T I E PHEYSIOCA PHEI PNOMF NNA, OF INATURE It BOBKII HUNT, ItC) 0 E Iit T ) U'I N T AU't-O or i P*AN tgAl' U:EAWU-S}iA..'' S ON tt:<* L II"f:(,Wt iow ehalrmntg Is Divine thl lo.soihy!'Not hash a t(l crabd as. dull flols mxlppo%.s lt. mwlMia ta ld A poI}os. t l And a peqrpeu:al freas cf nle-etard's-t Wtahe^e nto rtui.sfConvtctiontt.. ladiation~ Ac.. tion of the Atrmosphdere on I leat-Rays~. Peculiafr tlat-i:' ays.. Absntit:t of P 1lants'.~1-l ectic ai atn Crtmbinted P)hysicaI Powers, *. Page 271' C HAI PTR f X:V. IIF;XOMENA O()F ANIM AL LIF 1I )lisetinctons betweent the K.ingdotXm of Na3tutre. -.X'iPro^res of Alnimial Life -.- Spone "s..' Polypes.... i Intfusoria'- Al' nilaleutla. ttf.l:hosphftOrescct Animals.... Annelilans ~. Mtyapoda ~ A nimil Metaortphoses n-ci~p~sc. Fishe s ~ B iirdfs -. M anrtt alt a NI.. a.'Ne,trvolu Syste in Animal lecc4 tr icity - t COh icl I infilences -- Influence of Light on A.inma ilif'e -. Annimal HIeat - t..echanical Action..........s IE'xcitetment T - t....Man and the Anit-mal aces, t&e * Page 292 (C 1 APTil 3): X VX I, IENIGl A C(,)NOX('JSIONS. The Chantige producedc on Physical lPhenic.iiena by the Mnovttementt of tlh Solar System consideried'' Exertion of thte Physical Forces throfgh the Celestial Spaces*...-"- The B lauie olicof Powelirs Va8 rt-ieti s of Matter -.Extension of Matter; -'T.'cc.Thery of Nctnenstity —A m xaterial Creation, an indisputable Fact~. Advantages of the Study of Science C(toncltsiot.f.. P*age 310 I i O T I.tO ) U C 0 I. The Trie is the Beautiful. Whenever this becomes evl dent to our senses, its influent es are of a soul-elevating) character. The't beautitul, wtIether it is perceived in the external foxrms of lmatter, associated in the 6halmonies of light and colour, a ppreciated in the modulations of sweet sounds, or miingled with those influences which tare, as the inner life of creation, appealing to the t oul through,tjl vesture wiich covers all things, is the natural theme of the poet, and the c-hosen stud(y of the philosopher. But., it will be asked, where is the relation between the stern labours of science and the ethereal system whic}h coz stitutes poetry?'"lhe flumes of tihe laboratory, its alkalies ant acids, the techlnical appliances of the observatory, its specula and its lenses, do not appear fitted for a place in the painted bowers of the -Muses. l'ut, from the labours of tle chemlist in hls cell -friomt the multitudinous observations of the astronomer on his tower,.- spring truths whicht the philtosotpher Cemploys to intertpret natture's mysteries, antd whichl ive to the soul of the (poet those realities to whicll he aspiren its I Is itmaginings Scien:ce solicits froml the material world, by the persua), O. 1.8 I:1ititObPUCitOINH ston of inductive se arch, a developm'ent of its olementarsy principles, and of tlie laws whlich these obey. Philosophy strives to apply the discovered ficts to the great phelnomt:ena of beingt,.. to deduce large gcneralitics fromt the fragmentary discoveries of severe inlductttion, a- l thus thot tc aseend from matter and its properties up t tthose impulses which stir the whole, 1totating, as it were, on the confines of sense, and indicating, though dimly, those superior powers which, more nearly related to infinity, mysteriously -:maif'lkst them:selves in the plheomnenat t of ntind.*, Poe:try seizes the facts f th one o:and the theories of the o ther unites them by a pleasing thought, iwhicth appeals for truth to the most unthinking soul, and l ds the rel lefive intellect to higher and higther exercises; it connects., colfmmon plhenonema with exalted idetas; and, applyingi its holiest powerst it invests the human lmind with;thC sovercei'i strengtth of the ITrIue. T'ruth is the soul of the poet's thought; truth is- the reward of the philosopher's toil; andx their works, hearig this official stamptt livet amon)g: mXtten: through all time. Seience at present rejoices in her mninstr to t he requirement:s of advanm ttt cig vilization, and iss ontentt to receivet the reward given to applications which increase the comfor:rts of lil, or add to its luxur ies. Eve improvement in the arts or ma.nufacitures hlas a tendency to elevate the race who are benefited thereby. fBut because science is useful in the orking day s of our week, it is not to be neglected on our:ab bath,......- when, rc sti,.g fro our l taours, itj be. comes agree'able to contemplate the f w tre tuths pernfitted to our knowledge, and thus enter into communiont as closely as is allowed to finite beings, with those influenccs which INTRODTU'TION. 19 involve a nd interpenetrato the etartT giving to: all thin Li, Bcauty, and 1Divinity. The himnian mind natutrally dclih ts in the discovery of truth; anld eve A enwhe piervCrted by the constant operatiot i of prevailing crrors, a glimps of the tleal comes upon it ilike the smie oif daylight to the sotrrowing captive of sorme dark prison. Thte P'csyh ean la'ours'to try man's soul, and exalt it, are the search. for truth beneath the mysteries whilch surround creation~, -. to gather a naranths shining with the 1hues of hetaven, from plains upon which hang, dark and hca1vy, the iiists of" car'thi. -: p.jt..fay a fheavy, the mtists of earth.r Thfe poet may pay the debt of nature, t.the l.philosopher t mar return to the bosomS of our Acommon ml other, -....even their names fade in th1e tpassage of time, like planiets blotted out of hea:ven but the trutths they have revealed to man burn on for ever with unx ttitnguishab)le l:,ilghtness. Truth cannot die; it, passes firomr mind to mtind,^ imparting li ht in i ts pogregss an constantly renewing its own brigh.itess during its diffusion..:"}The True is the IlBeautifull; and the truths revealed to the mtind rendeRr us catpable of perceiving newt beauties on tht earth. T ihe gla tdness of trutht ihs like the rit'ging v oicee of at joyou0 s childld atnd the moitst remote recesses echo witht the cheerfil sound. id To be lforver true is the Science of Poet: ryt, the revelation of' truttAh is the Poetry of Science. AMan, a c r ation endued with mighty fit ultie.s, bi.)t.a rmystery to himsce lf stanudst in the mid;st of a wonderfiul world, and an infinitt vatriety of phlenomena arise around him, in strange ftirm allnd magi e'al dtisposition, like the plhatasIma of a rs s.. le.ss nright. the solid rock obeys a powNer whi ch brings its congelries of atoms ito a tho}usand shapes, each one geometrically $20 IsxtmiODBCTXONr'O, iprict,'T t.ts, vegettable ctoverlin-g, in olbedience to sorle external excitation, developes itself in a curious diversity of fivn'm, f.lom tihe exquiitely gracefil to the singularly grotesq.uce, and exhibits properties stilli more varied and opposed. 1The animal ori:Latnisml quickened by higher impul Oses' -powers work*in within, and m.odifying tihe influence of the external tt ohreet - s, pre, fromt the Tofn~ad to the Mannmmoth, and through ever:y phlse of being up, to M an,'a yet more wonderfid series of camibinations, and featurets still more strangely contrasted.t Liftin g our searching gaze into thie neasureless space bevoe'nd our earth, we fitnd planet blound to planet, and systeL chainted t:o systemn all imp:elled by a utnivers lr fbrce to roll in regularitay and order around a cttommon centre.'t' plendulaioins of the remnotest star are comumnicatcd thro:gh tie nsm.: en bond; and our rocklint world obeys the it.vste..rious inmpulse throughout all tltose fitorces w0 hi( reg.ulate the inorganic combinations of this earth, and unto )hich ites otrgani creationm is irresistibly compelled to bow.,ie gl-orious s'u by (1y and thue moon and stars int the silence and the mystery of nihglt, are 1feIt to influence all mio aterial naturet, ho l in ttr t le ga't Iar th bou nd in a man iystranded cord which carnnot be broken, The tidal flow of the vast oceian, Nwith its variety of animal and ve' getaibl life, -.... th.e attmostphere, brio.ue bt h it:t N i lt., os edt by the storm -cl oudt stpa:ntvnd Ly thoe rainblow, or rcent w\it}h tlhe eSxplosiont s of cectklic tir test to the might of thlese clementary bond,: liThes ae are olut ai few of the'gr: ea phe enome(na which p, lay their part arit nd this globe of ours, xciting mienI to Iwonder, or shakiing themr with terror. I NTO:r!tOT):TI"t.rION. 21 Tl-oe mind of man, in its progress towards its higher des tfiriyu, tasked witht the physical earth as a problen, which, within the liunts of a lifi, it musI t st'lrugle to so.lve The uinttellectual spirit is capable of tembratcing all fiite tlhingl* Man is gifted with powers tfr studying the entire circle of visible creation; and lie is equ:al:, under prop-er training, to Pthe task of exalmiing much of t}te secret mlachilery whichX stirs the whole. in dim out:lshadowig, earth' first poets, firom the loveliness of extetrnal nature, evoked beautiful spiritualizations. tTo them, the sh.ady Ibrests teewmed with airial beings, ~. the gusbhing spring s rejoiced in fantastic sprites,' — the leaptin:g cataracts glearned with translucent shades, tt'+ fithe cavernous hills were the abodes of genti-ii,'.- atnd tlhe earthgirdling ocean8 was guarded by nmystetrions forms. Stuch were the creations of tofhe fiar-srearcbing tin id in t its early consciousness of the existence of unseen powerxs. The p}iblosopher picked out his wa\y throught the dtark and Iabyrinlthtine path, betwteen effectsl and causes, and slowly approaching towla rds thte light, he gathecrcd semblances of the great iRetality, like a, mirage' beautifull and truthful, althougth still ibit a cloud-reofcction of the vast Unseen.:t is thus that the hlunanit mind advances from the Ideal to the Real, and th. at the poet becoml-nes the philosopher,.and the philosoph.et r rises into the poet; but at the same time as we progress frotm itble to fitct, much of the soulsentintentc which made the romantic holy, anid gatve a noble tone to every aspiration, is too frequently merged in at cheerless philosophy whic}t clings to the earth, and reduces the minud to a mech.lanical condition, delighting in the accumulattion of fact, r eardless of tlhe great laws. by wIichl 94 )INTROlU)CTION these.o are regulattedand the harmony of all Telluric coml b.inations sec redt In s cience, we ftindI t ele lmenlts of the maosct (exalted poehtiy and in t he ysterious -woirkgs of the lphysical ltrces, we discover connections with the iilimi;ablc world of th.ought.- in which mitghty minds delight to tri their powers, ^as strantgely coinplihcated, and as ttai'vellously oIrered t as in the psvchological phenomiena which hate, almest exclusively, beten t he objects f their studies* in tile aspect of visible nature, with its wonvderfal diverits of ibr: and its charm ofr colour, we find the Beauttifl; and in the operations of these principles which are ever active in produing and tmaintaining the existing conditiomns of ma.ttter, we discover the Sublimtle 11The ibrim and colour of a flower roay excite our admiration; but when we come to examinte all the phenonmena, which com'tbinte to prodace that piece of sy mmetry and that lovely hue, t Itetr >:. to learn the physiological a trratngement of it.s strcturtal parts', t the chemlical actionts i by Vwhich its woody fibre tand its juices earle produced, ~-.and to itnvestigate ti.ose la\ws lby whilch is regulated the power to throw backt thte twhite sunbclam i omt its surfice in coloured:ra'vs ~.our adm-iration passtes to the hi gher t ig of deep astonistlimtnt at te tpercti tion. of the prtoceses:t, and of reverentce lb' their great l)esigner.'t her arte, indeed, tonar.tes int trees but science alone can int-elrpret their mAystserious xwhisperi, and iin this ccnsists its iocttr To rest c tontet xwith the bare enunciation of a ttrth, is to:perfbl;rm but one fh:alt f oa task. Ai s each atom of 1matter is minvolved in an at0mospthere of fproperties and powters which unxites it to every mass of the universe, so INTIODiWTGON. 2 each truth, hlowever common iti iay ve, is s8l.rrouinded by impln1.lses which, Ieigl awa;tkenetl, passi<; fLr.) s.oll to 8tsul like musictt al lulatior. in>, and Wlh ich w'ill be re.pe:ated thlouglthl th}e echoes of spae, andt prolotgedl for all eternityv Tle}' poItry w hich sprinii "gs frtno the conte nmplaition of the a.gTencies whaict are actively employed in pioduciitg the trans ibrnatiois of In'attof and wn}ich is founded upo:n the t:ruthts d velopted by the aids o:f sience, should be in no resp'ect itni:rior ito thaatt whicel'has tben insplired tby the bcantt of tlhe individual iornos of mllatter, and thle pleasing character of' thcir coin,ina ltionst T.he imaginative view of ian and his world.tthe creations of the romalntic mlind....... have en, allnd ever will be, t;W\'It 01it s\ km.. 11: vs.1'ytcy Of., oul we lt on with a soultabsorbing pas8sion,'the ystert o:f o being, and the myst:ery of our ceasing to be, acting uon. intellihgences wh ich are for ever striving to comfprehen(.t the etnigrma.t of th emselves, le ads by a n tural prd'ocess to a love fir thte Ideal. The discovery of those truths which adtvanrce the htumlan mind towards tlhat point of knowledge to which all its secretl longings tlend, should excitet a higter feeeling t:htn any mere creation of the fancy, how Ieautifitu soever i t rny be.t Thei pl0henomena of Icealitty arne more startling ttan the pha ntomns of the iIdeal.'tiith is stxranrtiter thanl fiction. tur ly manyt of the difcoveries of scielne~ wviltcht rela tt to tte cotinbinations of matterl a ndt ex(ibit results which we h could not by any previous efforts of reasoninqg dare to rckcon on, results whicht show the admiranbtle balance of the forces of niature, a:id t}e might of their nit controlled power, exhibit to or te senses subje: cts lor conl temnplaltion trultry lpoetict in their character. We tremble whien the tthunder-loud burstsm: in fary above 284 mmNTRO X)'fCTXl ON. our heads. The Tpoe seizes on the terror.s of the stormt to add to the interest of his verse,. Ia'aney piaints a stornmtingy and the glenius of romancttle elothes his denions in lightning's, and they are heralded by t:huders. I'Tese'wild imagintrnirgts have been the delight of' mal indl; tliere is sluject for wonder in them: but is telire anytling less wonderfil in toe well-authenticated faet, that the dewdrop which glistens on the flotwer, that. the tear wlhichle tremtbles on the eyelid, holdsi locked in its traisparrent cells an amounmtt of electric fire equal to tIlhat which is discthalrged dtuini% a storni f:om a thundet cloud? Int these studies of the eflectws which are continually presentting t-hemsclves to t te observing eye, and of the phenon:mena of causes, as far as they are revealed by Science lin its search of the phlysical earth, it will be showln that beneatht the beautiftd vexsture of the external world there exists, like its quickiting soul, a pervading power, assurin.g; the m-ost varied aspects, givinlg to the}t whole its lib and lotveliness, tand linkiing every portion of tis material mtass il a comt mon ttbonmd with somrt great universal )rinciple beyo nd our kntowledged.'Wh.ether by the improvemtIent of t the pm'wer of the Ihuman mind, matin will ever be enabled to emtbrace within his knowledge the laws Nwhich regulate these remote principles', we are not sufficiently advanced in ntelligence to determine. lBut if admitted even to a clear tl:crcepttion of the thleoretica l Power whi ich we regard as reegulating the known forces, we must still see a n unknowrt agency beyond us, which can only be referred to the Creator's will. C(HAPT)iR j Xi'GENERAL; C 01: ND1TON OP M ATTER. tsH vi atied Char a cters, and c'nstant chang e of exteral Form.. — The Orain of l)usti its Properties an*d lowe srs esX.tinth'g Combiiation:s in ino rglanBt' sses and in organized Creatiolns -~) r knowledge of IMatt e r..: h eoray of U l t iate A t oms-he Phs.sical Force s ac ting on the (composition of. fMasstes~. The c:ertainty of the exercise of subttile pA-inciples, twhich are beyond the reach of experimenttal Science, tH E)I Pysitr l t Iarth presents to u:, in every fi)rm of organic and inorgaitt e miatter, ant infinite variety of ptetnonmnat. If we let speeimnles of rocks, either crystaliDino or stratified, ~ of metals in any of their varitos combinmatlons \witli oxygen, sutlplur, and other bodies, ~- of gemt glistenitng with liglt and glowing with colo.r,- or if we exanine the varied. forn:s and hues of the veget:atble lworld, and tho more my s ltcrious animnual creations, we mtust; inevitably come to a conelusion long in e. proclaimned, and adniit tlhat tdust they are, and thalt to dust must they return.'Whatever pertlnency'may e ). given to matter, it is certain tIat its form is ever in a state of cliange, T ie sturtce of thle " Iternal;ills " is worn away Iby the soft, rains which fiall to festilixe; and from their wrecks, bormnoe by tlhe watcer to 3 6 TM#IJ ATOM AND> nIT8 poa0 BI tlhe ocean, new contineots are forming. Thle mutations of tle old earth?maty be read ul:pon her rocks and mountatins, and these records of former lchatnges tell us the itfalliblte trutih, that tas the present pa;tses into thfe fuaure, so will the fori of nattture undergo: an important alteration. The saame frces whichl lifted the And(es and the Imalayas aare still at work, and from the ptarticles of matter cartrited fromu the present lands by the rivers into tho sea, w re they seub side tin s tratiflied mtasses, ttere will, i the great future, be rais ed now worlds, upon which the work of life may ago forward, atnd ovver whch will be spread at vast Iutolig ence, If w\e irgard the conditions of the beautiful and varied organic toverintg, of the.Earthl, the certainty, t heO constany, of change is ever before us. Vegetat:le life pa.sses into the animal fbrl, and b)thtf perilsh to feed the flture pltan t. Maia, I:toving to-day the monarch of a mtiglity people, in a few years pass es;lack to his primitive clod, and that conh)i ation of elenmentary atoms, whtich is dignifti.ed with the circle of sovereig nty tand the robe of purple, after a petriod lmay be) soughtt for in the herbage of tho fielis, and in tlhe, hutmle flowers of the valley. We haove, then, this certfain truth,t - all things visible around us are at' 9ggretgatitons of atoms. From ptarl'tices of tdust, which under the inieros. ope cauld scarcely bt di stinlguished one fromt the other, are alli the varied forms of nature created.'T'his grain of dust, this palrticle of sand, has strangel properties and powers. Scientcet hats discovered somet, but still mxore truths are hidden within this irre:gular moletule of matter which woe now survey, than even p)hilosophy dnh dare dream of. How fsttngely it obeys the impulses of heat.t-~.mysterious are the itnfluenes of light upon it - leetricity wontderfully excites it. and still more curious is the mnanner in hich it obeys the tmagie of cthemical fore'. These are phenomiena which we ha've see n; we tknow ACTION 0F 1t'HYSCAL F011PCE. OXN MATT'Yt.B, 27 theml and weV can- reproduceO thlem at our pleasure. We havo tadvantced a. little way into the secrets of nature, and from( the spot we have gaineid, wct look ftrwatrd with a visionl Somewhat brightened by our task; but we discover so much to be yet unkltlown that we learn another truth, tt-tour vast iatiorance of tmany things rela tin to this garain of dust. It g.atheris around itt other particle.s; they cling tog(ether, and each acting ut:pon every other one, and all of thoen airrat8ging themselves around the little centre, according to some law,N a teautiful crystal results, the geomentric perfectiont of it's form bfeing a source otf'admiration. Lt exertsi stom o}ther powers, land atom colhring to atom, tobying the intfl.uences of many externatl radiant threes, under. goes inexplicable changes, and the same dust which we find iformingbt t:he diamond, aggregates into the lordly tree, --- blends to prolucte tho gracefil, scented, and richly painted flower, and combines to yield the luxury of fruit. It (quickens withl yet ulndiscovered energies; it mtoves with life: dust and vital ftree cotmbine; blood atnd bone, nerve atnd muscle, result from the combination,. F'ores, whtich we cannot by lthi utmiost refinements of our philosophy detect, direct the whole, and frt om the same dust which fornmeld the rock and grew in the tree, is produceTd a living tand a breathitng thing, capable of receiving a IDivine illumination, of bearingt in its ncOwv state the glad ness and the glory of a Soul, These consideratitons lead us to reflect. on theo am1fountlt of our knowledge. We are led to ask ourselves,'what do we knoww? We know tlatt the world with all its variety is composed of certain material atoms, vwhic, although presentedt to us in a great variety of folrms, do not in all probability dielbr very essent tially from each other. We know tfat those atomis obey certain conditions which appear 28 A(TION 0. XI:i t:rAT, F.IOTRO ON MATTB. tli tobe dependtent upon the tiflulences of motion, gravitationt, heat, ligtht eleetric it:y, and chcmlicl force, Tht. et o powoers are (oly known to us by their Oefittss; we only detect their action by their operation- s upon matter; an d although we regard the several phelnometna wfhieh we hae discovered, ns the ) aniatestations of difitrtm:t principles, it is possiblet they may bo but modifications of some one universal power, of which these are but a few of its modes of action. in examinintg, therefor te, truhe ths wlthih sei('ience ba revealed to t1s, it is advantageous, for the purpose of fixing the mind to the subl ect, that Vw asstume ceirtin conditions s undeniably true. T.herse> may bho stated in a few senttelnces, and without wasting a\ thou ght upon those metaphy:sical suttltcties which havo fromn time to time perplexed science, and sertved to imtpelde the progreess of truth, we proceed, thn, o exat:t.inel our knowledgeo of the ptheno0x0tmena which constantly occur around us. El very form, whethegr inorg anic, which we can discover within the limits of human search, is composed of hard impenctrable atoms, which are capable of assuming, under the inflouence of certaint physical fi)rces, condUitttions essential to the composition of that body of which it forms a )plrt. (') The tknown forces, active in produciing these conditions, are m-odes of imotion gravitatiotn and aggregation, heat, light; and,associated withl theso, actinism or chemical radiation; electricity, under all its condtions, whethe r statio or dynaomic; and chemitcal affinity, regarded as the res tlt of a separate elementary principle. These forces tmust be considered as powers capable of acting in p)er'fect itndependtece of each other. IThey are possibly modifieations of one principle; but this view being atn hypothesis, whi'ch, as yet, is only suptported:t by loose analogies, cannot, without danger,'be received. in any explanation whichi attempts to detal only with the truths of science. . N D). COSOt'n:: PRItNCIPtis 29 tIn addition to the known plysical forces, we cainnot examinet thle variedt pl1henomena of:nature, without feeling that tthere must be other tanid most active principles of a higher order than any detected by science, to which belomg the important:t.opelrations of vitality, whetlher lmanifested in the plant or the animalt. in treating of these, although spetlati cannot he entirely avoided, it wNill be employed only so far as it gives atny assistance in linking phenomicna together. We have to deal with the actitv agencies which give tibr and feature to natur wl e. w hich regulate the }'artony and beauty tand v igor of lite ~-..l.and8 utpon whiltch depend those tglrand clanges in the conditions of matter, whict h m11u8t convinct us that (death is but the commencnement.:0 ot a new state of Bteitng 34 .C]!!i.'iA.:?'TKBEI)I., I,. MOTION. A.e the nPhysical Forces modes of Motion? -.ot.io detitl4 - Philosophical views of hMotion, and the Pri:nciplei to which it l has b >ee rreti:etd --.lotions of te Earth and of the Solar Systezm ~-.Inflonn(c of the propter Mlotions of the Earth on the Conditions of Matter -'I0theory of the (Oontuverslio of 5lotion into fHeat, &c.-'-The Physical Fores aregarded a pinciple: s ipcndepemnt of Motion, although the Cause iand often appac'ently the tEffiects of it. IMA^NY of iont ti ker f th o tf the plre se t time are di(sposed to retgard all tlhe active principles of nature as "tt modes of motion,"'. - to look lpon liglt, Ieat, clectricity, and even vital otrc, ats phtlnom.cra resulting fr'om " ctiang of placu" among the particlcs of matter; this change, disturblance, or motiont, bein.g dependent ilip0f $01110 )tiid'flil(ti lllvel. (2) dopcnder, t upon sonme undefined nover.(7) Tlhoe.habit of leaving purely inductive ex{attninlltin for the delusive ctharms of' hypothesis.-of viewingt the material woril as a etctaphysical bundle, of essenitial properties, and nothinag more -I-net has led sot me of our most eminentt piflosoplphers to s8trugglo with the task of provintg, that atll the wontderful nmanltifestations of the great physical powetrs of the universe are more mt odifieations of mnotion. () thl.e views of metapihysieians regtarding 1motion involve mat'ny subtle conlsiderat.ions which nleed not at present detain us. We canl only coinsidetr lotion as (a change of platce, wh}ich imatter cannot eC[lee.t of itself no chtanve of place be ing possible without a Xmover; tand, consequently, Xmotion cannot be a pro perty of nmatter in the strict sense in which that term should be accepteCd.4) i't ii::, MOTION o.1 Ttf 111 A Ti. 3 NMotion depends uipon certain disturbing and directing forces acting upon all matter; and, consequently, as cvery mode of action is deternined by sornt exctitement externalt to the body moved, motio otin c ttt, tphiloisophically,.e regarded otherwise than as a peeulihar alfietcion of matter mtnder dctcrtinna:ie conditions, "We find," says Si r ksaa Newton, " but little mnotion in the world, except what plainly lows f'roni either the active principles of nature, or froni the ctttommand of the w\iller. (a).)lato, Aristotle, and the Pythagoreans supposed that throughout all nature an active printciple was di(litmsd, uplon whi-ch depended all the properties exhibited by matter. This is the sam n as the plastic naturet " of (udworth, () thio " intellectual and artificial fire T of Bishop Berkeley ( ) land to theeo allt modes of motion were retferredl. Sir Isafac Newton also reards the material univer'se antd its ipheuomeitna as dependent utpon' atctite -prnitciples -. for instance, thle cause of gravity- --- wthereby the planets and comets ipreserve their mt otions in their orbits, and aill bo(lies acquire a degree of tt otion in falling; and the cause of fomenitation -.- whlereby the heart and blood of antmals preserve a Iperpetatl warmith and motion — ti. t'he imner parts tof tlh eiarth are kept consta ntly iwanred ~ -.. many bokdies burn and shin.e -ant tlhe sntl himself bu's tand shines, and with his light warmns atnd chers altl things.'"'The earth turns on its axis at the rate of more than 1,000 miles an hour, ald passes around tthe sun wvitht tthe speedt'l of upt wards( of 68,000 miles in the stme- time.( ) The earthl tandt the other pltanets of our system move in curves around a comm01 on centre t;litrore tthe::io r mottiron'arnnnit 1have been originally cornmiunic'atcd tmerely tby:, the inlqressed tf:orce of tpro)jectaion. Two forces, at le-ast, im lst toavet opeCrated, one nliatng tlhe planets tcnd directly to the centre, and the other impelling them to fly off at at t:ttngent to thee cutrve (tdesribed. t ere we have a system of spberes, held by some power to a great central mass, around whicth fthe revolve with a fearful velocity. Nor is t}is tall; the Solar System itself, bound by the same mystio chtain to an undiscovered centre, mtoves towards a point, in space at the rate of 33,550,000 geographtical miles, whilst our earth pcrfotrm s o(e1 revolution around the sutn (") Iln addition to these great rotations, the earth. is sulicted to other 1motionsll, as the prtcession of the equinoxes and the mittation of its axis. Bl:cking regularly.upo a point round which it rapidly revol.ves, whilst it progresses onward in its orbit, like somPe hugla.e top in trenmlous?gyration tupon the deck of a va.st aet'rial s},tip gliding rapidtly through space, is the earth perlforting its part in tlhe great law of motion. The rapidtity of these impulses, sui:pposing the powers of the phys ical firces were for a Imoment smuspldcd, would be sufficient to scatter the mlass of our iplantet over;s pac e as a mo le star-dust. 1limliting, a.s'lmuch as possible, the view which opens upon the mind as w.; coni(template the adjust ments by which this great macmine, our system, is preservedt in al its order and bteauty, letf ils ftr'get the great inovemeCnt of thle wvhole througt space, tand uendeavour to consider tie cleffit of those amotions t which are directly reiated to the earth, as a memltler of otne small C group of worlds. We cannot: fr a momt ent doubt, although we have not any experimental proof of tihe fact, thlt. tile prtmoer motions of the earth- materially inftuence the conditions of thie nmtter of whichl it is formed. jEvery pair of ato:tns are, like a balamee, delicately suspteded, under thle consltant strtugle which artises froml. tihe tendency to fly asuttner, induced by e one ordler of ifores, and the cflbrts of others to clatin ttheml together. T11he spring is b:rought to t:le }higihest. state of tensiont mione tremor imiore, and it would be, destroyed. We cannot, by any comuparison with the labors of the most C(oNVXmRSoN or 3O1OTTON. 88 skilfull human artisan, convey an idea of the exquisite p)eretction of ptlanietary mecharnits, even so far as they 1have been discovtred b:y the lIaors of scienc; and we must: admit that our inshight into the vast machinery has been very limnited. All we know, is 1 f th ict thatt this planett nmoves in a cer'tain order, rlad at a fixed rate, and that the speed is of it elf suthlcieontj to rend the lhardesti rolcks; yet the delicato down which rests so lightly uptont0 th flower is undisturt ed. It is, therefore, evidelnt that mnatter in all its f)ltlS is tontducd with powers, by which mass is bound to masts, and atotm to atmt; these powers are not the results of aany of the motions which we have examtined, but, acte ing in antagonism tot themi, tChe sustain our globe in its present form, Are there otlher motions to which thlese powers can be referred? Wtre know of tnone. That absolute rest 1tmay not exist amtnong the patttieles of matter is probable. Ileeictt al action, elhemiecal power, crystalline Qaggregation, the expansive foreo of heat:, and many other known agenlieis are in constant operation to preventt it. It lmstu, howevter, lbe rlemeitfl red, that each (and every atom constitutingt a imass mayt be s o isuspendile between the balanced forces, that it may be regaydeid as relativel tiy at rest. Thleory imagi(tnes.tion ta pnodu ing Foreo a.. body is moved, and its mere Xmecha ni cal ct ant e of place is rkegarded as gcenerating heat; and lhe tnce the refinements of modern scienae ha.ve advancedtt to t:e cont usi M tha tt motion andt heat are convertible. Admitting tha t the material atoms of which this world is fortmed are never in a state of qtuieseencOe, yet we ctannot suppol:s any gross ponderable particl e as capable of moving itself; but once set: in 1nmotion, it may becolme tho secondary cause of motion in other particles. (') The difficulties of the ctasi wtould atppear to hmave beeni as follows: Are heat, light electricity, &e material bodies f If they are material bodies -.- and heat, ibr example, 34 ACONVI-3'l ION OF MOTION. is the cause of motiton -.m nust ot the cattloric matter move itself-.or if it, be not s elftioviln, by whitt is it itovedl i Xf liat is lmate. rial, 1and, the primtny caurlse of motiot: thetn matter muist have ant innate:,pwer of movingll it cant. conwvert itself into active force, or be at once a cauls and an et cll t, whtich can scarely }bo reigardd as a logical deduction. Weo emowve a pfarticle of miatter, and heat. is tani-ested; the force b1eing continued, lighlt, electricity, anlt chemical ac:tion result f; all, as appears frotm a limtited view of the phXelnomlena, arisingt" out of thle lmtchanieal fiorce app)lied to the particle first movted. (t ) Tlhis mehatnieal force, it 1mu-st be rreme!mlered, is externalo th thebody moved, tand is, in all prohabilit., set up by the movement of a niusele, acted uXpot.by nerves, under the influence of a will. The. seriea of pienomena we have suppo ed to arise, admit of an explanation fiee of the hypothesis of tmotion, and fwe avoid the dangerouts grtound of metaphysiecal specutlation, and the subtleties of that logic which rests upon the immateriality of creation, Thiis cxphl anation, it is freely admitted, is i icoli:plete: w cannot distinctly correliatt each feature of the phenomlena, comibine link to link, and thus fti r a perfteet chain; but it is sufficiently c(clear to exhibit what we d( know, and l\ eave the utnknotwn fl free f unbliass.ed investigation. jtacth particle, each atomn of tlht which conveys to our senses the only ideas we have of natural objects.- iti p:nderable mattert.is invohc involved r interpenetrated by, those principles which we call h.eat or electricity, and prohably imany others which are umttnown to us anl although tlhese principles or powers are, t:ccsrdin to somlt( law, bound i:n statical equilibritum to inertt tmatter, they are freely developed by an extetnal - excitement, and tet disturb ance of any one of themt, upsetting the Cequilibrium, leaves the other powers eqtually fre to be brought under th.1 cogaOl itzante. of lu llant sense. XWhen we come to an examination of the influences exerted by these powers upon the physical earth, the position, that they must be regarded as the causes of motion rather than tde eftects of it, will be further considered. At present, it is only necessary to state thus generally thfe views we entertain of the conditions of matter in eol nection with the imponderable torees and mei ehanical powers. The conversion, as it has been called, of motion into heat, in the experinwents of Count Rlumfoa.rd and Ir. Joule, (1) are only evidences that: a certain uniformity exists between the mnechanical force applied, and the amountr of heat liberated. It does not appear that we have any proof of the coaversion of motion into physical power. It is neeesary, to anythillng like a satisfactory contem'plation of the wonderful prop)rties of matter, and of the fo)rces re'ulating tie fi)ons, of the oealtire creation, that we should be content with regarding the clemtentary bodies whlich ehtenistry instructts us form our globe, as tangible, ponderable atoms, ltavin'g specitfic and distinguishing properties. That we slould, tas far as it is pos)ble:fir fintite minds to do so, endeavour to conceive. the powers or tirees -...gravitation, moleenlar'attraction, electricity, heatt, light, and the prineiple which determines all chetaical phenomena. as manifestations of agencies whilch hold a place between the most subtile forim of matter and the spiritutal state, wvhic reveals itself dimly iin, psychological phenomena, and arrives at its sublimity irn the (oed of the universe. 86 (::AVITATI' N. ThIle fotrmts of tMattter.. BShape of the IEa'th l- robah-tliityfy ofthe t 5tMass fornming tlhis Itanitha-ving existed r a Nebulo.s State ~... Zod.ital Ii;ht..N- > Conme:ts Vo^ll iatz:iont of Sotid ( Matteir by Ateiaell mlecaSs -.-.' Tl heprliephil' o ( rtavit ta ^i.. I- t.ts Inttiflueae thtrolughl 8ace and within tlh sm amt est Lt:iits l (I'ravitattrig powiers of the FPlanets..~ enxtDensity of thte's-iltth (rt.ainlty ot fof Newton's Law of the Invers:e Sqitart.e ^ ^ )iovenrey of Neptune' State of a Body independent of Gravittitlon -:'expemtaent e:xptlaining Sat.rn's ting, &c......- (G;enetald inference. Lt:r:' us suppose the earth, conis'thing of three conditions of mattoir ~.+ the solid, the fluid, tand the ai:rifort.i to be sot, freez from that power by whidel it is ritas:ined in its present: form' of'a i)lheroid flattneld at the pIoles, but still stuce(t (; t the ilfttluenet s of its diulrinal nd anntual rotations.Agrecabl.y to the law which r:egulates the conditions of all bodies movinlg at h}]igh velocities, the coiseq 1ue1tncc of;such a state of things would. be, that our plalnet would inshtntly spretad itself over an enormous tarea. Thtie watert a t he lidfl ol masser s of this tlobe would, in all prohtabili ty, pre-osnt tle:wmselves samlidst the otiher plt})now ena of saipace in a highly attetnuated state, revolving in an orbit: around lthI sun, or as as bahnd of nebulosus matter, which might sometimes be renderw ed sensible to siht by condetnsation in th fior: of flights of shlootitng stars.('() TJhis rmay bol illustrated b y experimaent. lf u11pso a rapidly revolving disc we place a tball of dumtst, it will be almost ittnmditately spread out, and its particles will arranlge tlheselves in a setries of r'eulatr curves, varyming; with thle velocity oft the2 mottio n, l'a adt THt'.1 i0: MAOl: L, -A.N XO I, otb.~i i 7 dition to the dcisbitegratio witcht would ari e troii the tei otney oft the atoms to y11 ft rotmt the (nitre, tlho motii(tl, it spttac, (o tthe )laitay itir ass would:rut-rally ocasioa a traililng outl, and the only d:egCree of tmil]r)oVility wh4ict this orb could, undoer these iotl atgitait conditions, l i os sitb ly pescit, woul d l: b de rived from tthe combined e eliects of dissimiliar motions, Amt:id the remoter stars, soni e rettnlarable ctloudlik alipeatw anees are dise:overed. Tfiese nebuila, ilresaoting to to th eye of the observer only a gleahnii ng light:, as ft'ro-t somte ph.lostphorescentt vapour, er long regarded as indicatios' st tions of h a ditio as that which we have just Ib(ct ton.sid. lrint A..stronotiners s aw, in those mvy terious nebldzl, a contirnatiion of their views, wfitch r"cg:artded all the morhls of the firntaure: t a$s latvin't once'een thri sheets of vaotur, wlfie h ad graduaal ly, foiul irregular b. di.es tIravers''iffI paee., been slowly cfnidensed. a!bout ia centre, and brouglht:vit hiln the lii itsl of air.' igatiiing ao;treies, nt. il, titer the lapse of ages, they Icee:atit e:stphiercnd stars, o)vinlg in lharitmoy tamid tIhe bright:t host o(f heavcent >() (:coluoists seized. l on thoi views with cteag,'rnes, as eioli:rmin theiretictal contlusions deduced from an exanination of the s tru. ture of the earth itself, aiid (extlained. byl ti.hem tlthe. gt*radual ia;cer(ctio f oatomns in.to erys' taill:t or stratfiiled ro:ks, Thel( researches of n::idern ast:trioniers, aided bIy the maiunif iit cent ilst ruments f d.Lord I:suiot:sse,() lhaveC, lhoiwever, shown that mtIany of the itmost rcm.tirkiabhtle netutlte are tnly clusters of stars, so remfote from us, tthat tie liglit firon them lappears btlt ndd into one ditluisive sliett;e orl luo itinous filrt. There are, htowever, the. A Iagellhanie clouds, and ot.her sintgultar patches of light, exhi.bitin.g clnittges iwhich cian onilA y tle explainted on the theory of tlh. ir slow condentlsa;ti ontt. Tlilere is no evidtence t to disprove the posifi.on. thatt woirld: Srntiton t: ay still boe goin, on; t:tat a slow atid giaduat agg.tiresig i vton patitcle.s' utcner the iiftluence of lawsft ^.,....., ~..' i...,.. 8 8: v'.,VOwvT i, At.i TION'01 3 AAT "I.I'. with wvfinch. we arte actqutmait, tmay tbo Coistantly ih plrogros, to end, evenittiarlly in tthe toriation of a sph ert. May w e not rear the zodiacal lightt as t}o reinatns of a stilar tlumxifiirouls atmOtl:litre, w-ie (:}le ao mbr iteed thle entire syst.l of whtieh it is th'e centre?(') Will not. tlh st. n-'to oianes which have been seen' to /takf;e p.lce in coCletar.t y,iei, evenn wh:ilst th ey vwre pi t.ing near, te eart t, as tle division of Bieil' coriet and tiho uIltiniate fi ainationtt of a socotl n letel.s frino tho letaulietd tx)rtion, strotglt y tt nd to isixt,:ti'i theil prol:.ability of the idea that attenualtttdl atter has, in tilhe p)rotgrss of time,!).,e tontdenssed iitto. solid masses, aml that netltt o is cloauds l must still exist in every st:at'e o' tutentity in tl}e regions of iitfiniit.t site, (I') wehich, iln the inysteri otus proce sses aof vorl-ftrnat iol, will, rvenitualil, be onlIe stas:ist a rethl::t aross thle bnet iinmensity of heaven, in brM lhtness, that liht whinti' is the necessary agtent of torgaaiiz:titi n and t all lmanifestatitlos of l:itttuy.'tlie info renees drawn froum a. eareniftl tlv stud o tihe cotnditiion of our otiwn vlobe i is mt favor of theI~ ati t a. o of tilo exist'enee of.ver ~.:t,,. of the, e-xytA 4....... nel:tmloeus lmatter,. lyv the I troeesse.s of art and mttlanuleture, by tie operatitn of those iower s on w:hieh i or;galizationtt atnd li t.l de'lpend, so lid matte(.r is:on statrtily p.outret t iff il suclh a state tthat it c'anniliot ) dleetted, as.a. 5v,:ymr t of thle haittia s(:enses. y.etl a ttttous:i.nd reisuilt:s, daIily and hao:rly h aetounl:at itig ts t'rtits artiutlr: us, ptrove that th eile Slid rtetaals, to.ss eartht is, atld the co nstittienttfs of animtal sd vegetat be lift, all tass away invisitte to us, an, bl. e omO "thin air.' We knowV thli:t, flot:tinag around ts, those volat;tilized bodi(is exist itn somte frin i (> or otter, and numero1uit s explerimi.t ntt s it cleinisty ar:e c.:latl eted to cot vitee tts, thate the iot:ist attenuat!:ed airt is elapal:et, with a slithlt thail:ig of e ireiumsta ctes, of:it g tovertled int tihi e:coidition) f solid tn:tsss'. I(ytirowit gas, the' i Itest, the most etherial of thf chenieal etletioits, dissolves iron and tine, arsenic, sulplhur, and PIt.N'CI i)L: O1 OB AITA:T.X)ON. 89 carbon; andl from the tlranspar)ont t 0cn binattions tihus tfomedt, we catn with fittiliy o i,'t):rate tflioS I)londeru(ts btis. tuct sutbshtlnees tust exist tin t titit a't.0ttno liot; why }; no(t i it'n I'e stiis of S:111 i "' W h.t'ilhelr ttis )lat tt l cver i' (loated a tlias i of:tebl lou:r ratItter, only knoI; w b its itt and fility lighl r 1 tcomett-likoe rushed thttou:tr spat'c with I ttsecentic oirbit, are (tq: it(ons wl:icht canl (only rect ive the ireily tof sttcittlativ( nt lltnd. W'lther tho earth and tti otthr iet mtneri o f tihe SolSa f Sysxtem wore e. ver part3s of a: Ctf ettrf tti n,() ald I (t ttxhrwn frotm it: v sot,t mighty convn:itSion, th. ong nott rv(t: lvtin g wit tli dll the' other )i':its.es ttaroundt ttlt torb, cltai it e int t heir irt'nits lt y soint tiSlnitcit powet'r, is.eyo.n the ut tos reur ilt nts of st ience to d'isc over, his hypottrlhesis is, howevetr, i int ite lbtimi ett. o ptit.:t, wortl1y of t}l) tnaIsteri i ti t dlt that gve it bir':th,,All we oat' ik thatl. otu eart i s ta shere., tt il}, by tih Cfflcts of its li.t:,tiont, is somttIwl'tf nlatge. t tot the:f e'jnlaior amlit d:pres:sed a fit h p)'vle;s - that t it. t ml int is i ts re: gular co.trito (arotl. the snt, in virtue of a firceo whihtet, ac' tingt clnst'antly, would t'cvenfit.llf y (.draw it ilnto t} L )he body oft the sun it'Ssetlf; Iti tsaiLt this foret is oppottose by the mtotnmn.ttin of the' re.tolviltg mass; fli t:halt {thf stn force actiwng fritom the c(ent 1r of thlo art't itself, anid from ili cenltr e of e(tl very pa:tticloe of its sltb:sta.te, res:olvtes thle whtol into a lt lobulatr fonin. T'he p'iiit'tpe o' f (S travi\.ttiontl(" ) i ti t i pro:per,) Xty of miatter by wnicht paritticto is attrisaed by itartlel, ald a.ttis,y n,ass, the le ss towards tlhe o tC r. t nt fli this tmty bie, we sa. l ircely art to s.penliat-. l in ithe vast t:, aea of its action, wlfi hI o:pens b:ef;or fte eye of t(he rmleltt, w e se a power sptanni' ng all psi'co, amind Imkining tofttet'r ave ry one of thfse myriads o.f worlds w'incht sit: glct tlhe tro1il. of thi IItfi tite, antd we arc comi pttelItd to t::a( se. Is tfis pricille of. gravitration. a )propel'rty of ima1ttetr', (:ltor i t a plower higlher ttan thet more tan:gible, foirces, is fti qncstsion' w'itch 4:0 01 (O 0 OX AVtIrTrTION. presses oni the mlind. IT woe regoiard it as ia stubtile prineiple pervadixng tll spac, owe compel om0t.-selve.s to (look l):tyond it for tmiotlhtcr potwr yet tonoro reioed; ) and we c tannot halt tmtit, nendinhi I rom in'h m I abl. e to the illhnita::le, w re solve gravitat io tt ait its,,vertit:i' Unflnt to thli centl }r oft all power-.. the. wtill.t tho eternal Creaftor Scinct e ttls tt devtlopcd the gralndt truth, titat it is by the exer" ei:o of tids ai lt-perv:ding influnce fc hat the earth is retainedt in its (i)rbit t:'i-at the cerystalt tlotbet ot dew wlhitc glistens oi the leaf is ibtnd toglet:ei.-thait the d'o is w' ich float; upon thel lake cemtttot\itlitt' into one itasi.......that the sea exlhibits thle pho1nolm:rtcna of t tbe tides e-.and the. n'Orial oc:tean ita baromnetric chtante s, tIn all tlliis this f)r jito i. t tive, atnd t thronl/ghout ature i is ever p.rosen.t. tOr inowledge oft the laws which tit obeys, enablest us to condltude tla th oe stth t n l:nd distant planet s ar( comtsolidated masZe's lilke. s'ii earttth Wo find th'it they have gravitating power, and by etiottarnigt this influe.nce witith tha t exerted by tho eartlh,'twe tar etalbledei. tto \weiSih tjhe mas,;s of one phlanett o agni.$.t another. in the b te balancltoe of the astronoiter, it aiV s easy to poise the r1 mote t stalt, a, s it is fi'w the engi:ticer to caleulate the t weigt ht of tlm iron ufinn E of tho 3onai Saa trits, or any other me.hanical't rucnture. Thus throughout t. t wue the'uivero tbhe alatn ee of grav ittat. ig force s mii inerrin.irly stusttained. If one of tho most.retmotl of thos'e ge lis of ig:ht, wbith fl t ikeior aI t midInigihtf in the dark dis. tance of theo sttarrty viault, t":y, i by ny lwvt r, remll oved. from its platco, thei disturbanIce of tt hes deli'cately b:halanced I mys teries woil b flt hroug all throe..: h elf tlo reated systems of worlds, i'troin the p:)ieculittait'y of thei. laws 1which this ptoer called gf:ri;avity obey.s, it lhas b}een0 infi: trredt that it:t acts from e.mitres of foret i; i i: provedt thiat its p.ower dilthiiihesi in tlhe inverfse'. ratio to tho'e si. uarIe of tho dis.:ta ( nce., and tIat thet. g.ravitatiing tower of evei'y m'ate'rial toy is in tte, direct prop,,ortion of its maliss. In :I)i SsXiT'Y O i.'.lltt:.IA,Tjt 4 1 astimtronjomeal eah:llat.ls e Iave fi.irst learn ttr het neist of our eartt}t, tit.lxosrimentl iwh: s t s t. t}att tlhe d(t.sei y of tour hardest iet; is not above 2.8; bttu f irout the en ormou s pl'rssuret to wthitch matter muitst )t aubje sitel, at great depthltts from the surtie, the'weightt of tlhe soul liitl:tUti tbmt mass constantly ilre.asiug, it i lqite ctrtzain thattt tle earli's denlsity nustit bot fltr li)ne fti: this,.iasket lynt stspentded a plut init: over Se}tehallion, l (") td (itvendist, with exceeedingly delt cat a)aratt s, o(l "served th attraction of nasses of tnttown wel ightxt siad s utpon each other;:anld al:)lying the }owcrs of aritlhmetieat cal ulattio, m't(t the datla obtainted fro(m t smal l e i t th s l experhntets to t.he lar iger phenom(ena, the fir t determined th:t earth's tal derntsity to be 4,71,'wilst the latter niadc it, 5.48, and the wore recent refitned investiga {ionls of Baily lIavte determintled it to b, 56,7. (:) JProm ttata thtus obltind by severe inductiive expierinienlts a ndrt iatheimiatiedal analyses, tie:strononaer, by otrse rving the deviations of t a dtistat sta;t.: truar a t true p:at, is enal: ed to Idetermine the influentce. of those sBtellatr bodies near whi)ch it }astses, tad, hctee, to ealctlhate the rtlative ntiagn:itude of each.4. The acetracy off trh ltaw is in this way.pullt to tn. scev t test, and the, prciion of astfronomiitlcal lpre ldition is tlie tiitronlge t i proo f its tnu versality:and tIt lrth.:tolillng tonlward its lonely wa'y, in1 tbre fitrt imtnensity of our system, thie j: l anet i Ura t nus was disc:ov }l(l) ido}l h or to their ll sCetivo co.utri e atndi t t tir ag tIlhe hyp othisis bectaleo a i:ei:t, in tihe disTovery of the pla net Nei. une in the p.lace determinied by rigor-. Oi8s calelhcItia\O. A.us'ronromy al:d4 otlev Cxa l 1es of the stblimt tIrthl (.) the t law of gravitation, tthian wht;ich sciene, can afturd1 no to1tro elevftted poeetl, Sti cIit pi- t ely is. I n.tmtn'e lc.. d isn ti he:ionus of tbis in fit'i'to )powr, that it is no poetici csxaggl iterattion to deelaret, tlhat the blow which relndt any earthly lsm Is is cornv ev.l. I l'vy svc c ssivot impultt to every one ot thie myr-lyia d of rls, wfich: are ttve too relmote t r the treach of telteipi vis ion 1..An ilbtistrativel exscl'^rieiinot Imust cl(.o t otir considi.loration of this IromaS rkalf I pin. eipiot. \'e well. knoltw that a body in a fluid state wiviould, if stuspended altove tho earth, i it lt t te sameit timce 1ee to take ianiy f'rn, lltnaIall'fly ssuml e hatlt of a I.flattenlled spheroid, froim th act.ion of th imass of the etarth upon it; w8helrefas the lorce of cohe::lsivo attaction acttlg equally t'oml nall sides of a cantro, woiulld n.:cess iy lprod:luce a o.perftleet sphetre'Tle bhost mei thd l ofl showilng thlt this wollid het. the case, is as llows:.................. Alcosol-.d. and.t 1 water 1are to h.se mixeil togetl'helr t liunltil thtis ifi is (of t:he ste' speeiC g-rlavity as oiliv'e oil.'f, whenii this is el' I:etedi, vtt dro lt rlot)nies l ofl t i the oi into tl'e nixexcd fluidil, it will lbe steen thayt tl:,ey thaef icularf t"e a. cul.ar lor. -and, tof course, in tlhis e. xlp:ernenlIt theo power. of the earthtC's!gravitfating inflauence is ne. tralized.'Tlim same drops iof oil u1dfr 1 any ot:lt her codtititlon v 5Nld l:.l Ie lathfate ef. s iil:dO, 1',s: thi}s i ill,trat;0i n is, it te.lls mluch of tIle twondrot s ser.r'et ttocf th 3ose tl bliautift7lly balanct: edt t ftr1es of TO (lO'AVITAT'ION AND MOTION, I43 cohesion and of gravitation; and fromn the prosaic fact we'rise to a great philosoilhical truth, Our Oxperimentc may lead uis yet frither in exermplification of known pihenomena, If we pass an iront wire throullgh one of those ftoaiing sphres of oil, and make it revolve rapidly, imitating thle motion of a planet on its axis, the oil spreads out, and wo have thel spheroidal fo>rm of out earth. I.lncrease the rapidity of this rotation, and when a certtain rate is o:taned the oil divides, and a ring, conneeted hyJ the finest possible film with. tohe central globe, revolves around it.(01) I[ere we liavo a minute representation of the ring of Saturn. This is a suggestive experiment, the repetition of whidch, by refleetive ininds, cannot fail to lead to important deductions. T" he phenomena of cohesion, of imotion, and gravithation, are all involved; and we produce results resembling, in a striking manner, the conditions whichl1 prevail in the planetary spaces, under the influence of the same powers. F'Jrom the centre of our earth to the utmost extremity of the universe. — fron the ely small to the immefinitely small to Ote in.nesely vas.t gra'Ivvitation exerts its force. It is met on tall sides by phy,.'sicai powers a'eting in antagonism to it, but like ia ruling spirit it res.truains them all. T"'he smallest dfst which floats upon the wind i'eai'" this st'ring imprerss of the eternal mind. in my stery' 11romt it, subtile foi)reC roll; Alnd iravitation binds and guides th.e whole. Iin every. sad, hefore the temnpelst hurled, Lie locked tiel powlers which regolate a worid, And fromn each atomi humnan thought may rrise'With might to erce the oynsteries of the skies,~'. To try each fiorce'which rules the rmig:hty pilla, Of moving pianets, or f i breathimg r1ma;.And from.'the serct wonders of each sod,'Invoke the -trLths., and learn the power of C:lod. 44 C(HA1::1.:t.4. I, I.:' A1 OLECIL.AR FO RCG,S. (Condition's of Mt atter... Y'ariety 0of rganizct F rms~X0 s. x norgSanie tForms A..... All m'atter reducible to the mtost sniple condiltios..~.~. Transmuta.l tion, a natural operation (tCtemical } lernntary Priniple s.<..)iis. Di itbilty of Matter — ^Atom~s.'Molcutles --.Pa rticles -~. tMolec ular Force includes several Agencies -.In. tr}statnce int the Action of lieat o(m Bodies -. All Bodies porous -......... Solution.~...- M ixture - Conbl natilon't.- (Ctntres of'For ce lD)itl'rcrt states of Matte (Allotropic (onditions) Theories of Fratnlin, A:pXllus, and Coulomt-b~'I'lect ricta and M.lagtactisc Agenlciecs.-. *Ancient Not:ions ~. Cohesive Aittraction, &e. Tis contem'plating the woriks of nature, we cannot but regard, with feelings of religious admiration, the intll ito variety of tornms lunder which mattter is presentedt to our sensos. Ont cvory htland tho utmhnost divwersi ity is exhibited; tthroughl ll tlins wt e tlraco thoe ost ier leet order; and over all is ditfi.sed t helt charm of bleauty. It.: is the, uneducatil ed or depraved alone w}lo fintd Cdil4ntities in the creations by whih we arc surro.unded..IThe t.hree conditions of nmtter at -- the t solid, tlhe fluid, and. the atiifori:ln and these belongr equally t fo tfh ortgatnic and the inorga~nic wort d, In organic nat ure w e w ave ant almtost infinite variety of animal formi, presen ting development's widely di tl'rent firto eachl. other, yet in every ease su ited to the circumt stances required byi thle position which the creature occupies in the scale of tbein,.'lhrough the lentire tseries, fiom: the IPol fyp to the ligher order of tanimals, even to mian, we: id a unifoirmity in the progress toward.s p)erfeotion, tand a continuity in the series, which betrays the great IO.IMS O MA TT'V.tR. 4:5 secret, that tth mystery of life is the same in all,-. a pervading spMiittl essence associated with matter, and modifying it by the master-mccttlt(i m. of Ilan Iniitl nind. TIn the vYgsctabl t> clothfing of the st1fiace of the eartlh, wllchl fits it for thle aitbode of mtnan ttd vanimls t.tat ---- flrom. the eont'firve of a stagnant pofetl, or the lichen of the wind-b:eaten ro1, to tfl lordly oak or towe.ring palmt --- a —t singnlarly b:eautfiftl chafin of heinS tnd otf rgradual elIeviation in the sealo of organization, pre1 ents itselfto the lontetntpative mind. In the inmrga:nii world, where the great pllttomenal of life are wantitn, Awe iavge constantly exhibited the working of powers of a strttgty comaplicated kind. Th l nesyctrieitt arrangement of crysta ls ---- the diversified characters of mineral formattions..- tihe systetmtali tt' r e-ration of partile to fcnm masses possessingf ptrop)f'erti' s of a pencu iar a Snd striking nature ~-. all prove that age.ncies, which science, with all its refinolments, has not yet detected, ame ulnceasingly at woirk.'lieat, olectricity, etmical power -. lhate ver ttit; mty:... and thet fiorces (of cohesion, are known to be involved in. t:he pro-dntion of the forms we see; ut tt conttem platiotn soon leads t to the eonvietion tha;t thelse potwers are subordinate to others whiic we lknow no ft of. We know only thoe things b}elong(in1gs t to tbo surfiace. of onr planet, and these butt superfIeiall. T.im geologist ftraces roektormations s.ceeding each other (fromu the primary strata rolding no traces of orgtanized forms, thlroug the Palcozoie se(ries, i wi, wic step by step, tiho list:or' of animal lif is recordeid,) to the more recent ftormations, teemin"g wtitIf l rlics, winch, thol h allied to soee animalle t typtes still quickened wit l ifit, are generally such as hbave passed away. The naturalist se farches the earth, the waters, and thle air, or their living thin gs; aind the diversity of tforn, the variety of eondition, aind the perfection of orgainiz-ttion which. he discovers as ie'lo ngin ig t.o this o.1 r eopoch - dif tering firom, ind eed bt aring tt a i40 (3.AXhtN SM UATION 0F 31 At.ri'it. slidtt relation to, those which mli{ mark the earthts ta mutatMions exhibit, in a molst trihii g view, tthe endless variety of c(ltracters which miatter can assutlo' e are so tccustolmed to atll these ill'.nometl of.lmaitter, that it is with somie ditffillty wt can b.nd ourselve to tht st tlud of the mIore sipi elC cditi in in whichl it exists.'i:Th solid crust of this telluri sphere ~. the waters and tie atrntophere..the diversiield fabries of tfl veetable ki.ngi dom tand. the still moren complicless of anly b:ody( should be necessarily solid, fluid, or aerilfori, from the cirlcumstance of their having fo)rmed the hparticles of a body in one of theset states. As tdis planet -.a molecule in sp)ace is formed of a.ggregated atoms, tand envel::opetd by its own physicatl agetncies- ~-and as it is involved in the infinititely extenditng: inftlsences of other ptlanetary lmottleuls, and thu o s fnmis part o(f a system ~ — — s- so tthe nolecules of tany mass tae grouped into a systen or particle, which polss eses the great characteristic features of the whole. 4:8 1,PO.:SITY OF 01 MAIfT.it<, Ina an aritbrm body thte iarticles are ia a;state of extremte tenuityl the' Ilolelles teilg tohemselves, 1by thelt influene oo oif soln. repulsive fiorce, just - on the verge where cohe-ion exerts its (decayinyg power. In fluid bodies, tlhe attenualtion of thle p)artitles is less.....ielesad al.. the partis and also the molecules are nearer t thr Whereas, ia the solid body, the lerees of cohesioln are most strongly exerted, and all the molecular conditionS s brouglht more powerfully into actiton. t [I lder the term mtolecular fore, weo ilnltde several agenlces vwicelh are not alike, but which are zall-powerful in producing theo examinat'ttilon. Al.t tlhe particles of even a so oliZd miass are ati a distanlee fironm each othfer, and are free to move. fly heat we can increase the length and thicktess of a bar of iron, or any other metal. F'lid ns altd ases in like manfner obley the dispersivt' in. flluent of caltoric. I'rorm thl esoe ant ott at nalogous rtests we learn t)hat all lbotldies htave a, greater or less deg ree of potrosity. The dlistance at whilc the part 1ticles of fluid bodies tae. aibttined, is strikinglyt p d y prove e tit, tshat hydrated salts dissolved ill water occupy 1n1o imore sitpace tihan that whitch is equal to flit wavter containled in thie crysttalinme body. All the,:solid mattert of the salt must, in these eases, got to fill ttp the intertstitial spaces of the fluid. (C) ~The conditions twhich regtulate sthe ritbility of bodies, tan the power of solution, regarded either as ta meet:mcalt or ta cher'ical process, are very obtscre. We migh t be led to suplpose, that those bodies poessing tl ohe largesf iiit am ount of unoccupltfiedT spacec were capable of holding the greatest qtantity of soluble matter dissolved. Tins is not the case as a general rule. T'he peculiart manner ill which hydlroge. ga-'ts aippears to dissolve solid substances, as iron, potassium, sodiun, sulldphur, tlphisphiottlt us, s'lenium, and arsoenic, is explained by rgardiig thte result as one: CHEMICAL PHENOMENA. 49 of a chemical character, and only a manifestation of the powers of affinity over the forms of bodies. In like manner the solution of salt in water, or the mixture of alcohol in that fluid, may be viewed as a chemical phenomenon, although usually considered as simple cases of solution or mixture. Alterations of temperature and other physical changes take place in all. If two masses of metal, tin and copper for example, are melted and combined, the united mass will not equal the bulk of the two masses. If a pint measure of oil of vitriol and an equal quantity of water are mixed together, the combined fluids will not fill a two pint measure. (2) In these instances a large quantity of heat is rendered sensible, as if it had been squeezed out, by the force with which the particles united, from interstices which it would appear were filled with what we may be allowed to call an atmosphere of heat. Hence we conclude that, amongst the influences determining the molecular constitution of a body, heat performs an important part. All these facts go to prove that the atoms which form the compound body, whatever may be its character, are disposed of as so many centres of force, which act by influences of a peculiar character upon each other. That these influences are dependent upon known physical forces is certain; but the laws by which the powers of the ultimate atom are altered remain still unknown. In the great operations of nature, changes are produced which we cannot understand, and variations of condition do certainly occur, which may be regarded as instances of transmutation. Amongst others, we may adduce the different states in which we know carbon to exist. We have the diamond with its beautiful light-refracting property, its hardness, and high specific gravity, capable of being converted into graphite and coke. (29) Charcoal, graphite, and the diamond are totally unlike each other, yet we know they are each composed of the same atoms. Charcoal is 5 60;ALLO' c:II's,e 0,I''t t: CO:rIMONS O..I A: A toMS a black irregular substanee i, l ight, nd readily ifniamnmai e; g rapnhtite is c rstallizal: e; but the ftbrs of its cristals catimot: be:ttre{f ifred to thlose of the dia tmoind, tantd i l iit h t x s'i itl I, t t'i. l ho dciamnond occ.urs in tlht. nos't regular aind:lnaltifiully transparent ibris;t and it tcan lel:: }btined only att lthe jhigltst artificial teitmltptaturtes. We are, tOl'weer, er on (vinced It, e xperiimet that the dihlaiant and transparent g(tem is made pt of tIhe same atomts as thl'oso w'hichi o go t lo r:) I the du'llI black mat of charcoal,. lIfat is the mnystery of this? Vo ki\ow not.f'Tihese pecu t liar tonditions tave beent tlhe sttujets of atnxiol stuly; lut t scient Stas tnot yet let in a ray of lihlt upion: the rv:ysitery. Taf tt tt a difilrt; slt'e t- hats een tictled a.in /.t. otropi: conidition-. is oftei i nthticod int the antlo class of atomts is cc..dailn andt hence'the varcinty of the resulfing cotpounitds. To conttiuttirt our il lusrations w ith c:arton..t --- tmayu tiot its cotitinat ions, in ulnifior I)tt ooportionts wtitlt oxygen iand ihydrogen,(') owe their dtidtrencees to soinot altlottopic clhage in the ultr1iia3te ateoms of this elemtent? W1e- know that silicium -n thle mta llicbse me tafllic of int -iscapatlde ot aslsumigtt two or 11ore diit rent states; Itand 8sulphtfir, selet',ium, tpliospilorus, amt a rsenic are susceptilbe of these remarkahtle chmng'cs. ("'ppe, iron, tit,, and mrang:ntese an ltntown t:o exist in at least twto states, antd maniy of the rttaer ioetals exhibit? tlte sa|teo.f.peculiari. y, t) Henec, t ay we not it fi that stome of[ those substanctes, wvlhic} we tow tertm elemctentaty, tae fIlut;distsimilar cond itfions oft the same Clet'eont? i Thoe r cmatid resemiblance between manny of those I bodies strengthtens tlho speeulation. Iridium anid platiitUnm, iron and nickel, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and probathly filuorine, are goo' l exainhples of these siia.tilntitics, although these tbodies are al]l d istingtished }ty physical an d clhm ic. Ita diftiorcne' s. The li...ht-re fratit g gemt, twilich glistes on the neck of bieauty, and is valued fitor its ptti t ransiparc:t. y, difi rs ortly froit the rude O.0xBABL oi: AC[ON fi TlE'. PlI.VCA;f'A 1Ot:Cs.$ 51. luitmp of eoke in its molecular arrangoement. (Clhemis'try tea. hes us that we Inoy., witl:out:roducing any d.larrangett motnt t1 f afllinihies, ilt merolly by settin tl up moltculatw disturblianco, ef.c Et decideal ehnige, as is sitikingly shlown in tht ct olour of iodide of ioereiutry,'tetixe t}im intlueneo of heatt..-; and by a slight cia.?o, mtrely mnolculf la, pre oucetd y eal:rie, iron may } be made tot resemble plattinul in its clhemicfal rel:ationss (9:: ) On studying this question we cert.ainily find goold reasontl fsor' s) sing fthat bfodfies, resefm blitng e.-tach other in most of their properties, ore the resulet of diif>treitt.onlit i$ons whiclh Irve bieei impretssed upon the ultima:tte atounis, si.mitastr to thos is di.oere, lin the stubstances we bfave naned.'.Thin s tyifpothol sis a }pp)oars to ble mtmo inr t acordanet e with thi: gre:at pric:ipes whieh we Xmust eonceive guided the labours of an Ilnfititie litnd, than tl at twhiel, supposes a vast rit.umber of ittivivllual ereat ioii s. Ift will be seen in. the sequel that light, ilheat.ecttiiit,. ee and chem.nieal action htav the power t of prodtue.ing yett m ore striking eht almies in the fi rns o$f bodies; and it i s prol s able that, aeeor.tincg to the operations of theso agents, either lom.bined or se(.pttrate: actting over diflfeirent stpac'es otf time, and udler varyit;g circu tttstanees, int relation to the tmoll cular forcecs, all those atlloit ropi; sta tes m.t' be )lrodut ed, I[lnle )fbodies may stilttl l: dtistycovered }', w hitch, fromi thef itoperlofeetions of science, re.sistin:g olur means of decomposition, must, for a. time, be regarde(tl atl s w t ls clt ntts. The ex' oe f riments of Faraday prove that all miatter is in certaint polair et ndit ionsl, havintg uappl)rent.ly the powxLers of nmtlual tttatrae tion atnd repulsiontt () Are tim. molecular for:est. to be referred to aniy of those 0 pwer s? Are ttey tnot.pro!l.fly tdhe. result of 0som uhltimt e p.t - inuil de of wh ich th iese properties ar but. tho nmoldi ll ed i.naiif:staoi:s?.tl:rant kin supptt osed. th ie minutei, atoms of bodies to le surroiunded with a. fluid or ether, whilch they condeinsed upon their surlaces with great force ~.and wo. have expmerimientots showitge that 62 ATT TIt N i oxr' AGOIW:8;X-ATION, this is the eas-e.-(:`) w\hilst he regarded the at-ioms of the ethe r itself as'nutually repellent, thus esta:.blilhitng anl eutlilibiitmf of forees plinus reducetd thle lfhypothesis of lrldanklin to a mathc miatletal theory; and Coulomb proved ithat the ftrleo wvith whtich the repulsion of the ethereal atoms a Ol t te att-raetion of thoe imaterial mTolecules are produced, is, likae iniver'al attr.action, to whatetve r power thati may' bo due,'regutlated by the law of the inverse rtatio of the square of the distanc. These views are foumdt, u:tpont min.ulte examltination, to holdt true to the phenomena with whichl inductivo science has made us acquaimited; admn the strikiungr matlnnler in whish, when saubhmittedt to the rigtorotus ilnves tigations of geometers, they agree with lknown eonditiollns of tlectricity, alppe.ars eertatinly to fiavor the opinlionl that this power may bhe materially connected with theso imolecular arr;angetl nnts Mtaniy of thel phenot menta winch are connetted w\ithl thle lmag. rnitie iniluences, also bear in a remarkablhe lt man ner tupon this inqutIiry. Butt, wvithout tih nlecessary tnprot() o f direhlet experimt etal evidence, it were as ntutlhilosophical to refer th.e bindingt together of the moleeules (of matter to the agenc.y of eleetricity, in tany of its ode.s, tas tt wl0.1d be to Iaopt tihe theory of the hloked atoms of j picimus, or the astrological dream of the sympathies of matter.( ) Seienee, lhowe(ver, enables us to inttr with sat'fty that tlhe Imechaniismi witch regutlatte tlhe constitution of a cube of m',arble, or a grantite mimounttain, is of the same,1 order as thlat whi ch determniines thle earth's plateet in tlhe solTr system, and the situation of the solar systtem in tho( inmulensity of sptace, n tline, cothesi(on, or the attraction of aggrelratjiont i s a psowter employed in binding plarticle to particle. It't) cohtesion, we lindi we have caloric opplosed as a rep:)llemt fiowce.; and4 the mnysterions operations of thoc (electrical iphm.:tlnomelnla, ICgenerally rlfi.rred to as polar f 1tor: es, t are cot lstanltt ly, it is certain, i'[tterfr'ing with COIO:tXSON AND O.iBtAV.ITA'TIO'Y, 53 the powers of eohesion, In addition, we havxe seen that in natiur theoreo exists an tgency which is eapahle' otf chigaiiit the constitution of tho ultinate at)omns, and of tinis giving variety to eatch resulting itmass. What thil plower may bo, our,sciencet ctanot tell; but our r ea son leads uts, with fi conviction, to the, belief that it is a princ9iple wic'h is, beyond all others in its staubtile intluenes, manifesting to us the divine ptower of the 1omniscient Cr'eator. The mtolecular forces itvole a consideration of all the known phystical ]powers,f thte study of whihll, il their ope(rations o\n imatter, will enggte our attention., B.hut it Is pleasant to lean, as we advance, s elt by step in our cxa; ninatt tion of the phenomt ena of creation, that we timay study the grand in whalt externalily appears the simtple, and learn, in the mnyste t -f it.- 1 3.S i t tiYt ts t t t i-ta } ( miS } N t itiiQ s ~ 3 l or not depenent ont Chemial Nat u............ph i.............'i morphb ~iism r........ Theo:k~is of Cryst:allogenie att. r ~' I..In... itfluence of ]I';elcrliei:ty an d.M;:og:etisn-...........P helrmtena dlu ring Cr:ys t.: tion~............ (an a cha}ngeI of For t:le pe in iP imi ntivo e AtoSs?- tustrat ive exairple of Cirystalization. " ( y:lti VS.,lI,:XAtO. N is a p cutltar and t ost I tadlmi tible work of maturo's goonmtry, worIt h of beilng s tudied with all. il th power of genius, andti t th oe wole energy,of the mnid, not:on taaet( ntil of the tdeli ht whnlich always attenlds thl knowled e toi w te w tonders, but b e e..'lso of its vastt imlportanece in revealing to us tlte secriets of n lat fre; f'i r hlie she d oes, as it were, betray her t sel, l t, a, X lavin t aside:t all dit:isguise, permit-s us to tehfold, not meiirely t-he results of her otiperatittionfts, lit the very proe.' sses thaomselvest S'..uch is t!e liangtaie A of oplt:er, ( i. liet i, an it is the st riIing t:pe uliiarity o:f b eh. oldi lg the p:rocess of tie fi:,rt ttintt(i of the re.o-ula r geornet trie.igurecs of eif stils, thlXto g ttradul accretti on of piarti le to p:artile, wh lM it indlXucs us to set rate r gt rystallizt iont from merfle Imo(Elte..Xlr tr V- l'( ation. W ithl oult f(ouit tile ftoirmation of a crystal and the pri.od foltion t of an amtorlphous blUX.ek nare d( ue to pIoweirs which }ear a clos te ree imlanlte in many potiits; but they present'I rei ta rk a le dlil. re nces in otlers. LIet tus tfake soimte siniph: eas. e in illustrationt. In tqie t: water wte have vertl ly fiiely dividet l ter suspeindtd, and miattcr i a stta (to of solution.'tihe firsti. is slowly precipitated, and in pr1otessS of time consolidates into a bard mass -at the bottom.l, pre IX OtIOAXIO AND OltOANLO FORts 01' MA' VT. 5 oniting.no partiular cihaIracter, unless it lias bcen. plaed in )teculial' physictal conditions; wh ien, in tu, astwe hlave a ireular lteddingt wuht..l is iitersected by lines of lamuitation. 1 ofr eleavage, w' ich wNe are, ifrlom e xperimetnt, etnatbled to retor to the. intlluence of eurroeit: oletr y, io second........-the matter in. solutiont -~-. is also stlowly ed; but it. is a'ccoumulatd tupont nuclei Whlicht l)8s^,s some. p)ecfuliar dtisposing powersi, antd every )partic:le is unitcedt ly s^olyie pitrtieular fee, and an angular ftigure of t'ho ost jirfiec.t. chimracter results. MIany pleiasing experitents would atpp:oear to show thlat electricity hlas muchl to o in the proc(ss of erystall'atZionlt; blt it it s evident that it must be under somte pec7unliarly mt odified conditions that this power is exerlted, if, indeed, it has ttany direct action. he'n' stubstances always crysitallize in the,sam, e frttrs, unlessi the condlitions of the c.rystallizitfng body are altereCd..It hlas. been sufpposed that e:ach p.article of a crystalline masts has eCrtatit poin rsnts s es liwhich possess definite propertites, and that cohelsion takces place only along lines which have sornet relation to tlie attrac ting or repel itog powers of these poles. We sthall have, eventualliy, to eonsiderl results lwhich atear to prove thatu magnetisnm is universal in its inlnuenee, and that this polarity of the particles of matter may be referred to it. iet the cause of cllystalXlization what it imay, it presents to ls a near lap1pr)oa'it in inorgamc nature to saome of the peculi:r fuine tilns of orgtantized c reation. In the one, we have the gradual accretion of parts and the formation of memltb.ers due to peculiar powers of assimillation, each individual Ipreserving all its distinguishing fiaturs; t and in tlhe other, we havre a reular order of coheltsion ccurring tnder the iftluence of f a power whtich draws like to like, and arrtt nges the whole into a trin of b.eauttty.'Wfe must h, howevr', remembetr tlhat a striking ditlitrene exists between the productions of the mineral and'the ot her kingdoms of nature. Animals asnd vegetables arrive at maturity by su. * 5a6 XEUtO)MOt{.PtlISM,, A.TC. cess ive developeritm, atd increase by htl a tssiinilation (if substances, alving the. po)wer oIf lpro)duie the mostf p inlortant chetmical changes upon such matter as eo s'- with the range of their influence t but rmimnerals are. equallt it frttcfct in tfhe earliest. t tates of their f)ortmationtt, atdt intcreas onl' byl the accretion of partileh.s without t their untt ergoitng tany tel} ngi. The animalutd ain vetohtablo tribes ceas.-e to continuo the funietions ofi tif death ensutes,:antd a comnpleto disorgsnizxation takes places ibtt this is not the case8 in tlhe mineiral worldI I the cryestal blin the result of a ctonstantly aeting fo)ree is not ntceessarily tiabtle to deeomposition. Nevertlieless, we tndl in natture tlat crystals, after arrivin' ati. wlia, t Inty be regarded as, in s')ome sort, their matu'rity, are, ow'ilg to a to t i ch ( the eondiitions uni.der whlich they were formed, graduatlly lde@onp}ose. In tour ntlis we find skeletolns of crystals, and wt n ithin the civity thus forn-ed, others of a difttrent c:nlstitutioln and fig nrt e fintl d n 1 lei, and tlhe conditions re( iuiredl for their developmient.gain, to give a striking instatisnce,1 tlhe fist ar crystals of thoe g.tranitic tkforniatiotns are liable to decoinpositioni in a saom'ewhat' pcul.uia.r manner. In decoot potsing, these erystals leave nioulds of tlhe(ir ownf peculiar forts, and it not untfrequt tly happet.ns, int tlhe stattnnitlronus dis8riots of Cornwall, that o'xide of tin grtadually fills these minoulds, and we p:rocure this met'altlie mineral in tfhec: itirn- of the earthy otne Again, we htave thei curious instances of bo)lies cry.stallizing in a fialso foi under clangt of cirenstti anitfest,'We find, for example,.Pseudom. orpisatt, as this tpe.uliar class of phenomenat is named., occurring by the remnoval oft the constituenit atoms of one body, while another set, which}: naturally assunines a difiren.t formn, takes their place, yet still pIeserving the original sttap}e. It often liappes that coppter Ipyrit es will, in this imanner, exhibit the to angle.s of tan o(rdimy varilety of crystallized cartbonato of iron. Tfhee lcurious clainges may lie t fnilfiat'zed byt sui:ptpo} intg a beautiful fosrm of gold, which some:sltkilful t mtechanic takest 31MOiI'ti5., itO,. 5. to pieces, partice by pilttiret:, o skillfully substituting a gtrai of brass for every one of gold reorlovel that t the loss ot the prec'(ious metal lcanot be detected bly tany more e xaunatiton of its fi)rnm, ('rystalline ftorm is not stric tly dependent upon the clhenical natire of the parts lfomning the crystal. The,same.num:ber of atoms, arrang;dt in the same way, produc. thO sal e forlm, su stX~ltcc- the smune ew - t, Mle, stIanee s mli unlike each other will assume the t same erystaline arrangementl. tatgnesia, lime, oxide of cadmitumln, the, protoxidles of ironl, nidl.,t and cobat cornbined with the slame aeid, present similarly fior ltmed t b)odies. T.heso lsomorphttit(') pcutliaritict are so ctmtnion that: t the discoverer of the pheltnomtna, \lits ehierliEt, tannuriinlos as a la w, thalt thlfe che}mical, eleaments of which atll,Ot t t);.. odiCes esist are uscteptible of tbein classified in distitct We tdso rid eopounds wttich have> two listinet systesi of crysthallization..lis property, Dimorphism, is very strikingly shown in eal:osinate of limro, wlhict occurs in rht}ltbohedronxs, i ctale spar, and in rlhomt biet prisms in arrtagoite Cryst.ls are fotountl of the mlost muietrosopir eha rac'tor, andI of an tsexceedindol, latr, oe sitze A, crystal of quartz at Milan is three feet at a qu arter t loit, tand five feei.t anld ta h lf itn ireut mfrentfi' c, and it.s weiht is 870 tpoi.unts, l':eryls hatve been found in NMew itltamtlnsfire.meauit ng i uthr feet in lengthti (:').In the dttark rect sss of tIte ertar1, whiere thiem influenctes wthich. pridcit e organization ald life cease to act a creative spirit still pursiues is nt: ve. rvc-endimig task of giving fmform Ito matter. The scienee of e rystatlo ctny, (:') embracing the theoretical andlt p'rae'tietal question of thele.s lcl'us i p'rodcin these ge'ometric forlms, has in. va rio'us ways a.tto.e pited to e xplainl the laws ace ord.- imti} to whtic11 mrnecles arirte tfhc.imsO lv(s on molectules. in l:pea. fcirde.i.r,.ivi.mi. rs: r to a rigidlv c:orrect system of archeite:,e, Butt it c.annot te sabid thatt any theiory yet: propounmi' d is suflit |;\},~~~~~~~ ~ 59 v<~}(} 0i>t's(:'sgt)t;t}>;"'t,}fltl>lslrs 43Rrl Dc8 xaLi$1i u',eOTtRCITI AND IIItfuT eintly exact t to embrae te whole of t the kntown lheinomna,: andt tihe q stions, What is rystaltloIge ic at traction, and what is the pl- hsil natu re of the. ultiiate -l e t ittts otf m tter,,~ are-t 8stil ot en fo)r th i io I (1i f that genius which e lighis in wrestlini with theO secrets of inature. iThe gro'at, ]pieurms speculated on the "' plastic na'ture " of atomtni and attributed to this nat/ure the tpo(er they possess of arralintig thtemtselves into ytmmetric fri ns. Modern p ilosophiter s-:titlsfyil thlemselves wjit attrae, io,tio n t, an rea son g fo)m anallo'y, i. magii that eacli atoin has a polar sys tem.'et leit l ei iy td tit ilt, iand h eat;, exert remarkable powe.rs, and b}oth tatcelerate and rettirt c. rystallizat fi'on; an d we ha. tve retently obtaitied evidenee wic'l h ai pl tas to provet that sotme. formi of imtagnetism }Ita t antive intluenc e in (deter. train in the naturtal fir.ims of teyst:als. lEl {e.tfricift altpear t i.s t ioo quii:, t},p:.i mr e. ss of'ryvtai Im aggre;iationl - to collec.t more readily t tcether tl:hose atomls lwhtieh seek to c'o tiltine ~~~.to ninti:i 1 tall. hi i wii:ithil the limits of tl'ha t inflltenee by whlich their siymmeiti: al:irms are determined; and strtong tevildenee( is now aflt.rded, in su.. pport. of the tl.heory of tma::gnettie p)olarity, by the reft-ned in vestiga,,tions of o in a radc y ant.o) iii:l.kor, whichl pro}ve that init netism hasll a dirt C tisft irtfluenec::. utn.} ctrys.talllne bodies in direct de.pettndeane upon the (rylstallinte or optic. a1xes o.f the boty.,( C ) It li. s:ben i!b d th at it crystals of suplitite of iron, slowly torinita fron at solution wl hicuh hias bee.i plaied - d itln the itrll nge of:nttwerful tm gneltie::loe, r ispose themtelves along cert: ii mag-i netic cutrv.es; whereas the Arbor Diana,e, or silver tree, foirmintg undler the sa. e irusne,, takes.a }ostition nei arly at rigt ht ang..les to these, crves. (Certain f'roupts iof crystals Ihve It.see foumtl in natures, whihef atlppeartt to slatow,: ibv,i their',sittio, tl:itd te rrestrial na taetisri tais been active in roducint the lph men on ecta they exl}iiit, ('i) ACT ON C(.YTA t,Id N E A0( iOiA.tI;'tON. )9 ]). ring rapt t erystalliza.tion, tome salt-s.- ~as the stl tuli. hate of sodat,.!oateie tcid, t indl a:trtt isacil crvstalliinvg int miuitit ( aci - ehitl dt dece tied i atonls o el:ct t lical xtit moeti l ] 1i tt is given out. in Inshes,andt ttw }ave e vidence that cryst.als exhib.!it. a t eIi(.nCy to lovo: towards tih light. Pr'ofi.ssoir t:'iickcr thats asiertaine.dl that cer'tai crystals. -n in particular the eyanite - 1"poilt; very well to the ntorth, by the litagneti power tof tihe earthi ontly. It is a I t trte (col)ipa.S needlel; and, nore t, n titan that-, you1 may iobain8 its deelination.' We must remeniir that ti',is crystal, the cyanite, is a conrpound of silica and alumnina only, I.t his is the a 1mount(lt of exp rilnental evidence which smcieo lthas afforded in cxpfalation of the conditions under which nature p11r. sues live wondrous work of ctrystal ftortimtion.'' e see jut st sult'i cient of t he operation to le convinced that- the humiSnoul s star twhich shins t ess in br of hleaven), 1andl the easivernl-secreted gem, are equaIlly'. t1he resalt of forces whitc are knownl to us in only a few ofi their modifieations. -Every substanceb, ewhe'n:ibaled under eireumstanees ticwhl allow of the free mooveieent of its molecules, hias a tendency to eryvstalliz x. All the mIetals may, by slowly cooling tfrom. the imelting state, be exhiibited( with a crystallitn structure. Of the octliie and earthy 1 ininerals, nature furnisiheus us with an almost infinite variety of c rystals, tad by a reduction of iemperature, yet more simplde bodiet s assume thle mos t symmetric oltns. Water, in tthe conditions of ice iand snow, is a fait niliatr and beautifuli example; ad, by such extr.oem degrees (of coldt as tare artificially )pr(odl'f.ed, imany of the gases exhibit a te( tendeny to a crystalline con iti'onl. Maty not the solid elementary atotms be suseepltitle of tcfhangoe of fottr under i d.lftiIrent influences? ITlay not the diflrenet states under which the sn.ia e r odies are fm unda-, lor exalle, silica, earron, and iron *be h due entirely to a tchang in the form of thoe puimvitivto atom t 60 iXitTlitATiVi:EXA -): Ofs CO isTAiX LXATrIO Admiittig the problability of this, we thenl easily see 8 thlat the centrat l nmoletule, fiort-mcd of an aggregation of suc-l atomls, uniting by Itlttikular:ftces, twould prosecnt ta detertnilrmte ftori,; and t.hat thi'e resultingl crystal, a mtss of sucht mo lecules, olri tccording to a' given law, at 1eitn alngles, would privect nt si:th gconetrie figures as we find in nature, or produce hi our laboratories, when we avail ourselves of il)roe(aests-si wlich naturet has tatugt us. If we take a partiele of imarble, and place it ii a large quantity of watter acidul'ated with sulphuric acid, it dissolves, andi a tew eoitpo)und results. The lmafble ditsapears.tho eye ca oi:t detetct it by irmt or colour: the ttcid also las been disguised. + the taste discovers nothing sour in the luitd. We have, ill combination with the water, the lime and sulphumric ac.id; but that comtbilnation tappetart s tto ttle eye in (o resptec tt di fitrent from tthe water itself. Ilt is colourless antd perf4cttly tra: sparent, although it.10holds s m ss of solid matter which previously would tnot allow of the passage of a ray of light:. Let us expose ts this fid to such eire.ustaicees that the water will slowly evaporate, antl w( shallX find forfming i it, after a rtitme, ticrotsco!pic particles of solid, lightt.refriaeting matter. These particles giradally inEr.ease. in size, tand wIe may watct ttheir gi rowth tuntil e ventually we have a symt metric'fignure, t Icauttifully shl:aped, the prifmary orm. of which i is a righti rho.umboidtal ristm. Ths i nature, by the act.io, in all probabili.ty, of vegetaible matter on the sulphates held in s olution by the water of the gre-at. rivers and the oceaun t —. aided by our oxidizing atmosphere -.l. tsutlphuric wacid is ttrmled to do its work. upon tthe limestone ftrmations, and fromi this comb:ination wNi)old result the well-known gypsum, or plaster of Paris, which ordinarily exist as t an amor.phou a)ss tl hut is oafts fos tund in a crystal. line form. (B) This is a\ very perfeet illustratio)n of the wonderful process t we OF C.YSTALLIXATION. 61 have been considering, and in which, simple though it ap't - i in to Iiat- 1 eatint Powe of the otlo ed lav of t-he ieit.lnn<. Uind u atorv l nt he -- l..'on teinu r.opertyv of ihei tntahI -' w..t.isi.t (: en —< veet io n h iadaon-.ti n Ati of the A ti mnsph re: on ltc-it- s.. --- P etliar It tea t- t,.ays -- Ab iso rp tiot and R a..tdiat' tia m ion. of Leat by d issimilar io:: i..........eane in the Constititn of Soha r Beamn..n..i itierenee bletween Transmitted anid Resie eted Sola —r HIeat~ lh'inneninta of Dewn Actio n)i So i il- i(ealt ii n) (on tth: Ocea (.ir:tunlathi of It it bi te A tmtotsphi e and the Oeeani l -- Htt:I eat iof tho EVart-l.. —t. Mean I'IIn:e I I:r. tTute Cite.itl H.'eat- Constaiit tadiatiotn oi t leat it-llavs fromt ai bnodis..'I.~T.r'lhet:mogr'taph.....-. - A..it:':ltto of X ea\t on ntl{tIeel.e:lar Arrl' itange mett r t ts~ I'i"...Siom\ es of Ter>rest, ria t. eatt I tent t t i i t of lodies-t..t..An ieal lteat N ~ I t tieno)n ena, W - reeei'o heat from the: sun, mts::,;ooiatod with lighilt; ad we b}ave il, p:w. or: t. r >. lopt, til;s;tPl t t:n tt i M:,n,:i; pit - n lmay twits Tioit tn eary t vcryS ki o of att er, 3Our co. t icnietions tare, t1hat. tho e.alolifi elteite n xevt:, witlitoler tderivted fro1m a solar or terrest rialI so ctee, presentsi no ~s(nittial di ltreneI it Its pysici(al chiara -eters; butI as theor aro somt rerdl ablet pec.uliarities it tle lettntotenrt, ast tley ia(ris flro el ither one or t he otitlr source, it will assistt ourt tomprtl - hnsiton iof this gtreat. prineipile, if conside if oseit untder fthe two head s. Untutored mi an If tid heaIlth andt gltdness itn the tar mtht atd litght o(f the sni atd hte refrs a ruttgged ld alttarti and bows his,soul iin tprayer to tlo tie rinieipit of l f ire, whliet int his ignt iranie lie e reganrt s a:s tie,iver andt stulpporter of life.'The pltilosopfi:her fitids lif amr d lorganization dt petlident upo tie poweirs eomhinel d in the stunbeamt; atd, exauilinin, the plioe.oinomena ot f this woniderfuttl lband of forees a, he is co npolled to ackriowleadgo that the fla:mtt upon the It:B'AT AND.) MiHT, 63 altar is, indeed a dim slhadow of the infinite wisdom whi.ch abides behind the veil. T'.he pre:se:nt condition of our earth is directly dependent upon thle.amtount of Iheat twe reei.tve fiomt t1he suttil f it \wre possibe to imove this planet so Imuch nearer that or1b, that the ttquantity of bheat would b:e tmuch increased, the eircumstance of lift:, would necessarily ie.so fiar chanrgedt, that nearly all the presenti races of animals must perish; and the same result would hlappen. from any alteration which threw uis yet Ia rther fri'om our central hIminlary, wlien, owin to t.t exlttemity of coldt and tthe wretchednss of gloi-n::, all livingr creature;s would equally fail to support t feir org an i at ions..All things are atdapted to the cireumtls anTces of the pfosition of ethe earth in reflation to the sun., to winch, as we htave shown.i, weo are blound }b ttihe piineipi-le oft gravitation; and iln outr exatnination it will be foulnd that one comnmon systtm of harmony runslt througll all the osmiel plhenomena, by which everything is produced thtat is so >beautifil and joyoitus int this world. Jfleat. and tho othler elemcienttary ratldint t prineiple.s, are often combined as thoe cont ot cause of etiets evident to our seiles. The warmith of th,' solar t.rays and their luninous intluence, are n1ot, howeve, tf etommonmly associat:ed t int the mind as the results of a sin gle cause. It is only wh!en. we colntne to examine the phys ical pl tiheotttena eo' e-ti ted with thltese tmi'a't:ions that we. discover the comil: xity of th l le inq. tiry. " (et it is oiut of tlheseo very subttle rese:arches tnhat we draw the mtost rollned truths. Tth hingh infertenees to whlirhl to he anlalysis of the subtd iltOe agntcies of creation leadst Us,.render seienletf, pursued in tt e spi.rit of truth, a great system of reli'ions niestci:on..Although vwe d not fear that hIeat and light cn hl:o confouinded in the tritld, sO o di'.1 fcre. nt are their lphemomt ena, et it: is it porai:nt.t to show how far.these two principles have been slp:ratie frolt 64 (OftCALOtFO TRANSPARItNXCY. each other. Transparent bodies have very vari os poweru sof ealorific ttransparency, or transcalesconc', omei obstructing tho heatt of hbdis at v igh temperatures, anlmost entirely ini the thinnest layesi; whilst others will allow even the hea t of the hand to }past throu'h a thliees^ of severa inchlcs. iquid chloride of sulphur, which is of a deep red color, w ill allow t 6 out of 100 rays of heat to )pass, amtd a olution of carmine in antlmm 0onia, or a glass statine with oxide of gol, r reate r a grater'r; yet these trantspatrent media obs truct a liarge quantity of light. Colourless mediia obstructinti scarcely any light, will, on thte contrary, prIvent the passtiage of calorific lrys, Out of every hundre(d rays, oil of turpentine will only traunsmit 31,:ulpthuric ether 2:1, su)lphuric acid 17, tand distilled water only I.. ure flint glass, howevetr, is pterimeated by 67 per cent. of the thetrnli t trays, and crown. glass by 4:9 per cent. The most perfect diathertic body is diaphanous saltt-rock, which transmits 92, while alum, equally translucent, admitits the passage of only 12 per cent. (,') Black -mica, ob sidian, and black glass, are nearly opaquet to lighlt, but they tallow 90 per cent. of radiant heat to pass through fthem,. Wherea s a pale gtree glass, (coltored byl ox oxide of cop:per, (i") covered with a layer of water, or a very tlin plate of alum, will, although 1p)rfectly transparent to light, taltmost entirely obstruct the permtneation of heat rays. We thus arrive att the fact that heat and light may be septa rated from each othter; and if vwe examineo the rays of the sun by that 1analysis wtlttilc the piristm gives us, we shall find that thlere is no corr:espondence bIetween intense light aid a rdent:t eat t. By cxperimut it has bexen shown, that whtlm we htavt in the prislmatie spec(trtumt the monst light, as in the yellow ray, we hatve only a:e tmt prat tue of 62 1 F. but t the red rlay, out of the p.oint of visildet light, tilt t empl ature is fi:,tond t to be 79'" 'tWAY.- V:MOV5EME T )f II:AT.AN3) Xl-tl'. 05 whilie at tlt e otitor l,' 1, i1 teid tb1lu1 t'ty, inth is 50, ani d att the ct(d of thti violet ray no tnhen cti -t ac tio: ctanl lb detectedtt. (') 1i.on0 tit() (.t'lcIl:'ulsta.nc0, that: as w, by artificial 1neas, x 1aise thll ttelll l)Lrattlltre otf lany Ibedit), alLlnd prode t it' lttt^ h}eat, xso t;w alst oIcttiasi1l t ta atnfltstihtiot.ol ligfit after a cortin t1point has beo obftainedt,('-) it has }been contcltudced, somitowhat.ha)stily, tiiat he.at and lii.h.t. ditber fromt each oth'er o1t1nlv in the raptidi.ty of the undulatio lns of a hylothetical etil her1 It Irtat be. adli tt.di tla t ithe atl.,lthllaticai dlemonstrattiont( of lmanLyv of the pl' nomcna of ca}lofific and luin,'ilouls plow'c.r, are 1'su -:ficie.itly st. tilt, to,co',vi.tie 1us tfhatt Lta wav -eno":: vei o1nt:1 is co'tt-.o110n to l:i.othl t }t,.at. and lithl. ITlte' itullaItory theory, howe.veLr,.t:leires, tlhe ladmistsitn of $so many I rems' i of w'ltlich wI IhaIve nol) proof; its p)ositulates are1, i n:id ill manIy cases so ratuiLous, its supj portf, w, must not 4 atllow ourlttel xes to het deceive'd I. y tht e deduction:s of its Iadvt.:,ates, or datzzlefd by - te l: illiantly of ttheir di:i-.lays'l of lc11't11111n. l taltant t htelit,ait: lpe'rs to tlmo10ve illn av s; ttlit that; calioliic acti::ll is estab.lishtli bty Ianly systiem otf InduIlln ltiont, is a dteduction wito.nit a pl::roof'; an.d. th the. -ii:. e m:p non'a~n oW f matte or are morelo oasily explaintc1' by the htypoi.:Sthis of a di tlit l:si l subtiile tluidl. We iltha' tlt, olt i:w'er, to I)rov ite t.o ptI.he correctTess {: f (itihetr of the opposi'qit'ng views, idc It d, it: is acknowhleet t(I t i:tha If- any p:hi.eolm:t:n:tlIma re(.t:j iuiro f:r the(irh eXpl)Lranation ) t conditionst whicht tarte nS.ot indica.:ted }.:by eit:her theory. Th1e. etart li 0re.ceiv is its heat l t ( o Ith s1; a portion of ii is eolttnd iied lt- fom particle to p'larticl'e i!nto thel interior of the( rock.y' c:rst. Ast t lci' )no rttiil lon tlp(tduce t:s warlttl ill the at motl: spert aroun')d us:y v coC:::: t;o'~, C:) the ()ir(:m cuhlatio:n o:f particle.s: tl.hsoe wart ed bly ticontact; wtith t the suftaice It } lco:tmlljg ligllter, tand asct:en.itng to give pl:lce to the Coldetr and(l helavierY otnes A. third 06 A.BI;O!IP'LON Of' CALORiO B'Y 141t Alii, portion. is rtadiated off in-to space, aceording to laws which have not been sufticiently investigated, but which irl d(tpendttent tupon tihe colourt, cfheImicl (comipo)Sitiotk, antd mcchanical structure of the surfaee. Few things within. the range of our inquiry are more striking than the phenomena of caloritic radiation and absorption. Thley diisplay so perfectly the most refined system of order, and exhibit so strikingly the adtmilrable ada ptation of every fborrmation to its particular conditions, and for its part int the gre'at econorny of being, that they clatit mnost strolgfly thie,study of all who woutl seek to discover a Poetry in the interences of scienele O)wing to the lnature, of our atmosphere, we are protected froml the influence of the full flood of solar heat. The absorption of calorie by the air has been calculated at about one-fifth of the whole itn pa,:ssing thbrought a column of 6,000 fi:et. T'[his estimate is, of courso, mtade near tlhe earth's surface; b ut we are enabled, knowimgt the increasing raritf y of the upplr Treions of our gaseous envelopec in which the afbso>rption is constantly ditmnishing, to prove, that about one-third of thel solar het is lost by vertical transmllission through the whole extent of our atmosphere. (',).xperience ihas proved tltiat tlhe conditions of the sun's rays are not always the sa; the rae and there are few persons who have not observ ed thatt a mtore than usual scorchilng inffluence pre vails under s omie atmospheric circumstanccs. This is also evidenced in the efTfcts ptroduced on the foliage of trees, which, though often attri-buted to electricity, i.s evidently due to }leat A n cxamination of the solar raliations, as exhibited in the prismatio spectrum, t has proved the existence of a class of heatt rays, whicht nmanifltlst theclmselves by a very peculliiar deoxidizi-ng power quite independent of their ealorifie prtotperties. (is) W' arep trotcIteOd froml the svere v efectsee of these tays by the ordinary state of theI GE1-NE;RA4f AiB)ROflTiON o0 61AT(,4 mediulm throughi which the solar heat passes. Our atmosp)hcre is a mixture of. gases and aque ous vapour; tand it has'been found, as already statted, that evc n a thin filml of water, however trana:sparent, prevents the passal(eo of lmany caloriilic radiatit:ons, and the rays retarded are, for the mtost part, of that eclass w.,hich} have tihis peculiar scorching powcrt. The air is, in this wayt the great qualdizer of the solar heat, rendering the earth atgreeablde to all animals, who, but for' this )pectliar absorbent. mediumt would endure, in our temperate clitme, the burnin rays of oa m)ore than Afriean su11 The surface of the earth during the sunshine — and.t, in a less degree, even when the sun is t oscured by clouds — is conlstantly receiving heat; but the rate of its absorption varies..lnijaminl F:tranilin showved, h:y a set of simple butt mn1jst conclusive experiments, that a piece of black cloth was Ieatetd mruch sooner thl'an clo1th of a lighter colour;(' and we know, fri om b obscrvatios of a simrilar class, thfat the bare brown i sil receives lheat m.ore rteatilt than the bright green grassy carplet of th.e.earth'. (nse q(etntly, during the witter season, relatively to t}he quanttity poured frotm its source, hteat more easily penctrates the unco:v-w red soil, than during t he sprin, t or summt er, lThere is a ctonstant tendency to aln equilibriiumt; and, during the night, t}he srfaice is ro)bbed of mtore heatt )by the colder air than by dlay; and even in these i prcesscs of convection and rsaatiron, a siilar law prevails to that wlhich is discovered in, examiniing into the rate of calorific absorption. Ever y tree Sptrtltreadi its greenl leaves to the suns hine, or cxposing Its brown branches to thte t.aiv.-. very flower whi-ch lends its beauty to the earth~. poswsesses ldil'lrent tasorb'ing and r adiatiltng powerl The chat lice-like ctup of tihe pure white lily fioatfing.- oti the lake~ — the variegated tulipt the brilliant atnemonyll-...th delicate rose -- and the intensely coloured peony or dahlia -..... lha.vec 08 M^l^Atr. tIO.s o0 lc^T ceath powe. rs pte(Cliar to theitselclvec foir dr inktnt i the. w'arlnint lif-. streaimt of' te: sun, atnd fl rItliatint.:^ it b ack li tol the thirstintS at nosph or.'tlies tr'e no conceits of( a scit'ntfict' reatf mer they aoe thel truiz. of irotit ilduetion anl, by exI'peit)iei8ts of sipit: hl c t', farae:tert l tlty may be put to a seavrching test ('") A.. tlheritlorml ettic -xatilt:ttii: of of the vtari:usi coltouren. laves B of flowcers will ireadily eta.tblihit the tco'rec'tness of tle otne l atd by a discovery of recenti date, connected v;ith caloritic radiation, itdelti.it;in.t:be parti euladr l deiscrib:ed l:e:tly, wc can, w ith 1equal cat se't ad certaintyt, test fthe truth of the (otter. (Q) Itt follos, as a natural conseqituetnce of tlhe.t plos.ititon ofi the st, as it retairdsi anty pattitculatr spot onfl i the f e'arth at i time, tli.'t:t th mti ountt of heat is conistantly v'itry'ing duri',ngfb y the yetar This variitton treolatcs th se sonts, If ani atnal;ysis of ith spee: ntrunl slhows' at tliatl thet flu t are some Ocflat.es re'ula dy tal}itl, ltdat'e in thie stato of tto s'olar ea lu,'ihi.t I cautnot I)e r fehrred to th mere'alteration of tisit.ion, i It any'e nitif.rorecd,'ron facts ai{liordd by lot'itat.ca tilnucd (obsl rv:t tilsns, thtt t t.he tc clast ses of p'hen:tlmt.eta whitct v detect in the l st-i's ratys tate totstinftly cht:lanin.g: their rielativc proiortiomns. In sptri'ii, the ecBtnmieal aeltcy -f rev'tails in.sluimert, thel lutltous t,prnincipile is thltie rst powetrfutl',ad mi }tho t. i..fautimin, th ca lrii ite trces. are.et. in., as fate'of the eat',st act ivi.tt.() T i' ilpolrt.'ttec o' f tliese variatiorns, to the g'ti.at conly of v'geta ble lifl will lbe shown v} en wo comttl to examline tlhe pl}enlostmnta coin'inec.tedi wtitl oralr! aic'tation..A. vrei.ar:lahlt clitane tk'tesr; plarec in t lhe cthal:rcte( r of )liat: i b:eitg rdili.ated ftrom ntatteritl subtlstat'fces, i'n. nature', we often seer thins ieltf ctturiouslyi. Snow h'. N.i}. lies near the t'nI' rls i:,f trsees or wtooden ittpole.s, me'ltls m quich.l:r t'an tflhat wVl)ic.l i.s at a disftattlnce firom tlen),.- tle f lf iquefati ion comm()lill n onl the side. ftacin': the tun, land tl gradunflly extending. WeV;es, t thetre'ore, tfh:at the direct rays of solar hlI teatt prwoduce less ef:eet f,ClTIl:.ION 0or XfAT.i 69 upxon tie snow thanlt those wh}ici: are radiatde fromt colourCed strfaces. By tnume routs icxprimenits, it has b:een shoxtwnha thlat t secondary radiati s arse more abundantly absorbed by snow or white bodies than the direct solar rays tlcmselves. i ere is onei of the mlany very curious evidences, which stelnce la s open to us, of tthe intl tiate connection }t:vween th1e riost ethmrail alnd the grosser forms of mtatter, lieat, by tonctting the earthl, u becomes mnore e.art-likeo, Tir subtilo principle which, like the spirit of superstition, has the ttpowetr of passinttg, untlfelt thrtough the crystal xass, is roblbed of its mtight by einibracingn the thitngsf of earth; and althou:t it still retaitns tthe evidences of its refited origin it smovementi saked as aeby a clog of clay, and its wings are heavy with the dustf of this rlling ball. It t has, howev\er, ttae (qired t'new properties, whith fit it for the re(tuirementst of clreation, and by which it re ta skt aire tiailitated. Mattter and. heat unitet in a commonal bond, and, harmtonliously putnt singl) the nccessities of.someo universal law, the result is' the extension of bealtifltl tfrms in every k;ism ot of nature. An easy experiment pleatsingly illustrates this t rmarkable chatnge. Itf a blakened card t is placed uptt on snow or ice ill the sunshitlo, the fronxen mass tundern eath i it will:be gradually t'itawet, while that by wiech it is surrotltuded, alt.houtgh exposted to the full ptwer' of soltar heat, is lbut little disturbed. If, lev, oweer, reflec;t tle s un'sT rays fromt a lmetal suriatt, an emxactly contratry result take8s platce; the uncovered parts lare the firs t to Imelt, and the bla:.ttcktenelt card sta r ts higl abtt ve t he sltrroundingm_ porttion. Thet evidences of atciote atll indicate the sun ias theo source, not only of thatt healt whinet we receive directly throughl our at mosphere, but cven of that ich has tbten stored by ovtr planet, trand whlich we can, by several metihol s, deveiope- Weo havet not to itnuire if the: etarth was eiver an intensely helatedt sphtlere. - l.this concerns not outr tquetsstionl; as fwe sh.moild, even were ths arnitte(l, still hIttave to p ulte theaU on ih f oliiin- -thel pirttitive sounree of this cta:slodi.,'efi:r'e, h}.towevel'r, we i'roe> (dl to t the oxaelninat'ion of ('tl}o p)henotnrct af tef t-resitrijal heait a fw; ofts tlithe reTat re ts ot the laws of vrtdia ti; n i andi conTvcct iomn clainin our attenltioSn..N:'lyx all thle he-at w: hich (., sunt pens up)'-: n it)h ocat ist:m )lt:uoye int con:vedlfi t g its. wat:er ilnto va pai' at tho v:ery sfitt'.'o, or' is radiateld ba: k tfroni it, to prtni)r) t(ie im prt ol:iiit:o of p'oindilttlue vault tf heaven, tlhe sparklin:g c..ste'tllattion s sh owe t their m iltl li tlht over the earth tih flowers of thle ar(i:ldlen and the leaves of the filrest Ab.ecome toist with ta ltid tht most t tnshe mos t id n at uret.. Well m)igh:it the:an1tientts' ittnatittn0 t:ht ho (lews were attualtly shedt' firom the stars tand the,alchot niss alnd pJlitysiians of tihe liddtlho A ts corneeivo' that this pure distillatiini. lo thue rnight pit ossess subtil.e t(andt te (:t.ating powers leyo('nd most11 other tehintgs iaitl t e t ladties of t{:)ose l(lte: tiites (lt ]ldei\vour to pl'rst'rv t{hir chi a ill tlt }:i:lt - tct)ion of( theitr yuth fnil }eauttt.. throthl the iftluenees of wt'as.les plr'reured fromi so r{ 1 tl' at sourctle ( ) Scinc:t e ihas tremtoved tdet veil of.mlysttery with whiehb s uper stition had inv.sted the foharmation of dew andlt iln slhowing:f t1(o Is ttt: it: is ta cndensationf vt a pour u tpolt )n)itdi s aitectrdic ng to a fixed{ttt ltaw of( radiation, itt }t.as: also) eveloped so many'.smtarl:at:le fie.ts coninectedi. tht thltihe.ltraeters of rmaterial creatiotns, that a nmt'ch higtltir orde r of poetr. is)'pened to the It mindi fll{ tha tt which., thogit ISeautifutt, sprat):ng merely firtt t n tie inmagoilatiot. I''on tihe radiation of heait depenlds thel foriation of dew, and 72 sKtO UCreNAL PA.>IAtoi:0. bodies must become colder than the atmosplere bef:ore it witl bo dep:ostited upon them. Thifli'rent substiances, indepenident of c.lou't, lt ve the propert y of proiecting heat )tt from tleir sMu.::ees witl t diftbtrent degrees of force. It ougth antd portous surlitces radtitte heatt more ralpidly thai smooth ones, and are consequently reduced in tilemporature and, if oxposed, covered with dew sa:ootler than smooth and dtere bodies are. The gnrass i:rt:rro glistlens wNith dew, whilst.: the hard antd stonly willk is utnimis. tened. () (Colourlecss glass is very read:ily suffilsed with datinpness, b})ut polished mnetals are nuot s, even when d- ews are heavily contensed 0i on other bodies. To co mprellend ftlly the lhenomena of the fotrma-ttion of devw, we mInust relmember that the entire utra:e o(f the earth is constantly radiating heliat into space; and that, as by nlig-ht ito a)bstorption of caloric is talkitnt place, it natutally cools, (-') As the sustances spread over the earth become colder than the a r, they acquire the p.vower of condensing the vapour with whichl the: at most hettr is always chatrged, Th bodies whlic coverl this globe ar very differently constituted they possess dissimilar radiaztitng powers, Iand conseq.uently presentt, when examineld by delicate thermometers, varying degrees of ttteperature. By the researchles of )r. We llts, (:') hich may Ibe adduced as an example of the best class of indtuctive experlinents, we learn tlhat the followin(g difllbrences ittn sOnsible heat were 0observed at seven o'clo-ok in the'evening3iI: T'.e aim ftor eet above the gras... 01i Wool oil a taised board,...... } ^ Swanldowm l on ditto.... 03 The s arface of the raised. board.t. * (a' ass.plat. 61 I)ew is mnost abundantly deposited on clear, calim ntights, during wllich tile radiation fi'om teme surfece of tahe earith is u tl Oc LO i',t:fn i:i DI.ACT-itYS, 73 interrapted. Th.e increase d cold of such nights ovcr those obscuretttd y cloudst i wtll knttwn. Thi clouds, it has been provedt, act in the sat:me waty ias the screens used I)y gtardcn'er to iy)otct tlite yitloung planlta f i'o tlhe fTi'Ost (of thlie erly Ysprig, which obshtruct t he rladitatio, tand, in tall. probab;ility, reflect a small quantity of heat toack to ti earth. It is nott imtprotbable. tat tlhe observed imcrease iin r'rass crolps, when they have been stlsrewn with lbranchles of trees or lany sliglit hades,tmay tbe due to a simi lar cause. (') There are mtany remnarkable resualts dependent entirely on tho coloturs of bodies, which are not explicable upon thel idea of dit tfrenco in mech-anical arrangement.'We know that diftlerent eoloxurs are xregulated by the powers Nwhich sstruetures hiave of absorbing and refleeting l ight-; consequently,a blue surface imust lhave a dilfid'rent order of tmoaeult a airrangement fr'io a red one. B.ut there are ssomel plhys'tsi pecultiarities which al s o influence calorific radiation, quite indeipendently of this si,,/surf conditioti If we take pieces of redt, black, green, and yellow glass, and expose t.0hem wheln tihe tde:,ttg is condtesing, weN shall find that moisture will show itself first on the yellow, tel:n on tlhe greto glass, but that none will a.ppear on either the bl)ack or red glasses. Tlhe sane thingt takess phl(ace if we (expose, coloured fluids iln whlite glass bottles or trou'ghs, in whichl case the surfitscts are all alike. it against a sheet of gl ass, upoin which mloisturet, hs been slightly firtoze, we plae sitila rly coloured glasses to those alrceady described, d it will be fbund that tfie earliest iheat-rays will so warmt the red atnd the bllack gilasses, tfhati the ice, will be me.lted opposite to themt lonr bebreo any clhango will be seent upon the frozen. film covered by the otiter colours, t-he1 order in w-hich. heat permeates coloured nmedia, it has already been showtn, very tty ar agrees witht their poweir of radiation.t 1T11s 0)A cuiS 1tlo oti a s t av~ engaged t 1 0'tlt} att 1U' t4 kIm 14 i:,elloni, to iwxho:,- inv:.stig: to:s Nw: owO 1> iue ~ and fiaonl tlea p) ^'t,: li'r' ot' of ra' it, v ich p ie'', 1tn[11 t.)tn..1:a f t Ian1 tlalnto(ilou:s tlC1t1ractor to) tl.: of tor o f th o lo' rys' of I l t, (tl" l,:inet 1)1 himt frot dtii si1-i1lar'ly colourned baie:, tho 1 i:. bet led to i1maglie thte exista:' of a "t o" iatat t:- 1.1trtit... ttt Is ttlto heait-rays 1ar e spltIsl 4ed to ii.s'B.s Ir o1 1 1per'tit. I ik itItus c' oI)t rt', ailthough invi siR l; andic., eoJ. n:::e-intly, thlta:t la b'ltuo.str~fi o i It: a stronig tf1 tniit fit thti l:o 1 t: 1 hea.t-irays, a' rod sturt,.0o ft'r th. redf ones1, and so t1 thiro'uigtt tho seaOlo. T11i ilio tiity of this hy- po1etlesi:s 1tas )rocrured( i:t muel.t h :l4isn o('1a 1)t1 wiet is 1) tits;1 td al't itt "-St: ".:itro, tandi i a tso d tel'rli:te ft s rat': e w ith whieh) it is 1o 1)o.s: oI'{' ff'l its sur salco,(i 110 recent eI' erh 111 11 I.... bu.es with ot)lter lfai: eCouet'r with:l'ie 1 1 at-11i'a, ialio3il ue 11 al:lti blithl th r l itt Iitl ( i, wtgllt tyellow i ttidoI - (S \l'1}itntc tplo t tls i po per t of eal v ry t al ittlle aner, Ilast t ill be l'alrode w''hen'we: to t lhe e:xa a tion to of:i s tclel et:: i a n to Ef tl stip hte}. l wet{3 i:jol.nC.. io ie e:.{:,;io otti f thef: (Sh e it:: aIt a(!:in of 3; (s t 3>s}?*3t}f.1t OXSf f< tP sut' s nrtys) ~-..... it will be, fuilmnd, if we aftlerwanttds exl:pose the plate, to tuhe a-I.c-tio.nm of vapour, very slowly rai:sed froi,. ntf''reur.tl,l thalt tlth::p.tspace oct.upied l:t y tohe redl rays, and t.heset::oI whi.ch lie without Otle spneetrul- below it, wvil conden se t.he vapour tie',ldCly, RADIlANT BE'lAT* Ti whtile the porttioit erreti'pontdii with the other rays will be left untouched.'this aIlfOrd us e.vidonec of the power of so:ar heat to itproduee velry readtily a. chitenlt,,e in thoe iolecular structure of solittd bodies tl; f wOe dllow tt ltt8 lsito peti) Xl-eit coloured glasses, and t:lt fatll t1pot a polished netalt:e su.rfnace, thef result, o(t exposing the plate to vat poriza.;tion, will he sinatiilar t oa t hat just doserikwd, U.nd: r yellow and,!. greaen gl ass s no valpour Nwill:he condeons ed; l. os te spt on il p t which the trys pertnea.tin)i a red gtr s, or cc:ve a lbiakened one, lt, a verty c..pious dep(o-sit of vapour will nmrk with dist.inctess the space:s theso glasses ctovered. dMiora re nlA:;able at I, if' hese or any other cltouret bodies are platedi in a box, and a polished metal plate is suspended a f:New linets above them, the whole being keptt iti pe'rf ec da.rkn..ess tor a fiew Ihotrs, precisely tih sa t e t fit et takes place as when t:h arrangel: nltf'l is ex:.podsed t o to the full rays o:f ithe.ultl. Ilere we ha. v evi(detee of the radiatintg heat of bodies, pltrodutSiig even in darkness the samne p.t.t e mlt nr a tin s the t ranstnittcd hteat-, rays of the 81l.1 Wle must, ho wr, return to the exanmination of somet i of the.se and other tamnl:rogorstt infiluences under th.e head of aeti:no-ehe:instry'iromi these erutious diseoverics tt~~~~~~~~~ ~ (~. xls{{X\(~ t~i<4stit6} {} }flft 1t\ tts OB(}}' (?<:)~7~'1< Vt CcONCt'aW:ia POWUt Ut iw i ^OMES, meon p)Owe', or ) partictlat r solutitons of ono grcat physilcal etuatiottli"() In many instances it would cort-ainly appeart that one of these f'orces wats directly necessary to the productiont of the other; but we have al so numerous exampleh;s int wlnch they do not stand in any such corrclation. Wo learn, from tfr sOieniili.e.ficts which we wohave been discussing, a fte of the secrets of natttul tma:gi, In t'heir relations to heat, every flower, which adds to tthe adornment of the wilds of nature or the carefully-tended garden of the florist, posse sses power pecuiar to itself; and, as we have before inre diated, the " Naiad-like Illy of the'vale," and, - " The it wind-....................:., n td the tulip talt, And narcsi, thie fairest aring theltm all," are, t)y tlhir diffe ren t colours, prevented f:om ever having thi} srnme temperatures under the same smunshine lverry plant bears withiin itself the measure of the calo.rie which is necessary for its well-bcing, and is endued with funetions which mutely deternmine the reflative amotnt of dew which shall Nwet its eoloured leaves. Stomie of the terrestrial phenomena of this retmarlkable p)rineiplf will t still further illustrate the title of this volume..to( c.tommence t1th the most fanmiiar illustr ations, let us conrider the consequences of chancge of tem )eriature. H1 ow ever sli'ght the additional heat tma-y be to which a.bodty is subjected, it expand:s under its intllence; consequently, every atom which goes to form the mass moves under the excitation.'lhe difirenees between the tem oerature of day and night are considerable; therefore all bodties exptand under the influenc-e of the higher, and eontraet under that of the blwer, tenit:rature. D)uri.ng Ithe day, any cloudi ol)seuring the sun pi)rodtues, in every solid, fluid, or ailtriftrm bofdy, within the ra^nge of solar influeneo, a cheek tlhe s;O:ta-iiCTO01X OFP fl:XAT.' partieltes which }hat bect expanding under the force of heat suddenly contratL.'thus there tmust of neccessity be, dturintg tle hours of sunshine, a tendeney t i all lbodies to lilate, and during lthe hours of o i gl they miust bo resu}ting their original conBitions. Not only dfo ldissimilar bodies radiate lheat in dilit rent detgrce, but they conduct it also with eonmst'anty varying ratet, (atlorie, p:asstes alongr silver or coppter with readtiess, compared to its prorous tihrotugh pl at'tintl,. It i8 conducted by glas bus t slowly, and still more slow'ly by wood and (charcoal.'The ntetallie oxidest or earths are bad conductors of heat, by whficli provision the cdtortie absorbed b:)y the sun'i rays ys lnoit carried asway fritt o the surfIace of this planet so: rapidly as it would have been had it been of metal tt but is r etaind in the s tuertficial crustt to produeo tt due temCperature fo healthfil e inaitition atnd vegetable growtht 4The wool and h air of anim'als are still inferior conductors, and thus, utider changtres of limat and of seasons, the beaesrts of {the field are secured tagainst those violent transitionts fiotm 1at to cold which. wxould't b fittal i t, tfhen. I lair is a better coniductor than woiol: hleec, lby natturei' alchemy, hair is ct anged into wool on the approach of winter, and feathers into down. 1.t: is, thereftore, eviden t that the rate at whic:h solar0I heat is con-.. ducted into thel. erust of the ea rth mnust al!ter with the condition of the sarfae up onm vwlichl it falls. The conducting p)owe tr of all the rocksx) whichn i have l en examined, is found to'vary in 01s1 dil ree. (I ) It: ftollws,ts a natural consequ ence of the position of the sun to the e xrth tha t. thit tle partst near the eiqua tor tbecontme more hetated than.i those rennote froit it, A. this heat is conducted into the intetrior tof tlh mass, it litas a tenrdency to mlovet to the cotlder pow tiots,of it,, t.asd thus, tbhe he:at absorbced at the equator flows. towatrds thlt potles:, andt from tithos par.ts is ca rried off by (tt aitmio-''': T T 8'SIBTBA ^AN N TEMP ATlE.,? sphere, or radiated into space. O(wig to this, there is a certain depth beeatht the surface of or goloe at \whicht an etual tlemper ature prevails, the d.epith inctreasitng as we travel north or south fiom the eqnator. C() A question of great interest, in a sc ientific poinit of' vI.ew, is the calorific' condition of thli centret of the earth. WVe are, of course, witbhout the imeans of solvi ntt this prcbnfin; ut: we adv ance a little way onwards in tthe inquiry by a careful cxaminaltion of subterraeantea te.npteraturo at such depths as the enterprise of lman enaltles us to reach<, T'hese resca(rhes shouw us, that. where the miean temperature of the clilate is 50, t the temperature of the rock at 5!) ftlhoms fro the. surfts e is 60; at 82 tthoi s It i t'; at.28. fiathoms' it it 80i t: hbcint an intreasec of 10') at 59 ftthr}omts detep, or 1 in 8't5. fieet of 10`o mI ore at t7 fat'hom's deeper, or t1: in f::,8 If:e t; and of t10. mrn. 1. ttr: at hors still detpor, or I" it 64-t2 fteet.(~'') Although this wouhldii indicate tan inreoase to a certain depth of about one tdegree in ever\y'i'fif:, f(ct, cet it woutld appil.'ear thatl the rate of increase dimintishes with tho depth, and that. tte heat of the earth,.so far as man cani etlxamine it, is due to the absorption, of the solar rays by the surface. The iman anntual ttemperatureo of this planet is of course. sul:bj3 ec.t to great vaNS riations: at the eqpuator we may regtard it zjas utnitorolv.sy xistitng at 80' wNhil o at the poles it. is below the frleezintg po )int of water; and as fta asr obselrvations have been madte, the subterr'tl temperatures bear a closo rela'tion to the ifferlmi clondition. of the elin atet of. the strftace Thet. circulation of water tbfhroug'h ftaults or fissures in the strata is, withoutl doubt, one means of caryintg heat downwards moutch quitckler than it wou lfd be conduct:ed by the rocks the.selves. It is now, however, fontd that the quanttity of water increases with th:e (tdeth,. In the mines of (Cornltwall, ntless where the grotund is very loose, miners find thlat, after al:outt 1 t50 fathorms is TUIEMIC i 11555. 4 (900 feet), tthe qtuantity of water rapidly dimiinist hs. That water mus:st rseiend ftto very mluch'greater deptths is certain, from the higlh tet.'tpcratures at'pwhiclh itmany springts flow out at the surfale. At the bottom of the lhnttedla Mtes in Ciornwatll, wvater rises fromt one part of the lobe at 90'~; and one of the levels in these worl;king s I so hot that, not.witstatnding a ot. itl.rn of cold water is ptposely b'rol'ughtf i nto it to retduce e t et p tt erature, the iners work nearly nakedt, tand will batthe in waIater att 80 to cool theimselves, A.t the bottom of T're svean.Mine, in the same county, aubout t.'() fathlomss from the tsurfice, the temper atulre is nearly 1.00'. ()ne cause (,f tie great heatt o f nttuly of outr deep mine.sl, twhich ttappears to have been enitirely lost wsightt of, is the chemical actito noilng on xipeon large masses of pyritic iatter in their vicinity. The heat,, which is so oppressive in the "United Mi1incs, is, without d:oubt, due to t the decomposition of immense qtuantities' of the su1phuret of iron, known to be in this condition at:a short distance0 ftrom thelsoe mineral works. As a proof tfhat the heat, w:hich we are enabled to m'lleas:re bexncath the eatrth's surfce, is du(e to t1he conducting pl oers of the )rolk;s t.hetmsves, it: )ts ben found that the line of equtal temperat.ure foilowts, as inearly as possible, the elevations i and depressions whicht prevanil upon the surflace. Whether or not; the subterranean bands of eq. ual( heat lave'any s.riet relation, ut.pon a large sceale, to t he isoth erimic lines which have ibote t rac.ed around tmost portirons of' our glosl, is a pointi which has not yet t'been so latistfctorily determinei d as to ardit of any general ded(uctions. ~PThe Oriental story-teller makes the inner world a placie of rare beauty..a cavern temple, bestudded with selfnluminous gems, in which reside the spiritudat beings to whom the direction of the inorgatnie world is confi:ded, Man, in the height of his knowledge, has bhadt dream s as absur 80 ax XPANSON OP 10BDIEXSt BY t IA:T as this; tand almidtl the rolmanctes s f sci.once, therie are not to 1b) flntid any more strantge visitons than those which relate to t lh centre of oar globe, At the same tiime it must be adtitted, that many of the poculiar phenomtena which modern geological reasearehes htave brought to light, are he8st explained on the hypaothlc sis of a coligil:t mas, whioi neetssarily involves tlh existence of a very hight tetlt)eature ttrowards the centre.'We h}ave already noticed somte remarktablt e d itfrernces bet ween solar awl terrestrial heat,; but a class of observations by )elaroe}ice() still req(uires our attention. Solar heat lpassers freel. through colourless glass, twhereas tlhe radiations from a light fire or a mass of incandetsent metal are, entirely ob:structed by this medium. If we plae e a lamp or a ball of glowing hot metal be.fore a mt etallie refletor, the focus of aelnnmulatetd heat is 0soo discovered; hbut. if a glass rmirror is used, the light is refected, but not. the heat;t wieretas, with the solar rays, but: little diIirei.ce is detected, wihetther vitreous or metallic reflectors are emiployed. It i well known that glass lenses reftact both the light and heatt of the sutn, and they arte omfmonly known as lmrntintg-glasses: tflh heat accumula ted at their focta point being ot the highest intensity. If, instead of the solar beam, we em)ploy, in our experimoents, an intense heat prol)idueted by artitfical mt eans, tthe platt of it is (obstructed, atnd the most delicate thernmo)neters remain unldisturtbIed in the focul s of the lens. lass exposed ini front of a fire t;.ecomeis warm, anld 1by. conduction tlh heat a:sses through it, and a s:econdary radiation takes tplce f roall tIhme optl.,'it-e side. (^) It hlas been atund th at. g:ls is t ransealese. t, or diatherllic, to solme rays of terre..strial heat, and adiathetrn'i, or oipake for heatt, to ottthers( ) ~. tlhati thae capabfility of plrmieaitin glass increanses'with the temperature of tht e ignited body.-.'and that rays whicth have pa'ssed one screen traverse a secind mnore readily. It wtoul, however, almppear that.somnething more than a miore elevation of X:1,t ION OI O 1O)I:,oTRS B.' II.xT. 8t temperature s necessory t io "ive terrestrial ealorific radiations the power' of )passitrlg tihroth lasst screens, or, in other words, to acqtuire the prolperoties of sol- r heat.'tt giv an ei xarnml-t' Tt hel iat of the oxt-hytdr'tgen flane i moost in.tense, yet fglass obstructs it, altholugh it ntmay be as:sisted by a parolblie reiheetor. if this ilamo lis lde tt o play upon a 1)atl of limte, by which a most intentse light is produced, the heat, which has not Ibeen actually increwased, tacquires the power of beigit rtiracted by a glass lens, and combustible bodies may he ignited in its fibuas. It certainly appeatrs fr'om these resultst that the Itundulatory hypothesis hol(ds true, sto fia r as the motion of the ealorific f)orce is concerned. At a certain rate,t thfe vibrations tre tlhown tba.ck or top'l'Td by the otpposing lbdy, while in a s:tate of higher exc itation, moving withi itnctreased rapidityi, they permcesato the screln. (1C) iThis fdoes not, in indete, interrfi e withl the refineId th0eory of.Provost, (CK) whitch supposes a mnutual a:tn equal interchange of calor'i b}etween all. bodies. Thoe most.; general ef cf:et of heatt is the expan sion of' matter; solids, It ttifs, tiand airs, all exptand under its intluenee. If a bar of metl is exposZed to calotifie actiont, it increases in si'e, owing to its partictlles tbin separatetd father fom each othler: by continning tihis influ.enceto, after a certain time the cohes.ionl of the mass i edced t i s t melts, or becomei.s ioliqid, and, ult nder the forcet of a s till hig}nher temiperattu e, this tnmolten lmeltal may tb dissipatte:d in vapour. It would a-ppear apr s if, tunder the agency of the lhat tl:}apled to a body,, its atomns expta,:nded, until att last., owing to te teait the teni he outer layer or en velpe of each atom, they were enabled. to move feely over each othiler, or to interpenetrate without. ti (ilcltv..'tht ( eat d{foes really ocetr.asion a. 3onsiderable dlisivt rbatte in the corpusifular t arrangement of bodies, mtay be proved by a very interesting experinent.* A bar of 8 A::XPAXN;'StAION 0I f.'titO S Bo o rr Y IE -AT, heated meotal is placed to cool, with one en nI supported upon a wedge of anothert sorta otf melal, tih other rest ail,t til ther ffroid. Iatt coolilng, a dis.tinct tlltuieal souiit i is. given out, owint to t h vibratl.tory aetiont se(t lup naongu the astt icles of iiatter mI)oving s the templieratliure dclines. ( ).Hea it is dfitised through all bodies in nature, and, as wo iA U1di presently see, may be developt ed in umanty dirl. entt e. wat' e mtay, the refiro, itfir, tfhat in eonver ting: a sphere of iee into \watetr, and that. ataitn int-o ste(am, we. have done noI)(thigt: m)ore t:han ilnterpenetrate thel aes wilt a lartger quantit of cal.o:rie, by whitc its atoms are more widely separated, tand tl'iat. thus its )ltSolesles become more d:tilet and clastie. Tlius, finot a solid state, the water rbecmef s fluid; tnd thlen, if thxe expansive::rce is contitnued, a inlvisibtle vapo}l.'If these liit-it arIe tpsed.ty the powers of any greatly increased ttherietii acttion, the natural eonscq1tuenee, it mustt ble sfeen, will b}e the separation of the ato)ms ftron achl other, to such an extent tha ttthe moleculee is ds.t hstroyed, tand che.tti d.a d.eco, )position taes plface tBy the agency of the electricity of tlhe voltai battery, we are enabled to produce the lnst intellnsit ht with which we are (e-qaintedi, and by a peculilarly intgel ouns arrangeimentt, itx. Uraove ihas succeeded iin resolving water ilnto its:onsrtiut etelemet s - oxygcn tt d hiydrogein gases. That thics (comipotsition is to dtld to the voltai: current was sub:tsequentl'ly prov.ed by e:mlj:oying platina, Iteattd by the oxy-lhydrogot flamte. (. ) Thfis interestifng qestion has b}e(.'t exa}tiinied wit g'redat care by I)r. iolodison. of Arrnagh, whllo ls slowit that, as t:: th e'teiperature of wtater is inc. reased, tthe afinity of its etlcttents is lestenetld, tuntil att a cert.aintl Iint it is eveat nually d, lest oyl. This new tand;startlitng tcet appliears s.arcely eosist:e:t with our ottliidge, littt a b(ody heated. so ast to be Iunltinlos lias tlhe:power o'. f causing the comttinlat ion of the elier,ts otf water with exli\'. iver violene. (C) B11.lt as tlias atlite eo l-:t pernt n tal p:h ilosophit r soni twltt biolt I y hu It sl: 1. V( t-13})I-,8 I Wa'tS - "I it stilt itiel balthat ly but, sll toot, rea:sialy aigitll ists:'.Is it niot: plrobablde that, if t:it lig}'ht, s or. other aic'tie )ttoer (liket tilat which aceoit2il.liles litlt in tho si)(etruitt, and is revealed to ius by its chdliti:ial etle,[ct, iM n tit plrocesscs of plotogtrrphy) is evolved l by tlh heat, atd, thouitghtr itnvisible, detert mitte it conjutnetion wit1h tld atlliiity, thiat; atotoic ethantg whielit ti rafi)SO)tios thlo three volumes of oxyge.nt andttl hydtro(fg isnto t\wot ofs teto?('(71) Thbis slcmetlation explains, in a very satislatttory tinannrl, 8niet isros it.a' which were obtaincd l)y Count Iltotrd, in 17tI8,. Ifn a lris of experiioe'nt., instfitutte fi r thi e p urptot is of exnnni g ( tlise cetiTical )properties of light which haIve bee} n attrilulted to it," le Irsas.shown that imfanly eases of choeioieal etcoi, position o(teur in perfec' t dark;,ness, underl ti the inlfitiite, ( of heat, wh\ich arle la:e'eisil'y simnia:r to tlhI so prodtIucoed bIy exposure to tlh smnrl nravs (;) It imut-tt, hltweivetr, l)e ren:ceailered, that l.th solar ligiht andt lIt:at tare sonitit. inCs foIundt in dtir. et; anttag:t ismn to a(tinlie ptowe ri, and that the most deideld ehemiecnla cha';nges atre poiitcei tby thoslts i rays in win t ehil flit her tr l it nor litgt can ble dettc.Aed. The remtarla ti M pihetno menat of this cas ls will b1e eox )laied unter the head of aetiinisi. Ono of theo moslt eurious relations wh'inch, as yet, haveo leent iisc.\overetd iet weetn lighlt tanid heat is, that the temit:perature of the ineandesteenet e of all btodies, e xcepting stuch as are t:ph osp, orese t:, is unif.ton. This poi t on tie the rmometer (t Fahreheit's scale) may lprolahily I:)e reg:ardedl as, or very near, I. t000, when the eye by pltertc.et repose is enabled t tto dtect the first lutinlous influence. I)aniel has fixed t his point at 9.80, Wedgwo"? a't Ct'7" and l):ra):tr at 977T.( ") I)r. ltobinsoMi anld Dl r. TiT aper, by inldeptendent observations, h ave botih arrivedf at the conclusion, that the first gleam of light: which Iappeai from hitatted,tatia is miot retd, 84: AlBSOlI'TUOS OF 1. tiATT. but of a laventlert gray, tlo samlt in character as that detcttd by Sir John l-Tischel among the 1ost refrangible rays of the (olar spectrum. (1) lt.1 must 1.} adniittled, that the question of the identity, or otherwise, of lihtt andl radiantt heat, is beset with difficulties. Mtlany of their ptl0henotmen a are very inmilar.tt —..tmany of their mnodes of action atre a i:ke they are often found as allied atlenet"l' butt they as frequlently exhtt iit extremo diversity of action, C and they lmay be separated firot each other. We} havre now examtined the physical eonditions and p1-rojpetrties of this most iml.portant element, and we must proceed to learn something of the mteant s by which it may te developed, inde)endently of its solar soumee. This extraordinary principle exists in a tltent tstate in all bodies, a tnd may be pressed out of thei. The blackst ith Ihammters a nail until it becomes red-hot, and from it he liglhts ]ns matth the iron Ilas by this process becomoe more, dense, and plercussion will not agail prod uce ii..tcade-cenee until tth bar has been exposed in lirel to a red heat. TheT:Indian produces a spark by the attrition. of two pieces of wood..1~y friction, two pieces of ice may b mtnade to melt eeach other; ant could we, by m.echanical presslre, forceo water into a solid state, tan ilmmense quantity of caloric would be set free. By the condensation of hydrogen and oxygen gases, pulverulent platinum will become glowing red-hot, and, with eertain precauttionls, eve thte comrpactt metal, platinumt, itself:t tie heat being derived fromn tIhe gases, the nmion of wthich it, has ecffieted. A body passing from the solid to the fluid state absorbs heat from tall surroundilg substances, and h'ence a degree of cold is produced. ltl heat which is tlts removed is not destroyed -. it is held combined with the fluid; it exists iln a latent, state. Fluids, it passing into a gtaseous tform, also rob all surroutding bodies of at amount of heat necessary t:o maintai tihe:iriislr condition.tl rom.. th air or f:rom the fluid this Ihe at' mx's, a we ave shown abl:ov, Ibo againi extra t'.ted ifokedk~:l iiln a pintt rmeoature of air, thero exists su'itltiont calotrie to ris severadl,inAro ineiios of inctal to a glowing red eaf B:y the c( mtpriesson of atimo'dsil -t!n. aiwr this tmay hbe s':iown and w ithl: ta imall co ndensint, syringe a sn afficiot qnu.ntityl of heat n ay fi.t set fi'ee to fire the.Jo'etus (ftiWui's, wich, inprecated with ilitre, is known as am.tdom.'W'o are atquaintel with various s.oureos of lhe:ti foi r a'rtit cita ipturposcts: the flint. anitd,stol, and tlhe modern tuciferi-maatch, are the most comtnmon. These of thentslves wou ldt adiit.t o a lengthened diseourst e.t; it is ticessa.ry that we cartefully examine somne of the le ss faidna Iiar pihelitonom a of heat.t under the itituones of changcs of chemical condition..f spirits of wine aid watetr are lmixed tog'ether, a eonsiderabl: degree of }eat is. gitve out, and by mix1\ing sulp phuric acid and water, f an infnitely lart:er lamount f oil So vitriol and sphiits of wine, or taqtfuaf:rti (nittric acid) and spirits of turlp}entine,'at common teminperat iires, eb suddenly mixed, so much heat is' set free as to igniitel thet sp irits. lin all t(hese instiances tthere is a condensatiot of the luidt. In nearly all ease:s of solitdion, cold is pmroduc.ed by tIhe abitsorptiont of the.t heat ine1cessary to sustain tlte salt in a liqtuid fltirm; but when potash fissolves in water, heat is g' ven tout, which is a fi. tact we catrnnot yet explaiin. Itf io? tassi.nmt is placed on water, it e ts fie, tby the heat produced, to the hydrogen gas libelrated from it. Antimony and many othlier metals thrown iuto chl.rine gas ignite and lbrn wtitdh ltrilliailcy: the srame phien omenon tales place in the vapol)Us of iodine or tbromine. Manty chetmlial cl1ombinalsr- tions, as tshe chlortte of pof t ash anld tsulphur, expltode. with a blow; whilstI the slightest firiction octasions the det.onation of the'fulnin:tint g slts of silver, merurty, and gold, (ompounds of ontitrogen and chlorine, or iodine, taro still -more delicately combined. — thoe tformner exp lotd{t.>St~s%,18}l},*~ts~s t'~t\]'l~,${' t } })tt8~8 Hi) 0w 01 OF i OA^NiIL PIOX)011i(. iI)t'g with fetarfit violence on the contacet of an oteaitnous body, anda the latter with the smallest elevation of temper'a.turet: both of tthen: destroyingt h the vesse8l in which they may b1e containted These e;trfld dtisturilnces of combination tcan only be explained upoen tlhe suptlposition, that the particleS have the tproperty of conl densifg around them an enormous quantitity of the etalorfitie and chemnical pritnciple, and reta-iintgl thett in a latent state until sotme disturtance renders them sensible, A by whicht the stddent destruction. of the chemical union is produced, andt the fll powers of heat. and actinism te developed. The fact of great heat being evolved during the c(toversion of a body from a stolidt to a ga.tseous statet, which. is a strikintg excelption to the ltaw of latent heat, as it tprevails in 1most eases, admits of no more satisfalctory explanation..A.s neehanieal t ore produces calorifie excitation, so we find tltat every mtovefment of sap in vegetables, and of the blood atnd fluids in the animal economy, causes a'sesible increase of }teat..The clhelicial processes constantlyf going on in plants and animalsre are nother source of eat; andt to nervous energy and to ntmuscular tmovementt, mu lst we al;so look ftr the sustaining calo.ie which is essential to the health t an l ift of the latter. Digestion has been considere(d as a process of comlbulltionl; and the action) between the elements of oiod, tand the oxygen conveyed by theo circulation of the blo.od to everly lp'rt of t.he body, regarded as the source of animal heat; att, without doubt, it is one great source, although it eannot bie regtarded as the only one. () The vis Uti w, or vital power, influences the delicate tland beau.t tiful system of nerves; and as life runs through themr, firom the brain to the extremittiesf of the mentmbers of the body, an essence of the rarest and most subtile orders, a ditftusive influence, it setso those tender threads in rapid vibration, and heat is developed. By this action, the eirculation of the blood is tefi.ected; the mtuscle is mtaintained in an elastic condition, ready to perform the 8PIl:ThOIA0 O1:O; CONDTIONB, T tasks of the will; and t ttough these agenlcies is the war: alnd fluid blood fitted to receive its hemlical restoratives in the lungs, and tle stonmalc to support changes to whtich it is designed chedmi1cal also.hby w:hich more heat is liberatedt Was digcestion.- coremacausis, as the slow eomlbustion produced bty comb0il nation with oxygen e is called.ti t-hle only source of animal heat, slwy shtould tle injury of one fitmy nerve place a lmember of the body fbr ever in the condition of stony coldness? Or why, chemical action being niost: actively continued after a violentt death, by tle action of tthe gastric juices upon the anital tissues, should not anal eat b mal t in tained for a much longer period thain it is found to be?( I.n studying the influenees of caloriel upon the conditions of 1maItter, we must regtard the eftecitts of extreme beat, tand also of the greatest t degrees of cold. which have been obtained. Ti'here are a set of experiment;s by the Baron (Ca giard do la Toulr, whiche atppear to have a very liportant bearin.Og on sgome eonlditiokns thbat may be sultpp:osed to prevail in nature., particular-!y if xeo adopt tbe view of a cotstlantly increasing tenmperature towards the centre of our earth. If water, alcohol, or ether, is iput into at stronrg ag.tss tube of ssmall bore, and, the ends being h}rmnettieally siealed, thte whole is expol:seid to a strong heatt, the fl1ui4 disatppealrs, rceing converted into a transparent g-as; l but, iupon. c.oolinrg, it is again coldensed, without loss, into its origti nal fluid istate. ( ) In this experiment, fluit.d bodies havet been ionverteld into elastic transparett gases wxithout an.y chat'nge of volume, unde r oth e pre re of tthei own atltosplces e' to can rearldily conceive a simtlilar result c:turrint upion l a ftar ore extensiv ive scale,. volcanic distrficts, at: great deipths, and consequcntily under the pressture of the stuplri: c'ttumbent mass, the sillce{ous rocis, or e venr mi.etals, mnay, fronm the action of 4intense heat, be brought into a gaseous or fluid condition without any changt of volume, sinco theo elasti force of htt is optt): cdlv by thel r1,igl retisitlrnta of the, pressu 1o of t1ho stur rLtounding rocks.')ireetly coin:eedt et with tthese results of (agniard do lat Tour, taro a yet more retmarkable set of lieonomecna, whicilh have b een investigated by 51'. mtBoutigoy,('".) and generally known as theo " spheroidal conmdition " of bodices. If water is proiected upon hot mettal, it instanti l assumnes a sptleroirdal ftorm an...... internal motion of its ptarticles may b: observed -... it trevolves with rap:t idt ity, a1nd evaporates very slowly*, Een if a silver or platinuml tea)stie, when b.rougiht to a bright. red heat, is tilleitd with cold water, the wt}hole m(i 8 ass tte tile spheroitdal state, the temt"persl tttr of the fluid con.stamtly l1remaininlg (onlsiderably bolowv tie b}oilinXg paointt, so long: as the r1ed heat is maintained. It f weo ablow tlh vessel to cool bl:w redness, inl the dark, the water bursts into active:ebullitio, anl is dissilpate into vaporr with alnostt explosive: violtmence.Another formo of th}is experiment is exceedingly instructive. I f a mass otf white hot metal is suddenly plungecd i:into a vessel of cold water, the ineandeseoenee is not. quenched, thel metal shine s ~with a blright ~l, white liiht, and tthe water is seen tfo cireulate around, bult at tsome distace frotn thle gdowing mass:ts, being actutally repe.lled (t v thOe calorifie a:tgecy. At ltngth,'twhen: t he metal cot(ols, the} water comes in contac.ttt wit:l it, tand boils. wvith energy, A result similari to this was observed by -..,crin's, ibut its correctness most unj0u1stly doubted. eiaving made an iron shel, eontain'ing water, rotdl hot, he caused a hotle to be drillet into it, eand it wass uri)rise t to f: ld that no water lowe th ro ugh the orficie uiitil thlt iron was coiitHle.raily cool et d, wihen it: it i.sued f.t 1, li~}.. t O 8...I.......... {'t.s{t. nothi wiuth vidocii tlenXt$ ce i n the fomt ot ste.. ti. I. water Is -l. out up a1ttl irto Siet vt, thlt wires of w( hich l ftar de re d-holt, it will not peolate; but, lo coolingt it will runl tlhroul rlai pidtiy. iDE:.O1POSITION. BTY IIAt. 80t B:ontx ign,5 pursuing ltis curious inquiry, has trecently proved that the mioisture upon tXhe skin is sufficientl to protet it t fromt disor.gan izat ion, tif tie arm is rapidly plunged ilto baths of melted mettal, The resistant'ce of the surfaces is so great, that little elevatioin of temrperatiure is experienced. (Q) Wc have now seen that lheat. appears to produce chemical compositiou- that it iXdecomp)otres cein: ctd elements-.. that it alters the conditions of bodies, and actually imatins so powerfully a repeltlent forcet, tlat fluids cantnot touclh t he leated tboy. _More than this, it exerts a most powerful influnce over all chemical relations, tf', to give one example, the volatile clementot iodinte is puitt intto a glowin'g-0hot capsule, itft resolves itse(lf ittumediately into a spiheroid. P.I:'otash rapidly combines with iodin; but if a pi0cc of tthis alkali is thro wn upo n itt in tihc capsule, it also takes tihe sphettroidal tform, and both bodies revolve independently of each otlher, their cheinicl afftinties being entirely suspen t ded l; but allow the eapsule to cool, and they combine in imediately. The} se expe riments of Cagniard do la Tour and of Boutignty (d' Pvreux),,conne.ct tlicswl. es, in a striking manner, with those of \I.r. (Irovte lland lDr, I tbinson; and they teath us that but a very sliught alteration in trhe proportions of the ealori:ic principle given to this planet would comipletely cha-nge the character of every ainaterial sultstatnc of wttieh it is com:)toscd, unless there was an alt:eration in the physical condition of the: elements them.selves, Supiporsilng the ordeal of fiery )pritieation to tfake pltace upon tins planett, thes experimentt s appear to indicate tthe mtighty ehanges which would thence result. There would be no annihi lation, but everything would be transformled froml the centre of the globe to th:e verge of its atmosphere —.. old tings would pss away, all things beco mre new, andl the be autiful t mythos of the plhcmeix be realized int the fresh creatitn. 90 VXTIBsiE ie 001x AtFi CIALf.LY PRO.t)BouCBI iY 1The deducttions to late d(rawt: froml the re sults olttlai.tned by ab}strac-t)iltng lIo(at front bodies are equtally instruetive. I y taIking: advaiitrgoe of thle (!ooing produced by the rapid stoution of salts of several kinds i water, ani intese degrer of coldness mtay be produced. () indeed, the absorptlion of heact by liruefiaetiot may i);e slhowlt by the use otf iietatllie bodies alore. If lea d, tin, and bismuth} are melted tgt ether, and reduc ed to a coarts potwdter by beitng poured into water, an(t the alloyh tbon dissolved in a ltarge quantity of quicksilver, tihe thermnometer will sink nealrly 50 degrees. A n inteinse namount of cold will result froni the mixture of imuriate of lime and snow, by which a tenperatur(e of 50) })blow the z(ero of'tlahrnrtir eit, or b8" b'elow tlhe freezing point of water, is produceld. By snuch a frteezing mnixtrt e as this, nerery will be rendered solid. A degree of cobl, however, far exceeding it, has lately been ont:taitited by tthe use of sotlid carbonie tid td an othetr.> () Siolit e.rbox: iie aci, is itself ifpro(.retd f'ro the gas lii:t.fieeiid by pressure;) wiie.lh lilqui, \twhe allowed. to escap te into the air, eva.orates:so t rajlpidly that a ltarge q tanit ity of it is e ongealed b l y.being ro.i bbedt oft its ctombitned heat by the vai)ortiitg portioun. WhenI this solid acid is tiunited wih.t ethert, ta l:ath is fiorrnedl in tlwhich tht ear ctlis acid w ill remain st olid xi t wenty or thirty minittes. lBy a itixture of this kind, platc-d utnder the.receiver of an: ai1r-lpam i a goo.d exhaustiion bct'eingl sustaiinedt, a debgree of col,, I ": below zero, is sec:mire:hd. I By this i ntenise. cold, mantty of the bodie, s whic}h htavet hiitlherto:tbeen k.nown to ts only it the ascot:rus state, have )mbeen con, ( dtcnsre. d into liitluidts!t'tt sotidis. (Ol.ii ant gas, a.iomtp imund (f lhydrt:min a.ml ct.irbon, was W: rotugh t intot liquid ifarm. I:ty(diridief tan:It hydirot}brot)lie acidst( cou'ltd bei conde tnsed t into etither a liq uit or a solid form..t ho si. I:rfet tel( lytittt en l, ga^tas whicht infl ltams:st;i:ontaott cimotsly wlhent lb':rou lit intof eolntaclt with thie air or with oxv en, lce(ai)me a t raefi:l')ret litttliqid at this great re.ductiition of temtperature. Sulphurous acit may bo conldensed, by I pressure and atI a redutctionn of tencperat ure, inlto a COMWSjt). C$ATIOX OFi OAhS.^ 91 litquid which boils at 14t Falt: eit, Ibt by the ctarbtl. ici acid bath it is eo:nvelted into a solid bo:rly, transi:arent and without: colour. Sulphure:tt:oedt hydrogeint gas solidiies at t.ST2 below ze t, and ftoriis a white subancstai rt se:nblitig a Imass of erstals of seasalt. A eomb:ination of the two gases, eblorin and oxyge t,.be conmies solid at'.).75, and thet:i protoxide of nitrogen at. —.. 1 ii Cyaniogen, a comupound of c(arbon andm nitrogen, the base of Piutssil acid, mis solidiied at,10,'bl:tow the zero o0f our thlerintoetrio sceatt. It'le weli-kniown pit nget tcompoutnd till, 0am oa, exceedint ly volatile at cotmlon ttemperat:ufs, is converted in.to a crystalline, transl8lcent, \wite substatet at the temi perature of. 10... 3 Thelo diiheuities whicf l ne essa(rily att end the exposiure of a body to extreme coldt and great prlinssure at the sanmce time, appClar to o) the only obstacle to the condeiisa'tion of oxygen, hyIlrgen, madl nuitrog'en g'ases. A sufietintlt.mnount {f eoindensation was, towt - ever, (4:efeted lbty r, ltf-araday, to lead hit. to t tth conclusiton, arrived at also by other evidenets, that hydrogon, the lightIes: of the poideral. le bodies, lartak:des of the nature of ta imtatlt( ) The rfelinelt ent.s of (treliatfn philosofihy saw, without the tails of iidu'tive sci.ete, that the outtward vste of ature f a cove.red a host of,ystri'os: > getei.etos { 1 t i in l eh ara.t iac teristies wert e i irect,!y due l thei f tr:irea: of the fi: r e fnents, lirFe, the exttermal a nd visible f'irmn o(f heat, was re garl ed as'sm the au- t e of vitalit:y, and the dipose-r of every organiied at t:t ntorgan ized com:lition of matter. Hi:}eir itdealizzations thavei assunled, alnotlter fi rttr,:but tI t resear(ehiet tie o great: a:'el:ii:s at tiwork i nmttire - Ithe minghty l spirits i'tm'nd induction, caltt; \ but tihe only answer to tins evocation is tit lie nan itesta-tion of power in startling ofta ets Science pur^tles hter inl{:uiries with zeal anmi catre: se t'ies anti tortures nature to compelt l erc to reveal her secrets.:Botunds are, howev.er, set to the ipowe.rs of finite st:ar-ch we may not yet havte reachead the llimts its hin whi ch woAe are freeo to exrelrtise our mental strength; but, these limits reacTed, we shall find tan infiite lregion beyond us, into whielb even conjecturit e wanders eyeless and aaimsless, as the blilnd (ytlops, agropin in his melancholy cave. (s) All we know of heat is, that s.triking ef(,(cts are proluct(ed which we mea:fgsuro by sensation, and:,by instr 1,ument ts tpton. whic':h we have observed that: given resnults will be produced under certain co0ditions: of anything aplproachinlg to the cause of thles, Nwo are totally ignorantt. Tih wonder-working mover of stone of the grandet st phlnomena in natl re —.......g:- ivin g - hea'lth to the organic world, a.nd flrin to tohe inorgauni mn.ast.... producinn:g getnia l gales and dire tornadoles -clarthquaklale strCugling.s and voleanic crupltions ~ rministerin;: - to tour comtfrt. I in the home ly fire....-. andt to advancentenf t in civilization in tthe mitghty frtttace, ant the ingenious engine which draillns on mines, or traverses our country with birdlike speed,-w. twill, in all probability, lremain for ever unlknow to man. IThe m immortal Newton, itlmany of whose gulesates thave a proplietic value, thus expresses himself: "ie. at consists itn a minmuxte vibratory moti on int the particles of bodies, and this motion is communicated through an apparent vatcutum by the undt ations of a very suibtile elastic mediumt, whitch is also concerned in the tlphenomea of light." (ur expe rimental labours and out r miathet atical investigations, have considerahly advtaneed our knowledge sincel the time of Newton; yet still, each theory of heat stranlgely resemrbles the mlystic lamip whi:ch the Rosierucilta regarled s as type o tf eternal lif -e a dim and tit fliciering symt ol, in the tongue-like flame of whicfh imagination, like a child, can conjure mtany shapes. CHAPTEIKRI VII. Thleo'ries of the Nature of Lifiht.I.t t..:ypothef se Nes otf Newton. and: utyguhen s 4S t:lu.rce.- of L.i0g-ht- The 1Sun —t..iti'Velc itty of Tright.'... Transt parency.. 1)ark ies of t $: t t 1I.-..-.\t l).)t of t l if g L lit-.Colour... P...:.r.tis )1-1atit A.tal-s - Rav of t he; Spe trLum. f. ta ow ~ Dilffaction.l Iterfifxele lt.....<- (iottllt's Theorty I Polarizaition... Magnetti:.ation tof llgiht-.''Visionl-. l lThe l' e -aloy........... -Sound 1an Li ght~ l I:'lal 00ce of light on(m A.uintt:s'andt \Ve.etbld-s PhoIph. or(eslcu 1arising from several causes A-. l... Artifiial Lig it~Its (Colour dependent ot: MNatter. Jt('i:Ol, the first; rel tion, prestlfnitit to ile ttinquirin mind a elries of pithl omlt c a, of the 1most lexalted eittllmlto. The l'lt owi ng sammrshtno, paittt inot t lto earthl with a1ll thue Ibriliantey 1o.f colourl, 1and * iv'1i4, to tlie lailatselapje the itimtita.lit t;:armti of everyV d'.lr of 0l of Iillulination fro1 tll).gray' shadowto to the ghol den glow;.~- ihe c.a. l tn of evfnin,t wni, hen l'weary of tihel " cxeess. of )splendor1,', the eyo canl roli)oss i tlra1tuillity upttont the "' ctlou-la nd" f tht west, andt wateil tle golden and tho rudd y lhues fad slowly into1 tthe 1t1.1tu tincturel olf nillght ( and tll pale h refill groneel. of lthe moot, wit tl.) quie fs a1t Isp. lo 1of the sati lit st.la. r all. tend t o it. pres upt.ont thel soul theol gret t iltth, that, wif' terse i light, otrgaizatio. and lit;: are rfound, and beyond its influeonce death and:sileccO iold suprel e dominti 1 on.(s1( ) 1thtough all 1tine we have t\iditlnces2 thati tiis h aI s b1lc1 thhe tre11 vail\ tint of ti.): hu man.t l a.:1t, delri'tve, oif'cou rset fi tfheir obso'rva'ion of ( the nilatturail I ph nom'tela dtitepmdcOlttt utt11pon lumimltl.t)s ag.f, eni. n the imyths of (0eviery co0ntry, if 1loltions of -iglt.ht prevail, and to these are .1: lI u,' U N OIUS O WV }:R. referred the moystemics of the perpctual renewal ot l f lift onl the sarfaiec of the earth.'Thi preselntiment.i of a phlilosopflic tritth, in the insttnce of tlhe poet sa.gos of inteellectual (t rccce, was adlvatced to the thighest degrce of refinemenit; and tlhe sublimet exclamationl of Plato " i ilit s t ruth, and Gtod is light," apiapr'oaches nearly to a divine:re, velaition. As the meditum ofvision as the cause of colou tr as a power influentcintg in a most striking manner all the t fi>ris of ora. itza.tion, around us, light prese nted to tthe inqtuiring itnds o:f all ages a siubjct of the highestt interest.'t.tcte ancient p.hilos)ophers s, althoufgh they lost thernsclves in the lmetatphyiceal subtltties of their schools, could not but discover in liitt aln clenmnt of the. utmoset importanlee in natural, operations. Ther alehyntists regarded t-he luminous princt:t.iple as a molst subtile fluid, capable of nter penctrating )and mingling w it)h glross mattet: gold )being, supptosied to dil{tfi from tlhe lasetr mlnetals only int containing a tn arlger quantity of this ethere('l essence (') AModern science, after invest igatting most attentively a greater numbe:,:r of thie.phenontena of light, has enldeavoured to ssist the inquiry by the aid of hypottheses'. Newton, in a fine tlheory which exhibits the refinted character of thait great ph1ilosotpler's mindt, suplpol es lumninous particles to dart from the surtfces of bodies in all. directions -...... thatt these infintitely mtinute particles are influencet d lyt)y tihe attractin-g and repelling tfrcos of matter, and thus turn'ed htack, or rcel ected, from their superficies in siome eases, ant abtsorbhed into their interstitial spaces in others. fHuygthcns, on the contriary, supp:oess lihft to }e caused by th waves or vib:rations of an elastie Inedninu,, dilthtsed thromgh all sp'!ace, tieh waves are ptroplagated. in every direction from the luminous )body. in the one case, a t uminous particle is suppos ed actually to coetu firom the sun to the earth; in the othetr, the sun only iuts^X iATIi u:I'it{'w jOx. l5 cr:tasions a distlurbanee of the ethar, which extends with great:rapidity, in the name itanner as a wave spreads itself over the 8urftace of a lake. Nearly all t thhe fits known in the time of Newton, and those discovered nby himl, wore explaetinel(t iotst satisfictotrily by his theory; tut it. was fon:t they could l)e interpreted equtally well by the undulatory hyp:othesis, with the exception of the production of tcolour by prismatic refraction. Altlhough the labourst' of the most gtifted minds have beent givenl, with the utmiost devotion, to the sup}port of the vibratortoy t nhesory, this simple fiact has ntever yet received tany sitisfactory explanation froml it; and tthere are umtlerous di.scoveries connected wi th the molecutlar and chemictal disturbances produced by the sun's rays, of which its ardent sup)p'rters do( nott evet attempt an explantation. In. both theories, a wave motion is admitted, alnd every fict renders it probable that this imode of progressiont' applies not only to light, but to the so-called nimpontderftbe jbres. Admitting, tlherefloe, the undulatort y movettent of lumtinlous rays, we shall inot stop to consider those points of the discussion which have been so ably dealt witth i y Youngtt, l'apltacte, Fresnel, hi.ott, I:traufn enhotfir, IHersohel, B1rewster, and others, but proceed at once to consider the sources of light, and its more remarikable plith nomena> (A) The snt is the greatest permanentlyr luminous body we are acquttainted with, and that orbl is continually potlring off light from its surftaeet in all directions at tio rate, t hrough the resisting Imedium of space and of our own at mosphere, of 192,000 miles in a second of titme. t f has beetn calculatd, howTever, that it would move throught a vacuum with the speed of 192,5f00 miles in the same period. We, therefore, learnt that a ray of light requires eight minutes and thirteen seconds to come frt'o tmh sun to us. Itn travelling from the distant planet tUranas, nearly three hourts are '^0 ~ t. 1.4T i l':: C. iI, ai:A:. ACT ION. exhattus:ted; a d fronl tieo nearest of'th ft ixed tiars each ray of elight'requies morelor tlhan six yer.''s to traverse the iterveigtt pi)-ace.O beitwOen them and the eartl. Allow the mint:i to adtvnce to the rgionls of tla. n:etla, tl-nd it. will be ftt ndt th.at Xt-t umred: of years must glid a way u ring tle i: as sa.g of t heir. radiations. -Co (nosequenitly, if one| of those masses of mat te, or even one of the remtote fixed stars, was " blotted oult of 0heaven " to-day, tsew eral gleneratiions of the finite tihaittants of this world would iatdo out of time! befier tl:e olditeratlon could be k nown to man t. il ie tle inmmennsit y of spoace assists us in outr conceptiiont, nliitel: though it bh, of the fir ever of oetrnity. () All the planets of o(.r system shine with reflected liht, and 0the meoon, our stfellite, also) owes her silve.ry lusttire to thio lun' radiation s.' it) fixed stairs atre, in all proliitlit, smts shilinog fro:m tie fia distanee of space, witl their owtn selfe.mtitted lights,.'ly the photometric researehes of l)r, Wollaston twe learn, r}wever, that it: would tatkeo 20,t00ft miilliions of suctt orbs as Srius, the }iig^hte. st of the xi.txed s:tatrs, to afid'rd ats mue.h.ligt as we derive f'romi the, as.'it he lsame obl -,server laIs ptiroved. that; the brightest eflihlg. nc o f (fte ftll moon is yet 801,0)7 titices less thtan the luitnous power of our sohlar entre. Cl(flctiealt action is also a s ource of lig'ht; tand, under several tciroumistan:tces in which the laws of at inity are stron gly exerted, a ve ry intemse lutinoust efeet; is produtced. In the elcti ict spark we havewt the devfloptinentt of light; mtd th are re whicht is formlied beBtw'een the polfes of a ptowerfeul voltaic battery, atlfrds us the most intense artifictial illumination with which we are' at> manintedo. in addition to these, we have the peculiar phenomena of phosldphrese.once arisingr ftrolmt ehlemiealt ore i, ctlefct.ical, actinic, and vital excital ttion, all of wlich must; be,prtict larly (xanmined.'rotim'whititever source we Ipro;tre lightf, it s the:-Isame in eltart aeteir, difttring o'nly in i inttesit. a,'t its attiont Upo aiwtter, wii TI A N S i E CY' 40 IIT, 9 t7 have tfe phentomewna of translpareney, of reftletion, of reftract ion, of colour, of polarization, and of \ision, to eingiage 0our attttetion. A. be amt of twhite ligifiti t lls upon a plate of colourles gltass, and it passes fireel tthrough it, losing but little of its intensity that little being lost by reflection from the first si'urfae ut.pon vwhiche the light hpinges. I f tlhe glass is rou-hened by grind: itg, we lose more0 lighlt by reflection freom tfe speriti es of the roughened surface; but if wo cover that face twith any ole aginous fluid, as for instance turptetine, its transp rr e y is restored. We hlave thus direct proof that transparency to light 18 due to moleeular condition. This may be most strikingly shown by an jitleresti ng experim:tt of Sir l)avid Brewster':.. If a glass tube. is filled with nitrous acid viapour, whlich is of a dull red colour, it admits freely the passage of the red and ortnge rays with sonme of the others, l, a, if held upright in the;unsthine, easts a red shadow on the ground; by gently warmingt it with a spirit-lamp, whilst in this position, it acquires a nmuelh deeper and blacker colour, and becomes almst nitpervious to any of the rays of light; but upon cooling it again recovers its transparency It has also been stated by the same; exac4 experhientalist., that bhaving broutgt a 1purple glass to a red heat, its transparency was improved, s o that it transmittel d green, yellow, and red rays,whicl it previously absorbed,; but the,glass recovered its absorps tive powert.s as it cooled. A piece of yellowish-green gtIss lo.st its transparency almost entirel y by being heated. Native yellow ortpiment'becomes blood-red upotn bein0g warmed, when nearly all but the red. rays are absoirbed; land plure phosphlorus, which is of a piale yellow colour, and transrmits freely all the coloured rays upon being melted, becomes very dark, nd transmtts no l ight. Chemistry aflords naumero s examples of a very slight chg p oa8 hU4ABB.BitXiON Ot1? iA.OtOT, of coldi.tl.lon, pvodu(ittng tsol.ute opaci t itn luids whlli were previouxly diayplanmous o dies. ( ) (lharcotal absorbs all the ighIt whitch falls l)poIn.it., buit in upon either of the received theories cof lfightt. it. is a.eoTY(ntral law otf all the radiant firces, that whenever they fi:ll upon any surftee, a portion is thrown hack or reflected at the same time as oilier portions are absor.ed or transmtitted, pn this.pee. liarity appea r to detpend the phileom elona of natural colour in bodies The white e light of the sun is well known to be composed of several coloured rays. Or rather, according to the favorite theory, when lthe rate act lich m a ray undulates is altered, a diflferent sensation is prodlucet uIpon the o)tic nerve. Tho analytical exaitiniation of this question shows that to produce at red e(olour the xray of lioht ni.ut give 37,'(':0 undiulations in an inch, and 4,tS,(t00(0,000000t in a second.'Y'ellow light requires 4I,000 lundulations in an inch, and 53 5,00(10000,000000 in a sxcond; whilst the eftict of blue results friom 5, 110 undultations xwithin an inch, and 6i,0 t)( t00000 0 in a seco nd of time. Such results as COLOTir 0F.OB1, 101 theso are amonitlt the highest frefincments of scile ant, a whlen eontreas:Ierl wtt. i 0Xta'os~ su.tIel'to.- o se eontrasted wl itht thmast aublime efirts of the inagiation, aptpear immtteatsuratbly stuperior to tlteli, ( If a body endts batcak whibte liaht uneanged it appears \'white if the rfae f as the property of altering the vibration to that which is calctulated to produce retdes-s, the result is a rei colour; theo anmilhlilt\on oi the undulations produces: blalckness. 1y the other view, the beam of whito light is supposed to con sist of ortain coloured rays, eacth of wthielh htas',physicatl properties peculiar to itself, anid thuts is claptable oft producing clife.renit ph-ysiolog-ical efb ets.'These rays filling upon a ti ansparlent or an opaqtue )body isuafier more or less absorption, and being tfhus dissevered, we have tiaoe o elteet of eolour. A red body absorbs all the rays but the red; a blue:urface, all but thl b.lu; a yellow, all but, the yellow; and a black urfacm o absorabs tim whole of the IighIt; which faills upon it,.tfhat natural colour' are the result of white light, and not innate proIperttis of the bodies thlenselves, is most conclusively sh.towtn by plating coloured bodies i.n montoch:ltrommatic light of another ktind, I whelr they vill appear either of tlhe colour of the ligrht, or, by absorbingt it, become blackt; whereas, iwhen Iplaced in li1 ht of their o wn ctharacter, the intensity of colourt is greatly inclreasing' I'veryt stirfiac iias, there.fore, a pJeculiar contstiitution, by which it gives rise to the diversitied hues of nature... The trich a:tll lively grcen, which so abundantly oversprteads the surftce of tho earth, the varied.colours of the fltower s, and the numberless tints of aniImals, together with all those of the produetions of the mineral kintgdom,:and of the artificial combinations of chemical manuflature, result fromt powers b:y which the relations of matter to light atre renderedi permanent, until it.s phiysieat cond itions iundctrgso stiome chtnget. 102 C OOURt Ot:BOtEBS,'thoer is a remaritabie correspondencle between tle goeograPphical })osition of a region tand t-e colours of its plants and animals. Withlin the tropics, whereo J' The s shines for ever unceha geably bilght," thle darkest green prevails over the. leaves of plants; Ot flowers and ftrits are tinctturet d with colours of tthe deepest,dye, whilst the plumatget: of the birds is of the most:varitetated dres;eription antd tof the richest hues. in the people albo of thlese elinmes the ro is manitsted a desire for the mos sriking colours, atnd their dre( ses liave all a distinguishling iehnrater, not of shape meely, butt of chromatic arrangements. In tht toe mperate etli)ates everythingl is of a more subdued variaettyx the flowers are less briglht otf lnhue; the prevaililng tint of thte winge tribes is a russet brown; and th e dresses of the inht:abitants off theser regions are of a somilbire cholracter. In te colder portions of tmhe earth there is butt little colour; the flowers are generally whito or yellow, and the animals exhibit no other contrast than that whlich white and black aflo:rd. A hrlomatic scale nigfht be ftrmled, its maxinimnt point being lat the equator, and its mttinitlmumi t tho poles. (C) The influence of lightt on the colours of organized creation is well sthow'n in the sea. Near the shores we find sta-weeds of the rmost betautiful tilnctures, par tinclarly on the rock;s which are left dry by the tidt es; and tlhe rich liles of the aetiniat, which inhablit shallow water,:must have been oaften obseCrved. ThIe fishes which swim near the surface o a lso distinguishled by1: the variety of their colours, whereas tlhse which live at greater deptlt arte gray, brown, or black. It t hs been.t found that; atfter a certain depth, whetre the quantity of light is so reduced that a mere t. wilight prevails, the inl,iutntts of the ocean become nearly colourless Plh at the sun's ray alone gives to plants the property of refect PRISMATIC( ANALY$iS 0 TH? E $SOUAh B1AY1.103 ing colour is proved by the proccss of blanchintg, or tfhe etiolatetc state, produced )by frtificially exeluding them from lig-it By a tringultar piece of glass, a prism, we are enabled to resolve light into its ultimate rays.'The white pencil of light whichl flls on tihe first surface of the prism is bent from its path, and coloured }tands of diftrent colours are o(btained. Th se bands or rays observe a curious constancy in their positions the red ray is always the least bentt out oft the straight: path the yellow cltas comes next in the order of refrangibility; and thle blue are the most diverted from the vertex of the prism. The largest amrount of illumtinating power exists in the yellow ray, and it diminishles towards either cnd.(: ) It is riot unhinterestingl to observe somethling like the sanme order of colour occurring at each end of the pr)ismatic tspectrumt The strict order in wbicht the pire and mixed coloured rays prersent themselves is as foblows: l. The extreme red; a. ray whliclh can only l:b discovered when the eye is protected from the iglatre of the other rays by a cobalt blue glass, -is of a crimsonn character - a mixture of the red and the btle, red predominating. (A^) 2. The red; the first ray visible under ordinary circumstanees. 3. The ore ny/e red passing into and comjbining with yellow. 4.. Tlhe:yellow:. the most intensely luminous of the rays. 5. The grem'..: the yellow passing into and blending with the blue. 6.'Thle blute: in whichl the light very rapidly diminishes. 7, The i.ndi/o: the dark intensity of blue. 8, The io: te bo th e m in.gled again with the red —,blue being inl. excess. 9. Th:e awetttndr g.t i at neutral tint, produced by the combination of tlhe red, blue, tand yellow rays, which is discovered most easily when the spectrum is thrown upon a sheet of turneric paper. 104 TWIO'...... TH. ORY O.' 0' 0 1o1ts8, Newton regarded the apectrum as comslsting of seven colours of definite and un vary ing r cfriangibility. Brewster and othiers appear to have detected a great dilfusion of the colours over the spectrum, and regard white light as cosistig rtonly of three rays, which in the spectrumtoverlap each oiiter; antl fromtt these -- red, yellow, and blue all the other s ctan certainly bo formed by comn bilation in varyi:ng propo:tionst Thi:e truthll w pill eoAbl e foiXnd to be, that tlhe. ordinary pri.smatic Spc{.tetrn is a co.ipolund of two spectra. Wo ave already examined tile hbating power found in various parts of the spctrun, w thich:, alttloug showAn to }bo it a retmarkable matimer: in constant: agreement wvith the colour o.f a particu.atr ray), is not directly conn:cted( with it; tha t is, not as the effect of a canse, or the c.ontra ry.'hte hetmilcal taction of the solar rays, to which ftront its important bearins woe shall devote a separate chapter, ls, in lik;e mianner wIitht heat, beens confount(ll(d with tLhe sun's luminous powver; btit altho1tuh. associated with light and heat, iand ml odified by their presene, it nmust be distinguished from them. "Weo finid tihe maxirtnu of heat at one end of the spect rum, and that s of chemictal excitation at the other —..l.rmni.otits no powetr observing a mean p.oint betvween tlhemt. Withoutt doubt we' have all these o owers acting rceiprocally, modlifytint all the phenomena of each other,'and thus giving to the difficulties Nwhielch beset the inuquirer on every side. We halve beautiful natural illustrations of luminous refiration in the rainlbowv and in the thal in. lbsoth ctases the r1ays of liglht. being separated by the refractive, potwer of th:e tilling rain or th}e zmois ture whichl constitutes a tg. XIn the simple toy. of the child the soap.bubble floating upon the ai tr i-the philosopher finds sub>. jects for his contemplation; and from the unrivalled play of colours which lhe disc overs in thatt attenuated film, lie learmis that the v,aryiIng thick nesses of the surf aces infliuence, in a msot INTERI.E1t':Ci:: 0 Fl:UT. 10t remari.abl manner, the colours of the sunbttlam, Films of oil iloatintg upotn water present, si milar apj,earances; and tih colours ptrodutcd in terpe'ring stleel, are due entirely to the thickness of the oxidized surfiace produced by heatr. i The rich play of tints ipon mother-cf:pcarl in tile Ie athlers of limany birds, the rints seen ini th cracks of rocek c.rystal, or hbtweeni the unlequal faes of two picces of:glass, and produced by ltany ciienlmital and indeed mccthanical operations' are all owi ng to the acme cause that is, to the i'ftef:r'rcne of (ig/t t, or to rays procedirng ofrt the sam source, but crossilng each other at very acute angles. if w'e talk one of those steel ornaments which are tforned by being covered with an immtensl e Itnultber of fine lines, it will l:b evident that theset striia present imany diAferent angles of reflection, and that, consequently, tlhe rays thrown back will, at som-e point or another, have at tdedency to cros s each other. The result of this is, that the quantity of light is augm etnted at some t lpoints of i tersection, and annthiated at othetrs.(:') )Out of the investigation of the phenotinen of dillraction, of th, e eibcts of tthin and thicke plates upon light, and the results of interferen:ce, lhas Irisen the discow cry of one of the most remarkable conditions within tlhe range of phlysical scieunc. ivo brigit hilts may be:mad1e to iroduie t dedkness,. I two pencils of light radiate fiomu two spots very close to each other in such ta manner thati they cross each other at a given point, any object place(d at tlat linie of interfternce xwill be ilturoinated with the sumt of the two iluminous pencils. If we supposet those rays to nove in waves, tand the elevation of the wave to reprlesent the maxitni1mum of tSlumuinous etfct, thlen the t\wo waves Dmeetiltg, when they are both at the I feig h t of their undulation, will n cessarily lt).rodueet a spot of greater intensity. If now we so arrange thet of roiniatio ta te stts of riti ttluminous waves proceed irregularly, and thatt one arrives at the screten 108: 05ot I:'S'lmiO: lO, half an undulation before tht other, the one in elevation fialing into the depressiion of thel otter, a imtual anlnihlilatkto is the conseqlucnce, Tlhis a ct, paradoxical as it may appear, vwas broadly statetd by (rimald, in the description of his exper(iments on) tfhe inflection of light, alnd hlas been obsetrvcd by mtany ot hers, Txi h vibratory hypot}hetsis, seiing upon the anfalogy ipresentted by tfwo:systems of wa-ves in water, explaitns this plausibly bute still ltpon0 examin.ati.ont it does not appear that the explanattion is quite free from olte.tion (L ) Aniother theory, not altoether nlow to u, beingt indicated in layer's hypoitihesis of three primalr colours (It5)), and to 1)e ftmund as a problem in some of the ictyelope:t dias of the last century, has been piut )rth, in a very original manner, by that.master-mindd of intellectual ermn oth; ad fcrom ti ro tth vtery cotmprthensive views whetich tins poetpl-hios-ophter has talken of both animal atnd vegetable phys.iology (viewas whichti havo bettn tad(opted bt)y sonic o f tfhe first naturalists of El]urope), we are bound to receive his theory of colours with ovrly respect and attention., ('I: ncthto rrsegrds colour as the " thinning'" of light; a tlntt is, by obstructintg a portion of white light, yellow is produced; kby reducinfr it still fartherl, red is B:supposed to result; and by yet:fi.rthIer retarding the free passage ofa th} o beam, 9we procure a0 blue colour, witchA is the next remove from black lles, or the absexnce of Itligt. There is trutth in this; it b.ear-s about it a sin-licity wOhich will sa tisfy many inds; by it miany of tlh phetltlolleno a of colour tmay b)o explainted.: bt it is insufficient for any interpretat ion of several of tlose recondite tlaws to which the other thieories do gtive us s01m ilnsight, Newton may have allowed thimself to be nisled by the ainat ogy present e between thue.seven rays of the spectrum and tthe notes in an octave. T'ho mystic nuibeer, seven, may have clung VOI.AItIRA'E ON 0or IMfit}t 107 like a fibre of the web) of supersttiion to tlle loak of the great tphilosopher; but the atltack made by] (il othe upont tihe Newton:ian philosophy botraty the melancholy fal c of his being ildiseafsed with the lamentathil weakness of too many exalted minds............ an oveIrweetnnllgi elf-eCsteein,'ihle polanrization of lglghlt, as it has been unfiortunately called * -.mflbrtntl atrtey, as ctonveyitym an idea of determtinate and (ii' tlr elt points or poles, whlich only exists in theoretiietal analogy t presents to us a class of lphenomenal wich pronite tlo iuclos the mlysterios doors of the molecuilar constitution of bodies. T'o give a finniliar illustration of the distinction between ordinary and polarized light, we will suppose the use of a cylinder having a mirror at t e end of it. If we point this to the stutn, and receive the reflected im'age on a distant screen, we imaty trnt tthe c3ylinder round oln its axis, and the rtelected ay will be tttund to revolve constantly and regularly with ith. If, now, insteadt of receiving the ray ditect from' the sulnt, we allow a beam reflected fro t a gass plate at an angle of about 04" to fall upon the irnror, and then be refleeted on to the screen, it will be ft d tt that the point of light has nott the same properties as that previously examined; it is altered in its d(egfree of intensity as the cylinder is turned round, has points of greatest brighthness, and others at whichit w it is lost in;shadow. The polartized beaum has been well compared to t a lont flat, straight stick," laving, sides, the ordinary ray being regarded at cylindritcal. This rematrkable chang~, as produced by the re fle. tion of the ray 0fro glass, was first observed by aluns, in 1808, (') when atrusing himself by looking at tithe beiams of the set tin Rl sun, relleteed from ti} windows of the'Luxembourg P alace thl'roulh at doinble-re:fractt in rismg'. Th stme fact was, however, noticed, in the firt nst anice, by Eli.rasmus iBartolin, iln I(eland' sqpar, a crystali, the primary form of which is a rhombohedron; 108 rPhYi P'ftrSICAE L P tOmiritrS OP POL Ai.TZ:; u1illf. \ who perceived thatt the two ilmages produced by this body were not it the same >physical condtitions. (. O) It. wals also studied by Ji tuygtens and Sir Isaac Newton, and to our coun4tryman is due the singulr itde that a ray of light emtrgtig efrott stot a crystil has s&h$s, It must. not beo onsidered that this chiange in tile character of tle luminous beamt is due to any of the powers of reflection or refraction of bodies; it is a property o'f matter independent: of tile other modes of action which it exercises over light, Thoe tvaiety of strikitg effetstt roduced by the polarizatiton of light; tth tnexpected results which have sprung fi(om the investigatioln of the laws l)y which it is reg gulated; and th.le singular lf)eaty of tany of its pthe nomenal, ave madelt it one of the most attractive subtjets of mtodetrn soience. Ordinary light. pass es through ttransparent bodies, without producing: any very striking e liets i its'rpassage; bt it t ould atppear t t tiat tis thin band, this extrtaJorditm,.ry beamt of light, has the power of iinsinuating: itself between tbhe molecules of'bo(dies, and by ilumninating them, of etnabling the eye to detect somethigil of the strueture of the mass. The chromatic phenomena of polarized light are so str.ikiing, tatI nto description can convey an adequate idea of their cthracter. Spectra, mIore beautiuttl and intense than the prismatic image, systenms of rings far excelling those of thin plates, and forms of the most tsymmetric order are constantly presenting themos elves as the polarized ray is passed thtroutgh various transparent suIbstances. Biy altering the molecular arrmangement of these bodies, either by heat or by pressressre, a new order of plietnotlmnen. atF once ipre sent temselves, tand by means of t:he polarized ray of light, dift:-enetes in the chermiceal constitution of bodies, too slight to be discovered by any other mtode of analysis, canl b most readily and certainly dettcted. (1tt) NxATURAt, POT.LA ATION. 109 Altholugh we cannlot enter into any exarination of all the conditions involved in the polarization of light, and tlh anction of matter upon ordinary liglht, or whent it is in this p:lialr state, it will be read ily toncei ved, fr fom hat s tbeen alreadty stated, that sone tlost imptant po ropelrta rties are indicated, beyonld those whichit scienceo has made known. What inay be the espe ial utse of light in this state of polarization in nature, it is at present difficult to detertttlne; we, atre, howe ver, certain that its agency mnust;be lnemssary and most i.. portantt, anwd wte ntmay lhope thliat, throlug the industry of experim1nmtalists, it will not be lontg before we add this knowledge to the stores already acueenulttated. Every bod y, in some tde fint ite p tin, appi ars to iave the power of producingt this change upon the solar ray, as may be sat ist-tttofily shown b ay o}exa'nM'ii: amy toject with a pola rizing at tppaa tus. ( tt l The sky ait all timt es furnishes polarized light', which is tmost t int ense whlere it is blaue mt unolonded, and tlhe point of maximi.um1 polarization is varied according to the relative po>sition of the sun and the obsierver. t ( ) tt thas been stated, that t cle iceal change (s the )agtnerreotype plates tand on photograplthi papers is isore readily produced by the polarized than by the ordinary sunbeam. (") If this act be estbabished by fitture ivestigations, we advance a step towards the discovery so Inuch desiderated of the part it p it la1 in nattural operations. The refined and accurate investigations of l)r. Faraday stand prominniently forward tamid those which will redeem the present afge fromt the charge of being stuperficial, and they will, through tall time, be referredt to as illustrious examples of the intluen ee of a love of truth t rt truth's sake, in entire independenct of t he markm.etable value, whi h i t lias been xunfort unXately too tmucht the fatshion to revgafrd.. Th:le se:arTchingt examination made by this " ill:10 110 MAEN:rtIZATON O- Mstn.-T ibrms, has letd himt onward to traco Ywhat connexion, if any, existed:betweent this grea (t:talt natural agentand thle lunix prineip:l'By emtploying t1hat, subtlile tanalyzr, a polatrized. ray, D.) Fs.araday thas been enablted to detect m:nd exhi}bit etfhets of a most starttintg eharacter. It has appea)redt to hit tha:t he has proved nagnetism) to have the power of influtetcing a ray of lightt it its passage through transparent t s bodies. A polarized ray is passed through}t a'piece of glass or a erystal, or talong the length o.f a tube filled with someo transparent fluitt, and tld n he line of ito s tptht eareftlly obserYeAd it, when this is, don.e, tho solid or fuIid body is brought t nuder powrerful 1itargntie influence, sucth as we have at command by rmaking a very energetic voltaic current circulate taround a bar of soft iron, it will be foundt that thel polarized light is disteurbed; thlat, indeed, it tdoes not permeate the moediumt along the same line. (':) As this eflcet is most strikingly shown in bodies of the gsreatest density, and diminislied in hfluids, the partictles of whiech are easily movable over ea:ch other, and las not hitherto been observed in any gtaseous meditnm; the qtuestion }iaes ari{sen,~.-dtoebs lnmagnetisrm act directly upon the ray of light, or ofly indirectly, b)y prohducing t a molecular cht.t'a int the body ittoutgh which theo'ray is piassing? lthis qiuestion, so ilport ant int its l:etartings u.pon the connexiaon between the grefat physical ]ower s ill, i, no doubt, before long receivo a statisfae tory reply. \Withoutt any desire to gelneralize too hastily, twe eatnot but express a feeling,,, aounting to a certainty in our own mind, that those rl..nfinistations of luminous power, col1necited with thoe plhe.nomnaoe.a of terrestrial magnetism, whieh are so evident in all the eirculmstancees attendant upon. the exhibition of a tAurora Borealis, and th;ose lurtinout s tcouds which are often steen, inde!pendent of th: Northern.I'ights, that a very ititatte relation ('xists hietwetenl the solar radiations and thatt power whlich so s:trantgely gives ltolarity to to this globe of tourls. :i':fXItS:H o01 T'il I'.^, IIX IIt c.nnetxiont 0 ithl tiho miysterio0us suhttjeet, of s lig, it is:important that vwe should occupy a brief s:pae in thiese, pagets with the i-plenoml lnau of vision, wMhich is directly dependent upon lumtinous radiatioiL Tlhe I man et0ye has been riglhtly ealled the " masterpiece of divine -lmchanism; " its structure is complicated, yet all the adjtus.tmients of its partts arets si8iple as they ttre perfeteL TIhe ey ball consists of fourt coats. T'. loh crnea is tho transparent coat inl front of the glfob; it l is tlhe first opttitcal surface, and this is attached to the sclterotic mornmltne, filling up the circular apt)er" ture in the white of the eye; the ehoroid coat is a very delicate m tembrane, lining the sclerotic, and covered with a perictlty black pigme nt on thef inside; and close to this lies the most deliCately retitlatted.membranel, the retina, vthich is, indeed, lan extension of the optic nlerve.'Theo eye, in its more superficial m bchanieal arrangomneXnts, presents exactly the same character as a camera obsetrat, the cornea being the l.ens wvhich receives the inlmages of objects and. refracts theml; but.howv infinitelyy moro be:)autiful are all the arrtangemc fnts of the organ of vision. than the dark ehamilber of B3apt:tista Port'a N(l() Arranged within this globe we have the taqteeos lhumour, crystawllitne lens, and the vitreous humour tthe tfrst is a. watery fluid, and tlhe last a gelatinous one0, twhile tho erystalline lens is a little capsule of fluid membranaetenous ttelr, IThesel are ibr the purpose of correcting'al y t aberrations of light, w~ hich are so evident in ordinary lenses, and giv ing to the whole an acfromnnati, eharacter, n lwhicht so perfect ieverything i form at n arrangement, that both spherical and ehromatic, aberrations are correeted, and l:y the agtency of the cortnea. and the crystalline lens, perfet images aret depicted ont the retitna, in a, silmilar way to tho.se very charmintug pictures wh'ich proestent themselves in the table 0of the camera ob; ura, 112 TliEO EiS 05 VISION.'J.ite seat of vision has been generally supposed to be the retina; but'tIariotte has sheownt tlhant the base of the optic nerve, whlich is iltmediactly connected witi the X'reti, is incapable of conveying an impression to the brain. T'1he choroid coat, which lies inmmediately behind the retina, is re igarded by.lant iotte and Bernoulli as the more probable seat of vision. The retina, bei:ng transparent, ofl('rts no obstruction to the pas -age of the light onward to the black surrtce of the ctoroid coat-, fromn whtich the vibrlations are, in all probability, comtmicniated to tlhe retina and conveyed to the brain..towbeit, upon one or the other of these delicate coats a distinct image is impressed by light, and the cot0mmnication mt ade with ithe brain possibly by a vibratory action.'We may trace up the phenomena of vision to this point; we maty conceive undulations of lightt, differing in veloeity tand tlengwth of wave, octasoningq corresponding tremors in tthe neuralgio syste.m of thte'eye; but: how th. es vibrations are to cnnomnicate eorrect impressions of lenoth, breadth, and thieltness, no one has yet undertaken to explain, ft ihas, hotfwever, been js tly s aid by I lersehel: " t is the boast of science to have been able to trace so fiar the refinted contrivances of this most'admiratlife organ, not its sithame to find sonoettivng still concealed from scrutiny; fr, however anatomists ftmayi diftl;r on points of structure, or physiologists dispute onm modes of action, there is that in what we (do tuderstand of the ormlation of th e eye ss (itna..tmilar, and yet. so infinitely superior to a protucet of hum1an ingenuity; such thought, such care, such refinement, such advantage taken of the properties of natural agentilts uised as mere instruments, for accomplishinw a given end, as force upon us a conviction of deliberate choice and premedt i tated design, more strongly, perhap)s, than any single contr.ivanee to be found wNhether in art or nature, and renders its study an obect of the greatest interest,."('Q) ANAL'OOY 0 SOUNI) AN:) Xt:IO1t. 113 Aialogy often is of great yaltdue in in dicatinrg thie directiont int Vwhich to seek for a trulttt; h:utt analogicil evidence, untyl whero the rteseiml:)lante is ve\ry strikintg, shoutld be received witxh eaution. J:anl;ind are so 8ready to leap to conclusions withElut tih latbour tncessar y for a faithful elucidation of the truth, tthat taoo oftent a few pfoints of resembl..ance are seized upon,: and. int ferteneo is drawn which is calculated to mislead. There is a vague, idea that. the phenoimcna of sound bear aI relation to those of laight, t~hatt there exists a faint resemblalce betweent the chlromatia and the tdiatonic scales. Sound, we 1inow, is conveyed by tle beating of xateritl particles uon. the anditory imemlrane t of the ear, which have been set in motion by some distant disturbanc e of the ixediutl throughi which it pasres, Lighlt hla s beetn uptp:os sed to act on the optic netrve in tie samne manner. If we imagine colour to be the result. of'ibrations of difligtrent velocities and lengths, we can understand that:. under s(tne of these tremors, first established on the nerves, and tthrough them conveyed to to the brain, sensations of pain or pleasure may resul t, in the stnle way as sharp or subdued sout nds are disagre'eable or otherwise' Intensely coloured bodies do makce an inmpression upon perfetly blind men; rand those twho, bcing bIorn blind, 1know no condition of lighdt or colour, will point out at dfifl:rence between strongly illuminated red and yellow mediai. When the eyes anre closed wNe are sensible to luminous iifluence, and even to difte.renees of colour. Wet must consequently infor that light, produces smlne peculiar aEtion upon the system of -,nerves in generalt this may o(r may not bei independJent of the chemlical atgency of tlhet solar radi.ations; buIit certainly the excitemtent is not owing. to tany ealorifle influence, The system of nerves in the eye is nmare delicMately organized, and of course pcculiarly adapted to ill the tcc ssitict f visi on. Thus fiar sortete aalogy (does appear to exist between light land X^E 1114 O F:ENK 03? O tTfL,. sontld; butt the phenolmena of the one lare so0 lm'lh more relfilled thant those of the ttther;.. the inpressilons hbeing, all of them, of a far more comvplieated tcaracter, that we must tnot be led too far by the analogical evidoneo in referring light, like sound, to I:cre mate:trial motion. It was a b.eautiful idea that real imprcssions of external objects are made Iupon. the seat of vision, and that they are vicewed, as in a picture, by something bethind the, t esc ree8tn,.-~- that these )pitures becomen dornantt, but are cattpable of being revived by the operations of the minid in peculiar conditions; hut we can only regard it as a phliostophical s:peculation of a high order, tht truth. or falsehood of which we aro never liktely to be enabled to esttb isth. ( )'it.hat which sees will never itself be visible. The s'ecrt principle of sensation, -.. the mystery of the life that is in us, - -. will never be un-folded to finite minds. Numerous experiments have been made from time to time on the influence of light:t u:potn animal litfe It: has been aproved th(at the excitement of the solar rays is too great tr the healthful growth of yout)g atnimals; but, at the samie tiime, it appears prob.) able tliat the developmnent of the funetiotnal organs of anitmals requires in sMe way, the influence of the e solar trays.'his might, indeted, have been itnferrd f'rotmn the discovery that animal lite ceases it situations firomll which light is abslutelty excluded. The case of the Proteus of the Illyrian tlatkes may appear agaitst tins conelusion.: Thiis retmtrkable eretature is btlmd in tIhe deep and datrk recesses of the calcareous rocks of Adelsliurg, at Sitb ticlh, and it is stated also in Sicily, Sir ttiltlulthry Davy describes tlhe Protcus antlguins as "at' aniltnal to whomR the iresetnce of light is not essential, and who can live iindiff:rcently in air and in water, on the surfatce of the ro(1, or in lte depths of the mutd." Tihe gological chiaracter of rock, however, renders it extremely N wMf UNO~1 OB LI GHT'* 115 problble thnt these aninals i Bma1 y hlav descended t;ithe the twater, percolating through ftlsurt'es f rom very near the surface of the groundt. All the facts with which science has made us acquainted t ~-tand both natural d phl l scienc: e hi:..as1 been labouring with intt untiring industry in the pursuit of truthl. -- go to proive that light is atlsolutely necessary to organization. it is possible, the influence of the solar radiations may extend beyond the powers of tbhe hitumn senses to detect luminous or thenrmil action, tand tthat consemquently a developrtent of antirmatl or vege.t able ftrms maty occur where ( the ely can detect t nlo light,; and untder su.l h conditiorns the Proteus nmay be produced in its cavernous abodes, and also those creatures which live buried deep in mud. Somet fturther consideration of the probabl0 e agency of light \Vi1l occupyi us, when we corme to exatmmine the phenolmeia of vital firees, ]tight is eissentially necessary to v egetable lifte and to it sci* ence r0fersi the }powers which the plant pos, ses of separating carb}on from the air breathed lby thle leaves, and secreting it wi.thin its tissues for the purl.pose of adding to its w'oody structure. As, however, we have, in the growing plant, the action of several physical powers exerted to difti'('ent endts at the samet, tim., the remuarklablel tacits which eonnlcce themselves with vegetable c0hesistry and physiogy are deferred foir stepate examination.. The power of the solar rays to produce in bodies that peculiar gleaming lightt which we call ph\osiphorcseenc, and tho curious conditions under which this pllDinioeic is esonmetiimes apparent, independent iof the sun'ti direct itnfuence, presentt a very remarkable chapter in the science of lumiinous powers, The phosphorescence of animalst is amolngst tlhe mos.t surprisitng of lnature's ptlttienomena, trand to us is not the less so from) our almost entire ignorance of the cause of it. Many very poetical fancies have:been aepplied in description of thlese luminous crea 116 PtLOSetlOBOL$.OVNNCI 0 ANIMAXhT tiontS; tnd' intafgtinattrn hats fitund reasons why they shoitd bo g(ifted witht these extraordin'arv powers. T'lhe. glfow-wormt lights her laimp to tlre her loerwe to and e ltum ilous anilmalculea ot the ocean are emi ) loyed in lighting uI tlhe fthontlle dep:ths where the sun's rays cannot pene.trate, to aid its mofnsters in their search tar:prey. "'. The lap of l ove~ - thle:pharols the teloeraphf of tflthe niIht, w hi-i1ch scintillatess 1and mart s, in the sienee of darkness, the slott atppointed for the lover's rendezvous,"(.-'::') is but: pretty fiction; tfor tfl. glow-wornm shhines int its ifiant state, int t1hat of thle larva, anld when in its aurellhan eondition, ()f the dark depths of the ocean) it n. may bte satfly affirmed that no organized creation lives or moves in. its graveliko silenco tio re Iuire tfhis fi ry-like aid.'lietion has frequently bor1" rowed her creations f4'rom science. In theseo ases science appears to have m:tade firee with the rights of fiction. the glow-worms (tmlt:i/ris noc'.lw citzt('), it is well known, have the power of emitting from their 1bodis a beautiful pale bluishwhite light, shining dtutring tlhe hourls of nighlt in the hedglrow, like cryst al spheres. t tappears, firom t.he (bservations of nat:urailsts, tIhat tlhese.t intse0ets never exhibit their litht wiflthot somet itotion of the b'ody or legsf;. — filom- this it would scem that tho phosphioresconee was dependent upon somel nervous tation, )regulated at picnasure by the insect; fir they te ertainly hlave the p owert of o seurnig. i t entirely. l'.f the glo w-worm) is trushted, and the hands or tfach are rubtlid with it, luminout s streaks, similar to those p'roiuce by phosphorus, appeart. They shine with greatlyinereased brilliancy in oxygen gas alnd in nitrous oxide, Biroin these facts may we not. intferl tha t the lcroe ss by which this ltminositv is produc'ed, whatever it: may le, hals a strong rese om laneet to tltht of re:spiirat ionl? iThere are s everal varictie:s of fies, and three\ s peciet s of i eetles 'iroset o5RiOPii OP 03? ANILS, A t7 of the genuxs.Mffiitter, which have the power of eitting luminous rays. Ite g —re:at lantern-fly of Soutl America is on01e of the'nost brilliant, a sitgle itnscct (giving;tuflicict ligtit to enble ta p)teIs to read. In Surintam, a very numerous class of these inects;are fotlld, wPinch often iltluninato the air in a remarkabe manner. In sotne otf the t.rsbo of r eland a worm exists which gives out: a bri'ght green light; and there are nany other kinds of ereature.S ywhich, under certain cireumstanet s, becomen luminous in the dark. Thi8 is always depenttltdt upon vitality; for all these anlial, when deprived of life, cease to shine. At the same time iw hay ve any tvert y uritou instances of phosplhoresceincm it dea d aniral and vegetable inatter the lobster atlmong the (Crustacea, and the twhiting among.j fishes, are striking examples: decayed wood talso omits mnueh ligt-li ntder cert11ain -onditiont s of the atmlosphere. This developm1tent of light tdoes not appear to be at all dependendet upon puttrefaction indeed, as this protess progresses, the tlumino sity diminihes. We cannot but imagine that thfis light is otwing, in the first plaee, to direct.,absorption by, and fixation within, the corpuseular structure of those ebotdies, aind that it is developed by the detoei.position of the particles under the influenee of our oxygenous atmosphere. Thei palo light critted!yy phtosphorus in the dark is well known; and this is evidently only a species of slomw combltstion, a combination of the phosphmoruis wtith the oxygen of the air. Where there is ]no oxygen, phosp:thorus will not tshine; its comltbustion in ehlorine or iodine vatpour is a p.)henolmenon of a totally difterecnt (character from that whtichi wo are now considering. This phosi phorescenee of animali atnd vegetable matter has been regatrded as something dliffe.rent froml the slow combutstion of phospomrs; but, upon exa:mination, all tho chemtical conldittions are found to be the:same, and it is certainly due to a similar chemical chattnge. 118 t'ifOBSi$(fIF:R-SENtSOICE: O XUAST'S. trhe lutmnu ous maftte.r of the dead whiting or the mackerel ima be tseparatetd by at solution: of common salt. or of.sulphate of mnagiesiat; y c3 etoncenttratinl these solutions thle lifgt disa)ttpears; but it is againn c)itted whtten the fluid i8 diluted. T 11 entire subject is, however, involved in the tystery of i.o'tlian) e, altho(ugh it is a mattter quite within. the scope. of any industrious observer, T'Ihet selfemiettd l igfht of the carbuncle of the romancert is realized in theso remarkable pihenomena. The phostlporeseonee of siomie plants antd ilowers is not, perllaps, of the same ordter as that which belongs to eithe tr of tthe conditions we have been considering. It appears to be du} e rather to atn absorption of light and its slubsequent liberation. If a nasturtiutt is plu-tmked during sunshine, antd carried into a dark room, the. eye, after it has reposed for a short t:ie., will discover thet flower by a lightt emitt.ed fromt:its leaves. tthet following remtarklable exi ample, and Ian explanation of it by the poet (lotithe, is instructive -- ()n th.9t1 th of June., 1T799, late iin the eAveing, when the twilight wvas deepening into a clear night, as I was wialking up and down the. gardein wifthi a friend, we very distinctly observed aI flame-like appearance near the oriientail poppy, the flowet r of which are res markable for their powerful red colour. We ap tproaclhed the place, and looked attentively (at the flowers, but could perceaive nothing'fu t.her, till at: last, by passing antd repassing repeatedly, whi le we looked sideNways on themt, we suecceeded in renewing the appearance as often as we pleased. Itt proved to be a physiological phe.no) enon, an, d the, apparent coirrustat:iton waIVs nothing bltit the spectrumt of the flower in' the con-t pensatory blue-green colour. The twiliglht accounts for the eye being in at portfct statel of repose, and lthus very stusceptible, and the coloutr of the poppy is suflicientlfy powerfutl in the stummer ii O2POltEBOENT MOSS. 119 twilight of the longest days to tact with full eftbet, and prodtuce ai compi:t) nsatory imtge. ('" ) The letovs of thlte aiolhtre2 mafrocar'It are said to exhibitt phosphoric light wihent the air is highly clarged with elect ritcit. tlhe St (arnams of tlh olive-grounds at Montipetlier lhave been o:}served to boe liumtnou at night; but theyi exhibit. no )ight, even i darkness, duri-f the day. The stt ubterrl'anet pata..tage: of the coal iniel neiar D)resden, are illluinated b y tle phosphorescent alghtf of the.trhiwomwrpwtt phs^thoreus, a peculiar fingus. (On the leaves o of tihe it-ndobattA palmt, ta sp ecies of agaric grows which is exceeditgly lumtinous at night; and many va ie ti of tho liehens, creepingl along:e the, roofs of caverns, lend to t;hem. an air of oenIlhantment t b^ the soft and clear light tbty diftise., It. a smnall cave n1ear tl.allmouth, this luniinous mtos3 is very abundanttt it is also found int the nines of Hesse; and ace.ordin to lleinz. tamnt, thie rtlthzomor(ph/ a sutbr-raneat and aidt. t (l a rei also phosphorcsecnt, lt is but lately that: a pla nt, whiei abounds in the jungles inm thoe MIadura district of the East t Indies, wats senit to this country, w'tch, althougl dead, t was remarkably Lphosphorlsecent; and, when ia the living state, the light which it emittitted was extraordinarily vivid, il i.nlnatling te grotund for some- distance. Those tenlarkable efiets may bo due, in some cases, to the separation of plhosphoretted hyd.rogxen front deco'i)posing matter, atnd, int others, to some peculiar electric manifestation. The phosphorescence of the sea, or that condition called.by fiIshelrmen brlyt when. tle surfaee, being etrtuc by an oar, or the Ipaddle-wheels of a st tamer, gives outtt l-artOe qu\antities of light, hias teen attriuited to the presente of myritads of minmito insects whitc have the lposwer of enitting - ig t, li when irritated. The night-shbiing ne.reis (A.tS reis tdtote tia) emtl a light of great, brillianey, as do oseveritl kinds of the 1nolluscea,. Titm 1 2M0 OitotEXsCE THOIfE StA. nereides attach thlemselves to thle scales of filtes, and thas frequently xrnder thliem exce dinIgl l minous. Some of the erums taeea)e; poss^ss the sante reinlark-able prope:r)t; - twelvo dilffrent species of canct er were taken ut p by, the naturalists of the Zaire in the Gulf of G uitlnea.(l) Tlhe canctr fiT/flZs, discovetred hy Sir,loseph Banks, is enabled to itluninate its whole b()ody, and emits vivid fllashesat of light. MtIny of the lmdulst e also exhibit powetrful phosphorescmene.:(') IThese noctiltueos treatlures are, xmany of then, exceeditngly mi-1lte, Cevertal thousands beIi'on tound in a tiea-(eup of sea-water. Tihey loattt near the turfttae i countiess imyriads, and when disturtbed they give out brilliant seintttlatiots, often leaving a train f light heitind thetm,( -") By ttieroscspict exaininstiton no otther.fsct has been elicited that that:t the.se minute beintgs contain a fluid which, when.squeez..edz tutt lteavess a lint f a ighl upon tile s rtfiac of water. The appearatnce of these creatures is almost invariably on' tlhe eve of somn chant;ge of weathter, whichl would lead us to suppose thtat tlheir luminous l'phenomenat. latiust be connected with clectrical exeitation; and of this, the investigations of Mt'.. iteacth, of Ftoweyc, counitt icate*t d to the British Association at Birrtingham.t, furnish the most satisfactory proofs we Xhave tas yet obtained. f1envent:uto Cellini gives a t curious account; of a carbuncle whitch would sthine with great brillitancy in the dark. The stame t~ring ias lbeent stated of tfhe diamond; but itt: appears to he neeessiay, to proeure these emissions of light, that the mtinelrals shoul t d be first w arm ed near a. f ire. erom thtis w itier tat th luminotus apipearance is of a similar charat-ter to that of fluor spatr, a1nd1 of numerous other atthly mineral s, wich, when l xposed to heat:, phosl toresfe with great br illi antcy. Photsplorescent glow ctan also be excited in simnilar bodies b:y electrticiity, as was first pointed out Ot lby Flather Beccaria, and conlfitred by MIt. Petarsall.(it) The.se efctts, t niu stf ha retmembered, are dis EiL^OIGfttICAL^ tYXTr Mrx. 121~t.2 tinlet from the electtrc spatrk manifested tiupon breaking whitte sugar in thol dark, or scratctilng sulpliutret of zinc In tih instanices adducedt there is not necossrily any exposure to the sunshine reqtuired.l. It is probable that two, if not thice, distlinet phelnoniena are concerned in the c^ass ahbovo quoted, iand tfhatt all of themn am distinct from animal phosphorescence, o(r the luminlious applearance of v:getatbles. Tliey, however, ceritunly prove, either that ligtht is capatble of becomt itg latent., or that it is only a condition of matt er, in hich it may bo nmado manifest by any disturbance of the molecular forces. We huave, in atnswer to this, very distinct evidence that some bodies are capable of deriving this property froml the solar rays. Canton's pliosplhorns, twhich is a sutlhuret of calcium, will, havitn becn cxp:osed to tthe slun, continue luminous tfo some time after it is catrried into the dark; as wtill also the Bologniant stone0, a suilphure t of barium. This resultt appetars to be.due to a particular lass of the solar rays; for it has been found, if these sulphurctfs, sprtd smoothly on pap er, are exposed to the inifluence of the solar spectrum for somle little time, and theln examintte in tho dark, that luminou s s paces appear, exactly corresponding with the. morst refrangible rays, or those which0t exito chemical change; anmd one very remarklable fIl ct nt st not be forgotten...... tlhe da-rk rays of th speetrum beyond1 the violet produce a lively phosphoresence, Nwhich is extinguishedi by the action of the riays of least refrangibil:lity, or the: h.eat" srys.-...ntwhilst artificial heat, as a warmt iront, produet.s a very considerable elevation of the )phosphosmresentl eletfectt.(') TIn these allied tpht 0lenomena wY have eCi'Ects which are evidently dependent upon several dissi milart causes. ThIe phosplhorescencef of the living animal is duoe, without doubt, to niervous excitation > that of tthe living ve'get.able to solar inltienco; and in the case of the mosses of caverns, &c. t a t lhat $pecutia':r power which i ii 122 XINFLU:NC}i OF N:ATBJi. UPON OLMIT. connected with the clhemilal agency of the sun's rays, and tvwl.ch is now clearly proved to bo capable of conduction. In the dead organic tmatter we have a purely chemical action developing the ligiht, and i the inorganic bodies wo tha ve pceuliar iolecular constitution, by which an absorption of light tappetars t to tale place. Tho subjectt is one of the greatest difficulty; the torch of scicnce is too dim to onablo us to see the catutes at work in produecing these narvellous feibcts. The investigati:on leads, to a cortain extent, to the elucidation of many of the tsecrets of luminous actiotn; and the determnination of tlhe question, whether ligt is an emanationI fironi the sun, or only a subtile principle diffuised througt.h all tnatter, which. is excited by solar influence, is intimatlctly connected with tle inquiry. It has been stated that )ematter is necessary to tli development of light; thalt no luminous elffect would )b produced if it were not for tih pretsenct e of matter. Of this we not only have no proof, but sauch evidence as w e have is against thle position, T.there is no loss of light in the most perfect vacuut m we cant produce by any yartificial means, wh}ict should be the case if:matter was concerned in the pheno mena of light as a cause. (iolouxr is certainly a property rgulated b)y material bodies; or rather the preslence of matter is necessary to the production of colour. (htloritne g"as igs ia tpal yellow, tand nitrous vapour a yellowaish red. These and one or two other vapours, which are near the point of condensation into fluids, are the only coloured gaseous or vaporiforni bodies. The sky is blue, because thoe ]aterial particles of thle atmoslphere retle;t btack the hblue rays. Butt we have more practical illustrations tlan this. The lfa.nl of lydrogeln ltmrntintg with (:oxygn ives scarcetly any,light; allow it to inpin.ge on litme, a portion of whitchi is eai' tid off by lthe heat of the flame, and the most intense TUIIN SO0AhR OrltiTIN 0O8 LUXMIOUS rOWVI:It. 123 artificial light witl which we are acquainted is produced. H1f.ydrogen gas alone t3gi.ve:s a flamie in which nearly all but the blte rays are wantitg: place a brush of steel or asbestos in it, and many of the other rays avre at once produced. Ant Argand lamlp, and mtore paIrtictuarly the c:aniphine Argand, gives a flame whichi emits miost of tle rays filund in sAtt: light. 8pirit of wine mixed with watter, warmed and ignited, gives only yellow rays; add nitrato of strontian, and they become red; but nitrate of barytes beitng nmxed with it, they are changed to green and yellow; salts of copper a.fird line!blue rays, and conumrtont salt, intense yellow on. es 3bMany of these coloured ratys and others can be produced in great power by the use of various solid ibodies iatrodtuced into eflame. Thus has not been sufficiently pointed out by authors; but it is clear froml experimentst thalt light requires the preseCnce of matter to enable it to dilti se its glories. How is it that: the oxygen and hydrogen flame gives so little light, and, with a solid body presentl, pours forth such a flood of brilliancy? Th.e production of artifieial light by electrical and chemical age.ncies wvill nece:msarily:find sorne consideration under their respective beads. There are numerous phenomena which conneet themselves with luminous Jowcr, or appear to do so, whiclh, in the presentt slate of our knowledge, cannot come immediately within our attention. W' are compelled to reserve our limited pace for those branches of science wl which we are enabled to con neet twith the great natural operations constantly groing oin aroundt us. MAany of these more abstruse results will, however, receitv si ome incidental notice when we come to examine th e o peration of the co-:mbined:physical forces on matter. We see in light a principle which, if it has not its source in the sun, is certainly dependent upon that luminary for its 1manifebtations. and powers, r'.nom that "' fountain of light." 1:-4t 2OWE1.: ow 0 l F:o.rt. wo tlid tltis p.rincii)oe t'ravelling to us t a sipeed whichik almost approa>hes^s tlhe (lticksness of thought its elf; yet by the refinlenents of sienee wit vt e Iw bee.11t entabledt to meansufto its velocity with the xutmost: aceuralty. tTie iilt.nortdal poe;t of our own ltndt tnd lantguage, in. Iis croation of Ariel, t hat. "triecksy piriit, who could crecep itke music upon the wators, nmI girdle tthe earth in thirty tinlutes, appears to htave aptproached to the hig lhest point to which.t mere i.magination could carry the httuman mind as to the powers of things ethereal. Scienee has, since then, shown to man that. this "spplhit, fine split," was a l(aggard in his tasks, and a gross piece of mattter, when compared with the subtile esseanctes which lman, like a nobler Pro.spro, tas now t sutduedtt too d thim service.,ighlt is necessary to lifit; the world was a( dead chaos l )esore its creation, and muuto disotder would again tbe the consequetnce( of its ann:ihilaation, iv:tery charm which spreads itself over this rolling glotbe is direcetly dependent utpon lumint:ous power, (Colours, and often, probably, f:rms, are the result of light, certainly tile consequence of sohla radiations,. oe tknow tmucl of the mysterious intflu enees of tihis great atent, but we k:now nothing of the principle itself. Tnh solar beai.n lhas been tortured through ipisniastie g asses and natural crystals:.!Every v tcemical agentt has been tried 0upon it, every electrical tfree in the itost excited state brioulht to Xeatr ut-pon its operationts, with a \iew to the discovery of the most, refined of earthly a enies; ut t has piss(te throtugh every trita without reveadling its secrets, and even the eftlets whittc it produces in its path are unexplained )robllems still, to tax th t intellect of l)an. Tvery animtal ad every plant is imilpellted to own t hat lii k atd health are due to lifflit; and even the crystallizing iftnns of inorganic itntter, by,bending towards its, coitSs its all-prevailing sway, [From the suin to every planet, revolving around that orb, POWI:El Or Loil:. 125 and to the remotest stars whict gleam trohl t lrouh he vast imlmenesity of heaven, we discover this power still n its bright es, giving beauty and order to thse unummbered creations, no less comn pletely than to this small island of the universe. Throught every form of imatter we can mark its power, antd fromt all we can, under certain conditions, evoko it in lustre and activity. Over all and through all light spreads its ethereal ftorce, and manifitsts, in all its oplerations, powers w hich mitght well C xalt the mind of Plato to the idea of an omniscient and ormnipresent (I od Scicnce, with hier thuriel wand, s, ha however, shown that lighlt is itiself an etdc et of a yet mtore exalted caulse, which we can only refer to the source of every good antd eve perfect t(}X2,~ ~ i 126 ACTIN C ISM~ E C A 3II. M. 1 1 \ r- 1 O S. A(.t. IN et-M...........s. ""..." "'.-.... " l'"''" The Sun-ray and its lrowe' D. )arkening of Itorn Silver ~Nhepce's l)is* coyer Ptitut...........ai........... ility of Light, Hteat, and Ae tinisn. x.D.-.t )agusrre's t)icovery c. P <.hotog'raphy..- C.hemicai Eff:ets produiced by Solar adiations Absorption of Aetinism - Ph. enom)ena of thle i)agterteotype...... Chemical Cthange produced upon all Bodies.Power of Matter to restore its Condition -Light protects from Chemical Change.. Photographs taken in Darkn essChemical kffeots of Light on Orgatni eA Forns..-. C-Ahemincal Eftf'eets of Solar HReat nl. tence of Actinism on I}lecttiity...adiations in;Darknss..Mosers l)isc eoviesl, &e I[TIAT and tight are derived from the sun, and we have attempted to show that not only are the phenomenal.a of these twvo prinMip(ls difirentX, but that they can scarcely, in the present condition of our knowledge, bo regded as modified manifestations of o-ne superior power. Associated with tiseo t.wo reiarvkable elements, others imay exist in the solar rays. ]lIectrieal phlenoImena are ce rtainly developed by both heat and light, and peculiar ehanges are produced by a short exposure to sunshine, Eleetrieity may be merely excited by the solar rays, or it may flow like lieght from the sutn Chemieal action may be only due to the disturbv ance of some dit s ed prineipio; or it may be direetly owing,' to some ag.encv whic}e is radiated at on(e froni the sun, A suni-ray is a magical thing' we connect it in our faney with the most ethereal of possible creations., "et in its action on matter it produces colour; it separates the particles of soliitl masses farther frol ealch other, and it breaks up,some of the OtlIMIMCAL OI:AN(ETSVi B1: T.I.: SOLA It RYS, 127 strongest forces of chemical affinity. To modern science is et-A tirely d t he towledge w have gained of the marvellous powers of the sunbeamtl; and it has rendered tus fatmiliar with plenoletlna, to which tlie incantation-scenes of the Cornelius A.gripp.as of tie )tark Ages wtere but ill-contrived delusions, and their m.aic m mirrors poor instruments in comtparison with the silver tablets of th e photograpice artist nl the ])ark Agea, or rather as the earliest gleams of the bright imortning of industrious research werei dispelling the mists of that )phantom-peopled period, it was observed, fir the finst tilme, that the suim' rays turned ta whIit compound }black, Alan musit have witnessed, long before, that lcrious change whicht is constantly tatling place in all vegetable coltours: some darkening by exposure to sunlight, while. others are bleached 1b the solar rays, Yet those phenolmena excited no attention, and the world knew nothing of thte mighty changes which were constantly t aking place around them. The alcheleitsts ~. sublirme pictures of oreduw Iots humanit.y ~ toiling in the smloke of their sceret laboratories, waiting and watching for every change whNich could be produced by lire, or by their " royal waters," caughtt the first faint ray of an opening truth; and their wild ftlny, that light could t lhang silver into gold, if they but suceeded in getting its subtile beams to interpenetrate the metal, was the clue afforded to thee mptirical philosopher to guide him through a more than Cretan labyriath. () The firvst fact recorded upolt this point was, that horn silver blackened when exposed to t the light.. Without doubt. many anxious tloughts were given by these alchemiists to that fict. ilere was, aB it appeared, a mixing up of light and matter, and behold the striking tchange. It was a step ttowards the realizatio of their dreiams, Alas, poor vislionaries in purtrsuing an ideality they lost the reality whitch was within ttheir grasp 128 BIEFIIA GBI. gAI;M'S.LY OF TUilE S8Oi.LAR.'tOICE.8'rtlruth come slowly utpon mlan, ad long its is befuare these angel visits are alckmnowledte,:d by humanity. The world cli-ng to its errors, and avoids the truth, lest: its light should betray their miserable follies, At length a mant of genius an1nounce(t tha:t A^o. sulmtaLntce can be exp:osed to the slut "s rau/s wtiw ut t udeirtoing a chen ecal eanqe "' but hi ords word idly upon the car,m 11s friends looked upon his ligh.t-aproduced pictures as curious mattert.s; they preserved them in their cabinets of curiosities t but the truth which ht e enunciated was sloon florgotten, lIowheit, these words were recorded, and it is due to the solitary experinmintalist of Chdtons on the Sa6ne,, to couple the tname of Niepce with the dtiscovery of a fact which is scarcely secondt to t he development of the great law of universal gravitation. ( ) Buit an examination awaits us,:Which, fir its novelty, has more charims tlhan most branches of cietnce, and which, for the extensive views it opo:ens to the inquirer, has an interest in nowise inferior to any othler physical investigat:ion..The pris:ntitie spectrumt aflbrds us the meansr of examtin thle conditions of the solar rays with great facility. In abending the ray of white light tot of its path, by means of a triangular piece of glass, we divide it in a remarklable mooanner. We learn that heata is less reft- acted by the glass than the other powers; we find the mIaximuml point of the caloriefi r ays hutt slightly throwntt out of the rightt line, whicht the sotlar penil would have taen, had it not been interrupted by1: tthe pism; and h t he trmtic action is fiund to diminish with muIclt reg:tularity on either sitde of this line. tWe discover that the luminous power is sul ject to:treater refraction, and that its maximum, lies considerably above f that of heat; alnd that, in like lmanner, on each side the light dimiiinishes, protducing oran(ge, r'ed, and crimson colours below the nmlaximuml point, and green, blue, and violet above it. Aain, w find PHOTOGRAHYt. 110 that the radiations which produce chemical chango are mort roefirangible thian eitl-cer of the oth rs, and tlhe axitmu of this power is: tlound at the point where li iglt rapidly diminishes, and w\her seateely tany heat can be detectedf: it extends in full aotivity, above it:s maxinmuim, to a lonsidera:le distance, w} er no treace of light ean be discovered, ftand btelfow that point, until light, appearing to ac.t as an interfering agent, quenches its tpeetu liar properti.es. Thelse are strong evidtenees thatt lightt alnd actinisin..- ~.~.as tins pineiple has been named -are no t idtletical: an.d we 1maty separate them most easily and efii:etually fromt ealch other. (C rta'tit glasses, stained dark blue, with oxide of cobalt, admit scarcel ty lihght; bu t they ofler no interruption to the passage of actinism; lon the contrary, a yellow glass,:or a yellow fluid, which does not sensibly redtuce the intensity of any one colour of the chrolmatic bIad of tultitu ous rays, comltely cuts oft this chemical primt iple, whatever it may be. I'n addition to these, there are other results whieSc we s hall Ihave to desribe, whilch provet that, altuhough:t associated in the solar beamt, light and actinism are in constant antagonism, When.)aguerre f irst ublilished his great discovery, thei 1Hlurot pe'mt publie regtatrded his.metal tablets with feelings of wonder; we have grown ac:customed to the. bteautiful phenolmena of this art, tand we have becomie lactuainted witith a mumber of no less beautiftl pirocesses on. paper, all of whiclh, if studied aright, must convinee the m0os t lsuperteiial thinker, thatt a world of wonder lies a little beyond our knowledge, in:t withlin. the reach of industrious and patientt research. hotogratphy is the name by whichl the art of stun-painting wiill be for ever known. We regard this as unfortlunate, con voying as it does a fittls ide a, --- the pietures not bein-g hli/h'drawz (Could we adopt the name given by Niepce to the process, tie difficulty wvould be avoided, since 180 rimTOetOAPAuY. 1f0eliography involves no hypotlesis, and strietly tells the mudenilable ftet, that our pictures are sun.i-rawn. By whatever name we dtermiul: e to convey our ideas of these phenomena, it is certain that they ivolve a s eries of efilets which are of the highlest interest to every lover of nature, -and of the uttmnost importance to the artist and the amt ateur..3!y easy mranipulation, we are now enabled to give perimanenc e to the charming pictures mwhiclh are produced b1y ncansu of that pleasing inventlion of Baptista l orta, the tamera Obscura Any imalgo wmhich beingt refracted by the len1 of this instrument falls upon the table in it (ldark chatber, miay be secured with its most delicate gradations of shadows, upon either a metallic or a paper tablet, litmus wNe are enabled to preservo the lineaments of tho:os who have bencfated their race by their genius or their bravery. By the agency of those very ays which give life ald brilliancy to the laughtig eye and roseate check, we can at once correctly trace the outline of the features weo admire, and fill in those shadowy do. tails which give the picture the charttmI of vrausettlanc. The admirer of nature may copy her arrangements with strict fidelity, cxvoery undulation of the lanldscape, e(very projecting rock or beetling tor, each sinuous river, and the spreading plains over which are scattered the ornfes of hones t industry and domestic peace, inteormingled with the towers or pires of those humnblo temlples in which sitmple-hearted piety delights to kneel,-.. theso, all of theso, Im yI, by the sunbeam which illuminates fthe whole, be faithfully pencilled iupon our chemical preparations. To) the traveller how valuable is; the process I The characteristic vegetation of distant lands, atnd the remains of hoar antiquity, speaking to the present of the past, and recording th' histories of races which have fleeted awiay, may be alike secured to instruct " home*e;cc)eping wits," by th e assistance of this beautiful art. 'iHtXC afl$ cmHAN, s.I But it'is nee ssa.y we name a few of tho more striking phenomonea of these chantas.'To ommence with soml of the more simpile bhut o less important rtmults, (hlorinie andt hydrogen wtill not unite in darknoess, nor will chlorine and arbont ic oxide; but, i eitiher of those gaseous Mnix' tures are exposed: to sunshine, they combine rapidly, and with explosion. A solution of the sulphato of iron in ordinary water mray be preserved for a long tfite in the dLark without undergoing any change; expose it to the sunhie, tand a precipitation of oxide of iron is very rapidly produced..The mineral chanmeleon, the mt metnt ttus it^e of potashf in solution, is almost instantly decomposed in daylight; but it is a long time before it undergoes any chaung itn darknes. The same thing occurs with a combination of platiunil and lime; and, intdeed, it appears that precipitation is at all times, and nder all circumstances, accelerated by the solar rays. As these precipitations are in exact agrcement with the quantity of actinice radiation to which tlhe solation:s have been expos;ed, we may actually weigh off the relative quantities, reprcsenting in grains the equivale t numbers to the amount of actinism whtic;h has intluenced the chemical compound. (l We have cvidenec which appears to prove that this agent may:e absorbed by simtple b1odies, and tht by this absorption.t actual change of condition is produced, in many respects ana-logtous to thoso allotropic changes which wo haveu previously coansidered. Chlorine, in itE, ordinary state, an;d hydrogen, do not conbine in the dark. If we employ the yellow t meditm of -chorino gas, f.or the purpose of analyzing the sut's rays previoust ly to their fillingf upon some chemieal coml pound which is sensitive to actinic powe1r, we shall find that the chlorine obstructs all this act:inism, attnl'u' unstable compound remains unehanged. But the chlorine g:as which haslt intcrrup.ted this wonderful agent, appears: to have absorbed it, and iti is sao tar altered in ites constitution 132 THE DAGUERREOTYPE. that it will unite with hydrogen in the dark. (1) In like manner, if, of two portions of the same solution of sulphate of iron, one is kept in the dark and the other exposed to sunshine, it will be found that the solution which has been exposed will precipitate gold and silver from their combinations much more speedily than that which has been preserved in darkness. The phenomena of the Daguerreotype involve many strange conditions. A plate of silver, on which a slight chemical action has been established by the use of iodine, is exposed to the lenticular image in the camera obscura. If allowed to remain under the influence of the radiations for a sufficient length of time, a faithful picture of the illuminated objects is delineated on the plate, as shown by the visible decomposition and darkening of the iodized surface. The plate is not, however, in practice allowed to assume this condition; after an exposure of a few seconds the radiant influence is cut off, and the eye cannot detect any evidence of change upon the yellow plate. It is now exposed to the vapour of mercury, and that metal in a state of exceedingly fine division is condensed upon the plate; but the condensation is not uniformly spread upon its face. The deposit of mercurial vapour is in exact proportion to the amount of chemical action produced. Is the change, by which this peculiar power of condensation is effected, a chemical, calorific, electrical, or merely a molecular one? The evidences, at present, are not sufficient to determine the question. In all probability we have the involved action of several forces. It is not necessary that a chemically prepared surface should be exposed to the sun's rays to exhibit this result. A polished plate of metal, of glass, of marble, or a piece of wood being partially exposed, will, when breathed upon, or presented to the action of mercurial vapour, show that a disturbance has been produced upon the portions which were illuminated, whereas no change can be detected upon the CHiANOIs: fl3Piit)UEl) Y ACTfiNS18M. t13 parts wbich were kept in:lte dark. fI was thoughit, until lately, that a few chemlical compounds, sue as iodide of silver, the Daguerreotype and Calotype material, -.- chtlorid. o e of silver, the ordinary pthotfographic agent, ~-.. at few salts of gold, and one or two of lead and iron, were the only mlaterials upon which these very remarkable changes were produced. We now inow that it is impossible to expose any body, simple or comtpoXund, to the sun's rays, without its beifg influenced by this chemical and mtolecular disturbing power. To take our examples forom inorganic nature, the granite rock whicht pres'ints its upliftod head in firmness to the driving storm, the stones which genius has framed into forms of architcctural beauty, or the metal wich is intended to commtemorate the great acts of nman, and which in the human form proclaims the hero's deeds and tthe artists talent., are all alike destruetively acted upon during the hours of sunshmine, tait, ndbut for provisions of nature no less wonderful, would soon perish under the delicate touch of the most subtile of the agencies of the universet, Niepce was the first to show thaft those bodies which underwent this change during dayligfht, tpo0ssesed the powe0r of restoring themselves to their original conditions during the hours of night, when t is excit neent was no longer influeneing theo, Rlesins, the Daguerreotype plate, the unprepared metal tablet, and numeTroxus photograpphic preparations show tiis in a remarklabl manner. (')'Tfhe pieture twhich e we ceive to-night, untless we adopt some method of securing its permanency, fides away before the morn.ilo:, (anid we try to restore it in vain. tt'pon some of our chemlical preparations this im very remarklably shown, but by nlone in so striking a manner as by pape pprepared with the iodide of piatinur, lwhich, beitng impressced with an imltage by heliographic power, restores itself in the da'rk, in a few mintutes, to its former sat of sens:ibility to sunshitm(') The inference we alone can 10 134 It1MINOfI AN.f) ACTIKXO draw fromt all tho e tvitdei. lice whicht the study of achtinoe hemistry aItlrds, is, that tihe hours of darkness are as necessary to the in0organic creation as we know night and sleep ) re o the organoi c.kinf.tgdom..tBut we mtust not. t forget that there does exist il the solar rat8 a balance of forces which materially moditfiet the amount of disturbing intuence exerted by thoel on matter. Not only do woe find thatt tth cihetnical acttion is not extended over tlh whole lelngth of tle prismatic spectrut, lut we diseover that over spa'-cs, which correspond with the niaxinunl points of light and heat, a protective action is exerted. That is, that.highly sensitivo photogrtaphic agents, which blaIcken Irapidly under cxposure to difilsed dt(aylight, are entirely proteeted t firomt changtet iln flll Stnll stline, if at the same time,t as a st rong light is thrown uponl)Il tphem by rellection, the yellow antdl extra red rays are broiuglt to bear upon their surface. Not only so, biut by emtiploying ledtia whic.h will cutt of thle chemitca rayls of the spectrtum, admitting only the nluinonits andt calorific rays, we find th:at this powter of protection is eosxtent1sive with colour, or rather with lighm, and tthat a protected batlnd, the lengthl of the spectrunt, remainsl white, whiRlst every other porotion has blackenedt. (I's ) Atongtf the many curious instances of natural magic, nont e ar more remarkable tlhan an experim nit not long since proposed, by which Dflaguerreotype pictures could be taken in absolute dark. ness,.'This is ctiectted in tthe following mamlert: A large, pris matie spectrum is thrown upon a lens fitted into one side of a dark chamber; and as we know that the actinic power resides in great actmivity beyolnd the violet ray, where there is no liglt, the only ray which we allow to pass the lens into the cthamber, are thrse whvicth are cxtraest"pctral and non-luminous, These are directedl upon any object, 1and friomt that olject rad(iated upon a highly sensitive plate in a camera olsteura, Thus a copy of the sutlje lt will Ite obtain:ed by the agency of radiations which pro POW.Bn ANTA(aiXS. roit: er. S135 duce no sensible ect e t upon tThe optic nlerve. This experiment is the converse of those lwhich lshow us, that, we 1iay illuminate anly object with tle st,ron,.t buntign t which has passed such * dio" actinic lmedia asyellow las, toe ye llow solufion of sulphuret of calcium, or of the bichromate of potaslh land yet hil to secure any Digagerreotype copyJ of it, even utpon the most exquisitely: sensitive iplatc, Indeed, the image of thle sun itself, when settigt through an atmoshtle:re whbich reduces its light to a red or rich yellow colour, not only produces no chemical change, but proteets an i odized plate from it aned wilst every other part of tihe tablet gives a picture of aurrounding, olbects in the ordinarty character, the brifght sun itself is represented by a spot upon which no chantge hias takten ptlace, (' ) In tropical climes, where a brilliant sun is giving the utmost degree of illumination to tall sgurrounding obiects, all photographic preparattios are acted upt n more dlowly than: in the climate of England, where thte l ht is less intense. As a remlarkable inmstance of this flact, a circumtt stancet tay be mnentioned, wMich is curiously illustrative of tho power of light to interftere withi actinitsm li A gentleman, well acquainted with the D.aguerreotype process, took with himx to the city of Mexico all t 1he necessary apparatus and chlemicals, expect'ig, under t:he bright litght and cloudless skies of that elimate, to prodtuce pictures of superiori excelletnce. Failure upon fitilure was the res lt; and although every care* was used, and evtery precautionl adopted, it was not,until the rainy seeason set in t'lat he could secure a good Paguerreotype off tany of te buildings of thEat souti0ern city*. Any reference to the chetmtical agency of.,:ir.T..... liminous irays -..... as been avoided until twe cae to tile consideration of tllis particular question tof cthemlical (lhlange. T'Upo organict compot)unds, s, as, br insltance, upon tl0 coloUluritng matter of leaves and flowers, light doeS exert a cheCmical power; 80G it.ftHEXOA.^ AUttCNCY OP TIll! IX UMI ^NOUS RAYS, and, it ais found that vegetable, colours aro bleached, not by rays of their owin caracter, but by bt hose whtich are comilkmnttary to them. A red dye fIdes under the influettnc off a green ray, and a yellow under that of a blue one, tttmuch more speedily tithan when exposed to rays of any other colour. ( I ) It was long a question whether the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants wna due to the luminous or the chemlical rays-. it is nowN clearly establishedR that the lum-1iotnS rays are the 1most active in producing this oefi et; wh ith they do, in all probability, only indirectly, by exciting the it al powers of the organized struetures,t to which we would refer this phenomlenon of gascous decomnposition. (") We have already noticed some ch emical plhenomena tile to heat, particularly those experimncats of Count {umnford's, which appeared to himt to prove that the chemical ageny of the sun's rays was dte to its ealorifio power. A certain class of chemieal ltlph elotn w nowena, we n y be prolducd by thermic action, both radiant an d direct; butl the only class of hermo-chenical action, which connects itself imhmediately with the solar radiations, i.elongs to a class of rays to which tho name of Parathermtnic has been given, and to which belong the scorching, as it is called, of plants, the browning of the autumnal leaves, and probably the ritpening of fruits,( h') When we ome to the consideration of those physical p0henomenla wt ch belong to the growth of lantts, all thtse, peculiarities of solar action mluat be attended to in detail. The manner in whblich we find the acttinie ptowr influeneing electrical action, also show s us that this b1alance of force is continmed through all the great principles of nature. If a galvanic arrangemcnet is mlade, by whlich asmall quantities of metals may be- slowly precipitated at one of the poles in the dark, and a similar arrangetmert be exposed to sunshine, it will be thllen found that no mectal will be deposited the msun's rays have intertfred with the decomt :tmm;tt' ra.o3t TIeff; 1:): ort THt SUN*. I7 posing power of the electrical current, At; the sam e tiue we learn, that, by throwing a beam of light upon a plate of copper, formintg one of a galvai pair, whilst i iS its under the influen:eto of an aeidulatted solution, an addtitional excitattion tlakeas place, and the galvanomeoter will indicate the passaget of an increased current of eletricit T'he s two dissmi:tar actions appear enigmatieal^; but tlhey' may, themre i no doubt, receive sowme solution from the influence of dilffrent rays on the contrary poles of the battery. One thing, is quite evident, ~..- electricity suflfrs a disturbalnec of one order, by lightlt and, by its associated pxrineiplts in the sunbelam, an exeitemenit of another. If a yellow glass i inltrposed. between the galvami( artrangementt and the sttn, tho eleetro-chemical'precipi)ttiton goes on in the saame tmanner as it would in darknelss, and no extra excitementi is prtodtuced upon. the plates of the battery, From this it would appear that actilnismt and no itt light is to be regarded as the actively distturbing ptowor (:') We hatve already detailetd miany of the peceliarities of the difforentt varieties of "Phosphori, which would seem to b tthe result of lightt, lPhosphorescenee is, however, excited by thols rays which produce no direct e ltbet upon tfle eye. If we spread stlu phuret of calcium upon paper, anld expose it to the action of the solar spectrum, it is found to glow (in the darlk) only over those spaces occupie.d by the violet rays and the dark rays beyond them, proving that thte excitation necessary to the develoxpmet of the pheionoeina of phosphorescence is due to a class of rays distilnct fromt the true Iit-gvin, prineiphl, and more nea rly allied to that.i l principle r:or W tr which isets up chlmical ldecomositiontl Viis on aln clore, calorific action, chemical change, molecular distur.anc, el ic l er, eleri no, and phOsphorese. l t excitatmon, all, Ici. one with a st:rate dualit'y, are coinmected wit. the 1i8WFCT Oi ACOTINM1t, We find, whte we receive solar spectra upon ioaized plates, or on several kinds of -photograpto paper, that a line, over whifh no action takes place, is preserved at th te op and bottom of thfe:i Pressed ilmage, and tin man1y cases along thle sides also. The only way in whitch this can be accounted for, tas the spectrum r)epresents thie sun in a distorted form, is by supposiing that atys comne from the edges of the sun of a different character fromi those which proceed from the centre of ltfat orb. () tMay wet not look upon thi exanmples which have been given, as evidenee of some such arrangement of thie united prmniples as tle fbllow-ing? Lightl proceeds with greatest power from the centre of the solar disc, although diffusing itself over every part;- as the forc ) of light dimnisihes, calorific action is more strongly tmanif:lste, and a zone of heat surround s the centre of lilht, beonld which, extending like an attmosphere to the sun htlfiself, exists tthe mighty chemical power which we call aetinism and maty not eleetricity be the resu'lt of the combined action of these three powers? That, aetinism is one of the great tpowters of creation we have abundant proof. Nearly all the phelnomena of chang.e which have been referred to light, are now proved to be dependent uponl actinie power; and beyond the intflence which has been asecrtaied to be exerted by it upon all inor ganic bodies, w se shall have occasion to ahow still further the dependence of the vegetable antd antimal worlds upon its agency. The influence of the solar beams on vegetation is proved by common experience; the closer examlination of its action on vegetable life is reserved for the chapter devoted to its pl1hnomena. Of its influence on animals nothing is very correctly known; but,some early expOriments prove that they, like other organized bodies, are subject to all the radiant forces, as indeed, independent of experiment, our common. experience teaches. Certain it is, that organiz'ation can 0N O)H ANt O1 }TI ON~ i89 take ptmce o ly where the su's rays can penetrate: where thlere is inchanfging,darktness, therc we ind all the silence of deat. Promtetheus stole ire friom llaven,a arid gave t-he sacred gift to man, as the most usefil to him of all thing. in his neeesltaies: by the aid of it hle could temanler the selverities of clitmate, render his 0 odt mtore digestible and tagireeable, and illuminate the hours of darknes., So says the beautifla fiction of tlh ('treeia la itd, which appears as the poetic dreanm or prophetic glance of a gifted race, who felt the mysterious truth they were yet unable to describe. Phaeton and Apollo are only othter foreshadowings of thfe oreative eneyrgies which dwell in the glorious ceatrc of our universe. The poetry of the Ifellenic people asmenaded above thO littleness of merely human action, and soughtt to inlterpret the great trutths of creation.:leflecttive, they could not ut se tihat sotme mysterious powers were at work around tliem; imaginative, they gave to fiotc idealizations the governmtent of those inexplicale phenoltna. Miodern siolence has s ^hown what vtastfly important offices the solar rays execute, and thmt the prittciples.discovered it a sunbeam are indeed the excit rs of orgaui life, and tle disposer' of inorganic torm. It lmnst not be forgotten that we have already alluded to a speculation wi1ch supposes this actinit influence to be diftfsed through all nature, to be indeed thet element to whi Ich iemt.ial force in alt its tforms is to be referred, and that it is merely excited by the solar rays. Thi.ns hypothesis receives som support fromt the very peculiar mannr in which chetical actiont once set up is carried on, independent of all extraneous excitement, after the first disturbance has been produeed. If any of tth salts of gold are exposed in connection with organic matter, as on paper, to sunshtine for a mom101entt, an action is begun, which g goes on unceasingly in the datrk, until the gold is reduced to its most simple state* ()) The same thing occurs with chromate of 140 TfII t eItiOPtlUll., t oIa:. silver, sornol of thle salts, of mercury, argeintine preparationg mixed with protosulphate of iron or gallic acid, and some other erteieal combminations. T' she progressive inttuenees point, to sotie law not yet discovered, which seemts to link this radiant aetinisxm with the chemical agenlt exising in matter. this problem also conlee8ts itself with another class of facts which, althlougt h due in all probability, to great extent, to calorifle radiatiotn, atnd hdence kntown under the gen teral term of Thernmographyt, appear to involve both ch.emical and t.elcttrical ec ital tion, From the inesigatiof n of Moser iand o( oothers we learn the very extraordinary fact, that even inanimtate maslses act and react upon eacht other by the influence of som)ne (dark raldiations, and seem to exchange "ome of the pecnliarities whicrl they possess. This appears generally in the curiou s experiments which have been retferre'd to, as confinedl merely to form or strtucture. Thus an engraved plate will give to a polish.ed surface of mietal or glasts placed near it, a'fter a'vry little timeo, at neat, distinct image of itself; that is, produce stuch a structtural disturtancle as will occasion the plate to receive vapour differently over tlhos sp aces opposite to the parts in cnameo or in intaglio, from whatt it ido:es over the opposite. If a ptiece of vswoot is used iinstead of a medal, there will, bU)y siinilar treatment, boe produccd a true picture o f the wood, even to the representation of is fibres, ("- Q~ It h-as also been tfund that chemictal d(ectomposition is piroduced by the mere juxtaposition of diflerent bdies.' If iodide of gold or silver, perfectly pure, is placed upon a plate ofi glass, anid a plate of copper covered wtith mercury is uspended over thtem, a gradual decomposition of those stalts vwill take placi, iodide of tmercury will bet ftored, and the gold or silver salts will be reduced to a finely dividet d xetdallic.:state, ( ) A body, whose powers' of radia? n heat are l:w, beai )HiAJ. AND ILEOfthtAt IADT.A.DATOs. 141 brought near aniotbher whose radiating powers tar more extensive, will, in the course of a shor t time, undergo sluch tan amiount of -molecular disturbalnce, as will efieot a complete cliange in the arrangement of its surface, and an imtpression of the body having the highest radiating powers will be made upon the otlher. T:l.his impression is dormantt, but [may be developedt under the influence of vapour, or of oxidation. ('3 A body, such as charcoal, of low conductting power, being placed -near another, such as copper, whidc is a good eonductor, will, in a very short time, produce, in like manner, an impression of itself upon the metal plate, Thutt any twvo bodies, whose condueting or radiating powers are dis. si miar, being brouglt neatr each oter, will occasion a molecular disturbance, or impress the one with the image of tho oth oer. Hitowever small the diftbrence may be, an eflect is perceived, tand that of the most extraordinary kind, giving rise to the impression of actual images upon each surface exposed. It is tihus t hat a print on paper may be copied on metal, by merely u:pending it near a we.lt-polished plate of silveror copper for a few days. The white and black lines radiate very differently; conscquently, an efeet is produced on the brightlt metal in the parts corresponding to the black lines, dissimilar to that which takes place opposite to the white portions of the paper; and, on the application of vapour, a true imnnag of the one is found impressed upon the other, (C^) Bodies which, are in dif;'rent electrical states act upon each other in an analogous manneor Thus arsenic, which is highly electro-egativo e wil, when placed near a pieco of electropositive copper, readily impart. to its surtfce an impression of its elf; and so in like manner will other bodies, if int unlike conditions*. EIvery substance physically different, (it signifies not whether as it regards" colour, chemical comiposition, mechanical structure, ealoritic cond.ition, or electrical stat,) has a power of 14^''S' M~to&(AQGAO H'tRtl 13S, radiation by twhioh a seonsii blt: e can e caprod tuced ini a bo)dy diiterenlty constitutced Fable has told us that the anigaicans of thle la':.:st possessed mirrors il whichi they could at will produce images of the absent, Science onow shows us that representations quito stuflcient to decoive the credulous can be pro(luced on thoe surftae of polished metals without difficulty. A lighly polished plate of steel may b1) ilpressed with im-tages of any 1ind, which would reomain invisible, the polished srtfhce not being in thoe ast degreo ati'ect. d, ats lt regards its reflecting powers; but that, by broathingp over it, theso dormant imntagoes woult d devolop themselves, and fatde away again as the condensed moisture evaporated from the surface (T") tthese, which'aro but a few of a. series of results of as trtiking a character, serve to convt iceta us that nature is tunc.asitngly at work, that every atom is possessed of proFrtics b)y wvhich it influences every other atom in the universeo, and tha t a most impo)rtanlt class f natural p1theinotmena appetttar, il the prtesew t state of our knowledge, to connect themselves directly with the radiant forces. The aleltimists observed ithat a chalnget took place in chloride of silver exposed to stunshine. Wedgw ood first took advantatge of th-at discovWery t-o copy pi)itures. Niepe'e pursued a phystic.al invecsti'gation of th erttioti cur hange, and found that tall bodies were influenced by this principle radiateit fromt the Sutn. Dagcerre produc'tedd cficts fromt the solar pencil which no artist cotuld apptrotaeh to; and Talbot and others extended the application. IHerschel took up the inquiry; and ho, whith hins usual power of indulctive search anmt philosoplhical deductions, plre.sentedt tlhe wtorld with a class of disctoveriess which show how vast. a fiteld of investi:'ratitn is opening for the younger races of manktind, ~. a field in whvicht a true s.tpirt may reap' the highest reward int the ENXTP!NNT 0F TIOX INQUIYX 1448 discovery of new Gacts, tand to which w must look for a fuirtlhor devlopI.ment of those great powers with whlich wo have already somct slilf:t aeqtuaintance, and for theto discove(ry of hiTgher influeonces wlich lare not ye. t tdreamed of in our philosopihy If music, with its mysteriest of soutnd, Gives to the human heart a heavenward fceling; The beantty and the grandeur which is found Wtrapping in lusttre this fair earth around, Creation's twond'\rous harionis rh c evealing, And to the so:ul in trt tron th,t tongtue appealing, With all the mnagict of those secret powers, Which, }mingling with the lovely band of light, The stun in conlstant xuntduation showers To m)ould the crrystals, andt to shape the flowers, Or give to matter the illmnortal might: Of an embraacitn soul.. s hoxuld, from ttis sod, Exalt our aspirations all to God. 144'LECTICXITY. D)iscovery of Electrical orce — ) ifiused thrtough all Matteri Wht is tlcctricity? -i.The iories. Fdctional t ltectricity. - Conducting lPowesr of Biodies $ —^Iypothesis of two Fluids.. letcttical Images >- iGail vanie 1IEcctreiity.l.'i.cts on Animals. ~- C(lhetistry of Galvanic JBIat teIry -Elctriityt of a )Drop of Water - e letrto-tchenical Action - tlectical Ctl rent -. ThilctttoElectrctity -. I. Anhnal k 4:lect:teity - (Gyinnotus ~Torpedo -* Atmospheric Elcctricfity -. Iigh tning Conductors.'.- f'sath's Iatetias1m1 due to EtIctrical Ci\rents.. -lnfuence on Vititayity - lAnialt and Vegetable D)evelopiments ~cTe'restria-il C(tur rents. —. Electricity of Mlincali erins c..I Electrott'ype. InflIence of:leat, Light, and Actintism on Iletricalt i liexomcna X: a piece of amoer, eectru;, i briskly rubbed, it tcuir es the property of attracting light bodies. This curious power excited the attent.ion of Thales of Miletus; and frio tte investigations of this" GQrecian titilosophler we imiust d(ate our knowledge of one of the most imnporttant of the:ntural forces'- tlettricity. If an inquiritng mind tad a not beeln led to ask why does this mttlious natural production attract a feather, the present age, in all probability, would not have beent in posesion of the mlean s by whdich it is enabled to transmnit intelligence with a rapidity which 1is only excelled by that of the " swift-witnged messengers of tfhought."'.'o thfis age of applicationi, a striking.les..son does this amber teach. Modern utility would reg r T.hales as a tma - tman. I:tlohding a piece of yellow resin in his hand, rubb:iotg it, and thea picking up bits of down, or eatchting floating feathetrs, the old (Irek would have appeared a very iml:becile, antd the cutm tjNTIV TS AJ I t s'f ON 01 B'CIttil'XClT,. 1 45 btoo generation woxld have lauglied at his silly lal3ours. ) Iut.when he announced to 1his school th:ttt thibs:tambter ld a,soul, or sstence, wlinch was awakelned: by friction, and wecnt forth fromt the body in whilc it previtosly lay don tant., and b)rought back thoe small particles floating around it, he gave to the world tlh first lint of a glreat truth whic(h has advanced our klnowledge of physical lphlenolmlnat ini11 1na rvctllous naettlrl, and ministored to the refineoeolnts 11and to the necessities of civilization. Each phenone l 0101on whict presents itsellf to us, however simple it may appear to be, is tan outward expression of s1omel internalt truth, the inter}pretati.on of wilich is only to beo arrived at by as)iduous study, but whiech, once discovered, directs the ty to 1eW knowledge, iad ives to i)an a tgreat increlase o(f l\tpower..Eleetricity appears to be diffiused through all nature; land it is, beyond all doub)t, 11one of tble most important of' the Iphysical ftrees, in tlh great:lphienoetllna of creation. Int the thundercloud, swelling with destruction, it resides, retady to launch its darts and 8llt.1 the earth witlh its explosions' in the a erial undulations, silent and unseen, it pass1es, givingt the necessary excitement to the or01gatnistms 4aroulid which it floats. lTho raindrtop - t hle earttl-gir(litg ocen ctl. —T alnd t he riinging waters of the Iill-born river hold locked tiis mtighty force.'Theo so lid rocks ~. tilt tenaceious clays whiell rest u1pon ttheim tt — the superfieital soils -and thi in.coherent sands give us evidence of the presence of this agency; and in the organic. world, wlthetlr animal or vegetable, the excitement of electricatl toree is always to be detected. In the saolar raditationts, we hIave perhaps tel prilne m-over of tils power. In ourl atmoslphere, when ealm landt cloudless, a great ocean tof liglht, or whenl. somt0' with. tle mliglhty aspe) t of lthe dir we tornado, Nw can constantly deteet thfl struggle between.t 146 TtOi.t.' 01 L:LTRK:tH.'rv, the elements of matter to maintain an cquilibrimnt of clectrical force. ji)fultlsc throughout. maatter, eleotreiity is ever active; but it mustt bt reremembertd that., althougt it is evidently a necessary agent in all the operations of nature, it is noto, tlh agent to whilch everythintg tluknowtmn is to be referred. Doulbtless theo inIlueneo of this ofrce iss more extensive than wo htave-yet disco:vered; but that is an indolent plhitlosophy which rtkers, without examination, evr ery mysttrious phenotmenon1 to the inltluenco of electricity. ThIe question, what:is electricity? hlt;s ever perpllexed, Iadl still contitnues tto ioitate, thft world of scienr.ce. Whil oe one set of experimientalistss have endeaXvolured to explalinl the phenomenaittt they have witnessed, upon the theory tt.tht eectricity is ia pciuliar subtile fluiid ttt1pervaing tmatter, andld p gos ssint t.^inula t r )pow'rsi of attraction and re tpulsion, another pmrty fitnd thcmnseles eompolled to regard the phetornenta as tgiving evidene of the action of two fluids which a:re always in opposite s ttfes: wh ile againt, eleetticity thas bieen c(onsidered by others as, like t}he: attraction of gravitation, a nere property of nmaiter.(':) Certtai it is litt, in the laninfitstations of eleetrieal tpltenom iena, wo fhave, ts it appears, the ovidenre. of two conditions of foirce; but int the states of pOsdtC o tos titif.icf o f vit,':eoues or resi',outs electricity, we have a'-tilnaittar exptlaatttion in the aissumption of some currentt flowing into or out of then material bodly,~ — of some prinecip)le Nwhich is ever active in' mntaittainittg its iequitiliintriuml, which, consequtntly, tmust act in two directions, and always exhibit;t that duality which is a striking characteristic of this subtile agent. It is a curious, and it should b)e an instructive f'let., that each of the three theories of electriity is capable of proof, and lhas, in'dteod, been most ably suul:pported by the rigorous analysi1 of mathematic.'. Whetn wNe remenmbert that some of the most en AU, SUIXWTANCE8 i5 ELE0T1i, 147 lighttenod jinlvesigator< s of tlis and tle past gctt have severally mnaintained, inl the most abtle mtnner, these dissi nilar views, we hlould e sitate b:efir we pronounce an op niont upon the caus or causes of the very! complicated phicnomena of olectrical iorf e, Although we discover, in all the processes of nature, tht ianltuistatiions of this principle of force in its characterisftie conditions, it will be necessary, be^fro, we. regard the great phlonom nena, to exanm ine the known sources from whlicht we can. evoke t:he mighty tpower of elet ricity. If we rt a piece of rglass or rosi, vwe readily render this agfent active; these substances atppear, by this excitement, to become surrotunded by an attractive or a repellent atmospthere. Let us rub a strip of writing paper with Indian rubber, or a strip of (i lutta Perbca with the fingers in the dark, and we have I the anifeistatl0on of several curious phelnomlel ma. We lhave a peculiatr ttracttingt power; we have a lutinous dicstarge in the sihape of a spartk; and we hlavo very sensible evidence of muscular disturbance producted by applying t:e lt1kuckle to the surface of the material. t' eaclh ase we have the developmecnt of the s:am0e power. J.Eivery substanee in nature is an electric, alnd, if so disposed tlhat its.letrictity inaty not fly off as it is developed, we may, by friction, mandifesit its presence, and, indeed, rta,;uro its qutantity or its force All bodies are not, howCever, eually good electrics; s.hell-:t, amber, resins, sulphur, s and glass, exhibiting itorep po-tcrfilly the p)h.tnotcmena of frictional or mechanical clectricity than the metals, eharelodal, or plluxbaigo, Solid bfodies allow this peculiar principle to pass alon ttlem also in very dilthrent detgrees. Thus electricity travels readily throlugh cop per I-.and most othmer nmettls, platinutm eino the worst mnetlallie conductor. It also p:sses through living anlnims and vegetables, sntoke, vatpour, rarefied air, tan(d mtoi st eah; i is obstructed.1 It\k \X-1.~t fs-\~.tt I I0}t -|(}~ is~tti.; catt } liittlte tO 148 T.n Ii tl.'t) iN PiiA. by reshis iand glass, paper iwhen dry, oils, and dry n1metallc oxides, and iln a very jI)w'r t.d mannferfu bl yt' (: ltta t ercha,(It) Ift tlheref:ore, we placo anl electrie upoln aty of tlstho.se non-ont' ducting bodic, the air around being well-dietd, wle arc entabled to gatther a lartge q. uantity of tlhe foree for tflei producetion of any partietlar efieet.'aking advantage oft tins fiact, arralngments arte made for the acea umulation and literation alt pfecasure of any amount of clectricity. A teydena phial, so call! e fi'of its inventor, Musehenbroek, ltaving resided at Leydend, is ye me.irely a glass bottle lined wtithin and without, to wlithin a few inches of the top, Fwith a mletal coating. If a wirel or chlai-n, carrying an electric current, is allowed to dip o o the bottom. of the bottle,te he inner coat of the jar becomes charged, or gathers ani excess, whilst the outer one is n its natturtl condition one ris:said to be in a postir. e, and the otlher in. a neqtr te " state. tf the two coatting are now connected:by a good cotductor, as a piee of copper wire, passing from one to the other, the outside. to the inside, a disehargo, atrising fromn the testablishmlent of the eqilitbrium of lt two catitngs, takes place; and, if the connection is made through tthe mtediutm of (oar bodies, we are sensible of a severe disturbance of thel nerwtOius system. The cause of thle conducting and non-conlductting powers of btodies we know not; they be ar,soie relation to theoir conducting -powvers for calorie j butt they are not in obediencc to tthe same laws. Whetn wef consider th0at. resin, a comparatively soft btody, in wh''ich, coete ratther tlat the phenomenon of solution is one of diffusions One infinitely elastic body has interpenetrated with another. Instead of an experiment with a pint of water, let us takett our stand on D)over height, and, with a tgig.tantic battery at our com nanid, place one wire into the ocean on our own shores, and convey the ot her through the air acro-ss the Channel, and let its extremity dip into tie sea off Calais pier -the experiment is a practieabtle one.-.. we have now an electrical irctit tof which the British chaiintel tfrims a part, and the retsult will be exactly the same as that which wo may observe in a xwtctl glass with a drop of water. W\\e cannot suppose that the instantaneous and sillnultaneous effect, which takes place in thte water at. (Ialus and at )over, is due to anything like what we have studied under the nilame of convection, when considering helat. We cannot conceive that thet particle.A excites the particle B. next it, and so- on thro ughl the series between the two s:hores; but regarding the Channel as one large drop, charged with the electric prineiple as we lknow it to be, it is excited bIy undulation or tremor throughout its width, (and we hatve an equivalentt of oxygent thrown olfl on one side of the line, and an exact equivalent of hy drosgen att tthe oth er, tie electro-chemmieal ilttuenco being exerted only vwhere the current Trtt1IBtO -: l OTi,:T.'tMcrI:T, 157 or mootion is transferred from one mlteditu to another. (" ) Tle imperfect character of this view is tfreely admitted; but retgardingt this rermarkabtl class of phlienomena as duc to an internal exitement. of the body under decomposition, rather than to any external one, no oth-er, consistent with klnowvn facts, presents itself by which the elthet can e explainced The fact sta'ds as a trutht; tlhe hypothesis by t'hich it is attemlpteod to b:c interpreted 5s open to doubt, and it is oIpposed to somnc fvourite tlhories. SBelr e w pass to the conside ration of the other sources of tlectricity, it: is imtportant we slhould understand thttit no choemial or physical cehanuge, however lhit t: iay be, can oecur without the development o lf electrical pow)er. tf we dissolvo a salt: in water, if we miix two fluids together, if we contdense a gatt s, or convert: a fluidi into vapour, electricity is dsturbed, and tmay be made manifest to our senscs. (i:) Itt has been sthown tlhat this )owr C may b, excited by friction ( machine electricity); and it now renmains to speak of the tlectricity developed by oeant (thetrmetlectrieity), and the electricity exhibited under nervous Cxcitenlent t by the gymntotus and torpedo (animal electricity); matetisrn atnd its phenomena being resefrved for i a seOarate consideration If a bar of metal is warm oed att one end and Ikelpt cool at the other, an electrical current circulates tnhrou gh tlhe b:art, and )may be carried off by connection with any good conductor, and shotwnt to exhibit the propertics of ordinary electricity, The metatls best suited for showintg the eftlcets of thetrmo-lectrictity, appear to be bismuth and antimony. By binding two bars of these metals together at ont end, ald conneting the olter ends wth a (i: al vanomtetert, it will 1be discovered that an cleetric current. passes oftf throxgh thl itnstrument by the slightest variation of temtperature. Merely clasping the t txwo metals, whero bound together, w ith the fin er and t hutmb, is sufficient to ex i.bit the phienonei ml. 158 ANIMIAL'L'CTIUCiT non. 1B:y a rt of s s ofuch rra ngfements, which foi>r wfiat Ihave been called thermo-clectric multipliers, w\ obtain the most delicate measurers of heat with whlich phiilosoplters are acquainted, and by the taid of which'Itlelloni has been enabled to purtsuet is mbeautiful researches on radiant caloric, T'that this clectricity is idelntical with the other fibrmn as s been proved by emnployingo the current thus excited hor the purpose of producinfg chelical decomnposition, Inagnetism, and electrit light.()'1The, p)lhenomenon of th.ermo-eletriet city ~ thtle discoveryt of S eelck, is another Inpraoo f of til very close connection of the phylesi l ftrces. We witness their being resolved as it, wereV into each other, electricity prolducinig heat, and heat (aain electricty; and it is firat tthese curious results th that the argutments il n tfav our of their intimate relatins and actual idetity have teen dlrawn It wNill, however, b:e found to be tle ) best philosophy to regard these frces s s dissimilar, until we are eniabfledt to prove themi to be only modf.ilired formts of one 1)rinciple or power. At t the stae titme it must not }be fil'rg:otten that inl aturttt operations we illvariably fint the com:lbined action of several forces produc.ing a single phenomenon. The importantG fact to be particularly regarded Is, tithat we have evidencel that every substance Nwhich is unequatily heatetd, becomes tlhe source of this very retmarkattble form of electricity. ('') There exist a few fislhes gitted with tlhe very extraordinary power of procducing electrical plenomena by antt efrt of muscular or nervous energy. The QfZymnotus electricts, or electrical eel, and thoe Jtkia otr" pedoW, a species of ray, are the maost remarkable. This p)ower is, it would appear, given to these curious creatures for purposes of defence, and also for enabling them to secure their prey.'The Gymnotus of the South American rivers, will, it is faid, when TIM fYCMNOTU$S }EtiCt S1. 159 in full rigour, send forbth a dischlarge of electricite sufficiently poo r'fl to tkock down a mtln, or to stun a hOl so while it can destroy fishes, through a considerable space, by xert ing its stranlge artillery, (.'(3):F araday's description of a (t'ino tnus, paralyzing and seilzing its prey, is too grapifi and importa-nt to be omitted. "''Te m'inoituts can stun and kill fish which are i i very various positions to its own body; but on one da y, when I saw it eat, its action seemed to me to be pc uliar. A live fi sh, about live incltes in tlengtht, cau,:glht no:t lhalf a minute before, was dropw p)d into thoe tb. The (mtynmotus instantly turned round in such a tmanner s to tform a coil, inclosing the fish, the latter representing at diamet:er t aroes it; a shockl passed, and there, in an instantl, was the fish struck motionless, as if by lightning, in the midst of the waters, its sidef floatin to the light. The t6 mtottus made a turn or two, to lookt for its prey, which, having found, e b.oltetd, and then went about searching for more. A. seconld smaller fish wtas given himt, which, be ing hurt in the conveyance, showed but little signs of life, and ttis he swa llowed( at; once, apparently uwithout shocking it. i TIC coiling of tho Qyinnot/us round its prey had, in this case, every appearance of )eing intentional on its part, to increase0 tho force of the sho.k, and the action is evidently well suited for that purpose, being in full accordance with thc w ell-knownl laws of the discharge of currents in masses of conducting matter; and though th fish rnay not always put this artifice in practice, it is \ery prob:able he is aware of its advmtntages, and may resort to it in eases of neetd. (113) Animtal clectricity has been proved to be of the same character as that derived from other sources..The shock and the spark are like those of the machine; and the curre'nt frolm the animal, a OCNE0 A:;NXi:t.'A.t COMtD)ITIONS O0 c.icula:u,:tlig atroutt i sof't \ron, lio (-ttlvan'c: c (i ctnty, has tleo cprOope)rty of treXndriltg it m niotic. Ift is impartaitn t it; wo ahould ncow roviow tlheso colditions of clectricat l tfre il connexiolln wit tlhe gt-rat plhy tical phtcnot.ietna of nature. It is sufticicrtly evtident, fro the resut:s whtich have been extamined, thatt all lixatter, whatever imay be its form or conditionl, is for ever mider the operation of the physical forees, in. a stato of distulrbane. From the centre to the surface all is in aa actitv condition: a state of mutation prevai s with every creatte thing; tand s:.tiencc clearly shows that influences are constantly in action twhich pr'vent tie possi!bility of absolute repose. Under the exciteent of t tho several:agncies of tlle solar ieams, motion is given to all bodies by thie cireilation of caloric, trand a full flow of electricity is sen t around the earth to perform its wondrous works.'ihC solar influences, w:inch we reoard as light, heatt, aetinisnil, and leCcctricity, are active ill flteting anl actual chanlge of state in matter, and in all probability in infiluncing tlhe great magnetic phenolmena of the world. The sunbeam of the inortng ftdl i on the solid earth, lind its i nfluncat is felt to thel very centre. iThe monto tain-top catchles the lirst raly of liglt, land its b:ase, still wrapt in mists andt darkness, is disturbed by the irradiatingt pioer. The crystnalline geins, hidden inl the dtlarkiess of the solid rock, are dependent for lt:ht firm which tna'ckes8 themt valued by thie proud, on tlhe influncee of those radiations whicht they are one, day to reftract in beauty. t)te inetal locted in the cthasi'' of te t rifted rocks are, f'r all their lphysical p'ecu-1 liaritics, as dependento. t on solar influence as is tthe flower which lifts its head to t:he nmt.rning sun, or the bird which sing " at heavenl's high g ate.'" tLet us thel, then, examine how far electricity, as distinj guished from the other powers, aet;s in producing any of thes e cfitcts. ELECTRICAL, lMAIEtAT ONS. 161 We find electricity in the aItmosphere, in whicht it was first detected by the electrical kite of.)r, tlranilin, and proved to bo idetical with that principle protucedt by tl friction of glass It tlei grandeur and terror of a thunder-storm many see notting but manitestations of Almightyt wrath. When the volleys of tihe bursting cloud are pierc-ing thel disturbed air, and the thunders of the dischare are pealing their dreadful notes above our heads, theo hemical cotmbntations of the noxioxtus exhalations arising froml the putrlefying ni anu1 l and veregetable 1masscs of this cartt ar e effected, and elements fitted for the purpose of health and vext tation are ftirmed, and broughlt to the ground in the heavy rains which usually follow thse ^torns, Sciene hlas taught mman this -- has shdwn Ihn that the " partial evil" arising front the " winged bolt " is a " universal good;" and, )ntore than this, it lhas armed him with the mleans of protecting his life and property foll then influence of lightnings. tBy metallie rods, Catried up a bcimney, a tower, or a imast we may formt a channel through whilch the whole0 of thl eletricity of theo m.ost territic thunder-cloud may be carried harmlessly into the carth or the sea.; ant d it s ) pleasing to observe that at lngth, preju(ice has been overcormen, and c eonductors' atre generally attachled to high.butldings, and to mostf of the ships of our -navy.() It. was discovered that the dovastating; hailstormis of the s:outh of F.hrance andtt Switzerland, so destructive to tthe vineyards and crops, were alccompanied by evidences of gtreat l ct rical cxci tation,, and it was proposed to dishar t he elhctricitty fronm the air by means of pointetd noetallic rodsa These lt ve been adopted, and, it is said, with real advantage ~ — each rIodl protecctigtit an area of thirty or forty yards. Thus- it is tbttt sttenc nministers to> our service; and how much more pletasing it to contemplate the lightning, wiitl tlhe philosoplter, as tan agent destroying the elements of pestiletnc, and restoring It. 161 (1 P Ct'I:N^A. 0 T YVIALITY. tIh heal.tlhfuless of thle air o bre athe, than Nwi.th the romi ancer, to see in it Otly the dreadut ed to atf demon of de(st.rucltion. It lias been thoughtt, alt.t tmuelh satistfetory evidence hafis teeon broughlt i orward to stpport the idea, that thOe earth's magnetislt 1s due to eurrentts of eleetrieity circulating arouil the glofo; and the prob:ability also derived fronm experiment, is, that the great natural current is from east t:o west.....- that, intdeed, it hals an inivarying referencetc to th(e totion of tho earth in relation to the son. (Q^) These torrestrial eurrents, as they hlave wt ithoutt doubt a very important }~bearing on the structural conditions of the rockd-fotrmatiors and the dils-tributionl of minerals, requirel an attentive eonsideration; }tt we lmust, in the first Aplace, examilne,t as fir' a we know, the intltuenees exerted, or supposed to tb. e exerted, by atm1.os:pheric electr'tieit. h.e pli:lhenonena of vitality have, bty mtany, been considered.as immnediately dependenpt upon its intlllenee; atd a ratlhr extensive series of exp'l}riments mtight be quoted ti support of this h.ypothesis. he researcthes of tPhilip on the. action of the organs of digestion, vwhlen separated from lteir connection with the brain, but united with a (alvatnic battery, have been proved hy I)r. I eid to b) delnusive. (" ) Sinte, as theo organt is inot removed fri:o the influence of the living principle, it is quite evident that the electricity }here is only secont ary t to lte more ioimportant power. Mlatttucci has etndeavoured to show tflhat nervou>s action is dtue to eletc tric excitation, and thatt electri6city may tel made a tmeasurer of nervous ilrritability(y,( ) There ican lbe no doubt that a peculiar sulsceptibility to excitemtent exists inl so.me systems, and t11is is very strikingly shown int the disturb::mnes produced by elcctri aerfiont; but in the} experiments which Iave bteen I:-rojugt fio'ward we have only the evidetncel that at certn'aiin mni:mber of mnius('tlar contractionts a3re exhibited in o(e animat:l b' y a:urrent of electri ILc:i:t ICA INl:NxeNC OHN II.YSOLO ICAAT* PIlEOMIENA. 1(1: city, iving ra ntets tured efe}et.)y th)e Volltamlcer, w\nich are lif-. f.irentt froin' those produced ui)(po atit:'tr \lya tit cente of th:e stlnti power. An .Si pSO TSION. Apt.nlytg tIl viNteNws wo have andopte t tifs beautiful'lisowv ery,(:'9) tleN wNl:i l: procts by wNtichl I tl(e- ttietallic deIosittsl are p)rodulced will t pI i l t or.lear:ly I l rliis^tolod. ly the s a:geney of the clecltic fluSid, lib'r.ated in thte (Gal. vaniet lh:ait.ery, a disturbanco of te ee i eit of the solutiont of c opp:er, sl vert', orf, gotld, is produ(leed, alld the tmetal1 is deptosited; lbut, insltad of allowing the acid int t0eo ination to eC:ealpe, it has pire,ented to it so)ne of the tae so etal as thlat revived, and, consequently, it comtbines withl it, and this eom) oundt, being dissolved, imaintains tahe stroircngth of the solution. (A') A sy. i.tetn of re vival is j carrited on tat one pole, tand one of abtras.ion, or mOi0 or Creetly spealMing, of ct ((i:n:sit(iont and solution, or (hange of state, at the olther t:pole. f:y t akin advantalgt otf thlis very extr aor:inary power of eleetriity, we now fori vetssfels firw ornament or use, e gild or silver all kinds of utentils, and give the itlnperiMhtabiliiy otf mietal to t l:, most delieate ttpa duettions o. nature.*..- her fr'its, her rfowerts, and her insects a and ove'1r the fines.t lab'ours of the:()olm Ntwe it'-ay tthrow coatingts of giold otr:il.vecr to add to }their eleganct e tand ldural:ility. Nor tneed wve empiloy the( 1tstmewNhat comtplex tarrangenient of the battery' wve t' ay take' the steel Imagnet, and, bty mIeehanie\ally disAturling the electr iity t oit ntain, Vwe c Can ittroduct a el urrentt throu:gh copper vires, whiech mayti be used, ald is extensively emiploettd, tbr gld ilg nd ilvering. (1 ") The earth itself latoy bie made the blattery, and by. eonneeting wires with its.mineral b3odies, currents of eleetrieity lavoe tbeen collected, and those cturrents used for the production of electrotype depos it.. (") Tho eleti rot ype, as it has Lbeen called, is but one o tt til applications of eleetricity tof the uses of man.'lis o a gent haa s re eettly been emtployed as the earrier of t houghtt; anlt d Nwith infinite ra:pidity tmessage of it nport ia;ltce, con ultnicat ions in otlvo itg life, and ittelligent es ou\tstltrill ing the spced of (t, coward criet, l\av be'),ct commuttnicat ed tl. Iy its nieastt;.'l'h r Te will be nso t1dilf'{iclty itt oTI Hti: rnI: CA'ICHAtiRXRPiI A ilVIxEC AeOIxT, fi ultnde sttanding thle3 pritcteil of t.nlis, althoug mantl of the nico inmeehlanic all arrantgetitts, to nsurot prlceision,:t of a stonmowhbat elaborat. eit araer Tl ntiri ie e. acti:' titon do}elies on tle It deleetion of a co:niias-iee'lleo 1.iy tlh tas-y blending wtith thoseI principles which we have already iex-amlined ); asstocilatin itself with every form of lmatter and giing,Y as we,shall presently see, in all probability, the ftirst imupulses to combiination, and regulating the formis of 0ggrl atin t particles. As electricity has the power of altering the physical conditions of the more adhterent states of lmaitter, thus giving rise to variations of for t and modes of combination, so gross matter i'appiars to alter the character of this agency, and thus dispose it to the saeveral modifications under whicih we hav already detected its presence. We have nmechanical electricity aitd chemtical lec 188 ilt:T:T;': OF iEiCTRiiomTlcS. tricity, each perfonrming its great work in nature; yetA both inanifestifg conaditions so dissnitlar, tlat tedious Cresea.rch: was elcessary bitbro they oultd tb decharedt identical. lttagnetic electrict is a tahird irtnn; all its lchratetristics arc utlike the others, and the office, it appears to prloeior in thle latboratory of creation, is of a diftlrenft o:rder from that of t(he other st\ates of electrical force. 1, t the first two we have decorlmposing and recotrmbnug pfowers consttantly nmanifested, in faet, their ilnfluences are dalways of a chemical character; hbutl in the ltst it appears we have only a directivo power.. t was thoutght that evidence had been detected of a che:tnical influence in Imagnetism; it did a:ppear that stornetimns a retarding force was exerted, and often an accelerating one. This lhas been again denied, and'we have arrayed in opposition to each other some of the first )names amonpg jtulroptean exp(;rinlentalists. The question is not yet to he rega(rded as settled; but, fr 1om long and tedious invjets tigation, during which every old experim ent l ias been repeiated, and numerous new ontest tried, we incline to the conclusion that lcheltal action is not directly aftected by lagnetit powler. It is highly probab:,tl, tlhat magnetism may, b:y altering the str uctural tarrangement of the surtle,t vary the rate of chemicat l action, bltt this requires confirmation. ( i ) There is no substance to be found in nature existing indepen. dently of magnetic power.'But it itnflences bodies in difflrent ways: one set acting with relation to magnetisn, like iron, and arrangting tt thelmselves alono the line of magnetie ftrce, t-hes these are callted magnetic bodies; anothesr set, of which bismuth may be taken as the representative, always }lacing thtemselves at right angles to this line, these arc called dia-magnetiec bodies. (i') This is strikingly shown by means of powerful clectroimagnets, but the magnettism of the earth is sufficient, lunder proper eare, to exhibit the phenomenta. liNIVPR5At TY OF MAGNETISM. 18M very su)bstanee in nltturo in onle or otother of these eon0 dit ions. t'tie rociks, tfori lg tte crust of the eartth, alnd theo milnertals whic.h are discoveredt it them; the isrface soil, which is b}y nature preop:red as the fitting habitation of the vegetable world, and every tree, shrub, at l herb which finds root therein, with their carbonaeous omatter, in all its states of wood, leaf, flower, ant-d fruit; the uanimal kingdom, from the lowest monad throtughtl the entire series uip to man, hav, all of them, distinct malgnetti10 or dia-lmagnetic relations:,' It s a curious sight," says Dr. t'araday, " to see a piece of wood or of beef, or an apple, or a bottle of water repelled by a magnet, or, taktingt the leaf of f a tree, and hanging it iup b)ettween the poles, to observe it take an equatorial position. Whether any simnilar eti.ets occur in nature among the myriadst of itrms which, upon all parts of its surtfae, are surrounded by air, and are subjcCt to the action of lines of magnetic florce,:ils a questionit which can only be atnswereld by fture obtservation.Q(;') At present:, the bodies which are known tto exhibit decided ferro-mlagnetic properties, tarte the following, which stand arranged in the order of their inten.sity: ~ Xron, Nickel, Col)alit, Mltanganese, Cl.hromium, Certims., Titg:anium, iPalttaditnur, t'lati~nutmt, bOsmlittunm, It is intersting.:, to know th that there are evidences that tiwo bodies which, when separate, tare not magnet.ic, as iron is, becomle so when combined. Copper and zinc are l:th of the dia-magnetic class, but mtany kids of brass are diseovered to be magnetic..The salts of the above lmetals are,:to greater or leoss extent, ferro-'mignetic, Iut t hey ay lbe rendtered neutral by water, which is a dia-roagnetic bodty, being repelled by the iagnet. It will l unnecess:ry, hC re, to enumerate the class of bodi es which1 are dia-magngetie; intdeed, all not included in thoe receding listE 190f) virf:nlu:Sntil MAOtmt 5his may be considered ast bolonginge to thatt class, with the exceptionl of gascs and vapl;our, Xwhich alppear to exist, relatively to each other, sometimes in the one, and somtetCfim:es in the othler contdition. ("') To endeavour to reduce ouIr knowledge of these facts to some practical explanation, we lmust beatr in mind tThath particular spaces alround the north and south geographical poles of the eath are regarded as circles c to which all the lmatnetic lines of force converge.'tider circumstances which should )pevent any intertfrcnce with Nwhat is tcalled forro-magnef i acti aton, all bodies cominig under thalt class would arrange themselves, according, to the laws which would regulate the disposition of an infinite numher of magnets, freo to move within the sphere of each otheltr's influenlce. Theb north and south pole of one tmagnectic body would attach itself t t the south and north pole of another, untitl we had a line of mignets of any extent; the t two ends beintg'in opposite states, like the magneltic points of convergence of the earth. Ilvery body, not torro-imagnletie, places itself across such a lin e of magnetic force als we have conceived; and if the earth w as made up of steparate layers of fcrro-matlgnetie and dia-magnctic bodies, the result wvould be the formation of bands at right angles to each other. This is not the case, by reason of the interminlgling of the two classes of substances. Out of the k.mnown chenlicali cle.ments we find only about ten which are acttively fctro-magnetie; the othetrs cotmbining with these give riose to either a weaker state, a I.eutal condition, or the balance of action is turned to the dia-mtagntic side. culphattt of iron, for ilnstance, is a in)agnotie.salt; but in solution, water being dia.-mlagnetic, it bloses its property. The yellow prussiate of potash is a dia-magnetic b}ody; but the red prussiate, which contains an atom less of potassium, is maxignetic. (';) Thesea two conditions of matter stand, therefore, in opposition; lMOLECULAR AIlUANOITMEN 101 Ddo ass ever I': and as every parti le of ant y substance found in this earth is enliued with the prtlorty: of disposing itself taccording to o.t or the other of thiese powers, \e tappelar to be appt:roaching to a lnowle(idge of the causes of molcular atran aements,'We still sc(!a.rch in the dartk, and see hut dinly the eviden ces; yet it }becomes almost a certainty to us, that. this stone of giTanite, with its eutriouts arrangoieient of felspar, mniet, anrd quitartz, pr.sets its peculiar condition in virtue of somte such law az s that of daia-lagnctisn. The crystal, too, of quartz, which. we break out of the mass, and whiich preenrts to us a beautitfily'reglar figurt, is, beyon.d a doulbt, so otrmed, becatuse the atoms of filica are ch one inlpellt ed itn oedien e t o on of these two rins of ntmg fnetist to set, thle(ms-el ves in a certain order to each other, which ctttannot be altered by luman flrce without destruction. All tlhe laws xl(hih rteglato the forms of crystals and arorphous bodies arco, to the greatest degree, sittple. In nature, tito end is ever attained by the e asiest mlans; and the comlplexity of operation, which appears someti es to the t o observer, is only so':ectaust lhe cannot see the sprintg b: y whicht the llmacine is mnoved, Tho gaseoous eunvelope, our atmlosphlere, is il t ta ttral state Oxygen is strikingly 1magnetic in relation to lydrtofen gmas, whilst ntitrogen is as sitngulartTly the contrary; andi tile same contrasts present themnselves wlhen these gases tare examinied. in their relation to coimlon air. "thus, oxyg. en 1being magnetic, and nitrogen the contratry, wc have an equilibrul established, i and- the result is a compound, neutral in its relations to all matter. All gases and vaporls are foundl to be dlia.mgnettie, but in dititlnc t degrees. ( *) Thi is is shown by passing a t relamt o the t gas, rctn dered visible by a little smtoke, within th1e ilfltuene of ta powerful miagnet These bodies nrc, however, fonld rclatively to cact otlhmer, -~.or evcen to tthemselves, under difl1.rent therl.lti con(Itt 19i Mf A(:N`I'TiX1 0. P (AS.:S,l tfiomr, -- to chlange their itates, and p)t:.s from the magtetic ti tthe diaimitfncietia( class, Hlfeat lihas', howcver,: a verly remarktlble inflluence in altering these relationts; l and at:tmospheric atir at one tenpetlratxure is malg lIetie to the slame fluid. at anothert thus, by thermiet variations, attraction or reputlsion 1s a ti orn at iel t aintiiit. By this it il it be understood that a streamt of air, at a temtn)rattur et levated but a few ldegrees above that of 1an atmos:,lpher o)f the samte kind into ubieh it is passing, is deflcctcd in one twayy ta mtagnet; whlereas, if thIe tre'am is colder t thot the bhlk thlrolua.gh which it flows, it is 1bent in another tway by the same iforc,. Int this respqct, ttimag fism and. diamagntism show c(uatly thle influence of another physical foree, lheat; and we nmay safi:y refer rmany mlte-ortologia plienotmeona to siitiltr aflterations of condition in the atmos.tphere, relative to tle niamlgnctie relations of the tairial cturren.ts.'lthat magnettttism hlas a directivo power is s.-atisfiacetorily shown by the tformation of crys.tals in the ncighbouirhiood of thet poles of powerful nmtagnets,'he common iron salt, the proto-sul:pi ate, ordinarily crystnallizes, so that: tie crystals unite by their faces but, when crystalizimng under magnetic influence, they have a tendencye o arrange themselves with regard to each other, so that tih acute angle of one c:'rystal unites with one of the faces of another crystal, near to, but: never actutally at, t itstt obtuis angle. In addition to this, if a magnet of sul icitet pwerl is emiployed, the crystals arranige thetmselves in magnetic curves from one polo to the other, a larger crop of crystals being always fotried a t the northJ than at the south pole. 1 lere we have evidene of anl aictal. ttrning round of the crystal, in lobedience to the directive forc of the t maS et;l an; d t e have te criout circumst tanee of a dtifE rene in sormn wiay, whticth is not cletarly cxplained, between' the two opposite poles. If, instead of an iron, or a ferrot-mragnetie salt, we etnplo y one whie belontgs to tile othetr, or dia-lmagnetic MXAQTtONIEO ItNFIAJtENCtE ON CiYSTALIJINO B)0)1.S.O 193 class, we have a eurioust difterence in the resultt. If into a glass dish, fixed on the poles of a strong electro-magntet, we pour a quantity of a solution of f itrate of silver, tand place in the fluid, over the poles of the miag'tot, two globules of mercury, b wi ch that arborescent erlstallization, called tho.Arbor.Dianl, is produeed, we h}ave tlhe long needle-shaped crystals of silver, arran( t ing themttselves in curve s which would cut the ordhinary magnetifo Hlies at; right angles. (() In tlhe filrst example given, we have an exhibtion of magnetie foree, while in the last we have a shtiking display of the diamagnetic power. Thet t large majority of natural formations appear to group thenmselve under the class of dia-nagnetics. lThese bodies a41re thougltt to ipossess poleofs il mutual repulst0ion *0among,' themsel. ves, and whiich are equally repelled by the magnotic points of convergtence. Cosnining our ideas to single plarticles in one condition or tlo other, we shall, to a certain extent, comprehend the manifold results whichl must arise fromn the exercise of these two m1odes of force. At present, our knowledgeo of the laws of magnetism is too liminteid to allow of tour malkitng any general deducftions reiative to t he disposition of the moleules of matter; and the amount' of observation wbhich }has been givent to the great naturatil airrangements, is too confined to enable us to iner more t h tn, tha that it is probable many of t'o structural co0nditions of our planet are due to somen polar action. T)ountain ranges observe a singular unitformity of direction, andl the cleavage dt lans of rock are evidently due to some allpervadiing power. tMineral bodies aret not distributed in all rocctls indiscritminxately.'The'primary formpations hold one class of metaliferous ores, tand the miore recent ones another. Tiss is not to be regarted as in any way connected with their respective ages, but with some p eculiart condition of the satone itself. The IT 19i 1I1.1HT AND MAOGNETISM granite and slato roeks,; at their junctiotns, present tlh required conditions for the depostit of copper ore, while woe find tthe limetstones have the characteristic physical state for taccum-ulating lead ore. Again, on examining any mineral vein, it will be at,once apparent that every particle of ore, and every crystal of quartz or lirmestone, is ei disposed in a direction which indicates the exercise of some powerful directive agency. (.'') It appears, fron all the results hitherto obtained, that tlhe iagnetic antd dia-magnelti condition of bodies is equally due to sonme peculiar property of matter in relation to the other forms of elcctricity. \\e have not yet arrived at the connecting link, but it tdoes not appear to be fir distant.. \We have atlready refierred to the stattement tmade by talented experinenta:lists, that magnetisnm has a powerfil influence in itther retarding or accel'rt ating chemical corbination. BI!eyond a doubt helmical action weakens the power of a magnoet.; but the disturbance which it occasions in soft iron, on the contrary, appears to tend to its receiving magnetism'l mlore readily, and retaining it moret pertmanenthly. Furtlher investigations ar'n, however, required, before we can decide satistfitorily either of these problems, both of which bear very strong>ly upxon the subjectt w have just been conusidering. We have seen thatt heat: Iand electricity act strangrely on magnetic force, and that this statical power reacts upon0l them.; and thus the question naturally arises, I)o light and magnetism in any v way act upon each other?l Morelhini antd (arpi on the conti.nent, and MArs. omervile in EIgland, have stated that small bar of steel can be relndered magnetic by exposing the to the influence of the violet rays of light. These'results have been denied by others, but again repeated and apparently confirmed. l nt all probability, the r:ays to which the needles were expo'sed, being t hose i whice the SOLAR IN'FLUEN 10 1maximum atitnic powelr' is found, produced an actuatl chemical change; and then, if the position were favourable, it is quite evident that magnetist would be imparted. Indeed, we have found this to be the case when the needles5, exposed1 to solar radiations, were placed in the direction of the dip. The, supposed magnetization of light by iFarad:ay has already )been:metntioned. If the influence e in oe eas is determined, it will render the other tmore probable.(lt) "I: n eelking for a cause," writes Sir.)David.Browster,' wichl is capable of inducing magnetismi on the ferruginous Imatter of our globe, whether we place it withint tho earth, or in its atmnlosphert, wve are limited to the sUN, to which all the mnagetie phenoinena hIave a distinct refereneo; but, whether it anets: its theat., or by it: light, or by specific rays, or influences of a magnetic natture, miust be left to future inquiry. (') We have le arnti tliat mnagnetism is not lailited' to ferrugilnous maitteor we knowt that the anoient doctrine of the univejiality of the property is true. Kireher, in h}is strange work on alnuetismn published in the early part of the seventeenth century('") ~..'a curious exemtplifieation of the most unwaarying industry and careful experiment, comt bined with the influences of the credulity and superstitions of his g....... attributes to this power nearly tll the cosmieal plhenomcna with whitc, in his time, m hmen were acquainted. Hote curiously anticipates thee use of the supposed virtue of miagnettic t craction i the curativ art; tand as the titles of his concluding chapters sutlficiently show, he was a firm believer in anitmal magnetism. (T) But it is not with any reference to these that we refter to tIhe work( of A.thlantsii.i'tr ecri, Stciettis,iest s,.Mjtags, sire (die fMaJi ntivsi i/, but to show tlhalt, two hundredt years since, iman was near a great truth; butt the time of its developmient being not fyet colme, it was allowed to sleep for more thana two centuries, andt the sthadow of 190 iM1f, " M.IRCt. ER' ~ 5tAfNE.TISM." nigh.t had covered it. Int i alpeing of the vegetabloe world, and the remarkable processes by which the leatf, the flower, and the fruit are producedl, this old sag'e brings tforward the fact. of the dia-mnagneti chtrliacter of the pl:ant, which1 has been, withtin the set two years, re-discovered; and lie refers the motions of the Sun-flower, the closing of the C(onvolvulus, and the directions of th. spiral, fornmed by twtining plants, to this particular influence, Thins does not appear as a mere speculation, a randomt guess, but is the resultt of dedutlionls from experiment and observation. ]!.irxher doubtless le aped over a wide space to conec to isi conclusion; but the result is valuable in a twofold sensem. In the first it srhows us that, by neglecting a fact whichl is suggestive, we probably los a truth of great general applicattion; and secondly, it proves to us, that, by stetppi)ng beyond the point to which nlt ductive logic leads, and venturing on the wide sea of hypothesis, we are liable to sacrifice the te t to the false, and ttus to shinder the progress of lhumlanl knowledge. agnettismn, in one or otlher of its frms, is now proved to be niversal, and to its power we arte disposed to refer thilo structural conditions of all materialbdi bdi e, oth organic and inorganic. This view has scarcely yet bemen rrecognized by philosophers; hbut at wve find a certain latw of polarity prvailinglf throtugh every atom of createdt matter, in whatever tate it may be presented to our senses, it is vtident that every particle must have a polair and directing influence upont the tmass, and every coherent mass be comes thus only a larger and mt ore powerful represeintative of the magnetie unit.. Thus we see the speculation of Hlanxsteen, thiat the sun is, to us, a magnettic centre, and that it is equally influenAed by thi remnoter suns of the universe, (' ) is supported by legitimate deductotions from experine t. The great difficulty is not, however, got rid of by this speculation; tihe cause by whiet t the earth's magnetisnm is induced is only removed further oft N AIL MA ONET, SM. 1O' Tho idea of a magnctic fluid is esarcely tenable; and tih ferruginmous natutre of the Aurora boretalis recteives no proof from any investigationr; indeed, we have procured evidence to show that iron is not at all necessary for the production of ntagnetie phiCenoena. The leaf of a tree, a flower, fiuit, a piece of animal mu gtscle, glass, paper, and a variety of similar substances, have the power of repelling the bar of iron which we call a tnagnet, and of placing it at right:antles to the direction of the force exrted by them. This is a point twhich'1must be constantly borne in mind, when we now consider the myAsteries of mag-lnetic p1henolmena,. Any two mnas.se3 of matter act upon each oetlr according to this law, ad aithoutgh by the power of cohlesion the froe,may be brought;t to an elqilibtriun, or to its zero point, it is never lost, and,may be readily and rapidly manifested by any of the mieansu emplfoyed for electrical excitation. i:easonilng by analogsy, the question fifrly sulggests itself' If two system s of inorganic atomnic constitution are thus invested with a power of ilttueneixu g each other througlt a distance, why tmay not two more hightly developed organie systems equally, or to a greater extent, produce an intluentce in like mannier? Up)on sucth reto asning this is ifounded the p1henomeon xl;unown as Animal 3IAlagnetism,. There is no denying tho fiat that one mass of blood, muscle, nerves, and bone, must, magnetica'lly, it-w fluence another similar mass. This is, howeverx, sometthing totally dificrentf from that abnormXal condition, which is produced through,some pcculiar and, as yet, unexplained physiological influences. With the myst.erious operations of vital action, the forces which wove have been considering have nothing whxtatever in common.lot 1The powers whi)ch are lemployed im the arrangements of matter ttar, notwithstanding their subtile character, of far too gross a nature to iftluence the tpsychological rmysteries twhicht prescent themselves to the observant mi nd. It cannot be denied fthat, by I7'a 198 ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM UNKNOWN. placing a person of even moderate nervous sensibility in the constrained position, and under the unnatural influence of the mind, as acquired by the disciples of Mesmer, a torpor affecting only certain senses is produced. The recognized and undoubted phenomena are in the highest degree curious — but in these the marvels of charlatanry and ignorance are not included;- and the explanation must be sought for by the physiologist among those hidden principles upon which depends all human sensation. (19) Man, like a magician, stands upon a promontory, and, surveying the great ocean of the physical forces which involve the material creation, and produce that infinite variety of phenomena which is unceasingly exhibited around him, he extends the wand of intelligence, and bids the "spirits of the vasty deep" obey his evocation. The phenomena recur —the great processes of creation go on - the external manifestations of omnipotent power proceed - effects are again and again produced; but the current of force passes undulating onwards; —and to the proud bidding of the evocator there is no reply but the echo of his own vain voice, which is lost at last in the vast immensity of the unknown which lies beyond him. We see how powerfully the physical forces, in their various modes of action, stir and animate this planetary mass; and amongst these the influence of magnetism appears as a great directing agent, though its origin is unknown to us. That power which, like a potent spirit, guides The sea-wide wanderers over distant tides, Inspiring confidence where'er they roam, By indicating still the pathway home; - Through nature, quickened by the solar beam, Invests each atom with a force supreme, Directs the caverned crystal in its birth, And frames the mightiest mountains of the earth; Each leaf and flower by its strong law restrains, And man, the monarch, binds in iron chains. 199 CH A1P T[ B X Ii CIIEMIAtl. FORCEll TwS. Nature's Chpmistryou-ced by Changc: aaloduced by Chemical (ombna tioi. Atomic Constitution of tBodies ~ —~.taws of Comitimi ion Combining Equivalents..... Elcctivc Aflihnit.y ~.... Chemical Dccomipositin -.. (I..om pon.dr Charwater of Chheme ical I to be sixteen titmes heavier than the. hydrogent. H-enee e itnfer tlat water, wVich is Oxygen *..., 100 ityditoge.t.... 12.5 mi composed of one atom of hydrogen gas weighing 1, and an atom of oxygen weighing 8, relatively to th t hydrogen. t is found in the same way tha lt tihe tlheoretical iweight of the atom of 202 COMBINING EQUIVALENTS. carbon is 6, and that of nitrogen 14; whilst the atom of iron is 28, that of silver 108, of gold 199, and that of platinum and iridium each 98. (199) Now, as these are the relative weights of the ultimate indivisible atom, it follows that all combinations must be either atom to atom, or one to two, three, or four; but that in no case combination should take place in any other than a multiple proportion of the equivalent or atomic number. This is found to be the case. Oxygen, for instance, combines, as one, two, or three atoms: its combination presenting some multiple of its equivalent number 8, as 16, or 24; and in like manner the combining quantity of carbon is 6, or some multiple of that number. Where this law is not found strictly to agree with analytical results, of which some examples are afforded by the sesquioxides, it may be attributed, without doubt, to some error of analysis, or in the method of calculation. Nothing can be more perfect than the manner in which nature regulates the order of combination. We have no uncertain arrangement; but, however great the number of the atoms of one element may be, over those of another, those only combine which are required, according to this great natural law, to form the compound, all the others still remaining free and uncombined. These results certainly appear to prove that the elementary particles of matter are not of the same specific gravities. Do they not also indicate that any alteration in the specific gravity of the atom would give rise to a new series of compounds, thus apparently producing a new element? Surely there is nothing irrational in the idea that the influences of heat or electricity, or of other powers of which as yet we know nothing, may be sufficient to effect such changes in the atomic constituents of this earth. The combination of elementary atoms takes place under the influence of an unknown force, which we are compelled to express by a figurative term, affinity. In some cases it would CEXMICAL AFI^NXTY. 203 appear t'hat the disposition of two bodies to rnite, is determlnet by tihe clettrieal condition;:ut a closer exatnination of tte -qets tiont than it is possible to enter into in this pltace, clearly shows that seomne phjlysical state, not electrical, influenes comubining power. C(Jleical affinity or attraction is the peculiarT disposition whi(lt otte body has to untte witih anothIer, fTo give some instances in illustration, water and spirit cbi ost coreadily: they have a strong affinity for eachr other. Water and oil tepe l each other they will not enter into combination. If carb)onate of p-otatih is added to thesirit d ater in sufficient qawuantity, the water is entirely separated, and tihe pture spirit will float over the hydrated pot aslh. If potash is added to the oil and twater, it conbines with the oil, and, fort-mig 8oa:p, they all unite ttogether but, if we now add a little acid to the mixture, the potashl will quit the oil to conmbino with the acid, and the oil will be repelled as before, and float on the liquid. lhis hfas been called single elective affinity. These elections were retarded as constant, and chemistsa drew tp tables ibr the purpose of showing the order in whi:ch these deccompositions occurt. (') Thus, ammonia, it was shown, would separate sulphulric acid frorm magnesia, lime re-. amove it from atmmonia, potash or sodfa from lime, and barrytes from potash or soda, f.t vwass thought the inverse of this order would not take place, ut recent re searches have sthown that the results are modifiebd by quantity and some other conditions, It often happens tlht, we h ave a compound action of thins lkind in whicht double election is indicated, Sulphate of lime and carbonate of amml onia in solution are broughtlt together, an(l there results a earbonate of lime and a sulphate of ammonia. Now, in such cases nothing mlore than single elective attraction mostv probably occurs, and the carbonic acid is seized by the lime, only aft r it hais been set'fre fromt tle t asmmonia, by the great affiniity 204 eoC: MPoSM08ITON MY I;t AT. of that earth for carbonic acid: and then, lby thoe fore: of colenion acttuin with the combinmtirng povwers, tihe insoluble salt is pre) cipitattd,(:'-') T}here is a curious fact in connection with thlis de:tompostition Ic. oIf carblime, o and sulpihate of lamnionial are mixed togetlhr:dry, and exposed, in a closed vessel, to a red hac-t, slpliate of lite and earbonato of ammtonia are formed, These opposito effects are not very easily explained,' The action of heia is t to sct free the ctarbonic acid; and it ctan only be by supposing that, considiertabl ditfren es of temperature reverse the laws of affility, th t woe can; at all understand this phenomenon. Thait difiren t efl cts result t high temperatures from those weich prevail at lowv ones, recent experiments pr.ove to u, particularly those of IBoutigny already quoted, when considering decomposition bly c alorifie aetiion, Under the term chemical altinity, which we regard as a power acting at insensible dist anes, and producing a change in bofdies, we are content to allow ourselves to believe that we have explained tibe great operattions of nature. W\e find that the veget. able and animal kingdomts are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and ntitrogen. Tlhe granite mountains of the earth, atnd its tlimestone hills,; and all its other geologieail fortmations, are found to be metals and oxygen, and carbon and sulphur, disposed to settle:in harmo nios uon in their proper lIaces by choetifal aftinity. But what really is the power which combines atom to atomt, and unites moecul o moletf m ule Cann fwe refor the prtces: to heat? 7 The influence of caloric, atlthouflh by chantgingt'- the four of bodies it sometctimes assists combination, is to be retgarded rather as in antag onism to the power of cohesion. (C an it te tlholught that electricity is tctive, in prod(ucing the result? )turing ever.y change of state, those phenomena, which we term electrieal, are insam isted; but we thereby only tprove the general dififsion of the electrio principle, and by no tmeans show that NATU.R tX oF IIIX:t:,iCAL Froc 0}5A 205 iletricit. y is the cause of tihe c}hencal change. Ctan light deter. milne these elanctges? I t is evident, althoughtw l{ight may boe a (dis turbing power, thattt it cannot be the hefctive one; for,-many of )these ('ttcompotitionts an(t recomlitositt ons are constantly going o0n within tlheo dtak and s.ile: i deptt8hs of the earth, to which ta sunTbeam ctannot reach. That the cxcitation on tfhe suriac of thlo oarth, produced by solar influenoe, may modity those changes, is pr.obable. It is, however, cer'tain tlhat woe must regard all malnifestatitons of che mical tihree as dependentlt lupon some secret prilneiples- comltionn to all matter, diffiused throughoutl thie univers, butf modified by the influences of the,lknown ilmponderable lements, and by the mechanical force of agregative attraction Bodies tundert:o retarkablto chalit s of ftor, and present very difclerent chlaracters, by re-actions, whnich are of several kinds. We suppose that ta pernl.anent corpuscular arra ngement is tainxtained so long as tihe equilibriutn of the molecular forces is undisturbed WVater, for instance, remains unchantged so long as the balance of fflinity is kept utp between thel oxygten and hydrogen of whicet it is eosmposed, or so long as the oscillations of ftrce between these comibinintg clenments iare equal; blit disturb this otree, or set up a newt1 vibratort action, as by ptssing.: an electric current dthrough t(ie water, or by tpresenting another body, which hbas thl o pow oer tg uo of e tg nethese cormpscular systenms, and lthe water is decomposed, the hydrogen and oxygen g'ases being set free, or on0e alonIe is liberated, and the other combined with lte moeclees of tdhe agent employed, and a new comtpoiund produecd. This is chemistry, by which: science we discover the laws which regulate all cetombinations of mattter. HF.avinrg reason to conclude that atom co millnes with atom, according to a system most rod oly arranged 4, there can be no difliculty in eoncirving, tlhatt molecule urnites with molecule, i). a tmanner Iregulfated by somle equally well-maruked law. it was, 1$ 206 31 ATOMiC THEORY. indeed, a disoeovery by WenVzel, of Fribourg, that, in sXatsl which decomllp)ose each otheor, the aceid whlich saturates one blase will also saturate the other base; adl the subsetioquent observations of Richter, of Berlin, who attached proportional numbers to the acids and bases, and who rerarkled that the neutrality of retlallic mlits does not chlantge during the precipitation of )metial by each other, which led the way to the atomtic theory of Dlrllt alton, to whom entirely belongs the observation, that the equivwalent of a corempound body is the sma of the equivalents of its constituients, and the discovert of combination in multiple proportiions. The elemlents of a moleecule can take a -tnew arrangel ment 1amongt themiselves, without any alteration in tle number of the atoms or of their weight, and thus give rise to a body of a (ldit forent form and colour, although possessing the samet chemical constittion. T.his is the case with many of the organic comapounds of carbon and hydrogen. he elements of a ctompotund may be dissociated, tandl tus the dissimilar substancles of which it is composed, set free. A piece of clhalkt exposed to heat is, by the disturlntnce of its molecultar arrangement, chartged in its nature; a gaseous body, carbonic acid, is liberated, and quicklime (oxide of calcium) is left behind, f:f this carbonic acid is passed through red-hot m etal tubes, or brought in contact with heated potassiurm, it is resolved into oxygert and charcoal - the oxygen combining with the mletal em-. l)oy ed1 The oxide of caleiuti (lime), if subjected to the action of a powerful g&lvanie current, is converted into oxygen 1and a metal, calcilum. Thus we learn that clhalk is a body consisting of two compound molecules,. — carbonie a hih aci, isc foirnmd by the combination of an. atom of carbon with two atoms of oxygen, —....a"nd lite, lwhich results from the union of an atom of calcium withl one of oxygen.. The condition requisite t t the production of chemical actionl CONtITI[ONSr 0?r 0 Cili:M IOAL ACTION\. 420 betwee-n bodies is that they shoumld b dissimilar. Two eleientary atotns aroe pllaccd \titlhin the spheres of each other s intluences, and a conipound Imolecule re"sults. ()Oxygte and hydrolgen ftnri water, oxygen andt cartbonl rive rise to carbotnio acidt; t'trogtten land hydrogen unite to form ammontia; and chlolorine and bydrogen to produce hydroctlforlic acid. In all these cases an external lfwcoe is required to bring 1 the atos within the uran e tof mutual affinity: flamte, theo electrical spart, actinism, or the intirposition of a third body, is lteessary in. each case.t. there atr otlher examuples in which no such influene is required..'otassium and oxygoen instantly tunite; chlorine, iodine, and. bromine immnediately, anid with much violence, contlbino wxith the metals to frmt chlorides, iodides, or bromtides..\With compound tmoleules the action is in many cases equally active, aMtd comlbinationt is readily efect ed, as in the cases of tIh acids and the oxides of somlte metals, which Xare all inSanes of th.e most 0e1corxmmo ch>emicad att action..A.n clcientary or siimtilo molecule and niolecules of a compound -and dtifteret constitution (are brought together, and a tnew comp)I oulnd results from an i-terchangte of their atoms, twil'st an eletment is itberated. These are essentialtly illustrations of analytical hc}mistry. Sulptluretitred hydrogen is mixed with chlorine; the chlorino combines with the lydrogten, and sulphur is set freei. Pot.ssium is p ut i nto water, andv it combines with dhe oxygent of tlre water, whilst tb"he hydr'ogt n is liberated. Two comi)outnd molecules beiX.ng brought together mtay decompose each othter, anld formn tIwo new comipounds by an interl hanlt.e of their elemeknts. )lOne Ieleecnt may be substituted for another under certain ciruentmstances. (GC old masy be replaced bXy mrcury; copper will take tlhe place of silver; and iron will occasion the separation of copper f'irom itsh s-olutions, the iron itself being dissolved to sup* 208 C'ATAL5Y$ST. ply its place; chlorine will tlubstitute hydrogen in the eartlburettet hydrogiten gases; anId many other cxam:t ples might Ibn adduced. Chemical ph enomlen vory fiequently become of complex character; atnd one, two, or th:ree of thesve teases maxy be occ:ur ring at th same tinelt in the decomposition of one co{lpomi idt}l by anothe'r Such are the generalt fe:atures of cthenioal science. Man y peculiarities anid remrkabtle phlnomena connected with chenmicat invesl iatigations will be rnamted, as tih extamination of the elem.no.enttry cotlposition of matter is proceeded with; but, altthou.fghl the philosophy of chtemniel action is of the highest interest, it must not be allowed to detain uts with its details, which are, indeed, more in accordance wilth a treatiso on the sci:tce than one vwhich pro(.feses to do no tn more than sketch out those prevtlInag and striklinmg fieatures which, whilst they elucidate the great truths of nature, are capable of bein'g emnployed as sugestive exampless of the tendency of scientitle investigation to enlalrge the boundaries of tlonglit, anlid give a greter et. levation to tthe mintd, leadimg us from the merely mechanical process of analysis up to the great syntlhticad op lrations, by which all that is foulnd upon the earth for its ornament or or necessit ices, is created. Among the most remnakaM b.le phecnomena within-t the r'ange of physical chemisttry are those of a to4ltisis, or, as it. has also been called, thel " o..Pesence. o/" /:-E'sc.''() There are a certain nur ber of bodies klnown to possess tfhe power of resolving contpounds into new forms, without,. undergoing any change them.saelves. Kirteofft discovered that the pre sence of an ac:id, at a certain tempterature, converted starch into lu gar aInd gunm, no combination witht the acid talbing place. Tt.he'nard fitund that manganetse, pl ati, old, f ilati ver, aIna r ld, indeed, almost any solid org:anic body, had the power of decomposing the bi.noxide of hydrogen, by their presence mearely, no action being detected cOAr Sia8As.'209 on these bodies. Edli.und Dt avy found that powdered platinum, 0moistenled with alcoholl, becamte red-hot, fired the spirit, and converted i into vitlegar, without.t(undergoing, itself, any ctemica:l changto, )i.eCbrciner next discovered that spongy platinumtl fired a current of hydrogen gas direted upon it, twhich, by contbinting with the oxytgen of the air, formed water. )tulong and Thenardi traced the samo protprty, dillfring only in degrce, througl.t iridium, osmiun, palladium, gold, silver, and even glass, utrthtr invaseti:ation blas extended tho nmttuber of instances; and it hlas evn been fiound thatpl a polished plate of plat oflinum hals the power of condentsing hydrogen and oxygen Bo for cibly 1upon its sturfaee, th they are drawn into combin.ation and forlm water, with a developmentt of heat suflicientt to ignite the metalt This power, whatever it tmay be, is comm11on in bothl organic and tnorganic nature, and on its import.ant purposes Berzelitu las the following remartnks: +~ "Tis power gives v ri;s to numerous aptplications in organtice natur o; thus, it is only around the eyes of the potato that diastase etxists: it is by ineans of catalytic power that diastase, and that stareh, which is insoluble, is converted into sugar and into gum, whinch, being soluble, form the sap that rises in the germs of the t potato. This evident example of the action of catalytic power in an or:gaic secretion, is not, probably, the only one in the tanial and vti egetable kitngdom, and it lmay hereafter:io discovered t that it is by an action tanalogous to that of catalytio poter, t that the secrftion of such difirenlt fbodies is p)rodutedl, all wltich are suppli e by tle ttsamu matter, the sap in plants, and the blood ini animals."('Q) It is, without doubt, to this peculiatr aigency that weo mut attribute the abnor t mal actilons produced int the blood0 of living animals byi the addit ionl- of any gaseous miasnma or putrid matter, of whichd we have, in all probability, a fearful example in thu is8 210 Ot- NOA.NIC COMPOUNDtS. recent progress of Asiatic Cholera;t tfherefore the study of it phenomena becomes an importtant part of public hygittne, Physical research has proved t u that all bodis have tpeculiar powers, by which they condense with varying degrees of force gases and valp}ours upon ttheir surfaces; every body in nature, may, indeed, be regarded as formingm its own peculiar ati mosphlere To this power, in atll pr:obability, does catalysis belong..Diflirent views have, however, prevailed on this sutject, and recently:)r. L.yon Phlayfair has published an elahorate Memoir,(; () in wh(ichA lie argues on the probabillity that the catalytic force is mnerely a nmoditied form of chemical affinity, exerted under peculiar conditions. Whatever tmay be the power producing chemical chlang, it' acts in conformity with some fixed laws, and, in all i s transtu>lT tations, an obedience to a most harmonious system is appareint. I't is curious to observe the remarkable character of manty of tIles0 naturalt transtmutations of matter, but we must content ourselves with a few examples only,'For instance:. Stugar, oxalic acid, and citric acid are very unlike each other, yet they are cot posed of the same elements; the first is used as a general condiment, the second a destructive poison, and the third a arateful ande. healthful acid: sugar is readily converted into oxalic acid, and, in the process of ripening fruits, Naturo herself converts citrie acid into sugar. Again, starch, sufgar, and gurt would scarcely be regarded as alike, yet their only difIbren-c is in the mode in which carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen combine. Tthey are comtposed of the stame prinlciples, in the following proportions: -. Carbon. I hydrogen. Oxygen. tmt., t 1,.11 ~ 11 ORGOANBI O1185Isma-, 21I These tsomer ie groups ccrtainly indicate s me law of allitity winch scince hals not ye tdi:etoviered. Smiaiir and even mnore rerarl.mtible intstances irliht ble addultced of thle saminle etlements producing compounds very unlike each other; but the above h.ave been selected from their well-known charactterst. Indeed, we itmay state twil thl truth that all the varieties of o th vgCetabl world - their woody' fibre- their acid or alkaleine jui(es -.. the variouis exudations of plants -- thleir flowers, frulit, iand seeds, tand the numeorous produe.t ts which, by art, they arte mnade to tyield ior the uses of man, are, all of tthemt, compounds of thse i three olemrentts, dit} iitg only int tIle pro(portions in whli they tare combined wlith nitrogen, or in oineo peculiar change of state in olne or other of the ehtlemntar: principles. By the iltpulse given to organic chtemnistry by,ielbig, our ttknowlledtt of the almttost infinite variety of substances, in physical character exceeditgly dissimilar, which result from the com.bination of oxygen, lhydrogen, and carbon, in vtaring proportiontl, has been largely increased. And tiet sienece is now in that state wvich almost causes a regret that any new organic comrn poaund should hbe discovered, unltil $somoe industrious s tintd tls undertakent the task of reducingt to a good genlera classification, the ittenset mass of valuable matter which has been accumulated, but which, i r all practical purposes, remains tearly useless nand unintelligible. T.hese. comtbinatiot s, fahlost infinitely vatried as they are, and fo readily produced antd multiplied as to e nearly at the will of the organltic analyst, are iot, any of thern, accidenltal: thely are theB, result: of certain laws, and atolm ias united with atom it direct obedience to principtles \wicI halv been through all time in active optration. T'hey are unknow n; the researches of sciencte have not yet develtoped theml, tand the philosopher h as not yt t made his deductions. They are to be referred to some secret fixed tpinci.ples of action, to a foreo whichl has impressed C2 ct:iV:> IOAt PliOP'OITfljONS' upon every atotm of thee universe its disltinguishillg (caracter. (Choneist try' idk\es us familiar lwith a system ot orfreir, Tho researches of atlnlys t hnave proved t) t that evetlry body ha a partieuhar law of comb nbiation, to which it it boutnt by a athemattical precision; but it is not protpoiltioraI comint.nation alone we have to consider. If allftobphqy is \ctidenledt inl thle mliner.al wovtld, it is certaly in l y ifa 1o1e striingly manifistede in the vetgetable and arnnal kin gdomns.. hert are soe cae in whichl bodias appear to cortmbi o withott ty liittho any li tion, as spirit otf'ine anld water, tsulitio acid and water; but' tfeste nmiust i'b consideretd as conditions of a)ixture rather tt.tan of heltmical t com}:inlation. Ttlo comptosition of bodies fixetl a ix and i}variable, tad a cornmpound substancet, so long as itrs it retln:s i s irai:: ter ie properties, must conlsis t of t{Co tm element:s ulnitC(d itt thi same proportions, Thus, ulphurin acid is invaiabldy coom!posed of 16 parts of sulphur aind " parts of oxyg'n. Chalk, whether forned by inature or l. the e}l cmist, yields 4t," a" s of Clarbo.nic acid, and i50,t i prts of lit.'The rist whichl fbimns poln thlt 8urfate of iron by the -action of the atmfosfpheC.re, is as invari'able, ini its composition as if it had teen fermnied byt the tr ost delicate adjustlentc of twei ght by tihe rost atecurate i't anipt llator, being 28 parts of iron and tI parts of oxygeln.'Thlis law is the basis of all chtertical inqu iry, ai aytical investgatgtions depending upon tile tfnowledge it iafiords u.s, that fw can only produce eertain tundeviatint' comlpoun'ds as the results of our deeompositions. cWe are not iln a ptosition to ofttlr amny explanation wlhicth will accolut for thesc c3onstant. quantities in coitfbintatio0. Tme thibrces of cohesion attnd elasticity have tbeen advanced in explanation, on the stLrenlth of thll( fliat thatt the stolubility of a salt in water is regulated by cohesion, antd that of a. gas by its elasticity. Althoughtl it imay appear that. some cases of chemicale combination coMmIf ATN:,ro 213 are tdue to theso powers,. - s ffor instance, when the ulion of oxatlic acid or milpiluhri acit width lumt produces an insoluble tIat, -- wt clianot tthus explain the constant projportions in which the tmetals, sullnulr, oxvgen, and similar bod ics tinite. Another law teaches s, uwhenr compound )odties combine inx more than one proportion, that every additional union represcnlts a multiple of the comlbining proportion of the first; -- with the difficulty whichl arises from the sulb-mutiple) compounds we cannot deall;...-.. farther r esearchl may y render their laws less obsctre. WVe have seenl tlhat 8 partstt o oxygen unite \with I of hydrogen and)l 14 of nitrogien. t also untites with 110 of silver, 96 of pliatinumt 40 of potassium, 30 of chlorine, and 200 parts of niercury, ogivingl s riio to < Nitrous oxide..2. 2 Oxide of si'er.i * 118 Oxide of plafttlum...... P'otash..,48 Oxide of chlorine. 4-14 Oxide of merctry,... 208.nt thf'se proportions, or in multiples of then, and in no others, xvili these bodies unite with the acids or other compounds. it will, of couirs, be undterstood that any other numbers may be adopted, provided they stand in t the same relation to eacht other. (':) tromt the discovery of these harmonious tarr anrements was deducod the beautiful atomic tltcory to w\hch alhlusiot has been alrelady made. Indeed, thre does not appear to be any other way of explaining these plhenomena, lthan by the hypotlhesis that the ultimate atonms of bodies have relatively tie weighlts which we arbitrarily assign to them, as their combinin. quantiities. These views are fiurther confirmed by the fact, that gasetous bodies uniite together by volumet. in very simple definite propor 214 ATOMIC VOLAMUnS. tions 100 me asres of hydrogen and 200 measures of oxygen oirm water; 100 measures of oxygen and 100 measures of va-our of siulphut form sulphul.lrous tcid gas. A.mmoniatcalt l gas consists orf 300 volumes of hydrogt and 100 volumes of nitroge, condensed by eomlbination into 200 voltumes; comnequently, we are cnabled most. readtily to caleulttat the s)pecific gravity of a'tmimmoniaceaI:. gas, fheo stpe lf i gravity of nitrogen is 0.972'-,>' that of bhydrogen 0.0690-1:. Ntow, three volumes of hydrogen are equal to 0).t20882, which added to 0.'722 is equal to 1.1804, which is exactly the specific gravity obtained by experiment..... Therc is tno doubtt., from the genlerality with which this law of volumes prevails, that it would be found to extend through all subst ances, provided they could i e rendered gaseous; in other words, there is abundanlt proof to convince us that, throughout nature, tle process of comlbination, in the most.sinmpl ratio of volumes, is in operation to produce all the frtls of atter klnown. to us,'It hais been,shown, by the admix able investigations on Atonoi Volumes of Dr. Playfair and 3Mr. Joule, t hatt salts, containing water of c.ystallization, diissolve in water without increasing its bulk more than is due to the liquefaction of the water whicht these salt:s contain, the anhydrous talts tak.ing up no space in solution..This was firAst observed by l)r. Datlton, who, i 1840, remarked: that sugar andt cert ain hydrate salts, on solution in water, increased its volumte by a qutanttity precisely equal to the volumet of watter they held in com)tbina tion. From this we are naturally led to conclude, that the volume oeetpietd Iby a salt in the solid state hlas a certain relation to the volume of the same salt. when: in solutiont, and has also a fixed relation to the volumle occupied b ay any other salt.'he law lapitars to be: the atomtic volume of any salt lwhatever (antiydrous or hydrated) is a mul. tiple of 11, or of a multsbr near It, or a multiple of 9.8 (the LAW OF SUBSTITUTION. 215 atomic volume of ice), or the sum of a multiple of 11 or 9.8. Marignac, who has also paid much attention to the subject, does not think these numbers absolutely correct, but approximately so. (206) In addition to the laws already indicated, there appear to be some others of which, as yet, we have a less satisfactory knowledge, and, as a remarkable case, we may adduce the phenomena of substitution, or that power, which an elementary body, under certain conditions, possesses, of turning out one of the elements of a compound, and of taking its place. (207) Under the influence of these laws, all the combinations which we discover in nature take place. The metals, and oxygen, and sulphur, and phosphorus unite. The elements of the organic type, entering into the closest relations, give rise to every form of vegetable life. The acids, the gums, the resins, and the sugar which plants produce; and those yet more complicated animal substances, bone, muscle, blood, and bile; albumen, casein, milk, with those compounds which, under the influence of vital power, resolve themselves into substances which are essential to the existence, health, and beauty of the animal fabric, are all dependent on these laws. But these metamorphoses must be further considered in our examination of the more striking cases of chemical action. The changes which result from organic combination are so remarkable, and withal they show how completely the whole of the material world is in subjection to chemical force, and every variety of form the result of mysterious combination, that some particular reference to these metamorphoses is demanded. In nearly all cases of decided chemical action, every trace of the characters of the combining bodies disappear. We say decided chemical action, because, although sulphuric acid and water combine, and salts dissolve in water, we may always recog 16 CHEMICAL METAMORPHOSES. nize their presence, and therefore these and similar cases cannot be regarded as strict examples of the phenomena under consideration. Hydrogen and oxygen, in combining, lose their gaseous forms, and are condensed into a liquid - water. - Sulphuric acid is intensely sour and corrosive; potash is highly caustic; but united they form a salt which is neither: they appear to have destroyed the distinguishing characters of each other. Combined bodies frequently occupy less space than they did previously to combination, of which numerous particular instances might be adduced. Gases in many cases undergo a remarkable condensation when chemically combined. In slaking lime, the water becomes solid in the molecules of the hydrate formed, and the intense heat produced arises from the liberation of that caloric which had been employed to keep the water liquid. When a solid passes into the liquid state, cold is produced by the abstraction from surrounding objects of the heat required to effect fluidity. An alteration of temperature occurs whenever chemical change takes place, as we have already shown, with a few slight exceptions; and the disturbance caused by the exercise of the force of affinity frequently leads to the development of several physical powers. Changes of colour very frequently arise; indeed, there does not appear to be any relation between the colour of a compound and that of its elements. Iodine is of a deep iron-gray colour; its vapour is violet; it forms beautifully white salts with the alkalis, a splendid red salt with mercury, and a yellow one with lead. The salts of iron vary from white and yellow to green and dark brown. Those of copper, a red metal, are of a beautiful blue and green colour, and the anhydrous sulphate is white. Isomorphism, which appears in a very remarkable manner among the organic compounds, has, under the head of crystallization, already had our attention. There is also a class of ,s80T'Ai.IC. t COMPO UN3tis, 2i17 bodies wilch are.. aid to be isoineri^; that is, to havo e t ie s.ame comitposition, althoughl1 ditibtrent, int their piysicai characters., But, the idea that f.bodties exist, lwhi, ahtlou)gh of a decidedly difleront exte:rnal lharacter, are of exactly the same elht ieal composition and )phystial condition, is not tenable; mand in nearly all tth exampleBs which rhave bteen catreflly examind, a direirnenee i* tho aggrogate number of atoms, or in the mode in which those atoms have respectively ar ranged thetselves, or that. pecul:ia r physieal differlence designated b the tterm alhtoipy, has ben dotected. Oil of turpentincn and oil of le monts have thie tsame composition, eachl beinig comtposed of live equivalents of carbon and ottur of hydrogen.'Th'ese as stances trin, f rol thl e strikin diffir. tnoe ptrc.eptible in their external lcaractrs, a good example of isom:orismr'The laws o of organic chemistry are not, however, the same as those applying to in organio combiations ()Orglanic cIemstt ry is well defined by IAlaig, as the chemistry of compound radicals; antd und ler t ie influence of vitality, nature produces comtipounds vlhich have all the properties of s;:imple elements ( ) When we rtefl t )pon thle conditiont whMich pre Jvtil throughout:ature, with a few of twhictl only has science mlade us ac(quainted, we cannot, ail to be struck with the various phases of being which are: piesented to our observation, antd the hlarttmoi>ous sytern upon which. they all appear to depend. When 0we discover that bodie: are tfe)rumed of certtain dtermnitate atotms', whicJh unitoe one with another, accoirdnlg tto.an arithlmeftical system, to fo)rm moleculeles, whlich, comt bining with moleCulcs, observe aa sbtimilar law, wv e set at once that all the larmoniesl of chemiical combin -— ation..- thet definite proportions, laws of volume, and the like. — are but the necessary consequences of th:ese inp t1e a:n guiding first principlets. /In the pursuit of 10) ':) 8 (}O'fBININ(X!'Ol,:8:th+S, truth, inve stigators must di.veCOr still furthler arrangements, whitch, fll -o their perfetion, may beo cormpared to the melodious interllendtingt of swet sounds, and many of the apparently itde.tenirm ate combt o inations will, beyond a doubft, be sbhow o to be as definite at8 any others., But we elannot refle(ct upon the fo tt that thlese atomts and tleso Imolecules atre guided in their comb;inations by fitpulsehs, whiet wt e can only explain by relfirentee to Ilumtan ipasios, as th e tert mi t;clriue atfiit y im plies, without fieeling that ai itmp ientrable mys.tery of a grand atnd startlintg iehar\e.ter in its mttnitestations urrotunt ds each grain of dust twhich is ltrried tlotn upotn the wind. We novw, habitally, speak of attraction and reoplaion.- of tlte affinity lad non.-hltliity of bodies. Wet are disltosed, ifiomi the discovery of the attractive and repelling poles of e leetriiled substances, to regard these powors in all eases as depteding uponm soie electrieal state, and we write learnedly upon thi' law;s of these t fres,. After all, it would be more honest to admit, that: we Aknow no more of the fecret i pulses which reulate tthe combinations of nattetr, than did8 those wiho ti satfied themselves by reftirring all phenmti enat. of these kitids to symplathies andt antipathics: terms wilic have a poetic meanting, e{onveyin to the mind, with tonstiderable distinctnelss, the fact, 5and giving the itea of a tfeling~ -. a tpassion... involving and directing itant matle matter, sitmlar to that winch stirs the hunma heart, and. certainly caletlated to convey the nipression that there is workin:g withint al things a living prinipl e, ad pointing, lineed, to " the soul. of the world." i' The tantimtated ml1arblfe of ancient story is far ltess wo (derfutl than the fact, proved by investigation, lthat every at.tom f smatter is penetrated by a p rini eiple wthich directs its msovementts alnd otrders its'.'osition's, and1 in tiolved by tan in fluen.ee whic'l. extends, ithout limits, to -all. othe: r atoms, and which determaines their "union, or othtrwisae. N~POliiI'8 rAIChEBMYT, 2219've have gramvilation, drwawing all matter to a comtmon0 centre, anid acting fliom all bodies tlhroughout the widc reiogtns of un,measured spatco ul:pox n atll. tWve have cots. ion, hohling the pat tiles of matter enc:*halind, opeattin g only at disttances too tminute for the -mathetmatician to m ent:ra. e; and w have eltemical attfra tion, difl1frent fioml either of these, workimng no less mlysteriously within absolutely insensible distances, and by the exercise of it oecu.t )ower, givitng determinate a-nd fixed forms to every kind of nmaterial (creation. The spiritual he:ilgs, which tie poet of untutored nature gave to the forest, to t the valley, and to the tmountain, to the liake, to the river, and to tlthe occan, working within their secret oflices, anId ntlclindg for man the boeautiful or the sublime, are but the weak creations of a finite mindt, althought they have f r us a charm which all mein unonsceiously ob:ey, even when they refius to eonftife it. They are like the result of the labours of the stat-,t uary, who, in his hight dreams of love and sublimated beauty, ere:ates from the marble block a fire of thi mlost exquisite moulding which mimics life. It charmt us f or a season; we *gaze and gaze ragairm, land its first tharms vanish; it is ever and ever still the sanme dead heap of chiselled stone. It has not the power of prosen ting to our wtaryint eyest the chantge which litfe alone enabltes mlatter to give; and we admlit the oxceollence of the artist, but we cease to foe tc at his work. The poeticall creations:are pleasing, but they never alf et the mind in thle way in which the poetic realities of.inature do. Ie sylph tmoi4stentintg a lily is a sweet dream; but the thioughts which rise when first we learn that its broad ano d beautifiu dark-grcen leaves, and its pure and delicate flower, are tlh restults of the:':altehemy whitelt cthangts giross' particles of tmatter into ts ymmettrie fr)trms,.- - of a >power which is unceasingly at work uN mler tho guidance of light, heat., and electrical foreo, -- are, after our incredulity has passed away 220 TRUTH A^) XICTXON...fr it is too wonderfl, for the untutored to believe at onee - of an exalting et aracter. The flower has grown under the.intputls of p)rineiip:es. which have travereitd to it on the beamo of solar light, antld mlinglced'with its lsulbstace. A stone is neretly a stone to mno st men. lut within the intierstiee. of the stoneo, and involyvin it like an atnmosphere,'are great and m ight) intlutenes, powe: r which tare ftarfill in their grantder opea titons, and wonderi ll in their gentler developmients.i The stone and the flower hold, lokced ulp in their recesses, the tren gr teat kn'own tiorc e. i gsht, heat, and electricity: and, in aT l probability, othorst of a more exalted ntature still, to lhil these poNwers are but subordinate agents. SBeth arel tho facts of iseine0e, which, indeted, draw " sertmons from stones," and find " tonguesl int trees." How weakt are the creations of romance, wh}en. viewed beside the discoveries of science! One I a ol rd mnatter for meditation, and gives rise:, to fttoughts of a most ennobling character; the other excites for a tmoment, tand leavves the mind vacant or ditseased, The ti)ter, like the atmosphere, futrnishes a constantt spplly of the most healthflol nmatter; the latter gives an unnatural stimulus, which comipels a renewal of the same find of excitelnlent, to maintain tie continuation of its pleasutrable sensations. 221 CI L!:A.i?'PTBRiX XII, CHE M ICL Pl1 M\t1 1NA Vater.. I a ltonitsttuerts. o - (tr n Ox yn Idrgeat n i- Peroxid ofi i ydirogent —.. Physical Property of Water e.... e.. Iee Sea ont e11lement. Sirxmilar instances are num'erous in the range of chemical Escience; but;scarcely any two exhibit sucit dissitilar 224 ozone. p'roop'rtic,s. l). Daing tihe ordinary processes of comtbustion, it has l}been l}g nowiltVl tlt water is firnmied by the co)mbnnation of thif hydrogen of the bumning body witht the oxyge oft th air. Tlte recent researches of Sehliotin he ave stthownt th tt this p*eroxidet of hydro'gen...... -- or, he ealls it, ozonle is prodtuced at the same timet, and that it is developed in a great man1y way s, par. tieularly durin elt ctric:al thaliges of the atmioslpherTe. Thu s we obtain evidence that this remarlktablo co(m}poulid, wlich was considereda as cheiical a (uriosity merely, is dliVi.sed very goneralty tlbrouglh tratt re, am i ptroduced undter great variety of circumtstat; ncc)s. )urin the excitation of an electrical inmahine, or the pa ssa" of a gialvan:ti current through twater by the oxidation of }posplthorus, and probably in many similair processes.. in particular those of comtbustion, and we mity, therefore, inftbr also of respirationtt - this prineipI - is formed. Iromn observations which1 have been made, it would appear t that, luring the nigltt, when the activity of plantts is not excited by light, they'act uXpon the atmosphere in lsuh a way a;s to ptroduce this peroxide of hydt>rog.en. a ndit: its prenee is s aid to be inidic..ated tby its peculiar odour during the early {hours of morninig,. We are not yet acquainted with this body sufficiently to speculate on its uses in n:atturte; W. ithout doubt, they are i portalnt., perhapts saec(ond to those of water only. It is probable that~ ozone Iliy be theo active agent in remtoving, frtom the ttmostphere, those organic poisons to which i many forms of pestilecee aroe traceable; and it is a curious frlet, thait a low cleetricl intensity, and a contseuent t deficienXcy of atmtoslr.-ric ozone, mnark the prevalence of cholera, and an excess distinguishes the reignt of influetza. ( ) Water is one of the most powerful clhemictnal aents, htavit ng' a mrost exttensive ruange of afiniti.es, enlteriting directly into the comiposition of a great tt an crysta iliz able bodies antd orfgati comrpounds, In tdhos caset. where itw is t no eombilned as water, its PHTSICAI NATUX R gi o WATERYlnB, 22 elemensl often exist. in the proportiotns in whlieh water is fori:led, (Gum, starch, and sugar onlyy diTffl in the proportionls in swhich the elem entst of water are comrtinicd wiith the carbont, In saline combinations, and also in manly organic torim w must regtard the water as condensed to the solid Sform that is, to exist as ice. vWe well klnow that, by tho abstractiton of heati, this condition is produced; butt, in chemiical combinations, this chantge 4mus't be tho result of tlhe mechanical force, exerted by the power of the agency directing atlinity. In tlho case of water passing firom a liquid to a solid state, we have a most beautitful exetplification of the. perfi'etiol of natural operations. Water conducts heatt downwards butt very slowly; a -mass of ice will rematint undissolvodw but, a fiw inches under water, on the surfac of which, ether, or any other inhlianmable body, is burning. Ii' ice (solitd waters) swatmi boneath tlhe surfttc, the summer tsun would scarcely havet power to tohaw it; and thus our lakets and seas would be gradually converted into solid masses. All similatr i bodies contract eqtually during the process of cooling}, an di if this a)plied to water, it: has been thought that th:t result would bet thle sudden consolidatiotn o)f the o wfholef lass, A roldification. of the law has lbeen s upposed to takwe place to suit pecutliar circumtstl iccs of water. Nature 1never modl.icsl: a law for a partieular plurpose; \o we mtust, therefore, rseek to explain the actionl of the form:ation of ice, as we know it, by som0e Inore ration:al view* Water expands bly beat, and contracts!by cold; conscqueintly, the coldest portions of this body occupy the lower )portions of tlh fluid; but it must be relmembeired that trhese p)rts art e warmeltt by tho earth..1 toss, htowever, sittes that at thl deipth of 1,000f fathlloms the sea hlas a constautt temporaturte of 39~, Water is at its greatest tdensit at. 40t off Falrenheit's thermtometter; in cooling, further, it aplpears to expand, in t he same way as if heated 96'2G FIIZ:zXN 0:F WNATEIR t(nd, consequently, wiater, colder thln this poltit, instead of b soln heavi-er, is liglhtert, tld floatts on the surtfitec of the w rl1otr fluid, it does not seem tthat any tdifi(ation of:the law is required to account for this phlemniom inonl. Water cooled to 4:0" still retainst its peculiar corpusct l arrgansigement;t but immetditely; it ptt a.e below t that tmieratur, it begins to dispose itself in such a manlntr that visible crys tals may foirm the momeint; it. reatchs 32'". JNo w, if we conceive the tparticles of water at: 3f! to arrange tltictm selves in the manner necessary fbr tho assumtption of the solid mrini,.byt the particular grouping of molcuttles in anl ang lar instlead of a spheroidal ah ape, it will be clear, friom wha\vt we know of the arranttgtmct t of cry;stals of wa.ter -.i ice ~. that they mit ovcu-t py a larger stpace th w tlu the particlel are dtisposedd, ide by side, in minute spheres, This Tiexpans.iol still goes on increatsitng, from the s amte autse, durimg, the forlmtiont of ice, so thlat its specific gravity is less than fl-t of water at any t temiperature below 40", Water', at rest, lmay tbe coolet!d lmanty degrees be(low the freezingl po'int without becomiina solid, This is easily eloet.ed in. a tlin glas..s fask; biut the moment at it is itted, it becomes a firm mnas. H Itret we have another cause aid ing ixn producing crystals of ire on tIe sturtfac of water, under( the influence of the distturbance pro(luce:d b the wind, whtich does niot extent to any depth, As oxygen and hydrogen gases enter largely into othefr chcltem ical.coniptn> s beside water, it is i-mportantt to cotsider solme of the forms of matter into the composition of whichi these elemet ts enter.'t.o exattmine- ti ths thoro:ughly, a conplete essaty on chelmical pliloipyl would be nectessary we rmust, thtcret re, biet conl teit with rtef-irring to a few of the nmore remarks-ablet instatnces. The wtaters of theo ocean are salt i thl; arises from theilr iholdin', in solutilon, mutriate of soda (common culinary salt) and other salindne bodies, Thifs nuriate of soda is a comrpoumd of mnuriatic acid and sodat: nmuriatia acid is hydrogen, combined }'~~..fu*'tlf lf.l1,5.det }{trt.tl> (.t ~5....t,,. —fe aio shown that vivid combustion may,be prodluc. (l where there is 1no oxygent. The oxidtizable metal's burn miostt tenergetim.ally in eltorin e, and soene of them in the vapour of ioditn and ibrmine, and many other unions tacde place with manifestations of incanitdescenee. Supiporters of combustion wetre, unlti lately rtegartted as boIdies dis. itlet from those xuiderx.'goil' comib'stion, Fior extampie, iydtrogeii was re'garded as a eomibstiibloe body, and oxygeni as ta supiporter of comlbtistion. Such an arrangeanenit is a most. illogictal one, sitce wo ma.ty ltburn oxygen in contactt x ith blydrogen, in the., same Inmanner as we bu:rn hydr o igen in contact with oxygen;t antir. so in all the oither cases, the supporlter of comtbut.tion 8 W0N JAA N EU$S IONiTtON 2 9 nmay be biurnt in an atmosphere formed of the, so called, combosfibleo The ordinary phenomena of combustion are, however, dIt t:o th coimlbina t tion of oxygen with tho body Rbum1rnin ng ther telfre every in stance of oxiditftiot'n my be regarded t as a condition ofi combustion, the difiere nce' bI)ing only one of decgree ("oimmon iron, exposed to air and m:oisture, rss, t it eombnl. is with oxygen. t.Pture iron, in a statet of fine division, uniteos withes w oxygen so rea dily, that it becomes incandescent, and int. botlh eases oxide of iroln is fsrtmn((. Tithis last inst ance is ce rtainly a tease of comitbustion; but in what tdoes i dit. eri fi or the first 01ne, except in the tin.toensity of the action? T he cass of spontatneous comlbustfion whieltf are (.onti.:in ally occurring, are examples of an tanalotfgou clhracter to t the above Oxygvten is absorbed, i.t 1enters -nore or less quitcly, according to atniospthri onditmion, into eheimrtical T tii t it eoml:itiv, heat i eve itintully, the1 aeti.on contint ally inc:.reasing, true combnt ustiion takes p.Ilaee In this wtay otr cotto)snips, n fstorehouses of flax, piles of oi led-lotth, sawdust-, &c., fletquently ignite, f;tan to such an influenc e is to be attributed the destlruction of two of our ships) of vwar, a tolw years sinee,' in i Devonpolrt navad arena, (i) In the economnic production of leat tand ligl it;, we a ve tmhe meoni,ina tion of h,.droi' en alnd carbon with the oxyg-en of lormnon, air, fotaimt:in watcr aniid c arbonic' acid. In ot r domestic tires we eploy coal, lw'iict is essenlt ially a comlpolund of ca rbon and hlydrogen, alnd somie rmattfers wlhich imust be regarded as imnpuri'ties; the taper, whether of wax or tallow, is made u}p of the samte bodies, difering only in their combining proportions, and, like coal gas, these burn as carburetted }iydrogen, All thesse bodics are very inflammrnable, having a tendency to combin'e er1est> get ically with oxyg ceain c a certa levation of temperature. We arefit a a loss to know how heat ean cause the combinat ion of those bodies. Sir I ituinphry I)avy has.shown. ti et hydrogen M*80 BA I tcx;X.A IP, will. not burn, ntor a i nixture of it with oxyien exiplodot, unlso^i directly influenced by a;body heated so:ias to iemit ll/t.(") M.ay vt w noIt, the rfor, conudetttt t'hat the elric al, action Oxihib, ited in a burning boldy is a developmcnte of somno latnt, force, withl which we are intaquainted, productid y the al.iosrption of ligtl ^..... t.hat a reptlsive action. at iirs takes place, )y whichtnl the hydrogen and carbon are separated tfrom i. ot tf} tch t}hler..... athndI that in th:e xnascent atso they are seized by the oxygen-, and again ctmpellted, tlhough in the new forms of viwater and ctartonie a.id5 to resuame their chains of combning atinit y. Every equivtalnt of carbon and of hydrogen in thel bi:urningt body unites with two cquivalents o-f oxygen, in trict conftermity with tbhe laws of coln.ibration. Tlh: i f.tiae of b y'drogn, if'i pre, gives. eartelyy ay light:, but tcombAined with the tsolid pt9artilCe. of carbon, it inctreases ie heaeht b;rightlns, most bri t of t.hI illttuinatinag gtwses is the oleiapnt gas, p rtodlced by the. d( comnpoaition of alcohol, antTd it tappearss to tbe lhy:drocen chargedl wsith carbon to the poin't of atnuration Flam o is a cone of heated vapour, beeoaling inianden c ene dt th t at the pl ints of contact? with the air, a mere superficia lfilm only ne inig l umiinous. It is evident that all the particles of the g-as areI iin a;'t.ates of very active repulsion over the surathce, infc ite flme \will. rot pass t'hrou.gh wNint gauze of moderate tt eness,'Upiptn this discovery is ftoundled the inimitahle safety-hlamp of Davy, by incans of whfich the explosive gase.$ of t mine are harmstalesaBly ignitcd witthin a eage o(f wire gaue,. Tlhis efteet ths betn. attrib)ute d to a cooling influe:nee of the mletal; lut, since the wires mtay l)e lirougl$t to a de.gree of heat but: lit tle below rcdnc's t ithout iglniting the fire-damp, this does no[t appear to be the ctausi. It alppears to present an extfamn ple exactly the conver ts of that already stated with. referencet to the slpheroidal stat:e.tt of water, an, d tit b.rds additiot -,a c.videt.nc COiJIUSM ION ITY IPLATINIM. 81. that, iho eonditit o of bodies at }:hi ttemperatures is suilteet to import'nt pilysrcal chantgs,'tho researlches which led to tihe safety-iamtp may )b regarded as: altong the ml tstt eolompltet examitles of correct itluetlie ex[porirtentt int the rtnge of stnglith scilence, and the result is eertainly ole of the proudest ahievemenllts of physico-.ehemtlieal researchb.'By merely enveloping the flame of a lamp withl a mIetallic gauze, the latbourer in the recesses of the gloorny mine ay ieel himself secure from: tthat outplxouringl cwurrent of intlast.mtabie, gas, whicth has::cen Mso often the minister of deaith'; he may walk in iarmied through the explosive atmfosphlere, and exanueimn tlh inte:nsity of( its power, as it is wasted in triflin. eiforts wit}lini thile little cag te lie carries. Accidents hav-e been attributed to tthe " )avy," as the lalmp is ealled among thte col liers; hut they may in nmtost eases be tracedt to carelessnes1 on the p}rt of thoise whose duty it has been to exaumlin the tlamps, or to th e recklessness of the mi:iners tthemriselves. Tinat curious metal, platinunl, adl also palladium, id posse:sses a propierty of maintatining ta s:ow eombu;stion, which has been rendered available by the discoveret r of the safety-.lamp to a very imlporttant put.rpose If we ta e t a, a coil of platinm.lu wire, tand, thaving tntade it red-Ilot,'plunge it into an explosive atmtilosi:cimre of earburettted hydrogen tand cttommon air, it cont:inues to glow with centsiderable brightness, produtcit-, b tis vi'y ti'cs v e liar intluenee, a recomlbination of the gtases, whilc is discovered by the esceape of pungent iacid vtapours. Over tlhe little flame o(f thill saifty-lamp a oil tof pIatinumt is suspended, and it is thus kept constantly at a red heat. If tlhe Imtiner beconmes accidentally envelorped itn atl at mos.lphere of fiireA-da'mp, altlhoughl tlhe flamte of lhis lamtlp I-maly ber extinguiished, the wirne eoltlminues to gluow witht sifi tieint brightnless to light hillm fiom Inis danlger, tlhroughl:l the 282 3iXBARlSP ATION o ANIMAL S. dark sintding p tp:lssaeos wh.ic h ave been w orked in the bed of lossil fiuel, It is thus tlhat th, (disoverioa of scuience, altlough tile y may iapeart' of (an abstract chatacter, constantly, sooner or 0later, ar applied to tses by which ome branch of hlluman la:our is assted, the necesities of man's condition relioved, and the amienities of lifo advance(et tihe respiration of animalts is an instance of thle csame kind of hemica:eat. tl phenomena as we liseover in ordiary comlbuBstion. fl. the l.ungs tlhe blood becomes charged wt it l oxygen, derived froml ithl atmospheri atir, with whi:ch it passes through the: systell, portlormt i its iml.ortat (offices, andi tlhe blood is returned to tihe lu.tg wNith the carb}onie acid(, oIrmted 4ly the siparation of car.ton from the body, whilch is thrownl off at etvery expirati on, It. will be qutite evident that this paroees is simiar to t hat of ordinary combaison. I.t man or animals, as in the burning taper, -'twhihe is aptly Ono0ugh emtployed by lpoets as the (yr tbol of life,.-we hlNbave hydrogen and carbon, with some nitrogen. superadded; the hydrogen atd oxygen tbrm water ulnder the action of the dit.al forces; the eoiarbton with oxygen priodtues carbonic acid, and, by a curious process,, the nitrogen and hydrogen Malso combu ne t to kform amolnonlia.-'() All the carbon whfic'm ttiaken into thwe animal econom 3y patSes, in the procts of' time, again into the atmopher, in combin:ation vwitlh oxygen,: this being efftcted in the body, under th.e cb taa/thi poiwer of tissue, inmmedliately influenced by the excitatito of nor. vouws forttcs, wlich are the direct.tanifestations of vital energy thle qtuanltity of ca tarboni acid thus given out to the air is capattble of calculation, with only a fsmall amnount otf error. ft: ttappacrs that upwards of fifty ounces of carbonic acid must be given off fromn tIm lodiy of a healthy mant in twentl:y-four holtur. On the lowest calculation, the population of London must add to the CAIXBlBONtI AOI t, 2i8.) atmosphere daily 4, 6)00,000 pounds of carbonic acid. It rmsit a}so beo remnticimbrer I that in every process for artifital illunintion, and in all the operations of the mallufiactures n1? which fire is u sed, ad also in our arrangements, to secure domestic comitrt, immense qtuanitities of this gas are fintrt ed. We nmay, indeed, fthiry cstimate the amountit, if we ascertairt the quantity of wood. and coal consumed, of all the carboni which eoltibines with oxygen whilti burnint, and escapes into the air, eith.er as earbonie tcid or earbolt}ole. oxidet. Theo (iormer gas, theio same at at that wfiet acertnlates in dee wel ls and in brewers' vatas, is lighly destructivet to lifti, ).rodluci.ng very distresst i ng sympaomts, e voel wihen mixed with atmospheric air, in but slight excess over what it rommoaly contains. The opXtrssivtl aitltmosphlere of crowded asemblics, is in great measue dt to tht creasurased proportion of earlbonic acid it containst. it will be evident to every one, t lat, unless solme, provision was mtade for removingj this delet.e iouts gas from: the atmosphere as speedily as it f'ormed, cona cqtncces of the most injurious ehlaracter to the animaal races would ensue. It is ftmrld, however, ttlat the quantity in the atinmoslc'ere is almost constantly about one per cent. The peculiar properties of e.arb)oiii acid, in part., insure its speedy removal. It is among the heaviest: of gaseous bodies, and it is readily abItsorb)d by water; consequently, floating withing n a. hort distance fromnit the surfae. of the eartl:, a lar ge quantity is dinssolved byt thel waters slpread over it, A large portion is remo(ved )y the vegetablo (kingdom; inde ed, the whole of that produced by aninals, amnt by tihe'processes of combustion, eventuatlly betcomets iairt of the vegetable world, beit ng absorbetd with water by the roos, and steparated ftionm the rair by the tpecutliar fiunctions of the leaves. tHowever, the { propety9 of the difflsion of' gase cxplaints the rapid mixini g of this heavy gas with the lighter at mot spheric fluid, om^i 284 nS5PIt RBAT IO N Of PLAN`T,. The leaves of plants may beo rnegarded as perftor)'ing similar offices to the lumgs of aim. als They are the breatin' organs. In the animtlal economy a certain quantity of (carton is necessaTrly retailned, in combilation with nitrogen amd oti.her et:loments, to fori muscle; tbut tibi constantly undergoiM,g chan...go;- e catire syste.icn eing renewed within. a comp:lratively ltimited period, T.Xe corlditions with plants are somewhatt diticrent, Flor instance, ttle carTbo } is fix in a tree, and retains as woody fibre.til it decayts, even though the lit f of the plant may extend over many centnries, Anitmals, then, arett onstant ly suplying carbo.mic acid; plant. are as constantly fcedinlg onl it; thus is the balance for ever maintained between the two tingdons, Another condition is, however, rcqtuitrcd to mainltailn fior the uses of men and anitf e als the neclstsary supply of oxygen gas. This is eftteted by one of tihose'wonderful operationts of nature'so chellistry which must t rik very xtrelecting miind with admiration. During the night plants breath.e carbonie acid;!:r t there is a conrdition of repose pm:evtailitng t ten in their fuitntions, and miuch of it passes off unt. ehantged.l With'f thle first gletam of tihe morning snl tih dormant organs of the plan rt are awakened into full action; tlhey dctom.pos8 this carbotic acid, secrCtO tet te t carbon, to foir the rings of wood which constitute so largeo a part. of th.eir structure, and 0pour out pure ox.~ygen g:as to the air. Tihe plant' is, tihrefore, tai essentfial tlement in the condititon necessary for the stupport of amimal life. it: mst necetlssarily tfllow, tuhat the inb}abit;ants of the: tropics do not produce so muc:h carb:onic a acid as those who dwell in colder regions,. il the first place, their thalits of lift are dittitrent, and they are not under the necessity of faintaining anitmal hac:'t by the seis of a.rti ficia.l coimbl.ustion, as a rc tell peopt l of colder clines..The vegetation o t r s f t e rl ins of the tropics is much moro luxuriant thaen that of tho temlpeate atdi aarctic zones. D)}txDIt)i}NOE O it P*AN-t AND ANIALS 28'.l'fence tan additional supply of carbonic acid is required between ithel torrid zotes, and a less quantity is produt ed by its animals, Th'lsoe cases are all rmaet:by the great at.trial movelnils, A current of wtarmied air, ie in oxygen, movs fi l lrm tie equator towardls the poles, whilst t.:hie cooler air, chatrgted with the excess of carboni: c acid, sts in a const.lant stream towards the equator. J:ly this nceans the lost p)erfitct equalization of tlhe atmlosphteri e-odiotis is preserved, Th.e carbonic acid poured out from'the thousand mouths ofour fiery furnaees, - p1roduced during tle laborious toil of the hartd workling artiztan, -- and exhtaled from every populous town of this our is;lta(. homeI - is boo away by the provailing ait.rialt currentcs to find its plae. in t he pines {f) tlhe tacifite Islands, thle s}ticc4r.ee of tthe:astern Archipelago, and tbhe cinxlhoas of Soutiern A tmerica, Thle phlants of the valley of the (Cautcasus, and thoso wihich flourish amogstlf t hle fHittalas, equally with the less luxuriantl vegsetation of our tt}mperate cli les, are directly df pen.1dentt upot maln land the lower animtals for their supply of food. If all plants 3were removed from the earth, aninmals coutld not(} exist. /:.low would it be if the animatl kiltngdom was anmihi lated? —.t would it be possibleA for vgetationt to conto tinue? T his questi4on) is inot quite so easily anrmwered, flor it has been supposed thalt du.ring the epoch of t:he coal jfbrmation a luxuriant vogetatiot.a mlust 18thave gone on over the earth's surftiae, an d the evidences of the existence of animal lift during that. period are but few. It is supposedt thlatt the air wa< s then chatrged with cartonic, acid, and tttha t he calatnit.s, lepidode0 dra, alnd sigillaria were employed to remnove it, and fit th ea rth for the oxygen-breathing races. h.e evidence utpoln these points is by tno meas statisfactory; and althouglt at one tirmne quite disposed to acquie.se, in a eonjecturo wthiel appears to account so beatutifully for the observedt geolog0ical phenol0mena. l of Car0boniforous i periods, we do anot regard the 2S O 6:IANWIT;OBS OF STATTI.^ necessities for 1suct, a condition of the atxosphere l a clearly t ade IThI (h-~") n a (ll probability tlhe slame mnutual depentdenett, which now exists e:rbtween the animnal and vegetable lingdoms, existed firo the beghminn'r of tite, and wvil continue to (do so under varying eirctumsttiantces throtulO the countless ages of. the earthls ( t' ratio'The. is yset another very inportantlt chain of circumstalnces whillc binds these two great kmingdoms together. Tinls is the chain of the atnimaltl necessitices. A large minmber of races ticdt dlirectly upon vegetablehs; lherbs and fruits are the only things from which they gain those elements required to restore the was te of their systems..Thleso herbivorous an atls, which mtust necessarily form fat and imuscle from the elements of their vegetatble diet, are preyed on by the carnivorous r (aces; and fioml these thes carbon iS againt restored to the vegetable world. Sweep off' from the earth the food of the herblora, th I rey mnust lne es have ever beeat thle chtarm of the pot.t ot l.nImaginlttion has invested themi writh a mlagit influence, anld fitny has al:tost rgarilded them as spi itual thin gs. l.n contemrplating their smurpasshing loveliness, the mind. of every observer is imp!roved, and the sentilments which they intpir, by their lmere external elegance, are great and gtood. But in examiinitng. the rea'l nmysteries of their conditions, their physical phetnomena,tt the relationsh ill which they stand to the animal world, " stealinog anld giving odours" lin the lmarvelltous in.ter change of carhtonia acid and altmmoni a fr the sou-inspirng oxygen ~.all s. peakl. ing? of the powers of some unseeni, intdwetlin1t prinlciple, directed bLy ta 8tupreme t.ltner -.tilho philosopher fitds subjeuts for dteep) and. sonrl-tryi g contemplation. Sutel studit lift the miind into the truly sublinme of naturetl..tt polot's dretam is the dim rellection of a distantt star: the pIlolstophierl's revelation is a stron.g; tel-eseopi exuamination of its feat tfrs. (.) isatre o the me re echao (f the remote whist pr of Naturet's voicet in. the din twilight; the other is the swelling t-music of thtl harp of Alent- onl, awakened by the sun. of truth, newly risen frtom the 1nilgh[t of ignorance. tl1o rettturt froml our long, but soimewhat natural, disgttcssion, to a eonsideration of the choemictal phenonmena comlnected with the atmosphere, and its curious and important t clement, nitrogen, we Tl:l`E Al'.olIa. O89:ntit lst i 0nslt te seider th nc we h)ave of the conditiont of the.air itself.'The Imean pressure exerted upon the surtface of tih eartli, as indicated by tthe barometetr, is equtal to t colun of tmerury, lthirty incites htigh; that is, the column of air pttssit g upon the ot:etn ilt of a bent tbt.e filled wit:h lIerc.ury, exactly balanels that (quantity, whicth represents at. ptressure of fiftcon jpounds upont every square incti of surfiaco. This pressure, it must be rei-oltberued, is thte compouind weight of tlh gaseous e:ntvlope, tand the elastic fi:tnec of t he atqueous vapour containetd in it. (.1) If th atotsplhere were of untformt condition, its heilght, tas itnfer red from the tbarometer, would be about. five miles andt) a half, dr iy' of th e air 11t)Nlr The density of it}e air, however, difnmisiahe. s with thte pres sure upon it}, so that at the heig;ht of 11,556 ofet the atmosphere is of htalf density; or one votlume of air, as takten at thte surface of the earth, is explandedt into two. Thus the weivght is tonttinually di.inishling; but this is regutlarly opposed by the decreasing tetImpe(ature, which is atf t loe rate of about one degree for every "85S foeet of ascent, although in all probability it is less trapid at great distances froms the earlth It,as been calculated fom certain tlphttomelIn of refraction, thaft our atmtosphere miusit, extend to atbout f)orty tiles frott the surftace of tte-f earthI. It i-ay, in a.state of extreme tennuity, extent d ttill fufrt-her; but it is probtable that thl intenso cold pro.dulced byy rarefactiont, sets limit to any extension -much beyond'ite uses of t le attiosphere are lmany. it i s the meditum for regulating the dispersion of w;attcry Tapours over the etarth. If there was,o attmosphere, and that, sas now, the equatorial (limes were hot and tthe poles cold, evaporation would bel continually going on at t eat o tie tttsa t atol tttn onl ion it) tha coltder trgitts,. Th1 4sy of the tropical clices would ble perpetually cloudlss, \whilst 2 40 US 0 oIS 1i:-E ATNB035e CIt in tite temlerate an d artie zones we so }tullI havoe e.onstanI:t rain andl now. b.y having gt aeoui atmostj:lTr, a ior utnifo im s tate of thin s is produce.d, the vapolUirs evaporatedi ftom the earth beeoime intimatel y mixed withl tflhe air, anrd are borne by it over lar.e trtats of country, and only precipitated wltnt they e nter sonme Birxatum muteh colder than thlat wiclh i'-nvolves tlhem. ltie'r are oppositte tndenekt s in tin an atirosptere of air antd oate of vapour. The a, ir irculates frtot thet colde r to the warmer parts, rand the v:apouv from the warmer to the colde)r rfecgions; attnd as the furv rents of the air, fromt thle distribution of lald and f:ea.....the land hoem it low conducting power being more qtuikly heated than tlhe sea -. are very:omalpliteated, atnd ats: ir f'orce is emitplovtyet in kee;phng the vat.pour tsuspended in thte air, water is less st:ddeilly depo si(ted on the elarth than it would have been, had tnot these tendencies of the air and its hyygrometrite peeuliarities been as f'e find tfthem. The blue colour or, the sk,tt, w,h iso much more agr:eeable to the eye than either red or yellow, is due t to tendet'y of the mix:ed gas and vapour to retflct tit bue rays rathter than red or yellow. The wvhite ]lighlt which fials upo tie tsurflee (:)of t he eartlh, twith i uti albsorption or decomptiosition in it:s pai)ss:aget ftromt the 8un, is partially absorbed }by, tand in part:reflected baett from, the eart} h. The t' rt reflet ays pass with tolexra:ble Jfreetdom.t through this transparentt meditum, but a.portion of the:blue rays are interrupted and rendered visible to us. It'lhat it is;reft:lected light, is proveid by the ftact, of is being in a Itolarizetd state, () (louds of vapilrour rellect to ts taain, inot isolated rays, butt th unidecomposedt bea am, iand onsequently they appear whbite as snow to our vision, The folden glorles sof sm set., - whe n, like a dying dolplin," heaven puts on the mrosti0a gorgeous hue.s, whtichi are:1 continually changing,.de.....pend..: entietly ulpon t:te tquantifty of -- — ~x —--—:~~~ —-s -~~-~ —23 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~t OXYN ANIt, tN N XtOOt N 21 t watery vapour 4wicht is mixed with the zair, and its state of condensation. It hats been obsrved, that steam at niglh, issuing into lth attmos plere under a pressure of twenty or thlirty pou.nids to the sq1tuare inetf, itransmits and reflects oran-red lig. t. t.fis we, ftay, therftre, cotclude to be the proierty of such a condition of mixed vap our and air, s prevails whten the rising or the setting sun is sheddintg over thte astern or the we stern horizoai the glory of its coloured rays. (:-') Titus, science potints out t to us the important uses of the air. We learn that life and Comlbusttion are entirely dependent oni it, and that it ifs m1ade the means iotr scutring greatc r constancy iIn the climates of tih earth thian could otherwie ibe obtain ed,. iThe facts already dwelt utpon are sullicient to convince every thinking mind, that the beautiful system of order wfichb is displayed in thte eonpoltiR>itiion of theo aitmosphere, in whichl the allexcitinftg ele(ment, oxygesn, is sul.dued to a tranquil state by another element, nitrogen,w (whi chw, we shall have presently to stow, is itself, unLder certain conditions, }one of the most energetic tagents with lwhich we are acquainted,) indtXicates a Supremeti lr('welr, (on31111is(lt in the adatatio tti hings to an etspcial enld. (Oxygen an td nitrogen artc here mied fior the I enefit / of mlant mllan urtnites thtem b.y lth aid of powers with which} hoe is gifted, andi thle consqunces; are of at fatal klind. T'he principles which theo grea-t chemtfist of naturet rentders mild are tra.nsirtomed into sources of e vi lby the chemist of art. tByoetnd all this, the atmosphere produces eftic9ts on light which add infinitely t the lbeauty of the world.'Weref there no atmtosphere, we should only see those objects upo.n which the stlrt's rays directly lfell, or from whlich they were refleetedt. A ray fallinr i thfrolugth a small bole into Ia dark roomr, illurtinatingt' one objiect, which reflect snc light ghupon another, is an apt illustration of the e(iotit of light upon tih eartht, if it existed withlout 21 2412 Ci.ti: 1IOCAIG C': O 2STITUTIO OF TIHE'ii t AT.MOiBVPI'EI:I,:its envtlopiag ittnospjAere. tt'tly thef diieieri\ l;owers of tilis lmeiuintl, satligtit is converted into l- ito dali t; aid insltea:d of ui beatra!l':le parallol trays illtuinattinig bhliltiitnly, and. corcietihi xip v ith leatI toliso part it. t v N11'hicl i)l ey dir ectley sfit, hli:ar virig t othe.r p}Xarts iin tie datrknel s otf niight, weo e'lijjo1 ttile lilcsiints of at difiion of its irays, and experienceOthe hb:ea.utics of soit sladesi nvd' slowly leeipening s.hadows. Without an atm:s:here, the mtm of the 1moing woiuld burst i)prIm'us wilti unieairalile ).idllianey, Iand leav(e s < tsuldet:sy, a1 It t}he ciose, of day at onee iii ntte r dark'ness,. With n a:tm asI:erc, w: lav, ti) e the vi li:ht wit t all its tein.:ored lovieltince — a " tlne fo:r:oc irn.ado,'.in eheo' ici a ciaraeter, aitnope) l ic.i tr is I i'l (',o.d e of tw I e l:ty on'.: litnes of oxyge, talnd se ve.nit. -nino n ol.e os f it'roe: (o (: gil udl i ft s iof air cos.istf tf g:i.i i rlain:l s of tle Itri fi r, tand 7t,(9 gt:raini sI of the latteri. Whether the ti.r i.s fftaken firem the g reates$t deiptsls or thli losts1 exalted ihe ists to whirich man I shas over rlcaihe, an invarixable propoirtiol of tihe. gases is maintainted The air of (o i l:i r:orazo, of the arid plains o: f ypt fit, of the'stilential de: l ta of the Nii er' oi.tven of tIh ii:ctited at. iestltit.ro of aln h:oq:spit.al, all give th:e sr'no pl:rop:ortiions of ithes:se two gases, ta- we livid exit ing i tI:t h t tt t f li s f ls t S i) vt i', of1 in the atir of dtiel itt of cIn tdoin. "... t'h:is icont:tlstaiey ini c(:onsitiltio.n lea:t to the surilpsi5 t io th at t.he oxvy:en l an 11: itro vii in are e'lin. nt idatly c:tlil {ned i; hl ft lally enlinel it }:1 iloss,: oph:t te havei contit en d thliat they,aroe ltierely ln c hanititeally m ixed; and they havbe:l:howni t}at soimie pecul, iar prol:r, tites lie'vail amo:i lst, g:sei s:oies, li whii::.t ver fy fieyxpnil tih e tqutal adxtIii ofx t t ve f t?:wo grasts, tfin: stipecieio gravities of' whichi atre, diflierenit.'t.is is i parti ni. liIarly cxerIitlilttled in. tlthe ceso f caronicit:i acidt, of whili gI;:s one pTlct r cent. cani l: ite itte:tld -in atll regi~t8)}t'~t tta ATsMOBIs'tItta O Ut+MlICNTS, 1-io n)ame^d, which are among the most t remarkaX le instlances of iunsta. ble atfinitv wit ih whild we l are: t a eiat mi.i{.el, we have 1.so thel weltl l(towni llln.)ge't bodls i aiimmonia. rom lie t a'nalo tous nature of this vowlatile ctm plund, atun tf fi>xed alkalies, sod ta and pottash, it waits intcrmdt thiatC it ltmnst, like tlhem, be att o xidet of a I netallic obase., I.)avy xptosec^l. atl:.tutnit ai..t) t hte aot.X itt f p.t:assiu, atoil.f to the influet.nett oft the voltaic tflame ptt:rodutt efd fiOl 2,000 double )plates, wvitlhoutt ati all liCangrint it chatraeter. Plromt its sliglht tetnidnctey to cobiniationtt, and fijon its bioin- ftound:l. albndantlyt hi' t lthe orift;:ans of amnitals t:edi'ti on sis)tistaniels tlihat dto lot: eotnttai it, it is, howetlver, probtably a eoitotnt d p. bodty. A piemiiinat:e nom of an obseitre iand m'tyster.:iot (c'arae:ter 8 is )esonte.tt in the tfin1t.a-.tion of thte "a'' tnonit:lti.ta.t al gamitt as it is call:et. Mercutry,'it: iit' t Iuxed wittI ani a lmm-iaeal salt, is ext:os) d to ~po.~werfulf, gralvaunic acti:on;' a'nd a,'omlpound, nainttaining its met-. tallic apptioa. ance, but of cotnsi delrable t ligl tn ss andi veryT porous,:X'resenits itsclft. ("~' ) tflTisn prflit.aration has beei. n teatretlly ettixalin(ttd by l)avy, Blece lius, and othter. is t: im always roeslved. intot amitot. n. a and nirt'ur y; atnd, altho}ugi thle latter ch1enist is strotnly inelined to regard it za s aftiordlinig; evidtelte: o of thle conal itu nd. n:tt tre of nit. t rogc'n..:1 he has, io datid, l:tiroposdt t(lo'naeitrie u.m, fo:r its hllypolthtieal lastf, ~ yet, t(o the present time, we have no satis:.ctoy explattanation of this i ettallizationi of No' ait toefnt' rt will boma..do to deseri be the varioius elementary,sbsdtanles twhicth eoalto udtler the class of met-allie bodtfies, omuch less to tnaltorate itheir e.onbinatiots. Many of the mne.tals, as silver attl sopp,'tor, arlt Smound som',ttiett ts in ia native stlate, or neartly purel; buit, for the. moIti lprtt, ithey e xist, itn rltcturet, int comtiftitna tion S' t:i oxygston or sulplhtu..........-.gold finishtes a r:lmlr: alt., sexception. Tfl'iey are ortdinarily fotund eomttlbinedt with o.tlher bodies, a:s oxidizeid Carbot, phlosl}lthorus, ch:tloine., e.; but t.hese. c.'... 246i MBITAitXJ OXI)DIS0 casres )a by no means so common* Th.ose,ubs!:tances cealled metals are generally found tembedded i the rocts, or depoAited in fissureas mfoimed trog throug hem; bitt it is one of thei great dis. coveioes of modern scienes, that those rocks tXhe}mselves are metalitt oxides. Witth metals, we generally associate the idea of grecat tdensity; but potassin and sodiutm,l tit metallic bas est of potash and soda, are lighter than water, and they, con0sequently, float rupon that fluid. We learn, therefiorc, from the researches of scienoe, that the erust of t:his earth is comn osed entirely of metals, combined withl gaseous t eleoients; and there is reason for b. ltiving t hat one, or perhatps two, of the gases we have already named, are also of metallic clearacter. Strangoe as it m)ay appear, there is nothing, as will be seeon on attentive consitderation, i'ratitonal in this idea. AMany of the xmetsts proper, under the influentce of suc h heat as vwe can, by artificial lmeans, command, are dissipated in vapour, and )may be maintained in this state perifctly itvisible. Indeed, thet transplarent space above tnhe surfacet of the tiercury jt tihe ttube of a bartmeter, knownt as the T'orricellian vacuuim, is filled with the vapour of mercury. There is, therefore, no reason why nitrogen, or even hydrogent, should not bo metallic molecules kept by the force of the repulsive powtes of heat, or some other influence, at a great distance front each other. The peculiar tmanr iti which nitrogen unites with imrcutry, and the property which hydrogen possesses of comtbint itlg ith antinmony, zinc, arsenic, potassium, sodium, and possibly other metals, bIsies ilsit union w'ith sulphur and carbon, ~ in all w)hich tcass there. is no such change of character as occurs when they combine with oxygen~-.. apifpear to indicate:bodites whtich, chemically, are not very dissimilar to tthose mt etals tthem.tselves, although, phyAically, they have not the most remote resem blance., " We know nothMing," s.y Davy, " of the true elements Tl.i CJiU:M1A J:,L:BiENTS, 241 belonging to naturet; but: tr as we c8an tcaIn f i'o the reaitions of the ptropertis of mattter, hydrogen i the substance which alpproachles nearest to what the elements may be supposed to be. It hlas energetic powers of combinati(on, its pJarts are figh'ly repulsive as to each other, and attractive of the particles of otlher matter it enters into combinatio n ia quantity very mnucht snmaller than any o:ther aubstance, antd in fthis respect t i is approa(imed by no knownt body. "(') Many of the elements are common to the three kingldoms of nature: m ost of thoseo ndtt in one condition of organization are iound in another. In the vegetable class we find carbon combinin:g with oxycen, and hydrogen, and an inferior quantity of ntitrog en.'tlhe carbonates are an abundant t mineral class. Theose elemeints, also, const-itute the slubstance of animals, the proportion of nitrogen beitn in thelm m\ch larger. If one clement, m.ore thtan another, belongso especially to the anitmal economy, it is lphosplhorus, although this is lnot wanting in the vegetable world; and it is not uncommon in the minetral. Stulplur is comntmlont to tlhe three classes: it is abundantl in t'he mineral kingl dont, being one of the products of volcanic action; it is united ~with the metals, form'ing snlphuret-s;'it comnbines with the metallie bases of lime and other earths, and is tbund in our rocks in the state of sulphuric ac.i d or o xidized sulphur. In the v egetable kilgdom l we discover sulphur in all plantts of the onion kind, in the lmustard, and some otlhers; and it enters iinto the composition of vegetable albument, and appears always canbined with altbumen, fitbine, and case ine in the, a1nimal economy. Chl oriu is f tund most ablindantly in combination with sodiium, as cotmm0 on salt: in this state, in pt'nticttltart, we mayt trace it from t the deptht s of the etarth, its waters, and its rocks, to the plants and animtals of the surfaeo. Iodine is most abundant in marine plants; butt it has been ftund in the mineral world. ~2:?8 msr)THXE$>:TRIBUTION OFP cEL..rnt r. N l Irol.it.mm is kn)ownt to ls as a product of cort tlil. stlin waters, and a few spe:itilens of natural:ronide of silver have:een exanined.lur, lu the hia b:s of ite acid which, eolnbini ng with lime, tiris fluor-si.y' ar, fitirind to exis' tto somoe con.siderable extentt in t(i bhones of animtals. It mrtust not. be jrygotten t.at the earths enter intot tlh (clomposltion of th lno.re,solid parts of plants and animalsd. Siliea, or the earth of flints, is met withs in beautiful transparent rystals, in tlh depthts of the minef in all rocks and soils we find it; in the bark of many plants, i:niticuJarly tho grasses, itf is discovered, tfirm-ing the lunard sutlpporting cuticle of the stalk of wheat, the )uth rush, the lsuar-cane, the bamboo, and mnany others,' ilme is one of the prin iipal constituents of animal bone and shells, andi it is'fou nd in nearly all votgetables. It misf thusft tlt we find the stamne elementary P:,'tiit'1tl(: pIresenting itself in evry form of o tmatter, under the mosatt Prottean sihapes. N"utt elll s phenominl a of even a more. striking c:hlart;ae: ter thalt tholse selectedl, are elxhibited in. every de pai4rtmltenlt of ehlemnistry; ibut witdhin the. limits of tins essay it is in"ipracticatble to s)peac of any beyond those which directly explain natural T} lie che, mical elements, whicht actually e.xist; i:n nature as sitmple bodiecs, are,prob)iably but few. Mo t of (t the kinown gat.es, and sulphur, phos'lorus, and thli metals, m, in all trobability comfpun lts of sone ethereal ultimatte prihtliples;t and with tth advance of science wo may t iirly hope to discover the means of redutcing some of tfhel th o a vet miore simple sftate. the sp)0edl:f - lions of men, thrlnouh all ages, h.ave leained towiards this idea, as is shown by tth theory:of the lo r element, )s otif the tcichiits, tlho three of the alchelinfts, and the rtfine.d stpec.ulationsl of Nelwton and i iBose-ovich. All experitnental inquiry iptoints towrtids a stnilar eonclusion. It is truo we have no direct evidlene of ainy COmf.X 0 5, AT XO 01? 0FO. 249 elementary.. atom actually underg oinga cmnge of siate; bt when w1t re(ard the variations produced by elcctrical influence, and. consider the plhenomena of allotropism, it will boe difficul t to come to any other conclusion, thant that the partieles of matter known to us as ultimate fare. capable of chanoge, and consequently minust 1b fir removed fromn positively simipple bodies, siMcet the real elementary aton, possessing fixed properties, cannot. bo supposed capable of tundtergoing any trains1muitation. It will now be evident that in all chemical phenomenla we have the conlbined exercise of the great physical firces, and evidences of some powers which are, as, yet, shrouded in thle mlystery of our ignorance. Trhe formation of minerals withlin. the clefts of tllh rocks, the decomposition of imetatlti lodes, the germination of seed(s, the growth of the plant, the developme.nt of its fruit, and its ultimttate decay, the secret processes of animal lif. t, assimilation, digestion, and respiration, mad all the changes of external Jform which takle place around us, are the result of tihe cxercise of that principle which we call chemlicaL JBy chemical action plants take firom the atmosphere the elements of their growth; these they yield to faimals, anld fromt these tthey are agatin returned to the air. Thc viewless atmosphere is gradually fotrmed into an organized being, wltich as gradually is again. retsolved into the thin air. The clhanges of the mineral world are of an analogtous character' bu t we cannot trace them so clearly in all their phenomena. An eternal round of chemical action is dis played In natureo iife and death are but two tphases of its influencezs. Growth and decay are cqtally the result of its power. Gc:|A. PTEi:::Ii I I..' t. A. CN (;.t 1i \:i. N At Tih l, an:element i. N:Ntuire's Opseations - e...olo.gicat.Scen.e... i - ts'aerts and Inftren es -— ebar - Hypothcbsia -plied- i. Imary f(:rImoation. liutoni.. ad Ml' et}a,:ot io't' l oo.-: +c...g...... T.stinorpnse I:t:t 8t Terie.a..ott lioc!aos ~ ec (.oime enicm t o f irganio A.ia nrgments:lx:ist ence of:l'hostiorie Aeid in Piutoi.ine' s h..si itrmin: s o- Coal sormation...- Sand-stone: -."i' Tertiary f.orinatFions - ocr.........i uioenet,and t liocn le Formiations.rogr'ssi v echi anes now appa'r-,nt -.i.. (let I Cxt.t:r: s.i...i Ion t- Pl'f: si es applied i il.Ixplanrtion, to inh: o nflucneo of time, r s: elem.ent, i produeing ce:rtaiin.strat(t:'t i ai'n'' ti:tlr mn:it by i mo' tidirfvi /ii o o lera tionsi of tIlyS, ilcal forco, ltnder Swhiat cer t rfitl it tn y be exerted, ha: 5 csea t re (ly be}e.n siftill e.iuoitly'attedeti c to int the exani tlatti.t:m of c osntlel i )I pholeo timen t:ver'y par-ticole of nl:lttetl is, as it were, uspltendtted bt::i::ween: t.he at 0ene:i1ics to'thilc we have been dlireoting o< r tltteiottion. UnderT.I the inflt ueoncs of tilhe phlyseidal pow(ltiers, somfletilVes oxe'rted it cot 1lmon, but, oft e n with at gre'at pre. onderaieC in i'volor of onet of lictr11, eve', (t:e.:lcunttc iated hoeap of mnd 1or;santtl is sltowly cohteriig, ndt assld tuinli tthe torit of t rock posost':int: t certait dln(I stislttl.uhil:tIn fe.:atures, as it re'g arids linitnatiolln, etlav,:'te, &c. Tll, I t inateit parttics of 0 a llttor ti' l' Ie...essal'il bltt slightly tintIlumenet by t:}e iplysictal fi:,tc's: their tation, ion, 1. atecordt(ante't ~vwith th<~ laws wnlicil detrmi ilno! pllysi. eal tonm:lition Is inltif sted it an t: exceedl inly m Iodiliedi de. tc, IBatlt in all thet ope!lrations o(if na:ttt'e, wattt is de(fitctl ln in p\owe r is mati de, ulp ill titme, andt e('tllCets atrel produiced during mll -riads- of agles, by polwrtt fr ta Ioo wea\k to give satisfaeto'y reosidts by. ins y y xpelritments wh}ic(lt ight bo extentlide even over a~t centt:ry, ...8 t ov.I.J 00.Y 2:51 If, with the e oft a geologis, wo teake but a ctrsory lmane ovler tflite arth, v;e shall discover \ that countless'ges mtttst have lpassed ldutrig he pogtess sof this platlest to its ptresetnt stati, This is Ia fet a Written. by tlhe tfinger of nat:ture, int tunttisitalable charattlers, upton the iigl:ty t gt ablets ott her momluntains T1he superfieital erust. oft thl etarthy-, -.y...' ich is -meant only that tfiltn, coin pa red wi th. its- dijameiter, -- whitch is repr'senied by a few rmiles in depth -"t..... is eo)tpoXsed of distinct mineral mnasscs, cxti'ib it i0g lpcclitar phtlfAcal condlitions sand a cefrtain ortder of artrlan:t l Ient.. t.ihese rocks appear to have rtesutlted froml two dis similar ctauses:; itn th e (e class tlhei action,of heat is evident, and in the other,we have an aqueous origin indicated!,by pecualia ritfie.s of fortmatiion.'There are I'w lbraneies of science whinch admit.U of speculatio: to the extent tlt to whic.h we Inld it ctarricl iin,'4'olo(y').f The eoniseq:i:uence: of thi is s si wn in the popularl:l clharacter of thfe science.t.A w obfiv setrvations are n tde ov er a Xlimited area, and cer4ta'in st ritural Cimondltioi ls are ac:tops ela:tiuttst, not less thant two utndrod and fifty lenses have been discovered. Ti ls remarktal}e optical instr:irtuent indicates that these creatures lived under sinilar conditions to those whict surround the crustacea of the p resent day. A.t the period of the trilobites of the Silurian rocks, all the animtials contemnporaneous witdh them had the organs necessary thr the preservdation of life in the waters. Next int order of tim tto th thtrilobite, the most singular animals inha biting t those a i teni t seas,'whose re mainas have been prelservCd, are the (pdhalopoda, possessing some traces of organs which b'elottng to vertebrated animals. There are numerous armas,for locomotion.and prehension, arranYged in ceatre round the hetad, which is furnished with a pa'ir of sharp, horny niandibles, et.l 2.5;.}6 CARIBONIVfEiROU PLANTS, bedded in powerfiil muscles. These prtelensilo arms are pro vided with a d:ouble row of suckers, by which t1he animal seized its prey. Of these eptbalopodout animals there are many ~varietites, uttt (all of them appear to bo fitlished with powers of rapid locomotion, and thosae with shells had an hydraulic arra ngeientt for sinking: themselves to any depth of tht seas in whtich, withoute doubt, they reigned the tyrants. Pasting by witbhout notice the nutmerous fishes which appo:ar t have exhibited a simila r order f prtgrcsslrio to tile other anmals, we rmo ust piroeed to the more retarkablo period whaen the dry land first becga to appear. All the aninltals fottnd in the strata we hayve mentioned, are such as would it:habit the seas butt.we gradually arrive at distinctt evidenee of the separation of the land from thte water, and the "ge reen treec, yielding seed," presents it.elf to. oulr attention not that tihe strata earlier that t(his ath e tiarely desttitute of a ny remaints i.ndicating vegetable growth, but those they exhlibit tare 8t t as, in all probability, may be referred to marine plantts Those plants, hoPwever, which are fountd in the cearboniferous series are most of them distinguished by allt the icaracterisics of those whilc grow upon the land; we, therefore, in thle mxutilated remains of vegetation leftl s in our coal-formations, read the history of ourt early world.'llten the reed-like calamit{, bowed its hollow and fragile steins over the edges of the lakes, the tree-ferns.gr ew luxuritantly in the shelter of the hills, and gavy a wNild beauty to thOe umid valleys. The lepidodendront s spread themselves in mighty forests along tthe plains, whi:ch they covered with theirr curious cones.; whilst the sigillarit extended their multitudinous branches, wrcatlhing lke serpents atmongst the luxurious vegeta'tion, ant tembraced, with their roots (stigmttarite), a mostl extensive space on every side. (: ) A I:f:Alirt ONS OtF LAXO ANI) WA.r TEl,.tli. seas at1nd lakes of tlis period abounded witllh minutn tanimtals nearly allied to t hel coral animals, whtich ar4e ntow so acttively efngagied in the formation of islands in the tropical and southern sea, s.I)ariti tihe ages which Ipassel d by wlithfout any tremarkaltle dist.urbltan e.. of thl surftaic of the eartli, ftho mtany bands of ttmoiultaint l1ime.stone were formted by the cea'seless actlivity of these lmintet arehtit'ccts. 1i1nerinites (creatures i)n some respects resoemblingrt stavr-fish) existed in vast numtIbers in the octeans of thi \ time; and thc greatf varit.y f }:bialye shells, and those of a spiral character, discovered in the rocks of this pel'rio'd, s:how t.he waters of the newer palatto, oie pertiod to hfave been instinct with l'n the world, then, as it does now, water acting on the dry land protuced remarkable changes. We have evidence of extensivo districts ovcr whlich the most luxuriant vegetation rmust have p"read for ages,.-. from the remains of plants in every state of tdecay, ~,whicth we fintd ven t to fBrm our grcat coal-fields. These, by some cfhanges inl the relative levels of landt and wavtter, beeame covered with tbis fluid; and over this mass of decaying organiMe imatter, sand and mud were f or afes, being de:posit.e d. At length, rising abtove the - surface, it becomes covered with ve.gctation, whlich is, af terr a period, submlecrgctld; the same depos:ition of s-and and ti mnd a:gain tlakes pltae, it is once more fitted for vegetable grow th, and thus, cycle after c yele, we see the dry land and tthe w;ate'r changing plactes w\ith each.other. This wvill be evident to every one lwhto wvill c(arefully contempilt ate a section of one of the coat-filtds of i: reat iBrit.ain.,'W find a stratum of c.oal lying ntton a:t bed of idetttrelay, amn above it an extensive stratum of shale or santdsltone, prota-tb!ly ftortmed by the tdentuda:ltion of the t.}nei'th otrting hills; and in this mantnetr we havI mattny sttratta of {otlier. Ascending in the series, we havet now folrmations of a imore 25^8 $ANDSTON lT fOiM1rATXOS. recent character, in wtinch. fishs liof a highe)r order of organization, ereepitg and ftling saurians, crocodiles and lizards, tortoises, sterpents, and frogs, are founbld. Tle lias for'ia:ttion (a termt corrupted from la tero), consistitg of strata in wbich an argillacoous character prevails, stand next in series.,ln these we ht ave animals preserved iln a fossit statea, of a distinguistingly dilferent character firott those of the inferior strata.a (Corals are not found it te BXritish Isles; but we meet with extended beds of pentacrirites, soie incthes in thiknaess; antd their remntains are often so very complete that every part of the skeleteon can be muade out, although so complicated, tlhat it cannot consist of less than 1 50,000 parts. In t eso form ations we often find the curiously ieautiful remains of thle ammonites, of twhich an immense variety have been found. Of the belemnites animals furnished with the shell tand the ink-lba. of the cuttle-fis,, with wthichl it. darkened the wiater to hide itself from enemies l unmtrous vat i etis Shave also bee discovered. in addition to tohemse we lind nautili; and sixty speies of extint.t fishes have been described by Agassis from: the tias of Istinc.t 1te8is alolne, When tthse. rocks were in tlhe pogress of firtat iotn, tthere existed the icfhtlhyosaurus, or fish-liz.ard, wvhiehl appl: earlns, iln many respet'. t, o have re senmbled the crocodile of the Nile. It was at prledatory crea'tture of etnormous pmower, and must hbave been the tyrant and terror of the seacoasts which it inh)abitd. Its alligator-like jawts, its poNvwerful eye, its fish-likle finss, and turtlclik.e p:addles, were all formed to ftacilitate its progrtss as a" des:tructive agent.'he pleiosautrus was, if pos:siblet, a still more remarkablde creation. To the head of a lizard was united an eniormoustly long teck, a small aand tfs-lsike body, and the he.tail of a crocodileo; it atppars formed for exislent: in shallow wat ers so that, whtin moving at the bottom, it could lift its head above the surface for air, or in searech of its food. The f:lora of this period T:E PTlBRO:ACTrf.L 259 )nust have been tolerably extensi ve andt ee it rescmbled tic vogetation whictt exists at present illn tropical ritions. ]Taces of reptiles still havey place upon tlh earth, and wv have now the tmegalosaurain retmains, indicating a strengtl atd rancity wVhiich would render thtem o:}bjetts of terror as well as astonishment, could they be restored to the Nworld which they once ravaged, An' enormous bat-lillke creature also existed atti this timne t-le pterodaictyl~... Which, in the language of C(uvier, wafs, " tundoul.h cdly, thOe most extraordinary of all the beings of whose forn'mer (xisttenee a knowletdge i granted to, ad t s, a that which, if seen alive, would appear most unlike anyt}ting that exists in the presenlt tworld" " You see before you," siays the sarte writetr, a an atimal whi.ch, in alt pointts of bony structure, friom t tee' teeth to the extremitics of the nails, presents tlhe wCell-,known saurian clharatctristics, alnd of w' inch lm one can doubt thatt its intecgumients and softt parts, its scal armour and its org-'Sans: of cirufllation and reproduction, are likew is analgous. But it: was, at the satme time, an aninmal provided with the means of flying; and, twhen st1ationary, its w'ins twere 1'1obaly fiolded back like those of a bird, althotug)ll, pi:: b i.t, by.t the elaws att-ached to its. fingers, it might suspend itself fhro the branches of trees."'( ) Fromt the disintegration of the older rocks have no doubt arisen those fi:rmrtions whitc are known as the oolitic selries. In these strata are presterved the remtainst of plants andl animals ml ore rcsemb-lirng tthose whih now exist upon the earth; and, l or the first timte, ~.. —- tinless tl ev c te vid the fo:ottsteps of birds on the new red santlstonet of America be accept:ed,-...we meet with the remains of wtingfed cre-ations, In these fo:;.rmautions wt e discover animal:s belong insg to the class riIm'rnimlia, -:-i.....t t ami ithitcrim an tthe phascolothetrium,. —.... wtlich tap)I:ear t(o hive resem:bled, in lmany respects, the marsupial animals of New lolland. (') ;2400 i B }XV LA THK AX;)EN iAfANOI1MAION'X0'lthe weatldten f:orma:tionts, wtinc rel the next in order of position, are a series of elays tantd sands, witth subordinate leds of limestone, grit, and shlde. These, have, in,some instances, t.eem fot-rml inl the seat bu t they mty be. umsually regIarded as f'esh-water delOsits. Al. tihe older rocks bear evident tmrks of marine orig in, xunless soxme o f the coadl-me.: asfure s.trata )may )e regarded as other\wise,; but nearli y all th: wealdten series contain the remaints of laind, freslt wvateir, and estuary animals, and of latnd vegetables. Thlie an:imals which we discover, preserved, to tell the instory of tins perm., efiod, are nmero and have marked peculiarities to distinguis them from those already deseriit ed, or from any now existing on the earth. We find land sam ans of a large kind, antd anitmls of all sizes, oven insects, of winch a gre t Variety tar foind in the wealds.'he remarkable i odo ws aniodon wmnal Nwliell, even iby the cautiouts mleasurvemlent of I: >ofei:ssoE r O)wen, must have been at least twen ty-eiglht l fieet long; and tis (tnoot'monus creature was suspeeted, Iby (Cuvier, and has bt}een proved by Owein, to bthave beeln'" an erlitvorous saurian for terrestrial ]ilfe.~''(Q;') ]'.)r. a1iantell ealeulates tl'at no less than seventy indivi.duals of the ign:anod:t on of all:ages Itave come under: is notice; and tlhe bone)s of a vast: Inumt}er of ot:het rsx. st halve bleen brok;en up by t'teo workmen in the fiw quarriiaes of'ilgate grit; so that thse c'.eatures weore bly ino means rare at the period of tli r existe(nee (i:c:)'Thie pl':iermoast of these secondary finrmatioins is the cret'accous or elllk grouip, which sprelads over a large porltion of souithteastermn E1g. landt, and is et with is m t l i p rts of i:Europl T his echaIlk, twh}ich is a etlartl:onatle of limtle, al:ppears to bave been slowNly p'reeipitated from tiranituil water, as, a% s accordin to Sir l. enry DI)e la 1lecl.he, organi.ti rtemtains atnre bt'tautifully pt'esterved iln it, 81tsta nces of no greater solidity thas tuol Al c l:mon sponges t'ail th eir fi)orms, delieatle shells remain t roke n, fish eve n are dfri ueit ly not SOi:BSTITUi:OT o' 0SItIOcA M261 flatitened, and altogether we bave tle appearances whichl justify us in contluding thtt, aiee theso organi exuvia were entotbed, they have been protected fron pressure by tht consolidatiorn of the rock around tlhen,(') Beneath the chalk exists what has been called, from it colour........ derived frt': a silicate of tite protoxide of iron, +. -green sand, and was, no doubt), formed by dteposition from tle sa mc water in which the carbonato of limie wats suspended, ~. the green sand iallilng to the bottom maore readiy froml its greater specifie gravity. *I The tranqutillity," observes Sir ienry le lan Bteh o, "' which seems to have prevaitled during this gre at accuuatltion of siliceot calcareous matter, whether itI may have been a deposit frotm water, in which it was rncclhani ally suspended, partly the work of living creatures, or in a great anm easure chemictal, is very remarkable.^ ("'i) In the calk, the remains of the leaves of dicotyledonous plants at fragments of wood are tfound mnore abundantly than: in the earlier strata, mn)any of whicht are marked with tho perftrations of mfarine wor)ms, indicatiing that they lhad id floated for sorte time ite the oceanc. It should, however, be remembered, that leaves have been found in the new red sandstone; and the flora of the coal" formtation mustt nott be forgotten. The nlmannreri in which silica has deposited itself on organie bodies.........the sponges..~. -is curious; the whole of the organized tissue being often remn oved, and flint thavitng taken its place. These flints abound in thtc upper chalk. The association of carbon and silicon, combined with oxygen, ats wo findt thoem it the eretaceous formations, is most interesting, and naturally gives rise to somie speculation ot the relation of these two elements. Both carbon aind silicon, as Iha beenl already shownv, exist in several al lotropie conditions; and, althouglh the statemente ts mae by Dr. BSrown relative to the conversion of carbon into silicon arc proved to be' grounded on 162 100CENE^, IMNOOCINNE, AND experimental error, it is not inproIfmbbl tlhat a very linltimate rolatiot may exis t blietvwen t l thesc elements.(-') Tihe probability is, that the sponge a'nintnl has tInt power of setreting siliea to give sttrngth to its forot " Many speies,'" sa:.:: y ine r j ones, speakinfg of recei nt slpnges, " xhibiting the stnie porous structore, have nlone of the elasticity o:f the ofticirtml sp):onge -~.... a circtumstantce whiech is due to the diibre.nt;ce observable in tlle composition of their skeletons or ramif ied fratnework. In such, thet livivng cr st. form's within its substance not o0tly tenatonitus banids of aimal matter, but great. quantities of cr ystalized spi)cula, someti.. tls of a calc.arcous, at othlers of a siliceous, natiuro." Thus, a frame of siliceous nmatter bmcing frie'nd by the livin.g animal, a depositiont of the same. subhstanco is contitued after death. Soa-urtdl^ in, aand star-fish, and n nnerous flssil shells, are found in these beds, which, however, difier materially from the. retn'ailns of the sall: antimals f:otndl i ttIe earlier f'orn ation:s.w A. vast lnuotber of new species and' g'enera of fish arc ae also discovered in the chalk. Nearly all the animals antd plantsl which existed up t hi t sti period are ntow extinct, although they htave sone: imtperfect rtpresentatives t at the t present day.'The upp.e.o:At group, which lhs been called the s'po crettfacecous or tertiary fornmatio:ns, ap.pcartts in our island to: have beenl forlmed during four great eras, as we find f'esh8-water deposits alternating with maritne ones,.'lTihe terms colCt, vwlicht is the first or oldest de osit 7 mioce. e w, which i is thle second; plihocetn:r, whitct is the flif; and thed and tm (wer ptene, which is thet f:ortht ad last, hav.e been applid. t tothese ifrmationts, the lnamets refirrtitn to tile respective ptroportions of existing: s8petcies fittttd among their fossil shells, (') All tlhso, fori:mati}ons show distinct evidence of their havling [t'^i.oEt'' tA tFf1 A(tm T)i;:ONS 68S l)en depositcd ritom t still otr'slowly9ilowig deep waters. Tihus tl:h eone s iaptp}t:ears i tt e Parts tbasin, ftorre:tid clearly at ait esttttry, tin which are'atigled S'tone iIterest itg tir'esittwaite. r detposits; int the. laeustittine tfi rl Mat itrns in A.\uvergnc; also ait A ix poWersn of thte universe, st o far as we fknow themlt, iltotn these particular fintrms of organizatiaton.,])uring th)e t(protes of germiiniattiotn, electricity is, according to'ounillet, exol vedl; andv again, int rienll ( its theroe atippears to li sot) ie o vidt(:oene of eleeitrieal currents, Vegetaftbles are, lhowever, int the growin stfate, sucIh gtood ellnduetorls tof eleetriecity, that it is not, according to lte laws of this torce., possible that they sioultl actcuulalte it, so tfltt lithe lumitnous p)enomen0 a stated to lhave been tbserved can}no t be due to this agency,. We knowf, bowever, that: under every condition of change, whlttlher induced by clten eical or cadoritle action, electricity is set in imotion; and we have reason s fo:'r beie vie.-' ins t thte excit:atilo of lioigh:t will also give:'iso: to eteetric-ial ehieulation,'Il.et. t ijiucs.ion, whet. t hE u fS, lants:ipo, scs.:1s sen:sation, Xvhleiheri t ffey N~~~~~~~P - 0,90 B1Ei;:ATItON O.t,liAN},. bavo aniy dispositioni of parts at all anal-ogou to tthe nervots system of animas, has ibee often Ipat,forward, but as yet the answer1s:have l:eetn mtisfac.toly. l The oit iS on well worthy all the attntion of the vetetablto physiologist; but, regtardin t plants as the link bet ween the animal and t}h mineral klinigdom, -~looking upon pt )ytoachfmil>try, as etxhbited by tlhct-, as the ilmean:s emrployed to produce tlhose mTore c litpldex ov.rganizations whlicht exist in. antinals, --- we nece ssar ily consider plants s m niertc natural maclines fir ef.ecting orgalic arrangesments atnds, tas such, tlht the y can not posess any nervous sensibility. tluscular contraction mlay lbe represen ted in manry of their miarve llous artranements tt and any disturbance produced by natural or artil'eial:means, wsould consequently effc t a change in tihe operatittm of those forces which colbine to producee vegetable lift, Indeed, t he, experimtents of Carlo AtMatteucci, already referred to, rtove that an ioncision across a leaf, tthe ftracture of a branch, or the mere brumisilng of c any f, part of the plant, interferes with the exercise of that power which, under thie operation of luminous iagency, decomposes carb:onic acid, and eftieets the assimailation oft the other elements. T.o recapittuate. A plant, is aln organized creation; it is so in vinrtuc of certain strt ange pthyto-etemal operationls, wich are rendered active by the sola.r ifluentces involved in the great pletinom)ttIna of light, and by the texcitation of (caloric ltree and clectric\al circulation. Its is a stritking exemplitication of the united action. of certain empyreal powers, whilch give, rise to the com!binationt of inortgtanic principles under such forms that they become capable of obeying the mysterious impulses of lifet. The poet has itmaged the agency> of external powers iln var.ious shapes of spiritualized beauty. Frol the goddess Flora, and her attendantt nymphs, to the romanttic enchantrss who called up flowers by the lightt touitc of her wand, we have, in all these. creationst, fi tre sadowings of the discovery of t hoose t ort 0 t: IDEALIZATIONS OF TRUTH. 291 which science has shown are essential to vegetable life. A power from without influences the plant; but the animal is dependent upon a higher agency which is potent within him. The poet's dream pleases the imaginative mind; and, associating in our ideas all that is graceful and loveable in the female form, with that diviner feeling which impresses the soul with the sense of some unseen spirituality, we perceive in the goddess, the enchantress, or the sylph, pure idealizations of the physical powers. The spirit floating over these forms of beauty, and adorning them with all the richness of colour - painting the rose, and giving perfume to the violet- is, in the poet's mind, one which ascends to nearly the highest point of etherealization, and which becomes, indeed, to him, a spirit of light; they ride upon the zephyrs, and they float, ia all the luxury of an empyreal enjoyment, down to the earth upon a sunbeam. Such is the work of the imagination. What is the result of the search of plodding science after truth? The sunbeam has been torn into rays, and every ray tasked to tell of its ministry. Nature has answered to some of the interrogations; and, passing over all the earth, echoed from plant to plant, we have one universal cry, proclaiming that every function of vegetable life is due to the spirits of the sun. The mighty Adansonia of Senegal, hoary with the mosses of five thousand years, - the Pohon upas in their deadly valleys, -the climbing lianas of the Guiana forests, - the contorted serpentcactus on the burning hills, —the oaks, which spread their branches in our tempered climes, - the glorious flowers of the intertropical regions, and those which gem our virent plains, - the reindeer lichen of northern lands, and the confervae of the silent pool, - the greatest and humblest creations of the vegetable world, -all proclaim their direct dependence upon the mysterious forces which are bound together in the silver thread of light. 292 CHAPTER XV. PHENOMENA OF ANIMAL LIFE. Distinction between the Kingdoms of Nature -Progress of Animal Life - Sponges - Polypes - Infusoria - Animalcula - Phosphorescent Animals - Annelidans - Myriapoda - Animal Metamorphoses - Fishes - Birds - Mammalia - Nervous System - Animal Electricity -Chemical Influences - Influence of Light on Animal Life - Animal Heat - Mechanical Action - Nervous Excitement - Man and the Animal Races, &c. "A STONE grows; plants grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel." Such were the distinctions made by Linnmus, between the conditions of the three kingdoms of nature. We cannot, however, but regard them as somewhat illogical. The stone -a solid mass of unorganized particles -enlarges, if placed in suitable conditions, by the accretion of other similar particles around it; but it does not, according to any of the senses in which we use the word, grow. Plants and animals grow; and they differ, probably, only in the phenomena of sensation. Yet, the trembling mimosa, and several other plants, appear to possess as much feeling as sponges and some of the lower classes of animals. By this definition, however, of the celebrated Swedish naturalist, we have a popular and simple expression of a great fact. As we have only to examine the question of the agency of the physical forces upon animal life, we must necessarily confine our attention to the more striking phenomena with which science has made us acquainted; and, having briefly traced the apparent order in which the advance of organization proceeded, we must (C:iA:'NOS Oxi-OANI', 1 fOENMS 290 direct our few concluding remarls to the physico-plhysi logital ilftlftenllC, whitet we mtltst conf'esa to kntow }bu: too imlpm tly. V'W le(art. thati du(riog thle.stte of r'togres ht;vich l eioloyt looking into the tnireanla of time, h1 1a ts tc( I i. jlintCt d tsi4, a great a variety of animdal formis wOreo hlolt into existence..tIly ived the i Tliods.'th colnditions of th. ur8ifge, thoe sea,.or the atmosphere were w literell; tta, no lontger littedl i tlohe cttjO tmXents of tlhe new life, these races passed away, aid others oeu)ied their placets, which, in turn, went through all ithe stai'es of growthi, m1aturity, and decay; until at length, the earth b'ei fitted for the att(bde of tih hiIhest order of anirnals, they weret cltlc(d into existence; and man, tle intellectual laa:ri.'h of the worlld, was placed suptremle iamtongst: themIt all. Tyes of neartly all thiose: fitor of life wifif are foi:tund in the fossil tstat are now in Oxistence; alnld if we examine the egograpl dcal ldist ri ltion of animal:.s th-...... te zones of elevation over the surface of the e:arlth, and tle zones of depth in tho ocemnl, -~. we shall find, now existi.:iInf, aninmal tcreationt s strikindgy andalorous to the prinitive fir-mts iantd conditions of the carti b's intab.titans. F roml tlie de(ptlhs of tihe ocean we maty even now study ~-..... as that mos t indefatigable naturalist, Professor Edward Jtorbes, 1rs done - the varying states of org0'1iz.tiiton tuder ttle circm,:st anlces of ilmplictlect light 111and varying tcnm.rltlul'. ()" The gtIrdual da. ( -'Ivacttncs e of antlimal lift in tlle atscelndit stratan has ledf to mlinrly spectulations, inge,:tnious1 nd refinted, or the il' ro gres.siv de Ivelopl:la oenlt of i, t tile chanies of tl.he inoranict'.s w orld im itspressed n.ew crn(.diliotl, the or3ani. s" tru tures of s)ani: t e.e, to: tle nc itis of eir li, must 1fx adPlitftet:. C(0n:m'parative aniatoiny ihas demlonstrated that t.juch suptoset di'I Irencls r.eally existed btetwcenl the creatures of the secndary fi.on)t:ttios andit thlos(: of the teritfiary rnd tlho preasent[i periods. It has beenl ithlagilned, tbuilt I101'n dl.tebatablc fo und atl io,... 204 t. s s > (.': N 0. i \ N 4 O i 0 4N that the atmos(,[ ret, ll duini O* tthe sectondarl tl ts, fwa Ml dly cll)artgei t l v ci-h tcarlto. acid; anlt, (lonts tteqiltlI', tllhat thlo u:h beneilciai to thle growth ofa ttlathsf., al sf(eflti t el )res dti 1tg T d e rs, ITh firt rtit lavi' givcn: 1is:1, s a ts if p1iiS ia, teC al t fi: bion l g-ivesS tirth tio ti:'s: i tile, t(i r eptie tt'S: tI tB ani: 1111 ft o this (1 Vb s:Is d velo d'. st 4 11r,: t A l,: t i l t iv es ti'al ii l t'ol'Vi0(ee) 1S4 t'ham t1h iS viIw }i:::14. l ia fn 1:1'1nda1ion.l. Al tih1oug11h a cer-.'.. ]'Sn I.t1 I*:l'S tinre atosp ns ay.be.- found' be In:' ". 1is tiuad I y dIsc.ovired to e1xist itoatrds lfs( es mre r1ot 1 fo iIt (ah other al:d in no oneil e' can e deit': tect(.C.. y?}thin. i:,0 ill':::t Ist.:,,$ I':totW' t tf a t nI a'nllimat4::l of,on0,'a4s into.t ant11:a1ial:if a lol'ticEr; and unt ii t i s is don.eit1, w''t c an11 not Iht re g:ar'd tI t} inis of anin it11 P'O.LTY:i:S i) IAN iNf.t5s. A.:, 99f5 lif- as diastinct creatios, ea'c one fitted for its talte of bein)g, sprlintgi;f fri'om tlh cotnltt nd o-f the gttreat First (.tauet( ) Butt it is e itl oe quit: thI}e sti eeulative flues tions, and proceed to the txamnitat:ion of the gonenl condiitios of anintial life att t.he pres'enlt lime. Itomvest in tlhe scale of ani'mls, and s {arccely distinguitshal:le fromlt a vegitald'c, we findt tIe sitlonge, a'ttiached to at:dt p:assing, it's life ttpion a frok, exhllitinrg, itnded, Icss signs of ifeling ithan many of the vegctable tril)es. tc chettlt al dif'etrenles bc.t.weeim veget:ablers and spongt: are, h}owever, very. decided and twe fin in their tissue. s a larw quatity of nitrog en, a true an-tif -nXfl element:), which exists, l}tint i stmaller quantities, in ve'getables. Thiese ereations, sta:ltding betweent vtgetable and t animal lilt, p:ossess the singu.lar power of dcem olnsing c.arl.ni.' aci, as p lantts; tand the'water in whlich they livo always conttailns an excess of free oxygen. The ts ol) pes are. a remnar.kal bly ctrious cla-ss. a s lixed in largeo tari)oes.een: f mat. sst s to tl( roks of tropica tl seas, or in oulr own elim ate attached to shell s or other sub marine substances, they throw out their ranuiic t ations in a tholsand belautitl tand ptlant like fi.rns; or, inerustii' the'roes at. the f ottom of tho oceanl with calearetois earth, tse lrated firont the wafter lwhich bathes ltholn, they sile.ntly lbutild ulmp res and sh.to:als, justly dreatded by the navigator\; t nd somutintles giving " or'iin, as they rise to ttho situfatice of the sea, to islands, which the lapse of ages elothes with luxur iant verdure, Zand people:es with at:proptriate inha.itaents.'(,'';) 5Most o f the'ipolypes tare fixed andt stationtary; but the hyilra and, sone oticers hiave the power of chan ging their po1si. tions, which they do in t stearch of( the l'ight of the sun., Thery do 1not: appear to have or?ns f isiht reuiring lig't j but still they de*li ht inl thie sol;ar inluac:tees.'.ThIe tcmos:t extraordinary fau: t conneted wvith thIe htydtra is its 1)cbeing' nu ltiplied by division. If ani 2,96 ANIMPOAPtI0REI SOE:N'NT A NI MALS. incision be made in the sido of a hydra, a young polype soon developes itself; and if one of tlese creatures be divided, it quickly restores the lost portion of its structurt. The varieties of tie polypos are exceedingly lnumTero1s, and many otf tlem are il thile highest degree curious, and often verny beautiff.'Alit acetitit, like flowers, appear to grow from the rocks, unfolding thcir tcntaeulah to fthe light; and, in their cagertness for prey, they exhibit. a beautiful play of colours, tand inost intere;sting fortis, Miieroscopic zoophlytes of tlie most curious shapet:s are found, - f. all. of which attest, under examination, the perff:ction of all created things, Inftsoria and anitlialcula,- ~ tanimnals, imany of them, atpp}iaring under the micrositcope as littole moreu tnfl a transparent jelly, - mlust bs e recognised as the most. simple of thte forms of lift, Thtey exist in all waters in uneountable Mnyridst; and, minute creatures as they are, it has been demonstrated that; many of the great limestone hills are composed entirely of their remains, The acalephli:, or the phosplhorescent animalls of the ocean, are no le ss curious, From creatures of the most minute sie, tlhey extend to a considerable magnitude, yet they appear to ble little Jmore than animated masses of seaf-water. If any one of these sea-jellies, or jelly-fishes, as they are often called, is cast up on tho slhor, it is soon, by thfe influence of the stun, conlverted into a mere fibre no thicker t llr than a cobweb ai ai tnimatl weitghing scven or eight pounds, is very soon reduced to little more than as many gvrai lns. I...ere are nttuerous varieties of these sitngulr creatures, maost of w}fieh are remark abl forle f po the owetrftl phtosplhorese{nt light they emit. The betroes and the pulmonigrade shitne with an intense whuite light mantiy tfet below the surface, whilst tho (estitUt L/ ieris, or girdle of Venus, gliding raptidly al(oml, prtesets, on the edge of tthe wave, an uldulating ritand of flamne of considerable length. There can he) no doubttt that; ttis ARTICULATED ANIMALS. 297 arises from the emission of phosphorescent matter of an unknown kind from the bodies of these animals. The microscope has made us familiar with the mysteries of a minute creation which we should not otherwise have comprehended. These creatures are found inhabiting the waters and the land, and they exist in the intestinal structure of plants and animals, preying upon the nutritive juices which pass through their systems. Although these beings are so exceedingly small that even the most practised observer cannot detect them with the naked eye, they are proved, by careful examination under the microscope, to be in many cases elaborately organized. Ehrenberg has discovered in them filamentary nerves and nervous masses, and even vessels appropriated to the circulation of fluids, showing that they belong really to a high condition of existence. Passing over many links in that curious chain which appears to bind the animal kingdom into a complete whole, we come to the articulata of Cuvier - the homogangliata of Owen. All those creatures which we have been hitherto considering, are too imperfect in the construction of their simple organizations to maintain a terrestrial existence; they are, therefore, confined to a watery medium. In the articulata, we have evidences of higher attributes, and indications of instincts developed in proportion to the increased perfection of organization. Commencing with the annelidans, all of which, except the earthworms, are inhabitants of the waters, we proceed to the myriapoda, presenting a system intermediate in every respect between that of worms and insects; we then find embraced in the same order, the class insecta, which includes flies and beetles of all kinds; and, as the fourth division of articulated beings, the arachnidans, or spiders; and, lastly, the marine tribe of crustaceans. The most remarkable phenomena connected with these animals are the metamorphoses which they undergo. The female butter 298 METAMORPHOSES. fly, for instance, lays eggs, which, when hatched, produce caterpillars: these live in this state for some time, feeding upon vegetables, and, after casting their skins as they increase in size, at last assume an entirely different state, and, dormant in their oblong case, they appear like dead matter. This chrysalis, or pupa, is generally preserved from injury by being embedded in the earth, from which, after a season, a beautifully perfect insect escapes, and, floating on the breeze of summer, enjoys its sunshine, and revels amidst its flowers. No less remarkable is the metamorphosis of the caducibranchiate amphibia, passing through the true fish condition of the tadpole to the perfect air-breathing and four-footed animal, the frog. A metamorphosis of the crustaceans, somewhat similar to that which takes place in insects, has been of late years creating much discussion amongst naturalists: but the question appears to be now settled by the careful and long-continued observations of Mr. Thompson, and Mr. R. C. Couch. A wide line of demarcation marks the separation of the invertebrata from the four great classes of vertebrate animals - fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammalia. Every part of the globe, - the ocean and the inland lake, - the wide and far-winding river, and the babbling stream,- the mountain and the valley,- the forest with its depth of shade, and the desert with its intensity of light, - the cold regions of the frost-chained north, and the fervid clime within the tropics —presents for our study innumerable animals, each fitted for the conditions to which it is destined; and through the whole we find a gradual elevation in the scale of intelligence, until at last, separated from all by peculiar powers, we arrive at man himself. In each of these four classes, the animals are furnished with a bony skeleton, which is in the young animal little more than cartilage; but, as growth increases, lime becomes deposited, and a sufficient degree of hardness is 1i`n1AIN AND NJRV A. 299 thus produced to Support the adult formation. FSome anatomists have endeavouted to show tlhat even in the meelanical structure of the bony fabrics of animals, we are enabled to trace a gradual incrMease in the perfi:,tionl of arrantgel ent, from the fish until the most perkctfect is fund'in manM..'any of the mammatlia, however, are furnisf hed with skeleto ls uwhich really surpass that of,man. These belong to animalst which deptend for subsistence upon their muscular powerst,,and with wlhom mt n is, in thtis particunll', on no eqtuality. What is the lord of the creation, compared with the antelope t br fleetness, or with the elephait an mad nny other animals for strength? As we ascend the scale of animal life, we find a more perfeetly developed nervous system; and th e relative size of the brain, compared with lthat of the brute, is found progressively to inreacnse, until it arrives at the utmnost perfection i4n man. On the systemn of nerves depends sensation, and t ere can be.no doubt that the more lo exaltedl the order of intelligence displahyed, the more exquisitely delicate is the nervous system. Thus, in this tworld, refined geniuts tmust necessarily be attended with a contdi lion of senbsibility which, too frequently to the poetssesor, is a state of real disease. It tmust be evident to every reader that but irty fw of the striking features of aniImal life have been mentioned in thte rapid survey whiclt has been taken of the progress of animal organization., The -subj.ect so xtensive tlhat it would be quite irossitle to embrace it witvhin any reasonable limits; and it furntishIes nmattter 0 curious and so ins tructive, that, having once entered on it, it w1ould have.been dilfficult to have made any sel:etion, and we must he a devo ted a volume to the.tstheties of natural science. Passing it by, thereftre, with tlhe mere outline which hlas been given, we must proceed to consider some of the conldib tions of vitality, t)00 tHE VITAL:X \A PINX:t:.:'X:: Bedll r as proved i:tth e t eotf ineOrv. is employed1 in conveying senstation) to the brain, and anothter s.t il tiatnsietriin gt thfe c-( sires (of theo will to tt miusctrlest. Ily the j: etl:taittiion of th(e main branich of onet of ith neies of (sensatli(:, atlthougt all the op)erations of life wtill still prot d, te orl itocd, \the ga to li h ti l t tnerve gtoes i dead to its p1artitular sense,. In like matnner, it nle of thle nerves of volition is divided, thoe men:mt ber will not ot.bey the inclinationa of the brain, It. is evildent, tflereftire, aIlthotll n many of fthe great pliteitoiena. of vital force att dependent. on the inrvo1u sys'tem, and the iaralysis of a nme-ltber ensues upion the se paration or the disease of a nerve,tt that the nerves are!.lut the chantnels thrlought whlich: certalit iflbtuenfees a.re carried. T.he vis v t/e, or vital principle -...- for we are competlle(d by the, itmperfi:ec.t'ion of, our ]hnowledge to associate untder this one tit trm thle ultimiatoe causes of tmany of the plhnomena of life i —-s a p ower'whichl, although consttantly 1employed, has th te capabi.lity of cont if ually 1It renewiIngI itself tyl stome inexplic:able eonnectioli texistitg between it an1ld many external influences. W'e 1know that certain conditions are necessary to the health of animalst, D)iseasevd digestion, or any interruption in the cirlculation of the blood, destroys t i) vital fiTore, anld death ensues. T..ihe plrocetsses of digiestion and of th}e cireulation tare periectly mt, iderstood, yet we atre nto tnearer the egreat Setret,of the living ptrinciple. Ainimals are dleendent onl severa'tl external agenits for the sup.port of existence. liThe oxy. en of the air is necessary tr rrespiral tion. Anit mal h eat, as will be shiown presently, is in a freat meattsure dependent u. ontt it. T.hfl external heat is so regulated that anitmal existence is comfi)ortably I-suppolrt ed. Ilfectricity is without doubt an essential element in the litvitng proct ss; ad, indeed, many )physiologis.ts ],have been inelinedt to refir x ital.orce to the development: t of electricity by clicmical action i tlhe brai; for w.til Ilttch wv, th, ere is i'f foundatioji it ix x)perilmentl AIiL Ti;a cLrCTRIC IT, 8001 The phenomena of the Torpedo and (ytnotus wlehave alreadly Bnoticed,( s) and there arc other creat.ures which ccrlainly po'ssss the tpwer of sererting anld discharging electr icity, alvati' s xpelrinriets, and a n those of ldii, ater to showt..-ad.. id the lmor e delicate researcies (of )dMatteucei have satistfetorily detcrtnilned.. tlat. currents of electricity are always cirecl.titn in the anilml frtrame, that positive lecltrieity is contasn tll passing frorn the interior to the exterior of a musclet; and.iatttucei, b:y arrianging^ a) series of xnusCles, h9as formned an elctrtc pilte of some entertgy. () T I'tCes currents have been dete cted in r an it n pll 1geons1 t, ow cls, ee, and frogs. I'n the humlan body, it is evident a large quantity of eleetricity exists in at state of equlibrium. l, thiss, however, t hiay le said of every substance, It is perhlaps more casily distturl:ed in the human system; indeed, the imanifestation of sparks fi'om the hair and other parts of the body by friction is not unconimmon. Every chemrical taction, it has been. already shown, gives rise to electrical )ianiibestations riand the atnimal body is a laboratory, beautifully fitted with apparatust, itn which nearly every chemical procesS is going on, It hias been proved that acid and alklaline principles are constanttly cting upon each other tihrotug the tissues of the aninmal frame:; and we have curious phetnolenatl of endoIsmosCe andl cxosmose itn constRant action, and cat lysis opt ratfingt in a myst erious ranncr. (Q'-)'fitt tth refined pliysiologieal questions conectted with t h phe nomena of sensation we eannot deal, nor will any argument; be adduced for or against tfhe hypothesis which would refer these phenomena to some extraordinary devclopmen t of electric force in the brain. The enttire suObcet appears to stand lbeyod the true limits of sci enc, and evry at temrlpt to pass it is invariab:ly. found to lead to a confitscd rmysticism, itn which the real and the m, 832 IO.XIT, AN 3EB)S4SNTIA I Yi1,AE.MiT, ideal are tstran'gely confounded. cience, stops Brhort of the 1lhexioittent of vital act iono WC canntot, ht ever, howe but re.fer to the idea entertained by many t.hat the brain is an electrinc battery, and the nerves a systemt of conduetors. On this view Sir John Ilterschel remarks: " If the -brain be an electric pile constantly in action, iit may be conceived to disharge itself at rsegtulr intervals, when the tension of tIe clo etdriity reaches t certtinf point:, along the )nerves which commnunicate with the heart, and thus excite tihe pulsation of that organti' Plriestley, however, appears to have been the first to promul te t this ideat. aigrht is an etsential clement in producing the graln phetnonti0eon of life, thouoh its action is ill understood. Where there is light there is life, and any deprivation of this principlc is rapidly followed by disease( of the animtal franmei, and the destruction of the.nmetal i aeulties. Wo(e have proof oft this in the (qutalor of t0hos8e whose neeessities compel them to labour in places to whicht the blessings of sunshline never penetrate, as in our coalmines, where lmen haviring everthing: necessary for health, excelpt light, exhibit a singularly uelthy uh ealthy a iperanc.''lhe state of fittitty and wretchedness to wfich those individuals Ihave tlbee reduced, who lhave been suljeceted for yecars to incarceration in dark dungeons, may el referred. to the samle deprivation. Again, in the peculiar aspect of those people Xwho inhtabit, difrce.nt regions of the earth undertt varying influences of light., we se evidence of the powerful efiects of solar action. Other forces, a. yet undiscovered, may, in all probability do, exert decided inflteices ton the animal conorny; but, although we recognize many e'lTcts whicih we cannot refer to any kiown causes, wie are petrftetly tunalt:t to itagioti the sources from which they stpringt it will bf: interesting nsow to e e o xamine the sources of animal heat, the coinsideration of which naturally leads us to consider ANIMAL HEAT. 303 the digestive system, the circulatory processes, and the effects of nervous excitation. The theory, which attributes animal heat to the combination of the carbon of the food taken into the stomach with the oxygen of the air inspired through the lungs, has become a very favorite one. It must, however, be remembered that it is by no means a new one. The doctrines of Brown, known as the Brunonian system, and set forth in his Elementa Medicince, are founded upon similar hasty generalizations. Although, without doubt, true in a certain degree, it is not so to the extent to which its advocates would have us believe. That the carbonaceous matter received into the stomach, after having undergone the process of digestion, enters into combination with the oxygen breathed through the lungs or absorbed by the skin, and is given off from the body in the form of carbonic acid, and that, during the combination, heat is produced, by a process similar to that of ordinary combustion, is an established fact; but the idea of referring animal heat entirely to this chemical source, when there are other well-known causes producing calorific effects, is an example of the errors into which an ingenious mind may be led, when eagerly seeking to establish a favourite hypothesis. Animal and vegetable diet, which is composed largely of carbon and hydrogen, passes into the digestive system, and becomes converted into the various matters required for the support of the animal structure. The blood is the principal fluid employed in distributing over the system the necessary elements of health and vigour, and for restoring the waste of the body. This fluid, in passing through the lungs, undergoes a very remarkable change, and not merely assumes a different colour, but really acquires new properties, from its exposure to the air with which the cells of these organs are filled. By a true chemical process, the oxygen is separated from the air, that oxygen is made to combine with 80: QOXYGEN AND OARI:O. the ctarbo and hydrogen, and carlbonic acid and water are form d. Tiheso are liberated and thrown off from the body either through.: the tlungs or by the skin. In the processes of lift, as far as wo arte enabled to trace them, we see actions goitn on whichl Iare:t Ir1rrcd to certain causes which we appear to explaint. Thus, the comlbination of the oxygen of the tair with the carbon of the blood. is truly designated a ctase of chemical tffinity; and we lind that, in lendeavouring to tho inltate t0le procsscs of nature in tho laboratory, we are, to a cortlin extent., successlfitl. We can (collint carbon and (xyglen to piroducc carbotnic acid; and we know that the result of that comrbination is tle development. of certain defitit quantitites of heat., Le. t us examine the: conditions of this chemli ical htil:nomenon, and we shall lind that in tle natt ural and arttiticial t Tprocss es,, f..)r we mtust be atlowcd ti to aike than distinction,..- there ar: an; talogous c ircunst aces. Ift we placo a piece 1of pure carbon, a lump of charcoal or a di amond, in a vessel of air, or (tMen of putre oxygen gas, no changeti wNill take place i.n cither of tthese elements, and, howcvcr long they may be,kept together, they will still be found as carbon or diamond, and oxygen gas. JI weN( apply heatt to the carbon until it i beroltes icamltdescut, it iitmmediately hegins to combine with tle oxygen ga........ itt umrns;" t.after a little titic all tie carlonl as dbisaplt'pearc:, and we shaltl find, if the cxprin(utctt 1tts been pitrperly imade, that a gas is left b eind whlJich is distitguished by pr1oper) tics in every rspeet thei reverset of those (f oxygen11, suppol)rtmi, neither lif nor l comttbustion, whiereas oxygen gives icrelasced vitgour to 1)oth1. We htave now, indeed, carftbont i acid gas formtted:by tlhe unito of the two prirniples. A dead mass of i animal nmatter tmay lbe placed in oxygen gas, atnd,,iule;ss somm: f pe.cuMliar fcondit ionis arc in so)te way broug}th abtout, no cl;halicge ill taket placet; ib t, if it were possible to apptly thi Splarlk of lifo to it, mas we light up the spark in the other case, SLOW COMBnUSTION, 80I 0 or if, as that is beyond the por f n wer of, sutlbtitute a living creature, a cetobination between the carbon of the atiinmal tand the gas will immedniately I:beitn, antd earl)onic acid will bo bfrmed by the lwa:ste of atnitial matter, as in the other case it is by the destruction of the carbon; and, if lthere is not a fiesht spsuply given, the anirnat mlkst die, froth the exlhaustion of its fatbric. Now, in both these cases, it is clear fltat, although this chemitcal nion is a proximate catue of animal heat, there uist be existing sotme power superior to it, as tle ultitmate cause thereof. iThe slow combustiont (eremaeausis of vegetable matter, decomposing tunder the influence of moisture and the air, does not p'resent simnilar conditions to those of the hlunman body, althotugh it hats been insisted upon to be in every respect analogous. That the results resnemble eacl othettr is true, nbut xwe must carefully distingislh between effects and causies; atnd the results of ehemtical decomposition i in nert matter differ from those in the livittng organism. Tlhe vegetable iatter has lost the principtle of organio life, and, that gone, ttile tendency of all things fbing to be rtesolved into their most sitple firmst, a disunlion of tile elements coeln" mences: oxygen and lhydrogen escape from the carlon, and pass off either in the gtaseous state or as water, whilst the Carblon is li:erated in a very finely-divided condition, and enters slowly into coTlmbination with oxygen supplied by the wxater or the air. li:ydrog ~enous com:pounds are at the siame time formted, and, under all these scirtumstante s, as in all other chemical iltthenometna, an alteration of teiiperature results. The animal t tissue tmay act in thle.atam wSay as platinta has 8already blieen shownt to ac.t in produeing combinlation between gases; btt of this we have no proof. We klnow that electricit is ctaptble o f p)troducing the req(uired conditiotns, an(d we also learn, fromt the }:.eautiful researches of F.araday, t. hat thte (qutiantity of 2a *i 83060 BLiCTTIO: ITY AND) INSAI:'ON. electricity developed during decomposition, is exactly equal to that re(iuired to etfilet the coibhiuation of tlhe salme elements..'Thus it is quite clear t-hat, during the combination of the carbon iof the blood witw1h lthe oxygen ot the air, a larg'e amount of electricity must becomno latenit in the compound. iThe source o(f this we know not: it may l:t derived from' somee secretl spring within the livingt structurto, or it maty Ib gathered t:som the mattetr iurtrounding it.'here iT s much in nervou.s excitation which tpp1 eii.ars like electrical tphenomena, and attempts have b:een fiequenttly tmade to rifer sensation to the ageneny of electricity. B.tt these atre the dtreamls of the ingenious, for which tlere is but little watking reality. livery mechanical movement of the::ody occasions the developmen.t of }eat; every exertion of ilte nmusclt es protdues sensible warmth; an1d, indeed, it can be: showt n by9 exlperiment thatt every exlpa:,ltsion of lmuscular fibre is' attended with the escape of caloric, and its contraction with tihe albsorptiton of it. There are few operations of the mlind whitich do ot cixeie the latent calorie of the boidy, and. firequently wte flind it: manifestesd in a very remXatrktable l annet by a studdenl -awakened feeling. tle poet it the pleas.,!re of creation glows with the artdor of his mintd, and }the blttush of the innol ent is libut tihe exhi}bi tion of the phlenonimenon tuler some nervous excitation, pro''(ducedt by a spi irit-(isturbint thughtl. Thus we see t t:hat the proc'esses of digestitn mtd respiration are not the only sources of animal heat, butt that limany othlers exi st, to whic:}h much of the natural ttempt turatne of the bodly must b:e retftred. So mu-ch that is mtysterious Iblotns to tit) pi:hnmena of lifte, that superstition 1has had a wide scope fs( or:, the exer'cise of its intfluencet anti tlrough;:l ages a p'owerf\i nl1 pi:'rty of iairl;indt have imaginedt thatt the stpirit tof thuman curiosity must be cl(:ked before it. advant es to reove tm ti veil from an y plysiological MUlTIriMOttATiON OF tiF. 0 teatues. H[lence it is thfat eveln at the presentt day so mnueh that stands between what., in oul ignorance, we call the real afnd the spernatural, eminais tninev\ stigat e d tvien tlhse men whoseo ttindis are sklieptical uIponl any developmentot of thel trutis of great natural pihenomena,.x.n'.t... lo, at'll -ewvents, will thave Iprf before they adnlit the e evidence, re:ea.dy to give credit to the grossest absu rdities which may:e ptalmed upon tthem by ingenious charletmns, where the Stubjcct iS man and his relations to the spiritual world. Man, and the races of aninals by whiti ie is surrounded, tpr l sent a. very strikingtr group), consider thema in whatever light we please. The gradual improvem-ient of organic* fo:rm, andt the consequent i nrease of sensiability', and eventually the devellop,,ment t of reason, arte e the trand(,est ife.atures o animated creation, TI'ho conditions as to 1nunber even otf thwe vtarious classes are not the Itflast'remarkable pthelnomena' of lifl,. In the lowest order'cs of animnals, rea(itures of ih perlet. orga.ti: -ll cotnsequently those to whom the condiltions of pain must be nearly unknown,) tl -I increase by countless yrayriads. Of tthe infitsoria and other beings, entire mountains hatve been fiormled, although microscop)es of the highe:st ipowers are required to detect anl individual. 11 ighert in lth scale, eveln a'montlg inscts, th same remarkable tonditions of incr ttease are ffbsi, observed Some sil kworts ly ft' 1,0t00 to 2,(00 egg:s; the wasp desit s tt 000 the at from *t,000 to 5,000. The queen bee lays between. i5000 t and 6,000 elt s, aecordii to ftBurmeister; but Kir by antld Sl: nce state that in one season the number ma'y amount to t40,000 or 0, 000. But, above all, the white ant (,;''Irmes far. lis ) pi.rodle's 86,400 etggs each day, which, contiuing for. a Inicar nmonth, gives the astonishincg num.beir of 2,419,200, a numbe r f r exceeding that produced by any tknown animnal. Theol se mat y appear like the stat lments in which a fietionist: inilght 808 ANIMfAL STB'E:B TH, indulget, but they are the sober trutlhs discovered by the most pains-at:aiig anid cautious observers. And it is ncesmsary that suell conditiotns should prevail. Thcse insects, and all te lower t ribes of the aninal kingdom, furnish food fr'i tot he more elevated races. Thousands are born in an hour, and millions upon millions perishi in a day. PFor the support o of rgani life, like matter is- required; and we find that the creatures who are destined to be to co tho prey of otherst, are so constituted tthat they pass firom life with a perfeect unconsciousness of suffering. As the animal creation advances in size and strength, their increase becomes limited; and ttus they are prevented from maintaitning by numbers that dolmilon 0over the world wo hich they would be enabled fromn their power> to do, were their bands mlore utmerotbus than we now find them. The coparaative sttrentgth, too, of the ins ect tribes has ever been a subtject of wonder ad of a fdmiration to the naturalist. The sttrength of these ltinute creatures is enormolus t their munscular power, in relation to their Size, fari exceeds that of any other animal. The grastshopper, will spring two hundred timest the length of its own lbody. The dragon-fly, by its strength of win tgI ill sustaint itself in- the air for a long summtter day with unabated s peed. The house fly malk:cs six. hundred strokes with its wings, whict will carry it five feet, every second. Sucth are tet wonders of the natural wortld; from the zoophyto, growinrtt like a flowering )lantt(-) utpon an axis filled with living l: tith -- a small remove fromt the conditiots of vegetable life, upw-ards througrh thle tmyriads of blreatlhing things.to man, Iw see tihe dependence of all upon these physical powters which weo have been cotns iering. To trace the efl eets of these great causes throitgh all their mystertious p1hases is the workl of inductive science; atnd thet NATrViAL, itEV}TLAIrTON8. 8o 809 truth.l discovered tend to fit, us fbr the enjoymcnlt of thl eternal 8tate of high intelligence to which every thuman soul aspires. That which tie itgnor.mit man calls thle supteratutral, tlh philosolpher classs a anongsit natural pthnonmena. Thle ideal of the credulous man becomes the real to one who will bend his: m-indt to the taskc of inqutiry.. Therefore, to attempt to advance our kttowledgeo of the unknown, to add to the stores of truth, is tlan emnployryent wotrthy the high destiny of the human race,:litemaembering that the rovelations: of natural scitence cannot in any way injure the revelation of etternal truth, hut, on the contrary, aid to establish inm the mltinds of the doubting a firm conviction of its Divine origin antd of inta's lhigrh position, we need never fear that we are proceeiding too fart with any intairy so lont as we are cautious to examtine thle coadicidons of our own minds, that they may not be mbade the dupe of tthe senses.'In the futries of the hills ad t valleys, iin the gnomesi of the cavernss, in the spirits of the elelmentlCf we have the attempts of the mind, when the world was young, to give form1 to the tdin outshadtowinags of somothingi which was thlu felt to he hidden behind external nature. itt thle Oretd, the D')ryad, atnd thto Nereid, we have, in like mrianner, an emtbo:.iment; of powers which ttlh poNt-qphilosfopher saw in his visions:i presiding' over the nmontain, the forest, and the ocean.. Content with. t}he.lsoe,,invot)stod a they were with poetic beauty, mtan. f'or ago-s hld. theom moslt relitiously sacred; but t the priro';os of natural science has dlstrotyed this cl(ass of creations. " Oreat:I an dieal,"' but t thle imotntit s are niot voiceless; they spl8)k int a moreo colnvint ing tone; an.d, in stsa t of the ecr catching the d(ying: ec h') of an obst:.utre trut,tt it is gladdentettt l with the full, clear nlote of Nature, in tilt) sweete.-Ast voice, proelaitning secrets whtich wvere untkncwn to the tdreams. of sutperstititon. 310 I l..Et XVI (-.t[XI!iBAL (IONCIXJYSI[ONS. The Cthalges prodced on tPhysicat Phlenaotmena by the Moov eent of the Solar System consuidered....... xertion of the Physical FoArces through the Celestial Spacese -. The Balance of Powers -- Varieties of AMatter - Extension of tMatter-.Theory of Nonentity- AA Material Creation, an indisputable Fact~ —.Advautages of tthe Study of Scie3nce.eConclus ion, W.i have examined terrestrial phenotme ot under many of the harmonious conditions which, with our limited intelligence, wet can reach by the aid of science. From tho firstA exhibition of force, in the cohesion of two atoms, onward to the full developmenrt of organic foram in the highest order of amnim.ls, we have observed strange influences. We have seen the solitary molecule invested with peculiar properties, anld regulated b}y mighty forces; we have learned that th-e modes of motion given to this beautiful sphere produce cttrious changes in the operation of these powers; and we may with safety infer that every atom constitutting thi:. globe is held in wonderfol sutspension against every'atom of every star, in the celestial spaces, even to that bright orb in th e ce nre of the!leifades, around which the entire tsstemn of created worldst is as'upposed to roll. As we move around our own sun -. in the limited period of 365 days -w- e experience transitions from heat to cold, detpendent upon our position in regard to that Ituniiary, )Tay we not therefore conclude, withotut being charged with mttaing any violent deduction, that, in the great revolution of our system around the centre of space, we are undergoing gradual lehanlges CXXANE:38 O f OItAMAXTE. l I lhich are essentital to ohe g reait schllme f creatCion, though at present iicolmp rehtensible to us? In our consideration of the influence of time on the structlur of the earth as we find it, we discover that, in ages long past. the: ve.getation of the tropics existed upon these no-thern parts of thte.gobe; an' g ea olgica res earc h has also proved that over thle sate lands the cold of lan arctic winter imust have long pr)vailed.t- the immiense glaciers of that period Ihaving left the marlis of their movements upon the flce of the existing rolcks (:) We know that during 3,000 years no changte of temperature haft takn place in the tErotpean clijnate, Tle cildren of Israel found tIle date and the vine flourishing in Clanaan; and they exiist there still. Arago haIs shown that a trifling alteration of ternperatu:e would have destroyed one or the other of the s fruitbearing: trees, since the vine will not )ripten where the Imean temperature of the year is higher than 8t or theo date floutish where it:sinks below that degree. ]low immense, then, the duration of time since these changes mtust ave taken place! The 432,000 years of Orientatl mythol-i ogy i a period scareoly teonmnensurable with these effects; yet, to tlhe creature of threescore years, that period appears an eternlity. Tlhe thirtyluthre- millions of geogrfaphical miles whtich our solar sy stei travorses annually, if multiplied by three thotustand years, during which we know no chanige has taken piace, give us 99,000,000,000 a tlh distance passed over in thlat period. Itow wide, thi e, must have beent the journey of the system in pace to produce thlo alteration in the physical powers, Iby which these changes have been eftoeted I Wt have anit exatSmpile, and a striking one, of the variations whicl many'be produced in till the phyitcl conditions of a world, in those disturbances of Uranus which led to to t disclovery of Neptune., f or thirty yeats ort more certain perturbations were 812 ACTIVE P'OWR3S. observted in this distlat: planet, the discovery of Sir W\illiam Her s:lhell, and calculation pointd to somie still mnore renote mtass of inatter as the case, wtlhich has lbeen ve-rified I.ty its actuld discovery. But now Utrauls is att lost; quietly that: star iprogresstes i ts ati)pointed orbit, ~. Neptune cain no longer ceause it to frocfI: Iuon its centre, --.- ttey are, t.oo irei ote tto prtloduce anyy sensible influrice upon eacht other. (?sonequently, t;or ttliry years, it is evident, plihenomina must have oc:curred on the surface of'tHanus, which clan be no. onger repeated until thlcs two planets again arrive at the same pl:osition.S itt their rescpetivt plaths whlich they thave occupied sine 18I 2,.'T lics considerations i assist mus in our attetmilits to COl:nl'prllhend inlintit tinme ad spacte; but tho human minid fifls to aIdvalnce fair in the great ublilmity. lThrough every inch of space we have evidence of the exercise of sluch tires s we have been considCeing. G ravitation.4 chainst world to wNorld,'and holds lthei all susipended fronit the mystic centit r. Cohesion bindss every mass of tatter into a lheroe. leat, radtiatint fiom one plianet to anothler, doces its nwork in all, gfiving vlariety to rimatter. Liglht, seetlks out every \wor.ld.t - teach trembling mstar tells of the mlystery of its piresttee. W'here light and heIat are, chlemical action, as an ass: eiasted power, must:,be present; and telcticity must do its wondrous duties amnrong'st themtI all. M.odified by pteeuliar pInoperties of matter, they m ay not rimanifest tthetmselves itn Iphenonelna like those of our terrestrial natutre; }}butt tlme evidenet of ligtdit is a sulfticient pr&oof of tho presence of its kindred elementts; and it is dificult. to im:atgine all these powers in action without producing some formt of organizationt, Int the rounded pebble whliich we gather from the:sashorc, -.in tlhe medtt sa floatint g tbright with! all the b}ea.uty of prismiatic colour in the sunliit sea,........ in the anitmal, mtighty int Iis strength, roaming the laby:rinthline,forests, or, great in initcllgence, looking from t to to the mysterie of of other worlds, ONENS:i OFt CEATI:ON, 813 ~-in all creatite t.lings around tus, wo see direcCt ovidence of a( lbeautiful tladjutsttent: iof the balance of tfrces, antd the: Iharettt ous trrtangteminent of propetri:is One atom is reimoved friom a mass and it.s eharacter is h:. force be",'c anoed; one t force re ne) iv red more aetive than another, and the body, under i t it nfluetne, ceases to bo thfe samle i condtition. The reulaftito \whi.h dis:poses thle arrangement of tfmatter 0o this e:arth, mus8t exist tlhrolug thle celestial spaces, and every p lanet t bears the s:am relation to evlery other glittering:tmass int heatven's )o'larcling canopy, as one atomt bears to anotther in the 1pftlde, thte tedusa, tthe lion, or the man. An indissolubl.le I,'ond unites thetn all, and tlh grain of;and which lies buried in the dept tl ot o ne of our pritlary fioritmattions holds, cthained to it y th rse alt-r ing,frcv es, thie uteouteld worlds whicth, like lumtinons sand, are spriutkid. by the ha1nd of the Creator through. the niverse. Ttus twe advance to a eoneeptiot of the oneness o:f c:eation. Tiho vigorous mitnd of lthat iatmor'tal. bard who san' "of mttan.ls first disobledien ce ev,"' never }, in t hi est tte iitst ra the holiest trance of Spotic eon cpttion dreamcd of any natural truths so sublimtnte as tthoe vlich si me has reveatled t t us.'The de.tpndence of all the sy'}wstelmns of worlds upon each othler, every (l ist composing ea':.~ch individuil glotte beinig "' weigihed in a lI'balance," the adjiustiment. of the b owers bery p ver ysictal cot.ition is ordered, thte dispo.rition of mattter i the mass of the teaitt, and the close r Iic:ation of the ki,('ngdomis (f nat te,...are all revelatiolns of natural truttts, exaltting t:he mind't to t the divine conception of the universe, Therel is a i'rearlkab: antagoniismt d is:.layed int the operation of tmaitny (of these irces. aviitatint and eolht siont act in opplosition'li t tthe repe hltIt titthlt n:nees otf caoIric. LiAht and heat are oftekn associated in a very retarkattble mai:ier l but they are'5' Sf4 FISOt OF TOs IIB tii^^STs. certainly in their radiant states in antagonism to chnemical aetiot, w}hether produced by the di'cct agency of actinic force, or ttrough t he interinediate excitenment of the electrical eutrrent (^ in) nl in rcltion ti o cliheMneal foree, as mantifested in organli eomninations, we have the all-powerful operation of LI i.. preventittg atiny exercise of it tdecoposing power, (1) As world is 1balancie against world int the universe, so in the human fabric, in the vegetable structure, in the crystarllfied get, or in the rudo rockt, force is weighed tagainst force, and the balance,1hang, s in tranquillityt. Let but }ta -slight disturbance occasion a vilbation of the bteamt, and electricity shares the stoutest heart Nwith terror, at tie} might of its devatstatiln power. (;: tHeat melt.st the Ihardest rocks,: and the earth t rembl:es with voleanic st rugglingsr; a actinic agency, being freed froml its chains, sptcdily spreads decay o\ver thie betauttitu, and renders the h:ively repulsive. \We ];iow -matter ix a infan itnfitie vtarity of forms, fi rt tie mo st ponderous me 13tal to to he lighte- t g; tand we have it withil our power to render the most ) tsolid Ibodies i i nnviiti in l the co.ndition of vapour, Is it tnot easy, then, to tundtilc tandf thalt:matter'may exist equally;ttenuatIed int relation to'thydrogn, as that gas itself is, when comipareld, vith the meC al lilatinmun? A doubt has been rtaised against thfis view, froimi the difficulty of accomuting ifr the.,p:assage of the physical elemcentts thirougl sol id masDses of matter. If we, }however, remeOnell.le that the know-in gasYies ha ve tIhe power,f' tras',iration through'matter it a remarktt able degr" ee,(-': ) and that thle passage ot water thr ugh a sieve maiy e preve.nted 1bt he}at, it will bj att t once a'tarenlthat thi t[e pecttt attion of anty radiant bord througth fixed solid mattr, is entirely a question of onditiodes.'Vc ecan fI'n n( ide.a of the so t nit iate at; w cantllnr co.mrtl:ehe d tIth dc cgr c of ctherca f'tixation to whichii tinattec mtay b. extended. OiS atmo lsph're, we have seen, is only }. ~,~~.,t } \t~t 4_.{r? t tt}.}t|.'?. 1tt}lt\\4w iS>t NIAW C. l At:) I.TS P'OPRt'EIT, 8E5 15 another condition of tlhe samet elements which com0pose all tihe organized fiorms of matter upon the earth, and, at the heoight reached by mlan, it is il a state of extremoe attenuation. What rimust be its cotndition atI the distance of forty miles ftrom the earth? According to known laws, corttait phenomenat of refraction have led:us to set tlhe1s bounds to the matter eonstilutinbg our globe: but it mnay exist in such a state of tenuity, that nTo philosophical i.nstriummt. constructed by human hands could, measure its refrttating power; and who shall declare with certainty that matter itself mtay not be as fir extended as we suppose its influences to b1)? I [ast, thou perceived the breadth of the earth? declare, if thou Ikowest it all. "Knowest thlo the ordinances of heaven?' C anst thou se8t tlL dom>inion thereof in thle earth Y?' A cheerless philosophy would teach us to regard all things as the mere exhibition of properties, a manifestation of powers; it believes not in a material creation. T'he grandeur of the eart-h, and the beautiful forntms adorning itt, are not entities. Yondertt exquisite specimen of the still of mtan, in which mind appears to shtine throtug tthe marble, - that: distat nt mountain which divides the tloudts Ias they are driven by tthe winds across it, ~.. those trees, amid wfhose branches the birds make most meldious music, ~t.. this flower, so redolentt of perfiume, so briight in colour, anld so symmetric ina form, s... and t hat lovely being who, a model of beauty and grae, walks the eartht an impersonation of love a:l charity blended t, iaking indeed, "a suntshine in a shady place," are nort realities. Certain trees combine to produce eftects, all of which unite to deceive poor man into thefl: belief thatt he is a material beintg, and the inhabitantt of a rmaterial world. there maity be ingenuity in the philosophy of this school; its metaphysics may be of a high order but itc evidently 10 I ti A I)VA' TA 0 t V M.c O c.iC, advnttces fromt the real to the ideatl with stuch r:aliit id{y, that every arguttlent is based on an assumptttion withouit a proof; evetry assumIption 1being merelytI a type of the philots>ophly itself, - baseless ttfaice, a transcetndefntal vision. 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On- w i1,;m mely4 l1v 4' -4-f 1i.i'i:f' 4 lI4':: 1i44-:i,' 1i4 11 441 lt'o *t', t 4h4v ha 14'4441' v v. l i w c- I i tho fw Boa tr m f vanw; d t-of m ^^ it Us ff — hl- i f A] Jlttem^o^ t:n- }I'4. {::h ite-'1 4''- t i:p' thc::.mio 1 f. h l11* i. lit 1an4 4 1 ni~- h i):w -i m im m lu*g to- ftir }enevoh'nt hcf.:r v 3, 4 4, tJ ~ 4, I Vint 4o.,.f th-e I, 4lal tI n Iand 4 44 4t1a1 I:m --.':x.lmv- tV:Z w ift. utmairula of 1Prof. G ~'Jaum,'m lhstoP'of l 4fltti'. thef 4 1lv of;si1h a w44 k I. J 44 *-'1:,,. wi:l,. roh y o i. - i o' of S ri? etalo 1. f r vo er ro'.4,.'eand oo.Md ift b It ihn the ham of ov ) n''f o P14 44 44 4n44 44m44 abl444 to4 a 4I4 4 r if- vo44 14-jIr ht t14 414 al1it't 4,d l so i< l? al ohera 14 tT44 4 i -x 1 \',, a 1 1144- 4 1:..? 4twhich 44,1411:.4.t I.*.'itill *4t * t1*1a1i4n44 of t'4 41,e'-i','4, 4 14i bomin-,.m:v,' OALo.od:,.f the Buo nun:Mion.) I44orv1 of Pn1- 1- a41-4l44 M44i4- o~~. 4f 44 th44 14e1' i' 4 4' i 1 to144 1 1444' ~'41'-41444444444,441414.14 14444*1ta1r as Inve11t Iton 4 4 1am a4o hi 4hh1 4f 44'i044 with1 ft,< ad-Aptaioit to tho wm.;,: at_ fsof the f l,enonn fon ft th$'? d eoit k.' fl ^aio M s itlv Ili 14441 4'ton I' a4.A,-1to 144114' 14*4444' 4if ~ieh4l -oadi 1ot 44 * * 4 4 4' 4t h 4 *he 1414? 1 f o1ur t'burott' d f' 4' ( of'~ 11o*, 44 4* A) 14l old. I -41''1.14"4,'44'4 I a*'*o 1 to 11* 0114 1thl wit in the* 4i ** of my 4*411444 414414i 1 a'4c * *1- v 14o 4*to 441 444e 4 with 1'44 * oI 4444 1 44e*1 4 1' * that 4 4 444 I 41 vo I4 4 oor4 14 1'4 444 11 44* ao 11, 44*4* 1ot *4 4 4 4 1 (4'a'14*14*1o4' * 4* o1i4 1i-4 4'V. J. 44ad4- of t-he44-41 1 *4an 41s- n * " 1**4 I* 4 4 1 44I 4 of* oe c1*4 o ot o t p e 441 14 1e t4 4o Iato wh* el t4 re4 t 4o the 1 1i4-44 1 w14t V." 1 am *44*' 14t and 44lh 4 OV41 4 *414 II4 1'*-1''*~ L* OL1 50 4 4 -1 *f4I 4 * TO 1444441*'T T, 1O*10, 1 .: f, fPl (J:, IJ (A N (I1 A B I > NITY: OBi: TR:UE. LIBERTY;,t.s t.4Ut&Mc i +d iho L~e, Pr:'e'cqt,. ant i.rl Dla -y p: s of Mi (Greeit lhedecicme. By E.'I. A,oooN........................... It is adapt:edl to the:spilt of ithe nes. It meets and answers the great miq1n.iry of the proseint day, It d ibe.a clearl the cmtruptons of paist tinesthe il'p-fedTcitosl of the neent, "n tile tlian;ges thOat ilut be t*'i.ete^l ia tle fi'rms ailnd piMt of reli'i:ii an, tihrou. i' r-eligion ui)pon tho Smtn', Po GIWmdf...nfotta ]k~oo.'~ U' 111idom, 0r, ItluesL(ostons off P:iracticI,. Ueodl6 en d r omn /i'em eeoe W' t a'i. BY' i, L. MA( OON, iamo, l'rii'e 90 cois. 1 He is: quaint; seitentions. -lie has indeed the tnre rat qualitie.s, pithi, po.nt n id pat hos' atd alwvays enfo'reos high and noble ciitiments.". -;. I"S/ecorkr* "It is a popmlar maniial of great. practioal utility." ~.' Ch. C(rnv c P:hi.f, "Thie.taie "s are so e leeted a to embriace rt.rly aill thepraetical dutiel of liite lie work, ii o:seineaee of this peculiar eiharacter, will be funYd ex.tesi.velyusefeti. -......ie:./crat:t, of"e wor abouvd,: l witihi oririinal and pithy niatier, we vl adaIpted to engge tlhe "attenion and to'iefiorm nthe life. We]ipe these disotrses will ho extensi'vely rotead.*' ~.f.o.- i -'../A'i' I" is a'n excellent loo.k f'or vNouig peolde and cspeeiillv for yomug mRen, aimndst the tempota':tions of bismnes and plcasure.d'.lb.i-~, L:prcss. NWAY I. A N ])D'S U NI i B!SITYI i S. ONX, ISE? RIM(ON S ltlDE-.I V \LI:i:l..;I) IN IB':.IOWIN I.. IVIE U ES ITY. By FRANCIS WAYLAI, 1). I) ^teer:nt-l E-liii-et list" Pli —o IIfLs " **Few- it-nit — c^te u.o:-ed'it"m.-bi i — Itg, tIr t..1:$ thou-ht i lti e' Dr. VWt itllud.'1f-lIht-t uro loti-neia~ ti:ijtpte t'i te tttlttPeiit thevo xtttttitt andi t her; i claf-si.uitv it. dic tio ut..'i-i:ai: —t by aN y t'writier, artd eql.t:ilejd by ii.vet - \c' rI,' P. < r:.t' thte y P'o i th Pt.$aref..1:ode'{ojta' a t i. ai tl: lePwtfl intelloet, esYpe c alN adtiapted Pi'i, t In dIi:d it-I tl:ieglfit tl nmt-t Cir. 4If t.t: vthe' I —::e - iti l.i... t,: -: tit 13.3:, -— tint',. ti tt-,-it th ii' iett-":.. ittie tnt thinkl)tifg it M t. t i an pmn of it winit-i- I i- nii dith t iti mghi at-v'ei iii tion stronrgly i t''^d;i:. d ftlii:.l;(d t:o ild Iltl::t.;Il tt into ste ~'incig;~tceriI:. wh~i(:ch al'p:e'~.r...~ l-!:1i ev cry i m^ l A-?, A r:' at- il, 1)r r, Way - llnd is iita l.'d bi iti. —ittlticu 1ig ii!att3 i ti;:' nrIlt.t: 3',-i eI:I tti vi.'P'^.5" Ccl'. "An admirably pIe'ia.rei,Ai ) to i'iheolit -nd S t o(:, Wit ii's ly ( 4gi iv t ri f tb p; li clo,'ji~'%v.- t iiit. v,.ul i ^to ^ k ti- W ri' a iby it:'itiz: t':::s n i-L'th iit:::i t-i ta. ii t. o,::s', t:i:-, h:'i,.:.:t,l it'. pt:a,' -f'it~ 0.1 ov"; A Of lw l Ciitti iiIl~:n-~U> uii, t' m' f t t 0,i e. mi sn'u:.?.i:-t:is (it th i?'~' s.:.f?!. ~h: st i'.tJa tio: t tutfti:t. r - k i- ort am':;.::-'tt ijie.l.:rj ^..(.corot".:' Ji:.74^:, sk.,:;~ ttu.>;<}'h:pt'ii f.wr, ii. $-^^i- l:~ it.? u c:ki' i,,:, }':.:s:v'Khi<;h ve ifn'bir:'I, bVI.i;ifth,'i,!- Jd,,'.o.'v::?.~ of mh w &:.'y fh.. ~s-ierw I^t^^ m ^~c^^, n.^ &,X'::,,;::-:.,. ~: inu.:i:t'~,Vo::t;.~:,:,:sy. m iv -i~!t I';.e,~:(', <:'i:. ",[2 GREA Ti.r.i;:::-.::io::. dei'.d, ^ ii.i>.!i,:' lhat wh...:::.i;t sI *"'d ^ H:. k E"l. if 0-ri,:..'il.: lii:a.k,* L II Wil S B eI I A t Ef i ll'osil.si IU:'g r v ~ly Se.r" mon-: rnd vl';._:.:s:, WvidD:.;i. IIl~Vocsnlrur slt yI';l.y:~1u:.d. t' byv l,,.'l i:r.,, th1) ie,;,''?a 1ents,'MAMMON i 0( Covetoiine )rt 8m',~ow~: es o? the Cl:rbiUtim.~ C}.mveh. A Prize 1,~: r~. -Jce. cn. -eSt f.s. i t.s, h: S''X'3i~ PtS~~"zjX?`'^. I~a~:irl^^ii:3~:s~y ~ iive~g~sgc4 theii~:s~ErarHon~s~~r of ch~urchy~s:^tzd m^ ^iu'ldu^^C,n.t-l~d r~e:~issay. l'rie c,. ~be~t5 ee.~l n m4 s, t,e.,. II..tm - Jl.' ZI::U LON } Or:' the.[omi'd C-.lams of Se:amen sth'.,ate.d: anp~d enfioTrced. Ed::ited by ]h:v. W. M. ]:'2oor'Bs1 amd D.:. i',Loni.). Prb ie 2,?,cortk l,.t Aw:l ~.': i:'h,;-::l ela..u,~, fulrt, aaid. ]or^g ail^g~ci~-ite el~'-,.-TH ACTIV'bOH:(3I RITI A N l C(:?onta:lin'ing, trhe t Witne:stsing~', (me.O hf, *~ Chtd:,;i:amth Exc011ellene,",'m,:d ^'Q <:.i.'.:: of i Jkblfti.ne.: %" thvre: Ijaiipulah pl~ro* (tuotiobs of:hihs t;lon;d..tcd iu thor..-....Pri e~ 81 cenoot~ GOU ~ RENI.)A'', AND ItNWCOL.N'. PU.MCATION3. THI FOUR OO PEP-iL, WITH NOTrE, Clhifi'y Explamat3or'y; intended prni p.';3pallv 3i.Tr S'33balh 8c{'bo,:t Teach.i' er.4"'Bible Ola.s1Ua, j 1a1nd W, an 3a3d 1to i'a rvIiy' ltnh't I1 JlNsx JI'. By IpY' ~LB y, Newovto TtheoL. 1J'3t3i 3 3t3k~,'vt0i1h 11:3d3iion, Price.:; 11.,20. V-~" T~^ ^5~~ ors h 1^ 33 th~3'' h~'^:~ or etve 3 ~13.133.~3'f the3 B33ible, 13~33 ~lf^1; sery u,;ll: ~3.~3 131o 3 3'3who ~3431: s iu h h33^3~3)33ht~ 3 s 33o 3~04 c 1i'3''3'.~ tE' ~ 3~1 i-;P 3~, 3 ~4 tPA' s-'J% ~t~i, ~3 * ~.ldm1t,,. : t.3 of1 e c r. 11~:3 h lY:l ooB of thel: l O~IIUo rk. ^^/:0 e Edhg NSED~l~r {v{ th<~ ^ake ^f ~ ttni ^udi rAO i, Ao we Com plNotes C 3~tl~:E~r~~9 ~bul k 333~.'V.'ov~ 11 k, 1333 f3 3 C.'' i wel~- ~': i: ~i.,:-:,n.::e f~,,r!;:l. ~t < r-:,',''iMedr\ i: rli; ATT'..:. r'.:ait;:l't'ei AfPOSTl LES,, WITH IOTi 01'1: Tl:ltie'r APOi a-'.., F WfIn 1 t9'.X;l lmit.: ltr.D: tesign ed.~:sc i:iorl,:'..... Y'o:,.?.%~.. Bible:Ohls::.t;5ln:..:'C:~i'~~, ]V~ (t.,.:t. 3". 3.' 3, 3'1'-", a rn'3,3 e h3 3',.,~333' felt.33. — the 1. ~d'::.3, d p y f f'r^r^a~Si ant~, thh~ fh.?:3f the2~l~t~t o^ toh-h, 0I e ^' the Xot< w^ri Vh t:.,,'i^ld:4 tihe:} *'..' mndh.:.. ~.-r tv, Ni,: wi-;.I-d nd,:-e i.: by'm s: ^:} it Q aAt e 3:~~~ or.,t'~:"i3~e.:l 33t~n1:: t'it 3~ ep')' and''3'3,,.-3 ~te~ 33' r333 th'e'3"' ~i:: 33 ~ h,':33, 3 3i''~33 33 ~i<.' ms t Ne:t n,;: i Ze b:i t %: hiel l::(.,?:. tlI:, a.ih-,,~] ae <~~a b<,'..s., ~ A i~ t i.' ~le' itmO 5k $1N ~ I a,. th blk7 P3 *'.o' 3 3t3e e g 33a333 f 31 ~ 33.3, 33 ~3e1d1ing of13n3~ 1hed p;I.'i8~rF Stt~iH~ri;:ef c, who h~fa: h::rg~nP- seinsdnt ed -~ —'hh ~,9th e wor of th^val Mod Tww? (111;^b-on and Ithefontrae!n f i^, ^e^ i t, b b if CM I nae i^u 1w tUeisi: 3~.Ss3l "3- 33~''.":~ 333e 3)3'~333^~ 3.3 ~3~ <>r~ 3v 333~1 1 n do.33t fl^r.~n ihi~ 6> Z, 3 Th 3e3,'~3333 3n3 "'3 p ~3'353 th 33~3)> 333 3033 on"3> 33'3''3~' 3'' 3 need 3 33. We~3 o 33e 3 3 of ~3e ~3 3. 3 o? 3~3n33e~~33~ 3n3.(on*, 3~3.i 333vao 3 33 3~ ~33''''' 3 333 3~ 3.33 P''~'333~33 33~'3.O3'333'3~.3t~~~. 33.,.W3., 3 3,3~333~33 ~ 333~.rOf~ 3'>333A 3" 3.34l 3v'~'3~~~ 3~'33~ i~ ~' ~..33>'3~~~3 (3,3333 3'3~3333'333'3,3~3~~333'~33'3~~~'3'33 3'~~~'11~33~,3.3 3 tile~''3~3~~3, ~3~ 133'3~333 ~3>33 333 333 3333''~3333~ babluaBle Sldoos BJaook0' BLAt'LA' 8:.iIFRT BOOK XI' ABT2,O'O~IY, J)4se~e.4J fr theUs oIf mnr* oi ScI.-oI;, By th z I3-tt^,:,^ of V h H We^.-'.,'. o;.<:;i.v h:r'~~l~ it..i:o, *~i' om~ op'hfir:i - b::;.. ~: -,, m y ltv, v? y4.4 ~:J'0k IO~'' b(: " I)l'/.?!.;d in'^'I' /O.4.'llb u shI>l l.l * 4' 8*u t:*.M1). In48to In:.'. A.vovri; km' o P o p, w 1: *i^i i ali foi. Exa,."t>~f::l, Ntief.Q:st';aoi.'::r' E. x~: mi-,'~!:. io iliIi iei k m-v h}fl Pt'i, io:n:' i'fi Mr;~k oC Y r L.le~' ii n-ofh twet,. ei' stA }::py ]..ly,}t,' }-'. )1, m. s. I hirl,,'rk. e,. 67 cnls ~ ua~-~i tivas ar^' s~*'h@~isrr fe^ t1~,;ii~s i^ X^'~.^T ir~f e8I cu' ^>'.-:i-'' f thr r 0 I K ikK. Vf'Tb. PIlJrd. li:-r. k tiyi:a tk":he ~I'~.r t:oi' c;:'it:o f:.% ~,i,~h wrb,;)?, i't Ij,~~~~:. *uni-*.........i;... 18 4t.4 v~v 1 wfl~et-,.:.:-:e~: l:~:ghly.g1iM*cU<-4 ~:*'il~l't t~he l.it)-(.r:v~' h,, yoto 1,itai'on?(t C1onl j }4 I'" Iwvr?^y<~ rea hh - (-nrai^ wl h th~ ^rile <>f yrVwr (e^UWoa of? o c ^dV k itit^;-? io ^h^ w<7;, ji r ip fw va v other. I to ir & ftat~ d, I ^h^U.^comm^^d It whenvi i B.sve akt uim op) 1 (*:.1.i 5 **,%i4*..*,* *4 4*' L.:.4::'.:- 144:~g ** 1' 8 4 f.<'1*4..~:i~, f wli, &-YSI-Ia oni v r::Av cof thiai Itrti y Co: hhj d nd msnh2y~\ $?.lsol' t<:4 A 1UA Y haiF* { I-oa Onr i hd 1 4414.4(14 8 11 (it'^ 641 144 *11. 444 4 "^4 *144444' 418444 tQ YOING LADIBXS OLASSA BOOK. A Sel:'ction of l,.sson: fori: l: i: Pro:'ei ad Yesc, iBy:E:I.ie, A, i t' i:ricncip:l of ith"'.le Y.N d ti l, lili. Si choo l, Bo:s'. toLe n n. StV'otiypOi Edildti.on. tX amo, s. decp, iric,;8. cout, py( m >4's 4 it 44>'V.P Ie/fii Pt~in.Sf o ft ^~:?^'^^, iif.m 4"tii sigater. i. V 1i4..''-:<: >0:':. > s' 1ih l. s w4e h,.>t,::v it t i.a'-L e,: ^. t t aI.yI: mivj~ thits.te. i:s;.Sr,.'': diia'.!r, it. t:I......:.,r It:l. for it'.-,:'l'r.ilt.s-i::lv4 ofthc'ot.;r, te p',hvlpi:td the th'::rr.m rliy be fiid mfet h'3: e o{rnlbtd.(>n b4:;i sulcll fg t fi t You~^ I~ad^^C^>.^ B<^k ^uv p!it Ate,.ix'h~ ht~ixone.i^ moi:'lii, 4i,~ ".t. fl'.:'.,:. jxx x, \..'' e:, tt,,itd:-....: f,: s.l):.:.:.:i' I,:t. ti'I I..t, nt<:4 t ",.::. e:;,ti u AN; tt; lut!4 wthi^y wwa ipt>. 4> i4 t CI to oh vr4. {h 4: 4 44 f s, tC ^ to >4 r II.:4,:1 4..,. 3ti.:......''It,::.:, lt nt $1..>tiittttt:Ot k, 0, PI,^, Cflhxsl CFOX"* **I?~.~~et itx m~i'~t h 4 t144.4:h Lqlez4:':344 tl4.:t YOit:: 4 i,. i..te-.IhkB':'k, by it.?..NtV i 44,ca xrh~MI.1 ettix nls4irr~~~~CP t~nrX c~nit I've ti i' t tt".. 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C:ea.r-o:..r; $m v;. w eeee. ii. y..t:i fa *imnpl:@ e.. act oft.lt:~ilice to ~a)y, th;-'4N t.:appl'ie: the "v:m1t, Ihkhd,:^' weia Ide;:'..',::: l.o.:er, flt, hI!n a m! -,ii- f.:f ~?o? of s:hs!i'lt Onet!iu'r:itr\!c..'i.smii it. tf';:a.{:b?.s., h-.:-ct^d: ~le:i:,;:-: a!:.;.~emh:isrle:~, i:.~ tht'ioi;to'l f~^:-.nef of &i ]iu.l i:, eovn *$h mo'.t:V VI t.,':IA i'i:n;'< eto ih<. d tihig:c-,if ^ i ~, of 1oi(esent I n v t i v t;y; l,sites timf? b Ivo!"~ ko kh i-ttoUA wbhd-K & um. ]n;~ ivod,d o fl?' i:t'' f' to kni.'s:..t Wi e Iro:~nie... ti th, o,:;;:: A.s.. ysasK a.d*i.,'l, to the tat:i.*.: {i Q U tn *e ~od sb., o ifUowi r, ^"fw, "r'*We well r:em~ronl'r, n itthe f:!yo:.'f o.~r'pw s'fb how aom. pudyt:m:w:. thof of' iuc 10)1xiy.1,'ri. th.''k:mIt.:w., f": ihf:::r.e~r h <~:- f fao-:: a.nA:et: i ~', artl., {,'s~ hti::.:e-l t.. o,..t$:"-,,s.-.,.i th,, Aeom t:' q.i.(l-:: a.d, ldt lxf~io^*tb,.ZB~~I~~i i o~le t fa ti^ aret*,, t d whh ^iOlt tk 1 dI: leonile^ thenu?'oo^ imoA hin w~oi~ti Vvi~o el vi )poo whike triflug peo ari re ^:eluntod""::,.O nTxom h @~: w~~'l;:., ot.. th I ~oi:.}tt aii: ia:me:r ['a<,' enUtoome tir, aim ~,-mi'e'av h'!oh~; o^. 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