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B~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

E R
THE RELATION OF
APPLIED SCIENCE
TO
SUGAR PRODUCTION

IN HAWAII
A REPORT COMPILED
BY THE
EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE
HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION., 1915
HONOLULU. OCTOBER, 1915

EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE
HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION
MR. FRANK J. SHERIDAN,.
Special Agent, U. S. Dept. of Commerce.
DEAR SIR:-I transmit herewith a paper entitled, "The Relation of Applied Science to Sugar Production in Hawaii."
This has been prepared with the cooperation of Messrs. Burgess, Lyon, Norris, Potter and Swezey of the staff of this Experiment Station, and is intended in some measure to convey to
you the information you requested of me.
Respectfully,
H. P. AGEE,
Director.
Honolulu, October 15, 1915.

CONTENTS.
Introdttction......................................... 11
An Outline of the Experiment Station Work.............. 27
Entomology....................................... 37
Plant Pathology....................................... 43
Manufacture..................................... 54
C hem istry.......................................... 61
' A griculture......................................... 71
':j Publications......................................... 80

- - - - ------------ - -
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The Relation of Applied Science to Sugar
Production in Hawaii
INTRODUCTION.
Hawaii ranks third among the countries supplying cane sugar
to the markets of the world. Cuba and Java take first and
second place.* That the output of both Cuba and Java is far ill
excess of that of Hawaii is grap)hically told by the accomplanying
chart, and is readily accounted for by the more advantageous
conditions under which the industry in these foreign islands is
operated.
It might be concluded at first thought, because these three
widely separated island localities are to the forefront in catering
to the demand for cane sugar, that their success is due to some
favored conditions with which they have been endowed in common against the rest of the world lying within equivalent latitudes.. This is not the case. The cultivable areas of Cuba, Java
and Hawaii are but the smallest fraction of the total frost-free
tillable areas of the globe. To enter fully into an explanation
of why the cane sugar indlustry has attained ascendancy on these
islands wouldl be to trace the sociological and political upheavals
that have affected the decline of cane sugar l)roduction, first in
the countries around the AMediterranean, afterwards in Brazil,
San Domingo, the lritish West Indies and other districts where,
to go back to early history, there were promising cane sugar
outlooks. It suffices for the l)resent, however, to show that the
survival of sugar production in Cuba, in Java, and in Hawaii is
due to separate and distinct causes, for the-industries of the three
districts are built upon totally dissimilar foundations.
The mainstay of sugar production in Cuba is the abundance of
cheap lands.
The mainstay of sugar production in Java is the abundance of
cheal) laborr
Hawaii has neither cheal) lands nor cheap labor. As a substitute for these she has develol)ed, and must perforce maintain, an
efficiency which is well ahead of that of her foreign comlpetitors.
This contention may be emphasized by setting forth a few
salient facts picturing the position in which the American islands
* British Inldia, which Nwould rank first, exports no sugar, and is therefore
omitted from present (consideration.

PROI)UCTION OF SUGAR IN lHAWAII, JAVA, AND (:TBA FOR
TWENTY YEARS-1895-1914.

Year.
1895
6
7
8
9
]900
1
9
3
5
()
8
9
1910
1.
12
13
14

Hawaii ~
Tons (2,000 lbs.).......... 149,627.......... 225,828......... 251,126.......... 229,414......... 282,807.......... 289544........ 36(),038.......... 355,611......... 437,991.......... 367,475.......... 426,248......... 429,213.......... 440,017.......... 521,123......... 535,156.......... 517,090.......... 566,821.......... 595,258......... 5 4 6,7 9 8......... 617,038

Java *
Tons (2,(00 lbs.)
641,069
589,(63
646,283
799,208
840,453
820,402
885,965
988,915
1,041,466,162,984
1,145,496
1,177,044
1,333,935
1,368,942:1,374,867
1,409,215
1,616,614
1,467,373
1,482,8(60
1,421,098

(Cuba t
Tons (2,00( Ibs.)
248,263
233,746
336,802
380,584
340,110
705,320
942,675
1,10 1,073
1,146,654
1,282,271
1,299,347
1,573,738
1,060,376
1,668,437
1,988,952
1,635,223
2,089,962
',6 77,001
2,863,506
2,86(60,006

~ Data for 1895 to 1900, inclusive, obtained from Planters' Monthly, 1904,
p. 492; data for 1901 to 1914, inclusive, obtained from Manual of HI. S., 1915,
p. 94.
* Data for 1895 to 1911, inclusive, obtained from World's Cane Sugar Industry, by Geerligs, p. 121, re-computed into short tons; data for 1912 to 1914,
inclusive, from International Sugar Journal, July, 1915, p. 341.
t Data for 1895 to 1913, inclusive, obtained from Manual of Hawaiian Securities, 1915, p. 96-long tons multiplied by 1.10231; data for 1914 obtained from
International Sugar Journal, July, 1915, p. 341.

/595.

_
$ op

nw T..aliftliia 44 11(urboll, the variOtyl '",i( li ii t
cokain distri6t".

are placed in upholding their chief industry. \\e quote from
Geerligs, a world authority on sugar:
It is to be consi(lered a great a(dvantage for the Cuban
CUBA. industry that the fertility of the soil allows sugar cane to be
treated as though it were a weed which, once planted, wants
hardly any further care or treatment."
But little care is bestowed on the planting, and yet the sugar cane
once planted yields ample crol)s for years, and that without any manuring
or tillage to speak of. When in the end the cane is considered too old
for a further crop, and the old stubbles are removed, the same soil when
plante(l anew will yield again very satisfactory crops for years, an(l that
without any rotation of crops, till finally being exhausted it will be abandone(l and used as pasture lanl.
After the cane is cut, the stumps are covered with dry leaves to
prevent too great an evaporation, anll owing to the natural moisture of
the grounn d and the occasional showers the cane will soon shoot up again,
and, as a rule, is once more ripe twelve months after the cutting. The
sugar content of first and secondl ratoon canes is supposed to be highest,
while after the second ratoons the yield of cane becomles less. Generally five to six ratoons are grown, but very often this number is excee(led as circumstances require. A good crop should yield at least
80,0((0() arrobas per caballeria ((i2,(000 Ibs. or 27.8 tons per acre), although
sometimes 100,000 and even 160, 000 arrobas are obtained. The average
crop) is 50,000 arrobas per caballeria (17.33 tons to the acre). As soon
as a plot promises no larger a crop than 20,()00 arrobas per caballeria
(say seven tons to the acre) it is usual to plant anew, providing there
is no lack of labour. But when labour is scarce, and it is too late in
the season to expect a timely harvest from the cane by the following
crushing season, it is better to keep on the same cane for another year
as this is more profitable in the end. The same field may happen to yield
a crop exceeding 20,000 arrobas, in which case it is kept again for further
ratoons, so that at the best of times fields may still yield quite satisfactory crops without requiring any fresh planting, after having been
cut uninterruptedly for 30 seasons."
Field treatment does not amount to much; on some modern estates
it simply involves cutting and weeding the grass regularly, and going
with a plough, drawn by oxen, between the rows in order to loosen the
soil after the cutting is d(one; but even this loosening of the earth is
often neglected, so that reaping thle crop is tie only treatment the cane
plantations regularly witness besides that of planting and weeding.''
* * * * * * *
The cost price of sugar depends primarily on that of the raw
material and on the percentage it yields; and, finally, on the expense of
mianufacture, packing, and transportation to the harbour. Suppose 1)00)
arrobas of cane have cost the mill $2.70, and yield 10 per cent. of sugar,
the cost of 1 arroba of sugar in raw material would be $10.27; suppose
the cost of manufacture to amount to $0.10 per arroba, and that of
transportation to $0.05, then the cost price of sugar (delivered in the
warehouses on the coast will come to 42 cents per arroba-7s. 6d. per
cwt., not including interest on amortisation, capital and loans, renewal
of machinery, etc. Should all these items be taken into consideration,
the total cost price will be fronm 2 to 21i cents per lb., being equivalent

1'assel (f Lallajnq (Iftllv

to 9s. 4d1. to 10s. (6. per cwt., according to a number of data obtained
in 1907, by the (CXommittee of Ways and Means in the United States."
D)oubtless there are estates in which the cost price is far less,
owing to a favourable situation near the sea, which decreases the transportation expenses. Willett and Gray quoted in 1910 as cost price of
Cuba sugar at average f. o. b. Cuba 1.85 cents per lb., and at average
c. i. f. New York 1.95 cent. They fixed 2 (ents per lb. as maximum
f. o. b. Cuba cost price, and 1.5 cent per lb. as the minimum. Their
figures, consequently, are lower on the whole than those quoted by the
manufacturers in 1907.'
The transport cost by railway sometimes forms a considerable
part of the expense; it amounts, for instance, to 60 cents a bag of 325
Spanish pounds-that is about 0.2 cents per lb., or about 11 /d. per
cwt.-for all factories which have goods conveyed to the coast by the
Cuba Railway Co., irrespective of distance."
Thus Cuba enjoys a low cost of production despite an extensive and inefficient system of agriculture. The laxity of Cuban
methods is strongly indicated by the fact that the area under
sugar cane in that Island is not definitely known. Such estimates as are pIublished are based on dividing the total production of sugar by an assumed yield per acre. As against this
state of affairs in Cuba, where for practical purposes the cane
grows wild with little or no cultivation, the industry in Java is
founded upon a most elaborate system of hand culture, for cheap
labor is a keynote of sugar production in Java. This is clearly
shown by the same authority whom we have quoted regarding
Cuba:
As colmpared with most of the other cane-growing colonies,
JAVA. where land is abundant and cheap, and labour is scarce and
expensive, Java, with its 30,000,000 inhabitants, wants the land
badly for the cultivation of articles of food, so that the ground disposable for cane growth becomes costly and very limited. On the other
hand, this extensive population offers an anlple supply of cheap and
readily accessible labour, which counter-balances the first-mentioned disadvantage. This exl)lains why it is advisable to p)roceed in Java quite
differently from the manner in which they work in Cuba, and why it is
necessary in.Java to obtain as much cane, and from the cane as much
sugar, as possible through intensive tillage, manuring, careful up-keep,
and conistant care; whereas in other countries the quantity of cane produced by a unit of area does not count so much, as there is an abundance
of ground to be got for little money."
* * * * * * *
As the cane grcws up it is banked with loose soil, which up to
that time has been heaped up between the rows. Finally, good care is
taken by the timie the heavy rains of the west monsoon are dtue that 'he
cane is entirely bankedl up, and stands on fairly high banks, so that the
rain water can run off instead of being forced to collect round the roots
of the cane. As soon as the cane has ripened, which takes from eleven
to fifteen months according to the kind of cane and the state of the
weather, it is reaped and then (lug out as deep as the root.

Ratoons, as known in most cane sugar producing countries where,
in many cases, they are most profitable, are not grown in Java, but
every year the past year's crop is reaped, an(l nothing is kept for a
following harvest. This is due to the fact that the first and following
ratoons yield so much smaller a crop that, owing to the heavy rent and
the small amount of disposable land, it becomes an absolute necessity
to obtain as much cane sugar as possible from the little area of land;
while labour in Java is so abundant and cheal) that it pays well in the
end to spend more money on labour coninected with the yearly planting.
* * *- * * * *
It is clear that no fixed price of cane can be set down, as the
cane production per unit of area varies greatly, and the cost of the different operations for the different parts of the country is not the same
either. From a great many annual reports of sugar factories we may
infer, however, that the net cost price of cane in the field-that is, without cutting and carting wages, but including the items of land rent,
cutting, cultivation, manuring and wages-amounts to 4(1. to 5d. per
picul, or from 5s. 4d. to 6s. lid. per ton. Higher and lower figures may
occur, but most of the data at our disposal for 1909 vary between these
two values.
In the Archi(f cloor dc( Jltrl n1ulcrilitd1ustrie, 1908, on page 830, we
find the average cost of cane for 1901-1905, on one of the best mlanaged
sugar estates in Java, specified as follows:
~ s. d. ~ s. d.
European empiloyes............... 2,62( 1 S 4
Native labour................... 1,561 0 )
Rent of land1..................... 3,515 0 ()
Cultural expenses................ 15,33() 1
Watching expenses............... 425 S 4 -Manure.......................... 5,943 8 4
'remiums for killing vermin4....... 430 13 4
Disinfection of tops............... 70 15 0
- 29,898 5 0
Import of cuttings................ 590 13 4
Various expenses................ 16 1 8 4
Seedling nurseries in the plain...... 137 15 0
3895 6( S
Various costs for bridges and roads. 215 1i S
Mountain nurseries.............. 4,725 8 4
35,734 16 S
The average plante(l area amlounlte(l for those years to 1,345 bouws=
2,358 acres, so that the total cost of sugar cane in the field per bouw
amounted to ~26 11s. 8d(. (~15 3s. d. per acre, or 4s. 9d. pler icul cane
(6s. 7d. per metric ton), not including interest, management, taxes, and
other expenses.
* * * * * * *
The primme cost of sugar, first of all de1endls on the class which is
pro(iduced, on the cost price and the quality of the cane, on the distance
between the factory a(nd the harbour, and also on the factory installation. Geinerally speakilng, it may be taken that the manufacture of
superior sugar costs Is. more than the brown sugar, basis 96.5, and that
t —

YEAR /896

/914
I.

CUB4A
FROM 233.746 T02.866.006 TOl

HRA WA //
FROM225.828 TO 61/7 038 TONS

JAVA
FROM 589. 063 TO 42/.098 TONS

Reference is often madet to the impetus which annexation l avet tlhe sugmar industry
of 1Iawaii. It is illterestinig to colmp;are thlis with the a;dva1nce in sugfar produ(ction in (Cuba followinirn the SI)anish-ilAmlerican War, which brought both
stable governmenllt andi trade recim'ocity to that island -

of sugar Nos. 18-20 6d. more per picul-that is allowing for the diminished rendement. But these figures, of course, vary.
H. 's. Jacob published at the same time a specification of the prime
cost of sugar, estimated for 212 factories during the years 1899-1902,
and arrived at the following figures:
Per Picul. Per Ton.
1899........................f 5.50 ~7 10s. 8d.
1890...................f 6.27 ~8 11s. lid.
1901........................f 6.24 ~8 11s. Od.
1902........................f 5.59 ~7 13s. 2d.
This includes interest on floating capital, but no interest or mortgage on fixed capital, which really should be added to be exact.
"The amount of ~7 10s. 8d is specified by him as follows:
Per Picul. Per Ton.
Employes...................f 0.50 ~0 12s. 5d.
Agriculture............. f 2.00 ~2 15s. 81,/2d.
Transport of cane........... f 0.60 ~0 16s. 6d.
Fuel...................... f 0.07 ~0 Is. lid.
Wages......................f 0.14 ~0 3s. 10d.
Sundries-.................... f 0.07 ~0 Is. lid.
Packing......................f 0.16 ~0 4s. 41/ d.
Transport of sugar........ f 0.31 ~0 8s. 7d.
Maintenance..................f 0.32 ~0 8s. 9d..
Diverse expenses.............f 0.17 ~0 4s. 9d.
Commission.................f 0.27 ~0 7s. 6d.
New machinery...............f 0.59 ~0 16s. 2d.
Interest............. f 0.30 ~0 8s. 21/d.
Total................f 5.50 ~7- 10s.' 8d.
* *. * * * * *
The yearly reports of the different joint stock companies give
various figures as the cost price of sugar on the several estates, which
vary so much as regards the class of sugar, the distance from the seaport, the interest on capital due, the produce, etc., that it is impossible
to quote any fixed amount as cost price. Generally speaking, we may
consider H.'s. Jacob's figures still to hold good, so that the cost price of
the sugar Nos. 11-13 D. S. comes to f 5.50 per picul or ~7 10s. 8d.
per long ton, including all expenses except interest on the capital.
Cuba is, of course, the greatest competitor with American domestic production, but the competition of Java is not to be overlooked on account of its indirect nature. Until recently Java
sent considerable amounts of sugar to the American markets, in
some years quantities amounting to more than half the production in Hawaii. It is interesting, therefore, to examine certain
* f stands for florin or guilder == s. 8d.

conditions bearing upon sugar production il Java, Cuba and
-IHawaii.
The climate of Java is the most tropical and hence the most
advantageous for cane culture of the three localities. The average temperature of Java is given at 78.7; that of Havana, Cuba,
as 75.5 (the average temperature of the cane belt of Cuba is
warmer than that of Htavana); that of Honolulu as 73 (the
climate of Honolulu, on the other hand, is not so cool as the
average of the Hawaiian cane areas).
In the matter of toplograplhy neither the Cula nor the Java
planters have to contendl with the almost mountainous conditions which characterize a large proportion of Hawaii's cane
areas.
In point of possil)le lalor sul)l)ly it is interesting to compare
the popu)lations of the three localities. For each ton of sugar
produced in 1I1awaii there is a population of but 0.36. Although
in Cuba scarcity of labor is frequently counted a great check to
future developmenllt, Cuba has, in fact, more than twice the population-pler-ton-of-sugar-p)roduced that Hawaii has: 0.85 against
0.36. Turniiing to the immense )population of Java it is found
that there is a popltlation of 20.55 for each ton of sugar prodtlce(l.
HAWA// POULA
I P0'/LAT
0.36 T RO
TO OF SUGAR
CUBA
0.85
LA VA
20.55
Scarcity of labor is often cited as a idrawlback to the devel(opml enllt of (ICua's sul;la indulstry, yet Cuba has, in
fact, more than twice the p(opulation per-ton-of-sularrolduced that Hlawaii has. In ilava the abundance of
chliea) labor is a maini stly of su^ga1 production.
If we study these figures in inverse ratio it is apparent that
Hawaii annually pro(luces 5,500 poutnls of sugar )er unit of
populatioln, while Cula l)roduces 2,300 ploull(ts, and Java but
97 ount(ls per unit of pIopulation.

It appears, therefore, that wherever natural advantages are
concerned, Java and Cuba are in the lead, but that in questions of
efficiency Hawaii takes first place.
This is further exemplified in studying the production of sugar
per acre of land. Hawaii produces 5 tons of sugar per acre;
Java, with her superior climate and unlimited supply of labor,
4.5, while Cuba produces but about 2 to 2.5 tons of sugar per
acre.* Of course, if we compare the number of months that have
been occupied in growing these crops, the foregoing figures are
subject to alteration. It takes all but two full years to make a cane
crop in Hawaii, while in Java the time varies from eleven to
fifteen months. Cuba usually harvests a crop after an average
growth of twelve to fifteen months. But the climatic conditions
that necessitate such a long cropping period in Hawaii are a distinct disadvantage, so that a comparison of yields prorated on a
unit of cropping time would be distinctly misleading as a gauge
of the quality of the agriculture in the three districts.
An interesting comparison has been drawn between the intensive agriculture of Hawaii and mainland standards by Dr
Arthur L. Dean. This is given as follows:
"The improved arable land in Hawaii is more intensively cultivated than in any states in the Union. Selecting New York, Illinois,
California, Louisiana and the Island of Porto Rico as representative of the
various agricultural regions of the United States, and using the statistics of
the Thirteenth Census, one may compute the average value of the crops per
acre of improved agricultural land. In each case the total value of the
crop for the year 1909 is divided by the total acreage of improved agricultural land, giving thereby the average value of the crops per acre.
The results, compared with the value for Hawaii obtained in the same
manner, are shown as follows:
California.......................... $13.44
Illinois........................... 13.27
Louisiana.......................... 14.66
New York.......................... 14.09
Porto Rico........................ 16.28
H aw aii............................ 93.56
X * * * * * *
"There is a distinction sharply to be drawn between the production
of high crop values and the making of large profits. Hawaii produces
* In arriving at this figure, even approximately, we encounter the difficulty presented by there being no definite data as to the cane area of Cuba. Geerligs gives
829,035 acres as a rough estimate of the area for the crop of 1908-09, but states
that ''allowance must be made for extensive pastures in use for draught cattle,
arable land for the cane planters, and the barren tracts of land in between * * *
which results in more than 1,605,500 acres." In an attempt to arrive at the
present area under cane we have corresponded with Willett & Gray, who supply
us with the figure 2,500,000 acres. To use their figure would bring the Cuba yield
to about one ton of sugar per acre, which is low, so we have assumed that the
Willett & Gray figure corresponds to the 1,605,500 offered by Geerligs. If we
assume 1,000,000 acres actually under cane, the average output for the last six
years would bring the per acre yield to 2.3.

it, point of Area olo Y(,Il(w cale(lotila Is t1le
siveh, allfivated vitrioty oceupillIg Louis 1,16,0" a(

much per acre —but muc(h goes into the production. On irrigatell plantations the cost of water alone will equal the total value of an acre of
wheat, and on plantations where water must be umlllel it will amount
to two or three times as much.'?
"The Thirteenth (ensus gives Hawaii's polulation as 191,9(09 and
the area of improve(l agricultural landl as 30)5,0(53 acres. During the te
years between the census of 1900 and( that of 1910 the lpoulation increased 24.6 per cent, the area of imlnrovedl landl 3.6 per cent. ()On the
basis of the 1910) (ensus we hadl 1.58(i acres of illproved lanld Ier
p)ers0on.
"If an agricultural state like North Dakota wevre supporting as large
a lpopulation per acre of ilmlroved( farm landl its Ipoulaltion woul 1111umber 12;900((,(000( instead of the actual number of 577,056. In other words,
1Iawaii supl)orts twenty-two times as large a population as North D1akota, per acre of improved agricultural lanld.l
"The unique positio of aii i te ti of aii i te o ti f ealth pler
acre is ilue lprimlarily to tlie most highly developedl, organlized, andl long
continuile alpl)licatiol of science and business eficiency to be found in
any large agricultural inllustry.
As a part of the modern business system responsible for the
develop)lnent of the sugar industry in -Iawaii. there are certain
matters that the plantations, acting through their Association,
have d(elegated to a central organization, their I:xl)eriment Station, which is, in fact, but an arm of tle industry itself.
The fight against insect enemies and the control of fungus
diseases are matters that lend themselves logically to co6olerative
action on the part of the planters. Before these branches of
work were inaugurated an institution had been formed as early
as 1895 to study the island soils and the methods of their treatment. This work has grown wvith the general adol)tion of implroved methods until today the pllantations have assigned to
their Lxp)eriment Station numerous commissions which in soime
way or other associate the Station with the greater part of the
activities of the industry.
The development of the use of commercial fertilizers and irri
gation water, the use of superior varieties of cane, the control
of insect pests by their natural enemies or parasites introduced
from foreign countries, the study of cane diseases and insect
pests occurring in other parts of the world and the rigid quarantine guarding against their introduction, the control of local
diseases through selected plantings, the develoI)ment of original
methods of agriculture to suit unique conditions, the thorough
chemical and engineering control of the factories-in brief, (lefinite attention to fundanlental plrinciples, is what singles out sugar
production in Hawaii as a striking example of science a)pplied to
in(lustry.

lhlie minintreb sOl from thellS pltn-flmqie taIpssels bave ser ved for the propagate n of
orelr}m thaiL 15,(000 nme vlrieso otl f *Ktoe bly tle Explerimentl Sttinl

AN OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION
WORK.
ENT) MOL)(OGY.
Insect Enemies.
Study of the Habits and Life History of Sugar-Cane Insects:
Anomala, or root grub.
Bud Moth.
Cane Borer.
Cut \Vorms or Army W\Vorms.
Leaf-hopper.
Leaf-roller.
Mealy bugs.
Miscellaneous insects of minor importance.
Introduction of beneficial insects or parasites.
This work includes the search for these insects in foreign
parts, and the breeding of colonies for distribution.
Leaf-hopper parasites, brought from Australia and
Fiji.
Hornfly parasites, brought from Europe.
Anomala parasites, brought from Japan and Formosa.
Cane Borer parasites (Tachinid flies), brought from
New Guinea.
Miscellaneous parasites of minor importance introduced from various parts of the world.
Plantation Inspections.
General inspections periodically to ascertain general entomological conditions.
Special inspections whenever conditions require investigation, or in connection with the work of spreading parasites
or beneficial insects.
Determination and Classification of Iizsects.
Determination of specimens sent in for identification, or collected by the entomologists.
Systematic work on classification and description of new
for ls.
Mainttenaznce of Inisect Collections.
Economic insects; injurious and beneficial.
Endemic; or native insects.
Ioreign; collected on exploration trips for introductions of
beneficial insects.

Wi gidned nuclei
1135-A

PLANT PATHOLO()L( GY.
Stuldies of sugar cane diseases and means for their control:
Fiji disease. (A disease which thus far has not entered the
islands.)
Iliau.
Leaf-spot diseases.
Eye-spot.
Ring, Spot, etc.
Pahala blight.
Root-rot or "Lahaina disease."
Sereh.
Yellow-stripe disease.
(ther minor diseases, and diseases of plants other than sugar
cane, such as Pineapple diseases and Stem-rot of Taro and
many others as listed under "Crops other than Sugar
Cane."
Econlomic Fullji.
The study of fungi of benefit to the industry, viz:
Entomogenous fungi, or fungi found useful in controlling insects.
Yeasts used in the fermentation of sugars into alcohol —
of interest in view of the proposed manufacture of
lenatured alcohol from molasses.
CI EMISTRY.
Fertilizers.
Chemical control work consisting of sampling and anlyzing
the conmmercial fertilizers purchased by the plantations, as
a check on the manufacturers' guarantees of their composition.
Soils.
Investigation of the types of soils found on the plantations.
ILaboratory and lysimeter studies of the effect of commercial fertilizers and other manures on different soils.
Misccllane ous.
General analytical work on samples submitte(l by the l)lantations.
MANUFACTURE.
Pactory' inlspections to check the chemical control of the factory
chemists, report on the manufacturing operations, and suggest l)ossible Jimprovements.

Variety tests at the Experiment Station.

Special inlvestigatiolns of specific prollems on requests from pllantations.
VceklAy MIill Reports.
A sheet is published weekly presenting a compilation of the
data of the chemical control of manufacture of each of
the plantations.
4Annual Synopsis of Mill Data.
A similar publication presenting the season's manufacturing
results of each factory.
TtWhite Sugar Making.
The study of methods to manufacture white sugar.
Miscellaineous.
The study of various problems connected with the manufacture of sugar.
AGRICULTURE.
Colmmnercial FertilizIers.
Experiments with regard to use of fertilizers, embracing tests to
determine:
The proper composition for maximum yields under different conditions of climate and soil.
The proper methods of applying fertilizer under different
conditions of climate and soil.
The relative response of different varieties of cane to
given quantities of fertilizers.
The effect of commnercial fertilizers on the quality of the
juice of the cane.
Cultivatio.
Agricultural iimplements are studied with reslect to their comparativxe merits and suitalility to varied conditions.
Methods of cultivation of the different plantations and of foreign
cane countries are studied and compared as to their respective merits.
Conservation of organic wastes, particularly the refuse of the
cane crop, is studied with regard to arriving at the most
economical means to be employed in this form of soil improvement.
Green Manlur'ing wiith Legumets.

Introduction and testing of new leguminous plants to find those
suited to the different localites.

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Tests to determine practical methods of introducing rotation
cropping, or companion cropping with legumes into sugar
cane agriculture.
Experiments to determine the benefit resulting from rotation or
companion cropp)ing with legumes that have proved suitable
to the Island conditions.
Jrri(/ation,
Experiments.
To determine the comparative water requirements of different varieties of cane.
To determine the value of withholding the irrigation water
for varying periods on increasing the sugar content of
the cane.
Lim inq.
Tests to determine the benefit from liming: (1) acid soils; (2)
non-acid soils having low lime content.
Tests to compare the relative value of quick lime and coral-sand
for the above purposes.
Sitbstatiolls.
Waipio Substation.
An area of 135 acres is devoted to field experiments under
practical plantation conditions:
Experiments in varieties.
Experiments in cultivation.
Experiments in fertilization.
Experiments in conserving organic wastes.
Experiments in irrigation.
Plantation Substatiois.
Experiments on the above subjects are placed on the plantations to note the effects of variations of climate and soil
on different soil treatments.
UTILIZATION (F BY-PR()DUCTS.
Paper Makiing.
Study of the possibilities of bagasse as a paper stock.
Denatured Alcohol.
Study of the p)racticalility of using waste molasses for this
lurpose, and recovering:Potash from the waste liquors.

CNN
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The qugar camb root grab or upoinalft ljeefle A seprelh for parasites to couirol it
is n6w under ww%.

Beef Productiotn.
Study of the practicability of utilizing the cane tops as cattle
food and maintaining a beef industry as a side line to
sugar production.
CROPS OTHER THAN SUGAR CANE.
Leguminous crops for green manuring. After testing several
hundred legumes some four or five were found to give promise
under Hawaiian conditions. The seed of these are not to be had
in the world markets. \With the cooperation of the Federal Experiment Station plans are fostered to have the homesteaders
grow this seed to supply the plantations.
Pineapples. The diseases of the pineapple have met attention since 1908. A publication dealing with the pineapple diseases was issued in 1910. At the present time, through an
agreement with the Hawaiian Pineapple Packers' Association, a
complete survey of the scientific problems of the pineapple industry is under way.
Forestry. Fungus diseases of the Eucalyptus and other forest
trees have been studied. An investigation of the dying out of a
Maui forest was at one time undertaken.
Miscellaneous crops and plants. The staff of Plant Pathologists has met more outside calls for work on miscellaneous crops
than the other departments. No other institution in Hawaii
maintains a department of plant pathology. The diseases of
many plants have been studied and reported upon. These include, aside from those mentioned above, the following plants:
the potato, the sweet potato, taro, banana, orange, papaia, peach,
mango, alligator pear, date palm, alfalfa, cotton, vanilla, pepper,
oats, barley, wheat, corn, litchi nut, and ornamental plants such
as the hibiscus, rose, carnation, etc.

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ENTOMOLOGY.
By 0. H. SWEZEY.
The Entomological Division of the Experiment Station of the
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association was organized in 1904.
The factor most prominent in making the necessity for entomological work by the Experiment Station was the presence of
the sugar cane leaf-hopper, prevalent throughout the cane fields
of the Hawaiian Islands. This insect had been noticed a few
years previously in some of the plantations. It had spread to all
of them, and had occasioned great damage in many; in fact, was
beginning to cause grave concern among the sugar planters, as it
looked for a time as though the industry was threatened with
ruin.
The situation being urgent, the Association organized and
equipped a department and secured a staff of entomologists to
carry on entomological work.
Naturally, as the leaf-hopper was the primal cause for this
beginning of entomological work, the entomologists set to work
on investigation of its habits, distribution in the Islands, damage
to cane, methods of control, etc. At the outset it was recognized that the leaf-hopper was a foreign insect that must
have somehow become introduced to the Hawaiian cane fieldsnow considered to have been brought about through the importation of cane cuttings which contained the eggs of the leafhopper, some of which survived the voyage, then hatched and in
due time became established at one or more sugar cane districts
of the Islands, from which they had become dispersed almost
entirely throughout the plantations before attracting any attention.
Investigation of the probable home, or native country, of the
leaf-hopper, pointed towards Australia..The insect was not
known to be a pest there, however, and so it was thought that
there probably were natural enemies there which were responsible for this. Accordingly, two of the entomological staff went
to Australia to make a study of the leaf-hopper there, and of its
natural enemies, with the purpose of attempting to introduce the
latter to Hawaii, if any were found.
As a result of this work, many natural enemies were found,
and several species were finally, after various attempts, successfully introduced and established. These, in a few years after
being established and widely dispersed, succeeded in checking the
leaf-hopper to such an extent that the annual loss was reduced
3

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from $3,000,000, as estimated il 1904, to an almost negligille
amount for the most of the cane-grow\ing dlistricts. In some
places there is still at times considerable injury by the leafhopper, but not anywhere near the amount resulting formerly,
and occurring only in limited areas.
(f the parasites introduced from Australia for the sugar cane
leaf-hopper, the most beneficial were egg-parasites; and of these
the most important one, far(angrits optabilis, belongs to the
family Mymaridae. It is so smlall as to escape the notice of all
except the entomologists who are familiar with its apl)earance
and habits, and know where to look for it. It is to be found on
the leaves of sugar cane which contaiin leaf-hopper eggs, wlere
it is busily searching for the egg clusters and delpositing its own
eggs in the eggs of the leaf-ho)pper. The parasite larva consumes the contents of the leaf-holpper egg in growing to maturity, and comlllletes its transformation to the adult stage withil
the host egg, eventually emerging as an adult insect in the pllace
of the young leaf-hopper which would otherwise have hatched
from the egg.
The length of life-cycle of the parasite is about three weeks,
which is about one-half that of the leaf-hopper. It is thus
enabled to breed and increase more rapidlly than its lhost, and
becomes an effective check on the latter. This parasite has been
the most iml)ortant factor in the control of the sugar cane leafholpper; but the other intro(luced( egg-l)arasites, as well as several
native l)arasites, pre(daceous insects, andl spiders, have l)laye(l
some part.
The staff of entomologists engaged for the alove work has
been maintaine(l with some changes in the personnel, the numler at any one time varying from four to six.
\Vhile engaged in the above work with the leaf-holpper and its
parasites, investigations were also )being ma(le on other sugar
cane pests in Hlawaiian cane fields whlenever time or convenience
lermitted. Mluch information of this character wvas oltaine(d
at the time of periodical inspections colnductel for the l)url)ose
of keeping informed on leaf-holpper conditions and the distrilution of the plarasites. Special insl)ections were also freuently
ma(e to investigate special out)breaks of some pest.
IBesides the leaf-hopper, other important sugar cane pests in
Hawaii are the weevil borer, leaf-roller, mealybugs, cane aphis,
lbu(l-mloth, armyworms a(nd cutworms, mole cricket, and a few
minor ones that are generally distril)uted, while another which
has but a small local distribution is the cane grul), or Anomala
beetle. Nearly all are foreign insects that have become estallished here through the channels of commerce before the present

A minor cane, T)OM-Alle stigw ofifie blealy 'baz awl sonw of it's nelint emollies,

efficient system of quarantine inspection was institute(l. (f these,
the most work has been done on the cane borer. This pest has
been present in the Islands for at least fifty years. It has done
an enormous amount of damage. Sometimes whole fields would
have as much as half the cane injured, and a third or a quarter
was often the case. It is impossible to estimate with any accuracy the extent of damage done, but a conservative estimate
would be two per cent, which, during the past decade, would
have amounted to nearly one million dollars annually.
Several years were spent by one member of the entomological
staff in searching for natural enemies of the cane borer, and
efforts toward their introduction to Hawaii. Finally, in 1910,
a species of Tachinid fly, which was found to be parasitic on the
same borer in sugar cane in New Guinea, was successfully introduced in Hawaii. For two years colonies of this fly were
bred at the Station and distril)uted to the sugar plantations. The
parasite readily became established and rapidly dispersed throughout the plantations, reduicing the borers so that they are no longer
to be considered a serious pest.
As an example of the benefits resulting from the checking of
the borer by the introduced parasite, on one plantation the yield
of sugar per acre was increased by over two tons. This would
be 2,000 tons on a plantation harvesting 1,000 acres annually,
and would mean $150,000 with sugar at $75 per ton, or more,
according to how much higher is the price per ton. Not all plantations were benefited to this extent, as most were not so badly
infested by borers as this one was formerly, but the total saving
to the sugar industry of the Islands would amount to a good
many thousand dollars annually.
Irom the beginning, there has been at least one member of
the staff almost constantly traveling in some foreign country in
search of beneficial insects that might be.introduced. Trials
have been made with quite a number that have failed. A few of
minor importance have succeeded. At the present time efforts
are being made to find and introduce )parasites for white grubs,
the larvae of Anomala beetle.
As time has allowed, systematic work has been done on collections of insects studied in foreign countries when searching for
desirable parasites. Some of the results have been lpubllished in
bulletins.
The entomological staff has built up) a large collection of Hawaiian insects, including those of economic importance to other
crops, as well as those of sugar cane, and any and all insects of
interest faunisticly, or otherwise. These are necessary for reference in many ways, as in determining specimens sent in from

X
rf,( active worm and ltg natural oniniies

the plantations, material for systematic study, and ability to recognize any new pest that may at any time turn ul). Considerable
of the material collected by members of the staff when engaged
in parasite investigation in foreign countries has been mounted
and arranged in the insect cabinets. M/uch of this has been
worked up, and more will be as opportunity permits. In these
cabinets are several hundred "types"; that is, the specimen of
insect from which the species was originally described. The collections are the more valuable on this account.
PLANT PATHOLOGY.
By H. L. ILYON.
A solution of sugar is the best all-around culture medium for
the cultivation of fungi. It seems to be the one food material
on which the majority of fungi can live and flourish. Plain
cane juice with its natural impurities better suits the needs of
fungi than does refined sugar or the chemically pure product. In
fact, all fungi prefer glucose and other invert sugars to sucrose,
for they almost always convert sucrose into invert sugars before
they can actually feed upon it.
It is rather to be expected, therefore, that the sugar cane plant,
with its store of choice, rich juices, will, from time to time, be
severely attacked by fungi which learn some method whereby
they can force an entrance to its tissues. This conclusion is
amply sul)ported by evidence derived from the history of the
sugar industry in other countries.
In 1841 a-mysterious "fungoidl" disease appeared in the sugar
cane of Mauritius and Reunion and almost accomplished the complete elimination of the crop. In 1882 the now famous sereh
disease appeared in west Java, and in the course of five years
sl)read over the entire island, bringing their sugar industry to the
verge of destruction. In the early nineties the so-called "rinldisease" practically eliminated the Bourbon cane from the West
Indies. The sugar planters in that region had grown the Bourbon for upwards of a hundred years, and it ranked as their very
best variety.
The cane variety known in H-awaii as I ahaina is identical to
the Bourbon of the West Indies. For many years it had been

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the favorite cane variety ill tlese Islands, and where it can be
grown successfully it is still an excellent variety. About 1900
the Lahaina cane on the Island of Hawaii began to show evidences of disease, and in the course of five years it failed completely on that island and had to be abandoned for other varieties.
A troublesome cane disease ha(l been recognized in H-awaii
since the inauguration of the local sugar in(lustry. r1 his disease,
christened Iliau by the natives, was known to be responsible for
great losses each year; and, in fact, one of the 1)lantations of
early days was forced to close down because of the continuedt
heavy losses caused by this disease.
The Hawaiian Sugar Planters were quite familiar with the
serious conditions into which the sugar industries of Java, the
West Indies and other countries had been thrown by the advent
of epidemic diseases among their canes, and, with their own Lahaina cane failing and Iliau causing conspicuous losses in their
fields, they founded a delIartment of plant pathology in their IExperiment Station in 1905 to aid in coping with prollems of this
nature.
The investigations conducted by this delpartment have shown
that there are, at the present time, nine different fungi which are
active parasites on the caCle pllant in HIawaii. lThen, in addition,
there are two microscolpic round-worms or nematode s which
attack the living roots of the cane. Besides the disorders caused
by these parasites, our cane is also subject to three serious diseases for which no organic cause has as yet been detected. In
addition to the disease-p)roducing organisms, there are a great
number of saprophytes which live in intimate relation to the cane
plant and reqluire careful watching.
1LIAU.
(f the fungus diseases, iliau is undoultedly the most serious
and( will serve to illustrate the problems l>resented by a cane
disease.
The name iliau is a tawaiian expression, meaning "tight skin"
or "hide bound." It very aptly descriles the one conspicuous
Fig. 1. A cane shoot, showing a tylic(al case of iliau. The outer leaves are
already (lead and dry, while the leaf-sheaths are firmly cemented together into
a hard, unyielding case. The stemn tip is so securely bound up by the
hardened leaf-bases that it will be unable to make any further growth.
Fig. 2. A cane shoot which mlanagied to grow away from the disease, although at
one time badly affected. The iliau fungus actually penetrated the stein and
produced severe wounds, which, although not deep, would, nevertheless, render
the stem so weak and brittle at this point that it would probably be unalle
to sustain its own weight when fully grown.
Fig. 3. A short piece from the stemi of a shoot which succunmbed to iliau after it
had made some two feet of stick. The black dots on the internode are the
Melanconium pIustules of the iliau fungus.

46
symptom of the disease, which is a binding of the leaf bases into
a tight, unyielding jacket about the ste. The cane shoot illustrated on page 44, Fig. 1, is in the condition commonly recognized
as a typical case of ilita Th e outer leaves are dead and dry,
while the leaf-sheatihs are firmly cemented together into a hard,
unyielding case. The stem-tip is so securely bound up lby the
harldened leaf-bases that it will be unablle to make any further
growth and must eventually die as a result. The leaf-sheaths
killed by the fungus are always pinkish-brown in color, while
the rind, if the shoot bas succeeded in pro(ducing ayv stick, is a
dleep bluish-gray. These colors are quite characteristic in canes
afflicted witlh this disease and colnsequently are an aid to correct
diagnosis.
Careful cultural studies of diseased tissues disclosed the fact
that iliau wsas caused by a fungus previously unknown. It
belongs to the genus Gimomonia, and was named G(nomouilli iliau.
The vegetative or fee(ling imechainism of this fungus conisists of
milnte bratechitng threads (myceliumn) which growv through the
catle tissues, dstroying the living cells and absorbing their contents. The fulngus produces two types of fruiting bodies, one in
the form of i)psttiles ini the inner leaf-sheaths and stem (Fig. A),
and the other in the form of tiny calabash-shapled bodies vwhlich
are imlbedded in the superficial leaf-sheaths wiith only their tips
exposedt ( Fig. B) Enolrmous numbers of 1 back spores (Fiig C)
25
XIO1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i iB. ii;5
_c m _F- iLGsomonia mailua
Thp splol m gt/l~tg exut- bodios burst t3llol} th
*l utrlmih mlprtres in 1stPlfa e of. t}leIaf.liJah}
t i g dlskl l 'sfl:L t eld lind lra pe tirulily c til ed
aliekt S-Onot ligltly t li edl J pi 'l lr t l

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bd ig.. Mela nonium ilialf tMtlre spores. rC Thteit r
wralls appear tt)rownl when the spores a t exaiglil ttd
i sinlli5 n der f th e i. l by transmitted lighlt
qhie (conitents of tie spores colMsist {f eloselt pae(fked
sllersicl loblte lesr ()te( s itm allyi a spor o is let withl
vit e ally c t i (ls ble e tlit ied in th two c(tlls n eay g vega r)
tal l11 ieer itli tlhe lse (S tf tle oel itl s tratld t il the ca e
Ithis o ov( are very slil ostie l of tohit agrlih rr,
are fiorcdt ra o f the )ustr liU st whitle many s er cohis es
is oresa are podtce in little sao ltcs o ithin the tialash-she isease
bliady ( igs. I) afld E All of these spores are ctpable of re
arouttackin te fltielus t the areie itar kspores beifg tadapted to
nisersaolt by fvater, aits the stmaller, colorleas es p ores to (liersal
by air currelnts The flntigus mfyeelimlm arising flrom1 the spores
usually b)ecomelns establislhed ini the soil li, vinl l o decayinlg regesteble alatter. ain frol thi s )oief it ii s the tisses of thse cate
plant wNhlelever olpportunllity offers. lle slores alltnd mycelllml of
this;ieowo lt are v er y seit nsitive to s utiliht, l trief eaxpsutre to
thie diroect rays of the stnm beig suffIcielt to kill t hem. This fact
is takeng advantage (f in otur methods of cotltrollfing tle disease.
Mliag is ill retllityt at leaf-sheath C disease, alend tile metti hods of
attack egaployed? Iy the tiutaes anske it a disease of yotrvg shoots
ollyf, iAs a rule, thlis0 fungus gains entttranle to thie tissues olf a
carte shoti by forcing its way ito tilhe leaf-)ases which join tle
stent at a tpoint below tlhe surface of the soil. ()tce inside thze
tissules, lhowiever. it Nworks its way upwallIrd a(nd in ard. progressing fI-rot leaf-sheath to leai-sheath alld evlentually into the stem.
1lIavring gainedf entrallce to a leaf-slhe th, it ustually travels rap

48
idly ut)pward in its tissues and tmay extend througnh nearly the
entire sheath before it has forced an entrance at any point to the
next leaf-sheath within. A leaf whose sheath has tbecomre affected wvith the fuilx 70 shoot are naturally
tL of the f)itins bodiies show its O theirstillet hbIt t/ld oits IOt.dro. p.a fa ltoll the
istulni its sheath bel.
g in ii rks icemets ay i tLhe
rtl tln;hrf ro'
letogtaf-she thi e tipit
tht this it ahe yount
et wtla intt
inese tmihutge itlr it(t liii
tai a r e forttcib lea
Shteatii oum i sha o tuts
XIOOO swhoich are well aithra
VFig. iL Gomonia iliau. t illr spore-sacsl thie grap ollf thta chis
tetti if tl i f tllitilig tl tstil ts ll tri Sll g Sit to t le t ste 1 fVi their
Struictur e antd AisO(Viaticllm vv~itll tie Iley('(" I ^ S S B l fll tylo
Rlin rl tlhe tissile o f titlc i ( lf s h e alt l bu es, ai T; 1tl, foilis cen:zlets tholli
't t 1 / ~ / hI i o C tle stemIy thllis telle n ais pl ( wo,~ e / e \ gr t llerll (eo i>s secosreaitmt pu.ssit,, ioss celli has reached it.
treol a r e forcilblv
stopledl. I f one splittlS
\lhidl ateo lllK swlithits
Fig lC. Ganmonla wau.,;eli} asei r s}>ore s (8s the cyrapS) of tle (dV4
iflroalai 1 igIoT t elleol siilldle-sp eud sportt else, tlleq t oif tel find

that the stem has become variously bent and doubled upon itself
ill striving to continue its elongttion.
It very often happens, when a young shoot is attacked by the
fungus, that the rapid elongation of the stem will carry its apex
through the danger zone before the mycelium has progressed
upward and inward sufficiently far to cement the leaf-sheaths
together above it and head it off. In such cases the operations of
the fungus are confined to a few leaf-sheaths, and may perhaps
scar the stem slightly at one or two nodes, but the shoot will pass
through the disease without suffering any considerable harm.
Sticks which have thrown off the disease in this manner are very
numerous in our cane fields.
There are also infrequent cases where sloots have recovered
from iliau, although at one time in a very serious plight ( Page 44,
Fig. 2). Such sticks always have one or more joints near their
base which are badly shriveled and blackened. These joints are
always weak and brittle, and the stick is very liable to break off
here as it increases in length and weight.
Iliau is a disease which thrives to best advantage during cool,
damp weather. In fact, it is only under these conditions that it
can make any appreciable headway. It is most abundant, therefore, where these conditions most frequently obtain. In the
fields of low elevation on the southerly slopes of the mountains
fatal cases are of infrequent occurrence. A very destructive epidemic occurred, however, in such a field at 400 feet elevation
during the winter months of 1910-11. In all fields at high elevations well-marked cases of iliau can usually be found at any season of the year, and this is more or less true of most low-lying
fields having a northern exposure.
Iliau is therefore always present in, or at least not far removed
from, every cane field in the Islands. If, while a field is carrying
young cane, a period of cool, damp weather occurs, the disease
is sure to make its presence apparent. Its spread through the
fields, as well as the severity of the individual cases, will depend
upon the continuation of the cool weather. With the return of
warm weather, favorable to the growth of the cane, the disease
is checked and many of the shoots only recently attacked will
grow away from it. Severe epidemics of iliau are most frequent,
therefore, in those localities where one or more months of continuously cool weather are of yearly occurrence.
As a general rule, it can be said that any shoot which shows a
well-marked case of iliau is not worth saving by artificial treatment. All practical methods of combatting this disease must be
in the nature of preventive measures rather than cures.

win
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A ~ ~ p 1.ll.l(~ I0t fsgrPaeI odsl

Thorough preparation of the soil previous to planting is a very
efficient measure against iliau. After a crop of cane has been
harvested the soil is certain to be well filled with the myceliunl
and spores of the iliau fungus. Such of these as are plermitted
to remain continuously buried until the next crop has started will
undoubtedly retain their vitality and serve to infect the plant
cane whenever the weather conditions become favorable. Such
spores and mycelium as are brought to the surface and exlosed
to the sun for only a few hours, however, are effectually destroyed and can cause no further trouble. The more times the
soil is worked over, therefore, the larger will be the percentage
of spores which are brought to the surface and killed by being
exposed to the sun.
Another practice which yields good results as a precaution
against iliau is early planting of all fields liable to become severely affected. The result aimed at is to secure a good stand
of cane as far along as possible before cold, damp weather sets
in. As long as the cane shoots remain clothed in a series of
closely-clasping, succulent leaf bases which extend down into the
ground, they are liable to fall prey to iliau if the necessary conditions for infection obtain. If the cane can pass through this
critical period during warm weather it is fairly safe from the
disease.
The investigation of this disease disclosed the characters and
habits of the responsible fungus, and our preventive measures are
based on this knowledge.
PRECAUTI()NS A(A INST EPIDEM ICS.
There is no way of knowing just when some new disease is
going to appear in elideimic form in our fields, but there are
certain precautions which we may take to protect our crops. To
have an epidemic disease among our plants, an aggressive larasitic organism capable of causing the disease must be at handl.
Such an organism may arise locally or it may be imnported from
some other country.
Any incipient parasitic organism attacking a plant may at any
time acquire such virulence as to render it capable of causing a
destructive epidemic. (r a parasite may suddenly take to a new
host plant with disastrous results for that plant. The coffee leaf
disease, caused by a parasitic fungus, was first observed on a
single estate in the hilly country of Ceylon. It spread, however, with incredible rapidity and soon had extended its ravages
throughout India, China, the Malay Peninsula, and every island

in the Orient where coffee was grown.* The fungus causing
this disease proved to be one that had previously occurred only
on the leaves of a wild plant commnon in the forests of Ceylon
and India. It is evident that some unknown influence acting on
certain individuals of the original race of fungi taught them to
live on the coffee plant. From this source there sprang a race
which by choice lived entirely on the leaves of the coffee.
NWe recognize, therefore, that parasitic organisms, and even
saprophytic organisms, may so change their habits as to suddenly
render them dangerous enemies to our cane. To insure our
crops against such an event we are acquiring an accurate knowledge of the habits and life-histories of all organisms to be found
growing in intimate relation to the sugar cane or allied plants in
Hawaii. Then if one of them should at any time become dangerous we shall know the most vulnerable point in its life-cycle
and the best methods of combating its spread.
For most cultivated crops there are now extant many organisms capable of producing epidemic diseases. These organisms
are usually confined to certain countries by geographical barriers. It can be safely stated that, should one of these organisms be introduced into any country where its host plant is being
cultivated, a serious epidemic is almost certain to follow.
The first and most effective protection against the importation
of disease-producing organisms is a strict plant quarantine. The
second line of defense is perfected by obtaining a thorough
knowledge of the disease to which our crops are subject in
other countries. Then if one of these diseases appears, knowing
its symptoms and cause, we shall be able to recognize it at once.
The prolmpt institution of adequate defensive measures will eradicate any disease if it is discovered in time. To make our defensive measures adequate we must know the habits of the organism causing the disease.
The Hawaiian sugar planters fully recognize the dangers lurking in other sugar-growing countries and support a very strict
quarantine. They have taken out further insurance by sending
their pathologists to Fiji, Australia, Java and the Philippines to
study the cane diseases of those countries. This latter procedure
has placed at their disposal a knowledge of several very dangerous cane diseases concerning which nothing had ever been published.
When a very serious fungus disease broke out in epidemic
form in the cane fields of Formosa we already knew the symptoms and cause of the malady, and the source from which they
* It is estimated that this disease caused a loss to the colony of Ceylon alone
of over $5,000,()() per annumn for several years.

ZEE
- - - - ------- - - --

had imported it. In Formosa they did not become aware of
the nature of the disease until it had gotten beyond their control. There is not much danger of the Hawaiian sugar planters
having a similar experience with this or any other of the numerous cane diseases known to occur in the sugar-growing countries around the Pacific.
MANUFACTURE.
By R. S. NORRIS.
The so-called manufacture of raw cane sugar consists, in the
simplest terms, of the recovery, in the form of small crystals, of
the sugar which is in solution in the cane juice. This recovery
involves, in general terms, the extraction of the juice from the
cane by pressing, the elimination of those constituents of the
juice that can be precipitated by heat and chemicals, the evaporation of as much of the water as is necessary to allow the
maximum quantity of sucrose to crystallize out, and the separation of the sucrose crystals from the mother liquor.
In this process of recovery it is the constant endeavor of the
Hawaiian plantations to make use of the very best machinery
and methods that are known. 1For the purpose of increasing
the efficiency and economy of manufacture there is constantly
being tried out on our plantations new processes and new forms
of machinery invented here and in other cane sugar countries. It
is in this way that Hawaii has earned the reputation of being in
the lead over all other cane sugar countries in the manufacture
of sugar as well as the growing of cane. A few quotations from
authorities on this subject will bear me out in this statement.
H. C. Prinsen Geerligs, the well-known authority of Holland and
Java, in his book, "The World's Cane Sugar Industry," says:
"The manufacture of sugar from sugar cane in the Hawaiian
Islands is carried on in the very best possibe way. * * * Their
factories are installed with the best machinery to be had."
Professor Geo. T. Surface of Yale University, in his treatise
on the world's sugar industry, "The Story of Sugar," says:
"Hawaii leads the cane-growing world in the mechanical facilities of her mills."
Mr. Noel Deerr, the English cane sugar expert, formerly technologist at this Station, in his report to the Secretary of Agricul

ture of Cuba on the sugar industry of that island, uses the
expression: "In the highly efficient and highly organized industry in Hawaii," il comparing the industry in that country and in
this.
In order to show how Hawaii compares with other cane sugar
countries in the machinery equipment of its factories, and how
rapidly new machinery and methods are adopted after they have
been demonstrated to be improvements over the old forms, I will
review the different divisions of the manufacture.
It was demonstrated on these Islands that the highest results
in the extraction of the juice from the cane cannot be obtained
with less than four three-roller mills in the train. It is interesting to see how fast the use of the longer trains of mills spread
after their increased efficiency ha( been proven. The following
shows the percentage of the different kinds of mills in use during
a period of six years:
No. of 3-roller mills. 1(909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
Four or more........... 11 17 20 22 32 42
Three............... 74 (8 6 6 3 55 47
Less than three..........15 15 1 15 13 11
Cane mills with four or more three-roller mills were in use in
Hawaii for several years before any other cane sugar country
adopted them. Prinsen Geerligs, in his book mentioned above,
referring to the work of the cane mills in Hawaii, says: "The
extraction results thus arrived at are never met with elsewhere."
Java probably stands next to Hawaii in the high efficiency of
her cane sugar factories. A comparison of the average results
obtained by all the cane mills of each country, in extracting the
juice from the cane, shows that Hawaii is far in the lead. The
results in the table are expressed in percentages of the sugar in
cane obtained in the juice, ordinarily called "extraction."
— Average Extraction ---
Year. In Java. I n Hawaii.
1910............ 91. 2 93.63
1911.............. 90.6 93.54
1912.............. 90.8 93.89
1913............... 9.7 94.25
1914.............. 90.4 95.46
Analogous figures for Cuba are not available, but from results
which we have from a few of the leading plantations, we are

,l'erias mhle world's zdeeptwst plo is done by this imlymenL.

quite positive that the average extraction there is no better than
in lava. Results from six of these plantations for the season
of 1914 show an average extraction of 91, the maximum being
93.5. The maximum in l1-awaii runs over 98. This means that
from the amount of cane that is anually ground in HlIawaii the
output of sugar is about 25,000 tons greater than woulld be obtained by the quality of milling that is done in Java or Cuba.
As a further example of the rapidity with which new ideas in
methods and machinery of proven value are adoptedl, I would
refer to the case of a new method of grooving mill rollers invented by one of our factory superintendents. By grooving the
rollers in this way it was found that a materially increased extraction could be obtained. 'The Messchaert deep juice-grooves
were first tried at the begiinig of the season of 1914. There
are now in use 116 rollers grooved in this manner, in thirty of
the forty-five mills in operation.
Mr. Noel Ieerr, in the Cuban report referred to alove, makes
the following statements in comparing the milling in the two
countries: "The quality of mill work in general in Cuba does not
reach the high standard to which the writer has been accustomed
to in his I-lawaiian experiences. "I)uring the last few years
the efforts in IIawaii to obtain efficiency at the milling plant have
been attended with great success, and for the crop just finished
the average extraction there is of the order of 95 per cent; that
is to say, the mills have extracted 95 per cent of the sugar in the
cane. I have no complete statistics of the work in Cuban mills,
but of twenty returns to which I have hadl access, only two
reached as high as 94 per cent. If these twenty mills be taken
as typical of the average, and they include some of the most
recent as well as some of the older pllants, I estimate the average
extraction in Culan mills as 91-92 per cent."
()ther instances of this keenness foi improvements in our
factories may be cited. During the season of 1913 a new form
of settling tank was tried in one factory and found successful.
It is now in use in nine other factories. The most reliable and
effective means of increasing the steam and fuel economy in
sugar factories has been by increasing the number of cells in the
evaporator. In most cane sugar districts the evaporators usually
have two or three cells. In Hawaii only one factory has a twocell evaporator, and alout fifty per cent of them use quadruple
evaporators. Within the last few years nine factories have installed large quadruple effects of the "Standard" type, this having been proved to be the form best adlapted to our needs. Just
before the beginning of the season of 1912 the Technologist of
the Station called attention to the advantages to be derived by a

58
further extension of the principle of multiple effect evaporation
in the use of pre-heaters and pre-evaporators. In order to make
use of these suggestions elaborate and quite expensive changes
were generally necessary, but, nevertheless, pre-heaters or pre —
evaporators are now employed in ten factories. In 1908 a new
form of vacuum pan was installed in one of the factories, the
usual copper coils being replaced with a calandria. It proved to
be efficient and now sixteen factories are using twenty-one calandria pans.
The imain activities of the Experiment Station on the manufacturing side of the industry are the inspection of the factories
during the grinding season, advice and assistance in overcoming
any special difficulties, investigations and reports on new processes of manufacture, compiling a weekly tabular report showing the results obtained by each factory during that period, and
an annual report giving the manufacturing results for the season and a discussion of them.
Every season the Technologist of the Station inspects the
work of a large proportion of the factories in the Territory, and
reports are sent to the managers and directors of the plantations with comments on the quality of the work and suggestions
toward improvements. The Station is also called upon for special investigations of particular parts of the manufacture.
The opinion and advice of the Experiment Station is called
for on any new processes that seem at all feasible. In this way
it has several times saved the investment and loss of considerable amounts of money in proposed processes that contained
technical fallacies which made them unworkable. The Station
also recently carried out an experimental investigation on a
manufacturing scale of an elaborate process covering a period of
two years, for the Sugar Planters' Association.
Each week practically every factory in operation on the
Islands sends to the Experiment Station a report showing the
composition of the various products and the weights of miaterials handled. These figures are printed on a sheet in tabular
form and distributed with as little delay as possible to the plantations. Particular care is taken to have the figures correct and
to present the important ones in a striking form. This report
is eagerly scanned on the plantations by those il charge of the
factory operations, and it furnishes an incentive toward continually renewed efforts for improvement in the work in order to
keep up to or increase their standard.
The annual report on manufacture gives the results obtained
by each factory for the season. These results are discussed and
the factories compared on the basis of them. It is probably re

ceived with greater interest on the plantations than any other
publication, and has contributed materially, during the last few
years, toward raising the standard of chemical control and of
manufacture.
A few average figures from the annual reports will serve to
show the quality of the work done in Hawaiian factories:
BAGASSE PRESS CAKE
Sugar per Sugar per
% Sugar 100 Sugar |%' Sugar 100 Sugar
in Cane in Cane
910.......................
1911................ 3.55 6.41...
1912.............. 3.43 (i....
1913:................ 3 3.0(7 5.75 1.99 1 0.23
1914................ 2.49 4.52 1.76 0.24
-F'INAL MOLASSES i SUGAR RECOVERED
Weight Sucrose per Per 100 Per 100
per 100 ra ty 100 Sugar Sugar in Sugar in
(~ane Purity
(:Ca1ne u1rit y in Cane Juice Cane
1910................... 90.16 84.46
1911................. 91.41 85.50
1912............. 91.30 85.66
191................... 90.12 84.95
1914........... 2.80 40.40 7.12 90.95 86.56

--
I ---- --------

For the items that are left blank in this table no figures are
available.
In the report the quality of the work of the different factories
for the season is compared on the basis of the percentage of
sugar recovered of that possible to recover. The recoverable
sugar cannot be calculated accurately from the figures available,
so that this comparison is only approximate, but it gives a general idea of the efficiency of the manufacture on the plantations.
For the 1914 season the factory efficiencies stood as follows:
TOTAL RECOVERY.

Factory.
7..
33..
24.
37
10.
20.
34
19.
36.
30.
16.
45
6..
46
23.
15..,
17.
41..
27..
35..
43
3..
5.

(alculated. Obtained................. 93.2 89.48................ 93.8 89.94................ 92.9 88.73................ 94.4 90.02................ 93.8 89.27................ 94.1 89.40................ 93.4 88.72..................4.5 89.54................ 94.7 89.08................ 94.6 88.87................ 94.9 89.09................ 94.2 88.40................ 95.3 89.17................ 95.0 88.33................ 392.7 86.18................ 91.0 94.47................ 92.6 85.74................ 93.5 86.34................ 93.1 85.90................ 93.8 85.14................ 91.9 83.24................ 91.5 82.52................ 93.3 84.05................ 90.5 80.93

Factory
Efficiency.
96.0
95.7
95.7
95.4
95.2
95.0
95.0
94.7
94.1
93.9
93.9
93.8
93.6
93.0
93.0
92.8
92.6
92.3
92.3
91.7
90.6
90.2
90.1
89.4

47................... 92.0 82.26 89.4
25................... 91.5 81.5 24 88.8
4(................... 93.7 83.16 88.8
38................... 90.9 80.28 88.3
31................... 95.0 83.44 87.8
42................... 93.6 82.18 87.8
3................... 93.7 82.26 87.8
12................... 93.9 79.58 84.7
CHEMISTRY.
By P.. BURGESS.
When the t1xlxeriment Station of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association was founded in 1895, the chief work of the
Station for the first few years was largely of a chemical nature.
Prior to the founding of this Station, which was the first agricultural exleriment station to be instituted on these Islands, very
little agricultural work of a scientific nature had been attempted
here.
In 1882 Captain C. E. Dutton, employed by the U. S. Geological Survey, had spent a year on the Islands studying, more or
less superficially, the geography, geology, people, plants and animals to be found. His report, covering 137 pages in the Annual
Report of the U. S. Geological Survey for 1883, contained practically all that was scientifically known concerning the lavas and
more especially the soils of the Hawaiian Islands up to 1895.
The Sugar Planters' Station was thus a pioneer in the field of
scientific agriculture on these Islands.
The work in chemistry quite naturally falls under three main
heads or divisions: research work, fertilizer control work, and
miscellaneous analytical work. These three divisions in the
work were made early in the history of the Station, and for the
sake of convenience have been quite closely adhered to up to the
present time. We will now give a very brief resume of the
work done under these three heads.

RESEARCH WORK.
The research work has been concerned largely with the physical, chemical and biological aspects of the soils of these Islands,
although other projects intimately connected with the manufacture of sugar and the growing of cane have, from time to time,
received attention.
The early work on iI-awaii soils was of interest not only to
the planters here, but also to soil scientists in other lands. Nowhere else (lo we find such a diversity of soil types, or such
abnormal soil formations as are here encountered. The rocks
composing the whole mass of the archipelago, with the exception of limestone and coral formations, are of comparatively
recent volcanic origin, and may be collectively termed basaltic
lavas. By disintegrating and weathering these lavas have given
us soils of very different types from those commonly met with
elsewhere. They are primarily basic in composition, whereas
those of North tAmerica, for example, are acidic. The basis or
framework of Hawaiian soils are the oxides of iron and aluminum, whereas the basis of mainland soils is silica. A glance at
the following table will show these great differences better than
words can express them. These figures represent averages of
large numbers of soil analyses made by the "absolute" or "fusion" method. The column lmarked "Mainland Soils" represents
averages of soil analyses from almost every State in the Union
and from provinces in Canada. The column labelled "Hawaiian
Soils" gives average figures for over 300 composite samples of
soil from the leading types on all of these islands. All of these
analyses were made here and under similar conditions.
Hawaiian Soils. Mainland Soils.
Per (ent. Per Cent.
Basic constituents................ 63.717 18.980
Acidlic constituents............... 36.458 81.014
FeO;: + A.,0:,.................. 9.240 13.250
CaO............................ 698 0.83()
MgO............................ 1.242 0.771
K2 0............................ 0.737 1.622
Nal2()..................... 1.420 2.229
The table below shows differences in the soils from the two
areas as brought out on analysis by the "agricultural method"
(hot digestion 10 hours in hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1.115). The
figures here also represent averages of many determinations.

Hawaiian Soils. MaIinland Soils.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Soluble matter................... 68.894 15.110
Insoluble matter................. 31.106 84.890
Soluble silica.................... 15.308 7.840
Insoluble silica................... 12.619 72.697
It is of interest to state here that analyses of (erman soils
were obtained from Professor Maercher, and of English soils
from Professor Lawes. Averages of these compared fairly
closely with those of American soils.
The above data require little comment. It shows that the
cardinal difference lies in the relative contents of iron and alumina and of silica.
Physically, as would be expected, the soils liffer greatly
among themselves and also from American soils. The average
specific gravity of Hawaiian soils is 2.87 as compared with about
2.6 for American soils. The specific gravity of the former, free
from combustille matter, is approximately 3.4.
The soils of the Islands are, for convenience, classified or divided into two large groups, the "makai" or low-lying soils, and
the "mauka" or upland soils. The mauka lands, at an elevation
usually of 500 feet and above, receive by far the heaviest rainfall. Their nitrogen content is thus about three times that of
the low-lying makai lands nearer the sea. The following table
gives the average chemical composition of these two soil groups,
and represents averages of determinations on soils from all the
islands:
Makai Soils. Mauka Soils.
Plant Food Element. Per (ent.' Per Cent.
CaO.......................... 0.474 0.268
K 2O.......................... 0.328 0.332
P2O,.......................... 0.213 0.238
N............................ 0.176 0.401
The makai soils are largely sedimentary soils which have been
brought down from the mountains by streams and otherwise, and
are sometimes mixed with considerable quantities of coral. These
soils are as a rule much richer and deeper than the mauka soils,
and usually plroduce larger crops.
Due to the preponderance of iron and aluminum, the phosphoric acid in Hawaiian soils is in large part locked up so se

6L3 -ke
Y
ii
3~
>a llrB%
3 11-"1.
:::::::il:::::::::::::ii:::::::
~i~ rl~1"L"""a"aC':a
i~,'i~.~r
II
~i?
m
Ils~l;;c;
3 tt"'rl"a~ ~;r~ r
j
Illlllllll:l:ll~lillI:
iiTi

curely that plants can use it with difficulty. Some soils, coiltaining over 12,000 pounds P.,(), per acre-foot, give less thani
twenty lpounds in an ilmmediately available form.
The niitrogen also ill most of our soils, although present in
large amounts, has lbeen found to be very resistant to rapid
nitrification, and thus exists largely in unavailable forms.
Potash, as it exists in Hlawaiian soils, is present in a fairly
available state. The same may be said of lime.
Besides the large amount of laboratory work which has been
(one on soils brought directly from the field, many lysimeter and
tub exl)eriments have been conducted, both crol)l)ed wtith cane
and fallowed. These tests have been made with the following
objects in view: to note the effect on the growth of cane of
al)llications of fresh and salt irrigation waters; to (letermine the
transpiration coefficients of cane at different stages of growth and
the amounts of water required to l)roduce cane of different varieties (pounds of water per pound of sugar); to determine the
rates of nitrification of (lifferent forms of organic nitrogen in
soils; to determine the effect of various forms of lime and of
the fertilizer salts on nitrification in mauka and makai soils; to
determine the effect of molasses, as a fertilizer, on nitrification.
Much chemical work has further been completed on the composition' of the different variietis of cane and the:lamouits of
plant foods which these lifferenlt varieties withdraw froml the
soil per crop, anld per ton of sugar l)roduced.
Since irrigation is of prime im)ortance in many localities on
these Islands, much chemical work has been done on the natural
and well waters, both as regards their "alkali contelIt" and also
for dissolved plant foods present.
Reference was made above to certain other fields of chemical
research somewhat removed from soil and plant' work. A
lengthy and complete study was recently made on the comlposition of evaporator scale which was found to be largely sulphate
and phosphate of calcium. Boiling with a dilute solution of
sodium carbonate for the sulphate scale, and( >% to 1% hydrochloric acid for phosphate scale, was recommenlded as a mleans
of their removal. The manufacture of alcohol from waste molasses was also thoroughly studied. IEight varieties of yeast
from as many parts of the world were carefully tried out as to
their respective fermentation efficiencies.
About seven years ago lahaina cane, which, by the way, is not
a hardy variety, being especially susceptible to any slight adverse
condition, began to show signs of deterioration on some of these
islands. The plant pathologists and entomologists have as yet
been unable to associate any disease or parasite which might

66
cause this stuntted condition. The Chemical D)ivision is at )prsent engaged in making a thorough study of the soils fromt these
affected areas, with the hope of soluing this mlost perplexiihg
pLroblem.
FIdRTIIIZER (CONTROL W()RK.
Htawaii is a latnd of heavy fertilization. The anllal fertilizer
bill of these Islandls allounllts to Illore tlhatl $3,000),000. These
fertilizers are purchlased by the Ilantations or their agetnts fromi
']'he 1}(6 (,}/{1l/li{NAl fi}ftliZtler is f) }ihly thl evealople(d pa/rt of slimilyr {:/lie
a-rlc'leture, in J:nwaii
both loc al anid mailanid ianiufacturers. The objects of our
chemical control work are as follows:
1. To take official samiiess of fertilizers (particularly mixed
fertilizers) puriased by the plantations of the H. S. P. A.
2. To obtain friom the pIlaitations or their agents a copyi of
the' giiraimteed sompositiot of these fertilizers.
3. To iiinlize the samles, sedinl C('les of lheir atialyses to
the plantations or their agents.
4. In case the fertilizers are bielow the guarantee to acc.m —

pany the analysis reports with an estimate of the amount of
rebate due the purchasers, as calculated from official valuations
founded on market prices.
The Pacific Coast fertilizer shipments are sampled at San
Francisco; the inter-island shipments are sampled in Honolulu.
Each tenth bag of a consignment is sampled and from the sample
so obtained the two bottles are filled; one being brought to the
Experiment Station and the other to the plantation agency to be
held in reserve in case the former sample should show a deficiency. After receiving the samples, the Experiment Station
sends out printed forms to the plantation agencies, who fill in the
guarantees of the fertilizers in question and return them. (ur
agent in San Francisco carries out the sampling in the same way,
the samples being forwarded to the Experiment Station and to
the plantation agencies once each month. All analyses are made
in the chemical laboratories of the H. S. P. A. Experiment
Station, in Honolulu, by the adopted official methods for fertilizer analysis. The following is a resume of this work for the
past nineteen years:

Year'
1896........
1897........
1898........
1.899.......
1900........
1901........
1902........
1903........
1904........
1905.......
1906........
1907........
1908........
1909........
1910........
1911........
1912........
1913........
1914........

Fertiliz
Sanple
Receive
73
no dlat
( 4 i ((
75
189
229
368
333
453
315
494
610
626
569
526
437
407
319
595C

)i fference;er Between
es Valuation of
ed Manufacturer
and Station: $........
a........
12,000.00
11,000.00
>) ~ 9,000.00
4,900.00
3,089.00
5,635.00
4,560.00
8,977.00
6,928
3,642.00
4,232.00
2,564.00
2,533.60
1,771.45
2,027.42
$82,859.47

Average Rebate
er Fertilizer as
Indicated by
Analysis of
Samples.....
160.00
58.20
39.20
13.32
9.28
12.44
1.4.47
18.17
11.35
5.82
9.53
4.96
5.54
4.35
6.60

Theti refulse from1 a cane ircrp on an i rr~ig~r til pIlantation-trasha' j eouemition ie~un s:ixm hupoprtjt nt gtep in soil improvc'Ment,~

69
The above figures show that during the last fifteen years 5950
fertilizers have been analyzed with a total indicated rebate to
the plantations of over $80,000.00, or about $5510.00 per year.
MISCELLANEOUS ANALYTICAL WORK.
The plantations belonging to the Hawaiian Sugar Planters'
Association send to this laboratory samples of all kinds whose
chemical composition is desired. The analyses are made and the
results submitted as soon as is compatible with accurate work.
Among these miscellaneous samples the following predominate:
molasses, sugars, cane juices, limestone, coral sand, lubricating
and fuel oils, coal and ashes. On an average, about twenty miscellaneous samples per month are received and analyzed.
The work of the chemical division is carried on by the chief
chemist, who is also responsible for the research projects; two
fertilizer chemists; one analyst, whose time is well taken up
with the miscellaneous samples, and three laboratory assistants.
Changes are occasionally made, depending on the work.

----— ~~~~~~~~
A h~~~~~~~g~~~~i~ ~ ~ ~

AGRICULTURE.

CANE VARIETIES.
With the adoption of rigid quarantine measures against the
possibility of introducing injurious insects and plant diseases
from foreign countries, it became necessary to forego the ol)lortunity of bringing in superior cane varieties from other canegrowing localities. Prior to this time several excellent canes had
been introduced. ()ne of them, the I)emerara 1135, has gained
considerable popularity, and its area is being rapidly extended.
The local propagation of new seedling varieties was then resorted to as a relief from this situation. Sugar cane seedlings
are in the vast majority of instances greatly inferior to the
parent plants, and it is only by propagating them by the thousands and gradually weeding out the poorer ones that canes of
commercial promise can be obtained. The following list gives
the number of seedlings that have been p)rop)agated by the Elxleriment Station:
19....................... A out 5,0(()() se-(linll varieties
1911........................ " 36) '
1912........................ ' 25
1913........................ " 3,684 "
1914........................ " 1,275
1915........................ " 4;777 " "
Total to (late............ 15,721
The relation of this work to the plantations may be judged
from a report prepared in 1913 on the question of varieties, from
which we quote as follows:
In recent years the Ilawaiian planltations have devote(l their attention princiially to three varieties of st.gar cane-the Rose Blamboo, the
Lahaina, andi the Yellow Caledonia.
Today Iose Bamloo lias been l]argely (lrollpe(l, less area is lbeing
ilevoted to Lahaina than formerly, greater acreages are plante(l to Yellow
(aledonia than at any tillle since its alpearance in the Islands, and1 there
are a nu-mber of new varieties that are being' teste(l andl in some instances gralually extendled.
It is more espec ially the pl-rlose of this report to show the extent
to which these new varieties are encroachig upon the so-called Standard
(anes. No attelmpt is imale to point out the colmparative merits of the
lifferent varieties- (ollaraltive areas is the point under consideration.
We finr( that in all there are about 145 (lifferent kind(s of (ane beini
grown on tile plantations of the I1lawaiian Su2alr Planters' Association,
and that of these there are 42 varieties grown commercially, coned1inl'.
that when an area of one acre or more is d(evoted to a cane it assunres

a certain coimmercial significance. On this basis Hawaii has 19 coininercial varieties, Kauai 6, Maui 9, and Oahu 33.
In point of area Yellow Caledonia is more extensively cultivated
than any other variety, it being credited with over 116,000 acres for the
1914 ain 1915 crops, against about 75,000 acres for Lahaina.
From the crop of 1913 to that of 1915, Yellow Caledonia has a slightly
increased area, while Lahaina shows a decline of about 5000 acres. On
each of the four islands, there is a reporte(d decrease in Lahaina. On
()ahu this amounts to nearly 4000 acres. A decrease in Yellow (aledionia is shown on Hawaii; while the other three islands show increases
in this variety, Oahu reporting a gain of about 2200 acres. We have no
means of gauging the extent to which the reported declines will be made
upl from short ratoons in 1915 now classified as 1i914 acres, and, the
figures should be accelted with this in view.1
The next most important variety is D 1135, to which 2709 acres have
been plante(l for the 1915 crop. Striped Tip shows 2660 acres, but this
is a decline from 3740 in the 1913 crop, while D 1135 increases from
829 acres, a gain of over 800 acres.
Whereas Lahaina is reported from 25 p)lantations, and Yellow Caledonia fromn 38, there are 41 I)lantations growing D 1135 either comimnercially or experimentally. Of these 41 there are 29 which have an
area of one acre or more of this promising I)emerara seedling; there
are nine lplantations with areas of over a hundred acres each; there are
three plantations with over 500 acres, and one of these has over 1000
acres.
Another interesting point about the I) 1135 is that-it is more evenly
distributed throughout the four islandls than any other variety. For
the 1914 and 1915 crops, Oahu leads with 1569 acres, Hawaii follows with
1178, while Maui and Kauai report 963 and 484 acres respectively, iaking 4194 acres now undler cultivation.
Aside from the varieties thus far mentioned there are but two others
which occupy areas of over 1000() acres-D 117 and Yellow Bamnbaa.
It is significant to note that of the seven varieties of cane which occupy
areas of over one thousand acres there are only three which show welldefined extension between the 1913 and 1915 crops-Yellow Caledonia,
D 1135 and 1) 1 17.2 Lahaina, Rose Bamboo and Stril)ed Tip all show
deelreased areas.
On the other hand there are about thirteen new varieties which,
though cultivated as yet on a complaratively simall scale, have been extendled to an appreciable extent since the 1913 crop began. This fact
makes these canes stand out promlinently among the large number which
have been undergoing prelimiinary tests for several years. They are
listed as follows:
1 Our present figures show.3001 acres less for the total area of the 1915 crop
than for the crop of 1913.
2There is doubt regarding Yellow 1Baimboo. It is confined mostly to one plantation of which the 1915 acres arIe uncertain.

Acres Embraced in Crops of
Varlety- _
1913 1914 1 1915

H 20............................ 1 128 5
H 33...........................1 1 13
II 109........................... 26 62
11146........................... 2) 39 63
H 181............................. 1 10
H 197............................ 2 18
H 202........................... 1 1 10
H1 227............................ 12 119
H 291............................ 25 15
H 333........................... 4 60
335s............................ 8
iI 338........ 33 30
Stripe(l Mexican................ 165 146 283
Since all the other varieties in the Islands ha(l from several to nmany
years' start on the Hawaiian seedlings, it may be well to see what is
being (lone with those canies which have survived a long series of testing begun with some five thousant d germinlations securedl about the year
1905. In approximately six years' time these have been reducedl to
120, and 26 of them have p)roved sufficiently promising to be cultivated
to(lay in blocks extending from one acre upwards.
To these twenty-six Ilawaiian seedlings the tI. S. P. A. plantations
are now dev'oting 822 acres for the 1914 and 1915 crops. By far the
greater Iportion of this is on the Islandl of ()ahu, which contriblutes;699
acres or 85% of the whole amiount. lawaii furnishes 103 acres aid
Kauai 18 acres, lwhile Maui reports but 2 acres.
Looking more closely into these figures we find that Ewa Plantation
has a greater arrea in ll iawaiian seedlings than all the rest of the Territory put together, or 467 acres against 355 acres to express the fact in
figures. (f the remaining 355 acres the Oahu Sugar (Co. claims over
half, so that these two plantations have 65(0 acres against 1.72 reported
from the other plantations of the Association.
Practically all the llantations have been active in prelimilna'ry work
with these canes, and rumany of them are preplare(l to rapidlly extend certain varieties once the element of doubt is finally removed from these
new seedlings. 11. 227, IH.146 andl t '27 are the most widely distributed,
each being relorted in colrmmercial or experimental areas from 18 plantations, while 101 or more planltations have each of the following runder
observation: 11 2(), I1 25, 11 33, 11 68, IH 69, 1H 99, II 109, 1 135, I 151,
11 197 anld 11 240.
()On the whole, the further we go, the miore of a question this miatter
of varieties becomles. With two such excellent canes as Lahailna anid
Yellow Caledonia it might alppear to some that undue stress is lplaced
on the new seedlings. But aside from the desirability of rep]lacing excellent varieties with better ones, if they are to be had, we are confronte(l witli the possibility, however remote it mlay be, that it may be

3 Including Louisiana Striped, which is supposed to be the same variety.

After testing a hlulndred or more grel nalurill Ctros tlhee remlai some three or fmr Wihlich gfie promisi-at r east 1in certain di
tr'icts. Thlis is (ane of tihemi the iBen~gal bean.

necessary to call others into play to even maintain our present standards.
Certain facts in connection with the Lahaina cane appeared in the
August number of the Planters' Record to which it may be well to make
brief reference here in saying:
" * * the records of other sugar cane growing countries show
that the Bourbon (Lahaina) cane has run out in the majority of them
and its cultivation has had to be largely curtailed or abandoned. The
running out has occurred after very varying lengths of cultivation in
different countries. It occurred in Queensland as long ago as 1872,
when the variety had been there in cultivation only a comparatively
few years. Its effect commenced to be marked in the northern West
Indian Islands early in the nineties of the last century, probably preceded somewhat in Barbados, where its cultivation had been the most
intensive amongst the West Indian colonies, and followed a little later
in St. Vincent, where from about 1884 its cultivation had ceased to be
intensive.4
Added to this we know that the Lahaina variety was once largely
cultivated in Mauritius and Natal and there is evidence that both Java
and Cuba formally utilized it to a wide extent.
The playing out of Lahaina cane on the Island of Hawaii is a familiar matter, and the difficulty experienced with this variety in certain
fields on Oahu is becoming generally known.
We do not attempt to say that the cause of the trouble is the same
in all these instances. We are not pessimitic enough to predict that
Lahaina will not continue to flourish as a standard cane in these Islands
for many years to come, or that Yellow Caledonia would not continue
to be a good substitute where Lahaina falls by the wayside. But be
this as it may, the new varieties offer other baskets into which we may
put some of our eggs, and they should be valued for this if for nothing
else.
Yet there is the hope that we have found, or that we may find, seedlings which will prove better than either Yellow Caledonia or Lahaina
when these canes are at their best. We have a good many figures of a
more or less tentative character which encourage this belief. There are
several points which will help us to realize it. In the first place we
must appreciate the fact that a variety may decline or may improve.
Its properties may not be permanently fixed. Therefore in replacing a
standard variety, even to a limited degree, we should not rely on one or
two seedlings. In preliminary tests it is well not to endeavor to ascertain which of, say, fifteen seedlings is the most promising one; but
rather to pick out some five or more canes which may safely be extended
to five-acre blocks. It is an easy matter to pass with some of these to
fifty-acre lots, and then if any of them are worth planting to fields of
several hundred acres the fact will soon assert itself. The idea I mean
to convey is that such work should be with the object of eliminating
the poorer canes and carrying as many of the remainder as circumstances warrant. But in mentioning these points I am doing little else
than citing the example of the plantations which have led in this workan example that will no doubt be largely followed.

4 Record, Vol. IX, p. 468, or West Indian Bulletin, Vol. XIII, No. 2.

76
CULT 1IV ATIO N.
The methods of cultivation in voguo iln the Islands, the actual
leans of 1)roducing a cane crop alnd bringing it to the factories,
have heen developed bv the plantation managers tand their staffs
of lracticed fieldl men. It is only in a small way that the Experiment Station hlas renllered service in this all-important work.
Evenl tlen such assistance has rested largely in noting an excellent method that ehas enll developedl o onle plakntation and snuggesting its utse in another locality where it couldl he used( to a(-i
vantage.
ightin' g i w~eds. wifh arslic --.... Supply thnk de.ivers.i. sol.ill to tle i.ll.i.,
The great variety of field comditio(si to be found thrioughout
the Islands has resulted ii widely varying agricultural pract ices.
manay of whic haIve bieen eslpcially forimulated to Iset existing
circumstances. The field opelrations of the various localities
have to a certailn extent met attentioni frot the Station, anid a
publicatioii has lieell issued s(tinm somie SCVeityi typies of agrincultural iniplements whichi are employed throughout different
parts of the Islandls. I..nan ca ses these tools are pecli lar to
I lawiaii and htave beenl designed to accomplish solle special work.
The Olaa Stugat CSo(tmpany has, for instance, adopted atn origlal~ systeim of cotrtrolling the exceptionally heasevy teed growth
which is con01111to it the districts of he:vy rail Tnfa;ll. This is accomplilished lby the uise of arsenic sprays betweeni the rowt s of
cartn According to te he atilre of the laid, the lalorers are r roided with kitp sack taikts to tholl the arsenicll solution, or else
tanks are imounteId o sleds which are tdrawn betw een the cane

77
rows Iby animals. Arsellic solutions have for several vear1s beenl
uttilizetl iIt open lanlds arld orchlardls for killing weeds, but thle
plat to employ this means to combat foreign growth betweell
the rows of a iltil cultivted ro such as sugar cane was, we believe,
first suggested )b this IExlerimenlt Station. The whole matter
of develotping the idea and 1lakin' a practical success of it was,
however, the wotrk of the (:)laa Stlugwr (Cottlpany. Thle etho(t
is simply an economiical substitute for a large atmount of haid
hoeinl atl illmlenlciit cultivation which, in vicw of the watersoaked cotlditiot of the fields, wats oftentim es a very utusatisfactory task.
\ qpali}nilg sIM/ t()l us{e b){ t~IW{nl tlle (*alle rows,
The ilnnovationl is being takeln ul) iby several Ilother lantations,
but as conditions vary so frIo otine place to allothlcer it is juestionable to what e xteit it will evetually.vbe adopted. The
United States Dep)artmleent of Agriculture as become interested ilI thle scllee andt is i11tow c onducttting exl>erimentss as t its
applicability irn culltivatilg cornll ill ouisila and Florilda. So
ini thlis, as in 111luilleroutls instan1Ces, the apptli ied science of tlawiaii
lpromises to li of tore loath local vialueit
Field experilmeiuts hold arn impotrtat part in the worik of the
Exiperiment Statiotl Take the vlse of fertilizers. for exatlthe.
PIresetu-dtay practices are iMt a large m leasure founded ulton field
testiug. These trials are conducted, as a rule, otl the p>lantations

and are in the main cooperative undertakings between the Ilantation managers and the agriculturists of the Station. Then,
too, there is the WVaipio Substation, an area of 135 acres, devoted to field experiments covering a range of subjects. Such
matters as the proper formulas for fertilizer mixtures, the
amount that can be plrofitably applied per acre, the best time
for application, are some of the issues that can be properly answered only by putting the question to the land itself. l'urthermore, these questions must be asked clearly so that there may
be no misunderstanding the reply, and this involves care in
planning the tests and in designing the system of field plots to
be employed.
This work extends also to the prollems of liming the land,
and to the selection of the varieties of cane most suited to a given
section, or in the finer points to methods for handling different
varieties to gain advantage from their varying characteristics.
Green manuring is another matter which must be handled
experimentally in order to find some way of fitting this recognized means of upholding soil fertility to the rather adverse circumstances which the sugar agriculture of Hawaii opposes to
its use. In the first place, green manuring has been difficult because there appeared to be no green manuring crop that would
resist the ever-present insect pests. After importing all available leguminous plants and testing a hundred or more of them,
some three or four remained which give promise, at least in certain districts. Then the question arose of fitting them to the
existing agriculture. The heavy irrigation expense, essential in
some districts for cane, appeared prohibitive to a crop that returned no direct revenue. The expedient of finding a legume
that would thrive between the cane rows was finally resorted to,
and this plan is now under trial. Other roundabout means of
restoring the heavily-cropped soils are also being investigated.
The idle fallowing of land finds no place where acres are scarce
and the upbluilding of soils becomes the task of making repairs
under full steam ahead.
The agriculture of Htawaii abounds with conditions of this
kind-the need of developing unique methods to surmount unique
difficulties has long since become a part of the (lay's work on
the sugar plantations of H-awaii.

rina ifuili ei~s w~:i to lmapsack sp)"avjn tanks filled with a"senic.
~r ~- r ~, -r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

PUBLICATIONS.

The completed investigations of the Experiment Station of
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association are published as technical bulletins. Seventy-eight of these have been issued up to
the present time, embracing some four thousand pages in all.
These are divided among three series as follows:
Agriculture and chemistry, 44 bulletins.
Entomology, 13 bulletins (21 vols.).
Plant pathology and physiology, 12 bulletins.
These publications are sent to members of the Hawaiian
Sugar Planters' Association; responsible employees on the H. S.
P. A. plantations; to seventy federal and state experiment stations, and similar institutions in the United States; twenty federal dlelartnments or bureaus in Washington, D. C.; eighteen colleges and universities of high standing in the United States and
abroad; fifteen museums and organizations for scientific research
in the United States and foreign countries; twenty-one foreign
experiment stations; and fifty-seven offices or departments of
foreign governments. In addition to this they are also sent, for
purposes of review or abstracting, to seventeen leading scientific
journals dealing with sugar matters and the various sciences
which have an economic bearing thereon. Copies are also sent
regularly to scientists in the United States and abroad who are
actively engaged in work of a kindred nature.
The following is a list of these bulletins:
Algriculltural and Chemic al Series.
A. ILavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands —Walter Maxwell.
B. Miscellaneous P-apers-C. F. Eckart.
1. Reports for the Year 1895 -Walter Maxwell.
2. Rel)orts for the Year 1897-\Valter Maxwell.
4. Reports for the Year 1898-Walter Maxwell.
5. Reports for the Year 1899-Walter Maxwell.
6. Reports for the Year 1900-Walter Maxwell.
7. Reports for the Year 1901-R. E. Blouin.
8. Reports for the Year 1902-C. F. Eckart.
9. Reports for the Y-ear 1903-C. F. Eckart.
10. Varieties of Cane-C. F. Eckart.
11. Recent Elxperiments with Saline Irrigation-C. F. Eckart.
12. Comparative Analyses of Varieties of Cane-C. F. Eckart.
13. Field Experiments with Sugar Cane-C. F. Eckart.
14. Irrigation Experiments of 1905-C. F. Eckart.

S AtDititSjiS; | E
| l | l l l | l l ( -
i g g
| S
S l | l l l l l
l l l l -
| l | l l l l l l l 2|Q.ffi22..
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i l | l l l l i l l _,W18X'w'2wWU'.'i..'. a
| l | l l l l l l l _|.t
1 i | I I I I i I I _a;'_',.. _
2 |,..,, I. I I N. E I., I I I, I, _. l I., I I I l I l,, I. l I I I l I l __., E., I I I, I,
e _! _! x z!!
t fe:d tl>st at tlie tailllo Sul.tatll>Xsht3 t ratoolls of t1OSa7.

15. Fertilizer Experiments, 1897-1905-C. F. Eckart.
16. The Influence of Stripping on the Yield of Cane and Sugar
-C. F. Eckart.
17. Comparative Tests with Varieties of Cane —C. F. Eckart.
18. Hawaiian Waste Molasses-S. S. Peck.
19. Iysimeter Experiments-C. F. Eckart.
20. A Theory of the Extraction of Sugar from MassecuitesNoel Ieerr.
21. Evaporator Scale-S. S. Peck.
22. A Theory of the Extraction of Juice by Milling-Noel
Deerr.
23. Use of Formaldehyde Solution in Sugar Mills-R. S.
Norris.
24. The Deterioration of Sugars on Storage-Deerr and Norris.
25. Results from Stripping Experiments-C. F. Eckart.
26. Varieties of Cane with Special Reference to Nomenclature
-Deerr and Eckart.
27. Total Solids in Mill Products by the Refractometer-S. S.
Peck.
28. Fermentation of Hawaiian Molasses-Peck and Deerr.
29. The Action of Soluble Fertilizers on Cane Soils —C. F.
Eckart.
30. The Influence of the Structure of the Cane on Mill Work
in Sugar Factories-Noel Deerr.
31. The I)etermination of Sucrose in Cane Molasses-Noel
Deerr.
32. Bagasse Analysis-l)etermination of Sugar and MoistureR. S. Norris.
33. Sulphate Scale in Evaporators-S. S. Peck.
34. Some Bio-Chelnical Investigations of Hawaiian Soils, with
Special Reference to Fertilizing with Molasses-S. S.
Peck.
35. The Inversion of Cane Sugar Under the Influence of Acids
and Neutral Salts-Noel Deerr.
36. The Effect of High Temperatures cn Cane Sugar in Solution-Deerr.
37. Lysimeter Experiments —S. S. Peck.
38. The Milling of Cane Considered in Relation to the Volume
(ccupied by the Fiber-Deerr.
39. The Influence of Molasses on Nitrification in Cane SoilsPeck.
40. tHeat of Combustion of Bagasse from Hawaiian CaneR. S. Norris.
41. On Available Sugar and a System of Control in the Boiling
House-Deerr.

83
42. An Experimental Study in Multiple Effect Evaporation —
Noel Deerr.
43. The Heat Balance of a Cane Sugar Factory-Noel Deerr.
44. The Implements of the Industry-H. P. Agee.
Eintomological Series.
1. Leaf Hoppers and the Natural Enemies.
Introduction.
Part 1. Dryinidae-R. C. L. Perkins.
2. Epipropidae-R. C. L. Perkins.
3. Stylopidae —R. C. L. Perkins.
4. Pipunculidae —R. C. L. Perkins.
5. Iorficulidae, Syrphidae, and HemerobiidaeF. W. Terry.
6. Mymaridae, Platygasteridae-R. C. L. Perkins.
7. (rthoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera-O. H.
Swezey.
8. Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Trichogrammidae-R.
C. L. Perkins.
9. Leaf -Iopp)ers-Hemiptera-G. W. irkaldy.
10. Dryinidae, Pipunculidae, Supplementary -R.
C. L. Perkins.
2. Notes on Some Fijian Insects-F. Muir.
3. Leaf Hoppers-Supplement (Hemiptera) -G. W. Kirkaldy.
4. Parasites of Leaf,Ioppers-P'erkins; Kirkaldy.
5. The Sugar Cane Ieaf Roller (Orniodes accepta), with an
Account of Allied Species and Natural Enemies-0. H.
Swezey.
6. The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Bud Moth (Ereuitetis flavistrata), with an Account of Some Allied Species and
Natural Enemies-. H. Swezey.
7. Army \Vorms and Cut \Vorms on Sugar Cane in the Hawaiian Islands —Swezey.
8. A Bibliography of Sugar Cane E ntomology-G. W. Kirkaldy.
9. On Some New Species of Leaf HIopper (Perkinsiella) on
Sugar Cane-Muir.
10. Parasites of Insects Attacking Sugar Cane-R. C.,..Perkins.
11. Parasites of the Family 1)ryinidae-R. C. L. Perkins.
12. On Some New Species of Leaf HIoppers-Kirkaldy and
Muir.

84
Pathological Series.
1. The Inspection and Disinfection of Cane Cuttings-N. A.
Cobb.
2. Preliminary Notes on the Root Diseases of Sugar Cane in
Hawaii-Lewton-Brain.
3. Third Report on Gumming of the Sugar Cane-N. A. Cobb.
4. Some Elements of Plant Pathology-N. A. Cobb.
5. Fungus Maladies of Sugar Cane —N. A. Cobb.
6. Fungus Maladies of Sugar Cane-N. A. Cobb.
7. A Iecture on Rind Disease of the Sugar Cane-L. LewtonBrain.
8. Red Rot of the Sugar Cane Stem-L. Lewton-Brain.
9. The Bacterial Flora of Hawaiian Sugar-L. Lewton-Brain
and Deerr.
10. Diseases of the Pineapple-L. D. Larsen.
11. Iliau, an Endemic Cane Disease-H. L. Lyon.
12. Fungi Parasitic upon Insects Injurious to Sugar CaneA. T. Speare.

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