right, also to the left, without moving the feet, 5 times each way. To vary the movement, clasp the hands over the head, or extend them
sidewise, and twist the body without moving the feet.
24.             25.           26.
No. 24. Trutnk rotatiny; hands on hips; bend the
body toward the right, backward, left, and forward,
5 times; then 5 times round toward the left, backward, right, and forward.
No. 25. Trunk backward bending; place the hands
firmly at the small of the back; then bend backward
slowly as far as possible 5 times. As the body bends
backward, the head will incline slightly forward.
No. 26. Trtnk stretching; extend the arms above
the head, rise upon the toes, and stretch upward as
far as possible 5 times, inflating the lungs while ris
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
ing, and expelling the air while settling down upon
the heels. Stretch in the same manner (for a change
in the movement), resting on one foot forward, as if in
walking, while the other foot rests lightly upon the toe.
CHEST EXERCISES.
No. 27. Chest expansion; inflate the lungs, and
beat the chest rapidly with the hands while holding
the breath. Continue this for 10, 20, or 30 seconds
at a time. Proceed gently until the pupils are accustomed to the movement. For a change in this exercise, take full and deep inspirations, and allow the air
to pass slowly out while beating the chest.
No. 28. Half chest exercise; place one
hand under the arm, tightly against the ribs,
the other on the head; bend the body side        wise as far as possible toward the hand against
the side, and take 5 deep breaths, then change
hands and repeat the same with the other
side.  Let the breathing be as deep and com  28.   plete as possible, but gentle and regular.
KNEE MOVEMENTS.
No. 29. Knee-bending or courtesying; place heels together, hands on
hips, and let the body sink down
slowly, as low as possible, the trunk
maintaining an upright position; then
rise on the toes to the utmost height
5 times.
No. 30. Knee forward bending;
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KNEE MOVEMENTS.
place one foot a long step forward, as in pacing, with
toes turned outward; hands on hips; bend the forward knee, raising and lowering the body, while the
other knee is kept straight, 5 times. Change position, and repeat the same with the other knee 5 times.
These movements are excellent for the lower extremities, rendering the joints free and the muscles
stronger.
In arranging the foregoing list of school exercises,
our aim has been to give such a variety of motions as
could be introduced into any school-room without apparatus, and, at the same time, such as would bring
into action all parts of the body, and most thoroughly
the trunk, arms, and upper portions of it. We deem
it less necessary to give extended exercises for the
legs, from the fact that children usually exercise these
limbs more than any other part of the body; consequently, they need most exercises for the trunk, arms,
and chest.*
Several of these movements act upon the same organs of the body in a different manner, such as the
* Teachers desiring more extended suggestions on physical exercises, to aid in presenting other movements when the children
lose their interest in these from familiarity and frequent use, will
find among the books most suitable for this purpose, "Physiology
and Calisthenics, for Schools and Families, by Catharine E. Beecher;" "The Family Gymnasium, by Dr. R. T. Trall;" "The
Swedish Movement-Cure, by Geo. H. Taylor, M.D."  Many new
and valuable suggestions for physical exercise in school may also
be obtained from "Dr. Lewis's Journal of Physical Culture," published in Boston.
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PHIIYSICAL TRAINING.
various arm movements; hence it would not be well
for the teacher to require the class to go through with
the entire list of movements at one time. It will
usually afford sufficient exercise to perform from six
to ten movements at one drill, and those should be so
selected as to exercise as wide a range of organs as
possible. For example, let one drill embrace
Nos. 2, 6, 11, 20, 24, 27.
Another, Nos. 1, 5, 10, 19, 23, 26.
Another, Nos. 3, 4, 8, 13, 18, 21.
Another, Nos. 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21.
Another, Nos. 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, and so on.
First, require every pupil to observe the teacher:
this attention must be secured, or the exercises can
not be successfully introduced. When giving these
movements, the teacher should stand in front of the
pupils, at such a distance that all the motions can be
distinctly seen and the directions clearly understood.
Care should be taken to secure prompt and uniform
action by all the pupils, for this precision will add
greatly to the interest of the exercises, and also to
their beneficial effects upon the system.   Indeed,
promptness and decision alone will keep up interest in
the movements for a long time, when all other means
have failed.
After the pupils have become familiar with these
movements, the teacher may indicate those to be made
by calling the numbers, or, at first, it might be well
also to name the class of movements, as "Hand Movement, No. 20;" " Head Movement, No. 3;" "Trunk
Movement, No. 26."
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AMUSEMENTS.
During these exercises there should be an earnest
cheerfulness, and, if amusements can be combined with
them, their beneficial results will be more apparent.
Some of the exercises require slow movements; others
may be increased in rapidity, so as to be more enlivening, after the children have become accustomed to
them.
Physical training should not be confined to the
school-room. To train children properly, amusing
games ought to be devised for play-ground exercises,
and such as will cultivate kindly affections. Discourage all games of chance, but encourage all games of
skill and dexterity. Give the children plenty of funplenty of real, hearty, innocent fun. If you don't
give them this, they will take it in the form of mischief. Do not seek to deprive them of amusement,
but guide them in suitable sports, and you will win
their confidence, love, and obedience.
How often shall physical exercises be used in
school? Every hour, and continued from one to five
minutes on each occasion. If a physical exercise occupying one minute should precede every mental exercise, better attention could be secured in the class,
and the pupils would feel less fatigue than without it;
but even physical exercises might be carried to an
excess.
It should be remembered that children can not sit
still long in one position. God bestows upon them a
propensity to continual restlessness with a view to
their good, and this should suggest to the teacher the
principles for training them. Give short lessons, and
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
a variety during each day, and intersperse them with
a few physical movements, so as to increase the variety, add to the interest of the school, and to the health
of the pupils.
The primary school should be a light, cheerful place.
The hours of school attendance should not be long;
from four to five hours a day, for a primary school, is
better than six, even for mental proficiency. A primary school that has even five hours of session per
day should have an hour or more of interval at midday. Besides, there should be one or two recesses
during each session. The exercises of the school
should be so arranged as to give a change of position
and subject as often as every fifteen or twenty minutes. No child will give sufficient attention to derive
much benefit from a lesson that continues more than
twenty minutes. Five and ten minute lessons, onl
some subjects, are better than longer ones. Lessons
occupying different senses should follow each other,
as the change affords relief to the mind.
Singing is a physical exercise of wonderful power
in relieving the more serious work of the school. It
exerts a calming influence after exertion, and a cheering influence on exertion to be put forth. A cheerful
song is a ventilation of the mind, giving an outlet to
the pent-up feelings of the child, which is refreshing.
Singing is indispensable to the successful management of a primary school; it is a great moral engine.
Exercise songs, in which various physical actions
are represented or performed by the pupils, are very
appropriate for primary schools; but when an attempt
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PHYSICAL TRAINING.
is made to teach geography, arithmetic, or any other
science by means of singing, it is not appropriate.
If an observing teacher will notice the effect of singing on the minds of children, she will perceive that it
does not excite the intellectual faculties, but that one
class of tunes lulls the mind into inactivity, while another produces a kind of physical excitement. The
province of singing is not with the intellectual powers, but with the feelings and the heart, and it should
be used in its proper sphere.
Training the voice in the elementary sounds of the
language and in reading may be used profitably in
physical culture. Marching with military step and
precision on leaving the room, or in going to and
from recitations, are useful exercises.
Neatness and cleanliness of person are very essential points. Proper modes of sitting, standing, walking, holding a book or slate, distinct articulation in
speech, all belong to physical culture. Fresh air and
thorough ventilation are indispensable.
L
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
" Knowledge of the nearest things should be acquired first, then
that of those farther and farther off."-COMENIUS.
No child is prepared to enter upon the study of
geography until he has acquired ideas of place, and is
able to comprehend the relative position of objects
around him. Geography is the study of things, and
it should be made a series of object-lessons on the
earth, with its more striking external objects, its products and occupiers.
When this study was first introduced into schools,
it was thought that, from its having things for its
subject-matter, it would act as a counterpoise to the
too exclusively verbal and abstract character of the
other studies; but it has signally failed in this, from
the abstract manner in which it has come to be chiefly
taught.
Probably there is no study pursued in our schools
where greater defects exist in methods of teaching it
than in geography. Now and then a teacher has
broken away from custom, thrown away his textbooks, until his pupils obtained a start in the right direction, and, by consulting nature more and books less,
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
has succeeded in making geography one of the most
successful and profitable of studies.
Richly as this subject abounds in attractive objects,
both of nature and the works of art; diversified as
are the soil and productions of the earth; various as
are its people, with their differing customs and manners; innumerable as are its animals and their habits;
changeable as is its climate; and so full of thrilling
interest as are the records of man's doings and deeds
of valor, geography should be made the most attractive of studies; but, alas! it has been stripped of nearly all that gives it a charm, and presented to our children in the shape of formal definitions, bare statistics,
mere localities, neither of which awaken thought in
the pupil's mind, consequently the study becomes a
weary burden of rote-learning and unprofitable tasks.
"What is the natural mode of instruction in geography?" WVe shall try to answer this question in the
following pages.
During the years of infancy and childhood a great
many facts pass under the observation of children,
making more or less vivid impressions on their minds,
yet perhaps the majority of them do not call forth
their interest and observation sufficiently to produce
clear and distinct ideas even of the significance of the
objects which are familiar about home.
The teacher should avail herself first of this stock
of imperfect ideas which the child has accumulated;
then bring into exercise the slumbering perceptions,
and develop these impressions for a foundation of future instruction.  In other words, begin with lessons
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244     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
at home; first develop clearly and establish firmly the
simple facts that the child has already acquired, and
then so connect subsequent instruction with that which
has been previously acquired that the latter shall entwine itself with the former, and also become fixed in
the mind by the strongest associations. So, in geography, begin at home, and go away step by step, associating each new fact with one early learned at home.
This method employs that which is known to the
child as the means of teaching him that which he does
not know. It makes geography one of the most interesting of studies.
What the primary teacher shall do first, and how
proceed in these lessons preparatory to the introduction of geography by the use of text-books, on entering the junior or grammar schools, will be the province of the following lessons to suggest.
Although we have divided the successive points to
be developed into lessons, yet the teacher must not
take it for granted that all given under one lesson is
always to be taught at one exercise. We have aimed
chiefly to show the successive steps in the development of this subject by their divisions, and to give
suggestions as to the manner for training the children
in them. This is deemed sufficient for all practical
uses, as the teacher, to be successful, must shape the
lessons to the special wants of her pupils, whether
each exercise is distinctly marked out, or only the
leading steps in development given.
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IDEAS OF PLACE.
LESSON I.
TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF PLACE.
In teaching children the first ideas of place, the
number of objects referred to should be very limited.
Require them to name the position of the objects in
the school-room, first telling where the desk standsat one end of the room; then where the stove, or fireplace, or register is; then the door; next the windows.
The location of the blackboard, various maps, etc.,
may follow.
Call upon a pupil to stand before the class, and describe the position of objects in reply to questions by
the members of the class; as, Where is the blackboard?  "At my left hand."  Where is the teacher's
desk?  "At my right."  Where is the door?  "Behind me."  Where is your seat?  "In front of me."
This exercise should be varied by the teacher's asking the questions, and by the several pupils answering
singly, as the first one did.
Second Exercise.-For another exercise, talk with
them about home, about the different rooms in the
house, as kitchen, pantry, dining-room, parlor, bedroom, etc. Ask them to tell you for what purpose
each room is used, and on which side of the kitchen
is the pantry; where the dining-room is; where the
parlor and bed-rooms are. Let them also tell you of
some of the prominent objects around the house, as
the barn and wagon-house, if it be in the country.
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246      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
Third Exercise.-For an exercise in position, place
on a table a book, a globe, an inkstand, a bell, and a
hat, or other objects which may easily be obtained.
First arrange one in the centre, and the others at
each of the corners; then let the pupils tell in turn
what objects are on the side or end next to them, and
which are opposite.
They may be permitted to change the position of
the objects, and then describe their places with reference to each other, using the terms right and left to
indicate the directions.
After placing the objects in some position on the
table, and requiring the children to observe how they
are placed, remove a part of them, and let the children
put them back in the same position; then remove all
the objects, and request the children to replace them.
Next the teacher may draw upon the blackboard
the shape of the table, and request the children to
place marks in the figure on the board to show where
the different objects on the table are located. Let
them copy this on their slates when they have taken
their seats.
Fourth Exercise,-Let the teacher draw the simple outline of the end elevation of a house, with windows and doors, and require the children to select
laths, and represent the same on the table, using shingles, or large and small books for the doors and windows. Drawings of various objects may thus be represented with the laths, etc. This exercise will call into
use the knowledge of form and size, as well as of place.
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POINTS OF COMPASS.
LESSON II.
POINTS OF COMPASS.
Can you point to the place where the sun rises in
the morning?  Where does it set at night?  The
name of the point where the sun rises is called the
,* and the name of the place where the sun sets
is called the.*  Now where does the sun rise?
"The sun rises in the east." Where does the sun set?
Point to the east-to the west. Now stand with
your right hand to the east. Which way is your left
hand?  "Toward the west."  Now stand with your
right hand toward the west. Which way is your left
hand?  "Toward the east."
Once more stand with your right hand toward the
east and your left hand toward the west. The point
before you is called     * and the point behind you
is called the.*  Now point to the north-to the
south.
Stand with your right hand toward the north.
Which way is your left hand? What point is before
you?  What behind you?
Stand with your right hand toward the west. In
what direction is your left hand? What point is before you? What behind you?
Stand with your right hand toward the south. In
what direction is your left hand? What is before
you?  What behind you?
* Some of the children will be able to supply the ellipsis.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
Through which window in the school-room will the
sun shine in the morning? Through which in the
afternoon?
As I was walking the other day, I saw the sun before me, appearing like a very large red ball, and sinking behind the hills. In what direction must I have
been walking?
Mly bedroom has large windows on one side of it.
When the sun rises in the morning, it shines in at my
windows very brightly. On which side of the house
is my bedroom? On which side of my room are the
windows?
Ask the children similar questions about their own
rooms at home, and excite them to observe and tell
as much as possible. At the close of the lesson they
may repeat  The point where the sun rises is called the east, and
where it sets the west.
Second Exercise,-At a subsequent exercise, ask
the children which way the back is when a person
walks toward the north. Which way would the right
hand be?  Which the left?
Call a child to walk across the floor from the north
to the south; another from the south toward the
north; another from the east to the west; another
from the west toward the east.
Let them place two sticks on the floor across each
other, so that one shall point north and south, the
other east and west.
Place one child near one end of the room, another
248
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POINTS OF COMPASS.
near the other, then require each to tell in what direction the other is from him.
Third Exercise.-Let the children tell what direction they take in coming to school from home, what
direction they take to go home from school. The
same may be required relative to prominent localities
in the vicinity of the school.
The object at this stage of the development is to
keep the learners so long upon each new idea that it
may be well fixed in their minds, and to vary the examples so as to keep up the interest. The more the
teacher can devise for the children to do themselves
during these exercises, the greater will be their interest and consequent improvement. The teacher
must be able to determine when to bring a fresh subject before them in the lesson, and, in doing this, two
points must be kept in view:
First, see that the children are firmly placed on one
step of this ladder of learning before they take another; see that they understand and can tell what they
have already learned before presenting them any thing
new to be learned.
Second, do not weary and disgust them by keeping too long before them one idea in the same form.
Constantly vary the mode of illustration, and combine
the amusing whenever possible, keeping in view, as
the prominent idea, the end to be attained in teaching.
It is not necessary always to require the children to
be in precise order; this is contrary to the joyous period of infancy. The teacher should have such com                        L 2
249
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250     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACd.
mand as to keep the strictest of order when she
pleases. Indeed, order should be the rule; the exception should only be in those exercises where the
end can be better attained without it.
LESSON III.
SHOWING THE NECESSITY OF FIXED POINTS.
When I asked you about the position of the differ ent objects in this room, you said one was at your
right hand, another at your left, and so on. Now I
desire to talk more about the direction of objects.
Observe where I stand. Now if you were to direct
me which way to walk to find the door, what would
you say? "You must go to the right." [Teacher
turns half round.] Must I go to the right now? "No,
it is behind you." [Turning half round again.] Now
must I go to the right?  "No, the door is at your
left now."
Thus you perceive that, before you can direct a
person which way to go by the use of the terms right
or left, you must know how he is standing.
Suppose a person should call at the door of the
school-room and inquire the way to the post-office,
would it do to say "Go to your right," when you did
not know how he stood?  Why might he not be able
to find the post-office from such a direction?  "Because his right hand might point in the wrong direction."
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NECESSITY OF FIXED POINTS.
Can you think of any points that do not change?
"East, west, north, south." If the man at the door,
who inquired for the direction to the post-office, has
learned which way is north, and south, and east, and
west, could you direct him to the post-office? What
would you say to him?  "Go north on this street
till you come to the white building on the corner;
there you will find the post-office."
Would it make any difference how he stood when
you gave him this direction? Does the place of north
change when we change? Now, if you should tell
me that I must go to the north from my desk to reach
the door of this room, would it make any difference
which way I stood at the time? I hope you now
understand* the importance of the fixed points of
north, south, east, and west, which remain in the
same place every where.
Second Exercise.-Now you may tell me in what
directions the different objects in the room are located.
Where is the stove? On which sides of the stove are
the windows?  At which end is the teacher's desk?
Which direction from you is the street?
Proceed in this manner until the pupils are able to
designate the relative position of all objects in the
room by the points of compass.
* It may be found that a few points in these lessons have not
been carried out sufficiently minute for some pupils; in such cases
the teacher should always extend them with other simple illustrations. Our aim is chiefly to suggest how the subject should be
handled.
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251
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252      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
LESSON IV.
REPRESENTING THE POSITION OF OBJECTS ON THE
BLACKBOARD, AND APPLYING THE POINTS OF COM PASS.
I am now going to make a drawing or map of this
room on the blackboard, and I wish you to tell me
where to place the marks by which I represent the
different objects.  First tell me  in what direction
your faces are. "Toward the north." Which way
is your right hand?  Which way your left hand?
Here are some important facts to be remembered
when we draw a map of any thing. The marks representing the north part, side, or end of the object
must be placed at the top of the blackboard or slate,
and those representing the south part at the bottom
of the board; those representing the east and west
portions at the right and left sides of the slate or
blackboard.
What part of this room shall I represent at the top
of the blackboard?  "The north end."  [The teacher
draws a line near the top of the board.] Now where
must I make a line to represent the south end?  "At
the bottom of the board." [The teacher draws it.]
Which side of you is toward the east?  "My right
side." Very good; where must I draw the line to
represent the east side of the room?  "On the right
side of the board."
What have I now formed on the board? "Two
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REPRESENTING THE POSITION OF OBJECTS. 253
right angles."  How  many lines have I drawn?
"Three."
On which side of you is the west side of the room?
"On my left side." On which side of the board
must I draw the line to represent the west side of the
room?  "On the left side."
How many angles have I made now?  "Four."
What kind of angles do we call them?  "Right angles." Does this drawing represent a square? "No."
Why not?  "Because its sides are not equal."  What
is its form?  "-That of a parallelogram."  Can you
describe a parallelogram? "A parallelogram is a
figure of four sides, having more length thaan breadth,
wvhose opposite sides are equal and parallel to each
other."  Which way is this room longest?
Second Exercise.*-Now look about you, and tell
me where you entered this room. Where is the door?
"At the south end." At what part of the south end
is the door?  "In the middle."  Then where shall I
represent the door in this drawing?  "In the middle
of the line at the bottom of the board."
What is necessary that we may see each other
while in the room?  "Light."  How do we receive
light?  "Through the windows."  Where  are the
windows?  How many on the east side?  How many
on the west side? Where shall I make the marks
to represent the window on the east side which is
* It may be well to make two exercises of this lesson for some
schools. When this is done, let the second one commence with
the representation of the objects in the room.
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254     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
nearest to the north end of the room?  "On  the
right side of the drawing, near the top." Where
shall I place the marks representing the window in the
east side nearest to the south end?  "On the right
side of the drawing, near the bottom." Proceed in a
similar manner to locate the remaining windows.
Now where shall we locate the teacher's desk?
"At the top of the drawing, within the lines representing the boundaries of the room." Why shall we
place it there?  "Because the desk stands near the
north end of the room." Where shall I put the mark
to show the place of the stove? "In the middle of
the drawing."
Proceed in a similar manner with other objects,
until all the principal ones are located, including the
seats of the several pupils in the class.
It would be an excellent plan to draw the outline
of the school-room on the floor with chalk, and to select objects to represent the articles of furniture, and
request the children to place these in their relative
positions, and afterward to remove them and indicate
their places by marks.
Where the pupils have learned to draw upon their
slates, these exercises should be repeated, for subsequent lessons, requiring the pupils to draw upon their
slates each line while the teacher is drawing it upon
the board.
Third Exercise.-Review briefly the preceding
exercises under Lesson IV., and then develop more
fi,ly the idea of boundaries.
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REPRESENTING THE POSITION OF OBJECTS. 255
What do the lines on the board which show the
shape of this room represent?  "The walls of the
room."  How many walls has this room?  How far
does the room extend?  "To the walls."  These four
walls are the boundaries of the room. How are these
boundaries represented on the board?  "By lines."
What must I first do to represent the shape of a
room?   "Draw  its boundaries."  What  are the
boundaries of this room? "Its walls." What represent these walls, or the boundaries of this room, on
the blackboard?  "The lines."
Here let the teacher illustrate boundaries still farther by showing them how one block in the city is
bounded by other blocks, or how one field or lot in
the country is bounded by other fields or lots, and
that the streets between the blocks, or the fences between the fields or lots, indicate the boundary-lines.
This may be done by drawing a map of a block or of
a few lots or fields which are familiar to the children.
NOTE.-The divisions which we have made in these lessons may
not be adapted to all schools. We have indicated what we believed to be the most generally applicable. These minor modifications for applying the principles of primary instruction described
in these pages belong to the teacher. In order to be successful in
teaching by object lessons, she must possess sufficient tact to enable her to modify and adapt to the wants and capacities of her pupils the different lessons presented. Some will need expanding to
a greater extent than has been given here; others, for some pupils,
may be abridged. This matter must be determined by each teacher for herself, and upon the wisdom of that decision and her practice will depend her success in developing the minds of children.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
LESSON V.
PLAY-GROUNDS, STREETS, AND RELATIVE DISTANCES.
On taking up each succeeding lesson, the teacher
should hold with the pupils a conversational review
of the previous lesson. By this means the successive
steps of development become more intimately associated with each other. Sometimes the teacher might
here introduce the elliptical method, repeating an account of the previous lesson, but omitting words which
tell what the lesson was about and the points learned,
to be supplied by the children as the teacher pauses.
When their age and attainments will admit of it, encourage the children to tell what they learned at the
previous lesson.
You have learned about the school-room, and how
to make a drawing of it on your slates; now we will
make a drawing of the play-ground and of the street.
Which way from the school-room is the play-ground?
Which way is the street? Where shall I draw the
line to represent the north end of the play-ground?
Where the line for the south end? Proceed in a similar manner with all the lines forming the boundaries;
then locate the objects of the play-ground, as the
swing, the place for ball-playing, etc.
Where does the street lie?  "In front of the schoolroom." In what directions does it extend? "North
and south, or east and west," as the case may be.
Do any of you live on this street? Which way is
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RELATIVE DISTANCES.
your home from the school-room? Do any of you go
along this street who do not live on it?
Now let us draw this street on the board. You
said this street was in front of the school-room; now
will you tell me which way the front is?  "West."
Then the street passes along the west side of the
school-room. In what directions did you tell me it
extended? If it extends north and south, how must
I place the lines on the board to represent it? "You
must draw them up and down, from the top to the
bottom." Now draw them on your slates.
Suppose you were walking toward the north in
this street in the morning, over which shoulder would
you look for the sun? Which way for the sun in the
afternoon? Suppose you were walking toward the
sun at noon, in what direction would you be going?
Do any streets cross the one which passes by the
school-room?  In what  direction does that run?
Which way from us is that street?  Do any of you
live on it? If you were going home, in what directions would you go? How shall I represent it on the
board?
Similar questions may be asked about all the principal streets in the vicinity, and each one drawn; but,
while doing this, the children should be led to distinguish "relative distances" more fully.  This idea was
introduced in the lessons under SIZE, on page 165, and
it should be extended here.
The idea of "measured distance," which was introduced on page 166, should be continued here, giving
the children clear ideas of one, two, three, four, and
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258     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
five miles. Ask them to tell you of a place that is a
mile distant; then compare this distance with other
places about as far away. When they become familiar with a mile, as applied to distance, lead them to
compare those that are farther away, in a similar
manner.
Exercises of this kind can be varied and extended
with much interest and profit to the children. They
furnish the very foundations on which to build a
knowledge-of geography by the use of books. They
should now be taught that these drawings of the
school-room, of the play-ground, and of the street are
called maps.
LESSON VI.
THE SCALE OF A MAP.
When the pupils have become familiar with representing the school-room on their slates and on the
blackboard, and the same with the play-grounds, the
streets and blocks in their vicinity, or the adjacent
fields in the country, and also have learned to draw
plans of the rooms on one floor of their own houses,
the idea of a scale of maps may be introduced.
The teacher may draw two maps of the schoolroom on the blackboard, one small one and another
about four times the size. Point to each, and inquire
what the two drawings represent, also what is their
difference. The idea may be farther illustrated by a
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THE SCALE OF A MAP.
small drawing of an object, and then a large one of
the same, as a bird, a horse, a pair of scissors.
She may draw the picture of a small horse with a
very large head and neck, inquiring whether it is a
good picture of a horse. Lead the children to point
out the parts which are out of proportion, and tell
what is wrong.
You now observe, children, that we may have a
large drawing or picture, and a small one of the same
thing, and that each will represent it. You have also
observed, as in the drawing of the small horse with a
large neck and head, that a due proportion should be
kept up in all its parts. WVhen we make a drawing
of any thing, we can make all of its parts in good proportion if we measure the object to be drawn and
measure the picture that we make. But can we make
the picture as large as the object? Can we make a
mnap on the blackboard as large as this room?
Two of you may take this foot-rule and measure
the length of this room, and two more may take this
rule and measure the end. Let one measure while
the other counts the feet. How many feet long is
the room?  How many feet wide?
Now let us measure the blackboard: it is only
three feet up and down, and six feet long. You see
we can not draw a map as large as the room. How
long did you say this room was?   "Twenty-four
feet." This board is more than twenty-four inches
up and down; so we can draw a map and represent
each foot of the room by one inch on the map. How
many inches, then, will represent three feet?
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260     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
The room is twenty-four feet long; now how many
inches long must I draw the line to represent the
boundary on one side? Which side did you meas ure?  "The east side."  Then where must I draw
the line on the board to represent the boundary on
the east side? "At the right side of the board."
Which end of the room did you measure?  "The
north end."  How manyfeet is it?  "Eighteen feet."
How many inches long must I draw the line to repre sent this end?  "Eighteen inches long."
Where must I place the line to represent the north
boundary of any object?  "At the top of the board."
The south boundary is also eighteen feet long; how
shall I represent it?  "Draw a line eighteen inches at
the bottom of the board."
Now the western side of the room is twenty-four
feet long; how shall I represent its boundary?  "By
a line drawn on the west side of the board twentyfour inches long. It must touch the ends of the lines
which bound the room on the north and south."
Now where is the door?  How can I determine
where to represent it here?  "Measure how many
feet it is from one side." It is six feet from the west
side; now where shall I place the mark to represent
it on the map?  "Six inches from the line representing the west boundary, toward the right."
In this manner the teacher may continue to represent the place of the windows, stove, desks, and other
objects in the room. This exercise may be divided
into several lessons if the pupils are quite young, and
at each subsequent lesson the last one should be re 
THE SCALE OF A MAP.
viewed and something added to it. Great care, however, should be taken not to weary the pupils and
cause them to lose their interest by being kept too
long on one thing.
Second Exercise.-One day a yard-stick may be
given to the pupils to ascertain how many yards long
and wide the play-ground is; then this should be
drawn on the board in the same manner as was the
school-room, except that in this case an inch may represent three feet or one yard, instead of one foot, as
before.
Third Exercise.-At another lesson, let the street
in the vicinity of the school be drawn, and now a rod,
or a quarter of a mile, or even a mile, may be represented by an inch.
Fourth Exercises-An outline map of the village
or town, drawn upon a large scale, may now be placed
before the pupils, and they led to trace out the familiar streets, buildings, streams, hills, ponds, railroads,
etc. This map should be drawn on such a scale that
the distances can be readily measured upon it with a
common tape measure. The pupils should frequently
be required to determine the distance from one locality to another by measurements on the map. The
town or city map may be succeeded by one of the
county, showing in outline all the towns and the most
prominent features of the country, as the lakes, rivers,
canals, railroads, principal wagon-roads, etc.
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLAGE.
By this process of first learning the localities about
home,* and of drawing maps of these, the child comes
to learn not only how maps are made, but to understand what they represent.
Fifth Exercise.-An amusing as well as a very
profitable exercise may be had by chalking on the
floor or marking in the play-ground a map of the
neighborhood, then calling upon the pupils to go to
some place in the neighborhood which is represented
in the sketch, and another pupil to go to some other
place, and so on. A very instructive amusement for
the play-ground could thus be furnished.
This play would take advantage of the fact that
children are exceedingly fond of playing at imitating
the actions and doings of men and women. At some
future period in their study of geography, this play
might be extended to different portions of the county,
state, and even of the world, and include a description by each representative of the different countries,
some account of its productions, animals, customs of
the people, etc.
* Many valuable suggestions for conducting these early lessons
in geography may be obtained from "Dr. Hooker's Primary
Geography."
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SURFACE OF LAND.
LESSON VII.
LAND AND WATER, HILLS, MOUNTAINS, PLAINS, AND
VALLEYS.
You have doubtless observed, while going about
the neighborhood or the town, that the country is
composed of two very different materials. One is
solid and the other is a liquid. Can you tell me to
what I refer?  "To land and water."
Why do you suppose we need the solid land?
Could we walk on the water?  Could we obtain grain,
and fruits, and fuel on the water? But water is necessary to our life, and to the life of animals and vegetation; it supplies us with one kind of food and bears
our ships, so that we may easily go from one place to
another. What food does the water supply?
Now let us examine the land, and see if it is all alike.
Suppose you were to go from here to, would you
find the road level like this floor all the way? How
would it differ from this floor? Is it easy to walk
where the land rises up?
Sometimes, when people travel, they find the land
fiat or level like the floor for a long distance; then
they call it a plain. Now, if I talk to you about a
plain, what will you think about?  "About a large
piece of land that is level like the floor for a long distance."
You know that we sometimes find places where the
land rises up. [The teacher represents it by a move
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264      DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
ment of the hand upward.] Can you tell me what
such places are called? Can you tell me the names
of any hills that you have seen?
But sometimes the land rises a great deal higher
than the hills-so high that the top is in the clouds;
then it is called a mountain. Is a hill rising ground?
Is a mountain rising ground? In what, then, are
they different?  "The mountains rise higher than the
hills."
Did you ever see a mountain? What was it called?
Where was it? Did you ever climb a mountain?
Here I have a model of some hills and of a mountain.*  What do we call the part of the mountain that
we come to first?  "The bottom."  Yes, it is the
bottom, but we call it the base.* What part of the
mountain is its base? When you climb a hill or a
mountain, at what part of it do you begin?
Sometimes we call the part of the mountain or hill
where we begin to ascend the foot of the hill. On
what part of the body is your foot?  "The lowest
part of the body."  What is its use?  "To stand
on." Point to the foot of this mountain-of the hill.
Where do you begin to go up the hill?  "At the
foot."
Now point out for me some other part. "The top."
This is called the summit. What part of the mount
* An excellent mode of explaining to children the natural divisions of land into plains, valleys, hills, and mountains, is to prepare a box about two feet wide, four or six feet long, and eight or
ten inches deep, and fill it two thirds full of moist sand, which
may be shaped so as to represent these several divisions.
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SURFACE OF LAND.
ain would you call its summit? "The highest
part."
Now tell me some otherpart thatyou observe. "The
parts between the summit and base." These parts between the summit and bottom are called the sides of
the mountain. When you look at the mountain from
its base, how do the sides appear?  "To slant upward."
Let us describe a walk up a mountain, telling what
its principal parts are called. When I pause, you
must tell me the word to use.
When we first came to the-foot of the-mountain, we began to-go up the side. At last we arrived at the-s8ummit, where the wind was cool.  We
could see a great way around us. When we had
rested, we turned and came-chosn the side, and arrived at last at the-base.
Now I desire you to tell me what the land is called
when it is level for a considerable distance.   "A
plain."  What is it called when it rises up, but not
very high?  " A hill."  And what is it called when it
rises higher than a hill? "A mountain."
There is still another form of land which we have
not named. Sometimes you see several hills or mountains joined together in a long row, and another row
of hills or mountains near this extending in the same
direction. Now what can you say of the land which
lies between these rows of hills or mountains?  "It
is a deep hollow." Yes; this deep hollow is called a
valley.  What is the hollow that runs between hills
or mountains called? What has a valley on each side
of it?
M'
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266     DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE,
Now you have learned about four different parts
of land; what are these called?  "Mountains, hills,
plains, and valleys." In which of these do you think
it would be most pleasant to live? Suppose the wind
blew very strong, and it was piercingly cold, how
would the people on the plain feel, with nothing to
shelter them?*
LESSON VII.
ABOUT RIVERS, LAKES, AND THE OCEAN.
If the children have not seen a river, the teacher
must develop the idea of one by leading them to see
the difference between a little brook and a larger
stream, showing them how little rills or brooks unite
and make a larger stream, and then tell them that
several of these streams unite and form a river, which
is a very large stream of water. The water in the
river is wide and deep. Boats and ships go on rivers.
The water does not keep still in a river; it flows
along all the time, day and night.
Sometimes a river runs into a very large pond of
water. What must there be in the land to hold the
water?  "A  large and deep hole."  When  these
ponds of water are very large-so large that it would
take you many hours to go from one end to the other,
* This lesson is not intended to complete the subject; the
teacher can readily extend it, considering the advantages and disadvantages of a residence on these several divisions of land.
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RIVERS, LAKES, AND THE OCEAN.        267
they are called lakes. Then what may you call a
pond?  "A very small lake."
You have learned something about water in streams,
and rivers, and ponds, and lakes; but there is more
water than you will find in all the rivers and lakes in
the world. There is more water than land in the
world. Did any of you ever hear of a very large
body of water, where the largest ships sail, and where
it takes them a great many days to go across it-it is
so very wide?  "Yes, the ocean."  This is the largest
body of water in the world. The water of the ocean
is very salt.
Now repeat the names of all the divisions of water
that you have learned.  "Brooks, rivers, ponds, lakes,
and ocean." Which is the largest? Which the smallest?  In which does the water move along?
It will not be advisable to proceed as rapidly as we
have done here from one step to another. Our aim
has chiefly been, as we have frequently stated, to suggest methods of illustration and development of the
various ideas to be taught in geography. These lessons are chiefly intended to be presented before the
child has a book put into its hands to study geography. However, it is not expected that this plan of
teaching the real things, instead of committing words
to memory to be recited, will be discontinued when
the child takes a book to study; rather let the book
be employed only as an aid to enable the teacher to
proceed the more rapidly in the object-lessons of
geography.
When the pupils have become familiar with all the
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DEVELOPING IDEAS OF PLACE.
subjects presented under the head of PLACE, other
steps in geography may be taklcn, developing ideas of
an island, isthmus, peninsula, cape, bay, harbor, etc.
Great aid in these lessons may be derived from a set
of geographical cards,* representing both a map and
a picture of each of these divisions.
WVith these suggestions, it is hoped that teachers
may be able to lay the foundation for an intelligent
study of geography from books.
NOTE.-When the pupils come to learn about different countries,
let the teacher devote more attention to their physical features;
the climate, productions, animals, habits, occupations, food, clothing, and customs of the people, and the study of geography will
become far more interesting and profitable than when the time is
chiefly spent in learning the names of the rivers, mountains,
towns, etc.
A country is too vague a thing for a child to conceive without
something with which to associate it. Suppose Arabia has been
assigned as a lesson: let the teacher place before the pupils a
map of the country, then show them the picture of a camel, and
proceed to describe its habits, modes of life, and the adaptation of
its feet and stomach to life in the sandy desert; if possible, show
the picture of a desert scene, with the Arabs in their costume; let
the pictures and maps be accompanied with vivid descriptions, and
the pupils would not only become deeply interested, but they would
never forget the leading features of Arabia.
Thus might the lion, elephant, kangaroo, reindeer, ostrich, buffalo, each be used as geographical types, or objects with which to
associate the countries in which these animals are found. Oranges, figs, cork, tea, coffee, cinnamon, tobacco, cotton, etc., may
also be used for the same purpose.
* Colton's Geographical Cards.
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ELEMENTARY READING.
THE art of reading has been considered one of the
most difficult of human attainments, and as the first
and only means by which the child can obtain an education. WVhen we remember the unphilosophical and
arbitrary processes employed to teach children to read,
it is no longer a matter of surprise that the very
threshold of knowledge has been to them such a
source of sorrow and disgust. WVe believe that there
is a better method than those usually pursued, and
that learning to read may be made both pleasant and
easy for the children. We do not believe that it
should be made either the first or the only means of
intellectual education. The foundation for reading
should be laid with Object Lessons, and these should
be made a means of development as well as a source
of instruction.
That the principles which we regard as most philosophical for teaching elementary reading may be better understood, we will first describe the other methods now chiefly employed for that purpose.
THE A B C METHOD.
This "old way" consists in first teaching the names
of all the twenty-six letters, then of combining these
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ELEMENTARY READING.
letters into unmeaning syllables, and subsequently
into words; then of spelling these syllables and words
orally. This process is rather that of spelling than
of reading. When the pupils have learned to spell a
number of words, lessons in sentences are assigned,
the words of which are spelled and pronounced, and
this is called reading.
In regard to the results of this method, the follow ing statements may be made: When the child has
succeeded in learning the twenty-six meaningless
letters, he has gained no knowledge of their use, and
acquired nothing but the habit of repeating their
names without any development of thought. These
names only mislead, being constantly in the way of
determining the true sounds of the letters when he
comes to form them into words; thus he is continually puzzled with the variety of the names assumed
when in company with their fellow-letters. Again,
the words are also meaningless, because lying beyond
the range of those with which he is familiar. Thus
he begins to read without understanding what he is
reading, and the foundation is laid for that mechanical
process which characterizes so large a portion of the
reading exercises heard in schools.
The first associations with books in the schoolroom by this method call up no familiar ideas of
things, and afford no development of the child's faculties. This method does not usually lay the foundation
for a love of reading, to be continued during subsequent years. It is not only unphilosophical and unnatural, but it is unsatisfactory in its results, and produces
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THE PHONIC METHOD.
halting, stumbling readers. It is now abandoned by
all good teachers.
THE PHONIC METHOD.
The "phonic method" consists in teaching the power or sounds of the letters instead of their names, and
of combining these sounds into words. When this
method is applied to our common letters, several of
which represent many sounds, the child finds that the
power of the letter changes in different words, and
affords but a little better guide than the name of it in
determining what to call the word. If he is taught
the sounds of the letters in the word c a p, and then
tries to read c a p e, he is soon told that a has a new
sound; also that the letter e, to which he gave a sound
in he, has no sound in cape. Thus obstacles similar
to those found when teaching the names of letters occur at every step.
Some teachers, however, have so far systematized
this method as to use it with a good degree of success. Suppose the lesson to commence with mat, the
teacher would require the pupils to repeat the word,
then more and more slowly, gradually dwelling longer
and longer on each sound, until it is not only distinguished, but till the pupils are able to repeat it separately. When this word is learned, c is substituted
for m, and c a t is formed, and the sounds of its letters
learned as before. Then rat, bat, hat, and several
other familiar words follow, in which a has the same
sound. Then a class of simple words in which a has
a different sound is introduced, and learned by the
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ELEMENTARY READING.
same process. In this manner the several vowel and
consonant sounds are taught in classes of words; then
the words in which silent letters occur are presented in
a similar manner. Subsequently the irregular words,
as Clough, cough, tough, bough, through, thought, are
classified under the sounds of o, of, u,  ow, oo, au.
THE PHONETIC OR PHONOTYPIC METHOD.
This is another form of the phonic method, yet it
differs widely from that in its application, as it provides a distinct character for each sound in the lainguage, so that the child learns forty or more letters
instead of twenty-six. As the letters are learned, they
are combined into words in which the sounds are always the same as the name of the letter. This method removes that great stumbling-block in the way of
elementary reading, the use of the same letter to represent various sounds.
Experiments have been tried in several places by
teaching children to read from phonotypic characters
first, and when they have learned to read fluently in
primary readers with these letters, those with the common letters are substituted. This plan is commended
by many good teachers; but it is objected to by others on the ground that it imposes on pupils the task
of learning an extensive alphabet that is afterward
not used in our books.
THE WORD METHOD.
The "word method" consists in teaching words by
their forms, the same as one learns the names of ar
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THE WORD-BUILDING METHOD.
ticles of furniture, of dress, or of animals, by looking
at them as a whole. In using this method, familiar
words are first selected, and the children are taught
to distinguish them by their shape, and to speak them
at sight. In this manner they begin early to learn
that words mean something.
Some who use this method teach the names of the
letters, or their sounds, after several words have been
learned; others leave the child to pick up the names
of the letters as best it can. It is justly claimed that
this method "teaches children to read at sight."  It
does not, however, provide for teaching the formation
of words by letters, or spelling; consequently the
child fails to acquire from it the ability to represent
ideas by means of combining letters into words.
THE WORD-BUILDING METHOD.
This plan was presented some five years ago as a
new method, and its author claims for it that it
"unites all the advantages of the old system of teaching to read, by first commencing with the alphabet,
and the new and preferable one which begins with
entire words." It commences with words of one letter, A, I, 0, and gradually forms new words by prefixing or affixing single letters. The child is first
taught to pronounce the words, afterward the names
of the letters.
The separate letters of the alphabet are to be taught
by asking questions similar to the following: What
letter is placed after a to form an? after an to form
and? before and to form land? etc.
M 2
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ELEMENTARY READING.
We believe that the preceding methods embrace
the principles most commonly used in teaching elementary reading, although there are different combinations of parts of these methods, which are more or
less successful according to the tact of the teachers
who devise and use them.
OBJECTS OF TEACHING READING.
Before describing what we regard as a better method than either of those already mentioned, let us consider the objects intended to be accomplished by teaching reading.
The frst object in elementary reading should be to
teach the child to recognize the printed forms of the
words with which he is familiar in speech. Primary
reading should not be regarded as a means of extending the child's vocabulary of words; therefore the
words introduced for him to learn should be those
familiar to his ear, and should be presented that they
may also become familiar to his eye. Conversation
is the natural method of acquiring a knowledge of
words by their sound; reading should be learning to
know them by sight.
From the preceding statements, it is evident that
the child's reading lessons should afford the pleasure
and stimulus which arises from the recognition by the
eye of something already known to the mind. The
lessons should be systematically interwoven with his
speech by combining them with familiar conversations.
The subjects of the reading lessons should be things
with which he is familiar from observation. They
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OBJECTS OF TEACHING READING.
should consist of short sentences which express complete thoughts. Columns of syllables or single words
are not suitable for reading lessons.
The second object in teaching reading should be to
provide a means of gaining knowledge, whereby the
child may learn what others have acquired by years
of observation and research in the great book of Nature. The ability to obtain knowledge from reading,
and to feel its sentiment, can not be attained without
understanding what is read, and without feeling the
sentiment there can be no good reading. To gain
knowledge from reading, then, there must be both an
understanding and a feeling of the sentiments and
thoughts Of the author. To attain this clear understanding and feeling, the several steps must be made
interesting and the curiosity awakened. This can be
most effectually accomplished by attention to the
statements previously made, under "the first object in
teaching reading."
A third object in teaching reading should be to furnish a means of communicating our thoughts to others, and of receiving theirs in return. For this purpose it is necessary that the child should perceive not
only that the words which he learns are representatives of ideas, but how he also can form those words
to express his own thoughts. Oral spelling is but a
poor apology for accomplishing this important result;
it can only be successfully attained by forming the
words with the hand, as with letter-cards, pencil and
slate, or paper, or upon the blackboard. This principle is usually lost sight of in nearly all the methods of
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ELEMENTARY READING.
teaching reading commonly pursued. Teaching spelling by means of printing or writing the words is an
approach toward it, but it must be connected with
and made a part of the reading exercise itself to fully
answer this purpose.
Another object, and a very important one, in teaching reading, should be to cultivate a taste for it. A
recent German author, writing of his own country,
says, "On an average, there is only one in every hundred who can not read, and in some states only one in
a thousand." Yet those who are familiar with the
habits of the people in Germany tell us that, so far as
reading is concerned, the masses might almost as well
have never been taught to read, for not one in a hlundred ever thinks of reading. It is true that obstacles
may intervene between learning to read at school and
the practice of it in subsequent life, to cause a part of
this neglect of reading; such as the absence of the
popular and cheap newspaper, the high prices of books,
etc.; yet in a country where there are more than 2500
bookstores, 150 public libraries, and where from 8000
to 10,000 new books are published every year, there
can hardly be insurmountable obstacles. This neglect
of reading must be attributable in no small degree to
the failure of so teaching it as to develop a taste for it,
and to associate pleasure with its use.
What a lesson for educators to contemplate! Can
it be said that the ability to read is all that is necessary to be taught? Is there no higher duty than to
train the pupils to read, according to the rules of the
elocutionist, the several lessons assigned them?
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OBJECTS OF TEACHING READING.
The relations that the ability to read should sustain
to the future duties in life, and the best means of causing that ability to aid in preparing for those duties,
are among the most important objects that can claim
the attention of teachers and the friends of education.
We fear that the mighty influence of reading upon
the mind and character of the future citizen is not
sufficiently understood by those who have the power
of directing this influence in early life.
These considerations should influence the choice in
selecting reading-books for schools, also those for
home reading. The books used in the school, in addition to lessons adapted to elementary instruction,
should have a higher aim than merely to aid in acquiring the ability to read. The lessons should be
connected intimately with the world of objects around,
presenting the interesting facts concerning them so as
to enkindle a desire to read and learn more about
them.   Besides, these lessons should be sufficiently
varied and extensive to present some idea of the leading departments of knowledge, especially of those that
come from observations of nature and the manual la bors of man.* To consider the art of reading in an
* Those familiar with the new series of readers prepared by
MARCIUs WILLSON will recognize these principles in their arrangement; simple conversations about familiar objects, or pictures of them, for the first reading lessons, succeeded gradually by
the introduction of the natural history of animals, birds, fishes,
reptiles, plants, minerals, etc., and all interspersed with a variety
of miscellaneous exercises, to secure the necessary clocutionary
training.
O
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ELEMENTARY READING.
elocutionary view only or chiefly, is to lose sight of its
most important object.
To enable teachers most successfully to cultivate in
their pupils correct habits of reading, and such a taste
for it as will be likely to continue through life, we
would suggest that every senior, grammar, or high
school should be provided with a library of suitable
books to furnish entertaining and profitable instruction. The subjects treated in the library books should
be associated with the lessons in school as far as possible.
In view of these objects for which reading should
be taught, the question asked by the teacher should
not be, By which method can I succeed in getting
children to repeat the words of a sentence fluently in
the least time? but rather, What method is most completely in harmony with the natural development of
the faculties of children, and what processes of training will render the ability to read the most useful in
after life?
In answer to this last inquiry, we will proceed to
give a philosophical and practical method for teaching
children the elementary steps of reading by
THE OBJECT METHOD.
The most suitable introduction to teaching reading
consists of familiar conversations similar to those described under "Development in Observation," on
pages 26, 27, and 28. After a brief conversation about
some familiar object, which should be shown, or a picture of it (and it would be better still if both the ob
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THE OBJECT METHOD.
ject and picture could be presented), the teacher proceeds to the first step in developing ideas of reading
by asking,
What do I hold in my hand?  "A cap."  What do
you see in this book?   "A  cap"-"a picture of a
cap." Those of you who think it a cap may hold up
your hands. Those who think it a picture of a cap
may hold up their hands. That is right; it is the
picture* of a cap, and not a real cap.
What is a cap for?  "To wear on the head." Why
do boys wear caps on their heads?  "To keep them
warm." Can you wear the picture of a cap?
Now look at me; I am making the word cap. [The
teacher prints the word cap on the blackboard with
chalk, or takes letter-cards and forms the word on a
table, or in a grooved stick, before the children.  The
lower-case, or small letters, should always be used in
these first lessons.]
Now look at me again; what have I in my hand?
"A cap"-" a real cap." What do you see in this
book?  "A picture of a cap."  What is this on the
blackboard? [on the table, or in the stick, as the case
may be.] " The word cap." What do you do with
a real cap?  "Wear it on the head."  Can you wear
the word cap?  "No."
I will now make another word cap. [After forming the word, the teacher points to both the words.]
What is this word?  "Cap."  And this?  "Cap."
Now I will make more words. [Form this word
* If the teacher can draw readily with chalk, she should also
draw the picture upon the blackboard.
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ELEMENTARY READING.
two or three times.] What is this? and this? and
this?  " Cap"-" cap"-" cap."
Who will take the pointer and show me the words
cap? Jane may. Now Henry may point to them.
[Show the word cap in a book.] What is this in the
book?  "The word cap."
Now tell me how many real caps I have.  "One."
How many picture caps?  "One."   How many word
caps? One in the book, and four on the. "Five."
Placing the letters C a p, two or three of each, upon
the table, the teacher says, Now who will try to make
the word cap with these letters? Charles and Ella
may try. Very well done; now John and LIary may
form the word.
Proceed in this manner until each pupil is able to
form the word, and to speak it at sight, whether on
the board, in the book, on a card, or made with the
letter-cards.
These steps are quite sufficient for one lesson; yet,
if properly taken, the interest of the children may be
kept up almost to the pitch of excitement.
Philosophy of this Method.-Before proceeding with the
second lesson, let us examine the philosophy of this method.
First. It commences with what the child already knows, using
it as a means of communicating other knowledge.
Second. It teaches the child words as representatives or signs of
objects or ideas, and leads him to distinguish the difference between an object, the picture of it, and the word or name of it, and
at the same time to consider the uses of each; thus the first lesson
becomes a process of training which develops thought.
Third. It leads not only to the ability to speak the word at sight,
but trains the child to form it himself from the several letters
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THE OBJECT METHOD.
which compose it, thus securing all that is practical in spelling.
This plan of word-forming is natural, and in accordance with the
practical operations of the mind in spelling, as used in the duties
of life. First, there is the idea to be represented; second, the
hand produces the word by placing letters in their proper positions,
or in forming them thus with the pencil or the pen. We never
begin to represent our ideas through words by placing a group of
letters together and then calling over their names to ascertain
what they spell. The idea comes first, the mode of representing it
follows.
Fourth. It takes advantage of that natural desire in the child to
do, and by gratifying this desire it secures the influence of that
principle, previously pointed out in this work, that it is what the
child DOES that it learns to know.
Second Exercise.-What word did you learn at
the last lesson? "Cap." Show me that word on
the blackboard or on the card. Now show it to me
in this book. Emma may select the letters to make
the word. [It would be well to have only the letters
of the word to be formed before them at first, but
there should be two or three of each letter.]
We will now learn a new word. What is this?
"A cat"-" a picture of a cat."  You do not seem to
agree; which shall we call it, a real cat or the picture
of a cat?  "A pictutre of a cat."  Very well; let us
try to remember this. Who will tell me something
about a cat?
Now see me make the word cat. [The teacher
forms two words cat with the letter-cards, or prints
them on the blackboard.] What did I tell you I was
making?  "The word cat."  How many words cat
have I made?  "Two."  Lucy may come and point
to them.
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ELEMENTARY READING..
What is this?  "The picture of a cat."  Can apic ture of a cat catch mice? Can it see? Can the word
cat run?
Placing several t's on the table, with the letters used
to form the word cap, call upon the pupils to make
the word cat. When they can do this readily, require
them also to form cap, then to speak both words at
sight.
Show the word cat in the book, then both words,
until each pupil can name them readily.
Now point to these two words on the blackboard
or on the card, and request the children to tell their
names until they can give them promptly.
Finally, call upon a child to point to the word cat
and tell something about it.  "A cat can run," might
be the remark. Let another point to the word and
say something else.  "The cat can mew."  Each pupil may in turn be required to tell other things about
the cat; as, "The cat can pur-catch mice-lap milkhas four feet-has long feelers-can see at night," etc.
This is a reading lesson of no small importance, although but a single word of it has been learned, or is
represented before the children. It aids in developing thought, awakens an interest in the child, and
forms the habit of natural, conversational tones in
reading. A similar exercise should be conducted as
each new word is learned.
If the children can use a slate and pencil, let them
try to print these words on slates after they return to
their seats. For this purpose, the words should remain on the blackboard or on the cards before them.
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THE OBJECT METHOD.
Third Exercise.-Place before the children the
words previously learned-cap, cat-and request them
to name each at sight, as it is pointed at. Then call
upon the pupils, one at a time, to point at these words
as the other children in the class name them. Require
them also to point out these words in a book. Next
they may form the words with the letter-cards.
Now present a new word, and proceed as before,
observing the successive steps in developing the les sons:
First. Show the object or the picture, or describe
the action or quality to be represented, and talk with
the children about it.
Second. Make the word before the class, and teach
the pupils to recognize its form and to point it out.
Third. Require the children to form the word with
letter-cards.
Fourth. Require them to point out and name at
sight the new word; also those of the preceding lessons.
Fifth. Require each pupil to point to the word and
read it by saying something about that which it represents.
These exercises may be continued until the forms
of a large list of familiar words have been learned.
At first those words that are familiar in conversation might be selected, which can easily be formed
from such as have already been learned, paying some
attention also to similarity of vowel sounds, as rat,
mat, hat, bat, fat, fan, ran, man, ham, bag, rag, fitn,
gun, run, sun, tub, rub, pin, tin,fin, ox, box, fox, dog,
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lo, hog, boy, toy, cow, owl, leg, eggyy, sky, sly, fly, dry,
big,,fig, dew, mew, new, few, top, hop, mop, stop, etc.
Sounds of Letters. —During these exercises it will
be proper to introduce the sounds of the letters in the
words learned. The child can as easily be taught to
make the sound of a in hat as of a in hate; of i in it
as of i in fire; of 0 in ox as of 0 in no; or to make
the sounds of f, h, 1, or m as to utter their names.
It is well, also, to spell words by their sounds, without naming the letters, as an exercise in articulation.
The time to commence this exercise, and how extensively to practice it, must be determined by the
teacher. It should not take the place of either step
indicated in the preceding exercises.   The form of
the word, and how to make it, should be learned before
the sounds of its letters are introducecd to the child.
Names of Letters,-The names of the letters may
be taught as new ones occur in the words learned, if
thought advisable. However, these should not be
learned for their direct use in learning to read, but
because they are the names of things that must frequently be spoken about. They should be learned on
the same principle that we learn the names of the
boys and girls in a school, so as to enable us to designate those to whom or of whom we speak.
The forms of the letters having previously been
learned in making the words with the letter-cards, it
will readily be seen that the learning of their names
will be a simple and easy process at this stage.
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The names of the letters might be taught without
devoting special attention to them by simply speaking them whenever the occasion presented. For instance, if a child, in forming the word cap, should use
an e instead of a C, the teacher might say, You have
made a mistake by using an e in place of a C.
Suppose the word mat is to be formed with the letter-cards, the teacher might say, Place the m first,
then the a, and the t last. Thus various opportunities occur for teaching the names of the letters without giving this subject special attention. When all
the letters have been learned, they should be presented in their alphabetic order. This will be important
in subsequent years for using dictionaries, etc.
No pains need be taken to teach the capital letters;
the children will learn them by their use at the commencement of sentences, proper names, etc.
Names of Actions.-A little tact in picturing out
these words by actions and descriptions will enable
the teacher to give a clear understanding of those
which we term verbs, or names of actions; also of the
names of qualities, etc.
Suppose the word run is to be taught: the teacher
might ask, What must the dog do to catch a pig?
"It must run." What do you do when you go as
fast as you can?  "Run."  What animals can run?
Very well. Now I will make the word run. What
is this word?  "Run."  Here is a word in a book
like the one I have just made; what is it?  "Run."  I
will make more words run.  WVhat is this? and this?
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Next, let the children make this word with lettercards. Then require them to point out these words
in the same manner as was done with those representing names of objects.
The reading lesson should follow by placing appropriate names previously learned with the word representing action, as, "dog run," "cow run," "cat run,"
etc. Let the pupils point at the words thus represented, and read as follows, using other words in addition to those before them, viz.: "The dog can run;"
"See the cow run;" "I saw a cat run on the fence."
The qualifying words, as white, black, good, bad,
slow, fast, long, short, etc., may be readily taught by
the aid of this "picturing out" process to first explain
the meaning, so that there can be no doubt about the
child's understanding it.
The smaller words, forming the joints and hinges
of sentences, as the, an, at, of, in, to, by, for, and, etc.,
may easily be taught by using them in sentences with
words previously learned.  For instance, "The dog
ran at the cat." The frequent introduction of this
class of words into sentences will soon render their
forms familiar. These words also should be made
with the letter-cards after they have been learned by
their forms.
A little explanation will also enable the children to
understand that class of words which are used as substitutes for names, as he, she, you, it, etc.
Making Words in the Air. - Children may be
trained to form letters and words in the air with
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THE OBJECT METHOD.
their fingers. Print the word hat on the blackboard
in large letters, then let them trace out the shape of
the letters with their fingers. In a little time they
will learn to form words thus quite rapidly. This
will prove entertaining to them, and greatly aid in
learning to print or write the words.
Speaking Words at Sight.-Much practice should
be given the pupils in speaking words at sight. For
this purpose, the words learned should often be pronounced. They might be printed near one end of the
blackboard whenever cards containing them could not
easily be provided. Reading-cards save much of the
time necessarily spent in preparing the lessons.
Reading Lessons. —Let the pupils furnish a part
of their own reacding lessons. This is a very important step, yet one seldom pursued by teachers, although so easy of practice, after the elementary reading lessons before described, where only one or two
words were represented or had been learned.
Suppose the word boy to be the subject of the lesson. Request each pupil to say something about the
boy, which the teacher may print on the blackboard
or represent with the word-cards.* One pupil might
say, "A boy;" another, "A good boy"-" a bad boy"
* The box of letter-cards contains several hundred familiar
words, each on a separate card. These word. cards are intended
to be used in forming sentences with words that have been learned,
thus saving the time which would be necessary to form each word
from the letters alone.
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-"a boy can run"-"the boy has a cap," etc.  If
words not previously learned are thus given by the
pupils, let the teacher form or print those not too difficult to be easily taught at this stage, and proceed as
in the second exercise. It will seldom be necessary
to omit any words thus, as the very fact that the children used them in conversation will indicate that they
understand them by sound, and can easily learn to
know them by sight.
If some arrangement, by means of a shelf or a table
in one corner of the room, could be provided, whereby
the pupils, two or three at a time, might go and use
the letter and word cards in forming words and sentences between the reading exercises, it would prove
a great assistance to the children in learning to read.
Use of Reading-cards,-Reading-cards will be of
great assistance when the children have learned enough
words to enable them to form sentences. But, to be
of much utility, these cards must contain that class of
words with which the child becomes familiar through
conversation.* It will readily be seen where and how
these cards can be used profitably in this object method
of teaching reading, both while learning to recognize
the forms of words and in reading sentences formed
with them. However, the reading-cards should not
take the place of the letter and word cards or the
blackboard in teaching the children to make words
and form sentences.
* A  set of "Primary Reading-charts" have been prepared,
adapted to teaching elementary reading by the object method.
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THE OBJECT METHOD.
It would be an advantage to have some of the cards
contain a part of the lessons in the first reading-book
or primer, that when the child begins its reading from
the book it will meet with familiar words and sentences.
Use  of Books.-As  the number and variety of
words learned increase, books may be gradually introduced, until reading lessons can be given from them
alone. Should new words occur, while thus using the
reading-book, which the child has a difficulty in understanding or remembering, resort to the objects, the
"picturing out" process, and the letter-cards or blackboard, as before described.
It would be well to give some attention to the
words in the primer, or the first reading-book to be
used subsequently, in these elementary reading lessons. However, the learner should not be confined
to these words, since those familiar in conversation,
such as cat, dog, boy, girl, cow, horse, cart, plate, stove,
will be more easily learned than the short words of
two or three letters usually found in the first books
for children-as, at, an, to, in, by, go, for, and, had,
sad, ban, pat, tan, nor, the, kin, wan-because they
more clearly perceive their meaning, and readily associate them with familiar objects of which the words
are names. The length of the word to be taught is
of less importance than its familiarity; the latter,
then, should be the guide in selecting words for the
elementary reading exercises, giving the preference to
short words which are familiar.
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ELEMENTARY READING.
Elocution.-The elocutionary processes of teaching
reading do not properly fall within the period for
which these lessons are intended; yet a few simple
suggestions may be useful.
Begin at once to require the pupils to speak words
in their natural conversational tone; but if that manner be found to be bad, correct it in the conversation,
and through that in the reading exercise. If the child
is requested to speak the word cat, see that it utters
it distinctly and naturally, and so of every other word.
When words are combined into sentences, if the
children commence reading with unnatural tones, let
the teacher ask them to look at her and repeat what
they said; thus, Look at me; what did you say?
That is right; now repeat it once more. Very well;
now look at the words, and repeat it in the same way
again. By such a course, the bawling, drawling, monotonous, unnatural tones will speedily be broken up.
It is well for the teacher to read short sentences,
and require the pupils to repeat them after her in
concert, subsequently to have each pupil read the
same alone. Thus it is seen that, to teach reading
successfully, there must be a living teacher, and that
teacher must be active in her work. Rules are of
little use compared with the living example.
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OBJECT LESSONS,
THEIR NATURE AND DESIGN.
LESsONS on "common things" are quite frequently
confounded with "object lessons."  Some teachers
who are in the habit of giving occasional instruction
about the things of every-day life suppose that they
are practicing the latter system. This misunderstanding of the true principles of object-teaching is one of
the most serious obstacles to its successful introduction into schools. Their predominant use is the development of the perceptive faculties and the cultivation of habits of accurate observation, not an exercise
of the memory. The information'which they give is
a means of training the mental powers rather than
an end to be attained. Development is the end, instruction the mneans for attaining that end.
This is most emphatically true of the early period
of training with object lessons; but, as the habits of
observation become established, the end gradually
partakes more and more of that of obtaining knowledge, until these lessons assume the form and uses of
studies pursued for the end and objects for which
knowledge itself is acquired-to fit one for the occupations and duties of life.
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NATURE AND DESIGN OF
With this view of the subject, let us examine the
different processes of conducting the exercises in
"object lessons."  One teacher holds before the pupils some object and describes it, telling its form,
color, material, where obtained, uses, etc. Then the
pupils are asked to repeat the leading facts which
have been thus stated; or, if it is supposed that the
children know something about the object from having been previously told, the exercise consists, perhaps, of questions, such as, "What is this object? Of
what is it made?  To what kingdom does it belong?
Where is it found?" etc. Neither of these processes
develop the perceptive faculties; they merely exercise
the memory with words, without cultivating habits
of observation. Tellitny the child that which it should
be led to observe is not developing its mind. Loading the memory with words to be repeated is not
education.
Some teachers limit these object lessons to specimens collected in cabinets of curiosities; the consequence is that such lessons become mechanical and
uninteresting as soon as the novelty of the objects
themselves has passed. Often these specimens are
such as are rarely seen by the children, and they fail
to awaken the desire to examine more common objects, and to cultivate those habits of accurate, minute, and ready observation which will make the children familiar with and interested in every thing around
them.
These lessons should be so conducted as to embrace
a                        wider range of objects than those generally present
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OBJECT LESSONS.
ed, and to include those of the house, the shop, the
garden, the field, the forest, the mine, and the sea
shore; and they should be continued from childhood
up to the investigations of the man of science.
Aloreover, it is not a sufficient use of the object for
the teacher simply to hold it up before the class, and,
on the strength of her own observation, proceed to
state its properties, or even to request the children to
look at it, and tell what they can see, if it possesses
properties which must be felt or heard to be understood. It is the children's own sight, and touch, and
hearing that are to be exercised. To do this successfully, the object itself must not only be seen, but handled and heard whenever it is possible.
This is often neglected, because it seems needless
with a familiar object; but it is not enough for the
teacher to hold up a piece of sponge, and squeeze it, to
show that it is soft and elastic, or to show that lead is
heavy by handling it herself.  All of this should be
done by the pupils, and they be led to observe and
describe these qualities, the teacher giving the name
of such as are not known, after the quality has been
perceived; thus the idea justly precedes the name.
Perhaps we can not present the true use of object
lessons more clearly and forcibly than by quoting the
words of Herbert Spencer on "Intellectual Education:"
"It needs but a glance at the daily life of the infant to see that all knowledge of things which is gained before the acquirement of speech is self-gained.
* * * In manhood, too, when there are no longer
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NATURE AND DESIGN OF
teachers at hand, the observations and inferences required for daily guidance must be made unhelped,
and success in life depends upon the accuracy and
completeness with which they are made. Is it probable, then, that while the process displayed in the evolution of humanity at large is repeated alike by the
infant and the man, a reverse process must be followed during the period between infancy and manhood?
and that, too, even in so simple a thing as learning
the properties of objects? Is it not obvious, on the
contrary, that one method must be pursued throughout? and is not nature perpetually thrusting this
method upon us, if we had but the wit to see it and
the humility to adopt it? * * *
"Listen to the eager volubility with which every
urchin describes any novelty he has been to see, if
only he can find some one who will attend with any
interest. Does not the induction lie on the surface?
Is it not clear that we must conform our course to
these intellectual instincts, that we must just systematize the natural process, that we must listen to all the
child has to tell us about each object, must induce it
to say every thing it can think of about such object,
must occasionally draw its attention to facts it has not
yet observed, with the view of leading it to notice
them itself whenever they recur, and must go on byand-by to indicate or supply new series of things for
a like exhaustive examination? * * *
"To tell a child this and to show it the other, is not
to teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere recipient of another's observations-a proceeding which
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OBJECT LESSONS.
weakens rather than strengthens its powers of self-instruction, which deprives it of the pleasure resulting
from successful activity, which presents this all-attractive knowledge under the aspect of formal tuition, and
which thus generates that indifference and even disgust with which these object lessons are sometimes
regarded. On the other hand, to pursue the true
course is simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food, * * * and to habituate the mind from the
beginning to that practice of self-help which it must
ultimately follow."
" Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw their own inferences. They
should be told as little as possible, and induced to cliscover as much as possible. Humanity has progressed
solely by self-instruction; and that, to achieve the best
results, each mind must progress somewhat after the
same fashion, is continually proved by the marked
success of self-made men."
A very important point to be attended to is the
adaptation of the lessons to the different stages of advancement in the children to whomI they are given.
A child of five years is quite a different being, intellectually, from one of ten; hence we should not attempt to lead children to the observation of those
qualities that require the exercise of faculties which
are not developed until the period of youth, nor to
consider a subject which requires a previous training
to understand, before that training has been given.
To illustrate this idea more clearly, we will indicate
the properties of objects that may be presented, in
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succession, for observation during the first three years
of school-life. These divisions will serve as guides to
the teacher in adapting lessons to the different stages
of development among her pupils, although she may
not be able to conform strictly to them.
Thefrst stage.  During this period the pupil may
be required to distinguish objects by their names, to
observe and( name their parts, to describe their form,
size, color, and uses.
However, form, color, and size should not be considered in these lessons until some ideas had been
previously developed of such properties. Before that
has been accomplished, the pupil's attention should be
chiefly directed to more general and obvious points.
Yet the consideration of these properties need not
long be postponed, for the elementary ideas of form,
color, and size may be developed by means of these
object lessons, if the successive steps be observed as
previously indicated under these respective divisions.
Thie secon(l stage. During this period, which may
commence at or before the close of the first year of
school-life, the lessons should embrace the form, color, size, weight, material, qualities, and uses of objects, and the simple inquiry, where obtained   or, by
whom made?
The teacher should here train the pupils to a systematic application of the ideas and principles as previously developed under the several divisions of Form,
Color, Number, Size, Weight, etc.
The third stage.  During this period, which should
seldom commence before the beginning of the third
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year of school-life, the pupils may consider, in addi tion to those ofthe previous stages, thepoints ofresemblactice in color, materials, formation, and (eses, and
be led to observe by which sense the diferent qualities
are discovered.  By these exercises they learn to commence a natural system of classification in knowledge.
Of course, the early consideration of these several
points must be limited to such as are easily perceived
by the senses; but, as these habits of systematic observation become more familiar, the attention will
gradually be led to consider them more minutely and
thoroughly.
In drawing out the following series of lessons for
the different periods of object training, we have aimed
to select such a variety of objects that our sketches
may readily suggest to the teacher how all similar objects should be presented. It would be useless, however, for us to attempt to draw out all the lessons for
a course of even one year, much less for a period of
two or three years. It would require several volumes
to accomplish this; besides, it is far better for the
teachers to acquire the habit of drawing out their own
lessons.* Those who learn to do this with skill will
be far more successful than those who confine them
selves to the sketches prepared by others.
The first series of object lessons, from having for
their aim hlabits of observation and description, should
embrace chiefly those objects with which the children
are already familiar.
* For suggestions relative to the preparation for these lessons,
we refer the teacher to previous remarks on that subject on page
20; also to "suggestions for writing sketches" on page 24.
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OBJECT LESSONS.
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF OBJECT LESSONS.
FIRST SERIES.
NAMING AND DESCRIBING OBJECTS.
Properties to be considered.  In the lessons of this
series, the object and its properties may be considered
as follows, viz.:  Observe and name the object and its
parts; describe its form, size, color, and uses.
I.-A Chair.
Place a chair before the children, and request those
who think they can tell its name, and point out and
name its parts, to hold up their hands. Call upon one
pupil for its name; one to come and point out and
tell the name of one part; another to point out and
name some other part, and so on until all the parts
have thus been mentioned, as the back, seat, legs, bars,
tpper side of the seat, tender sidce of it, front of the
ch]air, to]),frame, etc.
Who can tell me the form and position of these
parts? [The hands of the pupils are raised as before, and only those speak whose names are called.]
James. "The seat is flat and horizontal."  George.
"It is lower at the back than in the front-it is not
quite horizontal."   Lucy. "The back is slanting."
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OBJECT LESSONS.
Martha. "The horizontal piece at the top of the back
is flat."  Ella. "The bars are horizontal."  Mary.
"The bars are parallel also." William. "The legs
are nearly perpendicular."  Hiram. "The seat resembles a square."   Charles. "It is narrower  at the
back than in front." Adin. "Its edges are curved."
Thomas. "The legs and bars are round like a cylind(er."  Robert. "The legs are tapering-smaller at
the bottom than at the top."
Very well done.  Now tell me something about its
size.  Eddy. "The chair is about three feet high."
You may take the tape and measure it. Frank. "The
seat is about one half of the height of the chair." Susan. "' The seat is about an inch and a half in thickness."  Wilson. " The legs are longer and larger than
the bars."
Who will name the colors on the chair? Proceed
as before, calling upon different pupils, until all the
colors have been mentioned.
Now let us consider the uses of a chair. Who can
tell me for what it may be used?  David. "To sit
on." John. "To stand on when we want to reach up
high."  What is its chief use?  "To sit on."
What are the uses of its parts?  Ella. "The seat is
to sit on, and the back to lean against." Arthur.
"The legs support the chair."  Henry. "The crossbars make the chair strong."
Suppose the chair had no back, would it be as coinfortable as it is now?  "No, we could not rest well
when tired."  Why not?  "There would be nothing
to lean the back against."
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF
Suppose it had no seat, what would be the consequence?  "There would be nothing to sit upon; it
would not be of any use."
Suppose it had no legs.  "The seat would be on
the floor; it would be too low to be of use."
Suppose it had no bars. "The chair would soon
fall to pieces."
How many parts are there in this chair?  Of which
parts are there only one? "Of the seat and the
back." How many legs are there? "Four." Why
does a chair have four legs instead of two or three?
"Because it will stand better on four legs than on
less." How many bars are there?
Now repeat together the names of the parts of the
chair as I point to them.
It will be perceived that the teacher' simply leads
the children to observe and describe, and that by the
fewest possible questions, that they may acquire the
habit of self-dependence. The interest is kept up by
the anxiety of each pupil to point out and describe
some part. There will doubtless be some pupils who
are slow to observe, or less anxious to participate in
the exercise than the majority of the class are; these
should be encouraged, and called upon to describe the
simpler parts.
The preceding sketch of a lesson on a chair will
serve as a model for lessons on the following objects,
viz.: table, pail, stool, bench, rake, hoe, gate, door,
desk, box, basket.
Each fifth lesson on objects ought to be a review
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of the four preceding ones, that greater freedom in
description may be attained from familiarity, and also
to fix the leading points more firmly in the mind.
'.-A Watch.
Holding a watch before the children, the teacher
asks, What is this? "A watch." Now observe its
parts, and tell me what you can see.
Florence. "I see the face."  Delia. "The hands."
Where are the hands?  "On the face."  Olivia. "The
face is white." John. "It has figures on it." Willie.
"It is circular."  Very well.  What else do you see?
Edward. "There is a glass over the face." Walter.
"There is a rim around the face." What is the use
of this rim?  "To hold the glass."
WVhat else can you say about the watch?  "It has
a case."  Henry. "The case will open."  Joseph. "It
has a stem." Porter. "There is a ring in the stem."
What is the use of the ring?  "To take hold of when
pulling the watch from the pocket, and to fasten the
chain to the watch."
Is there any part of the watch which you do not
see?  "Yes, we can not see the wheels on the inside."
What do those wheels do?  "Move round."  Does
any part of the watch which you can see move round?
"Yes, the hands."  Who can tell me what these hands
are for?  Ella. "To point out the time of day."  How
mnany hands are there?   "Two."  Are they both
alike?  "No; one is longer than the other."
You have told me several parts that you could see;
now is there any way by which you could tell that
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there is a watch in my hand without seeing it? "We
could hear it if it was near to our ears." When you
hear the watch, what do you say that it does?  "It
ticks."
Now what is the use of a watch? "To show us
what time it is." Is there any thing else that tells us
the time?  "Yes, a clock."  Which is the largest, a
watch or a clock? About how large is a watch?
"About two inches in diameter, and half an inch
thick."
Now repeat the names of all the parts that have
been mentioned. "Face, hands, figures, glass, rim,
case, stem, ring, wheels."
If the children are familiar with common words
when these lessons are introduced, the names of the
parts should be printed on the blackboard.
The following objects may be treated in a manner
similar to these sketches, viz.: clock, wind-mill, wheel,
etc.
II.-A Pin.
Let each pupil hold a pin, examine it, and tell its
parts, shape, and use. For the sake of brevity, we
will omit the names of pupils, and give only the questions or remarks by the teacher, and the replies or observations of the children.
Now tell me what you observe concerning the object in your hands. "It is a pin"-" it has a head
and a point"-" the head is round"-"the point is
sharp"-" the part between the head and the point is
straight."  You may call that part the shank.  "The
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OBJECT LESSO.NS.
shank is straight"-" it tapers near the point"-" the
shank is cylindrical."  VWhat are its uses?  "To keep
together parts of our dress"-" the point is sharp, so
that it can be pushed through the cloth easily""the head is to push against"-" the head helps to
keep the pin in its place."
Now  repeat the parts of the pin.  "The head,
shank, point."
This lesson will indicate the parts to be considered,
and the manner of conducting lessons with other objects, as needle, awl, gimlet, nail, etc.
IV.-A Thimble.
What is this on my finger?  "A thimble."  What
can you say about it? "The surface is curved"-" it
is full of little hollows." What is the use of these
little hollows?  "To keep the needle from slipping
when pushing it through the cloth." You may call
these little hollowspunctures.
"It tapers a little toward the upper end"-"the
top is closed"-" the bottom is open"-" it has a rim
around the bottom"-" it has a border around it, between the rim and the punctures"-" it is hollow""the inside is smooth"-" the outsideris rough."
What is its use?  "To prevent the finger from being pricked when sewing."
Now  name the parts.  "Surface, punctures, top,
bottom, rim, border, outside, inside."
This sketch will suggest how to conduct lessons on
a cup, a hat, plate, candlestick, button, etc.
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V.-Review-Chair, Watch, Pin, Thimble.
To-day we will talk about the objects upon which
your last four lessons were given. How many can
remember what those objects were? James, you
may tell me what was the object for the first lesson.
"A chair."
MIary may tell the name of the object for the second lesson.  "A watch."
Henry may tell the name of the object for the third
lesson. "A pin."
Susan may name the object for the fourth lesson.
"A thimble."
Who can tell us any thing about the chair?  Edward. "The principal parts of the chair are its seat,
legs, back, bars."
William. "The seat and bars are nearly horizontal."
Charles. "The legs are nearly perpendicular, and
the back is slanting."
Martha. "The chair is to sit upon, and the back to
lean against, to rest us when tired."
Who can tell us something about the watch? Joseph. "It is circular, and has a glass over its face."
Ella. "It has hands to point out the time."
Hiram. "The watch ticks."
Delia. "The face of the watch is white."
Porter. "There are figures on the face."
Adin. "It has a rimn around it to hold the glass."
Who  can tell us about the pin?  George. "The
pin has a round head and a sharp point." William.
"The part between the point and head is the shank."
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OBJECT LESSONS.
Horace. "The shank is straight and round like a
cylinder."
Herbert. "The pin is used to fasten on clothes."
Who will tell us about the thimble?  John. "The
thimble is worn on the finger when sewing, to protect it from injury while pushing the needle through
the cloth."
Julius. "The punctures prevent the needle from
slipping when pushing it."
Henry. "The surface of the thimble is curved; it
has a top which is usually closed; it has a rim around
the bottom."
These reviews may be extended or condensed, as
the age of the pupils and their familiarity with the
subject suggests.
VI.-A Key.
The teacher holds a common key before the children.  "A key"-" it has a ring"-" one end is hollow." You may call that end the barrel. "The barrel is cylindrical"-" there are rings around the barrel"-" there is a piece on one side of the barrel, near
the end."  You may call that the lip.  "The lip has
notches in it." Call those notches grooves.
Now can you tell me the uses of the key and its
parts?  "The key is used to lock and unlock doors,
drawers, trunks, chests, closets, gates"-" the ring is
the handle by which the key is turned." [The teacher may show a lock with one side removed, so that
the action of the lip on the bolt may be observed.]
What is the use of the lip? "To move the bolt in
the lock which fastens the door."
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Now name the parts of the key as I point to them.
"Ring-barrel-lip-groove."
VII.-A Cart.
As this is an object which the teacher can not take
into the school-room, the manner of conducting the
lesson must necessarily be different from either of the
preceding ones, unless a model or a picture be shown
to the pupils. It is well to consider occasionally objects that are familiar without their actual presence.
It happens frequently that many points remain unnoticed in the things which we see every day, and, if
properly conducted, occasional exercises on this class
of objects, without their presence, will very materially
aid in developing habits of careful observation. To
suggest how such lessons may be conducted, we will
suppose there is neither a model nor a picture before
the pupils.
There is a very familiar object which is often seen
in the streets of a city and in large villages. It is also
used on the farm. When seen in the city, there is
usually a horse attached to it; but when used on the
farm, it is generally drawn by a pair of oxen. Now
who can tell me what this object is? "A cart."
What parts of the cart can you remember?
"Wheels"-"two poles to go each side of the horse."
You may call the poles shafts.  What is the use
of the shafts?  "To guide the cart while it is drawn"
-" to hold it in its proper place."
What other parts of the cart can you mention?
"The bottom"-" the box."
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Do all carts have boxes?  What are the carts used
for which have boxes? "In the city they carry sand,
brick, coal, etc."
What is the shape of the wheels? "Circular."
In what position are they placed?  "On the edge."
What holds them in this position?
We will talk more about the cart to-morrow. In
the mean time I wish each pupil to examine a cart,
and come prepared to tell all about it.in the morning.
A Cart.-Second Exercise.
What were we talking about at our last lesson?
"A cart."  What parts of a cart did we mention?
" Wheels"-" shafts"-" bottom"-" box."
WVho can now tell me any thing more about the
cart?  "The wheels have spokes"-" there is a rim
around the ends of the spokes"-" the tire is outside
of the rim, and holds it in its place."
Of what material are the rim and tire made? "The
rim is made of wood, and the tire of iron."
What other part have you observed?  "The axle"
— " the linch-pin"-" the hub."
Who can tell what part is called the hub?  "The
centre; the part where the spokes are fastened." Yes,
that part is called the hub, the hob, or the nave.
What is the use of the axle? "It supports the load,
and holds the wheels upright."
What is the use of the spokes?  "The spokes keep
the rim in its circular form and support the cart."
What is the use of the wheels?  "To support the
axle, and to help move the cart by turning round upon
the axle."
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Similar inquiries might be continued until the pupils
have described all parts of the cart, and told their
uses.
The preceding lessons will indicate methods for
conducting exercises with the following objects, viz.:
pencil, knife, saw, chisel, pincers, hatchet, hammer,
shovel, spade, trowel, stove, candle, boot, shoe, glove,
stove-pipe, spoon, broom, fork, and various tools used
by mechanics; also farming implements and household utensils.
SECOND SERIES.
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF TIlE QUALITIES OF OBJECTS.
Properties to be considered.  The lessons of this
series may embrace, in addition to the namne, parts,
form, color, and size, as considered in the first series,
the weighty, material, qualities, and uses of objects;
also the simple inquiry, where obtained?  or by whom
I.-Glass.
Qualities-Transparent and brittle.
Glass is an appropriate object to select for the first
lesson in the second series, because the qualities which
characterize it are so palpable to the senses. Pieces
of glass should be passed to the children and examined by each. By this means each individual in the
class is called upon to exercise his own powers of observation upon the object presented, while the teacher
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proceeds to draw out the ideas of the children concerning it.
What is the name of this object?  "Glass."  I
wish to write the word upon the blackboard; what
letter shall I make first?  "G."  What next?  " 1."
Next?  "a."  Next?  "S."  Next?  "s."  Next?
"You have made the word, and don't want any more
letters." [Holding up the glass.] What is this?
"Glass."  What is this on the blackboard?  "The
word glass."
Now who will tell me something about glass?
MAary. "We can see through it." Ella. "It will
break easily."
Is there any other glass in this room?  "Yes, in
the windows." Why do we put glass in windows?
"So we can see through."
Suppose there were no windows in this room, could
you see what is in it?  "No."  What then must be
in the room to enable you to see while in it? "Light."
Then for what other purpose is glass used in windows
besides for seeing through?  "To let the light in."
Can you see through the door when it is closed?
Can you see through the blackboard?
Here is a glass bottle filled with water. Can you
see through it?  "Yes."  Then what else can you
see through besides glass?  "Water."
Now I will tell you a word which means can be
seen through; it is transparent; so that when you
hear any one say that any object is transparent, it
means that that object can be seen through. What,
then, may we say of glass?  "Glass is transparent."
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Can you think of any thing* else that is transpa rent?  "Water."  Let me write it; what letters must
I use?  "W  a t e r."  I will now write that long
word which means can be seen through on the board.
What is the word?  "Transparent."
Suppose I should let this piece of glass fall upon a
stone, what would be the consequence?  "The glass
would be broken."
If I should let this piece of wood fall, would it
break like the glass?  "No."
I will tell you a word that means easily broken; it
is brittle.  Let me write it on the board.  "B r i tt I e," brittle.
When any one says that glass is brittle, what do
they mean?  "That it is easily broken."
Now tell me what are the words upon the board.
"Glass, water, transparent, brittle."
What may you say of glass? "It is tranlsparent
and brittle."  What does transparent mean?  "That
you can see through it." What does brittle mean?
"That it will break easily."  For what is glass used?
II.-Slate.
Qutality-Opaque.
What have I in my hand?  "A slate."  Who will
tell me the names of its parts, and point them out?
Henry. " Slate-frame, slate, sides, ends, corners, surfaces."
How many of each of these parts has it? Joseph.
"One frame, two sides, two ends."
* See Lesson XVIII., page 131.
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George. "Four corners, two surfaces."
What is its shape? "Oblong."  What is the shape
of its corners?  "Right angles."
How long is the slate?  How wide is it?  William
may take the tape and measure it, then tell us how
long it is. John may measure and tell us how wide
it is.
What is its color?  "Dark gray," or "reddish
dark gray."
Lift it, and tell me of its weight.  "It is heavy."
Edwin. "It will weigh about a pound."  John may
weigh it.
Of what are slates made? Eddy. "Stone and
wood."  Which part is stone?  "That used to mark
on." Which part is wood? "The frame."
Are slates used for any thing else besides to mark
on?  "Yes, for roofs of houses."  In cities slate is
much used for roofs in place of shingles, for they last
longer, and prevent the roof from taking fire easily.
Would slate make good windows?  "No."  Why
not? it would not break as easily as glass. "We
could not see through it."
But suppose you did not want to see through the
windows, and should put in slate instead of glass,
would it answer the purpose of a window? Lucy.
" No, for it would not let light into the room." Then
what may we say about slate?  "We  can not see
through it, and it does not let light pass through it."
Now I will give you a word which means can not
be seen through; it is opaque. Look at me as I print
it on the blackboard, and name the letters as I make
them.  0 p a q u e, opaq?e.
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When you can see through an object, what do you
say of it?  "It is transparent."  When you can not
see through an object, what do you say of it?  "It is
opaque." Then opaque means not transparent.
Who can tell me other objects that are opaque?
Edwin. "Wood."  Daniel. "Iron, coal, etc."
III.-Water.
Qualities-Liquid, transparent, colorless, tasteless,
inodorous.
What is in this tumbler?  "Water."  I will now
print the word on the blackboard-W a t e r. [The
teacher pours a little of the water upon a piece of
newspaper or cloth.] What has the water done to
this paper?  "Made it wet."
Now observe me. [The teacher pours the water
out in drops.] Does the water hold together when I
pour it out little by little? " No, it forms into drops."
Here is a little milk; observe it as I pour it out,
and tell me whether it holds together or not.  "It
forms in drops, like water."
I will now tell you a name for any thing that you
can pour out so as to form it into drops, like water,
milk, etc. It is called a liquid.
Now what may you call water and milk? "Liquids." Observe me as I print the word liquid, and
name the letters as I form them.
Can you mention any other liquids?  "Cider, beer,
the juice of oranges and lemons."
Look into this cup of water; what do you see?
"The bottom."  Now what do you see?  "A white
hutton on the bottom."
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What, then, may you say of water?  "We can see
through it; it is transparent."
Here is a red wafer, a green leaf, a yellow flower,
and a blue flower; which of these is like the color of
water?  "Neither of them."
I will put the yellow flower in the water; now
what color is the flower?  "It is yellow still."
You remember that I told you, when you could see
through any thing, and the objects at which you looked did not change their color, the object seen through
had no color. Now what shall we say of water?
"It has no color."
Very well; you may say water is colorless, which
means that it has no color. [Print the word colorless
as before.]
Here is some fresh water in this tumbler; you may
taste it, and tell me what you observe.  "It is cold."
What taste do you perceive?  Has it any taste?
"No."  What, then, may you say of water?  "It
has no taste." It is tasteless. [Print the word tasteless.]
Smell of the water, and tell me what it smells like.
"I can not smell it." What, then, may you say of
the smell of water?  "Water has no smell."
We say any thing that has a smell has an odor; if
it has no smell, it is without odor, or inzodorous.
What, then, can you say of water?  "It is inodorous." This is a long word, but I will print it on the
blackboard for you. Name the letters as I make
them-I n o d o r o u s, inodorous.
What does inodorous mean? "Has no smell.'"
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What use have you made of water to-day? "We
have washed our hands and faces with it." Suppose
the water was solid, like the stone of a slate, could
you wash with it?  Is a slate liquid?  What quality
must an object have to be used for washing?  "It
must be a liquid."
Milk is a liquid; would it be good for washing?
"No, it would not make us clean."
Would not beer or cider answer for washing, since
both are liquids?  "No; they both have an odor and
a color, and would not cleanse from dirt."
For what else do you use water? " For drinking."
Yes, water is essential to every person, and God has
kindly supplied it in great abundance.
Now let us see what has been learned about water.
"It is a liquid; it will wet; it is transparent; it
is colorless; it is tasteless; it is inodorous; it is very
useful for Cashing and for d(Irinking."
IV.-Milk.
Qualities-Opaque, soft, liquid, nutritious.
What is in this glass?  "Milk."  Where do we
get milk? "From the cow."
How do you know that this is milk, and not water?
"Because it is white." But I might put chalk into
water and make it white; would it become milk
then?  "No."
Is there not some other way to determine whether
this is milk or not?  "Yes, by tasting it."
What kind of taste has it?  "Sweet taste."  Does
it feel like water when you take it in your mouth?
"No, it is softer."
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When I poured the water out of the cup little by
little, how did it fall? "In drops." Now observe
me as I pour the milk from this glass little by little.
"It falls in drops."
What did we call water when we found that it
could be poured out so as to form drops?  "A liquid."
What, then, may we call milk?  "A liquid."
Can you tell me in what milk is like water?   "It
is a liquid, because it will form into drops."
[The teacher pours a little milk on a piece of cloth,
and the children observe that it wets it.] What has
the milk done to this cloth? "Wet it." If I should
pour water on this cloth, what would be the effect?
"It would wet it."  How is milk like water?  "It
will make things wet, and will form into drops."
What do we call those things which make others
wet and form themselves into drops?  "Liquids."
What use do we make of milk?  "We drink it."
Why are little children fed upon milk? "To make
them grow." Because milk will make them grow,
we say it is nourishing.  Bread and meat are nourishing. Food that is nourishing we call nutritious.
Observe me as I write the word on the blackboard
-Nutritious.
Milk is nourishing, and we call it-. Why do
we say that milk is nutritious?  "Because it is nourishing."
From what animal do we obtain milk?  "From
the cow." Do you know of any other animal that
gives milk?  "Yes, the goat."
Now  repeat all you know about milk.  "Milk
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comes from the cow and from the goat"-" milk is
white"-" we can not see through it; it is opaque""it tastes sweet"-" it feels soft to the mouth""milk is a liquid; it will wet and form into drops""it is nutritious, and very good for food."
V. Review-Glass, Slate, Water, Milk.
I have brought you to-day the four things upon
which you have had lessons this week, that you may
look at them again, and tell me what you observe,
and what you remember that we learned about them.
William, what do you observe?  "A piece of glass,
a slate, some water, and some milk."
John, what can you tell us about the glass?  "It
is called transparent, because wecan see through it."
Henry. "It is said to be brittle, because it is easily
broken."
Walter. "The slate can not be seen through, so we
say that it is opaque."
George. "The slate is a kind of stone." Martha.
"The frame is made of wood."
MIary. "Water will wet and form into drops when
poured out slowly, so we call it a liquid."
Ella. "Water is transparent; we can see through it."
Lucy. "It has no color, and no taste, and no smell."
Susan, can you tell us any thing about milk?  "It
is white and sweet."
Hiram. "We can not see through milk; it is opaque."
Adin. "Milk is a liquid; it will form into drops
and will wet."
Joseph. "It is good for food; it is nutritious."
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It is better, in these reviews, for the pupils to tell
as much as possible about the objects without being
led by questions, as it forms habits of self-dependence,
and causes them to rely upon their own observations
rather than upon those of the teacher and her prompting questions.
VI.-India-rubber.
Qualities-Elastic, tough, opaque, smooth.
Show the children a piece of India-rubber, and ask
its name. Then call upon a child to come and bend
it, and stretch it before the class; or, which would be
better, pass pieces of it to the pupils, so that each one
might feel it and stretch it. After calling attention
to its shape, size, etc., and while stretching it, ask,
What am I doing with it? What can you say of its
shape and size now? "It is narrower and longer
than before." When I let go of it, what does it do?
"Returns to its shape again."  Try it, and see for
yourselves if it will return to its shape after being
stretched.
Now who will tell me something about this piece
of India-rubber?  Ellen. "It stretches when pulled."
Kate. "It returns to its place when I let it go."  Susan. "It will bend, and also return to its place when I
let it go."  Very well; now I will give you a name
for this quality: when any thing will stretch on being
pulled, and return to its place again when let go, it is
called elastic. So, when it returns to its place again
after bending, it is said to be elastic. Will rubber
do both of these? Then what may we say of it?
"Rubber is elastic."
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Pull this rubber string, and tell me if it tears or
breaks easily.  "It does not tear or break easily."
Then you may say it is tough. [Print the word on
the blackboard as before.]
I suppose you know what tough means when  (V
get a piece of beef that is hard to cut, and which you
can not chew finely.
Can you see through the rubber? "No." Then
what may you say of it? "It is not transparent; it
is opaque."
Feel the rubber, and tell me if it is rough.  "It is
smooth."
Now who can tell me the uses of India-rubber?
"To rub out pencil-marks on paper"-" to make balls"
-" to make overshoes"-" to make suspenders."
VII.-Sponge.
Qtalities-Porous, absorbent, elastic, soft.
Let the children handle pieces of sponge that have
been moistened with water and squeezed as nearly
dry as possible. The teacher may proceed, as in the
lessons of the first series, to lead the children to observe and describe the objects shown them. All who
think they can answer or say any thing about the object are requested to hold up their hands, but only
those whose names are called may reply, except to
some general questions where it is evident that all
know the answer.
What is the name of this object?  "Sponge."
Who can tell me something about it? Alice. "Its
color is light brown."   Julia. "It is full of little
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holes." These holes in the sponge are called pores.
Can you tell me of any common object that you see
every day which is full of little holes or pores, like the
sponge?  "Bread"-" cake."  Yes; and because the
sponge is full of pores, it is said to be porous.  Now
what may you say of bread?  "Bread is porous."
[Print the word on the blackboard.]
Let us now try to find out some use for these pores
in the sponge. Here is a little water on this slate; I
will place the sponge in it.  What do you observe?
"The water has disappeared; the sponge has sucked
it up."
Suppose I should put some bread into a bowl with
but a little milk in it, what would become of the milk?
"The bread would soak it up."  I will give you a
better term than either soaks it utp or sucks it up to
describe what the sponge and the bread do. You
may say that the bread absorbs the milk. I will print
the word on the blackboard, that you may see it.
Now what may you say of the sponge and the water?
"The sponge cabsorbs the water." Very well; and
because the sponge absorbs water, we say it is an absorbent. [Print the word as before.] Who will tell
me when we may say an object is an absorbent?
"Vhen it absorbs water or milk." What does absorb mean? " Drink up, soak up, or suck in."
Now squeeze the sponge, then let go of it, and tell
me what you observe.  Walter. "It returns to its own
shape again." Was it as large when you squeezed it
as it is now?  " No."  Then what effect does squeezing have upon it? " Makes it smaller while squeezed."
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Suppose I should squeeze this piece of silver, would it
become smaller?  "No."  What does the sponge do
when you squeeze it, then let go of it?  "It comes
back to its own shape again."
We say that an object is elastic when it returns to
its own shape again after being squeezed. Here is a
bunch of wool; squeeze this, and tell me whether it
is elastic. Does it spring back again after being
squeezed?  "Yes; it is elastic."
How does the sponge feel to the hand?  "Soft."
For what is sponge used?  "For washing."  Yes;
and it is because the sponge is so soft and absorbent
that it is so useful in washing. It sucks up the water
so readily, and then lets it run out again so easily when
squeezed, that it is the most useful substance known
for washing carriages.
Now  examine the sponge carefully, and tell nme
whether you think it grows or is made. Those of
you who think it grows may tell me where you think
it is found, on land or in the water.
Listen to me, and I will tell you something about
the sponge. It is found in the water, growing on the
rocks. It is believed to be formed by a kind of animal which lives in the pores, and feeds on the substances that are carried into its pores by the water.
They can not move about, but always remain fastened
to the rock or stones where they first grow.
The inhabitants who live near the water where
sponges grow are taught to dive for the sponge when
they are children, and they learn to remain under the
water from one to two minutes at a time, pulling the
sponges from the rocks to bring up to the surface.
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OBJECT LESSONS.
I can not tell you more now, but some day I will
get a book on natural history and read to you more
about the sponge, and those who dive into the water
to gather them.
Now repeat what you have learned about the
sponge.  "It is porous, and absorbs water; it is elastic and soft; it grows on rocks under water."
VIII.-Whalebone.
Qutality-One kind of elasticity.
Call one of the children to take a piece of whalebone, and show the others what he can do with it.
Let him bend it, and then let go of one end, at the
same time requesting the pupils to observe what happens. The teacher may now call upon the pupils to
tell what they can about the object shown.
What is this at which you have been looking?
"A piece of whalebone."' What is its shape? "That
of a line."  Adin. "That of a straight line, before it
was bent."  What was its shape when bent?  "That
of a curved line."
Here is a piece of tape; bend this, then let go of
one end, and see what it will do. "It remains bent."
When you bend the whalebone and let go of one end
of it, what does it do?  "It goes back to its own
shape again."
What did we call the India-rubber when we bent
or stretched it, and on being let go it returned to its
own shape again?  "Elastic."  Very good.  Now,
since the whalebone returns to its shape again after
being bent, we will call it elastic.
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Now let us see how many things we have examined
that are elastic; also how the elasticity of these differ
from each other. Who will describe the elasticity of
the India-rubber?
Wilson. "When we pull India-rubber it will stretch,
and when let go it returns to its place again."
Thomas. "When we squeeze a sponge it becomes
smaller, but when we let go it returns to its shape
again."
Robert. "When we bend whalebone and let go, it
returns to its shape again."
Why is India-rubber said to be elastic?  "Because,
after being stretched, it goes back to its shape again
when left to itself."
Why is sponge called elastic?  "Because, after
having been squeezed, it takes its own shape and size
again when the pressure is removed."
Why is whalebone said to be elastic? "Because,
when bent, it goes back to its place again when left to
itself."
Now who will tell me of all of these?  Hiram. "If
we stretch rubber, or squeeze sponge, or bend whalebone, and let go of them, each will return to its shape
again."
Whalebone is obtained from the jaw-bone of the
whale, the largest animal that inhabits our globe.
Whalebone is used in umbrellas, in whips, etc.
IX.-Wool.
Qualities-Soft, absorbent, elastic.
What have I in my hand? "Wool." Where does
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wool come from? "It comes from the sheep's back."
I will make the word wool.
James, will you describe a sheep?  "A sheep has
four legs, with split hoofs, a round body, a small head,
and is about four feet long and three feet in height.
Its body is covered with wool."
How is the wool obtained from the sheep? "It
is cut off with large shears." When is it cut off?
"When the weather becomes warm in the beginning
of summer."
What is done with the sheep before the wool is
sheared from them?  "They are taken into a stream
of water, or into a large tub into which clean water
runs, and the wool is washed."
Who can tell me of what use wool is to the sheep?
"To keep them warm." Yes, wool is the sheep's
clothing.
Can the sheep make its own  clothing?  "No."
Who gives the sheep their clothing? "God; He
makes the wool grow."
[The teacher passes the wool to the pupils, that
they may handle it and learn how it feels.] How
does the wool feel?  "Soft."  What more can you
say of it?  How does it look?  "It is like a bunch
of fine, crooked hair."
Feel of it again, and tell me what you observe.
"It feels dry"-" it feels warm."
Does it feel warm like the fire? "' No, but it is not
cold like a piece of glass." Wool is very useful for
clothing, for it prevents the warmth of the body from
passing away, and thus it keeps us warm.
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Here is a little water in this basin. I will place
some wool in it. What do you observe? "The
water has disappeared; the wool has sucked it up."
What did we say of the sponge when we found
that it would suck up water?  "That it is an absorbent." Very well; I will make this word. What may
we say of wool?  "It is an absorbent."  Why do we
call any thing an absorbent? "Because it sucks up
water or other liquids."
Squeeze the wool and then let go of it. What do
you observe?  "It is elastic."  I will make this word
on the blackboard.
What is the color of wool?  "White."  Did you
ever see a black sheep?
For what is wool used?  "For making cloth for
coats, pantaloons, vests, and cloaks; for flannel, blankets, shawls, carpets, stockings, hats, etc."
What is done with the wool when cloth is made of
it?  "It is spun into yarn, and the yarn is woven
into cloth."*
Now who will tell me what has been learned about
wool?  John. "It comes from the sheep's back."
Sarah. "It is soft."  Henry. " It will absorb water."
Ellen. "It keeps us warm."  Edwin. "It is elastic."
Ann. " Wool is white."  Susan. "Sometimes wool is
* The extent to which the teacher should lead the pupils to
consider and describe the processes of manufacture of woolen
goods must depend upon their age and their familiarity with the
process employed. In a town where woolen goods are manufactured, it would be proper to talk upon this subject quite minutely
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black." It is used for making stockings,Jflannel, cloth,
carpets, blankets, etc.
Let us read these words about wool which I have
made on the blackboard.
X.-Review-Ilndia-rubber, Sponge, Whalebone,
Wool.
The leading facts learned and the ideas developed
during the four preceding lessons should now be reviewed. In conducting these reviews, the teacher
should lead as little as possible, and depend chiefly
upon the pupils to tell what they have observed or may
observe from seeing and handling the objects. The
reviews previously drawn out will suggest how to
proceed.
The eight lessons now given in the Second Series
will serve as models for conducting exercises on the
following objects, viz.: cider, beer, vinegar, ink, oil,
burning fluid, turpentine, alcohol, ice, stone, willow,
ratan, cotton, flax, hemp, silk, bread, blotting-paper,
feathers, hair, bristles, etc.
Some of these objects possess qualities not previously described, as the bitter taste of beer, the sour
taste of vinegar, the odor of turpentine, coldness of
ice, hardness of stone, Jflexibility of the willow and
ratan, fibrous nature of the cotton, flax, hemp, and
silk, crumblinzg of the bread, lightness of feathers, etc.
The teacher should be careful to develop all of these
ideas as minutely as other qualities have been drawn
out in the preceding lessons.
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XI,.-Sugar.
Qualities-Sweet, soluble, fusible.
Distribute among the pupils small pieces of sugar,
requesting them to hold and retain it; then ask them
to tell what it is, and where and how it is obtained.
In describing its manufacture, the teacher will probably find it necessary to communicate much of the
knowledge necessary to complete the lesson.  In doing this, pictures should be used to exhibit such operations as are not familiar to the pupils.
Take a piece of the sugar into your mouth and tell
me how it tastes. "It is sweet." I will make the
words sugar and sweet.
Observe me as I place a piece of sugar in this tumbler of water.  What do you perceive?  "The sugar
has dissolved."
Here is some salt. I will place this in the water.
"The salt has dissolved."
Now I will tell you what we say of a substance or
any object when it can be dissolved in water or any
other liquid: we say that it is solvble. Let me print
this word on the blackboard; you may name the letters as I make them-S 0 1 u b 1 e.
What does soluble* mean?  "May be dissolved."
* The teacher should have a clear perception of the difference
between soluble and jftsible, between the melting or fusion of a
substance by fire and that of the solution of it in water or any
other liquid. When a substance becomes a liquid under heat, as
butter, lard, wax, lead, it is evident that the change is merely a
change in the condition of the substance itself, without the mix
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What may you say of sugar and of salt? "T.hey
are soluble."
Look at me again; what am I doing? "'Holding
a piece of sugar over the flame of the candle." What
do you observe?  "The sugar melts."  What effect
has heat upon sugar? " It melts it."
I have another hard word for you to learn. When
any object will melt by heat, we say it is futsible. I
will print the word, and you may name the letters
that I use-F U S i b 1 e.
Who will tell me what fusible means? Hiram.
"ilay be melted with fire."
What may you say of sugar?  "It is soluble and
fusible."
What is its color?  "White."  Is all sugar white?
No, some of it is brown."
What is the use of sugar?  "To sweeten things."
What things are sweetened with sugar? "Tea, coffee, cake, pudding, pie, fruits," etc.
What have you learned about sugar?
ture with it of any thing else, and such a change is usually followed by a return to its former solid state on cooling.
But in the solution or dissolving of any substance, such as sugar,
salt, or gum, in water or any other liquid, the substance mixes with
the fluid in which it is dissolved, and its particles are diffused
throughout the whole of it. Now the original substance can not
be easily recovered fiom the solution.
It is highly important that the teacher should herself understatnd clearly all the ideas to be developed in the lesson before she
attempts to present it to her pupils.
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XII.-Glue.
Qualities-Soluble, fusible, adhesive, tenacious.
I have in my hand a substance with which some of
you may not be familiar. You may take it and tell
me what you observe.
James. "It is hard and of a brown color."  Rosa.
"It is a little transparent." You may say it is semitransparent, which means partly or half transparent.
Walter. "It is glue."  Very well; I will make the
word glue. What letters shall I use? "G 1 u e." I
will also make that long word semi-transparent. What
does transparent mean?   "May be seen through."
Then what does semi-transparent mean?
If I place this piece of glue in warm water and let
it remain, it will dissolve. What, then, may we say
of glue?  "It is soluble in warm water."
Observe this piece as I hold it over the candle.
Edwin. "It melts; glue is fusible."  Let me make
this word-F u s i b I e.
When melted, glue is ready for use. For what is
glue used?  "For sticking pieces of wood together."
Because it is so sticky or adhesive when melted, and
so hard when it cools and dries that it holds the parts
stuck together with great strength or tenacity, it is
very valuable. But, before telling you any more, I
will make the words adhesive and tenacious, and you
may tell me what they mean.
Adhesive.  What  does this word mean?
"Sticks to." When is glue adhesive?. "When
melted."
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OBJECT LESSONS.
Te n a c i o u s. What does this word mean?
"Holding fast."  When is glue tenacious?  "When
it is cold, dry, and hard."
Persons who build houses, and those who make
furniture, and those who bind books, use glue. Now
who can tell me what classes of persons use glue?
George. " Carpenters."  Martha. "Cabinet-makers."
John. "Book-binders."
Glue is obtained from the hoofs of animals, but the
best glue is made from the skins of animals. The
small cuttings which the currier rejects when he is
making leather are washed in lime-water to remove
the grease, then they are boiled until the soluble parts
are dissolved. It is then strained, and the liquid is
boiled until it becomes a jelly.  It is then placed in
the air to cool and harden.
Now repeat what you have learned about glue.
XIII.-Coal,
Qualities-Black, bright, brittle, hard, opaque, inflammable or combustible.
What is this substance which I hold in my hand?
"Coal."  I will make the word coal.  Is coal made
by man?  "No, it is dug out of the earth."
This is called a natural substance, because it was
not made by man.
Look at it, and tell me what you observe. Augusta.
"It is black." Emma. "It is bright." The words
black and bright are made now on the blackboard.
[The teacher strikes it lightly with a hammer and
breaks it.]  What do you now observe?  "It is easily broken; it is brittle."
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Take a piece of this coal in your hands, and tell me
how it feels.  "It is hard."  Now look through it.
"We can not; it is not transparent." What may you
say of it?  "It is opaque."
Let us see if we have all these words on the blackboard -Coal, black, bright, brittle, hard, opaque.
If I put this coal on the fire, what will take place?
"It will burn." Suppose I should put wood on the
fire, what would take place?  "The wood would burn
up." Can you name any other objects that would
burn in fire?
Any thing that burns readily when put in the fire
is said to be inflammable. This is a long word, but I
think you will remember it when you see the word,
and observe that flame is a part of it. You know
what a flame is. Now, since coal burns when put in
the fire, what may we say of it? "It is iflamnmable."
Yes; and that is what makes it so useful. It would
not be good for any thing if it would not burn.
Who can tell me for what coal is used besides to
make a fire for cooking our food? [If in a city, there
will be some pupils who have seen coal used for producing steam, and perhaps for making gas.]
If we had no coal, what should we use for our fires?
"Wood."  Where is wood obtained?  "From trees."
It would take a great many trees to furnish all the
wood for the fires in a large city, and it would soon
become very scarce; but coal is so abundant in the
earth that there is no fear that we shall ever get out
of fuel.
The places where coal is dug from the earth are
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OBJECT LESSONS.
called coal-mines. The hole or well into which the
men go to reach the mines is called a shaft. The
men who work at digging coal and drawing it out of
the mines are called colliers. I will write these words
on the blackboard, that you may remember them.
Now let us see how many can tell something that
has been learned about coal.  "Coal is a natural substance"-" it is dug out of the earth"-" it is bright"
-" it is brittle"-" it is hard" —" it is opaque"-" it
is inflammable"-" it is used to burn when we cook
our food, and to warm our rooms in winter"-" it is
used to make gas for lighting the streets and our
homes"-" the place where it is dug from the ground
is called a coal-mine"-" the passage to the mine is
called a shaft"-" the men who procure the coal are
colliers."
XIV,-Lead.
Qtt(lities —Heavy, bright, dull, hard, easily cut, fusible, insoluble.
What is this?  "Lead."  Can any of you tell me
where lead comes from? Does it come from an animal?  Does it come from a plant or a tree?  "It
comes out of the earth." Yes, it is dug from places
in the earth called lead-mines.  It is a mineral.
You remember about the coal in the ground, which
is so usefll in making fires; now we find that lead
comes from the ground also. Thus you see that God
is kind to store up in the earth so many useful things.
Take this piece of lead in your hand. What do you
find? "It is hectavy."
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF
Look at it, and tell me what you see.  "Part of it
is bright."  What part is bright?  "The part where
it has just been cut." How does the other part look?
"Dull."  Yes; when lead is freshly cut it is bright,
but when it has been for some time in the air it becomes dull.
Now feel of the lead. "It is hard." But seewhat am I doing?  "Cutting it."  Yes, and it does
not make my knife dull. Does it seem hard to cut?
"No, it is cut easily." What, then, may you say
about it?  "It feels harcd, but it is easily cut."
See, I am holding some lead in the flame of the candle; what happens?  " It melts"-" it is fusible in
fire."
I will put some in this tumbler of water; does it
dissolve? "No." Then what may you say of lead
in water?  "It is not soluble in water."
What happened to the lead when I put it in the
water?  "It fell to the bottom."  Here is a piece of
wood; I will put this in the water.  John. "The
wood swims."  What does the lead do?  "The lead
sinks." Why does the lead sink when the wood
swims?  "Because the lead is heavy and the wood
is light."
Let us see if we have made all these words about
lead on the blackboard. You may repeat the words
as I point to them. -Lead, lead-mines, heavy, bright,
dclul, cut, hard, fusible, insoluble. This last word
means "can not be dissolved in water."
Is there any child here whose father works in lead?
One, two, three hands up. John, what does your
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father do?  "He makes shot."  Henry, what does
your father do with lead?  "IHe lays pipes to convey
water into houses." Then he is called what? "A
plumber." Horace, what does your father do with
lead?  "He is a plumber also."
Persons who work in lead are called plumbers, but
plumbers are generally those who lay lead pipes for
conveying water.
Can any one think of any other use for lead? "Bullets are made of it"-" it is used for sinkers on fishlines and on fish-nets."
Now let us see how many can tell something about
lead.
The next lesson should be a review of the last four
lessons; and those will suggest the modes of conducting lessons on the following and other objects, so as
to develop ideas of the several qualities belonging to
themi, viz.:
Salt-Soluble, saline, granulous, sparkling, opaque.
Alerm-Transparent, soluble, astringent.
fogzey-Sweet, fluid, sticky.
Gun-Arabic-Semi-transparent, soluble, adhesive.
WVctx-Fusible, sticky, smooth, opaque.
Patty-Plastic, adhesive, hardening.
2ortar-Plastic, adhesive, sets and hardens.
Plaster of Paris-Setting and hardening quickly.
Chalk-White, soft, friable or easily crumbled, effervescent in acids.*
* This quality may be readily shown by placing a piece of chalk
in strong vinegar.
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Iron —Hard, ductile, tenacious, elastic, malleable,
fusible.
Iron exceeds in hardness other metals when converted into
steel. It is more ductile than gold, and may be drawn into a wire
as fine as human hair. It is the most tenacious of the metals; a
wire of one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 550 pounds.
In the state of steel it is the most elastic of metals. It is also the
most useful of metals.
Copper —Heavy, tenacious, sonorous, fusible, elastic, ductile, malleable, poisonous.
It is eight times heavier than water. A wire one tenth of an
inch in thickness will support 300 pounds. It is the most deeply
sonorous of all the metals.  It is more easily melted than iron.
It is next in elasticity to iron.
Silver —Heavy, ductile, malleable, tenacious, fusible, brilliant, reflective, not affected by common acids.
Silver is about eleven times heavier than water. It can be
drawn into the finest wire. It can be reduced to an extreme thinness. A wire of silver one tenth of an inch in thickness will support 200 pounds.
Gold-Heavy, malleable, ductile, tenacious, fusible,
brilliant.
Gold is considered a perfect metal, because it does not change
nor lose any of its weight when melted. It is nineteen times
heavier than water. It is the most malleable of metals: a piece
of gold of the size of a pin's head may be hammered out so as to
cover a space of fifty square inches. It is so ductile that one dollar can be drawn out into a wire that will reach nearly two miles.
Its tenacity is much less than that of iron. A wire one tenth of
in inch in diameter will support 160 pounds.
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THIRD SERIES.
DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE MATERIALS, FORMATION,
AND RESEMBLANCES OF OBJECTS.
Properties to be considered. The lessons of this series, in addition to a more complete consideration of
the principal parts and qualities embraced in the lessons of the second series, should consider the materials, formation, and resemblances of objects, and the
pupils should be led to observe by which sense the
different qualities are discovered, thus to take the
first steps toward a natural system of classification of
knowledge. After the children's observation has been
called out on an object, some information may be given
on the natural history or manufacture of it.
I.L-Paper.
What is this?  "Paper."  Take pieces of it and
then tell me what you observe. William. "It is
smnooth."*  Jane. "It is white."*  Hold it between
your thumb and finger; now what do you observe?
"It is thin."* Try again. "It is light."* Hold it
up toward the window, and place your finger against
the side toward the window. "I can see through it
-it is transparent." Can you see through it as well
as you can through glass?  What is the difference?
* Proceed, as in the lessons of the former series, to make the
words on the blackboard, and also request the children to print
them on their slates when they return to their seats.
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"We can see every thing quite clearly through glass,
but through paper we can only see light, and the outline of objects which are close to it."
What do we say of glass?   "It is transparent."
When we find an object through which we can see
only light, we say it is translucent.  Let me explain
this word. Here is a piece of window-glass; we can
see through it clearly, so we say it is transparent.
Here is a piece of glass which has been ground on
one side; it still allows the light to pass through it,
but we can not see through it clearly, so we say it is
tranzslucent.
Now mention some objects that are transparent.
"Glass and water."
Now mention some that are translucent.  "Ground
glass, horn, thin paper." How do you learn that
objects are transparent or translucent?  "By  our
eyes."
Now see what you can do with the paper.  "I can
bend it and fold it." Take this handkerchief, and see
if you can bend and fold it. When any thing is easily bent or folded, we say it is pliable. James, can you
tell us why paper is said to be pliable?  "Because it
is easily bent and folded." Lucy, will you tell us
what we say of an object that can be easily bent and
folded?  "It is pliable."  How do you learn that paper is smooth, thin, and pliable?  "By our handsby feeling."
Observe what takes place when I put a piece of this
paper into the fire.  "It burns."  Then what may we
say of it?  "It is iiflammable."  Why is it infiam
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OBJECT LESSONS.
mable?  "Because it burns readily."  Tell me some
other things that are inflammable.
Of what use is this kind of paper?  "To write
upon." Yes; and when you are grown up perhaps
you will go to live far away from your father and
mother, and your brothers and sisters; then it would
be very pleasant to receive from them a sheet of paper, with writing over it, telling you all about home;
and how happy they would be if you should send
them a sheet of paper with writing on it, telling them
what you were doing, and all about the country where
you lived. Can any one tell me what such a piece of
paper is called?  "A letter."  I hope all of you will
learn to write letters before you leave school.
Can any of you tell me where we get paper? "At
the store." Yes, I knew that before; but I want to
be told whether it grows, like a plant, or whether it
is dug out of the ground, like coal, and lead, and iron.
How do we get it, since it does not grow and is not
dug out of the ground?  "It is made."  Yes, paper
is made by man; now who will tell me what it is
made out of?  "It is made of rays."  Yes; the best
paper is made of linens rays.
Now who will tell me of what linen is made? I
will tell you. Linen is made of the fibrous stem of a
plant called flax.  Do you know whatfibrous means?
Take this rag and pull out some of the threads; now
see what the threads are made of.  "Very fine, hairlike threads." If you should take the stem of a plant
offlax and peel off the outside of it, you would find
it composed of little slender threads, called fibres.
P
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF.
When we say any thing is fibrous, we mean that it is
composed of little threads like the fine hairs or fibres
which make the threads of this cloth.
After you have told me all you have found out
about paper, I will read to you something about its
manufacture from "Hazen's Popular Technology, or
Professions and Trades."
II.-Leather.
What is this?  "Leather."  Take these pieces and
tell me what you observe.  Ella. "One side is black,
and the other is a light brown."  John. "It is smooth."
Is it smooth on both sides?  Hiram. "The black side
is smoother than the brown side."
What can you do with it?  "Bend it-it isflexible."  Why do you say it is flexible?  "Because it
may be easily bent."
What could youi do with paper besides bending it?
"Fold it." Because paper could be both easily bent
and folded, we say it is pliable. Leather is easily
bent, but not easily folded, so we say it is flexible.
What else could you do with paper?   "Tear it."
Try to tear the leather.  "We  can not tear it."
Why? "Because it is tough." When do you say
a thing is tough?   "When  it can not easily be
torn."
You say this leather is smooth, flexible, and tough;
take it between your thumb and finger, and see if you
can observe any thing more of it.  "It is thin."  "It
is light."
How did you discover that leather is smooth, flexi
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OBJECT LESSONS.
ble, tough, thin, and light? "By our hands." Yes,
by feeling it.
Now shut your eyes. What is near your face?
"Leather." Did you see the leather while I held it
near your nose?  "No."  How, then, did you know
that I held it there?  "We  could smell it."  What
may you say, then, of leather? "It has a smell."  Any
thing that has a smell is said to be odorous.  What,
then, may we say of leather?  "It is odorous."
How  did you find out that leather is odorous?
"By smelling it."
How did you find out the color of the leather?
"By looking at it."
What qualities did you find out by the hand?
For what is leather used? Are you wearing any
thing made of leather? Why is leather good for
shoes?  "It is tough."  Can you think of any other
reason why it is good for shoes?  James. "It is flexible."  Emily. "It is thin and light."  Paper is thin
and light; why would it not make good shoes? "It
would not keep out water."
Now we have found out a very important reason
why leather is good for shoes: it keeps the water from
our feet. Because it will keep out water so well, we
say it is waterproof.
Who will now tell me several reasons why leather
is good for shoes?  "Because it is tough, flexible,
thin, light, water-proof, and lasting."
Who can tell me where we get leather? Is it made
from the fibres of a plant?  Is it dug from the ground?
"No; it is the skin of animals."  Can you mention
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF.
some animals, the skins of which are used for leather?
"The cow, the calf, the horse, the sheep, the dog, the
hog."
Does the skin of either of those animals look like
this leather?  What is the difference?  "Their skins
are covered with hair." What must be done to them
in making leather? "The hair must be scraped off,
and the skin tanned."
Observe this piece of leather when I put it in the
fire.  "It frizzles up."  "It has a very unpleasant
smell." Do you remember what happened when I
put the paper in the fire?  "It was soon burnt up."
That, you remember, was made from a vegetable- a
plant. Leather is an animal substance, and when it
burns it frizzles up and gives out a disagreeable odor.
For what is leather used?
Now repeat what has been said about leather,
after which I will read to you a description of its
manufacture from "Professions and Trades."
III.-Honey-comb.
What is this?  "A piece of honey-comb."  Where
does it come from?  "A bee-hive."  Who placed it
in the hive?  "The bees made it there."  The bees
have no hands and no tools, yet they can make such
beautiful comb. How did they learn to make it?
"God taught them how."  Yes, God has taught all
animals to do whatever is necessary for their comfort.
Now look at this honey-comb and tell me what you
observe.  "It is full of holes." These holes are called
cells.
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OBJECT LESSONS.
Who will describe the cells?  Charles. "The cells
have six sides, six corners, and a bottom."
WVhat is the other end of the cell called?  "The
top." What is there around the top? "An edge."
How deep are the cells?  Measure them.  "About
half an inch deep." How large are they in diameter?
"About a quarter of an inch."
Take a piece of this honey-comb in your hands and
tell me what you observe.  Ellen. "It is sticky."
Freddy. "It is light."  Susan. "It is yellow."
Hold it up to the light.  "I can see light through
it." Can you see through it as you can through
glass? " No." What, then, may you say of the honey-comb? "It is tratnslutcent." Why is it said to be
translucent?  "Because we can see the light through
it, but can not see objects clearly through it."
What am I doing with the honey-comb? " Squeezing it." "You have crushed it." Did it break easily?  Then what may we say of it?  "Honey-comb
is brittle."
Observe it as I hold a piece in the flame of the candle. "It melts." When does it melt? "When it
is heated."
What use does the bee make of the cells?  "It
puts honey in them." Where does the bee get the
honey?  "From flowers."  Yes; in summer the bee
collects honey from flowers, and stores it up in some
of the cells of the honey-comb. Some of the cells it
uses for another purpose; the young bees are kept in
them, and are fed and watched by the old bees till
they get their wings, when they begin to work too.
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What  do we make  of honey-comb?   "Wax."
What is done with the comb to make it into wax?
"It is melted."
Who can tell me for what wax is used?  George.
"My father is a tailor; he uses it to wax his thread,
to keep it smooth and strong."
Now repeat all you have learned about the honeycomb.
" Honey-comb is made by bees, who put into it the
honey which they get from flowers. It is formed of
a number of little cells, each of which has six sides
and six corners, a bottom, and a top with an edge.
Wax is very light, thin, and sticky; its color is light
yello?w; it is tr(anshtcent; it is brittle, and melts when
heated. Tailors use it to make their thread smooth
and strong. It is also used for candles."
IV.-Rose Leaf.
What is this?  "A leaf." Where are leaves found?
"On plants and trees." What leaves do cows and
horses eat?  "Those of grass."  What leaves do we
sometimes eat?   "Those of lettuce, cabbage, and
spinach."
I will give you a word by which you can at once
speak of trees, grass, lettuce, cabbage, etc. It is vegetables. All plants and trees are called veyetables.
Where do vegetables come from? "They grow
out of the ground." Suppose I had a piece of ground,
and I desired to have some corn grow upon it, what
must be done to have corn grow there?  "Corn must
be planted." But suppose I wanted some lettuce to
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OBJECT LESSONS.
grow on a part of the ground, what must be done?
"Sow some lettuce-seed."
Where must the corn and lettuce-seed be put before it will grow?  "In the earth."  Would the corn
and lettuce be big at once?
If I should put an apple-seed in the ground, what
would happen? I will tell you. A little white root
would burst out of it and go down into the ground,
and a little green shoot would come up and put out
some little leaves. At first it would be very small,
but it would grow so that in a few years it would
become a large tree and bear apples.
Suppose I should plant a stone in the earth, what
would grow?  Now I think you know what vegeta
ble means. Look at this leaf, and tell me the names
of its parts.  By what part do I hold it?  "By the
stem."
What is the use of the stem?  "To support the
leaf, and attach it to the plant."
What other parts of the leaf do you see?  "The
edge." What do you observe on the edge of the
leaf?  "Little points and notches."  Those points are
called teeth, because they are like the sharp-pointed
teeth of some animals. A leaf that has such points
on its edge is said to be toothed.
What may we say of the edge of this leaf?  "It is
toothed."  Why is it said to be toothed?  "Because
it has points like the teeth of some animals."
Examine this leaf, and tell me what other parts you
observe.  "A line down the middle of it." That line
is called the middle rib. See whether it is the same
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF
on both sides of the leaf. "It sinks in on one side,
and stands out on the other."
Can any one tell me what the hollow line made by
the plow in the field is called?  "A furrow."  What
is the raised part on each side of the furrow called?
"The rildge."
What is the middle rib on this side of the leaf like?
"Like a furrow."  What is the middle rib like on the
other side of the leaf? "Like a ridge."  What, then,
would be good names for the rib of the leaf on its different sides? "The furrow rib on the upper side,
and the ridge rib on the under side."
Why do we call one the upper and the other the
under side? "Because that is the position of the
leaf when on the tree."
Now observe the leaf again; there are other lines
upon the leaf. Where do these lines commence, and
where do they end? "They commence at the middle rib, and end at the edge."
These lines are called veins. In what are they like
the middle rib?  "They sink in like furrows on the
upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the
under surface of it."
Do you observe any thing more in the leaf?  "It
is green." "The under side is dull, and the upper
side is bright."
Feel of it.  "It is thin."  "It is soft."  Any thing
more? "It bends easily; it can be folded easily."
"It is pliable."
What more do you observe when you feel it?  "It
is light and smooth."
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OBJECT LESSONS.
What is its shape?  "Like an egg-oval."
Now tell me all that you can remember of this lesson about the leaf. "The leaf is a vegetable substance;
it grows on a stem; it has a toothed edge; it has a
middle rib, which is like a futrrowc on the Gypper su'fctce, and like a ri(lge on the under side; it has also
many veins, which are like furrows on the Mapper side,
and like ridges on the under side.  Its color is green;
its shape is ovcal. To the touch it is thin, soft, and
smooth; it bendcls easily; the upper side is bright, and
the under side is dull."
Since there is less danger of erring in the manner
of conducting the lessons of the third series than with
those of the first and secondl, a fewer number of example lessons will suffice for illustrating the mode of
drawing them out. It is believed, therefore, that
those already given here will suggest the proper
course to be pursued with other objects. But the
teacher should be careful to avoid any stereotyped set
of questions in conducting these exercises; let the
object itself suggest the parts, qualities, materials,
and uses which should furnish the points for conversation.
Again we would remind the teacher not to ask leading questions, yet to so conduct the exercises as to
guide the pupils in their observations and direct their
attention to the parts or qualities desired. Do not
tell.them wherever they can learn by observation, or
the use of either their sense. of sight, feeling, smellicg, tasting, or hearing.  One of the chief uses of this
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A GRADUATED COURSE OF -
course of object lessons is to train the senses in a systematic mode of gaining knowledge.
Those teachers who have carefully observed the
successive steps in this course of graduated object lessons will now be able to proceed readily with lessons
on other objects, drawing out the sketches themselves.
MIany of the objects which were mentioned as suitable for lessons during the first and second series are
also suitable for those of the third, as some points
connected with their materials, qualities, formation,
and uses, which the pupils would not have been able
to comprehend at those stages in their development,
may now be brought forward, and the lessons made
more useful by a more complete and thorough observation.
As a matter of convenience to the teacher, we will
add a list of objects suitable for lessons at this stage,
indicating some of the leading points for consideration; and, of course, the uses of each object, its formation and materials, should also be considered in every
lesson. It is hoped that this list will be found to contain an ample variety of subjects to suggest all that
may be required by the primary teacher.
NOTE.-We have purposely omitted animals from these lessons,
not because they do not form suitable subjects for lessons during
this period of development, but because we have found it necessary
to prepare a second volume on Object Lessons, in order to develop
the lessons on Natural History as filly as it is deemed necessary
fi:'u a systematic course of primary training.
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OBJECT LESSONS.
SUBJECTS FOR OBJECT LESSONS.
Camphor.-Semi-transparent, aromatic, easily crumbling or fria    ble, very inflammable, medicinal, volatile, soluble in spirits.
Bread.-Porous, absorbent, opaque, edible, wholesome, nutri    tious, soft, moist.
Rice.-Hard, absorbent, nutritious, vegetable.
Egg.-Oval, white, hard, eatable, opaque, nutritious, shell brittle,
thin.
Ginger.-Pungent, dry, fibrous, vegetable, medicinal, aromatic.
Pel))er.-Hard, pungent, odorous, aromatic, vegetable.
Nutimeg.-Oval, hard, opaque, vegetable, pungent, aromatic, odor    ous.
Cinnamon.-Agreeable  to the taste, aromatic, pungent, brittle,
medicinal, vegetable.
T'inegar.-Sour, liquid, odorous, medicinal.
Ink.-Black, opaque, liquid, fluid, poisonous, useful.
Bell.-Barrel, hollow, circular, sonorous, metal, clapper, heavy,
uses of the different kinds of bells.
]1iirror.-Smooth, bright, reflective, brittle, manufactured.
Cork.-Light, elastic, compressible, cylindrical, inflammable, veg    etable.
Ilorn.-Hard, translucent, odorous when burnt, soft when boiled,
animal substance.
Ivory.-Hard, white, smooth, solid, durable, animal substance.
Book.-Outside, inside, edges, corners, binding, stitching, leaves,
pages, sides, top, bottom, back, title-page, preface, contents,
margin, type, paper, leather.
Scissors.-Blades, bows, shanks, rivet, points, edges, curved bows,
steel, hard, opaque, solid.
Quill.-Barrel, feather, elastic, transparent, pith, hollow, light,
animal substance.
Acorn.-Oval, solid, smooth inside, rough outside, hard, nut, veg    etable substance.
Pine Cone.-Conical, brown, scales, hard, odorous, vegetable sub    stance.
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-   iuff.-Fur, skin of an animal, soft, warm,  flexible,  cylindri
cal.
Starch.-White, soluble in warm water, sticky, vegetable sub    stance.
Brick.-Hard, oblong, sides, ends, corners, color, size, weight,
mineral, manufactured.
Tree.-Trunk, roots, limbs, branches, leaves, bark, buds, sap, veg    etable.
Cheese, butter, apple, peach, plum, gooseberry, cherry, orange,
currant, peas, corn, bird's-nest, earthenware, china, soap, coffee,
tea, balloon, gun, brush, flannel, buttons.
USE OF PICTURES.
In this connection it may be well to add that pictures should be shown, in addition to the objects,
whenever convenient; and especially should pictures
be shown whenever the object for the lesson can not
be presented for examination.
An instructive exercise may be had by showing a
picture to the pupils, requesting them to observe all
the objects represented in it; then remove the picture,
and call upon them to describe it by telling what it
represents.
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DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
" Simple thoughts of God and Christian virtues, impressed upon
us in early childhood, are never erased from memory or heart."
"TRAIX up a child in the way he should go" is not
only God's command to parents, but it is society's first
demand on both teacher and parent. This training,
too, is one of the first needs of the child's own nature.
With it, happiness is within his reach; without it, not
only is his own happiness impossible, but he will interfere with that of others.
This training should be commenced very early. As
soon as emotion is felt it may be biased by education.
The impressions that adhere longest to us, and are the
deepest, are those of which we remember not the origin-those which we imbibed unconsciously in infancy. The child's disposition may issue from this period with a strong bent to good. Then there are no
obstacles to overcome; nothing to unlearn; the affections are soft and pliable. If this period pass without
moral training, the difficulties are greatly increased,
the affections take a bent of their own.
The great means of training the moral feelings is to
draw them out into action. A feeling without action
is              mere sentiment; it d oes nothing.  If we wouldl cul
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350   DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
tivate kindness, we must show kindness in our deeds;
if reverence, we must exhibit the example of rever ence; if we would develop ideas of justice, honesty,
truthfulness, we must improve the opportunities of
daily intercourse to exemplify them.
It will be of little use to tell the child about reverence, justice, honesty, truthfulness, if these are never
acted before it; it is only by acts that the child can
know them. We have too much abstract teaching
in morals, as well as in mental education. The law
of exercise is of universal application to moral and
mental, as well as in physical training. And there is
greater room for activity here than most of us at first
suppose. The daily lessons and occurrences of the
schoolroom, and the incidents of the playground, furnish opportunities for the most effective lessons in
morals. To seize upon these opportunities, and to improve them in the right spirit, should be the earnest
aim of every teacher.
Let the golden rule be the key-note in moral training; teach the children to do to others as they would
have others do to them. This positive teaching is the
characteristic feature of the morality of the New Testament.
AIuch of this instruction may be most profitably
given incidentally, without stated times for moral
training; yet there are first ideas of God, virtue, right,
love to others, duty, etc., which should be taken up
and presented in regular succession for the development of simple moral and religious truths as a foundation for future instruction.
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DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
Children should be taught ideas of God as a kind
father; of God as the maker of all things; of an
immortal mind; of conscience; of truth; of obedience; of industry; of cleanliness; of order.  And
all of this training should be simple, familiar, and free
from technical phrases and formal teaching; it should
be chiefly illustrated by examples and incidents from
life. "Our Father, who art in heaven," should be the
keynote of this instruction; then love, reverence, and
obedience to Him would have a real significance to
the young.
Let the fundamental ideas of religion be thus established in early childhood, and they will shine out clearly in future years, an anchor of rescue to the soul when
happiness and life seem about to be wrecked forever.
Simple moral truths thus early implanted in the heart
have rescued many a noble youth from the whirlpool
of corruption, when all other lessons of wisdom had
been washed away by the waves of passion.
A few lessons and subjects for lessons will suggest
what course may be pursued here.
LESSON I.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF GOD AS A KIND FATHER.
I wish to talk with you, children, about those you
love. Tell me (addressing each pupil individually)
whom you love. Why do you love your mother?
Why do you love your father? your sister? your
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352  DDEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDES.
brother? What did your mother do for you before
you came to school this morning?  What will she do
when you go home?  If you are sick, or any one hurts
you, to whom do you go and tell your trouble? Who
is pleased to hear that you have been a good child?
Who works to get money to buy your clothes and
food for you to eat?
In this manner, by familiar conversation, the teacher should lead the children to talk freely upon the different acts which show the love of their friends, and
endeavor to call out their warmest feelings of love
and gratitude in return.
Why do your parents thus feed and clothe you, and
watch over you when you are sick, and kiss you?
Yes, because they love you. All of you have some
kind friends who love and care for you.
Now, children, listen very attentively to what I
say, and I will tell you about a Friend that you all
have-one who is kind to all of you-one who loves
you better than your father or your mother does-one
who takes care of you at all times-one who watches
over you when you are asleep as well as when you
are awake; for he never sleeps-one who is ready to
give you all things you ask him for. Do any of you
know who it is that I mean? This good friend is
God. You can not see him, but he always sees you,
and knows all about you. He tells us to call him
Father because he loves us as a father. He is in
heaven-he is our Father in heaven.
N'ow tell me what kind, good Friend we all have?
Wheat does he tell us to call him?  Why does he tell
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DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
us to call him Father?  Who is this good Friend?
Where is he?  What does he do for us?
The children may now be required to repeat, God
is our Father in heaven. Hffe loves us, and takes care
of us, and is alhcays doing ts  good.
The teacher should aim to impress the children with
a feeling of reverential love to God. This love may
be awakened by bringing the affection to their parents
into lively exercise, and then directing it to their
heavenly Father; their reverence may be awakened
by making them feel that God is far above us in
heaven; though invisible to our eyes, that he still
cares for and watches over us day and night-that he
is our heavenly _tther.  Much of the effect of these
lessons will depend upon the manner and feeling with
which they are given.
LESSON II.
TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF GOD AS THE MAKER OF
ALL THINGS.
Let us now talk about making different things, clildren.  Who made your shoes for you?  Who made
your dress?  Could things make themselves?  No,
it would be very silly to think they could. Who
made the bread you eat? Could the bread make itself? Other questions should be asked, leading the
children to see that things must have a maker, and
that they could not make themselves.
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354    DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
Can your father make any thing? Here allow the
children to talk about what their different fathers can
do. The art of the teacher is first to call out the mind
and heart into activity, and then to direct the thoughts
and feelings.
You can tell me who made your shoes, your clothes,
and the bread you eat, but I want to talk about something much more beautiful than these, and see if you
can find out who made them. You have all seen the
sun. How brightly it shines! It warms us and gives
us light. Can any of you tell me who made this beautiful sun? It was God who made the sun to warm
us and give us light and heat. What did God make?
Why did he make the sun? What did I tell you
about God the other day? All of you may repeat it
together.
"God is our Father in heaven; he loves us, and
takes care of us, and is always doing us good."
What has God made?  "God made the beautiful
sun that warms us and gives us light." If there were
no sun you could not see. It would also be cold, and
nothing would grow. God is good, then, to give us
the sun. Who made the sun? For whose good has
God made the sun? What good is it to us? It gives
us light and warmth, and causes the grain to grow.
God makes all the trees, and plants, and flowers
grow; he made all the animals and birds, and he made
us also. Now let us think what he has given us.
How do you know what is in this room?  "We  can
see the things."  What  do you see with?  "Our
eyes." Who gave you eyes?
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DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
How do you know I am talking to you?  "We
can hear you."  With what do you hear?  "With
our ears."  Who gave you ears?
How do you know that fuir is soft and iron hard?
"By feeling them."  Who gave you feeling?
How do you know that sugar is sweet and lemon
sour?  "By tasting them."  Who gave you taste?
How do you know that the rose has a pleasant
odor?  "By smelling it."  Who gave you smell?
Now all these things give you pleasure; it is pleasant to see, and hear, and feel, and taste, and smell;
and these things should make you happy, and make
you love God for giving you so many senses to add
to your happiness.
LESSON III.
TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF THE SOUL.*
Have dogs, and horses, and cows bodies? Yes,
God gave them bodies. Have they bones, and flesh,
and blood, and skin? Yes, all of these animals have
bodies as well as you. Are their bodies like yours?
How many legs have you? How many legs has
* In a little volume entitled "Peep of Day," published by the
American Tract Society, ideas of the body, of God as a father, and
of the soul, are admirably drawn out in simple illustrations for
children. We are chiefly indebted to that volume for this lesson
on the soul. We can not do a better service in illustrating how to
proceed in moral training than by commending that book to teachers and parents.
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356    DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
the dog?  Has the dog arms?  Has the dog hands?
No, the dog has legs instead of arms. Your skin is
smooth, but the dog is covered with hair.
Is the cat's body like yours? Is the chicken's body
like yours?  How many legs has the chicken?  Has
the chicken feet like yours? Have you feathers on
your skin? Have you wings? Is your mouth like
the chicken's beak?  Has the chicken any teeth?
No, the chicken's body is not at all like yours; yet
the chicken has a body, for it has flesh, and bones, and
blood, and skin.
Has a fly a body? Yes, it has a black body, and
six black legs, and two wings, like glass.
Who gave bodies to dogs, horses, cows, chickens,
and flies?  Who keeps them alive?
Can a dog or a horse thank God? No; dogs, and
horses, and cows, and chickens can not thank God;
they can not think of God. They never heard of
God. They can not understand about God. Why
can they not understand about God? Because they
have no sotls, or minds, like yours. Your soul can
think of God, and thank him for all that he does for
you.  It knows right and wrong.
Have you a soul? Yes, in your body there is a
soul, or a mind, which will never die.  When God
made your body he placed your soul in it. When
God made the dogs and horses he put no souls in
their bodies, and they can not think of God.
Can I see your soul? No, I can not see it. No
one can see it but God. He knows what you are
thinking now.
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DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
Which is the best part, your body or your soul?
Your soul is a great deal the best. Your body can
die, but your soul can not die.
Your body is made of dust. God made the dust
into flesh, and bones, and blood. Your soul is made
of the breath of God.
Some day the dog will die, and its body will be
thrown away. The dog will be quite gone when its
body is dead. But when your body dies your soul
will still live; it will go back to God, who gave it.
Your body will decay, and turn to dust again; but
your soul will live forever; it will never die.
It is your soul that thinks; if we wish to make any
thing, we can think how to make it, and then use the
tools to make it. If we want more tools, we can
make them too. Birds can build nests, but they can
not use tools, nor make any thing except what God
taught them to do. Animals can learn a few things,
but children can learn a great many things.
In a similar manner should the teacher proceed to
develop ideas of right and wrong, and of a conscience.
Here ample illustrations will occur to exhibit what is
meant by right and wrong; and the pupils should frequently be called upon to decide in simple cases which
is the one and which the other. A little volume by
Jacob Abbott, "Learning about Right and Wrong,"
will be useful here.
Illustrate the unkindness of calling names, and of
mocking the aged or infirm; of pinching and teasing
each other.
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358   DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS.
Truth, honesty, kindness, obedience, industry, cruelty to animals, cleanliness, order, punctuality, selfcontrol, gentleness, etc., should all be explained, and
the children taught to distinguish them.
Finally, take the examples of the Great Teacher as
a model. Observe how he selected familiar scenes and
objects to illustrate his truths. Study his methods,
seek his guidance, accept his promises, and success
must be the crown.
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APPARATUS DESIRABLE IN OBJECT
TEACHING.
For General Use. - Blackboards, with white and colored
Crayons; and Slate and Pencil for each pupil.
For Elementary Reading.-Letter and Word Cards, Reading Charts, and Primary Readers.
For Form.-Chart of Lines and Forms; Box of Forms and
Solids; Gonigraph; Laths.
For Color.-Chart of Colors; colored Cards; colored Crayons; Box of Water Colors; Glass Prism; Worsteds, Ribbons, and
Paper of various Colors.
For Number.-Numeral Frame; Buttons, Beans, and Pebbles. A shelf, of about one foot in width, should be arranged
across one end of the room. Let four inches of the back part of
the shelf be divided into compartments of four inches wide by eight
inches long, and about one inch in depth. Into each alternate
box place beans and pebbles. When a class is to be exercised in
the first ideas of number, let them stand in front of the shelf, each
occupying sixteen inches of space, and using a box of beans and
one of pebbles while adding, subtracting, multiplying, etc.
For Size and "the Tables."-Foot Rule; Yard-stick; Tape
Measure; Gill, Pint, Quart, Gallon, Peck, and half Bushel Measures; Squares of Pasteboard or thick Paper one inch, one foot,
and one yard; pieces of Twine, Cord, Rope, Cable; pieces of Wire
of various sizes; Shot, Bullet, Grape, Ball; Grains of Sand, Gravel, Pebble, and Stone; Sticks and Strings of different lengths;
Paper, Cloth, and Boards of different thicknesses; strips of Paper,
Ribbon, etc., of different widths; small and large Bags, Boxes, etc.
For Weight.-A pair of Scales, with two + oz., eight 1 oz.,
four 4 oz., two 8 oz., one each of 1 lb. and 2 lb. weights; Balls
or Cubes of Cork, Wood, Lead, Iron; Bags of Feathers, Cotton,
Wool, Beans, Oats, Pebbles, Shot.
Por Sounl.-Chart of Elementary Sounds; Bells, Flute, Triangle, etc.
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APPARATUS DESIRABLE IN.
For Place.-Outline Maps of School District, Village or City,
Town, County, State; Pictures and Maps of Divisions of Land
and Water, as Island, Isthmus, Cape, Bay, etc.
For Object Lessons.-Articles used in domestic economy, as
Cup and Saucer, Spoon, Knife and Fork, etc.
Articles used in different trades, as Trowel, Shovel, Hoe, Rake,
Hammer, and Nails of various kinds and sizes, Saw, Gimlet, Auger, Chisel, Plane, Needle, Pins, Scissors, Pincers, Awl, Painter's
Brush, etc.
Textile fabrics, as Cotton, Linen, Woolen, Silk, in their different stages from the raw materials to thread and cloth.
Vegetable products, as pieces of different kinds of Wood, Grains,
Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Seeds, Nuts.
Animal products, as Fur, Feathers, Leather, Whalebone, Ivory,
Shells, etc.
Minerals, as Coal, Slate, Marble, Lime, Iron, Lead, Copper,
Tin, etc.
Such a collection could readily be made by inviting the aid of
pupils and their parents. It should consist of the smallest and
cheapest articles of each class. Such a museum should be kept in
a separate room, or a large closet to which the pupils have no access. The objects should not be placed where the pupils can see
them at will, lest they become so common to the eyes of the children as to detract from their interest when used in a lesson. There
is a temptation to overuse objects by frequent exhibitions of them,
and this sometimes results in a distaste among the children for the
most valuable collection. The true method for the use of any collection of objects or apparatus is to use them only when needed
for an illustration, or to form the topic of a lesson; at other times
they should not be exposed to the eyes of the children.
Pictures or charts are very important accompaniments of objects. Those illustrating Natural History, men, quadrupeds,
birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, trees, plants; economical uses of
animals; sources of manufacture; sources of vegetable food;
sources of medicines; poisonous plants, etc., are of great assistance in communicating instruction on these subjects.
These charts and illustrations should not be suspended on the
walls of the schoolroom until they have been used for lessons. As
far as possible, they should be new to the children when first employed in illustrating lessons. After they have been made symbols
by having instruction attached to them, they may be left in view
of the children until they become familiar with them.
It is appropriate to place upon the walls of the schoolroom mottoes, and pictures representing beautiful scenery, and subjects interesting to children, not designed for lessons. It gives a cheerful
aspcct to the room, and improves the taste of the pupils.
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OBJECT TEACHING.
Teacher's Library.-The teacher should be provided with a
library of works on teaching and education, and books of reference.
A small sum thus invested by the Board of Education or Trustees in a permanent library for the teachers would amply repay itself in the general improvement of the school. There is as much
necessity for the teacher to have a library relating to his profession,
and books of reference, as for the physician, or lawyer, or minister to have libraries pertaining to their professions. The following would form a suitable list of
BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS.
[SVorks indicated thus I are published in England.]
Northend's Teacher's Assistant.
Edgeworth's Practical Education.
Dr. Hooker's Child's Book of Nature; Child's Book of Common
Things; Primary Geography.
Hill's First Lessons in Geometry.
Brande's Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art.
Hazen's Professions and Trades.
Evenings at Home.
Peep of Day; Line upon Line.
Reading without Tears.
Cowdery's Moral Lessons.
Sedgwick's Morals of Manners.
Mudie's Observation of Nature.
Uncle Philip's American Forest; Natural History.
Prof. Rennie's Natural History of Insects; Quadrupeds; Birds.
Mayhew's Wonders of Science.
"    Peasant Boy Philosopher.
Wells's Science of Common Things.
Gray's How Plants Grow.
Abbott's Learning to Think; Learning to Talk; Learning to
Read; Learning about Common Things; Learning about
Right and Wrong.
Barnard's Object Teaching.
Exercises on the Improvement of the Senses.*
The Observing Eye.*
Arithmetic for Young Children.*
Geography for Young Children.*
Information on Common Objects.*
Mayo's Lessons on Objects.*
Hints and Helps.* By Rev. Wm. Short.
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BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
PROFESSIONAL LIBRARY FOR TEACHERS.
[Works indicated thus * are published in England.]
Barnard's American Journal of Education. 10 vols.
[The papers contained in the two following volumes are in      cluded in the above Journal of Education.]
American Contributions to the Philosophy and Practice of
Education. By Professor William Russell; Rev. Dr. Hill,
President of Antioch College; Rev. Dr. Huntingdon; Gid      eon F. Thayer, late Principal of Chauncey Hall School;
Rt. Rev. Bishop Burgess, and others.
Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, with Sketches of the Educa      tional Views of other Swiss Educators.
Barnard's National Education in Europe.
Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching.
Holbrook's Normal Methods.
Northend's Teacher and Parent.
Abbott's Teacher.
Mayhew's Popular Education.
The School and the Schoolmaster.
Palmer's Teacher's Manual.
Ogden's Science of Education and Art of Teaching.
Spencer's Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical.
Tate's Philosophy of Education.*
Stow's Training System of Education.*
Wilderspin's Education for the Young.*
Currie's Early Infant Education.*
Young's Infant-School Teacher's Manual.*
Chambers's Infant Education.*
Mayo's Model Lessons; Manual of Elementary Instruction; In
fant Education.*
THE END.
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Books for Schools and Colleges
PUBLISHED BY
HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE, NEW YOUL
HARPER & BOTHEERS will send either of the following Works by Mlail, pos'age prepaid (for any distance in the United States under 3000 ntiles), oi0 receipt
oqf the Mfoney.
For a full Descriptive List of Books suitable for Schools and Colleges, see
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4th. In Illustrations, and in Paper, Printing, and durability of Bindisg, they
greatly excel other Readers, while THE PRCES ARE EXTREMELY LOW.
THE PRIMER (INTRODUCTORY), 48 pages, Large 12mo,
Price 15 cents.
Beginning with the Alphabet, extends to words of four letters. The conversational style is adopted to a considerable extent, and marks are given to denote the
proper inflections, that the child, aided by the teacher, may begin to read natutally, and thus avoid those bad habits which are so difficult of correction.
WVILLSON'S FIRST READER. 84 Pages, Large 12mo,
Price 20 cents.
Beginning with easy words of four letters, extends to easy words of six letters,
and a few easy words of two and three syllables. In this Reader, also, the conversational style is frequently introduced, and the system of inflections is continued.
WILLSON'S SECOND READER, 156G Pages, Large 12mo,
Price 30 cents.
Is divided into Seven Parts, each preceded by one or more Elocutionary RULES,
designed for the use of the Teacher only, and to enforce upon him the importane(
of requiring pupils to read as directed by the inflections. Suiiperior illustrative engravings are made the s?ubjects of a large niimler of tfi, R.a 1lng,.eson,.
O
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WTllsoit's School ati( Fm7aniily Readers.
WILLSON'S THIRD READER. 264 Pages, Large 12mo,
Price 50 cents.
Contains, first, a brief synopsis of the "Elements of Elocution."  Part I., "Stories from the Bible." Part 1I., "Moral Lessons." Part III. takes up the first
great division of Animal Life, the "A lammalia," mostly Quadrupeds. This portion is made exceedingly interesting, and the illustrations are unsurpassed in any
work on Natural History.  Poetical and prose selections give variety to the Le.-ons.  Part IV., "Miscellaneotn."
WVILLSON'S FOURTH READER. 360 Pages, Large 12mo,
Price 66 cents.
Contains, after the " Elements of Elocution," Part I., " Human Physiology and
HIealth." Part II. resumes the subject of Animal Life in the division which treats
of "Ornithology, or BIRDS."  The same as with Quadrupeds, the leading species
of the several Classes or Orders of Birds are grouped in cuts which show their relative sizes, and many of the most beautiful poetic gems in our language illustrate
the descriptive portions, and give variety to the Reading Lessons. Part III.,
,'Vegetable Physiology, or Botany."  Part IV., "Miscellaneous."  In Part V.,
"Natural Philosophy," we look in upon the school at "Glenwild," and listen to
the conversations held in a " Volunteer Philosophy Class."  Part VI., "Sketches
from Sacred hIistory," contains some of the finest selections of Sacred Poetry, with
beautiful illustrations.
WILLSON'S FIFTH READER. 540 Pages, Large 12mo,
Price $1 00.
Contains, Part I., "Elocutionary," in which the higher principles of Elocution
are developed in a series of Conversations, with numerous examples. Part II.,
"Herpetology, or REPTILES" (the Third Division of Zoology), with drawings of 40
species.  Part III., "Human Physiology and IHecalth," continued from the Fourth
Reader, with 13 illustrations.  Part IV., "Botany," continued from the Fourth
Reader, with drawings of nearly 200 species of Plants, grouped in Families, in accordance with the "Natural Method."  Part V., "Ichthyology, or FIsuES" (the
Fourth Division of Zoology), with drawings of 124 species.  Part VI., "Civil Architecture," appropriately illustrated with the different Orders, &c.  Part VII.,
" Chemistry."  Part VIII., "Geology," with Geological Chart and Drawings of
Extinct Animals.  Part XI., "IAncient History," with illustrative Poetical Selections, &c.
There are also Ten "'Miscellaneous" Divisions, each illustrated.
Choice selections, in great part poetical, have been gathered from more than tic
hundred different writers, to give interest to and illustrate the scientific divisions,
and thereby furnish a suitable variety for reading purposes.
To PRINCWPALS OF SCIOOLS, who wish single copies for Examination, with a
view to Is~troduction, the above books will be sent, postage prepaid, on receipt of
half the prices above named. To other persons they will be sent, postage prepaid,
on receipt of the full price.
For Terms of Introdtuctiosi, and for Ageucies, address HALPER & BaOTHERS or
MARCirs WILLSON, to their care.
Published by HARPER & BROTHERS,
FranklinSquare, New York.
a 
ZEI)ODI anu'Famil Citarts.
Beautifully Illustrated, and most of them Colored.
BY
MARCIUS WILLSON and N. A. CALKINS.
Primary Reading Charts.
Nos. 1 and 2. The Alphabet, and Short Words and Sentences.
" 3 and 4. Words and Sentences.
"  5 and  6. Reading Lessons.
" 7 and  8. Elementary Sounds, Phonetics, &c.
" 9 and 10. Alphabets, &c., for Drawing and Writing.
Object Lesson Charts.
No. 11. Chart of Lines and Measures.
"12. Forms, and Solids.
"13. Thirty-five different Colors, with Solar Spectrum.
" 14. Numerals, and their Applications.
Natural History Charts,
Adapted to Object Lesson Teaching.
No. 15. Zoology-the Mammalia. More than 200 Colored Fig        ures of Animals, with their proper Classification.
16. Economical Uses of Animals, and Representatives of
Leading Orders. -
17. Chart of Birds.  Nearly 200 Colored Figures.
18. Chart of Reptiles and Fishes. 170 Colored Figures.
19 and 20. Botanical  Charts, showing 190 Colored Plants,
with their Classification, together with Organs of Flow        ers, and Forms of Leaves, Stems, Roots, and Flowers.
"21 and 22. Economical Uses of Plants. (Plants used for
Food, Clothing, Medicine, Coloring, &c.)
The above Charts are on heavy Binders' Boards-two Charts
occupying the two sides of one Card. In size they are about 24 by
29 inches.
They are now Nearly Ready for Publication.  July, 1861.
Published by HARPER & BROTHERS,
Franklin Square, New York.
a