ï~~Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 182 Series 0, Underground Waters, 62 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR FLOWING WELLS AND MUNICIPAl WATER SUPPLIES IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE SOUTHERN PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN BY FRANK LEVERETT AND OTHERS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1906 ï~~ ï~~CONTENTS. Page. Introduction, by Frank Leverett-----------------------------1 Scope of report------------------------------------------------------- 1 Geographic features____________________"----------------------- ------4 Water-bearing formations-------------------------7 Structure of drift---------------------------------------------------- 8 Character of drainage______________"---------------------------- -----9 Rainfall---------------------------------------------------------- 10 Ground-water table ----------------------------------11 Wells and appliances---------------------------------------------- 12 Quality of water---------------------------------------------------- 14 Subterranean water tmeaue-------------------14 Legislation-------------------------------------------------------- 21 Flowing wells---------------------------------------------------- 22 Municipal and institutional water supplies-------------------------23 Monroe County, by Frank Leverett----------------------------------------__ 25 Topography----------------------------------------------------- 25 Flowing wells-----------------"-------------------------"-----------25 General statement----------------------------25 Eastern artesian belt--------------------------------------------- 26 Middle artesian belt_______________---------------------------- ----27 Milan-Cone district----------------------------------------------- 27 Well data by townships----------------------------------------------- 29 bower Huron River region, by Myron L. Fuller-----------------------33 Introduction------------------------------------------------------- 33 General statement ------------------ --------------------------------- 33 Geology------------------------------------------------- -------- 34 Surface materials---------------------"---------------------------- 34 Rocks------------------------------35 Water supplies------------------------------------------------------ 35 Willow-Exeter region--------------------------36 Carleton region--------------------------38 Swan Creek region-------------------------38 Huron River region-----------"-----"------------------------------ 40 Rockwoodl region------------------------------41 Detroit River region------------------------------- -------43 Grosse Isle---"------------------------------------------------ 43 Decline of water supply----------------------------------------------- 44 Present conditions---------------------------------------------- 4 Causes of decline------------------------------------------------- 45 Conclusions------------------------------------------------------ 47 Wayne County, by William Hittell Shre-----------------48 General statement----------"----------------------------------------- 48 Rainfall-------------------"--_--------------------------------------- 49 Surface waters--------------------------------------"-----------"Reservoirs-----"------------------------------------------------- 50 Lakes---------------------------------------------------------- 51 Streams----------------------------------------------------- 52 Detroit River----------------------------------------------- 52 Smaller streams--------------------- ----------------------- 5 III ï~~IV CONTENTS. Wayne County, by William Hittell Sherzer-Continued. Page. Ground waters------------------------------------------------------ 60 Lacustrine and river deposits -----------------------60 Formation of dpst--------------------60 Water supply----------------------- ------------------------- 61 Glacial deposits--------------------- --- - ----------------------- 64 Formation of dpst--------------------64 *Water supply-------------------------------65 Bed rock----------------------------------------------------- 7 Geolgicformtios--------------------------------73 Water supply------------------------------------------------- 73 Lenawee County, by Frank Leverett---------------------------------------__ 78 General statement--------------------------------------------------- 78 Waterworks--------------------------------------------------------- 79 Adrian-------------------"------------------------------------- 79 State Industrial Home for Girls----------------------80 Hudson-------------------------------------------------------- 80 Tecumseh------------------------------------------------------ 80 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------------------------- 80 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 82 York district---------------------------------------------------- 82 Holloway district------------------------------------------------- 87 Ogden Township-------------------------------------------------- 89 Sand Creek----------------------------------------------------- 91 Morenci ----------------------------------------------- --------- 91 Medina--------------------------------------------------- --- 9 Rollin Township------------------------ - 94 Hudson Township------------------------------------------------- 95 Tipton district-------------------------------------------------- 95 Wolf Creek district------------------------------------------------ 97 Hillsdale County, by Frank Leverett-------------------------98 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 98 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 99 Hillsdale----------------------------------------------------- 9 Jonesville---------------------------------------------------- 9 Reading----------------------------------------------------- 9 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------100 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 100 Ransom Township------------------------------------------------ 100 Jerome-------------------------------------------------------- 101 Moscow Township----------------------------------------------- 102 Whealan Towshi---------------------------------102 Allen Township------------------------------------------------- 102 Camden------------------------------------------------------- 103 Cambria Township----------------------------------------------- 103 Branch County, by Frank Leverett------------------------104 General statement--------------------------------------------------- 104 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 104 Codwater------------------------------------------------------ 104 Quincy-------------------------------------------------------- 104 Union City----------------------------------------------------- 104 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------105 St. Joseph County, by Frank Leverett----------------------------105 ï~~CONTENTS. V St. Joseph County, by Frank Leverett--Continued. Page. Waterworks------------------------------106 Three Rivers--------------------------------------------------- 106 Sturgis-------------"------------------------------------------- 107 Centerville---------------------------107 Constantine----------------------------------------------------- 107 Cass County, by Frank Leverett----------------------108 Topography------------------------------------------------------- 108 Miscellaneous village supplies--------------------------108 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 108 Glenwood district----------------------------------------------- 108 Long Lake---------------------------109 West of Dowagiac---------------------------------------------- 109 Fish Lake-----------------------"------------------------------ 109 Waterworks------------------"-------------------------------------- 109 Dowagiac-"---------------------------------------------------- 109 Cassopolis------------------------------------------------------ 110 Marcellus----------------------------------------------------- 110 Berrien County, by Frank Leverett------------------------110 Topography---------------.-----------"----------------------------110 Waterworks------------------------------------------------------- 111 Niles_--------------------------------------------------------- 111 Buchanan---------------------------------"-------------------- 112 Three Oaks----------------------------------------------------- 112 Benton Harbor-------"------------------------------ ------------ 112 St. Joseph------------------------------------------------------ 112 Eau Claire----------------------------------------------------- 113 Miscellaneous village supplies--------------------------113 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------ 113 Galien district--------------------------------------------------- 113 Weesaw Township---------"-------------------------------------- 114 New Buffalo district--------------------------------------------- 114 Pipestono district---------------------"-------------------------- 114 Bainbridge district--------------------------117 Pawpaw Lake-------------------------------------------------- 118 Van Buren County, by Frank Leverett-----------------------119 Topography--------------------------------"------------------------ 119 Waterworks------------------------------------------------------- 120 Bangor-------------------------------------------------------- 120 Decatur----------------"--------------------------------------- 120 Hartford------------------------------------------------------- 120 Lawrence------------"---------"-------------------------------- 120 Pawpaw------------------------------------------------------ 120 South Haven-------------------------------------------------- 120 Miscellaneous village supis--------------------121 Flowing wells------------"------------------------------------------- 121 Hartford Township---------------------------------------------- 121 Pawpaw Township---------------------------------------------- 122 Antwerp Township---------------------------------------------- 123 Waverly Township---------------------------------------------- 123 Arlington Township---------------------------------------------- 124 Bangor Township------------------------------------- ----- -- 125 Geneva Township------------------------------------------------ 125 ï~~VI CONTENTS. Page. Kalamazoo County, by Frank Leverett------------------------------127 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 127 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 127 Kalamazoo----------------------------------------------------- 127 Vicksburg------------------------------------------------------ 129 Fulton adOheo----------------------129 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------130 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 130 Calhoun County, by Frank Leverett---------------------------------------__ 131 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 131 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 131 Albion--------------------------------------------------------- 131 Battle Creek---------------------------------------------------- 131 Marshall------- ------------------------------------------------ 132 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------132 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 132 Jackson County, by Frank Leverett---------------------------------------__133 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 133 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 134 Jackson-------------------------------------------------------- 134 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------------135 Flowing wells---------------------------:---------------------------- 135 Jackson-------------------------------------------------------- 135 Norvell-Brooklyn-Clarks Lake district-----------------136 Washtenaw County, by Frank Leverett-------------------138 General statement------------------------------138 Ann Arbor--------------------------------------------------------- 140 General supplies----------------------"--------------------------- 140 -Flowing wells--------------------------------------------------- 141 Waterworks at Ann Arbor---------------------------------------- 142 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 145 Ypsilanti------------------------------------------------------- 145 Chelsea-------------------------------------------------------- 146 Village supplies----------------------------------------------------- 146 Dexter-------------------------------------------------------- 146 Saline--------------------------------------------------------- 146 Milan--------------------------------------------------------- 146 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 146 Pittsfield Junction district-------------------------146 -Sharon Township----------------------------------------------- 149 Manchester dsrc-----------------------150 Allegan County, by Frank Leverett----------------------152 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 152 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 152 Allegan----------------------------"--------------------------- 152 Otsego and Plainwell---------------------------------------------- 153 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------153 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------ 153 Watson-Otsego district------------------------------------------- 153 Western part of county-------------------------------------------- 155 Graatschap area, by Isaiah Bowman-------------------------155 ï~~CONTENTS. VII Barry County, by r ranK iaeverett--Continued. Page. Waterworks, by Isaiah Bowman---------------------161 Hastings------------------------------------------------------ 161 Nashville--------------------------------162 Miscellaneous village supplies----------------------------163 Flowing wells, by Isaiah Bowman------------------------163 Eaton and Ingham counties, by Isaiah Bowan------------------164 General statement, by Frank Leverett--------------------164 Waterworks------------------------------- ------------------------- 165 Eaton Rapids--------------------------------"------------------ 165 Charlotte----------------------------166 Mason--------------------------------------------------------- 168 Flowing wells----------------------------- ------------------------- 168 Charlotte district------------------------------------------------ 168 Bismarck-Roxana district-----------------------169 Leslie district---------------------- ---------------------------- 169 Lansing and vicinity, by A. C. Lane----------------------------------------- 170 Geology----------------------------------------------------------- 170 Physical characteristics-----------------------------171 Character of the drift-------------------------171 Depth to rock--------------- ----------------------------------- 171 Quality of water------------------------------"----------------- -172 Waterworks-------------------------- ----------------------------- 173 Flowing wells---------- ----------- --------------------------------- 174 Flows from drift.------------------------------------------------ 174 Flows from rock------------ ------------------------------------- 174 Miscellaneous flows------------------------------------------ 175 Oakland County, by Frank Leverett--------------------------176 General statement-------------------------176 Waterworks--------------------------- ---------------------------- 177 Pontiac-----------"-------------------------------------------- 177 State asylum for the insane---------------------177 Milford-------------------------------------------------------- 178 Oxford, by Charles A. Davis.-------------------178 Holly, by Charles A. Davis---------------------180 Birmingham, by Jon A. Udden----- -------------182 Rochester, by Jon A. Udden--------------------182 Miscellaneous village supplies---------------------183 Flowing wells---------------------------184 Ortonville district, by Charles A. Davis-----------------184 Groveland Township, by Charles A. Davis-----------------187 Big Meadows area, by Charles A. Davis----------------188 Troy district, by Frank Leverett and Jon A. Udden-------------188 -Avon Township, by Jon A. Udden----------------------------------__ 195 Macomb County, by Frank Leverett---------------------------------------__ 196 General statement------------------------------------------------- 196 Waterworks------------------------------------197 Mount Clemens------------------------------------------------197 New Baltimore-------------------"------------------------------- 198 Richondand eno---------------------------------198 Armada------------------------------------------------------- 199 Romeo-----------------------"--------------"------------------ 199 ï~~VIII OONTENTS. Macomb County, by p~rank Leverett--Continued. Page. Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------.201 Bruce Township------------------------------------------------ 201 Washington-Ray district-----------------------202 Utica area----------------------------------------------------- 202 Lake St. Clair shore----------------------------------------------- 203 St. Clair County, by Frank Leverett---------------------205 General statement-------------------------------------------------- 205 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 205 Capac--------------------------------------------------------- 206 Yale--------------------------------------------------------- 206 Miscellaneous village supplies.----------------------208 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 209 East Greenwood district---------------------209 Clyde Township-------------------------------------------------- 210 Smiths Creek--------------------------------------------------- 211 Columbus Township--------------------------------------------- 212 Lapeer County, by Frank Leverett---------------------213 General statement-------------------------------------------------- 213 Waterworks------------------------------------------------------- 214 Imlay City, by Charles A. Davis------------------214 Lapeer, by Charles A. Davis-----------------------216 Michigan Home for Feeble-Minded------------------216 Almont-------------------------------------------------------- 217 Columbiaville-------------------------------------------------- 217 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------217 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------ 218 Attica Township------------------------------------------------ 218 Lum_--------------------------------------------------------- 218 Burnside district------------------------------------------------ 218 North Branch district----------------------220 Clifford-------------------------------------------------------- 221 Silverwood district--------------------------221 Columbiaville districts-----------------------224 Northern Clinton County, by Isaiah Bowman------------------225 General statement-------------------------------------------------- 225 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------ 225 Eureka district------------------- -- - - 225 Maple Rapids district-------------------------------------------- 228 St. Johns district------------------------------------------------ 228 Shepardsville district---------------------------------------------- 230 Elsie and vicinity, by Charles A. Davis-----------------230 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 233 Ovid---------------------------------------------------------- 233 St. Johns------------------------------------------------------ 233 Fowler-------------------------------------------------------- 234 Eagle--------------------------------------------------------- 235 Jonia County, by Isaiah Bowman_--------------------235 General statement-------------------------------------------------- 235 Flowing wells and springs--------------------------------------------- 235 Belding-------------------------------------------------------- 235 Clarksville district------------------------------------------------ 237 ï~~CONTENTS. ix Jonia County, by Tsaiah Bowman-Continued. Page. Waterworks-------------------------------------- ---------- 244 Lake Odessa---------------------------------------------------- 244 Muir and Lyons------------------------------------------------ 245 Portland------------------------------------------------------- 245 Montcalm County, by Isaiah Bowman--------------------246 General statement-------------------------------------------------- 246 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------ 246 Cedar Lake_---------------------------------------------------- 246 Crystal Lake district-----------"---------------------------------- 247 White Fish Lake------------------------------------------------ 248 Waterworks----------"--------"------------------------------------ 249 Carson City__--------------------------------------------------- 249 Edmore-------------------------------------------------------- 249 Greenville----------------------------------------------------- 250 Howard City-----------------------"--------------------------- 251 Stanton------------------------------------------------------- 252 Ottawa County, by Isaiah Bowman---------------------------------------__254 General statement---------------------"------------------------------ 254 Flowing wells_------------------------------------------------------ 254 Conklin district-------------------------------------------254 Coopersville areas----------------------------------------------255 Drenthe area--------------------------------------------------- 257 Bear Creek area-----------------------------------------------258 Harrisburg area------------------------------------------------- 259 Waterworks-----------------------------260 Grand Haven_-------------------------------------------------- 260 Coopersville---------------------------------------------------- 263 Holland------------------------------------------------------- 263 Zeeland------------------------------------------------------- 265 Miscellaneous analyses of well waters, by Isaiah Bowman-------------266 Kent County, by John F. Nellist------------------------------------------- 267 Drainage and water power--------------------------267 Waterworks----------------------------268 Grand Rapids----------------------------------------------- 268 Michigan Soldiers' Home------------------------------------------ 270 Rockford------------------------------------------------------ 270 Sparta-----------------------------270 Lowell----------------------------270 Flowing wells ------------------------------------------------------ 270 Cannon-------------------------------------------------------- 271 Ada Township-------------------------271 Sparta--------------------------------------"----------------- 271 Paris Township-------------------------------------------------- 271 Belmont_--"--------------------------------------------------- 272 Grand River Valley district---------------------272 Lowell, by Isaiah Bowman--------------------------------------274 Sand Lake, by Isaiah Bowman------- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- -275 Nonflowing wells--------------------------277 Salt wells--------------------------------277 Springs.-----"--------------------------------------------------- 277 Index.---"-------------.-----------------------------.---------- 279 ï~~ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. PLATE I. Artesian water map of Michigan6.................... -.......... 6 II. Geologic map of Michigan........................................ 8 III. A, Large spring at United States fish hatchery, Northville, Wayne County, Mich.; B, View of the Grosse Isle flowing well.............. 44 IV. A, Type of drilling apparatus used at Ypsilanti and vicinity; B, Bonsteel flowing well in 1902, showing old wooden casing and size of stream thirty-two years after completion--............................. 140 V. Map of Troy flowing-well district, Oakland County, showing topographic features in that and bordering districts...-.-..................... 188 FIG. 1. Sketch maip showing area covered by report........................ 2 2. General average of flowing-well temperatures in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan................................................---------------------------------------------------... 17 3. Diagram showing fluctuations in air and well temperatures at Ann Arbor, Mich............................................------------------------------------------------------. 20 4. Map of York and Milan-Cone flowing-well districts................... 28 5. Plat of York village, showing distribution of flowing wells.............. 82 6. Map of Holloway flowing-well district, Lenawee County.....-....... 87 7. Flowing wells in Ogden Township, Lenawee County.-............... 90 8. Plat of Morenci, Mich., showing flowing wells...................... 92 9. Map of southern part of Rollin Township, Lenawee County, showing distribution of flowing wells......................-........ 94 10. Flowing wells near Tipton, Lenawee County_.. --.................... 95 11. Flowing wells near Ransom, Hillsdale County..................... 101 12. Flowing wells (from rock) near Cambria, Hillsdale County.............. 103 13. Map of Pipestone flowing-well district, Berrien County................. 115 14. Flowing wells in Bainbridge and Watervliet townships, Berrien County. 118 15. Map of Waverly flowing-well district, Van Buren County............... 123 16. Arlington township flowing wells, Van Buren County................. 124 17. Map of part of Bloomingdale, Van Buren County.................... 126 18. Flowing wells in Sharon Township, Washtenaw County...-......... 149 19. Location of flowing wells in Watson and Otsego townships, Allegan County, in relation to topography and drainage.................... 154 20. Map of Wayland flowing-well district, Allegan County-.................. 156 21. Plat of Eaton Rapids, showing distribution of flowing wells............-. 165 22. Conditions at Oxford, Oakland County-..............-............ 179 23. Conditions at Oxford, Oakland County-...............-.......... 180 24. Diagram across valley at Ortonville, Oakland County.................. 184 25. Plat of Ortonville, Oakland County, showing location of flowing wells. 185 26. Cross section of Troy flowing-well district, Oakland County............. 190 27. Map of Rochester, Oakland County, and vicinity, showing distribution of flowing wells and their topographic relations........................ 195 28. Map showing relation of flowing wells in Washington and Ray townships, Macomb County, to lake beaches and moraine. - - - -........- 201 ï~~ILLUSTRATIONS. XI Page. FIG. 29. Map showing relations of flowing wells in Clyde Township, St. Clair County. 210 30. Flowing wells in Columbus Township, St. Clair County........-......... 212 31. Flowing wells near North Branch, Lapeer County..................... 220 32. Distribution of flowing wells in and near Silverwood, in Lapeer and Tuscola counties......---------------------------------------------------................................................ 222 33. Map showing Eureka flowing-well area in relation to drainage and moraine_ 226 34. Flowing wells near St. Johns, Clinton County........................ 229 35. Illustration of flow obtained by trenching.........-................ 229 36. Map of Belding flowing-well area-....................-....... 236 37. Location of Clarksville flows-............................... 238 38. Area in and near Ionia in which flows are found....................... 241 39. Relation of Cedar Lake flows to topography and drainage.............. 247 40. Possible extent of Conklin field over sections where flowing wells occur... 54 41. Coopersville flowing wells-.................................... 255 42. Map of Bear Creek and Drenthe flowing-well districts.................. 258 43. Location of flowing wells at Harrisburg, Ottawa County, and area of probable flows..----------------------------------------------...................................................- 259 44. Plat of Grandville, Kent County, showing distribution of flowing wells.... 273 ï~~ ï~~FLOWING WELLS AND MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES IN THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE SOUTHERN PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN. By FRANK LEVERETT AND OTHERS. INTRODUCTION. By FRANK LEVERETT. SCOPE OF REPORT. A large amount of data on water supplies was collected by the writer in the course of glacial investigations made under the direction of Prof. T. C. Chamberlin in the last five years in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. These investigations resulted in a partial acquaintance with conditions in about 200 separate flowing-well districts and brought out matters of such exceptional importance that arrangements were made to extend them by examining each of the flowing-well districts in the State sufficiently to determine its essential characteristics, present state of development, and probable capacity for future development. It was arranged also that the quality of various classes of waters, both surface and underground, as well as water supplies of the cities and villages, should be given attention. As the mineral waters of the State had already been discussed in some detail by the State geologist, Dr. A. C. Lane, in Water-Supply Paper No. 31 of the United States Geological Survey, it was deemed unnecessary to prepare another report on that subject, but arrangements were made with Doctor Lane for embodying in this report the large amount of material which had accumulated at his office relative to other classes of water supply, and also for furnishing reports on certain counties in which special investigations had been carried on by the State survey. The results of all these studies, so far as they apply to the southern counties (see fig. 1), are embodied in the present report; the remainder will appear in a companion report on the middle and northern counties of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. ï~~2 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. In completing the necessary field work for this report several persons were employed for a short time and were assigned to separate districts, as follows: Jon Andreas Udden. of Rock Island, Ill., was employed from July to December, 1904, in an investigation of the southern counties, chiefly those south of Kalamazoo River, and parts of Macomb and Oakland counties, in the eastern part of the I ND I AN A FIG. 1.-Sketch map showing area covered by report. State. Mr. Isaiah Bowman, of Yale University, was engaged for six weeks in August and September, chiefly in the region tributary to Grand River. Prof. C. A. Davis, of the University of Michigan, was employed during July, August, and September in the investigation of the southern and eastern portions of the basin of Saginaw ï~~SCOPE OF REPORT. River. Mr. W. M. Gregory, of the department of physiography in the Cleveland, Ohio, high school, was employed during July, August, and part of September in the investigation of the northwestern portion of the Saginaw River basin, and also of flowing-well districts in the northern part of the peninsula, in Cheboygan, Emmett, Grand Traverse, Benzie, and Manistee counties, to which he had previously given some attention in connection with stream measurements under Mr. Robert E. Horton. Mr. M. L. Fuller, of the Geological Survey, under whose direction the work was carried on, visited several of the men in the field and spent August and part of September in an investigation of the deficiency of water supplies along the Huron River Valley near Detroit and in a detailed study of the flowing wells in four western counties, Oceana, Newaygo, Mecosta, and Osceola. Muskegon County was investigated by Mr. C. D. McLouth, of the department of physics of the Muskegon high school; Kent County, by Mr. J. F. Nellist, a civil engineer of Grand Rapids; Bay County, by Mr. W. F. Cooper, of the State geological survey, and Wayne County by Prof. W. H. Sherzer, of the State Normal College at Ypsilanti, who also furnished the data for the report on Monroe County. Doctor Lane, the State geologist, investigated and reported on conditions in the vicinity of Lansing and also prepared a brief report on Huron County condensed from his more elaborate State report. The present writer's investigations during the last season were chiefly in Sanilac, Lapeer, and St. Clair counties, on the eastern border of the State, and in Charlevoix, Antrim, and Benzie counties, in the northwestern part. Mr. S. J. Lewis, of the United States Geological Survey, was detailed for a special investigation of the quality ef waters and spent about a month in the State, in January and February, 1905, during which time he made about 90 analyses. Dr. V. C. Vaughan, dean of the medical school of the University of Michigan, kindly placed at the disposal of the Survey a large number of analyses made for sanitary purposes but including determinations of hardness, chlorides, and sulphates. Field analyses were also made by Messrs. Fuller, Gregory, and Bowman, which will be found in connection with their reports, herewith presented. Reports were submitted by all those engaged in this investigation with the exception of Mr. Udden, who merely turned in his tabulated data and notebooks. Much work, however, was necessary in order to bring the several reports to a more nearly uniform standard and the present writer has amplified portions, inserted additional data at many points, and supplied most of the geologic and other general descriptions. The several reports, however, naturally differ somewhat in mode of treatment according to the personal standards of individual writer. ï~~4 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES. The Southern Peninsula of Michigan is bordered on its entire western coast by Lake Michigan, on the north by the Straits of Mackinac, and on the east, from north to south, by Lake Huron, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, successively. Its only land border is on the south, and this is divided bhtween the States of Ohio and Indiana. The range in latitude is a little more than 40, from about 41Â~ 45' to about 45Â~ 50' north. The area is 40,761 square miles, or about 71 per cent of the entire State (57,430 square miles). Lansing, the State capital, is situated south of the center of this peninsula. The population of the Southern Peninsula, as given in the census of 1900, is 2,169,620, or about 90 per cent of the population of the entire State (2,420,982). This population is very largely in the southern half; if a line be drawn midway between the northern and southern ends, only two cities, Manistee and Alpena, with populations exceeding 10,000 will be found to the north, while there are 14 such to the south. Fifteen counties of the northern half of the peninsula, with an aggregate area of 8,160 square miles, had in 1900 a combined population of only 93,704, or less than one-third the population of the city of Detroit (285,704). In consequence of this unequal distribution of population, there is an unequal development and utilization of water resources. In the northern counties there are entire townships which have no records of wells or tests of underground water supplies, while in the southern counties the underground water supplies have been tested sufficiently to afford a fair basis for this report. The map (P1. II) presents the principal reliefs of the peninsula. It will be observed that a plain 20 to 40 miles wide runs along the southeastern edge of the State, rising from less than 600 to about 800 feet above sea level. This plain was covered by ice from the Huron and Erie basins, and later by large Glacial lakes. West of this is a prominent belt of rolling country about 25 miles wide, interspersed with numerous small lakes and representing a strong development of morainic topography. Its altitude ranges from about 800 to 1,300 feet, with a general elevation of nearly 1,000 feet. This constitutes a catchment area from which the waters are distributed to the east and the west, both in surface streams and in underground courses. The head furnished the underground waters in this catchment area gives rise to numerous flowing wells which are found on the plains to the southeast and to the northwest. A broad plain extends from Saginaw Bay southwestward we' toward the southern edge of the State. Through this plain an icy obe, known as the Saginaw lobe, is found to have flowed, its extre limits on the southeast being marked by the belt of morainic country ï~~t. r _ __,,' F e,ys s f P f L r. _u... _.., _..._.. 4 g g y,,. i': i 4 k R Â~, 4.. } ï~~ ï~~ ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 7 WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. The greater part of the Southern Peninsula is covered so deeply with drift that wells do not reach rock. The shaded portions of the map (P1. I) show the parts of the State where rock is within easy reach of the drill and is drawn upon to some extent for drinking water. In the northern end of the peninsula water is found chiefly in limestone if not in the drift. There is also a limestone district in the southeastern part that serves extensively as a source for drinking water; in some cases in southeastern Lenawee County the wells are driven through shale to reach the limestone. The extensive district running from Hillsdale and Calhoun counties northeastward to Saginaw Bay obtains water chiefly from sandstones of the coal measures and from the Marshall sandstone if water is not found in the drift. There are, however, small limestone districts in this region, the full extent of which has not been worked out. Sandstone is also drawn upon occasionally in western Wayne, southern Washtenaw, and northern Lenawee counties in the deep flowing wells. The Sylvania sandstone of Monroe County is also an important water bearer, yielding a good quality of water. There are small areas around Grand Rapids in Kent and eastern Ottawa counties and around Wayland in northeastern Allegan County where wells are driven to the Marshall sandstone. Water is found in the glacial formations at various horizons, wherever gravel or sand chances to be present. The clay plains bordering St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and Detroit River are deficient in gravel and sand, and are perhaps the poorest water bearers in the peninsula. As a rule water in large quantities is easily obtained in the drift. Even in the regions where wells are driven to rock, as indicated by the shaded portions of P1. I, there are numerous wells obtaining water from the glacial deposits. The water from rock is usually softer in sandstone areas than that from the overlying drift, and for that reason is preferred and is the cause for going to the rock in many instances. The sand along the present shore and also along abandoned shores of the Great Lakes is often of sufficient depth to furnish water, though not that of the best quality in many cases. It so happens that these sand deposits occur on parts of the lake plain where the glacial formations are deficient in water-bearing beds and thus become of great importance locally. In general, however, the water from the underlying glacial formations is preferred and is used wherever it can be easily obtained. The newest formations drawn upon for water are the beds of bog lime bordering the little lakes. Pipes are driven down into the marl, sometimes with a sledge hammer, far enough to get the water. In some cases, in the northern part of the State, flowing wells have been ï~~8 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. obtained by penetrating the marl a few feet. Conspicuous instances are found on the borders of Pine Lake at East Jordan, South Arm, and Boyne, and on the borders of Intermediate Lake near Bellaire. STRUCTURE OF DRIFT. The structure of the drift is intimately related to the drainage conditions that attended the melting of the ice. It is more variable in Michigan, both on the surface and below, than in a large part of of the neighboring States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In those States the till, or commingled drift, greatly predominates over the sand and gravel, or assorted drift, and contains a large percentage of fine clayey material. In Michigan sand and gravel form a large part of the drift, and much of the till is loose textured. The great amount of loose-textured drift seems attributable to the voluminous discharge of water resulting from the convergence of ice lobes. It is best developed on the high portions of the State, which were built up between the ice lobes. The most clayey portion of the drift is found in plains bordering the lake basins. On these plains more difficulty is found in obtaining adequate supplies of water than in the higher tracts bordering them. Portions of the plains have a thin coating of sand deposited in the beds of the Glacial lakes that covered them after the withdrawal of the ice, and in these localities many wells draw their supply from the surface sand. Flowing wells are usually found under a bed of clayey drift, and for this reason, as well as because of topographic conditions, the largest artesian districts are found on the old lake plains.. (See Pl. I.) The clayey drift differs greatly in degree of induration at different horizons, and the sand and gravel also become cemented at certain horizons. The induration in the clay or till seems to be largely a result of secondary changes produced slowly and is in some cases an index of age. The surface till sheet, which is of the Wisconsin stage, is generally a soft adhesive clay even where very fine textured, and well diggers and drillers find very little difficulty in penetrating it. Below this the drift is found to be extensively indurated, so that excavation is difficult and the till approaches a shale in its resistance. The precise nature of the induration has not been ascertained. It is thought that much of this indurated clayey drift was deposited in a Glacial stage earlier than the one which formed the upper part of the drift, probably the Illinoian stage. In some places a soil appears between the two sheets of till, showing that an interval separates them. The buried soils are much more abundant in northern Indiana than in southern Michigan, but they have been noted in well borings as far north as Bay and Oceana counties. Another kind of induration of the drift is very common in flowingwell districts. Just above the water bed which yields the flow is ï~~CHARACTER OF DRAINAGE. found a cemented crust, having a thickness usually of only a few inches. This crust is apparently due to contact with the water, but the precise chemical or physical changes that have produced it have not been given much attention. In some cases it has the appearance of bog iron ore, and in others it is chiefly carbonate of lime; probably the quality of the water determines the nature of the crust. A crust has also been frequently noted in sand and gravel deposits just above the water table, where it is somewhat constant at a definite horizon. It is a common experience to find sand so close textured that it will not furnish water fast enough to supply the wells. Such sand is encountered in the plains perhaps more frequently than in the rolling or morainic belts. It is the custom in such places to continue the drilling to a looser textured bed, though in some localities no such bed is found. If a looser textured bed is reached, the water often rises in the pipe to a higher level than in the overlying sand, the sand apparently serving as a cover to prevent the upward escape of water from the porous bed. In a few places flowing wells have been obtained in which nothing but sand was penetrated from the surface down to the coarser bed that yielded the flow. Instances are cited in the discussion of certain flowing-well districts (pp. 143-144). CHARACTER OF DRAINAGE. The character of the drainage depends on the structure of the drift as well as on the topography. Where the soil is very loose textured, as on gravel plains and on many of the larger moraines, very little surface run-off occurs, so that even the steep hillsides show little or no gullying. Basins are numerous on the gravel plains and to some extent among the moraines. When of sufficient depth to extend below the water table they contain water, but a large proportion of them are so shallow as to have dry bottoms. The drainage lines are therefore best developed in the clayey portions of the State, where the rainfall can not be quickly absorbed by the soil. The regimen of the streams varies also in accordance with the structure of the drift. Where the drift is loose textured the streams are supplied by seepage from the underground drainage and are not subject to freshets, nor to very low stages, but in the clayey tracts, where the surface drainage is the principal factor, there is a marked difference between the high- and low-water stages of the streams. Often, however, the sources of streams are in districts having a loosetextured drift, while the lower courses run through clayey districts; in such cases the streams have a correspondingly regular flow. Data concerning the flow of the principal streams of the peninsula may be found in the reports on stream measurements which appear in the water-supply series of the United States Geological Survey. The ï~~10 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. regularity of flow, as well as the considerable fall of the principal streams of the peninsula, renders them valuable for water power to an exceptional degree, considering the small size of their drainage basins. The subject of water power, however, is not taken up in the present report. RAINFALL. From the reports of the Weather Bureau it appears that the rainfall is greatest in the southern tier of counties and decreases northward to a little beyond the middle of the peninsula, when a change occurs toward heavier precipitation. This is set forth in the following table, which gives the average precipitation by tiers of counties from south to north, each tier having a uniform width of 24 miles: Average annual precipitation in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. Inches. First or southern tier (Monroe to Berrien County)---------.............. 34. 59 Second tier (Wayne to Van Buren County)--................... 31.99 Third tier (Macomb to Allegan County)..-------.................. 30. 81 Fourth tier (St. Clair to Ottawa County)-.............. -........... 31.19 Fifth tier (Sanilac to Muskegon County)..------.. ------ -.......... 30.66 Sixth.tier (Bay to Oceana County)-.................... -.-........ 27.21 Seventh tier (Arenac to Mason County) --.........-.-.............25.44 Eighth tier (losco to Manistee County)..........................-. -26.62 Ninth tier (Alcona to Benzie County)---..........-.. --..............._ 33.04 Tenth tier (Alpena to Leelanaw County)--....--- -..-..-...........-.. 32.53 Eleventh tier (Presque Isle to Charlevoix County)......-..-................ 28. 07 Twelfth tier (northern Cheboygan and Emmet counties)....................... 31.41 Average for the peninsula---....................-.......... 30.30 The distribution of precipitation by months and the percentages by seasons in the southern, central, and northern sections of the Peninsula are given in the following tables, which are based on the monthly rainfall data of the Weather Bureau: Average monthly rainfall in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. [Inches.] Month. Southern Central Northern third, third, third. January............................................................. 2.33 1.96 2.42 February-------------------------------------------------------------................................................................ -2.31 2.16 1.60 March-----------------------------------------------------------...................................................................- 2.68 3.09 2.20 April..................................................................-----------------------------------------------------------------. 2.34 2.16 1.86 May..................................................................3.68 2.73 2.70 June.................................................................3.54 3.00 2.80 July..................................................................3.43 2.96 4.47 August................................................................---------------------------------------------------------------.. 2.64 2.58 2.08 September.....------------------------------------------------------------ 2. 76 2.98 3. 41 October................................................................ -------------------------------------------------------------- 2.48 2.60 3.10 November------------------------------------------------------------..............................................................-2.82 2. 44 2. 28 December-----------------------------------------------------------..............................................................---2.47 1.53 1.60 ï~~GROUND-WATER TABLE. 11 Distribution of precipitation in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan, by seasons. [Per cent.] Season. Southern Central Northern Entire nm uA.aon..third. third. third.,peninWinter (December-February)............................21. 23 18. 73 18. 40 19. 45 Spring (March-May).......................26.00 26. 43 22.15 24.86 Summer (June-August)................................. f 28.70 28.28 30.63 29.20 Autumn (September-November)...............------------------------........... --24.07 26. 56 28. 82 26. 48 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.99 It appears from the above tables that the rainfall is most deficient in the winter months at a time when the frozen ground would prevent its absorption, but is well distributed throughout the growing season all over the peninsula. It should be noted that the greater evaporation in the southern part of the peninsula causes it to be a drier region than the northern part, notwithstanding the fact that it has a little more rain. Determinations made at Signal-Service stations, and discussed by T. Russell in the Monthly Weather Review for September, 1888, show that the evaporation near the southern border of the State is 37 to 38 inches a year, while in the latitude of *Port Huron and Grand Haven it is about 29 inches, and at Alpena 24.3 inches. Only a small part of the evaporation occurs in the winter months, or during the time of deficient precipitation, so the deficiency is not noticeable. Indeed, as a rule snow remains continuously over much of the peninsula from December to March. GROUND-WATER TABLE. The ground-water table as ordinarily understood marks a level to which the saturation of the earth's crust rises. In a region of heavy rainfall it is commonly very near the surface, but in arid regions it may lie at a considerable depth and is sometimes beyond the general direct percolation of the rainfall, there being a moist layer at the surface supplied b)y the rainfall, under which the material is dry down to the ground-water table. Ordinarily the ground-water table in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan lies only a few feet below the surface, within easy reach of the roots of trees and other plants. A few places, however, have been revealed by well borings in which comparatively dry material is present between the moist surface beds and the ground-water table. The most conspicuous instance is found in Emmett County north of Little Traverse Bay, where the wells on an elevated table-land, underlain by gravel and sand, reach depths of 350 to 400 feet before striking the water table; instances of this are cited in Water-Supply Paper No. 183. The rainfall in that region appears to moisten chiefly the surface portion, but is yet adequate to the needs of the forests, orchards, and crops. On many of the elevated gravel plains the water table is 40 to 60 feet, and occasionally ï~~12 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 100 feet, below the surface, and wells must be driven to those depths to obtain water, and yet vegetation ordinarily thrives on these plains. Similar conditions are found in a number of the prominent moraines, in which a sheet of bowldery till at the surface is underlain by sand and gravel of considerable depth. The till at the surface is kept moist by the rainfall, so that the crops obtain the necessary water. In all these localities there are probably places where conditions are such that the rainfall percolates directly down to the water table, but there does not appear to be a general percolation to this depth. Where the ground-water table lies only a few feet below the surface, and the percolation of the rainfall to it is general, marked fluctuations are found in its level corresponding with the amount of rainfall. The underground drainage into the streams is maintained in times of drought as well as in wet seasons, and the water table drops down or flattens out beneath the hills to depths sufficient to seriously affect not only the crops but the supplies for wells. As a result the so-called surface wells (which are merely basins sunk into the upper part of the ground-water table) are.being rapidly abandoned, and driven wells reaching to deeper supplies substituted. This condition is also conducive to health, for many of these shallow or surface wells are receptacles for all sorts of filth. There is a slight variation in the ground-water table due to barometric changes, the level of water in the open wells being highest in times of low barometer or just before a storm. It is barometric fluctuation of his sort which produces the blowing wells reported at various points in the State. According to the testimony of well owners, barometric conditions also affect flowing wells, an increase in the rate of flow resulting from a decrease in atmospheric pressure. An instance of remarkably high water table is found in the dunes along the shore of Lake Michigan, where a fine or uniform texture sand in sharp ridges, with a height of 150 to 200 feet above the lake, is found to be wet to within a very few feet of the surface Because of this condition some of the dunes are covered with hardwood forests. WELLS AND APPLIANCES. One of the most common types of well is the large open or dug well, walled or curbed, which furnishes a basin in which the water collects or stands. This kind of well is in very common use on the farms, and is also in use as a collecting reservoir in the villages for the waterworks supply. In districts where the drift is of a clayey texture and the yield of water is small these larger wells serve a valuable purpose as collecting basins, and in many cases can not be dispensed with even though known to be more or less subject to surface contamination. ï~~WELLS AND APPLIANCES. 13 A type in use locally, especially in clayey districts, is known as the bored well, the excavation being made by means of a large auger. These wells are usually lined with tile. They can be sunk without difficulty to depths of 50 to 100 feet. Some of the oldest flowing wells in southeastern Michigan are of this type. A type which is coming into very general use throughout the State is known as the tubular well. It is made with the ordinary churn drill, the material being brought up by means of a sand pump. The size of these wells ranges from 2 inches or less up to about 8 inches. They are in very common use in the villages for obtaining public water supplies, as well as throughout the country districts. Ordinarily they are driven some distance into the water bed, making up in vertical direction for the small diameter of the well, no casing being used after entering the water bed. Where flowing wells are obtained, however, it is customary to stop the drilling about as soon as the water bed is reached. The drills used in making wells of this type are usually handled by steam or horsepower, but in some instances only hand power is used, the drill being lifted by a windlass a few feet and dropped into the hole. In some cases no drill is used, but the pipe is driven to the water bed, the material being removed by a sand pump if the well is deep or if it has a large-sized pipe. Shallow wells with small pipe are often driven through to the water bed without sand pumping. It is common to attach a sharp perforated cone or "point" to admit the water, which aids in reducing the resistance to driving the pipe. In some cases these wells are made by simply using a maul to drive the pipe. In the discussion by Mr. Davis attention is directed to strainers or screens which are employed in the tubular wells and to the clogging which they experience, a Windmills are in very common use throughout the State as a means for lifting the water to the surface. In some of the deeper wells on elevated tracts the windmill has become a necessity, for the water in some instances has to be lifted about 200 feet-one case was found in which the lift was 400 feet. In this well a 12-foot wheel was in use. Many flowing wells are allowed to discharge the water without restriction, but there is a growing sentiment in favor of using reducers or faucets to prevent waste. b In some cases pumps have been attached in order to prevent the slop attending the flow, or, where the wells are weak, to increase the supply. a Flowing wells and municipal water supplies of the middle and northern portions of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No.183, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906. b For State laws on this point see pp. 21-22. ï~~14 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. QUALITY OF WATER. The chemical character of the water, both - surface and underground, has been considered at some length by Doctor Lane, in WaterSupply Paper No. 31, where numerous analyses are presented. The present report contains many additional analyses, some of them made by chemists in the laboratory and some by men in the field. Although the latter are designed to show the general characteristics of the waters, without pretense to the accuracy of a laboratory analysis, the results are usually correct within a few parts per million. In general, the waters from all horizons, both surface and underground, in the Southern Peninsula are hard, compared with waters found in regions in which readily soluble rocks, like limestone and gypsum are not present. There are very few waters in which the carbonate of lime is less than 150 parts per million. Salt is present in varying amounts, from a mere trace up to several thousand parts in a million. An analysis of one water from the drift made by Mr. Lewis shows 2,829 parts per million of chlorine, the well being supplied presumably from water contributed to the drift from the underlying sandstone. Ordinarily the drift waters show less than 25 parts per million. Sulphated and sulphureted waters are found at various points in the State, both in the drift and in the underlying rock, but ordinarily the drift waters have very small amounts of sulphureted hydrogen gas, and sulphates seem to be principally in the portions of the State where gypsum forms a conspicuous ingredient in the drift, as in the region bordering Saginaw Bay and reached by the Saginaw glacial lobe, and in the region near the gypsum outcrops around Grand Rapids. Iron is commonly supposed to be present in large amount in the flowing wells and in wells of similar character whose waters are confined below impervious beds.' In some cases its presence is proved by the staining of objects over which the water passes, but in many instances what seems an abundant iron oxide precipitate is in the main a vegetable growth of alga. The few available analyses indicate that the amount of iron is small compared with other mineral constituents. SUBTERRANEAN WATER TEMPERATURE. Considerable attention has been given to the temperature of the water in flowing wells in order to obtain information concerning the heat gradients due to depth and to latitude. It was found, however, that the temperatures obtained are of very little value in showing the increase of heat with depth, for as a rule wells in a given district having variations of 100 or even 200 feet in depth, if in Glacial ï~~SUBTERRANEAN WATER TEMPERATURE. 15 deposits, are very similar in temperature. The circulation of subterranean waters appears therefore to be such that little of value can be determined concerning the heat gradient within 200 feet of the surface. The change in temperature corresponding to the latitude, however, is very marked, there being a difference of about 5.5Â~ in about 40 of latitude between the southern and northern ends of the peninsula. The air temperature shows a similar range, but averages about 4Â~ lower than the water temperature. The true temperature of the water at the bottom of a well can be obtained only in wells of rapid flow having but little exposure of pipe. Nor can the pipe be carried horizontally through the soil without affecting the temperature. It was not possible in the hasty examinations in the field to determine the causes of variation from the bottom temperature in any given well, since this would necessitate much inquiry into all the surrounding conditions. As a result many of the temperatures given in the numerous tables of data concerning flowing-well districts are liable to be misleading. Interesting variations in temperature of the wells of a given latitude suggest several problems. For example, wells in swamps are generally a little cooler than wells of similar depth on the dry land, especially if the wells are comparatively shallow in both cases. Thus the wells in the celery swamp south of Ann Arbor have a temperature of a little less than 500 F., while those on the dry land in the vicinity are commonly 510. The question arises whether the evaporation from a swamp, being greater than that from the dry land, may not prevent the heating of the soil beneath to the degree experienced in that region on ground where evaporation is less; also, whether the slow heat conductivity in a swamp may not cause waters beneath it to have exceptionally low temperature. The flowing-well district in southeastern Oakland County known as the Troy district has salt water in its eastern portion and fresh water in its western portion from wells of similar depth, and the temiperature of the salt water averages somewhat lower than that of the fresh water. The salt water probably comes up from the underlying rock, and one would naturally expect it to be warmer instead of colder than water supplied entirely from the drift. The observations on temperature were made in 1904, when the air temperature was considerably below the normal, the average temperature for the year being 2.7Â~ below the normal throughout the peninsula. This raises the question whether flowing wells of moderate depth may not have suffered a slight lowering of temperature because of this deficiency in heat received by the surface. On the whole, flowing wells less than 30 feet in depth are found to present a slightly lower temperature than do wells exceeding that depth, but ï~~16 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. there are so many exceptions that some doubt is felt as to the lowering effect of the low air temperature of 1904 on even the shallowest of the flowing wells. Some of the very shallow flowing wells may, however, receive contributions of water from considerable depths, or from beyond the influence of the low air temperature. In the city of Ann Arbor there are springs having a uniform temperature of 510 throughout the year, which must come from depths sufficiently low to have been unaffected by the low temperature of 1904 or even by the winter severity of cold. There are certain districts in which the temperature is different from what would be expected for that part of the State, a conspicuous case being the wells in the vicinity of Grand Traverse Bay, in Antrim and Grand Traverse counties, the temperature of which is generally 48Â~ to 500, whereas about 470 is to be expected. The high temperature at Traverse City may be referable to the great depth of the wells, the general depth being over 300 feet, but this would not apply to the shallow wells at Williamsburg and around Intermediate Lake. There is, ho,wever, a possibility that these shallow wells are supplied by water rising from considerable depths. The observations on temperatures were taken by several thermometers which have not as yet been standardized. They were, however, compared by tests made on the same wells at Ann Arbor and found to agree within a fraction of a degree. Errors from this source are not likely, therefore, to be appreciable. In the table below the.,general averages of air and water temperatures are presented for each tier of counties, as in the rainfall table already given, the counties being of the uniform width of 24 miles. The excess of the water temperature above the air temperature is probably in large part due to the blanketing effect of snow, which prevents the earth from reaching the low temperature which the severity of winter might otherwise give it. The extent to which this and other factors, such as the topography, the character of the soil, etc., apply is a matter difficult of determination. General averages of air and water temperatures in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. IDegrees F.] Excess Air. Water. of water temperature. First or southern tier (Monroe to Berrien County)..................... 48. 25 52.25 4 Second tier (Wayne to Van Buren County)............................. 48.1 51.3 3.2 Third tier (Macomb to Allegan County)----------------................................ 47 50.3 3.3 Fourth tier (St. Clair to Ottawa County)...................-... -..... 46.4 50.1 3.7 Fifth tier (Sanilac to Muskegon County).............................---------------------------.. 46.5 49.4 2.9 Sixth tier (Huron to Oceana County)--.............................. 45.5 48.9 3.4 Seventh tier (Arenac to Mason County)-------------------------................................- 44.5 48.1 3.6 Eighth tier (Iosco to Manistee County).....----------------------------43.4 47.7 4.3 Ninth tier (Alcona to Benzie County)..----------... 43. 6 47. 8 4. 2 Tenth tier (Alpena to Leelanaw County)............................... 41.3 47.2 5. 9 Eleventh tier (Presque Isle to Charlevoix and Emmet counties)........ 43 46. 8 3. 8 ï~~SUBTERRANEAN WATER TEMPERATURE. 17 The averages of water temperatures given in the above table are based on the temperatures of strong wells which appear to have been subject to little surface heating. They fall slightly below an average based on all the wells, weak and strong. The accompanying map (fig. 2) presents the results of a grouping of all the wells except those that are known to be subject to surface heating. 45to4 8 46t04 9 47t0 50 48t0 51 49t052 50t0o53 0 20 0 60 80 miles FIG. 2.-General average of flowing-well temperatures in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. Monthly observations were made between May, 1904, and May, 1905, at Ann Arbor, Mich., on the temperature of springs and wells of various classes, an attempt being made to include all classes within ï~~18 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. easy reach of the city. Three springs were selected-one on State street issuing from the base of a gravel deposit, another on the White estate, west of the city, issuing from the base of a till bluff, and a third which bubbles up from the bed of a ravine on the Rash property in the western part of the city. Five shallow dug wells and one deep dug well were taken because of the various conditions which they include, one being in a ravine, another on the brow of a bluff, another on a gravel terrace, and two others on an elevated moraine, one being covered and the other open. The deep dug well maintains a water level 40 feet below the surface, while the shallow wells have water within 5 to 22 feet of the surface. Two shallow tubular wells, in one of which the water stands near the surface and in the other at a depth of 18 feet, were selected, and two deep tubular wells which overflow. The tubular wells showed very little range in temperature, but the dug wells varied greatly. The bubbling spring showed a steady temperature, while the springs issuing from the hillside were influenced by the seasons. The lagging of the effect of summer heat and winter cold was a matter of principal interest in connection with the observations on the dug wells, the effect of the former culminating in October and that of the latter about April. The accompanying diagram (fig. 3, p. 20) sets forth this feature, while the observations are presented in the following table: ï~~Observations on wells and springs in and near Ann Arbor, Mich., May, 1904, to April, 1905. Depth Head Temperature (o.nnua Name and location. Class. Pump. Depth Head.Tmeau..... Annual in feet. in fect. N vrg Name and location. Class. Pump. infet inet. May. June.: July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. average ---_ - -.---- _ __- --_I _ State street spring; base of gravel. Issuing..................0 0 51.2 53 54.5 55.5 54.8 53.5 50.3 47 45 42.5 42.5 46 49.8 piped several rods. "... 0 White estate spring; baay of blutfft,..-..do----------..--------.. ---- 0 0 50.8 51 51.3 51.5 51 50.3 49.8 49 49..... 49 49.7 50.2 piped several rods. Rash Spring; bed of ravine..........Boiling.............. 0 0 51 51 51 51 51 50.8 50.7 51 51 51 51 51 50.95 Buehler well; in ravine.............) Dug.............. Wooden..... 12 -10 45.5 47.5 49 50 51.2 52 51 49 45.8 45 44.3 44 47.86 Rash well; on bluff, 34 feet above. 1.......... Iron........ 23 -22 45 47 48 48.9 49.9 51 50.5 48.8 46 46 45.5 45 47.6 Rash Spring. Schaeberle well; on gravel terrace...do............ Wooden.. 18 7 46.5 4.5 49. 51.6 52.4 53 52 49 47.5 45.5 44 45.8 48.77 capped by clay.,-j-7 j}.548.5 49.5 51.6 52.4 53 52 49 475 45.5 44 458 48.77 Levy well; on terrace sunk through....do.......... Iron......... 80 -40 "48.3 49 49.8 50.5 51 51 50.5 50.5 50.3 46 48.3 48.3 49.5 gravel into till. Observatory well; on moraine, with....do....... None. 15 14 46.5 48 51 52 52.5 plank cover. (..l -.5 48,5 52-2.550 46.9 41 37 43 41.6G 46.2 Carroll well; on moraine near observ- -20 atory, no cover, water drawn with... do...........Windlass... 24 46.5 46.5 48 50 49.6 50.3 48.9 45 37 40 41 45 45.57 windlass. 1 -Niederhammer well; on slope of ra- Tubular (2-inch). Iron........ 36 -18 50 51 51 51.15 51.15 51.1 51.4 50.3 49.7 50 50.2 49.8 50.57 vine. Dunn well; on South State street, in1 Tubular...............do...... 28 -2 49.8 50.5 50.3 51 51 51.5 50.8 50.5 50.5 50 50 49.5 50.45 old Huron River channel. Lutz flowing well; in ravine.........Tubular (2-inch).., None......... 112 +3 51.1 51 51 51 51 51 51 50.8 50.8 50.8 50.8 51 50.9 Hutzel flowing well; in ravine..........do........... do..... 72 a+5 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 Air temperatures at Ann Arbor from........................................ 58.4 66.7 70.8 67.3 62. 2 49.4 37.2 22.9 22.7 16. 5 37.7 44.8 46.4 daily observations at the observatory. 1 a Original head +22 feet; loss of head due in part to leakage around pipe. ï~~20 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 3 O ca ca I0 III q) 1. ï~~LEGISLATION. There are two important legislative acts in reference to Michigan water supplies, copies of which are presented below: [Act No. 43, Public Acts of 1897; 4484-4486, Compiled Laws, 1897.] AN ACT to provide for the analysis of water in use by the public in certain cases. The people of the State of Michigan enact: SECTION 1. That in any case where any city, village, or township in this State shall be supplied with water for domestic uses by any individual, company, or corporation, city or village, or where there is within such city, village, or township any water in swales, wells, rivers, or other places, which might be the cause of disease or epidemic, a sample of such water may be sent to the University of Michigan for analysis, by the mayor of such city or village, or by any alderman or trustee of such village, or by the supervisor of any such township, upon the resolution of the common council of such city, or board of trustees of such village, or the township boardof such township, for that purpose duly passed. SECTION 2. Upon receipt of such sample the regents of the University of Michigan shall cause a correct analysis of such sample of water to be made, and a correct statement of the properties contained therein, with a further statement whether or not such sample contains any substance deleterious to health, and return such analysis, together with the statement aforesaid to the person so sending the same, free of charge, except the actual cost of materials and animals used in making such analysis and experiment. SECTION 3. It shall be the duty of the board of regents of the University of Michigan to cause a record to be kept of every sample of water received under and by virtue of this statute, and in no case shall a second analysis be required of thosame water within one year except in the case of the breaking out of some disease among the consumers of such waters, and then only upon the certificate of at least two physicians engaged in active practice in that community that in their opinion such disease arises from the use of said water. Approved March 26, 1897. [Act 107, session of 1905.] A BILL to regulate the use of artesian and other wells; to prevent the waste of waters therefrom, and provide a remedy therefor. The people of the State of Michigan enact: SECTION 1. Any artesian or flowing well, the water of which is unnecessarily allowed to run to waste in an unreasonable manner to the depletion or lowering of the head or reservoir thereof to the detriment or damage of other wells supplied from the same head or reservoir, shall be deemed a nuisance, and its owner and the owner of the land on which it is situated shall be subject to all the actions for abatement and damages in favor of the person or persons injured that are or may be provided by law for other nuisances or tortious acts. SECTION 2. Where any well is supplied by a head, reservoir, stratum, or vein, or by percolating waters common to other streams or wells, and the owner thereof or his lessee or licensee puts its waters to a use unreasonable or unnecessary in view of the condition and situation of the land on which it is situated, and through such unreasonable or unnecessary use, lowers or depletes the head, pressure, or supply of water of any spring or well dependent on the same head, vein, or stratum, to the detriment or injury of the owner or any person entitled to the use thereof, the well so unreasonably and unnecessarily used shall be deemed to be a nuisance, and its owner and the owner of the land on which it is situated shall be subject to all the actions for abatement and damages in favor of the person or persons injured, that are or may be provided by law for other nuisances or tortious acts. SECTION 3. Where any decree is rendered under this act declaring any well a nuisance because of the waste or unreasonable use of its waters and directing the abatement thereof, such decree shall specify in some practicable manner the daily amount or volume of water that may be used or allowed to flow therefrom without violating such decree, and specify IRE 182-06--3 ï~~22 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. such reasonable time as to the court shall seem just within which the provisions thereof shall be carried into effect: Provided, That any such decree may be reopened at any time after entry on the question of reasonable use on a proper showing of change of circumstances or other equitable reason therefor. FLOWING. WELLS. Although the number of flowing-well districts already exceeds 300, it is probable that many more can be developed in low places either among or along the borders of the moraines and in the valleys of streams. The fact that wells are usually placed near the dwellings and that the sites for the dwellings are naturally on well-drained and usually elevated points accounts for the small amount of testing that has been made on the lower land, where flows might be expected. The flowing wells already in operation have been put to comparatively little use, and there seems to be a general lack of appreciation of the applications that can be made of these fountains. It is a common thing to find flowing wells running to waste in dooryards in rural districts in seasons of drought, when the gardens and lawns are suffering for lack of water. In many cases it would be necessary only to attach a hose to obtain means for properly irrigating the premises. The wasted water might also, in some instances, by the installation of a hydraulic ram, be forced to tanks in the attics of farmhouses, where it would have the pressure necessary for distribution through the buildings and would also afford a supply for fire protection. In some cases the wells have been used to fill ponds stocked with fish, and thus yield a valuable resource for farm and market-a device which might be more generally adopted. The principal use to which flowing wells have been put, however, aside from furnishing water for domestic and farm use, is that of cooling milk in the dairy houses, the very uniform temperature of the water fitting it admirably for this purpose. In some flowing-well districts a loss of head has been reported, and in many districts individual wells are either losing head or have fallen short of the customary full head at the time of their construction. Where the loss of head is general throughout a district it may be inferred that there is an overdevelopment by which the water is dawn out faster than it can be supplied from the surrounding formations. The Ann Arbor waterworks furnishes a case in point, the water drawn from the small field in which the wells occur having been sufficient to stop those on the border of the field from flowing. Often a single strong well on ground lower than the neighboring wells will draw down the head sufficiently to stop the wells from flowing. In cases of this kind the law pertaining to the restriction of artesian wells should be enforced. There seems to be a growing appreciation of the need for checking the flow of the strong wells and reducing the waste which is sure in time to work to the detriment of the district. (See pp. 21-22.) ï~~MUNICIPAL AND INSTITUTIONAL WATER SUPPLIES. 23 Flowing wells often are deficient in head and rate of flow because of defects in the casing, which allow leakage into upper strata, where the water pressure is less than in the lower portion of the well. The head is also deficient where water is allowed to rise around the casing. This is in some cases due to imperfect driving of the casing and might be guarded against. Any obstructions either in the bottom of the wells or at the top tend to reduce the head. Instances are found where, through carelessness, wells which had been cut off near the surface of the ground were so filled by sand washed in from above as to cease flowing. The district in southeastern Michigan in which a large number of flowing wells have failed was investigated, and is reported upon by Mr. Fuller, who attributes the loss of head chiefly to drought and surface drainage. Wells in certain regions have lost head through subsurface drainage, several instances of which are found in the coal-mining region bordering Saginaw Bay. The extensive pumping necessary to remove water and permit mining operations to be carried on draws down the head for considerable distances around, and often deprives the border district of its flows. The conditions under which flowing wells may be obtained are so various that the reader is referred for detailed information to the special reports presented below. MUNICIPAL AND INSTITUTIONAL WATER SUPPLIES. In the entire State there were at the beginning of the year 1906 about 250 cities and villages and at least 15 State institutions provided with waterworks systems. About 50 of the villages, however, use water chiefly for fire protection, and in some cases they have no distribution systems. The population of the towns and institutions provided with waterworks aggregated about 1,150,000 in 1900, when the last Federal census was taken; but in most of the towns a large part of the people have not connected with the public supplies and still continue the use of private wells. On the basis of the number of taps reported, it is estimated that in the cities with a population between 10,000 and 100,000 about two-thirds of the people are connected with the public supply, and in towns of less than 10,000 population one-half or less are thus connected, while in Detroit, the only city with more than 100,000 population, nearly all are connected. From this it appears that the probable actual users of public supplies are between 750,000 and 800,000, or, say, 775,000, or 32 per cent of the entire population of the State in 1900 (2,420,982). Of these nearly 600,000, or about 24 per cent of the population, are supplied from surface water, and less than 200,000 from wells. Of those not connected with public supplies probably not more than 20,000 depend ï~~24 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. upon springs and surface waters, while about 1,625,000, or two-thirds of the State's inhabitants, depend upon private wells. There are 37 towns on the borders of the State with a population- of about 510,000 which obtain public supplies from the Great Lakes and their connecting streams, St. Marys, St. Clair, and Detroit rivers. The metropblis, Detroit, with a population of about 300,000, is among the number. The water from this source is not so hard as from the majority of the wells, and is therefore especially suitable for boiler use. In an unfiltered state it is often found to be unwholesome and in some cases dangerous for drinking because of contamination in the vicinity of intake pipes. The worst epidemics of typhoid in the State have prevailed in towns taking their supply from this source. It is therefore incumbent on the cities and villages thus situated to put in filtration plants with up-to-date methods of purification. Indeed, all surface water, including that from springs, streams, and inland lakes, should be properly filtered before it is used for drinking or other domestic purposes. Many of the inland towns have taken public supplies from the streams and inland lakes, the population of such towns aggregating about 300,000. I.n not a few cases, however, the domestic use of the public supply is largely restricted to closets, baths, and lawn sprinkling, while private wells are used for drinking, there being considerable prejudice against drinking the public supply, not alone for fear of its contamination, but because it is less palatable than the well water. This is especially true in hot weather, when the surface water becomes too warm to readily quench thirst. The streams and lakes are seldom rendered objectionable for drinking because of a muddy condition due to freshets, for on account of the prevalent porosity of the soil the rainfall is absorbed and, except in clayey districts, is largely supplied to streams by underground seepage. Only the most violent rains cause much disturbance of the streams. Michigan is more highly favored in this respect than the neighboring States. Of the cities drawing public supplies from wells only 5 had in 1900 a population of more than 10,000, namely, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lansing, Ann Arbor, and Manistee. The supply at Jackson is from deep wells in sandstone and probably is not excelled by any city in the State. Lansing also obtains its supply from sandstone. The three others obtain supplies from glacial deposits or from the overlying gravel. Many smaller cities, the majority of villages with public supplies, and several of the State institutions are entirely supplied from wells, there being 29 using wells in rock, and 104 using wells in the drift, while 15 others are supplied in part from wells and in part from surface water. The rock wells are chiefly from sandstone, those from limestone being almost wholly restricted to the Northern Peninsula and to the northern part of the Southern Peninsula. Many data concerning the public as well as private supplies from wells will be found in the special reports herewith presented. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 25 WATER SUPPLIES OF MONROE COUNTY.a By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Monroe County lies in the southeast corner of Michigan, being bounded on the east by Lake Erie and on the south by the State or Ohio. Its entire surface was covered by the waters of glacial lakes, and is a smooth plain except for low gravel ridges formed at the shores of the lakes and for low dunes of sand. The Belmore beach, forming the shore of the Glacial Lake Whittlesey, crosses its extreme northwest corner and forms the highest land in the county, 740 feet above tide. A sandy belt 2 to 8 miles wide, marking the borders of Lake Warren, runs through its western half from north to south. Another sandy belt crosses its eastern half, passing through Carleton and just west of the city of Monroe and joining the western belt in the southern part of the county. In addition to these belts of sand there are narrow strips along the streams, so that about half the area of the county is estimated to be coated with sand. The remainder has a stiff clay soil. The principal stream of the county is Raisin River, which runs eastward through its central portion and discharges into Lake Erie near the city of Monroe. Two of its tributaries, Saline and Macon rivers, pass through the northwestern part of the county and enter Raisin River just below Dundee. Huron River forms part of the northeastern boundary of the county, while Stony Creek and Swan Creek drain the portion between Huron and Raisin rivers. The southern half of the county has only insignificant streams directly tributary to Lake Erie. FLOWING WELLS. GENERAL STATEMENT. In the sand-covered areas the'wells are usually but 10 to 20 feet in depth, the supply being obtained at the base of the sand. In the clayey portions of the county wells are usually sunk either to the rock, where that lies near the surface, or to beds of gravel and sand, which occur in the glacial deposits at depths of 20 feet or less to about 150 feet. Three belts of artesian water strike across the county in a northeast-southwest direction, the eastern being along the shore of Lake Erie, the central from 5 to 12 miles back from the shore, and the western in the northwest township. Flowing wells in the eastern and central belts usually penetrate the rock a short distance and are very generally charged with compounds of iron and sulphur, as well as with lime and magnesium. The hydrogen-sulphide gas which the water carries decomposes on exposure to the air and the sulphur is a Condensed in part from report by W. I Sherzer, in Geology of Michigan, vol. 7. pt. 1, 1900. ï~~26 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. deposited as a white mealy precipitate. The iron, which is present in the water mostly as a carbonate, becomes oxidized on exposure and is deposited over objects covered by the water, forming a yellowishbrown coating. When both iron and sulphur are present in the water iron sulphide results, giving the water an inky color. There are a number of wells of this character. Wells of the western district obtain water from the drift in most cases, and are generally free from hydrogen-sulphide gas. The water in some cases is sufficiently soft to be used for laundry purposes without softening comlounds and appears suitable for boiler use. a Continued drought makes no perceptible impression on the wells along the shore of Lake Erie, nor are they apparently affected by the opening of new wells. "The extent of the belt has shown very little contraction down to the present time (1905). This maintenance of head and strength seems somewhat remarkable in view of the fact that the central flowing-well belt, lying a few miles to the west, has suffered a marked diminution in both, especially within the years 1903 and 1904, as pointed out in the special report by M. L. Fuller on the failure of wells in lower Huron Valley (pp. 33-48). The failure in that district is referred by Fuller to the prolonged drought, which has resulted in a general lowering of the water table in that region. Possibly the belt along the lake stands so near the lake level that the water table can not be affected by drought to the extent that the higher region to the west has been affected. Flows in the northwestern part of the county are maintaining their head, and in many cases their full strength, the drought having had little or no influence upon them. In that region the ground-water table is apparently subject to but little fluctuation, for the flows occur on a slope which rises rapidly westward to an elevated catchment area whose water table in the driest seasons is far above the level of the mouths of the flowing wells. It thus differs from the central flowingwell belt, whose catchment area appears to be in absorbent beds of sand near by, at a level but little higher than the mouths of the wells. Detailed examinations of wells in the western belt were made by Leverett in 1903 and of the flowing-well areas in the northeastern part of the county by Fuller in 1904; but those in the eastern and southern parts of the county have not been covered in detail, since a reconnaissance showed that most of the wells were still maintaining a flow. These latter areas will be dismissed with a brief review based on Sherzer's discussion. EASTERN ARTESIAN BELT. The eastern artesian belt lies near the lake shore and consists of three detached areas, one small one in eastern Erie Township, a seca For analyses of water at Milan, see p. 147. ï~~MONROE COUNTY. 27 ond about the mouth of the Raisin extending southwestward into Erie Township, and a third in eastern Berlin Township. The flow of water is exceptionally strong in some of these wells. Thus, at the Greening Brothers' nurseries, south of Monroe, the water reaches the surface with force enough to run sprinklers, and has a head of at least 12 feet. Eastward, at Lake Erie, at the Lotus House, are two flowing wells in which the water will rise 20 feet above the surface, or 25 feet above the lake. The heaviest flow of artesian water in this belt was struck in September, 1899, on the south bank of Otter Creek, 21 miles southeast of Lasalle, at the residence of Edward Sharkey. The well is 51 feet deep and enters rock 6 to 8 feet, and has a diameter of 3 inches. The water came with such force that when a plug was driven into the pipe, which prevented it from escaping freely, the water began to rise through the clay around the mouth of the well and formed a shallow lake about 100 feet across. The plug was afterwards withdrawn an(1 an 8-inch pipe inserted, from which a stream 2 feet broad and 4 inches deep flowed to Otter Creek. MIDDLE ARTESIAN BELT. The middle belt consists of three detached areas extending in a northeast-southwest direction across the county. The southernmost is a narrow area, 3 miles long by half a mile wide, in Bedford Township east of Lambertville. The head is slight, the highest rise noted being about 6 feet. The most northern area of this belt is in northeastern Exeter and northwestern Ash townships, where a rise of 3 feet above the surface is about the limit. The water usually contains hydrogen-sulphide gas, and some of the wells proved so offensive that they were plugged. In northeastern Ash Township and northwestern Berlin Township the wells, as noted in the report by Fuller, have nearly all ceased flowing. The portion of this middle belt in the central part of the county is a large irregular area over which flows are scattered, occurring ordinarily only on the lowest ground. MILAN-CONE DISTRICT. This district lies in the northwestern township of the county and occupies a strip less than 1 mile wide and about 6 miles long, leading from the village of Milan southwestward past the village of Cone. Some of the wells have been flowing about fifty years, and show no marked decrease, but the water rises very little above the surface. Indeed, the flows are confined chiefly to a low strip lying under a beach line, where the surface had been cut a little below the general level of the plain. Immediately back of this beach to the west the water rises to an altitude greater than that at the flowing wells, but not quite high enough to come to the surface. Still farther west is a flowing-well district which touches the northwest corner of Monroe ï~~2 8 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. County, but lies largely in Lenawee and Washtenaw counties, and is discussed under the Lenawee County supplies.a This district was included by Sherzer with the Milan-Cone district. The flowing wells of the district, of which tabulated data are presented below, all fall within Milan Township. The distance 'to rock increases from about 40 feet in the southeastern part to 150 feet or more in the northwestern. This is due partly to an increase of altitude to the northwest, the southeastern part being 650 feet and the R. 5 E. R.6E. LZYKIKR R. 5 E. R. 6 Â~. FIG. 4.-Map of York and Milan-Cone flowing-well districts. northwestern 740 feet above tide. The township is sand covered only in the eastern part, and there the wells are shallow, as in London Township. Elsewhere the wells generally find supplies without, reaching rock at depths ranging from 25 to 150 feet. A few wells have been drilled into rock on the borders of the flowing-well district with a view to obtaining a flow, but adequate supplies of water were found in the drift. The flowing wells of the extreme northwest corner of the township are discussed in the report on Lenawee County. a a See York flowing-well district, pp. 82-86. ï~~MONROE COUNTY. Wells of Milan-Cone district.a 29 Sec- Part of sec- Owner. Depth tion. tion. Feet. 2 NE. 4....... T.A. Wilson--... --40 2 NE........ A. Van Wormer.... 40 2 NE. -....... C.M. Blackmar..... 20Â~ 2 NE. -...... J. & E. Gauntlett... 20 2 NE. H........C. Sill............ 20 2 NE........ W.N. Reeves....... 20 2 NE..-..... A.J. Mesic...----------20 11 NE. -....... R. C. Allen....-.i--55 11 SW. -....... S. Campbell......... 35 14 NW....... A. Shaler............I60 14 W.si e..... Warren Lewis...... 70 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 SW....... N. side..... NE. j...... E. side..... SW....... W. side.... E. side..... S. side..... 20 E. side..... 20 E.side..... 20 SE. 4...... 21 E. side..... 21 Center..... 21 W. side.... 21 W. side.... 21 SW...... 22 W. side.... 28 NW..... 28 W. side.... 29 N. side..... 29 N. side..... 29 W. side.... 29 W. side.. 30 E. side..... - C. Reeves........... " (?)............... Wm. Lee, jr.......... Mrs. L. VanWormer. N. Holcomb......... S(?).................. T Thos. Welch......... Erastus Cone....... John Denison........ (?).................... Henry Wilcox........ T. Caswell......... H. Downing......... George Auten........ Alvin Cone......... Mrs. P. Nolan........ Alvin Cone.......... SA. Vanderwenter... S.....do................ Jacob Curry........ Peter Tingley....... SFrank Packard..... - Thos. Caswell....... 67 (?) 40 (?) 75 (?) (?) 60 25Â~ 30 10 84 75 75 26 25 35 60 28 60 60 50 54 54 Water Eleva- rises Remarks. Â~ tion. to-- Feet. Feet. 680 688 Strongflow; south of Saline River. 680 682 Weak flow; south of Saline River. 680 688 680 688 North side of Saline River; about 680 688 20 feet in depth; flows weak to 680 688 moderate. 680 688 682 685 Well in shallow sag. 682 685 Made about 50 years ago. 680 685 Moderate flow; water chalybeate. 682 685 Three flowing wells, 60, 61, and 70 feet; moderate flows from sand below till. 678 676 Strong well; soft water. 685 690 680 685 Well made about 1870; moderate flow. 682 685 Strong flow; made many years ago. 680 685 Strong flow. 685 690 Two strong flows. 685 690 Do. 685 699 Two flows, now choked with sand; one 3-inch well made 25 years; the other 1-inch well made 18 years ago. 684 692 Pioneer well, made over 50 years. 690 692 Good flow for the altitude. 682 690 Two flows, one at only 10 feet, another a few feet deeper. 685 687 Two weak flows, 79 and 84 feet, from sand below till; water soft. 682 690 Strong flow. 685 690 685 690 Flows 3 gallons per minute from 1-inch pipe 3 feet above ground; has been flowing 50 years. 680 690 Strong flow. 680 685 Not in use. 680 685 Weak flow. 679 675 Pump well. 680 685 Flow in field. 680 685 Do. 680 685 682 685 Water from sand under cemented crust below till. 682 685 Water from sand below till. a Data collected by Leverett in 1903. London Township, which borders the Milan-Cone district on the east, is largely sand covered and has few deep wells. The distance to rock ranges from 20 to more than 100 feet, the drift being thickest in the northwest corner. So far as ascertained, no flowing wells have been obtained in the township. The ordinary depth of wells is about 20 feet; but some along the north border reach 50 to 60 feet and enter rock. There are also a few rock wells scattered over the township. WELL DATA BY TOWNSHIPS. The tabulated well records given below were collecte:1 and arranged by Prof W. H. Sherzer. They show conditions at the time of his studies, which were completed in 1899. In some townships only general statements are furnished. ï~~30 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells of Monroe County. BERLIN TOWNSHIP (T. 5 S., R. 10 E.). [Flowing wells near the lake with some sulphur, little iron, and scarcely any oil or gas; usually hard water; depth 12 to 93 feet; depth to rock, 9 to 33 feet.] Sec- Part of section. tion. Owner. 6 8 9 15 17 17 18 20 22 22 23 26 26 28 30 33 34 SE. -.....-........................ SW. part... Chas. Peters......... SW. -....... L. Fountain........ Center...... A. Bondie....................... G.H.Holmes_....... NE........ SW....... W. side.... E. side..... SE... W. side..... NW....... SW. 4...... NW. part... SE. 1....... SW........ H. Valrance.......... Mr. Story............. A. Sharkey........... D. Plufe.............. T. Laurarand......... C. Lemirand.......... C. B. Laringer... J. Bondenmiller..... C. Gretzler........... D. Lagineff.......... A. S. Cousins......... Depth Depth of to well. rock. Feet. Feet. J 27..... 29 28 S28 20 26 18 42 15? 34+ 33 62 30.. 32 54 20 J 12 12 58 20 - - - - 22 28 20... (?). 12 (?) 12 25.............. 11 Remarks. Rises 20 feet above surface. Flows; when made threw out 8 or 10 bushels of white sand. Water from rock. I mile south are 2 flows, head +3 feet. Flowing well, no sulphur or iron; water hard. Head +4 feet; water hard. Flowed at first. Hard water; 3 wells about alike. Through rock 2 to 5 feet to white sand: 4 wells. }Both wells flow; sulphur water from white sand under bed rock. Source in white sand (rock?). Soft rock. Sulphur and a little iron in water. Head -2 feet; water hard with iron. White sand in crevices of rock. Flowing well from drift. All wells in vicinity flow; iron water. ASH TOWNSHIP (T. 5 S., R. 9 E.) [About half the wells flow; rock hard; very little gas; depth 10 to 35 feet; depth to rock 9 to 30 feet.] 1 3 6-7 15 15 25 27 28 33 33 34 NE........ SW. part... NW. 4..... SE........ Center... S. side..... N. side.... N. side..... NW. part... James Pink......... 11 J. Viels..................... Several wells.... 21..... 33+ J. Cronenwelt........ (?) J. C. Wilson.......... 34.5 Boudinet............. 24 McLaughlin.................. Ackerman............ 30 G. Meyer-............ 30+ J. Romnie, jr......... 34+ J. Miller...................... 10 Flows 22 feet above surface, filling a 4-inch pipe. 26 Head -10 feet. 21 Flows obtained anywhere in these sec30 tions; water hard, in places sulphurous. (?) Two wells flow; iron water. 32 Soft rock. 20 Water hard, some iron; rock hard to drill. 24 Hard rock. 30 Water hard; much sand from top of rock, 2 inches to pail of water. 30 HIead -11 feet. 34 Sulphur water. 28 EXETER TOWNSHIP (T.5 S., R.8 E:). 2 3 5 5 8 10 12 14 15 15 16 18 18 20 29 S. side..... S. Manor............. (?) 42 Head near surface; water dipped. SE. corner....................... 40 40 Head +3 feet. SE. 4...... J. Richards............ 8 35 Head -9 feet. SW......................... 69 55 S. side..... J. Wright............. 50 50 SW. corner Several wells......... 37 37 Flowing wells along creek to south. SW...... L. Schumacker....... 36 36 Flows sulphur water. Center..... Sink hole............... 37 Do. E. side..... J. Holster............ 49 32 Flows. SW. _...... J. Stout............ 30 30 Head -4 feet; used to flow. SW. _...... D. Billinger................ 14 Head -7 feet: sulphur water. NW. 4..... G.W. Palmer....... 72 722+ Rock at 55 feet mile south; hard water 55 55 from gravel. NW...... Jacob Hammer....... 27 27 Soft water. Center_..... J. W. Wheeler.........40 40 Sulphur water..._._..Several wells......... 35 2 Two have sulphur water. RAISINVILLE TOWNSHIP (T. 6 S., Rs. 7-8 E.). [Sulphur and iron not rare; water generally at top of rock; a few flows; depth 12 to 32 feet; depth to rock 11 to 32 feet.] FRENCHTOWN TOWNSHIP (T.6 S., R.9 E.). [Wells generally shallow; rock at slight depth, 8 to 35 feet; depth of wells 13 to 35 feet.] ï~~MONROE COUNTY., Wells of Monroe County-Continued. DUNDEE TOWNSHIP (T. 6 S., R. 6 E.). [Rock usually at 30 to 40 feet, but sometimes 11 to 70 feet or more; depthof wells 10 to 103 feet.] See- Part of section. tion. Owner. 7..........._. Stephen Ball.... 8.... J. iser.........:: 10.............. Erwin Smith......... 15............. A. R ichards.......... 20............. Wm. Iazen.......... 22.............. Ingersoll.......... I. Depth Depth of to well. rock. Feet. Feet. 93 65 72 72 64 58 62 48 103 70 40 38+ i Remarks. Sulphur water, probably from rock. 40 feet of water; drift all clay. 40 feet of water; from rock. Sulphur water; some gas at 20 feet. Weak well with iron and sulphur. SUMMERFIELD TOWNSHIP (T. 7 S., R. 6 E.). [Wells in surface sand, 14 to 16 feet deep; near base of drift, 40 to 62 feet deep; in rock 70 to 97 feet or more. Depth to rock, 20 to 60 feet.] 4.............. E.W. Cornell... 40 40 Water from gravel. 5 Center...... L. Plumodore........ 70 45 Water from rock, has sulphur and iron. 18.............C. L. Goodrich........ 77 58 A little gas. WHITEFORD TOWNSHIP (Tps.8-9 S., R.6 E.). [Deepest drift south of Ottawa Lake; shallow wells in sand have soft water; deep wells both in glacial deposits and rock; depth to rock 0 to 100 feet; water hard; no burning gas and little 115S gas; many sink holes; wells often at base of drift.] 5 8 17 18 19 20 28 29 s......................... SW. *.....SW. part... Chas. Steffins........ John Pettit.......... Wm.E.Jenne........ Chas. Jacobs........ J. Kummerow........ Fred Aldrich........ G. Lovewell....... 73 20 100....... Sink hole in limestone on same farm. 72 26 Rock at 9 feet 20 rods southeast. 80 18 Strong in sulphur. 116 114 20 40 12 104 24 Sweet water; limestone at 30 feet; s 55 feet. 122 -25 Hard rock called "flint," and sandst 42 0 'Rock near surface for j mile radius. 60 6 75 22 Soft and crumbly rock. 30...................................... 34.............. M ill................. 33.............D. Dolby............ a5............. F. Gibbs............ hale one. a T. 9 S.; all the others in T. 8. IDA TOWNSHIP (T. 7 S., R. 7 E.). [Good wells easy to obtain; rock in places very near surface near Ida and Lulu villages; flows on east side of township; depth of wells 10 to 48 feet; depth to rock 3 to 32 feet.] 3 4 7 9 10 11 13 14 15 24 SE...... SE. __. SE. ~..... NW..... SW. i...... SE....... S. side..... R. Gregory......... Julius Frank......... C. Hausen........... K. Vogelsang......... Chas. Stoty........... L. Hutting........... Mrs. K. Traub........ Billmire............... M. Strabel........... Frank Long.......... 27 11 20 36 30 { 10 18 26 48 (?) 32 23.. Well in sand. 12 30 Hard water from rock. 20 White sand (rock?) yields water...... Both wells flow........I Hard water; no rock.... Could not case hole because of sand. (?') Flowing well; there are several flows in section. ï~~32 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells of Monroe County-Continued. BEDFORD TOWNSHIP (T.8 S., R. 7 E.J. [Shallow wells 10 to 20 feet in sand form most numerous class; affected by drought; water from rock rrear Stony Ridge, which runs northeast and southwest across township; depth of wells 10 to 100 feet; depth to rock nothing to 70 feet.] ec- Part of sec- Owners. Deofth tion. tion. well. [ well. Feet. 16.................. 20..........._ A.Maybee...._..... 20 Depth to rock. Feet. (?)........ --65 38 49 40 58 Remarks. 23 SE. 1..._R. Du Shetler.... 25.......... W.P. Bowen......... 29 SE. 4............................... 32 NE. 4....... Milton Gray.......... 14 18 65 69 54 Flowing well. Rock at surface 20 rods north; flows in wet season only; little sulphur. Water soft in 14-foot and hard in 18-foot well; latter in blue clay. Flinty rock. Head -1 foot; soft water from sand. This and three or four other near-by wells flow. Strong sulphur. 35 SE........ IJ. B. Suher........... 98 36.................................. 62 MONROE AND VICINITY. Much sulphur; some iron; mineralized water in places. (For deep wells see Geology of Michigan, vol. 5, pt. 2, p. 70, pl. 41.) Depth of wells 10 to 72 feet; depth to rock 2 to 60 feet.]................. Geo. Loblier (on 72 60 Head +12 feet. claim 419; the easternmost farm toward Lake Erie). LA SALLE TOWNSHIP (T.7 S., R.8 E.). [Many flowing wells near border of Lake Erie; depth 14 to 73 feet; depth to rock, nothing to 40 feet.] 18 SE. I............................ 26 19 N. side.................................. 20 NW. 4......-............................. 29-30.................... 68{ 31 SE.....................18 33 S. side..... J. A. Ranch.......... 73 22 15 Flows; little iron in water. 15 2 12 8 37 Affected by drought; flows part of year; little sulphur. ERIE TOWNSHIP (Tps. 8-9 S., R. 8 E.). [Flowing wells along Lake Erie shore; sulphur water mostly near lake; some iron; water generally hard; depth of wells 8 to 124 feet; depth to rock 2 to 124 feet.] 8 E. side... K. IK. W. Kenney.... 10 SE........ H. Cushing......... 16.............. H.C.Plummer...... 17..............D. La Point... 19 S. side...... F. Le Roy......... 28 N.part............ 29 NW...... R. Duval............. 30 NE. 4....... F. Duval............. 31 I.............. Daniel Duval......... 32 N E................................ a4............Schoolhouse........ a5 (b)........................ 55 45 Head -12 feet; water hard; some iron. 54 (?) Flows 1-inch stream 4 feet above surface; no sulphur nor iron. 78 72 Head -8 feet. 0 l(?) Two wells; little sulphur. 102....... No rock struck; rock at surface 40 rods west. 124........No rock struck. 42 40 Flowed 2 to 3 days, but normal head -4 to -6 feet. 68 62 Head -4 feet; affected somewhat by 4 drought; water hard. 51 46 Hard at surface; little iron. 60 60 Head -2 to -3 feet. 62 60 60 60 a T. 9 S.; others all in township 8. b On State line. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 33 WATER SUPPLIES OF THE LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. By MYRON L. FULLER. INTRODUCTION. In the late spring and early summer of 1904 the shallow wells throughout the region adjacent to the lower portion of Huron River, in southeastern Michigan, which up to that time, except for short seasons of drought and resulting weakness, had yielded abundant supplies of water, showed signs of failing. As the summer progressed the shortage became more severe, making it necessary in many cases to materially deepen the wells in order to secure the water necessary for ordinary domestic and farm purposes. In July, 1904, Mr. Leverett made a reconnaissance in the vicinity of Carleton, Flat Rock, Willow, and Waltz, determining the general conditions as regards shortage. In August, the shortage still continuing, the writer visited the field and made a more detailed study of the conditions of the wells and of the causes of their failure, the results of which are presented herewith. Acknowledgmetts for certain geologic and well data are made to Dr. A. C. Lane, Mr. Frank Leverett, and Prof. W. H. Sherzer. Thanks are also due to Mr. James Swan, of Detroit, owner of the Grosse Isle well, and to Mr. Edward Ready and other residents of Carleton for courtesies rendered. GENERAL STATEMENT. The region in which the shortage of water in 1904 was earliest felt, and in which it was severest, is a belt perhaps 10 miles wide along the borders of Wayne and Monroe counties, extending in a northwestsoutheast direction about 20 miles, parallel with and including Huron River, and reaching from a point near New Boston to the mouth of the river at the head of Lake Erie. The greater part of the affected belt lies south of the river, only a strip a mile or two in width falling on the north side. The shortage was most pronounced along Swan Creek, which parallels Huron River at a distance of 3 to 5 miles on the south. South of Swan Creek the wells are affected only for a short distance, usually not more than 2 or 3 miles. The villages principally affected are Willow, Waltz, Carleton, Flat Rock, and Rockwood. In the portion of the belt east of Rockwood and Newport and between these towns and the lake no shortage was reported up to August, 1904. The entire region is very flat, and the stream channels are shallow. The soil is generally clayey, although locally the clay is overlain by thin sheets of sand, which in places take the shape of low, flat, northeast-southwest ridges representing old beach lines of the lake ï~~34 WELLS AND WATER SULTPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. which formerly covered the region. The sand has also been shaped in places into ridges by the wind. The country has a gentle slope southeastward toward Lake Erie, usually not exceeding 5 feet to the mile, and this governs the stream courses. The climate is tempered to a certain extent by the proximity of Lake Erie, being, with the exception of the southwest corner of Michigan, the warmest in the State. The average minimum temperature is 39Â~, the average maximum 57Â~, and the average mean 48Â~. The rainfall, which is about 30 inches, is low compared with the most favored portions of the State, where it reaches 35 to 40 inches, and is less than on the headwaters of Huron River. Normally the rainfall is lowest in January, when it is less than 2 inches a month, and highest in May and June, when it exceeds 3.5 inches a month. GEOLOGY. SURFACE MATERIALS. The material overlying the rock in the region consists of a clay with an admixture of sand and pebbles, technically called till, which is not usually arranged in definite layers as in stratified deposits, but is a heterogeneous mixture, although occasiorul beds of quicksand or gravel or even scattered bowlders may occur. In consistency it is tough and clay like, and is of a grayish-blue color when fresh, but becomes yellowish through oxidation of the iron on exposure to the weather at the surface. Some surface bowlders occur in the part of the area nearest Detroit River. Although having a flat surface, the thickness of the drift varies because of differences in the elevation of the underlying rock surface, which reaches much nearer to the top of the ground in some places than in others. The clayey deposits are 15 to 60 feet or more in thickness, 25 to 30 feet being a fair average in the regions back from the streams. 'The streams, however, have cut their channels into the clay to some depth and may even have cut entirely through it into the rock. Occasionally the rock reaches nearly or quite to the ordinary surface, as at the large quarries at Newport. In a broad way the thickness of the clays may be said to increase as Detroit River and Lake Erie are approached. West. of Carleton the thickness, as shown by wells, is commonly about 30 feet. East of that town the depth, though variable, is sometimes as much as 60 feet, while near Rockwood it may be equally great. The bowlders and the unstratified materials were derived from the ice sheet which once invaded the region or from a succession of such invasions, but the pockets and thin beds of gravel and sand which are included were deposited by water, perhaps in some cases simultaneously with the glacial deposits, while the sand beds which cover portions of the drift surface are the product of lakes which occupied the region after the retreat of the ice. ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. 35 ROCKS. The rocks underlying the clays in the lower Huron River region consist of limestones, sandstones, shales, etc., arranged in belts extending in a northeast-southwest direction, or at a right angle to the course of Huron River. They are reached by all but the shallow dug wells, and afford the greater part of the ground water found in the region. In the northwestern portion of the area, or beyond a point a couple of miles northwest of Carleton, the rock is the Dundee limestone, a fairly pure, light-colored, flint-bearing Devonian limestone, perhaps 100 feet in thickness, dipping northwestward 20 to 25 feet to the mile. It is characterized by waters more or less charged with sulphur in the form of hydrogen sulphide. Below it lie the upper Monroe beds of drab Magnesian limestone or dolomite, sometimes carrying sand, gypsum, and other minerals. The dip is similar to that of the Dundee limestone. The waters are hard, but are not characterized by much sulphur. Next below is the Sylvania sandstone, a white sandstone outcropping beneath the clay from a point about a mile east of Carleton nearly to the mouth of Huron River. The dip is somewhat flatter than that of the preceding formations, and is more to the north than to the northwest. It yields water of good quality. Last are the lower Monroe beds, which are generally similar to the limestones and dolomites constituting the upper part of the Monroe beds already described, but are often more siliceous than the latter. They outcrop parallel to the Sylvania sandstone in a narrow belt along Lake Erie and Detroit River. Their waters carry some sulphur. WATER SUPPLIES. Within the region under discussion the water supplies vary considerably in composition, head, volume, and shortage in time of drought. The wells are dug, drilled, or a combination of the. two. The flowing wells may be grouped in four areas: (1) Willow-Exeter; (2) Swan Creek; (3) Huron River; (4) Rockwood. WILLOW-EXETER REGION. The name Willow-Exeter region is applied to the area now or formerly furnishing wells, which extends from the vicinity of Willow southwestward past Waltz into the northeastern part of Exeter Township, Monroe County (in secs. 1, 11, 12, 13, and 14, with parts of secs. 2, 10, and 15). The belt lies transversely to the drainage of the region and is located mainly over the outcrop of the Dundee limestone. ï~~36 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The dug wells obtain a very limited supply of nonsulphur water from the clays and associated gravel and sand. The drilled wells pass through the clay and permeate the rock sufficiently to obtain water strong in sulphur, which will frequently flow at the surface. The combined dug and drilled wells are usually dug about 15 feet and a small drill hole continued from the bottom down to the rock, which is usually penetrated a foot or two. Such wells are particularly adapted to those cases where the water will rise nearly but not quite to the surface. They furnish opportunities for storage and will ordinarily yield more water than the simple pipe wells, for the latter may become clogged when water is most needed. The depth of the wells varies from about 15 feet to 55 or 60 feet, of which usually all but a foot or two is through clay. The area has been spoken of as one of flowing wells, but it is generally only at the lower points near the streams or in sags of the surface that good flows are obtained. The portion of the district near Willow was visited on July 18, 1904, by Mr. Leverett, who furnished the data in the following paragraph: Extending a mile or more both to the east and west of Willow is a line of flowing wells averaging 60 feet in depth and obtaining sulphur water. They all draw from the same horizon and have always interfered more or less with one another. The flowing well of Henry Ludwig, on the west side of the NW., 1 sec. 28, which penetrated 50 feet of clay, etc., with a crust at its base before entering the rock seems to have had a marked effect on the wells near the village of Willow, reducing their head, or even, in some cases, stopping the flow altogether. The later wells in Willow have reduced the head of those earlier made, both in and west of the village. The following table presents the main data collected by the writer: Wells in Willow-Exeter region. 5 9 5 9 5 9 5 9 5 9 5 9 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 C c.> * Part of section. 7_ Owner. 17 SW. J... R. Woodward..... 18 SE.... J. J. Lucke........ 20 NW.4.. J. S. Ankerbrandt. 20 Center.. Frank Woodward. 19 NE. i... George Burgess.... 18 SW.... Frank Dusheck.... 13 SE..... John Wenzel..... 13 NE.4... James Dunn....... 13 SW.l... J. Crimins......... 13 NW... Henry Kingsley... 13 Center.. Edw. Navarre..... 14 NE... Frank Ochs..... Head. Maxi- Pr mum. en Feet. Feet. Fe 16. - 45 -20 -2 21 --10 -1 18 - 6 -1 33 +0 -1 41 - 6 -....- 1 - - Shortage es- noted. t. et. 8......... 20......... 17 June... 10 1 -:---:-1 12:.-------- 6 --------- 3 July... 3 --------- 2 July... 0 1902.... e Remarks.. Typical well in clay; no shiortage.. Typical sandstone well; good water; no shortage.. Tiled well; roily before storm. Two wells, type unknown; both dry. SSandstone well; plenty of water left. Plenty of water by pumping.. No shortage; sandstone water. Plenty of sulphur water; a_ surface well; goes dry every season. Sulphur water; went dry in spring, but water returned on cleaning. Sulphur water; another well still flows.. Lowered, but still plenty. Plenty of sulphur water, but less than before 1902; no recent shortage. -... - 3 28 + 0.28--Â~ 0 H ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. Wells in Willow-Exeter region-Continued. 11Iead. Owner. - - Shortage' OMaxi- Pres- noted. mum. ent. i Â~ Part of Ssection. N c, I Remarks. 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 Feet. Feet. Feet 24.......... John Theisen.................. 14 Cencer.. D. Livernois...... 20........... 14 Center.. F. Maynes.........30 + 3 +" 14 Center. Phihlip Zink...-.... 30 - 4 - 4 14 NW. f. F.Maynes (field).. 33...... + 0 10 SE.... J.W. Zink......... 37 - 3 - 8 11 SW. 4... John Murphy...... 35 + 0 - 8 5 2 5 8 11 5 2 5 1 5 8 1 51 5 8 12 5 8 1 12 5 9 7 5 9 18 5f9 7 SW.... NW.4.. S. side.. SE..... SW.... SW.... SW.... NW... SE. if.... C.. Davis................,..... i 1 A. W. Dexter........-.......... A. Fay............................. M. Vasher........ 32 + 4 + 3 F. Livernois................................Good flow just struck.....-----No sulphur; plenty of water,. -..ulphur water; no recent decline..-------Sulphur water; as much as usual. -.--.New sulphur well.. Always improved by cleaning.......... Sulphur water; failed once, but flowed again on cleaning.....-- Fresh and sulphur well; no unusual shortage............ Do............ Do........... Sulphur water; weakened, but supply returned on cleaning.......... Stopped at first, and permanently weakened by Vasher well........... No change; sulphur water........... No change; sulphur water; surface wells dry.......... No shortage; surface wells full........... Sulphur water; no unusual shortage. 1903..... Sulphur well; improved by cleaning; surface wells all right. Spring.. Sulphur water; flowed up to May. Win. Ganos....... 40 Sam Ganos........ 44 Joseph Discher.......... C. Heinzerling..... 28 J. J. Lucke.........22 -9 -3 -8 -14 - 3 -9 -3 -8 -16 -18 5 9 7 NE. 4... J. H. Jewell............ - 0 - 3 An examination of the above table will show that the conditions are not uniform. Several surface wells are reported dry, while in others the supply seems to be the same as usual. No decrease is noted in the wells in the sandstone, and most of the limestone wells (yielding sulphur water) show little, if any, material shortage, although owners report losses which in several instances were returned wholly or in part after cleaning. Some interference exists. The shortage appears to be such as would accompany an unusually dry season. The moderate decrease due to drought has not been uniform, but was felt first by the shallower wells, or by those yielding small supplies, and last by the deeper and stronger wells. The difference is generally most noticeable in the flowing wells, for a difference of a foot or two in head may determine whether a well will flow. Shortage in previous years is reported. The elevation to which the water will rise declines from 622 feet above sea level in the western part of sec. 14, T. 5, R. 8, to 600 feet near the east line of sec. 19, the next township east, or a little over 7 feet to the mile. This indicates a source of supply from the west, probably lnot more distant than the glacial hills near Ypsilanti. IR 182-- 6..---4 ï~~38 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. CARLETON REGION. The Carleton region is one of nonflowing wells, lying between the Willow-Exeter and Swan Creek flowing-well districts. The wells are commonly about 30 to 35 feet deep and probably enter a few feet into the Sylvania sandstone, from which they get supplies of nearly or quite sulphur-free water by pumping. In general no material shortage was reported in August, 1904, although the wells were somewhat lower than usual. SWAN CREEK REGION. The Swan Creek region is one of flowing wells extending southeastward along the valley of Swan Creek from near the Detroit Southern Railroad 1 miles northeast of Carleton to a point about the same distance from the Lake Shore station at Newport. At the north the district opens out and merges with the Huron River and Rockwood flowing-well districts. This is mainly over the outcrop of the Sylvania sandstone. The drilled wells obtain their water on entering the rock, after passing through stiff impervious clays, and have hitherto yielded good flows of nonsulphurous water. Their depth commonly varies from 20 to 35 feet, according to location, the shallower ones being near the creek in the southern part of the district. The data relating to the condition of the wells is most conveniently presented in the form of the table given below; besides the wells of the district proper, or flowing-well area, a few located a inile or so outside are given: Wells in Swan Greek region (T. 5 S., R. 9 E.). 0 w Part of section. 17 SE..... 20 NE.... 21 SW.}... 20 SE.4.... 20 SE.... 21 SW.... 28 NE.*... Owner. John Cequn... Henry Spicer... Albert Spicer...... Wm. Sillmore........ L. Graves........... J. J. Lautenschlager.. Sam McLaughlin...... Head. Maxi- PresA mum. ent. Feet. Feet. Feet. 33............ 305............ 30.......... 30 --- -- -- -- 37 ---------- 32........... Shortage, noted. ----.-...-. June.... March.. June... Remarks. 28 NE.... B. McLaughlin....... 26 Â~ 0 - 0 Spring.. 22 SW.i... Frank Bergmoser_ 22 + 0 - 0 May.... 22 SW.........do............... 28........... yApril.. 22 SW... d.....do2............... 27........ May.... 21 SE..... Henry Hood.......... 28 -10 -16 Aug... 28 SE..... Mrs. P. Kelly............................. 28 SE..... Ed C. McCormick.... 30 - 5 -11 June.... 28 SE..... B. McLaughlin..........I.. 32 NE.... Joseph Esper....... "20 " 3 -15 June.... No decrease: suggests ditching as cause of shortage in other wells. No decrease. Two wells; no decrease in rock well; surface well failed. Just to rock (surface well); failed. Low; cleaned without result. Dug 18 feet; water only in pipe. To rock only; three wells; all went dry; little better after cleaning. Flowed 30 years ago; dug 8 feet; water in pipe only. Nearly dry; always plenty before. Dry; has failed before. Dug 13 feet; water in pipe only. Deepened with success; another lower well stopped flowing. Nearly enough water. Loss ascribed to frozen ground and Newport quarry; improved by cleaning. No trouble with wells. Surface well; loss ascribed to frozen ground. ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. Wells in Swan Greek region (T. 5 S., R. 9 E.)--Continued. Part of ao Owner.. o section.. tnI A Feet. 27 S. side.. J. Funerstalk........35 35 NW.. Mr. La Ranger.......... 33 NW... C. Muth.............. 21 35 NE. 4... George Calkins....... 21 25 SW.... Nicholes Noel---......... -- 14 Head. Shortage Maxi- Pres- noted. mum. ent. Remarks. Feet. - 10 -4 --6 -12 -12 Feet. -4 -10 -10 -13 25 25 25 24 25 26 23 23 23 23 23 23 22 22 (?) 22 22 15 14 15 15 14 23 23 23 13 13 13 12 11 11 14 14 11 11 SE. 4.... E. H. Van Tassel........... SW.... W. M. Swype-......... 20) NW. 4.. Wm. Southworth.... 33 W.side.. S.Uden (3 wells) E. side. -- NE. I... Peter Bitting......... 27 S, side.. B. Parish............. 27 S. side.....do................ 30 S. side..' Ed. Parish........... 22 SW. {... Schoolhouse.......... 25 SW..... J. McCollum.......... 29 SW......do................ 15 NE.... G. A. Harpst......... 29 NE....; Earl Baker........... 28 (?) Tony Kahn and.... Charles Kruger. SE..... J Hedges................. SE..... A. Benedict............... E.side.. Eli Barrow................ W. side.. Edward Whipple.......... E. side.. Mark Baker....... NE. i... G. Schweitzer........ 18 SW... F. Baker................... N.side.. D. Reed................... N. side.. H. Gretzler...........32 NE... Barnard Parish...... 33 SW.... C.M. Hood........... 35 NW.4.. F. Reinhart.......... 35 NW... A. Vizard............ 35 SW... J. F. Smith................. SE..... Henry Green........ 30 SE.4... Irvin Barnum.........28 NE.... W. Baker.............. NW... Emily Clark..........330 SW.4... Fred Renton.........37 SW. -... C. Stumpmeyer......... -10 -19 -6 -6 - 8 -10 +4 + - 4 -8 + 2 -15 + 0 -0 - 8 -13 +0 + 0 - 4 -14 +0 -0 +0 -0 + 0 - 0 +0 -18 + 0 -(0 - 0 - 3 +0 -0 -- 5 -11 - 7 -12 - 6 -12...... --12 - 6 -11 - 4...... - 5..... -4. - 8 ------ - 5 -13 -6 -13 Spring.. Dug 12 feet; water in boring only.. No change; large supply...... Low, but still plenty of water. S...... Enters slowly, but plenty of water........... Surface well; a little less water than usual. Two other smaller wells in vicinity get plenty of water........... To rock; no decrease noted. July.... At barn; neverdrybefore. Drilled wells at house as much as usual........... No trouble; one well used to flow. JOn line between sece. 24 and 25........) Two wells out of three failed........... Plenty of water; another well the.. same. June.... In field; has been low in August of other years..... do... At house; has been low in August of other years. July.... Failed suddenly; three similar wells. May...., Flowed during summer of 1903. June.... Still yielding water....New well near creek. Aug... Very low; loss ascribed to Grosse Isle well....... Water in pipe only.. Still yielding some water. June.... Still yields some water.... Water now stands just at top of pipe.........Near creek; well at house also failed. June.... Plenty of water by pumping; loss ascribed to Grosse Isle well........... Slight decrease; ascribed to Grosse'Isle well........... Near creek; well at house also lowered, but improved by deepening. 1902... Less than usual, but plenty........... Failed, but got plenty by going 2 feet deeper. July.... Another well at house failed; plenty of water by cleaning. May.... Supply sufficient; similar well across road........... More water by deepening; another well dry........... New well; failure of old ones ascribed to Grosse Isle well......... Another similar well; supply sufficient; water also in dug well........... Enough water for cattle. June.... Dug 8 feet: water in pipe only; very low. May.... Dug 8 feet; water low in pipe........... Surface well; water by going 7 feet deeper. Spring.. Scanty supply. June... Got more water by going 8 feet deeper. May.... Three wells, 32. 33, and 35 feet deep, nearly dry; cleaned without success; no previous trouble......_. Near creek: failed; always plenty before. 1902..... Another well just to rock has sufficient for ordinary use. 1902..... Failed temporarily in August, 1903. and again in spring of 1904........... Cleaned with little effect. Spring.. Plenty of water by pumping. 10 SW... 10 SE.... 10 SW... 16.......... 9.......... M. Reeves............ G.W. Reeves......... J. E. Brown......... Floyd Ilarnum....... Alex. Todd........... Â~.... + 0 22 + - 0 0.... - -1 20) + 0) - () ï~~40 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. In the Swan Creek region nearly every well shows shortage, though the decrease is not uniform, the amount varying from a barely noticeable decrease to a complete failure. The surface wells are very commonly dry, although even here there are exceptions. Some of the artesian wells have stopped flowing, while in others the water, though still running, rises to only a part of its former height. In the nonflowing drilled wells the loss of head is often but a few feet, but some of the drilled wells have entirely failed. In the combination of dug and drilled wells the water has generally sunk so low that it no longer enters the dug part. The natural springs which formerly issued above the valleys have nearly all ceased to flow. Suggestions of shortage have appeared several times in past years, a number of wells having previously ceased to flow or gone dry temporarily. The beginning of the present shortage was felt in 1903, but during the fall the supply returned in part, although it was low during the winter, and fell off rapidly in the spring of 1904. Just at what time the failure began can not be determined. No one was looking for a shortage, and it was only when wells began to go dry that attention was paid to their condition, and it was found that an almost universal shortage prevailed. Several remedies were tried, the first being the cleaning of the wells. In a few of the less serious cases this was effective and the supply returned, at least for a time, but in other cases the cause of failure was more deep seated and independent of imperfections of the well. In such cases cleaning did but little good and deepening was resorted to. In some cases the dug part was carried a few feet deeper, and, by giving more storage space for the water, afforded temporary relief, but the amount of water was seldom materially increased. The most effective result was obtained by deepening the portion of the well in the rock. Where this was done more water was almost always obtained, although of course it had to be pumped to the surface. Probable causes for the shortage are considered below in the discussion of the entire field affected. HURON RIVER REGION. The Huron River district extends along Huron River from a point a mile or two southeast of New Boston downstream to a point beyond Flat Rock, where it merges with the Rockwood and Swan Creek areas. The rock is largely Sylvania sandstone, except at the northern end of the district. The wells range from about 25 to 60 feet in depth. A large portion of the wells flow, or did flow before the present shortage. At the northern end of the district the wells yield sulphur water, but in most of the remaining portions they yield water which is nonsulphur bearing. ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGI()N. 41 No special investigation was made in the New Boston part of the area this season, but the conditions are reported to be similar to those in the Willow-Exeter field, there being relatively little shortage. Some of the wells have, however, stopped flowing, but this is not characteristic of the present season alone. The well of Gus Miesner, in the SW. 4 sec. 9, formerly yielded a flow between 60 and 70 feet, but has now ceased flowing. Near the schoolhouse, on the west side of sec. 15, a well owned by Mr. Blum flowed a 4-inch stream of sulphur water when first sunk in 1887, but now flows less than 1 gallon a minute. The well is 65 feet deep. South of the schoolhouse Julius Kahn sunk a well in 1891 to a depth of 65 feet. This flowed at the start, but soon after ceased.,a In the region between the bridge 2 miles east of Willow and Flat Rock most of the wells are still flowing, although some have ceased. North of the river the Horace Thompson well, in the southeast part of Huron Township, is still flowing sulphur water, after a lapse of thirty years, though at a level 1I feet lower than usual. The depth of the well is but 26 feet. In sec. 26 Mrs. Lawrence has a very weak flowing well of "black sulphur" water. In the northwest quarter of the same section Mr. Stoefflet sunk a well in June, 1904, to a depth of 96 feet, obtaining a full 2-inch stream of water. The well drained others for a quarter of a mile north and west and had to be plugged. South of the river the conditions are very similar; some wells have ceased flowing while others continue, though with diminished head.b In a broad way it may be said that there is a general shortage in the region, but not so severe as in the Swan Creek district, for along the Huron many wells still furnish good supplies, or even flow, while in the latter region the failure is almost universal. Cleaning and, more especially, deepening the wells generally resulted in an improvement of conditions, though not in a complete restoration of the supply. ROCKWOOD REGION. The Rockwood area includes the region west and southwest of that town and between it and the Swan Creek area, together with the region near the town on the north side of Huron River. It can be considered as merging into the flowing-well areas of Swan Creek and Huron River on the west and with the Detroit River region on the east. The area is mainly over the outcrop of the Sylvania sandstone and yields waters generally free of sulphur. The wells are chiefly from 20 to 40 feet in depth and are nonflowing except near Huron a Information furnished by W. M. Gregory, August 2, 1904. b Information furnished by Frank Leverett, July, 1904. ï~~42 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. River. In the following table are given data relating to the condition of the wells as determined by the writer in August, 1904: Wells in Rockwood region. o 3 S. E. 5 8 5 8 0 17 17 17 17 17 18 7 5 8 18 5 8 7 5 8 18 5 8 18 5 8 18 5 9 13 5 8 18 5,8 19 5 8 20 5 820 5 8 19 5 8 19 5 829 I Head. Owner. Shortage Remarks. SMaxi- Pres- ntd O mum. ent. Feet. Feet. Feet. NE.. -9D. Valrance-.. 28 - 1 - 7 May.... Has been dry before; loss ascribed to Grosse Isle well. NE... H. D. Valrance.... 30 + 3 -30. Pump gave temporary relief; loss ascribed to Grosse Isle well. NE... V. Holmes............... + 0 + 0 May..... Water in pipe only. NE.. John Strong............+ 0 - 0.......... Diminished somewhat. NW... Royal French..... 30 + 0 -20..... Plenty by pumping. NE... George Case............ + 0 - 0.. Nothing done. SE.... James Todd....... 36 + 2 -36.... Failed suddenly after 32 years; no water by pumping; loss ascribed to Grosse Isle well. Two other wells ceased flowing. NW.. John Antio........ 30 - 2 - 8 Spring.. One-fourth ordinary supply. SW... S. Peters..........30 - 6 -12._...do.. Flowing well also stopped. NW.. Charles Bancroft.. 31 + 0 - 8 1903..__. Two other wells also failed, but came on again during winter. One stopped temporarily during winter, lost again in spring of 1904. NW.. Benjamin Ban- 29 - 5 -25.......... Two wells, not very low in 1903. croft. SW... G. Van Riper...... 36 - 5 -14 July.... Another smaller well. No previous trouble; loss ascribed to salt and oil wells. SE.... H. Chamberlin.... 36 - 5................ Water in base only. SW... Philip Baully...... 40 - 5 -12 June.... Decreased gradually. NW.. Peter Pilkey....... 40 - 2...... Early.._ Low all winter. Water only in pipe. NW. Mr. Mattison.........- 9 -18.......... Low all winter. NW.....do.................- 5 -10....... Do. NE... P. Donnelly..........- 4 -17.......... Loss ascribed to Grosse Isle Iwell. SE.... Albert Root....... 22 -10 -14 July.... Usually plenty in summer. NW.. John Sigler........ 22 -3 -12....do.. Do. " i The facts set forth show a marked shortage of supplies, with many complete failures. Most of the artesian wells had flowed uninterruptedly for many years until they ceased in the summer of 1904, but a few stopped flowing in 1903, when the present shortage first began to be felt. During the winter of 1903-4 there was a slight increase over the preceding fall, but a considerable number of wells are known to have remained low all winter and one or two stopped flowing. While the flows of the individual wells stopped suddenly the stoppage was not simultaneous in different wells, but extended over a considerable period of time. The wells in the region have always been somewhat sensitive, as if flowing at or near their maximum head; hence a slight decrease of the head would cause them to stop flowing rather abruptly. Several of the wells have always flowed roily water before storms, and some ceased flowing during prolonged periods of westerly winds. The shortage is greatest to the west of Rockwood, becoming less near town as Detroit River is approached. Many of the wells that have ceased to flow still yield water by pumping, while cleaning and deepening often add materially to the supplies. ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. I)ETROIT RIVER REGION. This region includes the area between the Rockwood district and Detroit River. The region is low, being only a few feet above the river and lake level, and along the shore and creeks is often decidedly marshy. The region is, however, thickly settled and wells are abundant, probably averaging under 20 feet in depth. In general there has been no shortage, although in a few instances the water was thought to be a little below its maximum summer level. No particular cause of shortage was advanced other than a general belief that the numerous salt and other wells might have had some effect. It is probable that in reality the water was fully as high as is ordinarily the case, for Lake Erie, which controls the ground-water level adjacent to its shores, stood unusually high in the summer of 1904, being about 15 inches above its level of the preceding year. GROSSE ISLE. Grosse Isle is a north-south island about 9 miles long and 2 miles wide lying on the American side of the international boundary in the Detroit River, its center being opposite the town of Trenton, 16 miles south of Detroit. The population is mainly located along the shores of the island, only one or two houses being in the interior, although the entire island is under cultivation. The surface is mainly clay or clayey silts, but rock is commonly found not far from river level, and in one point where it rises slightly higher is quarried. Very few wells have been sunk on the island, the main supply being from pipes extending out beneath the surface to deep water in the river. The water is pumped directly from these pipes by means of windmills, no provision being made for filtering. As a result there is some typhoid on the island. The few wells that have been sunk in the interior penetrate clay to the rock, which is entered at about 20 feet. The water of the dug wells is from the clay, but the drilled wells enter the rock and obtain an iron-bearing water carrying some sulphur. No shortage was reported in 1904, and a powerful flowing well recently made at the southern end of the island seems to have had no effect on the shallow wells. This powerful well is located on the property of James Swan, opposite Snake Island, about threefourths of a mile from the extreme southern point of Grosse Isle, and was 2 or 3 feet above the river level of 1904. The well, which was sunk in search of oil or gas, was begun in 1903 and completed in May, 1904, having reached a depth of 2,375 feet without obtaining anything of value. The diameter at top is 10 inches, decreasing to 6 inches at the bottom. A 13-inch casing extends from the surface to the rock at 17 feet. ï~~44 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The first considerable flow of water was encountered at 420 feet, but at 450 feet a stronger flow was obtained. Both were fresh, but as the well was drilled deeper flows of sulphur water were encountered, which, although relatively small, were sufficient to impart to the water as it issued from the pipe an amount of sulphur recognizable by taste and by a sulphur deposit on the grass and stones about the well. The water is said to have been cased off during the progress of the drilling, from August, 1903, to May, 1904, when the casing was finally pulled. At present the water issues in a jet 11 inches high from the 13-inch pipe, forming a fountain of considerable size. (See P1. III, B.) The flow is calculated at about 50 gallons a second and forms two good-sized streams. It was tested to a maximum height of 22 feet above the surface. It is stated that the owner contemplates using it for a public supply for the island. Analysis of water from James Swan's well on Grosse Isle.a Parts per Parts per million. I million. Silica (SiO2)-................... 188 Potassium (K)......... -...... 79.68 Iron and alumina (Fe205, A1205).. 14 Sulphate radicle (SO4)......... 14, 245.21 Calcium (Ca)................ 5,082.96 Carbonate radicle (CO3)...-... _ 871.35 Strontium (Sr)-............. 317 Magnesium (Mg)............ 730. 57 21,745.55 Sodium (Na)................. 216.78 DECLINE OF WATER SUPPLY. PRESENT CONDITIONS. The conditions of the wells at the present time have been set forth in the preceding pages. With the exception of the narrow belt along the shore of Detroit River, where the supply is largely governed by the height of the river, the loss of supply has everywhere been felt in varying degrees. In the Willow-Exeter and Carleton regions the shortage is very light, while along Huron River it is only moderate. In the Swan Creek and Rockwood regions, on the contrary, the shortage is excessive, a large proportion of the wells having failed, entailing much inconvenience. The present season does not mark the beginning of the decline, but rather its culmination. Investigations made by Prof. W. H. Sherzer previous to 1900 showed that even then shrinkage of supplies had been in progress for many years. In his report on Monroe County b he states that while continued drought makes no impression on many of the wells, the flow of others is reduced or almost or quite stopped. The opening of new wells was found to affect the flow of others in the neighborhood, and the areas over which artesian a Made at chemical laboratory, University of Michigan, for the State Geological Survey, January 17, 1905; F. K. Ovitz, analyst. Expressed by analyst in grams per liter and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. b Rept. Geol. Survey, Michigan, vol. 7, pp. 194. ï~~U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 182 PL. III A. LARGE SPRING AT UNITED STATES FISH HATCHERY, NORTHVILLE, WAYNE COUNTY, MICH............................................ -:........ "..................'0.!...........;..........:..:.......;: B. VIEW OF THE GROSSE ISLE FLOWING WELL. ï~~ ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. 45 wells could be secured was found to be constantly contracting. Wells in the southern part of Erie Township, 3 miles back from the lake, which formerly flowed, had then ceased. The decline noted by Professor Sherzer as having already progressed for some time has continued. The areas of flowing wells outlined by him on his maps at that time are more extensive than those at the beginning of 1904, while by the close of the summer of that year very few flowing wells remained in some of the regions, as in the valley of Swan Creek and near Rockwood. Not only have the artesian wells ceased to flow, but the water in the nonflowing wells is lower than formerly. In fact, the level of the ground water in the clayey portions of southeastern Michigan is distinctly lower than it was ten years ago and much lower than it was twenty years ago. It is only in a limited district that the pronounced falling off occurred during 1904. The general decline which has been going on for many years is probably due to a gradual and far-reaching change of conditions, such as deforesting of the land, improvement in surface drainage, etc., but the rapid decline of the last two seasons is doubtless due to local causes acting with special force in the region in question. CAUSES OF DECLINE. Grosse Isle well.-That the Grosse Isle well is the cause of the special decline in 1903 and 1904 may at first thought seem well sustained by the behavior of certain wells, as J. E. Brown's of the Swan Creek and Charles Bancroft's of the Rockwood district, which went dry when the big flow of the Grosse Isle well first began in 1903, but returned soon after the insertion of the casing, only to cease again after its withdrawal in May, 1904. This interpretation, however, seems opposed by the fact that numerous other wells much nearer Grosse Isle maintained nearly their usual flow, those nearest, even those on Grosse Isle itself, showing no decrease whatever. The conditions of underground drainage would need to be very exceptional, which would leave a near-by district unharmed while seriously affecting more remote districts, and belief in them would need be supported by indisputable evidence in the altered slope of the water table. In order to obtain light on this point the height to which water will rise was platted for each well in the Swan Creek-Rockwood region. It was found that this height showed an increase westward which averaged about 3 feet to the mile, indicating a source from that direction. The increase of head to the west or decrease to the east was found to be quite regular, with no local lowering or reversed slope that could be referred to a strong intake at a particular place. It was also found that the water level of the Grosse Isle gusher is higher than that of the shallow wells around it, and even higher than that of the wells of ï~~46 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the Rockwood and eastern portion of the Swan Creek area, being 25 feet above the lake, or 597 feet above the sea, while the normal level in many of the wells which have been thought to feed it is several feet lower, in some of them being less than 590 feet. It would appear, therefore, that if any connection exists between the Grosse Isle well and the shallow wells in the Rockwood and Swan Creek areas the water would be forced up in the shallow wells rather than drawn away from them. The failure of such wells as the Brown and the Bancroft flows in 1903 was probably a mere coincidence. The precise point where the main water-bearing bed of the Grosse Isle well outcrops and takes in its main supply can not be stated. On the basis of the dip of the rock formations from southeast to northwest, at the rate of about 20 feet a mile, it would seem probable that the bed struck at 450 feet in this well will come to the surface somewhere west of Leamington in Canada. The supply seems, therefore, more likely to come from the Canadian than the Michigan side of Detroit River. Newport quarry.-The underdrainage caused by the quarry at Newport was, next to the Grosse Isle well, most commonly advanced as a cause of the shortage along Swan Creek. A visit was accordingly paid to the locality and the conditions were investigated. It was found that a few of the wells near at hand have been affected, but the decrease in water supply is not universal even within a few hundred feet of the quarry. A quarter of a mile back no effect has been noted. From this it appears that the quarry can not be considered a factor in the shortage along Swan Creek or in the Rockwood region. Low stage of streams.-The level of streams generally determines that of the ground water in their vicinity, the latter subsiding as the streams fall. During 1904 both Huron River and Swan Creek were unusually low, and thus drew unusual quantities from the surrounding water table, which was thereby naturally lowered. Huron River, being a longer stream, and one having its source in a region of greater rainfall, was not so low as Swan Creek, the entire course of which is within an area of low rainfall. Moreover, the latter, flowing over clay nearly destitute of water, receives in considerable portions of its course only slight additions by percolation. It is probably for these reasons that the shortage is most marked along its course rather than in any other part of the region. Early winter of 1903.-This appears to have been an important factor in bringing on the present acute, shortage. According to the official records, the permanent freezing of the ground took place on November 17, which was before heavy snows and heavy winter rains had fallen. There was, therefore, little chance for the rainfall to soak into the ground during the winter and early spring months. This ï~~LOWER HURON RIVER REGION. 47 was made manifest by the low water in many of the wells during the winter, the result being that when spring opened the ground water was at an unusually low stage. Deficiency of rainfall in 1904.-The opening of the spring of 1904 with a low ground-water supply was followed month after month during the summer by a deficient rainfall, and the shortage consequently became very serious. This is brought out by the following table, which gives the precipitation by months of 1904. Detroit lies about 25 miles northeast of the area; Grape and Dundee about 10 and 20 miles southwest, respectively; Eloise less than 15 miles north, and Ypsilanti 20 miles northwest. The deficiency, it should be noted, has been restricted to spring and autumn months, and thus causes a dry year even though the annual precipitation is about up to the normal: Rainfall, in inches, in the vicinity of the lower Huron River region. Detroit. Eloise. Dundee. Ypsilanti. Grape. Month. Nor-i Nor- Nor- Nor- 1 NorMnho-1904. 1904. 1904. 19004. ma9(194. ma ma. real. mal. real. January........... 3.34 1.94 3.98 1.69 5.37........ 4.54 1.90 4.17 1.44 February..........2.55 2.33...... - 2.16 4.06........ 2.98 2.46 2.62 1.80 March........... 4.09 2.29........ 3.01 5.45......... 4.92 2.45 3.16 2.32 April................1.65 2.24 1.01 1.32 2.36 2.41 1.66 2.24 2.04 2.24 May................. 2.36 3.51 1.19 3.27 3.06 2.88 2.58 4.09 2.71 3.61 June............... 1.08 3.69.79 3.26 1.30 4.53.56 4.25 1.49 3.57 July............... 2.94 3.36 2.52 4.16 2.84 4.06 3.03 3.33 2.96 2.63 August........... 3. 20 2.71 3.69 1.95 4.73 3.52 3.92 2.14 4.31 2.52 September.......... 4.23 2.47 3.83 2.61 4.30 2.64 6.21 2.86 4.67 2.36 October................86 2.53 0 2.61.82 2.11 1.09 2.64.93 2.00 November.......... 19 2.69 0 2.38.05 2.09.09 3.23.02 2.75 December.......... 1.83 2.57 1.88 2.20 2.53 2.02 1.96 2.38 1.90 2.02 28.32 32. 33......... 30.62 36.87........ 33.54 33.97 30.98 29.26 CONCLUSIONS. The low rainfall, which in the spring of 1904 varied from oneeighth to somewhat more than one-half of the usual amount at the stations in the tables, was, on the whole, even less in the lower Huron River region itself. The deficiency of rainfall, following as it did an autumn and winter during which little water was absorbed owing to the frozen condition of the ground, together with the preceding dry season of 1903, seems ample to explain much if not all of the observed shortage. Although considerable rain fell in July, and even more than the normal in August, it came largely as short heavy showers, and the water, instead of soaking into the ground, as in more gentle rains, formed streams and ran off rapidly. The part that soaked into the ground was entirely insufficient to compensate for the many dry months which had preceded, especially as the relatively wet months of August and September were followed by several months when almost no rain fell. In this connection it may be remarked that, ï~~48 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. while the shortage was felt in the region under discussion sooner than elsewhere, the drought became severe enough later in the summer to be felt through all the States bordering the Ohio and eastward to New England, causing much shortage in wells. If, as seems probable, the failure of the wells is due largely to the severe drought of 1903-4, the return to the normal rainfall should result in an increase in the water supply, although, because of the excessive dryness of the ground, the increase in the available water may not be immediately noted. The full supply may not return until a wet year, or perhaps a succession of wet years, occurs. In some cases the return of the water may not bring restoration to the wells, for water passages in clayey material when dried out may, to a certain extent, crumble and become more or less clogged, so that their capacity for carrying water is lessened or destroyed even when the ground again becomes soaked. The return in any case will probably not be complete, as the thorough ditching which the region has undergone will result in a permanent lessening of the water supply of the region. The wells in the lower Huron River region obtain their supplies largely in the upper few feet of the rock. The water, judging from its head, is derived from glacial deposits overlying the rock in the region northwest of the area under discussion. It probably trayerses the upper more open and jointed portion of the rock, because there is less resistance to its flow through the crevices and openings in the rock than through the compact clayey deposits which so generally overlie the rock formations of the region. The rock formations appear, therefore, to take in the water from the overlying glacial deposits, and, as shown above, a deepening of the wells into the rock has geherally met with at least partial success. The great majority of wells now are exceptionally shallow compared with those of large areas in Michigan, where depths of 100 to 150 feet or more are common. It seems probable that wells of such depths in the region under discussion would yield permanent and abundant supplies. WATER SUPPLIES OF WAYNE COUNTY. By WILLIAM HITTELL SHERZER. GENERAL STATEMENT. The county of Wayne, with an area of 601.6 square miles, has, according to the State census of 1904, a population of 386,827, or one person for each acre of ground. Outside the cities and incorporated villages the average is 61 to the square mile, or one to every 10 acres. ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 49 RAINFALL. The following table, constructed from data supplied by the State weather service, shows the average monthly and annual precipitation in or near the county: Precipitation, in inches, for Wayne County and for adjoining portions of Oakland, Washtenaw, and Monroe counties. Period Monthly precipitation. Station. County. ofobser- M pJ vation (years). Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. Detroit.................. Wayne..... 34-35 1.91 2.28 2.42 2.22 3.30 3.83 Grape.................... Monroe..... 17-18 1.59 1.82 2.32 2.24 3.56 3.45 Eloise....----------------- Wayne... 7- 8 1.93 2.32 2.68 1.71 2.83 3.09 Birmingham....------------ Oakland... 14-18 1.71 1.89 2.16 2.46 3.14 3.10 Ypsilanti................ Washtenaw.. 20-23 2.00 2.54 2.51 2.24 3.90 4.05 Dundee a.................. Monroe...... 5 2.25 2.30 2.71 2.40 2.91 3.89 Monthly precipitation. IAnnual Average Pr'ci1i Station. Total annual itation July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. years. precipi- rected tation. for for --_ epoch.b Detroit................... 3.36 2.69 2.63 ' 2.38 2.56 2.35 34 32.13... Grape..................... 2.65 2.69 2.50 1.94 2.60 2.01 17 29.43 30.75 Eloise.................... 3.93 2.34 2.79 2.44 1.91 2.16 5 28.70 29.:;9 Birmingham.............. 2.86 2.47 2.55 2.38 2.67 1.76 9 27.50 27.55 Ypsilanti.................. 3.45 2.42 3.02 2.53 3.01 2.37 18 33.78 34.66 Dundee.................. 3.81 3.77 2.97 1. S5 1.68 2.41 4 33.83 33.83 a Private instruments, perhaps not in accord with Government instruments. b The last column contains corrections for epoch made by averaging the Detroit annual records for each term of years represented by observations at other stations. The monthly averages have not been corrected for epoch. In the case of Ypsilanti the average annual precipitation for eighteen years was taken, since there are gaps in the record for the longer period on which the monthly averages are based. The monthly averages are based on all the records available for each station, whether consecutive or not, and include March, 1905. It is unfortunate that they do not all cover equally long periods of time, for then the totals would be more strictly comparable. The distribution of the rainfall over the year is a matter of no little importance, since a frozen condition of the soil leads to the run-off of much water that would otherwise be absorbed and contributed to the underground supply. The average rainfall for the county is about 31 inches; over a belt extending across the middle, from Monroe northward into Oakland County, it is 10 to 15 per cent less, but it increases eastward to the Detroit River and still more rapidly to to the west. For the last seventeen years the records for a station in each belt are complete: Ypsilanti, 33.91 inches; Grape, 29.43 inches; Detroit, 30.78 inches. In all the years for which we have records at Eloise and Birmingham, located in the central belt, the precipitation is less than it is immediately to the east and to the west. It is interesting to observe that this central belt, with its ï~~50 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. diminished precipitation, is in a sand-covered region, the covering having been produced in a way to be presently described, and it seems that the extra heat radiated from such a soil might readily reduce the amount of moisture precipitated over the region. A study of the above table shows that the reduction is most pronounced for the month of June, when we have maximum sun power combined with least protection of the soil by crops. This, however, is only a partial explanation, since the reduction in the precipitation for this belt extends over the entire year, when the question of soil must be largely eliminated. Prof. M. S. W. Jefferson has suggested that the series of high moraines extending in a northeastsouthwest direction across Washtenaw and Oakland counties may cause the increase of precipitation in the western belt, while the descending and slightly warmed currents, having a prevailing easterly course, would part less readily with their moisture until the immediate effect of the Great Lakes was felt. In other words, we may have here some such effect as is produced by the "Chinook" winds of our Western States. The morainic belt stands from 800 to 1,100 feet above tide, while the drier belt east of it is only 650 to 660 feet above. Further observations upon rainfall, temperatures, and directions of storms in this and adjoining areas would throw light on the subject. SURFACE WATERS. RESERVOIRS. From data obtained from Prof. M. E. Cooley, of the University of Michigan, State Geologist Lane has estimated that 38 per cent of the total precipitation may be collected from roofs and secured in cisterns,"a and that with a rainfall of 32 inches, practically the same as that of Detroit, every 100 square feet of horizontal surface will yield 100 cubic feet of water annually, or about 25 barrels. This is but a little more than one-third of what actually falls on a roof of such area, the remainder being lost in wetting the roof, evaporation, blowing or sliding of snow, etc. Where limited quantities of practically pure water are required, as for laundry or domestic purposes, nurseries, and boilers, simple precautions would secure a much larger percentage. In addition to the dust, coal dirt, and organic matter derived from the collecting surface, this water contains similar matter taken from the air, and in addition appreciable amounts of ammonia, nitric and nitrous, sulphuric and sulphurous acids, carbon dioxide, and other gases of the atmosphere. There are large reservoirs in the brickyards to the west of Detroit, where excavations made into the old lake clays, to be presently mentioned, serve as a Lane A. C., Water resources of Lower Peninsula of Michigan: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 30, U. S. Geol. Suvey, 1899, p. 45. ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 51 collecting basins for the surface drainage and supply the necessary water for softening the stiff clays, the driven or bored wells at the brickyards supplying merely drinking water. Throughout the county cisterns are used in dwellings, and in districts where wells are hard to obtain they are connected with barns for use of stock. IAKES. Location.-In striking contrast with its neighbors, Oakland to the north and Washtenaw to the west, Wayne County is surprisingly deficient in lakes or permanent ponds. Aside from the small bayous on the river flats, the only natural lakelet lies 1 mile east of Northville (sec. 2, Northville Township), and is known locally as Yerkes Lake. It has a maximum diameter of about 1,000 feet, and is drained by a small stream into the middle branch of River Rouge. Occupying a depression between the morainic knolls of the region, it receives considerable surface drainage, and is said also to be fed by springs and to be well stocked with fish. Owing to its slight elevation above the village of Northville, it has not been utilized for water supply. Although so poorly supplied with inland lakes, Wayne County touches Lake St. Clair on the north and extends to Lake Erie on the south. The water of Lake St. Clair is utilized to a greater or less extent by the residents of Grossepoint Township. Many of those who adjoin the lake pump the water direct by means of windmills and distribute it over their grounds from elevated storage tanks. Drinking water is ordinarily procured from wells, to be described later. Waterworks.-The village of Grossepoint Farms is supplied with water drawn from the lake at a point about 1 miles from the shore, this great distance being necessitated by the shallowness of the lake. The plant was installed in 1890 by the Grossepoint Construction Company and is operated in connection with an electric-light plant. The original cost was $65,000. The water flows by gravity into a settling basin, from which it is pumped direct. Two Walker pumps are used, with a daily capacity of 5,750,000 gallons. The ordinary pressure is 35 pounds to the square inch and the fire pressure is 90 pounds. In 1897 there were 4 miles of mains, 110 taps, and 27 public hydrants. During the year 1904 the pumpage was 76,600,140, or a daily average of 209,290 gallons. There is a resident population of only 615; but this large daily average does not mean a daily per capita consumption of 340 gallons, for the excessive amount is due in part to the large number of summer transients. ï~~52 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. STREAMS. DETROIT RIVER. General statement. The water supply of about seven-eighths of the entire population of Wayne County is derived from Detroit River, naturally one of the most magnificent streams of potable water in the world, when volume, purity, temperature, and constancy are considered. Opposite the center of the city of Detroit its breadth is 2,200 feet, its average depth is 37 to 38 feet, and there is maintained a rather constant velocity of 2 miles an hour. With the level of Lake Erie at normal, it is calculated by the United States engineers that there flows by Fort Wayne in the southern part of the city each second 209,900 cubic feet. In the American channel the maximum velocity is 21 miles an hour, and the average somewhat less than 2 miles. During July and August, 1897, detailed measurements of the flow were made by Clarence W. Hubbell, engineer of the Detroit waterworks. Float methods gave an average flow of 65,000 cubic feet a second and current meters one of 53,000 cubic feet for this channel. When the channel is covered with ice and the Canadian channel is open the flow is reduced to 36,000 cubic feet a second. The temperature of the water ranges from 32Â~ to 70Â~ F., and the greatest vertical range between the top and bottom has never been observed to exceed one-half degree. Between shore and midstream the temperature of the water may vary as much as 8Â~ or 90, and this fact may be used to detect possible contamination from tributary streams. Lake St. Clair, which extends nearly to Detroit, has served for many years as a great settling basin, as is shown by its shallow condition and the growing delta at its head. The turbidity of the river water is low except after storms, when the bottom of Lake St. Clair may be more or less disturbed and the small tributary streams bring in sediment. The following is the latest available mineral analysis of the river water: Mineral analysis of Detroit River water.a Parts per Parts per million, million Calcium (Ca)-........... 24.61 Sulphate radicle (SO4)------.........-.---..---. 7.62 Magnesium (Mg)- -------- 7.44 Chlorine (Cl).................. 2.99 Aluminum (Al)................. 1.80 Silica (SiO2) ---............... 1.59 Iron (Fe)-................... Trace. Sodium (Na)..................... 2.76 Total-........-----.......... 99.66 Potassium (K)-............. Trace. Total mineral matter............. 101. 24 Carbonate radicle (CO,)...........50. 85 Organic and volatile matter..... 36. 39 a Twenty-first Ann. Rept. Michigan Board of Health, 1902, p. 63. Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. For other mineral analyses see Lane, A. C., Lower Michigan mineral waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, pp. 18-19. ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 53 Waterworks.-The city of Detroit, with a population of 317,591 a and an area of approximately 29 square miles, is supplied with Detroit River water from a single pumping station, believed to be the largest in the world. The reservoir formerly used has been given up and the pumping is direct, through two distinct systems, an upper and a lower. The central station is located in the extreme eastern part of the city, opposite Belle Isle, and the water is taken from the American channel through three boiler-plate intake pipes, 5 and 6 feet in diameter, provided with box strainers placed in 28 feet of water.b These intakes are 1,030 feet, 1,505 feet, and 1,505 feet in length, respectively, and reach out from the west shore into the channel 500 feet and 1,000 feet. Through these pipes the water flows by gravity into a settling basin 365 by 775 by 16 feet deep. Straining wells are interposed between this basin and the pumping wells. In order to secure water from nearer the center of the main channel there has been constructed a 10-foot tunnel 3,160 feet long, lined with 1.5 feet of vitrified brick and terminating in a substantial stone crib located about 800 feet above the head of Belle Isle. This tunnel has above it about 36 feet of stiff blue clay and about 30 feet of water. Connecting with this river tunnel is a shore tunnel, lined with common brick and leading to the receiving basin or direct to the pumps. The pumps used are six in number: One 30,000,000 comp. beam, two 24,000,000 comp. beam, one 24,000,000 triple Allis, two 25,000,000 triple Allis-Chalmers; total daily capacity, 152,000,000 gallons. For the year 1904 the average daily consumption was 59,385,121 gallons, or 183 gallons per capita. The average cost of pumping is $3.37 per million gallons. The total length of mains is 644 miles, of which 559 belong to the city proper and 85 to the suburbs, being paid for by the villages supplied. The total number of fire hydrants is 4,100, and of service taps in the city 63,656. The total estimated cost of the plant is $7,344,456. The income for 1904 for metered water was $155,266 and for unmetered water $277,126. The suburban villages supplied are Hamtramck (population 1,559), Highland Park (612), Woodmnere (5,034), River Rouge (2,474), and Delray (6,627). These villages present a combined population of 16,306, of which it is estimated that 12,926 are supplied with water through 2,570 taps. The water is all metered and double city rates are charged. With the system of direct pressure it has been found impracticable to force the water to all parts of the city, portions of which are 60 to 70 feet above the river, or to the upper floors of the taller buildings. Accordingly in 1898 a double system was installed, each with its own a State census, 1904. bAn interesting article by Clarence W. Hiubbell on the Detroit waterworks is to be found in the Engineering Record, vol. 47, No. 25, 1903, p. 650. Jun. 182 0...O0....5 ï~~54 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. set of pumps and mains, one operated under low and the other under high pressure. Frequent tests at various points in the two systems show a mean pressure in the lower of 17.4 to 51.8 pounds per square inch, and in the upper of 26.6 to 60 pounds per square inch. Buildings more than five stories high are provided with their own private pumps. Below the city of Detroit the people along the river front, owing to the nature of the ground water and the poor drainage, are dependent on Detroit River. The villages of Ford and Trenton and the city of Wyandotte are supplied by pumping plants drawing water from near the west bank. On Grosse Isle water is pumped by windmills directly from the river into elevated tanks and used for stock and lawns and for domestic supplies, although good well water is also procurable. Wyandotte and Trenton own their own waterworks systems, operating them in connection with electric-light plants. Ford is supplied with water by the Michigan Alkali Company, whose plant was installed in 1893. The village (population 1,372) laid 5 miles of mains at a cost of $18,500, the company having 1 mile. The water is drawn from within the harbor line and pumped direct by five pumps-one Holly of 5,000,000 gallons capacity, two Snow of 6,000,000 each, and two Nordling of 3,000,000 each, giving a total daily capacity of 23,000,000 gallons. The average daily pumpage is 17,000,000 gallons, large quantities being used for manufacturing purposes. The village possesses 40 hydrants and 163 service taps. No meters are in use, the ordinary dwelling paying a flat rate of $4 per annum. The village is without sewers. Immediately to the south of Ford, and adjoining it, is located the city of Wyandotte, with a population of 5,425. The water plant was built by the city in 1889-90 at an original cost of $61,371. The intake pipe reaches out 150 feet beyond the harbor line and the pumping is direct, with a Hughes pump of 1,500,000 gallons capacity and a Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon of the same capacity, making a total daily capacity of 3,000,000 gallons. The average daily consumption is 500,000 gallons, which, based on the entire population, represents a per capita consumption of about 92 gallons. It is estimated that about 90 per cent of the people are actually using this water, the remainder depending on shallow wells. There are 120 public hydrants, 1,300 service taps, and 11 miles of mains. The ordinary pressure is 45 pounds and the fire pressure 80 pounds. Only a small amount of water is metered and this to the few larger consumers. Lying so nearly at a level with the river itself the drainage is poor, while the prevailing sandy soil acts as a sponge and retains much impurity. The city is sadly in need of the best system of sewers that can be procured. Money has already been appropriated for building these, and it is unfortunate that sufficient unanimity of opinion can not be secured to push the work to completion. ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 55 Four miles south of Wyandotte lies the village of Trenton, located on higher ground and with a clay soil. The village, with a population of 1,201, installed its own plant in 1896 at a cost of $11,300. The intake pipe reaches out 210 feet into the American channel, between the mainland and Grosse Isle. A Worthington pump of 1,000,000 gallons capacity is used, with a second high-pressure pump of 750,000 gallons capacity. There are 22 hydrants, and in 1897 there were 160 taps and 4 miles of mains. The ordinary pressure is 35 pounds, and the fire pressure 100 pounds. The annual cost of operating is estimated at $1,700. It is further estimated that 85 per cent of the population use the river water. The average daily pumpage is 130,600 gallons, or 109 gallons per capita for the entire village. No sewers have yet been projected. Contamination.-Although naturally of excellent quality, Detroit water is not above suspicion and safety lies only in constant vigilance. Not far from 400,000 people dwell in the St. Clair drainage basin between Detroit and Lake Huron. Connors Creek, just above the city, drains a region of cemeteries and truck farms, rich in compost, and in the early spring is a menace to Detroit. The melting snows and heavy rains have swept the accumulations of the winter into the river five-eighths of a mile above the present city intakes and on the same side of the river. This condition of affairs will be remedied by the new tunnel. The city board of health conducts monthly sanitary analyses, but these should be more frequent, especially during the spring, summer, and fall. The following table is taken from its 1902 report, and is of especial interest, as it shows the variations in the character of the water through an entire year: Sanitary analyses of Detroit River water, Jduly, 1901, to June, 1902. July. August. Septem- October. Novem- December.. ber. ber. Appearance a........................ C. C. C. C. C. C. Total solids..........parts per million.- 108.4 104.2 103 111 104 111 Volatile matter..................do... 41.4 36. 4 44.4 41.8 34.8 41.6 Nonvolatile matter..............do... 67 67.8 58.6 69.2 69.2 69.4 Free ammonia....................do...008.006.020.016.024.012 Albuminoid ammonia...........do.....074.080.126.116.092.102 Nitrogen as nitrates..............do.....115.082.164.210.099.198 Nitrogen as nitrites...............do.... 0 0 0 0 0 0 Chlorine.. _.................do.... 2.80 2.90 2.60 2.80 2.70 3.15 Oxygen absorbed in 15 minutes...do..... 40.32.44.48.44.48 Oxygen absorbed in 4 hours......do.....76.72.88.96.84.72 98 106 37 37 103 104 43 84 98 104.170 199 Bacteria per cubic centimeter........... 116 192 160 82 189 265199 62 47 52 206 204 99 Growthin percentcarbolic-acidgelatin None. None. None. None. None. None. aC=clear; N. C.=nearly clear; S. T.= slightly turbid. ï~~5 6 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Sanitary analyses of Detroit River water, July, 1901, to June, 1902-Continued. January. Febru- March. April. May. June. ary. Appearance a--------........ C. N. C. N. C. S. T. S. T. N. C. Total solids..........parts per million. 106.2 115 116.4 116 118.2 112 Volatile matter..................do... 39.6 39 36.8 39 40 40 Nonvolatile matter-..............do.... 66.6 76 79 6 77 78.2 72 Free ammonia_....................do.....026.028.024.016.022.020 Albuminoid ammonia-.............do_..082.086.092.086.082.118 Nitrogen as nitrates...............do..230.148.115.164.198.165 Nitrogen as nitrites........... do.... do 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ghlorine...........................do.... 2.70 3.15 2.50 2.75 3.10 2.70 Oxygen absorbed in 15 minutes..do...40.36.44.40.32.28 Oxygen absorbed in 4 hours......do..... 76.84.88.80.84.88 87 124 170 105 31 398 Bacteria per culbic centimeter........... 132 353 15 190 48 34 26 197 266 235 66 140 204 402 333 302 115 69 Growth in.2 percent carbolic-acid gelatin None. None. None. None. None. None. a C-clear; N. C.-nearly clear; S. T.- slightly turbid. Since the first crude pumping plant was installed, in 1825, with its horse-driven pumps and tamarack mains, the city of Detroit has repeatedly suffered from epidemics of disease, the germs of which, without reasonable doubt, came from the river water. In 1832, at the time of the Black Hawk war, a boat load of soldiers on their way to Chicago, with cholera aboard, anchored at the head of Belle Isle, and very soon the disease was epidemic in the village of Detroit, 96 citizens succumbing. Two years later cholera again appeared and 7 per cent of the population died in one month. Similar outbreaks occurred in 1849 and in 1854, causing 35 to 40 deaths daily. Danger from cholera to-day is remote, but that from typhoid is constantly at hand. The average number of deaths in Detroit from this disease from 1886 to 1904, inclusive, being 72, ranging from 39 to 209. The maximum was reached in 1892, following the dredging of the delta of Black River, at Port Huron, by the United States Government.a This delta contains sewage deposits from the city of Port Huron, and its disturbance appears to have contaminated St.. Clair and Detroit rivers. Although some dredging had been done previously, the dredges were especially active in the river in 1892, the excavated material being loaded on barges and dumped in St. Clair River below Port Huron. Gardner S. Williams, at the time civil engineer to the Detroit water board, has estimated that it would require about ten days for this material to reach Detroit. Allowing twelve days for the incubation stage and twenty-six days to produce death, this gives a total of forty-eight days. The dredging began 1on April 16, and on June 5 4 deaths from typhoid were recorded in Detroit; in the next twenty-five days 38 deaths were reported from this disease. Since the dredging was completed the typhoid rate dropped back to what appears to be the normal. From July 1, 1903, to July 1, 1904, 64 deaths were reported, or 2 deaths for each a Villiamns, G. S.,TyIhoid lever anal the water supply of Detroit: Proc. Sanitary Convention, Detroit, 18'7, p. 90. ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 57 10,000 of population. This is low when coinpared with miany other cities, and it is possible that some of the cases were contracted elsewhere; still, the great city of Detroit should not rest satisfied until it has the lowest attainable rate. The mortality rate for this disease is given by Dr. V. C. Vaughan as 7.5 per cent, so that 64 deaths during the last year would indicate that there had been about 850 cases, and since only about one person in from 3 to 10 actually contracts the disease on exposure, we may 'assume that 2,500 to 8,500 people are annually exposed to this lingering and expensive disease; say one in every ten families. As pointed out by Professor Williams, nothing but the expense stands in the way of a filtering plant that would obviate such danger, and until this is secured it is on the side of safety to filter or boil the water in the home. If there is reason to view the water secured from the head of Belle Isle with some suspicion, there are still better grounds for viewing with positive distrust that which has received the full conta ination of the city of Detroit and the Canadian towns across the river. Since practically all the water that is pumped finds its way sooner or later into the river again as sewage or surface drainage, this means that 60,000,000 gallons in this condition are daily returned to the river. The Canadian towns opposite Detroit (Walkerville, Windsor, and Sandwich) have a combined population of about 18,000, and contribute to the river daily about 5,800,000 gallons of polluted water. If we assume that within the limits of Detroit 50 per cent of the rainfall finds its way to the river after having taken up the filth of the roofs, streets, gutters, and walks, we have on an average 22,000,000 gallons daily from this source. The total, to say nothing of the pollution received below the city of Detroit, is 76,000,000 gallons daily of sewage, slops, and street washings. This represents 11.7 cubic feet a second, or 1 gallon for every 1,800 gallons that flow by the fort in the south part of the city, where gaging was made. This assumes that the two are uniformly mingled. Since, however, Ford, Wyandotte, and Trenton are on the same side of the river as Detroit and the contours of the river banks are such as to crowd the shore currents to the west, the case is certainly more serious even than the above figures indicate. Then, too, it must be remembered that it is really a question of the quality of the contaminating material rather than the quantity, and that there are in Detroit on the average nearly 1,000 cases of typhoid each year. As a direct line by river from Woodward avenue to the Wyandotte intake is 10z miles and the average velocity is somewhat less than 2 miles, the outflow from Detroit sewers may be pumped to unsuspecting victims at Wyandotte in from six to eight hours after its discharge into the river. This does not give time for the process of oxidation to complete its work of purification, nor to secure the death of the organisms causing disease. In ï~~58 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the case of Ford, lying between Wyandotte and the source of pollution the condition would be still more unfavorable, while with Trenton, there is the additional contamination from Wyandotte, which will be still more serious with the direct flow from the sewers when these are finished. The following sanitary analyses of the water from the river at Wyandotte, together with one of water from a well for comparison, are supplied by Dr. V. C. Vaughan: Sanitary analyses of Wyandotte waters. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Total residue- - -os................... 179 173 187 221 1,090 Inorganic matter......................... 112 101 106 191 850 Organic matter....-------------------67 72 81 30 240 Earthy bases, as oxides.....-------------------------------------10.976 20.798 Chlorine... ------------------------------25.45 6. 25.57 27.57 161.44 Sodium................................... 20.75 3.90 16.63 14.67 104.96 Sulphate radicle (SO4)................................ None. S t r o n g trace. Free ammonia.............................024.0106.008.08.46 Albuminoid ammonia--------------------..................... 032.016.016.52.56 Nitrogen as nitrates------------.............---..-............-............--....---..-......15 3.40 Nitrogen as nitrites..........................................................003.91 Bacteria developed in 72 hours........... 38 82 45 1,890 2,580 Color.................................... Slightly Opales- Opales- Clear.... Sedimenopal. cent. cent. tary. Hardness................................. 120 114.29 114.29 100 185.72 Nos. 1-3, river, 1898; 4, river, 1890; 5, well, 1890. Nos. 1 and 2 were pronounced safe by Doctor Vaughan, while the other three caused death of rats and guinea pigs and were pronounced unsafe. The last two analyses were made at the time of a typhoid epidemic, which was believed to have been caused by milk contaminated from the well. Until something can be done the residents of these places should both filter and boil their drinking water. In the way of securing a better supply of water several propositions may be considered: (1) Installing a filtering plant; (2) extending the Detroit mains from River Rouge to Trenton; (3) using the Swan well, in case the water from that well proves potable and not too hard (see analysis p. 44); (4) putting down wells into the Sylvania sandstone. SMALLER STREAMS. General statement.-Named in order from the north, the main streams crossing the county are Connors Creek, River Rouge with its three branches, Ecorse River, Monguagon Creek, Hale Creek, and Huron River. Owing to the comparatively narrow drainage basin and the very -direct slope of the land these streams attain no considrable size in southeastern Michigan. The highest and roughest land in Wayne County is found about the northwest corner, where the greater parts of Northville and Plymouth townships are covered with morainic knolls and ridges, the extreme northwest corner of the county attaining an altitude of 975 feet above sea level. The average surface slope from there southeastward to Detroit River is 16 feet to the mile. East of this morainic area the surface is remarkably flat and even, with an average slope of 8.7 feet to the mile, not enough to be detected by the eye alone. The cutting of their beds, especially in their upper courses, has considerably reduced the average fall of the streams, but the ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. loose condition of the materials over which they flow is sufficient to keep them supplied with more or less sediment and unfitted for general use. In only one or two instances do the streams touch bed rock, and then only for very short distances. Farmers whose places adjoin these natural watercourses use this supply for their stock, for irrigation of their truck farms, etc. At Dearborn the Arna mills use the water of River Rouge, after settling, in their dyeing business. At the former Dearborn power house of the Detroit, Ypsilanti, Ann Arbor, and Jackson Electric Railway the Rouge supplied water for the boilers. lI'aterworlks.-The Wayne County Infirmary, at Eloise, has its own system of waterworks, the plant having been installed in 1902. Previous to that date the water was pumped from the lower branch of River Rouge, but it is now taken from a large well on the flats of the middle branch near Perrinsville. This well, which is 35 feet in diameter and 18 feet deep, receives the flow from the river as well as some surface water, necessitating a plant at Eloise. The water is pumped by a Worden & Hughes pump having a daily capacity of 1,152,000 gallons and driven with a 40-horsepower engine. The water is conveyed through 31 miles of 8-inch cast-iron tubing, buried to a depth of 5 feet, and emptied into an artificial lake, which is also partly filled by surface drainage. From this reservoir it is again elevated by pump and filtered through four steel tanks, 6 feet in diameter by 9 feet in height, filled with crushed quartz. The daily capacity of the filters is 200,000 gallons. There are 19 hydrants on the grounds. The cost of the plant was $30,000 and the annual cost of operating is $1,800. This water is not used for drinking and cooking purposes, the inmates being supplied from springs (see pp. 63-64). The number of inmates cared for in 1904 (year closing September 30) was 1,088, with about 100 employees. River Rouge water is used mainly for the boilers, on the grounds, and for flushing the sewers. The following analysis of this water from the middle branch was made by L. M. Gelston, assistant in the hygienic laboratory of the University of Michigan. It is considerably harder than that of the lower branch, owing undoubtedly to the fact that the middle branch receives the flow from so many springs, especially those from the glacial deposits. Analysis of water from Middle Branch River Rouge. Parts per Parts per million. million. Inorganic matter............... 732 Free ammonia.................. 0. 133 Organic matter................. 96 Albuminoid ammonia-............124 Chlorine-..................... 37 Total residue by evaporation..... 828 Potassium..................... 1.5 Reaction neutral. Algie, protozoa, and bacteria present. ï~~v1ELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Contarnination.--In a suit brought against the infirmary in 1898 for the pollution of the stream the following analyses were made by Prof. J. E. Clark, M. D., of the Detroit College of Medicine. It was then legally decided that the Rouge was being seriously contaminated, and the infirmary was required to put in settling basins for its sewage. A series of such basins now in use treat the sewage with alum and lime and then run it through gravel. Analyses of water from River Rouge, showing contamination. [Parts per million.] Above From 250 to 300 feet below sewer, sewer. feet below. Mineral matter -- ----------------------------------------- 280 740 720 Organic matter -............................................------------------------------------------150 380 370 Chlorine..................................................... 5 105 95 Fhlre - mmonia---------------------------------------------.302 18.8 952 Free am m onia.. _.............................................. 302 48. 8 1. 512 Albuminoid ammonia -- --------------------------------------. 366 32.58 1.44 Total solids.....--------------------------------------------- 430 1,120 1,090 Bacteria..---..------------------------------------------ 10,900 325.000 12,500 The table is of interest because it shows the ordinary condition of the water in this stream, and in addition those substances derived from sewage which suggest the presence of dangerous bacteria. The amount of chlorine, combined to form common salt, has been increased 19 times, while the ammonia has not risen in proportion to the amount actually present in the sewage itself. A complete analysis of the water would have shown that much of this had been oxidized into nitrites and nitrates, which along with the chlorine furnish an index to the probable amount of sewage contamination. The percentage of bacteria added to the stream is small and to but a slight extent capable of producing disease, but there is a likelihood that sooner or later those of a more serious nature will have to be reckoned with. Huron River, the largest stream of the county, receives before entering the county the sewage and drainage from Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti, with a combined population of 22,200 people, and is still more seriously polluted by the sanitary works at French Landing. None of the villages in Wayne County, however, draw on the river for a public supply. GROUND WATERS. WATERS FROM LACUSTRINE AND RIVER DEPOSITS. FORMATION OF DEPOSITS. A series of old shore lines and beaches, made by the predecessors of the present system of Great Lakes, traverse Wayne County in a general northeast-southwest direction. In some places these are closely placed, and a single township may have as many as six; in ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. f1 other places they are broad and rather widely separated. lThrough the work of the United States and Michigan geological surveys these ancient beaches are being carefully followed and maps showing their location will soon be available. The waves of the lakes, as they stood at successive levels, threw up broad, rounded ridges of sand, or sand and gravel, attaining a maximum thickness of 25 to 30 feet and consisting of cross-bedded deposits resting upon the underlying clay. Where sand was especially abundant it was seized by the lake winds and heaped into mounds and ridges (dunes) and sometimes carried landward for a considerable distance, being there spread out into a relatively thin, unstratified sheet. A broad belt of such deposit, the joint work of wind and wave, extends across Sumpter, Romulus, Nankin, and Livonia townships, reaching over into those adjoining. A similar belt, but with less breadth, passes across Huron, Taylor, Dearborn, and Redford; and a third, less continuous, passes through Brownstown, Ecorce, Springwells, Detroit, and Hamtramck. At the several levels of the old system of lakes, Huron and Rouge riversformed delta deposits opposite their mouths, spreading sheets of stratified sand and gravel over a considerable area. This was particularly true during the stage known as Lake Arkona, when the Huron covered from 30 to 35 square miles of Van Buren and Sumpter townships with such a dressing, extending eastward as far as French Landing and attaining a maximum thickness of over 20 feet. A similar but less extensive formation was laid down where the middle branch of the Rouge discharged into Lake Arkona east of Plymouth, covering the eastern part of Plymouth Township, western Livonia, northeastern Canton, and northwestern Nankin. These delta deposits are continued up the stream valleys, where they form terraces of stratified sand and gravel, the former flood plains of the Huron and Rouge. WATER SUPPLY. These loose, unconsolidated deposits, mantling the clay, are very porous and readily absorb a large part of the rainfall. They are at the same time very permeable and deliver this water readily. For a precipitation of 32 inches, with a surface run-off and seepage flow of 25 per cent, there would be an average daily addition of 132,210 cubic feet over every square mile, or nearly 1,000,000 gallons. The water sinks to the underlying clay and is there held, or works its way slowly by underground passages and seepage down a gentle slope. This brings it quite near the surface, though, owing to the way in which it is held, it possesses no head. Only shallow wells, ranging from 5 to 25 feet, are required to tap this supply; a very common depth is 10 to 15 feet. In sinking these it is usually not necessary to reach the clay, but when the supply is reduced it is ï~~62 WELLS TAND WATER SUTPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. frequently desirable to make an excavation into the clay, which will serve as a reservoir. These wells as a rule are dug, but are sometimes driven, and are cased with barrels, planks, brick, stone, or crocks. The water is obtained usually by suction or chain pumps, the windmill being occasionally used. In the case of wells in sand the bucket, with chain, rope, or pole, is used for dipping, the oldfashioned "sweep" being still occasionally found. While the supply is ordinarily sufficient and very frequently abundant, it fluctuates with the amount of precipitation, and after prolonged drought may disappear or be so lowered as to require deepening of the wells. How much any particular well will be affected, and how promptly, will be determined by the extent and thickness of the deposit supplying the water. In one-third of the wells from which data were secured the owners report the water to be soft and suitable for laundry use, so that no cisterns are required. This shows that there has been but little calcium or magnesium carbonate dissolved from the sand, gravel, or clay, either because these substances were not present originally or have been leached out, or because the water has not had time to get them in solution.. In two-thirds of the wells, particularly in those which approach or reach the clay, the water was pronounced hard. In a few cases the water was reported to have changed from soft to hard and vice versa. Other mineral ingredients, so common in other types of wells, are absent here or only very sparingly present. The temperature of the water in these wells fluctuates more than in the deeper wells, being more affected by the surface temperature of the air and soil. From what is known of other wells we may assert that the temperature will be highest in midfall and lowest in midspring. Although obtained with so little difficulty and expense, this water is especially liable to contamination from house and barn drainage and privies. Dupuit's experiments in France have shown that the area drained by a well is in the form of an inverted cone, the radius of the base of which may range from 15 to 160 times the depth of the surface of the water in the well. This means that if it is 10 feet from the surface of the ground to the level of the water in the well this well may receive drainage from buildings 150 to 1,600 feet distant from the well. It has also been found by experiment that a shallow well heavily pumped will drain a larger area than a deep well subjected to moderate pumping. Although sand and gravel may serve as filters for the removal of solid substances, subterranean channels are liable to be opened in time and direct pollution occur. The sudden opening of such channels may explain why some wells, wholesome up to a certain time, become suddenly a source of great ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. e3 danger. This is probably what happened to the Millspaugh well at Wyandotte, the analysis of which is given in the table (p. 58). It is a mistake to suppose that the direction of the surface slope completely controls the direction of underground drainage. Wells of the type here discussed should be placed as far as possible from sources of infection and should be tightly' cased with solid pipe or sealed crocks extending above the general level of the ground sufficiently to prevent any surface water from entering. Around the margins of the sand dunes, where the superficial beds of sand and gravel thin out, exposing the clay, or where these beds are cut by surface streams through the clay, the water seeps out and gives rise to one type of springs. The flow may be slight and simply moisten the surface or it may be concentrated into a single flow of some volume. Most of these springs are found along the banks of Rouge and Huron rivers where they have cut across the old lake beaches or the deltas of their own formation. - In Van Buren Township some of the farmers adjoining the Huron and its tributaries are utilizing the strongest of these flows, elevating the water to tanks by means of hydraulic rams. These waters show only small quantities of salt, gypsum, and calcium carbonate, with some iron. The largest spring supplied from this class is located on the place of G. E. Barlow, sec. 29, Livonia Township, just north of the middle branch of the Rouge, where it has been flowing strongly for many years. It now discharges through a 2.5-inch tube with considerable force-a hard water which contains calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate, but gives no reaction for salt. This is of significance, since it might prove to be of superior quality in the manufacture of beet sugar. If this spring were fully developed, along with others on the neighboring bank, the supply might prove sufficient for the village of Wayne, to which it could be carried by 7 miles of pipe. The fall is about 14 feet, enough to give the water a flow by gravity, but not enough to secure pressure. Wayne has made an unsuccessful attempt to secure a public supply by means of deep wells and had a survey made looking toward the extension of the Detroit city mains to the village. The expense of the latter plan was prohibitive for the time. At the county infirmary at Eloise some 1,100 people are supplied with drinking water from a sand dune about one-half mile to the south, the water being collected into small reservoirs, from which it flows by gravity through 3-inch tiling and is distributed by pipes to the basements of the buildings and by hand to the drinking tanks on the upper floors. The effect is said to be somewhat constipating, but the water is pure and abundant. It is said to be soft, but does ï~~64 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. not make a free lather. The following analysis of this walter was made in April, 1888, by Dr. Samuel P. Duffield, of Detroit: Analysis, of drinking water at Wayne County Infirmary, Eloise.a Parts per Parts per million, million. Calcium (Ca)...---.... 587.48 Sodium (Na)............... 172.86 Carbonate radicle (C03) _-... 181.66_ Total................... 2, 472.75 Magnesium (Mg)-........... 54.83 Total.----2472.5 Sulphate radicle (SO4)---------1, 050.67 Free carbon dioxide--..--..--..--..--..-. 2, 914.32 Chlorine (Cl)................... 425. 25 WATERS FROM GLACIAL DEPOSITS. FORMATION OF DEPOSITS. The great Canadian ice sheets, which made at least two advances across this section of the State from northeast to southwest, reduced much hard rock to fine fragments and spread it over the bed rock in a sheet varying in thickness from a few to more than 200 feet. This deposit, consisting of tough unstratified clay, generally of a blue color and containing subangular fragments of bruised rocks, is technically known as "till." Stony portions of it, probably largely of an early ice invasion, have become compacted, and are popularly known as "hardpan." While this great ice mill was at work reducing the rock to powder streams of water beneath the ice, resulting from surface melting and rains, were assorting the deposits into gravel, sand, and clay. The pebbles, rounded by mutual grinding, and the sand were arranged in layers in certain places favorable for deposition, to be covered by beds of later-formed till. In this way was built up the so-called "ground moraine" of these great ice sheets. Much of the finest sediment seized by the subglacial streams was capable of being held a longer time in suspension and so was carried forward into the quiet bodies of water into which these streams drained, forming either deltas at the border or, where spread over the bottom, beds of finely stratified clay, quite different from the till itself. Beds of similar nature were formed in the ancient lakes, previously referred to, by the action of the waves on the till, the pebbles and sand during times of storm being tossed upon the beach, while " the clay was carried into deeper and quieter water. Although nearly the entire county was covered by these waters, the only extensive deposits of these lake clays are found to the north and west of Detroit, where they are extensively used in the manufacture of brick. The result of this wave action was to cut down elevations left by the preceding ice sheet and fill in depressions, giving the entire region a more subdued aspect and more gentle slopes. a Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. ï~~WAYNE O()ITNTY. 65 WATER SUPPLI. (haracter (fbeds.-The beds of ancient lake clays, as well as the till itself, are practically impervious and impermeable, and hence can yield no water supply. Water is to be obtained only from the interbedded sheets of sand and gravel, the occurrence of which, owing to their method of formation, is very irregular and uncertain. This makes the securing of a suitable water supply over these areas difficult, uncertain, and expensive. Especially is this true in the northeastern part of Yan Buren, the northwestern part of Romulus, and certain parts of Dearborn townships. The rain water finds its way into these permeable beds, often in regions remote from the place at which they are tapped and frequently at a considerably higher level than the bottom of the well. Hence the water enters the well under pressure which may cause it to rise nearly to the surface or to overflow. As the water generally comes from a greater distance and from a greater depth than that of the type of wells previously discussed, its temperature is more uniform and the supply is more abundant and more constant. In general, also, the water is more highly mineralized, owing to its better opportunities for taking the minerals it encounters in solution. Of all those wells from which data were secured, 22.4 per cent were reported by the owners as soft and 77.6 per cent as hard. Where the water is drawn from just above the bed rock it is sometimes highly charged with minerals, such as salt, sulphur, iron, etc., which characterize the waters from the rock itself, and the inference is that the rock water has mingled with that from the glacial (deposits. Nonflowing wells.-The nonflowing wells generally vary in depth from 18 or 20 feet to 100 feet or more, 60 to 75 feet being a common depth. The shallower ones are dug and lined with stone or brick; the deeper ones are driven, bored, or drilled. In some instances no casing at all is used, the clay being firm enough to maintain the necessary opening to the water-bearing stratum. Owing to the considerable depth, heavy suction pumps are generally required and windmills are in common use. The deepest wells of this type are located in the northeastern part of Van Buren, northern Canton, northern Hamtramck, and southwestern Grossepoint townships, the mlaximumn found having a depth of 182 feet. Owing to the nearness of bed rock to the surface in Monguagon and Brownstown townships, the wells of this class are necessarily shallow, many of themn stopping just short of the rock in a bed of gravel. The height to which water will rise, with reference to the surface of the ground, (epends on the head and the elevation of the ground at the mouth of the well, and each of these factors grows less towar(d the southcast. III the belts immediately surrounding the areas of flowing ï~~66 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. wells, to be next described, the water comes very near or quite to the surface and drops back from it as we pass to the east or the west. In the wells of this class from which data were secured 80 per cent were reported hard and 20 per cent soft. When tightly cased to a level above ground the wells are safe from contamination. If the casing is too short at the top, or if no casing at all is used, they may receive surface drainage and become a source of danger. The collecting areas of this water appear to lie in the high morainic regions to the west and north, as shown from the general diminution of head toward the south and east. In a strip of territory extending northeastward from southern Canton and northeastern Van Buren townships many of the deeper wells give much salt, which presumably is received from the underlying bed rock. A few data are here given concerning three of the most striking. It is likely that the Barker wells penetrated the Antrim shale without the driller knowing he had entered bed rock. The well of C. F. Bevernitz, NW. - sec. 12, Nankin Township, is 60 to 70 feet deep, the Antrim shale lying at a depth of 70 to 80 feet. The elevation of the mouth is approximately 635 feet. The supply is good, but there is too much salt in the water to permit its use; a tobacco pail full is said to have yielded, on evaporation, a pint of salt. There has been some gas in the well. The water lacks only 4 feet of reaching the surface, its actual elevation being about 631 feet. Edward Barker, NE. - sec. 27, Canton Township, has two wells, which were sunk to a depth of 108 feet in 1901. The Antrim shale is supposed to be from 100 to 110 feet from the surface. The approximate elevation of the mouth of the well is 657 feet and the head is -12 feet, giving the water an elevation of 645 feet. Salt water was secured from near the bottom, 6 to 7 quarts yielding a teacup of salt. This water has been used for preserving pork. The well was plugged below to shut off this supply and fresh water was used from a higher level in the well. W. A. Wallace, SE. 1 sec. 32, Canton Township, has a bored well 70 feet deep. The Antrim shale lies at 80 to 90 feet. The elevation of the well mouth is 695 feet and of the water surface 687 feet. The water is secured from just over hardpan and is hard and salty, too much so to drink, but may be used for other household purposes. Cattle will drink it, and require no other salt. Some of these mineralized waters not so highly charged with salt are being put on the market for their medicinal properties and sold in Detroit. by the gallon. One of these sources of supply is on the Rouge flats at Plymouth. It is owned by Dr. M. V. B. Saunders, of Detroit, and is advertised as the "Plymouth Rock Mineral Well." The depth is 74 feet, the first 25 feet of which were dug and the remainder drilled. The elevation of the mouth of the well is about ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 67 700 feet, and, as the rock surface here is believed to be from 630 to 640 feet, it is likely that the well penetrated the Coldwater shales. The water was said to have been secured from beneath an exceedingly hard 18-inch stratum. It is reported that 3,000 gallons are sold annually, and that it has been found especially efficacious in cases of rheumatism, kidney and bladder troubles. The following analysis, taken from the advertising circular, was made by Prof. John E. Clark, M. D., of the Detroit College of Medicine: Analysis of Plymouth Rock mineral water.a Parts per Parts per million, million. Potassium (K)-............. 11.58 Carbonate radicle (CO3)....--..--..-... 192.95 Silica (SiO)..--------------------- 8.57 Calcium (Ca).................... 24.22 Iron and alumina (Fe203AI203)..... 29.76 Magnesium (Mg)................. 14.36 Chlorine (Cl)..................... 149.43 Organic and volatile.............. 22.25 Sodium (Na).................... 124.01 Sulphate radicle (SO4)........... 4.31 581.44 Carbonic-acid gas and carbonate of lithium present, but.not estimated. A similar well near the above is owned by H. P. Peters and has a depth of 80 feet, possibly also reaching bed rock. The water is said to have originally flowed, and has been put on the market as "hydrocarbon mineral water." Bubbles of gas, apparently carbon dioxide, are continually rising to the surface. Flowing wells.-When the head or pressure with which these waters enter the wells is sufficient, the water reaches the well mouth and overflows. Two belts of such flowing wells cross Wayne County, being the continuation of similar belts in Monroe and Washtenaw counties. One of these belts begins in the northwestern part of Van Buren Township (sees. 3, 4, 5, and 6), extends northward across Canton, with a breadth of 3 miles, reaches into sec. 34 of Plymouth, and continues into the western part of Livonia Township. The belt is not continuous, and nearly all of the wells that are still flowing lie to the east of the gravel ridge formed by the waters of Glacial Lake Whittlesey and known as the Belmore beach. This is due to the fact that the water does not have sufficient pressure to reach the level of this beach, which is about 740 feet above sea level. A second belt of flowing wells lies in the eastern part of the county, reaching its fullest development in the southern part of Brownstown Township, where it is about 5 miles across. In the northern part of the township it is interrupted. A few isolated wells occur in eastern Taylor, in Ecorce, and in Springwells townships, where they cease because of the elevation of the surface on approaching Detroit. In a Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. ï~~68 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Grossepoint Township, near the lake level, there is at least one flowing well. There are also scattered flows up the Huron Valley to Willow. The average temperature of the wells of the county, as measured in May and June, is 520 F., or slightly less, but some show a rise of 1Â~ to 3Â~ in the fall, owing to the effect of the summer heat on pipes through which they slowly discharge. It is probable that if the bottom temperature were taken it would be found to be more constant, especially in the case of the deeper wells and wells with a weak flow. In these the waters are either warmed or cooled as they approach the surface, except at times of year when the surface temperature corresponds closely with the temperature of the bottom of the well. To the farmers these wells are a great saving in time and expense of pumping, while the low summer temperature and constant flow are of great service in caring for milk in the dairy. The tanks do not ordinarily freeze over in winter and are thus available for the stock. The wells are about equally divided between hard and soft water, some of unusual softness occurring at Dentons, where they take the place of cistern water. The two following partial analyses, furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey, show the relative composition of drift and rock waters at Dearborn: Partial analyses of drift and rock waters at Dearborn. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color...-------------------...--------------------------------------------.. 32 32 Iron (Fe)..-- ----------------------------------------------------------- Trace. 2 Chlorine (Cl)---------------------------------------------------------....................................................................... 19 15 Carbon dioxide (CO)-----------.................................-----........................... 8-7.94 97.61 Sulphur trioxide (SO).........................................................-------------------------------------------------.. 86 522 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. A. Wagner; depth, 28 feet. 2. A. Wagner (rock); depth, 115 feet. These waters are said to produce only a very little scale in the tea kettle, even after several years' use. Simple tests show slight traces of salt, iron, and lime carbonate, but no lime sulphates, or but a trace. This condition of the water may be due in part to continuous leaching, the result of which would be to change flowing wells from hard to soft. The breaking in of new veins might, however, suddenly change the water from soft to hard. The water in the eastern belt is almost invariably charged with either iron or sulphur, along with the other minerals commonly present, owing to the nearness of bed rock. The pressure is generally low and sufficient only to elevate the water a few feet above ground level, but is somewhat greater in the western district. In the Penny well, sec. 3, Canton Township, there is a strong flow which will rise 12 feet, thus having ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 69 an elevation of about 727 feet above tide. Most other wells in the western part of this belt indicate an elevation of 710 to 720 feet, which, as a rule, drops to the southeast more rapidly than does the surface slope of the land, ranging from 6 to 12 feet to the mile within the belt. Most of the flowing wells in the eastern belt are from the bed rock, and thus belong to the class next to be described. The similarity in the character of the water would indicate that the shallower wells derive their supply and head from the same source, and hence that the two belts of flowing wells are genetically distinct, the western coming from the drift and the eastern from bed rock. The table on page 70 shows the chief characteristics of this group of wells. The head and volume of the flow are reported to be on the decrease and the flowing well areas are being reduced. This may be due to several causes-climatic, clogging by sand, sinking of new wells, and constant and useless waste of water. Nature may be expected to attend to the matter of precipitation; sand pumping and deepening will give temporary increase of flow; but concerted action is required in order to prevent the waste of this valuable resource. Wells that are not being used should be plugged and others in use should have their flow reduced to meet only the immediate requirements. One driller reports that he rarely finds a farmer willing to make any reduction whatever in the size of the flow. The following partial analysis of an unusually soft water from the parsonage well (depth 75 feet) near Denton, in the western part of the county, has been furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The water tested is one of the softest in the State. Partial analysis of well water at Denton. Parts per Parts per million, million. Color-........................ 10 Carbon dioxide (C02)----------........... 97.61 Iron (Fe)....................... Trace. Sulphur trioxide (SO3).....--..-..-.-. 29 (1) Chlorine (Cl)................... 8.75 Hardness...................... 56.1 S. J. Lewis, analyst. The following partial analysis of the well water at the Commercial Hotel at Wayne is furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey: Partial analysis of well water at Commercial Hotel, Wayne. Parts per Parts per million, million. Color-....-....................... 19 Carbon dioxide (CO2) --------- ---99.81 Iron (Fe)........................ Trace. Sulphur trioxide (SOs)------------.............. 88 Chlorine (Cl)----------------------......................... 15 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth of well, 14 feet. mRR 182-06--6 ï~~Wells in drift, Wayne County. T Town Rnge Secship S. a. tion. 1 8 34 2 8 3 2 8 4 2 8 8 2 8 8 2 8 9 2 8 9 2 8 31 2 8 30 2 8 32 2 8 33 2 8 33 3 8 4 3 8 4 3* 8 4 3 8 4 3 8 4 3 8 5 3 8 5 3 8 6 3 8 6 1 9 18 1 9 17 1 9 19 2 11 18 2 11 20 3 11 14 5 10 4 5 10 5 5 10 11 Quarter. NW. NW. NE. NE. SE. NW. NW. NW. SE. SE. SE. SE. NW. NW. NE. NE. NE. SE. SE. NE. NE. SE. SW. NE. SE. NW. SE. NW. SE. SW. -7 - Township. Owner. Depth. Feet. Plymouth........ S. Bennett....... 70 Canton........... O. F. Penny...... 86..... do............ E. Everett....... 35..... do............ G. S. Bonsteel.... 28..... do........... H. O. Hanford... 30-35..... do............ Mrs. D. Schrader. 50-60.....do............ J. Quartle......... 28.....do.......... S. Goddell......... 70..... do............ J. Smith estate... 50-60..... do............ J.F. Duntley................ do.......... J.,E. Betts....... 30..... do............ G. Kissane................ Van Buren....... J. Couch.......... 63..... do............ W. Deyo.......... 42.....do.......... A. Kruger.........75..... do............ C. Nass........... 70..... do............ A. Gunther....... 72..... do............ W. H. Burrell.... 70.....do.......... F. Van Tassel.... 48.....do.......... I. Glass...........76..... do............ C. Schlicht........ 72 Livonia.... W. Hake.......... 50..... do........... R. L. Alexander.. 45.....do............ O. Melow......... 55 Springwells....... Detroit Brick Co- 80..... do........... L. Maples........ 67.5 Ecorse........... J. Porout......... 78 Brownstown..... J. Welle...........30...do............ R. Smithson..... 28.....do............ J. Stryker........ 20-25 i Quality. TemQuality perature. o F. Soft...... 51 Hard.... 51.5.... do.-- 51.5 Soft..... 52 Hard... 60 Soft................do..... 50....do:....... do....... 1 i " d.. 51 Hard..... 51.... do -.. 55........... 53 -- - 51 Soft. ---_ 51.5 -- - -. --. 52 50 Soft...- 51 Hard....... Soft.... 51.do.......... Medium. 51 Hard... 50.5 Soft...... Hard.... 51....do..... 52 Hard...- -50.5.-.- 51............51 Size of flow. Inches. 1 z 1 1 1 S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1* 2 Trickle. 3 1 Ma mu Fe + + + + + + + + + +1 +1: + +Z +11 Head. Elevaxi- Pres- tion. im. ent. et. Feet. Feet..... 0.7 720 2 3 715 5 2.5 708 8 3 711 2.5........ 708 2 2 708 9 3 711 4 2 715 2.... 689 2... 692 S 1 685 -_. 1.5 686 3 696 S 2 693 S 3 690 S 2 690 4..... 688.... 3 698 2 4 696 2.5........ 705.... 1 706 1.. 690 4 2.5 693 2 1 680.... 4 590 3 595 4.5 599 7.5........ 589 5 ---- 588 0 --. 582 Remarks. Small amount of salt. Will flow a 2-inch stream. Some salt. Has flowed 3.5-inch stream. Strong in iron. Waters 75 head of cattle. Made in 1868; contains salt. Used in dairy and laundry. Free from iron. Used in dairy. Not affected by drought. Running 15 years. Used in dairy. Once flowed 49gallons a minute. Used in laundry. Running 14 years. Used in laundry. Has flowed 1.5-inch stream. Used in laundry. Denton village. Would flow 1-inch stream. From gravel over bed rock. Has flowed 2.5-inch stream. Flows 90 barrels a day. Strong in sulphur. Contains sulphur. Contains iron. Iron but no sulphur. Contains sulphur. o H r b $ r z U I ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 71 Boiling springs.-The western half of Plymouth and nearly the whole of Northville townships are covered with ridges and knolls of till, interpersed with similar masses of stratified gravel and sand, giving a very rough aspect to the country. The features are those of a moraine formed at the ice margin during a temporary halt in its general eastward retreat. The Glacial lake waters subsequently covered the lower knolls lying to the east, but elsewhere the original roughness left by the ice has been very largely retained. The undrained depressions common to such regions are not of sufficient magnitude to give rise to lakes of any considerable size, the largest being Yerkes Lake, previously noted. Some of these lake sites have been filled with vegetation and are now drained, yielding a black mucky soil especially adapted to certain crops. Securing water from these clay knolls and ridges by means of wells is as difficult and uncertain as on the clay plains to the east, and at times becomes impossible. The deposits of sand and gravel, however, serve as reservoirs for water, and, owing to their extent and height to the north and west, frequently yield large quantities under pressure. Along the hill slopes and in fhe valleys heavy natural flows occur, giving rise to what are known as "bold" or "boiling" springs. They differ from the seepage springs in that they have a head, and generally stronger flow, are subject to less variation, show a steadier temperature, and yield a harder water. In numerous cases the waters are piped to dwellings and barns and yield an ideal supply, as on the Starkweather place in the southwest part of Northville Township, where a spring located in the NW. 4, sec. 8, is piped to the house, having a fall of 16 feet, delivering a 1-inch stream and keeping 5 troughs supplied with most excellent water for stock. This water contains considerable calcium carbonate, a very little salt, and gives no reaction for calcium sulphate. Two similar springs are utilized by the United States fish hatchery at Northville (see P1. III, A, p. 44). After cleaning in 1896 the flow from the larger was somewhat more than 500 gallons a minute, but has been gradually declining since. In the fall of 1904 a second cleaning failed to increase the flow much. According to the earlier reports the temperature was 470 F., but is now 480, with only slight variation from season to season. This is the coldest water observed in any part of the county. It is rendered hard by considerable calcium carbonate, but gives no reaction for salt or gypsum. Immediately beneath the hatchery building is a second spring which has yielded 136 gallons a minute and has a temperature of 48Â~. There are two flowing wells having a depth of 106 feet, which yield 1- and 2 gallons a minute, with a temperature of 50Â~, but the water contains sulphur and iron and is destructive to both eggs and fish. The villages of Northville and Plymouth are favorably situated for utilizing similar flows from springs sufficiently elevated to give the ï~~72 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. necessary pressure without pumping. The water is cold and pure; is rendered hard by calcium carbonate; gives no reaction for gypsum, and only a slight one for salt. The supply is sufficient except during times of prolonged drought. The water is not metered and no estimates are kept of the amount used. Neither of the villages are supplied with sewers, the drainage being good in both cases. The plants are owned and operated by the villages themselves. Northville, with a population of 1,627, draws its supply from two springs in Oakland County, about 4 miles distant. The springs are about 1,000 feet apart and empty into a small receiving basin, from which the water flows by gravity, with slight fall, to a reservoir overlooking the village and 100 feet above it. The reservoir is 260 by 160 feet, with a depth of 18 feet and an estimated capacity of 2,500,000 gallons. The plant was installed in 1892-93, the village bonding for $30,000 at the time and for $8,000 later. Vitrified 12-inch crocks were first used and found unsatisfactory because of breakage and leakage, and at much additional expense were replaced with 10-inch iron casing buried 4 to 6 feet in the ground. The domestic pressure is 50 pounds and that in the hydrants 70 pounds to the square inch. There are 9 miles of mains, which consist of 4-inch and 10-inch pipes. There are 40 hydrants not paid for by the village and 325 service taps. The income derived from private consumers is about $950 per annum, and the cost of maintenance about $200. A severe test of the system was made in 1899 at the time of the burning of the plant of the Globe Manufacturing Company, when ten streams were kept playing from 3 a. m. until 2 p. m., and then three streams until evening, at the end of which time it was found that the reservoir was lowered but 18 inches. The village of Plymouth, with a population of 1,663, has a system similar to that of Northville, its springs being in the NE. 4 sec. 8, Northville Township, in the bottom of an old drainage channel from the ice sheet. The village has here purchased an acre of land on which an excavation 50 by 60 by 6 feet has been made, lined with cobble, and surrounded by a high wire fence. From this the water flows by gravity to a reservoir, which is located 2 miles from the village and 103 feet above it, and which has dimensions of 100 by 80 by 14 feet, giving an estimated capacity of about 500,000 gallons. The system was installed in 1893, 41 miles of 12-inch sewer pipe being laid at a cost of $30,000. Plymouth has had the same expensive experience as Northville, which competent advice would have prevented. The sewer pipe is now being replaced by iron casing, which will swell the expense to near $50,000. The annual income is $2,200 to $2,300, and the expense of operating about $150, aside from the fire department. There are 10 miles of mains, 60 hydrants, and 300 service taps. The average pressure is 42 to 45 pounds. It is estimated that 75 per cent of the population use this water, the remainder ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 73 WATERS FROM BED ROCK. GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. Beneath the mantle of clay, sand, and gravel, resulting from the joint action of wind, water, and ice, there lies a series of stratified rocks, consisting of sandstone, shale, limestone, and dolomite. In past geologic ages these beds were formed in the sea, in approximately horizontal layers, but they were early upheaved and tilted, so that their edges have a general northeast trend in Wayne County, and the beds themselves dip to the northwest at the rate of some 30 to 35 feet to the mile. They still retain some of the minerals belonging to the concentrated brines of the primitive seas, and others deposited at the time the rocks were forming or subsequently. These beds supply a limited part of the county with a more or less highly mineralized water, much of which flows, but some of which must be pumped. The youngest and highest of this series of beds in Wayne County cuts across the northwest corner. It consists of shales, with some sandstone, and is known in the State as the Coldwater shale (Waverly and Cuyahoga). Beneath this lies the dark Antrim shale (Genesee), generally yielding gas and faint traces of oil. Next in order come the bluish beds of shale and limestone, making up the Traverse group (Hamilton), and frequently referred to as "soapstone;" beneath which lies a solid, light-gray limestone known in the State as the Dundee (Corniferous). Below this limestone is a drab dolomite, the Monroe group (Lower Helderberg), which drillers do not ordinarily separate from the preceding. Embedded in it and of the same geologic age is the so-called Sylvania sandstone, a pure glass sand, cutting across the extreme southeastern part of the county; this is the oldest of the formations reached directly beneath the clay in the county. Still older and lower, however, and coming near the surface in Monroe County and bordering parts of Ohio, lie, in order, the Monroe beds below the Sylvania sandstone (Lower Helderberg and Salina), the Niagara, Medina, Hudson, Utica, and Trenton, the last being the oldest bed reached by borings in the county. WATER SUPPLY. Flowing wells.-The wells of this class comprise most of those in the eastern belt described above (p. 67). They are heavily mineralized, as a rule, and frequently rendered rank by sulphur and iron. The average temperature is 51.4Â~, as compared with 520 for the flowing drift wells, but rises slowly as the water comes from greater depth. Theoretically the temperature should be still more constant than in the drift wells, but it must be affected in the same way and to the same extent as it rises to the surface. With reference to the level of the ground the head is generally slight, ranging from a mere ï~~74 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. rise to the surface to 15 and 25 feet above in exceptional cases. At Dentons, in a well along the railroad track, the water is reported to have reached the second story of a building, indicating its rise to about 715 feet above sea level. The Swan well on Grosse Isle is the easternmost of the flowing wells in the county and has a head of 597 feet. Measured between these two extreme wells the average reduction in head toward the southeast is 5.6 feet to the mile. Between the Flat Rock wells and those on the lake shore the average reduction per mile is 3.5 feet. Although the rock strata are dipping to the northwest, these facts indicate that the source of supply is to the west, as pointed out by Fuller in his report on the failure of wells along lower Huron River (p. 37). The table on page 76 gives the principal data concerning the flowing wells from bed rock. The most wonderful of the entire set is the Swan well, described by Fuller (pp. 43-44), which flows 3,000 gallons a minute, or 4,320,000 gallons a day-enough to supply several times over the entire river front from Trenton to Detroit. It has recently been stated in the papers that the Grosse Isle Mineral Company has been organized to put the water on the market under the name "Kathairo" (see p. 44 for analysis). Springs.-In the Brownstown region of flowing wells there are numerous natural flows charged with iron, sulphur, calcium sulphate, calcium carbonate, and sometimes considerable salt. These are most numerous along Huron River, from Flat Rock to Lake Erie and northward to Gibraltar. The water is generally too rank for use and is believed to come from bed rock, having made for itself a natural channel through the clay. Such springs are found in Brownstown as follows: T. 4 S., R. 10 E.: NE. 4 sec. 28, SW. 4 sec. 30, SE. 4 sec. 31, NE. sec. 36. T. 5 S., R. 10 E.: SW. 4 sec. 5, NE. 4 sec. 9, SE. 4 sec. 13, NW. I sec. 1, eastern and southern portions of sec. 24. An analysis of the "Wyandotte White Sulphur Springs," the location of which is unknown to the writer, is given by Pealea and is quoted by Lane.b Nonflowing wells.-The principal facts relating to the nonflowing wells from rock have been grouped together in the table on page 77, from which the character of the water from the various geologic horizons may be seen at a glance. The water is generally hard and highly mineralized. In a few cases only is it reported to be soft. Time did not permit the securing of records of the temperatures of the water of these wells, but owing to the fact that it stands more quietly in the pipes, frequently not far from the surface, it is undoubtedly more variable than in the artesian wells. The head of these rock waters also drops as we pass eastward. The following analysis of the water a Peale, A. C., Lists and analyses of the mineral springs of the United States: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 32, 1886, p. 150. b Lane, A.C., Lower Michigan mineral waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, p. 72. ï~~WAYNE COUNTY. 75 from an 850-foot well at the Wayne County Infirmary at Eloise shows how heavily charged with minerals these waters may become. The well was drilled for gas by C. C. Nims. The Traverse group was struck at 130 feet (the elevation of the well mouth being about 625 feet) and yielded a flow of fresh water. The well passed through this formation and the underlying Corniferous and entered the Monroe group, from which a strong brine was secured, with some suggestions of oil. The analysis was made by Dr. S. P. Duffield, of Detroit, April 18, 1888. Analysis of water from salt well, Wayne County Infirmary, Eloise.a Parts per million. Calcium (Ca).............------------------------------------............---------------- 9,714.65 Carbonate radicle (CO,)................................. 3, 970. 25 Magnesium (Mg)------------.............-----------..........---------------------------- 150.17 Sulphate radicle (SO4)......................-------------------------------------------- 12, 354.88 Chlorine (Cl)---------...................----------------.......--------------------------. 40,214.11 Sodium (Na)..........................---------------------------------------------------. 25, 354.54 Total solids....................-----------------------------------------------..... 91,758.60 Hydrogen sulphide-------------....................... 405 These highly charged mineral waters are used for bathing purposes at two places in Detroit-the Clark Riverside bath house and the Detroit sanitarium. The well at the latter place has a depth of 307 feet, entering the Corniferous, and yields a mineral water strong in sulphur. The depth of the Clark well either is not known or has not been given out, but it is probably not very different from the other. An analysis of its water is given by Lane.b Along Detroit River from Delray to Trenton artificial brines are made by forcing water to the salt beds of the lower Monroe series, where they dissolve the solid rock salt and flow to the surface. The salt is then secured by evaporation or used in the manufacture of soda, soda ash, and bleaching powder. The most promising horizon for securing a supply of fresh water is the Sylvania sandstone, a porous bed of pure sand rock holding an abundance of water. Although fresh, it is liable to contain sulphur and iron, carried up from the dolomites of the underlying Monroe group. In the northern part of Monroe County and the southern part of Brownstown Township this bed lies immediately beneath the clay and furnishes an ab'ndnce of good water. In the 6 miles to Trenton it drops to 280 feet below the surface, or at the rate of about 40 feet to the mile. Toward Wyandotte the bed thickens, with practically no dip, and in the Eureka well it was reached at 230 feet, while in a well of the Michigan Rock Salt Company at Ecorse it was reached at 220 feet. Beyond Ecorse it drops rather rapidly again, having an average thickness of 99 feet in ten wells of the Solvay Company at Delray. a Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. b Op cit., p. 73. ï~~Flowing wells in bed rock, Wayne County. 3 8 2 8 2 11 3 10 2 11 3 11 3 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 2 10 2 11 2 11 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 11 6 28 18 34 4 30 35 13 25 3 3 4 28 33 1.. - 11 12 14 23 8 9 9 9 10 11 11 12 14 15 23 NE. NE. SW. SW. SW. SW. NE. SE. NW. NE. NW. NE. SE. NE. SW. SE. NE. NW. SE. SE. SE. SE. SW. SE. SE. NW. NE. Feet. Van Buren...... Bandy............125 Canton......... M. Carleton....... 140 Springwells..... A. Lapham....... 129 Taylor.......... J. Shetrum....... 86 Springwells..... J. C. McDonald... 250 Ecorse........ Beaubien......... 64.....do......... Unger.................... Monguagon.... Duman........... 30.... do.......... E. Lathrop:...... 12 Brownstown.... Clark.............. 68....do.......... G. McDonald..... 76.... do.......... J. G. Carson...... 65..... do.......... J. Crooks...............do.......... Brown.............30 Dearborn....... W. Robertson... 357 Ecorse.......... Detroit Salt Co.. 1,096...do.......... Brownlee & Co.. 1,200 Brownstown.... Richardson....... 31.....do.......... B. Hall, sr............ ".. do.......... E. T. Wood...... 22.... do.......... Doctor Reed..... 17.... do.......... Metzger........... 32.... do.......... Quillin............ 28.....do.......... Navarre estate.... 60.... do.......... J. Stryker........ 20-25..... do.......... J. Woodruff...... 30..... do.......... T. Campau....... 32..... do........... J. Ferguson... Inc...... do.......... M. Newell........ 32 Grosse Isle..... J. Swan........... 2,375 Coldwater...... Soft............ Antrim......... Salt and iron... Traverse...... Hard..... Corniferous b... Sulphury............do.......... Hard...............do...............do..............do...............do..............do...............do..............do.......... Sulphury............do.......... Hard........... do..............do....... - do...............do.........do -..do.................do..............do...............do...... Monroe..............do...........do.......... Sulphur.............do...............do..............do.......... H ard.............. do...............do.......... do...............do.......... do...............do............. do...............do.............. do.......... Iron................ do.......... Sulphur..........do.......... Sulphury...........do.......... Hard................do...............do...............do...............do...............do.......... Sulphur....... Trenton........ See analysis..... Approximate elevation. Feet 705 682 588 603 605 587 598 580 578 597 602 603 593 594 611 582 578 582 587 587 588 588 581 581 582 578 578 585 577 575 Diameter of Tern- Depth dis- pera- to charge ture. rock. pipe. Inch. Â~F Feet. 51-....81 (a)........ 70 S 52 100 S -83 3 53 125 1 51 64 1 51........ 52.2 41 50....10 51...... 5 152 76 s 51......... 1 51.----- 51 28 52 100 -- - - 95 - - - - 82 1( 51 28 S 51........ 55 22 1 50.---- 1 50 121 4 51 26... - - 25 51......... 52 14 (c) 51 18 20........ 52 17 1 Remarks. Village of Denton. Gas; not usable. Strong in sulphur. Now rises 4 feet. Rank in iron and sulphur. Strongly mineralized. Minerals abundant. Strongly mineralized. Mineralized. Strongly mineralized. Reduced by Rockwood deep well. Do. Rank in sulphur. Sulphur water at 223 feet. Strong sulphur vein at 168 feet. Sulphur; only little salt. Iron and sulphur; little salt. Do. Do. Iron and sulphur. In Rockwood. Sand overlies limestone. Has risen 10 feet. Mineralized. But little salt. Heavy sulphur vein at 300 feet. Some iron. Flows 50 gallons a second; head, 22 feet. 0 Hs a Trickle. b Corniferous== Dundee. elfootby6inches. a Trickle. b Corniferous= Dundee. c 1 foot by 6 inches. ï~~Nonflowing wells in bed rock, Wayne County. H a 2 8 1 9 1 9 2 9 2 9 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 12 1 12 1 12 1 12 1 112 1 12 1 12 1 12 1 13 1 13 3 8 3 8 3 8 2 10 1 8 1 10 2 9 2 12 2 12 3 8 2 9 1 12 3 9 0 27 35 24 15 10 22 25 23 13 1 11 13 8 15 9 16 12 15 15 23 11 21 24 26 5 28 17 26 5 12 Quar- Township. Owner. ter. NE. Canton........... B. Barker.......... NW. I Livonia---------........... C. Kinney... _ SW.....do........... F. Schroeder........ SW. INankin..... C. Schultz.......... NE.....do............ W. Dickinson....... SE. Redford.......... J. F. Chavey........ NW.....do............ A. David.......... NE.....do............ J. F. Stahelin....... NW....do............ G. Miller............ SW. Greenfield........ C. and E. Roberts.. SW... do............ Log Cabin dairy.... SW...do............ Stevens estate..... NE. Ilamtramck...... W. S. Thomas..... NE.....-----do............ Store................ SW......do............ E.A. Norris....... NW d......do-........... II. Arbeter.......... SW.....do............ G. Brinckman...... SE. Grossepoint...... J. Brinckman....... SE. Hamtramck...... Pelky................. NW. Grossepoint...... J. S. Sulhlivan.................do........... A. K. Kiefer.................... do............ Claire View farm.... NW. iVan Buren-....... Win. Stirlinmg........ SE....do............ S. Campbell......... SW.I.....do............ Samnitary works..... - Dearborn........ Arna mills.......... SW. Plymouth........ Plymouth well-..... NW. Redford....--. Rodgers........... SW. Nankin-......... Wayne.................... City------------.............. Detroit............ -..do............ Sanitarium........ NE. Van Buren....... D. L. Quirk-...._ SW. Nankin---------........... County house..... NW. Hamtramck...... C. Krause........... NW. Romulus......... E. Twark........... Depth. Geologic horizon. Character of w" ater. Approxi- Depth mate Head. to eleva- rock. tion. Remarks. Feet. 132 St. Clair-........ Very salty....-... 801 -.do............ Fresh............. 1601. do............ Medium............ 97.....do............ Rather soft... 110.do.................... 82. do.......... Hard.... 116. do....-- -. Salt and sulphur.. 93 -...do............ Hard............. 107 I..do............ Medium.......... 127 i....do............ Very soft........ 126...- do............ Saltandmagnesia 156.....do...---------- Hard............. 163.....do...-----------.--do.. 137..-do--- --I.... ----------- 170.....do---------i............ Salt.............. 162.- do........I Salty........ 147.....do....--------. Soft......... 143.....-do..........Sulphury......... 141.....do............ Soft............. 260.....do.-.-......... No water..... 133.....do...........Hard............. 162.....do.......----------.. Salty............. 160 Traverse..--........ Soft, milky....... 183--.....do----------........... Magnesia......... 250.....do........... Salty............. 140......do........... Sulphury...... 280 --..... do............ Salt.............. 3361 Corniferous.............................. 305 -..do............ Sulphury......... 268.do------- -No water... 307...do............ Sulphury......... 383 Monroe............................... 850.....do......... Salt............... 996.....do....................... 1,820 Niagara..-I.. Salt............... Feet. 677 636 635 652 639 628 630 633! 647 632 643 640 628 623 627 627 615 615 615 600 586 587 680 678 660 620 730 640 638 600 595 703 625 635 632 Feet. -12 -8 -25 - 2 - 4 -17 -10 - 6 -30 -14 - 26 -12 -19 -20 -25 - 8 -12 - 8. -8 -12 -17 --18 I-30 - 2 -1 3 -60 -18 Feet. 100 "Water will support an egg." 70 Considerable gas. 65 Water abundant. 77 Some gas at first. 50 Some little gas. 73 Flowed at first; some as. 72 Heavy gas flow at 114 feet. 80 Still yields gas. 80 Considerable gas. 124 Iron and gas; good supply. 90(?) Five wells about the same......... Heavy flow of gas at first. 146(?) Salty; gas at 100 feet and 158 feet. 130 Used in greenhouse; little gas. 160+ Some gas. 140 Little gas. 130 "Good as cistern water." 138 Neither salt nor gas. 140 "Regular river of water." 160 Some oil and gas. 110 On lake shore; some salt. 112 Abundant; near lake shore......... Sulphur and iron; stock only. 99 Belleville; good flow at 96 feet. 175 Well abandoned. 140 Not usable in dyeing. 100 One vein rose 2 feet above surface. 90 Flows at 94, 150 and 200 feet. 157(?) Water at 220 feet; some gas. 127 Old test well in 1829. 120 Strong mineral water. 100 Water only at bottom. 130 Fresh water over rock. 180 Gas reached at 100 feet. 95 Fresh vein at 125 feet; sulphur at 220 feet. 12 ï~~78 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF LENAWEE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. This county is the second west of Lake Erie on the southern border of the State. Its southeastern part is a plain once occupied by Glacial-lake waters, while its northwestern part is traversed by a series of moraines trending northeast and southwest. Most of the county is tributary to Raisin River, which crosses the northwest corner and also the eastern part. The southwestern part of the county is tributary to Tiffin River, also called Bean Creek. The four northwestern townships have an average altitude of about 1,000 feet, with points that exceed 1,100 feet. South and east of these townships there is a gradual descent through the morainic tracts to about 800 feet at the edge of the old lake plain, which, in turn, drops to less than 700 feet at the edge of the county. It is a topography well calculated to give artesian conditions. The drift beds dip eastward with the slope of the surface, and water which is absorbed in the elevated northwestern section is under strong hydrostatic pressure as it passes into the low southeastern part. The flowing wells are found on the lake plain and also in sags and narrow plains between morainic ridges. In places on the lake plain, either through the absence of a water bed or through the fineness of its material no flows are obtained, thus breaking up the flowing-well territory and forming several somewhat independent areas. Further exploration, however, may so extend these areas as to run them together, leaving only comparatively small island-like tracts where the beds do not contain a good supply of water. Wells have been sunk to rock at Cement City, in the northwest corner of the county, where a good supply of water is found in sandstone at depths of 65 to 70 feet. There are also numerous wells in the eastern end of the county that have reached rock, which is found at depths of 80 to 150 feet. In the district south of Blissfield the wells are often carried through shale to limestone at about 200 feet, but from Blissfield north the wells generally obtain a supply near the top of the rock if none has been found in the drift. Wells in the vicinity of Clinton, Tecumseh, and Adrian that have been drilled to rock find a salt water, unsuitable for drinking. In much of the central and western parts of the county there are no borings deep enough to strike rock. The writer's studies of water supplies were made chiefly in 1899 in connection with the mapping of moraines, shore lines, and other features of surface geology, and only brief notes were taken as to ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 79 the extent of flowing-well districts, depth and strength of flowing wells, and such other data as chanced to be readily available. This resulted in a general acquaintance with each of the tracts in which flowing wells are obtained, but hardly formed sufficient basis for a report. Mr. Jon A. Udden made a special investigation of each flowing-well district in 1904, and prepared the tabulated data given below. The public supply of Hudson was also examined by Mr. Udden, but those of Adrian and Tecumseh were examined by the writer. WATERWORKS. ADRIAN. The Adrian water supply is in the hands of a private company. At one time wells were in use, but the entire supply is now pumped from South Fork of Raisin River, which flows through the city. In the dry seasons the stream carries about 6,000,000 gallons a day, and the waterworks at times use one-third of the flow. Some dissatisfaction is manifested by the residents, because of the quality and of the limited quantity of the low water of the stream. The supply from wells also proved inadequate and tests made by the water company have not yet resulted in the discovery of an adequate supply from wells. One well sunk to a depth of 1,980 feet gets a salt water, with some gas at about 500 feet. The following analysis was made by Dr. A. B. Prescott, at the University of Michigan: Analysis of water at 500 feet in deep well at Adrian waterworks.a Parts per IParts per million, million. Magnesium (Mg)--........... -.. 67.29 Potassium salts----................ Trace. Calcium (Ca)-..... -........... 249.51 Phosphates.................... Trace. Chlorine (Cl).......-------------------......... 7,095.02 Sulphates..-----------------................. -Trace. Bicarbonate radicle (ICO..... 483.98 Silica_...._................ 10. 14 Aluminum _................. 7.19 Lithium--_--------- Trace. Total solids............. 7,923.13 Lithium-------------------------Trace. H2S gas, 160 c. c. per liter. Reaction alkaline. Specific gravity 1.0093. The drift, which is mainly sand, is 180 feet thick and contains fresh water. Another well was dug, 24 feet square and 9 feet deep, and then bored with a 12-inch auger to 78 feet. This well barely flows, though at a level only 3 or 4 feet above the stream and nearly 10 feet below the waterworks station. When first made it yielded by pumping 750,000 gallons a day, but got so clogged with sand as to greatly diminish the yield, and is now abandoned. The temperature of the water as it flows from the pipe is 51.75Â~ F. The water from this well is hard and chalybeate. a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to parts per million and ionic form at United States Geological Survey. ï~~80 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. STATE INDUSTRIAL HOME FOR GIRLS. The -State Industrial Home for Girls, located in the north part of Adrian, has an independent supply for drinking, cooking, and bathing, obtained from three wells on the grounds. The Adrian Water Company furnishes the supply for closets, lawn sprinkling, and fire protection. About 350 inmates and 50 officers and other employees are supplied from the wells. a HUDSON. The village of Hudson has municipal waterworks, built in 1890, and supplied from a group of tubular 6-inch wells 70 to 80 feet deep, in Bean Creek valley. The water rises in these to within 20 feet of the surface. The supply is 500,000 gallons a day and is highly esteemed by the residents. The pumps have a capacity of 2,000,000 gallons, but the consumption is less than one-half million a day. The ordinary pressure is 45 to 50 pounds and the fire pressure 80 to 90 pounds. TECUMSEH. Tecumseh, which is located on a gravel plain traversed by Raisin River, obtains its supply from a large excavated well about 35 feet deep, sunk into the gravel. The water is pumped to a standpipe 120 feet high. The village first constructed waterworks in 1877 and rebuilt in 1892. The well from which water is drawn is in the thickly inhabited southern part of the village, near the bluff of the river. It seems to be favorably situated to receive contamination from the cesspools around it, and should be abandoned as soon as a supply can be secured from a better source. The prospect for obtaining an adequate and safe supply just above the village seems good, for the gravel there is saturated with water as fully as inside the village limits. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. So far as known, no other towns of the county have yet developed public supplies. The village of Morenci is, however, contemplating a supply from flowing wells. Weston has fire protection for business houses in a tank which is kept in order by the business men. This is filled by a windmill from a public well and connected with a hydrant and hose attachment. Clinton also has fire protection in the business portion of the village, there being a distribution system paid for by abutting property owners, into which water is pumped by the Woolen Mill Company free of charge, Raisin River being the source of supply. a Data supplied by Mrs. Mary Sickels, superintendent of the home. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 81 At Clayton the common depth of wells is 30 feet, but the wells range from 20 to 70 feet. The water is from gravel veins in till. At Cement City, or Woodstock, wells are generally drilled 65 to 70 feet and obtain water in sandstone. In places the drift is only 10 feet thick. At Addison wells are commonly dug about 30 feet and obtain an ample supply of water in gravel or sand under till. At Onsted the dug wells are 20 to 25 feet deep, and the tubular 80 to 160 feet. Water is abundant, especially in the tubular wells. At Clinton wells are about 30 feet deep, some being dug and others driven. The water is found at about the level of Raisin River. The wells are through gravel and sand from top to bottom in the western part of the village, being in a line of glacial drainage. The eastern part of the village is on the slope of a moraine, and wells there are through till and in some cases have been driven to considerable depths. At Britton wells are usually 20 to 30 feet deep, and in some cases 50 feet or more. A few on the lowest ground flow, and in the rest water rises nearly to the surface. At Ridgeway the wells are usually shallow, water being obtained at the base of the beach gravel at about 15 to 20 feet. A few tubular wells have been driven to considerable depth to test for flowing wells. The fine sand encountered is difficult to screen, and thus far wells have not yielded a flow. Flowing wells are obtained, however, within a short distance from the village along the same lake beach as that at the village. At Holloway and Raisin Center essentially the same conditions prevail as at Ridgeway. The water level in the tubular wells seems to be slightly lower than the beach on which the villages stand, so that flows are not obtained. At Blissfield wells are often drilled to the bottom of the drift, 100 feet or so, there being a compact clay from top to bottom. The water found at the base of the drift and that in the upper part of the rock has enough salt to be noticeable in the tests, but not enough to make the water objectionable for drinking. The head in these deep wells is nearly level with the surface, and one well (that of W. E. Gelson) flows with a head of 2 feet above the surface. It is 80 feet in depth and is situated on the north side of Raisin River, at an altitude of 683 feet above tide. At Deerfield wells are about 40 feet deep, or to the level of Raisin River. A few wells in the vicinity of the village have been driven to the base of the drift, about 85 feet, and have a head near the surface. At Fairfield and Jasper wells are usually obtained at 20 to 30 feet and the head is only a few feet below the surface. The gravel-beach ridges in places yield water at the base, but usually wells are drilled a short distance into the till. According to information obtained by ï~~82 "WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Mr. Udden, a well which was put down at Jasper by Ed. Service to a depth of 158 feet passed through clay 108 feet, dry gravel 14 feet, brown clay with small shells 23 feet, gravel 3 feet. The water in it rises to within 6 feet of the surface and is salty. At Weston the wells are about 20 feet deep and obtain water in gravel under clay. Other villages in the southern part of the county depend largely upon shallow dug wells, except Morenci, which, as indicated below, has a large number of tubular flowing wells. The entire district seems to have large quantities of water at only 50 to 100 feet depth, or within easy reach of tubular wells, and these should be substituted for dug wells. FLOWING WELLS. YORK DISTRICT. The York flowing-well district comprises about 14 square miles in northeastern Lenawee, northwestern Monroe, and southern Washtenaw counties (see fig. 4, p. -), and includes the village of York, in Washtenaw County, whence its name is derived. The wells within the village appear in fig. 5. The extent and general conditions were examined by the writer in 1903, but a more detailed study w a s o NORTH S T. made in1904 by Mr. 4 -- --Udden, who tabulated the data presented 7 -8 below. Samples of water near Milan were MAIN ST. Sexamined by Mr. Lewis 2 ssufficiently to determine that what is er termed soft water is only relatively so, most I of the water being very hard; it is in this sense -' -0 scale in feet o that the terms should -0 400 800 -- be understood. FIG. 5.-Plat of York village, showing distribution of flowing This d i s t r i c t lies wells. along the Belmore beach, which has a uniform altitude of about 738 feet along its crest. Taking this as a datum, Mr. Udden worked out with some precision the height to which water rises, though he did not thoroughly bring out the fact that in not a few wells it will rise several feet higher than its present point of escape. It will rise to 720 to 725 feet on the southeastern edge of the district and to 755 to 760 feet on the northwestern-a difference of 30 feet or more in the 3 miles ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 83 across the district, a loss of head of at least 10 feet a mile in a southeastward direction, corresponding closely with the most rapid slope of the surface. In this connection it is of interest to note that the McIntyre well, in Macon Township, Lenawee County, which is the oldest well in the field (made in 1834), is still flowing at an altitude of 758 feet, or about as high as any well in the district. This seems to indicate that there has been little if any lowering of head through the development of the field. There have been only a few instances of the cessation of a flow, and in nearly all, if not in all, of these cases the cessation seems due to clogging. The catchment area is probably found in the morainic tract to the northwest, with perhaps some additions from the lake plain between the moraine and the wells. As a rule the lake plain is underlain by a clay so compact that it will absorb but little water, but the moraine has a looser-textured drift that should absorb a large amount. The wells usually pass through considerable blue clay before reaching the water bed that yields a flow. The water beds appear to be better developed near the bottom of the drift, yet some very strong wells have been obtained in its upper part. The water seems to rise about the same in wells that are near together whether the water is in the upper or the lower part of the drift or in the rock, there being much less difference on account of stratigraphic position than on account of geographic position. This fact seems to indicate that the underground waters at the various levels have connection with or source in the same catchment area. Possibly beds at various levels have connecting porous beds, for in the drift deposits the porous or water-bearing beds have very irregular distribution. A few wells have been carried a short distance into rock, but the quality of water and the head are so similar in such wells to those in neighboring wells supplied from the drift that the water seems likely to be contributed by the drift deposits. The rock surface is somewhat uneven, being in places within this district as low as 550 feet and in other places over 600 feet above tide. The wells obtaining a supply from the rock usually reach it where its altitude is highest, for the depressions in the rock surface seem generally to have been filled with sand or gravel. The temperature of wells that have a rapid flow and but little exposure of pipe is 51.5Â~ to 520 F., and those with higher temperatures seem to have acquired them through surface conditions, for the temperatures were taken in hot weather. In cold weather the exposed pipes in weak wells are liable to be cooled sufficiently to give the water a temperature below that reached by stronger flows or those with little exposure of pipe. In but few cases has the addition of new wells caused a decrease in flow of those in operation. By distributing wells properly a much ï~~84 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. larger number could be made without taxing the limits of the field. It so happens that in York village and in some cases on the farms new wells are needed within short distances of those in operation. It will be advisable in such places to reduce each well to a discharge that simply meets the needs of the owner. To restrict strong flows, even if remote from other wells, should be the practice, for the distance to which a flow will draw down a supply may be great under certain conditions, and the owner himself will have less waste water for which to provide drains. There is a small group of flowing wells in sec. 17, York Township, in the valley of an eastern tributary of Saline River, which are somewhyt distinct from the main district. However, it is probable that flows could be obtained between these wells and the main district by following the valley through secs. 18 and 19, though the uplands bordering the valley in these sections are too high to furnish flows. These wells are included in the tabulated data given below. Wells in York flowing-well district in Lenawee, Monroe, and Washtenaw counties. MACON TOWNSHIP, LENAWEE COUNTY. 0 0 1 1 1 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 112 11 11 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 123 12 12 12 12 12 13 Part of section. NE.... E. side.. Center.. Center.. Center.. NW... NW... NW... SW. i... SW. j... SW.... S. side.. NE. i... E. side.. SE. 4... SE.... S. side.. S. side.. NW. 4 SE.. SW... SE.. SE.. SE. 4. SE.. SW... NW.. NW.. W. side W. sideW. side S. side. NE... NW.. Owner. Alfred Lewisa........ Milton Phillips............do............ A. Hall..................do-......................................... David Young.............do............... W. L. Eastlake....... James Harmon............do................ Geo. Fulkerson...... Geo. Martin.................................. M. M. Dillon...............do------------................ D. Laveny?................do................ C. E. Collins.......... John Smith........... C. McIntyreb......... J. Hendershott....... Mrs. David Boyd..... A. Boyd............. G. Hausman.......... John Smith........... Anson Harmon c...... F. Whiting........ S. E. Henryd..-... School well e.......... Sam. Gibsonf......... Sam. Boyd........... Alfred Lewis.......... A. Hoagland g.........: ) In. Ft. 1-4.2 100..2 40 1874 3 40 1880 1 50 1903 2 135 1892... 33...... 2... t 1901 2 50 1869 2.5 48 1886 2 48 1874 2 48 1886 1.5 112.... 2... S...2...... _ 1.5 60 ------ 1.5 45 ------ 2 50 ------ 2 45.... 2.............156 1834 1.. 1864 1 36. 2.--. 2 112...2 122 1887.... 40?1894 2 127 1893 2 125 1898 2 108 1894 2 102 19002 36 1903 2 122 oi ri a) Ft. Feet. Gals. 737 737.5 725 727+ 1 725 727....... 725 727+ 1 730 733 1 740 742.75 740 742.5 740 742....... 736 739 5 736 740.5 736 740 1 735 737+ 1.5 740 743.5 738 741.5 740 742 1.5 735 737Â~ 1 740 742 1.5 740 742 1 750 752 3 740 742....... 756 758.75 755 757.75 736 741 1.5 730 733+ 1.5 737 ',0 5 737 '40 ----- 730 X31Â~....-.729 731+ 1 735 737+.37 730 733+ 9 718 721+ 1.5 718 721....... 722 725 1 720 723...-- -+ 1 q i- it a N oF. 52.5........ 53.5 51.9 53 53.5 52 52 52.5 53 53 51.5 52 52 52 53 53 52 52 52.5 53 52 54 51.6 52 53 52.5 52 53 52 a o Feet. Soft.. 99 $76.00 Hard..........-...do.......... Soft.....do. ".....109.00 Hardt.....-..... Soft.............do........... o.......-...... Hard --3...... 00.do.............do............do.....-........do...........do. 12._.....do...........00...do.. 1.-- -....do -...d o -- - -- -...do...... Soft.....-. -.do -......--.-. d.do......-..... Hardi....... Soft...........do...... 0......do.. 125.........do.............do.........do..... 30.00 Hard.122..... a The Lewis well penetrated sand 12 feet, blue clay 55 feet, gravel 30 feet, and entered limestone 1 foot. b The McIntyre well is probably the oldest flowing well in southeastern Michigan. e The Harmon wells are five in number, all shallow, but varying in rate from 1 quart to 2 gallons a minute. One had an original water elevation of 745 feet. d The Henry well had an original water elevation of 741 feet; it entered limestone about 1 foot. e The schoolhouse well had an original water elevation of 741 feet; it entered limestone 1 foot. f The Gibson well had an original water elevation of 740 feet; it penetrated clay 30 feet, gravel 28 feet, and quicksand 50 feet. g The Hoagland well struck limestone at bottom; it penetrated blue clay 120 feet and gravel 2 feet. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 85 Wells in York flowing-well district in Lenawee, Monroe, and Washtenaw counties--Continued. MACON TOWNSHIP, LENAWEE COUNTY-Continued..4 Partof Â~wnrlam ' - _____o ' _ section. O r,.m0 In. Ft. Ft. Feet. Gals. - F Feet. 13 E. side.. George East.......... 1893 2 108 718 721+ Weak. 53....... -.. 14 NW. _.. J. Harrington............... 2..... 735 737 1 53 -.-... 14 N. side.. Louis Feldman a...... 1899 2 125 728 731 1.5 53 Soft.. 122 $60.00 14 N. side.. Warren Miller......... 1895 2 122 728 731.75 53 Hard... 14 NE.I...Tom Boydb...........19002 1177281730.75.......Soft........ 55.00 MILAN TOWNSHIP, NORTHWESTERN MONROE COUNTY. 6 NW..1School well.........2 737 738! Weak. 55................. 6 W.side W. Young...........1902 2 63 725729.75 52 Soft........ $40.00 6 W. side.. do..o.................. 2 60 725 728 5 52................. 6 S. side.. F. Holcomb (2 wells)....... 2..... 719 725....................... 6 E. side.. W.C. Sanford c.......... 2 165 718 725j 3 52 Hard.... _..... 6 Center.. IJ. H. Vesceliusd............ 2 127 730 730 Weak.............do........-_.. 6 NE. j... W. Gauntlett.............. 2.... 725 728......................... 7 NW... R. J. Gregg.........1901 2. 45 722 726 4 52 Soft........... 7 W. side. Henry Dibble................90 720 721+.621 52...do.......... 7 SW. 4... John Mooney......... 1884 2 111 718 721+.25' 52..do....... 90.00 7 NE.... John Burnett............. 2..... 718 721+...._......................... 7 NE.... Glen Hubbard..........2... 718 721+....-......................... 7 NE.... James Kinch............... 2..... 718 721+............................. SALINE TOWNSHIP, WASHTENAW COUNTY. 36 NE. i... F. Dieterle.......... 18962 94 734 741 1 52.3 Soft........... 36 NE. 4.. M. Eberling............. 2.__740 743 15 52...do........... 36 SE.... A.M. McKenny e. 1884i2 96 735 738+ Weak. 51...do......... 36 S. side. C. Bacon...................2. 738 740 Weak. 53...do........ 36 S. side. J.L. Harris i....... 1903 2 138 740 760 20 52...do.......... 36 SW.... Elias Oldsg............... 2 126 740 746.5 54.8...do.......... YORK TOWNSHIP, WASHTENAW COUNTY. 17 Center.. A. Actonh.......... 1890 2 52 750 755 2 52 Soft.......$5000 17 W. side. A. J. Lawrence......._......... 753 755 1 52.-do-..... 17 W. side. W. McKendryi....... 1896 2 1i06 750 752 Weak..........do_ _...._ 50.00 20 S. side.. J. M. C.arki......... 1890.2 140 740 743.5 55...do-....I.60.00 21 W. side. E. L. Dennis.......... '1903 2 123; 740 744 1.5 54.5...do...... 21 Center.. Frank Gooding.....__..... 2 123 735 739+ 50+= 51.5........... 21 SE... LeeDrae r........_......2 _- 735 739 1 56 -_.'-.I-- 21 S. side.. John Kellog k.... 1892 2 170 735 737 Weak. 54 Soft... 168 170.00 22 SW.... Ed. Alchinl......... 1894 2 129 735 739 I.75 52...do.. 129. 22 SW... J.N. Lawrence m..._....... 2 118 734 738 3.5 52 22 Center..t F. S. Olds........ 1...894 2 153 735 740 1.5 52 Soft'... _.60.00 a The Feldman well had an original water elevation of 743 feet; it carries a little oil from the limestone; it penetrated blue clay 25 feet, sand and gravel 92 feet, hardpan 1 foot, sand 4 feet, and limestone 3 feet. b The Tom Boyd well penetrated blue clay 15 feet, and was then in sand to bottom. The water is in the lower part of the sand. c The Sanford well, on farm owned by John Campbell, enters rock 55 feet and is cased to the rock. d The Vescelius well is thought to have struck rock at bottom. e The McKenny well penetrated clay loam 21 feet, sand 4 feet, blue clay 86 feet, sand and gravel 4 feet. f The Harris well struck a weak water vein at 118 feet with head of 1 foot, and a strong flow at 138 feet in gravel with a head of 20 feet. g The Olds well penetrated clay 106 feet and sand 20 feet. h Sand 15 feet, blue clay 35 feet, gravel 2 feet, water has slight sulphur taste. i Dug well overflowed and was filled, and the 2-inch well sunk near it. 1 Sand 20 feet, blue clay 129 feet, hardpan crust with sand and gravel beneath, yielding water. k Flow 1 gallon a minute; gravel 4 feet, blue clay 129 feet, quicksand 35 feet, shale rock 2 feet. t The wells of Alchin and Lawrence interfere with each other. The Alchin well penetrated sand 20 feet, clay 109 feet, and apparently struck rock at bottom.. m Quicksand 90 feet, blue clay 26 feet, hardpan and gravel 2 feet. At 90 feet a small flow of gas was struck. n Beach gravel 12 feet, blue clay 136 feet, quicksand 5 feet. Temperature 51Â~ when made; considerable iron. IRR 182---06-----7 ï~~86 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in York flowing-well district in Lenawee, Monroe, and Washtenaw counties--Continued. YORK TOWNSHIP, WASHTENAW COUNTY-Continued.. Part of Owner. section. Â~ In. 22 SE. 4-.- C. Harrington a-------------.2 23 NW... B. F. Davis........... 1894 2 28 NE. i... A. McIntyre.......... 1892 2 28 NE. 4... D. C. Newcomb............ 2 28 NE. 4... A. Woodmanseb -...... 1894 2 28 NW. 4.- F. H. Moore...... ---------- 1888 2 28 W. side. M. E. McMullin c..... 1886 2 28 Center.. Mr. Brownelld....... 1894 2 28 N. side.. E. Davenport.........1891 2 28 SW. 4... R. O. Bradleye-... 1876 2 28 SW.;... O.W.Sangreef------...... 2 28 SW. f.. G. Kraut -............ 1890 2 28 SW. 4.. E.A. Pullem..............------------. 2 York....... O.W. Sangreeh.......-.... 2 Do......I W. H. Culver......... 1882 2 Do........do...................2 Do...... I. N. Clark s..............2 Do...... Frank Haines............... 2 Do......O.E.Fulkerson...-.......2 Do...... D.E. Davenport........... i2 Do...... M r. Sill..................... 2 Do...... J. L. Hobbs.............. 2 Do......Daniel Rankin........1882 1.5 29 NE. 4... Mr. Clarke............ 1888 2 29 NE.... A. E. Montagne..... 1898 2 30 NE. 4... T. Josenhaus......... 1894 12 30 NE. _.....dok................. 1894 2 30 SW.. John Moody.......... 1894.... 30 SW. 4. Charles Ellis.................. 30 SW.._ E. Warner............ 1903 31 Center.. W. G. Roberts............... 1.5 33 NW. 4.. R.G. Bird.................2 2 5, W " 2 H n Â~!E Ft. Ft. Feet. Gals.. Â~ F. Feet. 115 718 722.4 56 Soft.......... 144 737 739.16 54 - - - 124 730 734 3.5 52................$48.50 117 727 730+ 1 52........5....... 120 730 733+ 1 52 Softo........ 50.00 151 715 719+.37 53.5...do-- 151 100.00 124 735 738 1.5 52............-. 148 730 732.25 54 Soft. 146 140.00 112 715 718+ 1 52.5........ 118 735 737 Weak......... Soft............ 118 735 737 Weak............do........... 104 695 697+.5 53...do.. 102 140.00 104 695 696.25 53...do.. 102 140.00 122 735 737 1 52.5........ 122 60.00 115 736 737 Weak. 54 Soft.. 115 20.00 125 735 737.37 53...do..1 125 50.00 124 735 739.37 53...do...... 45.00 118 735 737.5 52.5...do.........._... 120 733 739........ 53...do............. 148 735 737.5 53..do......... 736 738.25 53...do............... 700 702+.5 53...do........... 120 735 737 Weak............do........... 130 715 717+ Weak. 53...do... 50.00 125 735 737.5 53...do.. 123 50.00 127 735 737.75 52...do........ 50.00 178 740 738 1 52!-.......... 100.00 142 745 748.5 54 Hard. 142...... 130 735 740 --- --..... 96 20 722+.75 52................... 695 698+.5 56........ I......... a Flow greater in wet seasons. The temperature is high on account of great exposure and small flow. b Flowed 3 gallons a minute when made. c Large amount of inflammable gas, probably from the underlying Devonian shales. It penetrated sand 3 feet, blue clay 121 feet, and struck water and gas in gravel. d Limestone at bottom; flow may be from a thin bed of gravel above the rock. The well penetrated gravel 5 feet, blue clay 120 feet, gravel 2 feet, limestone 2 feet. e When first opened flowed a full 2-inch stream, but is apparently clogged with sand. I Soft enough to be used in boilers at factory. g Blue clay 100 feet, hardpan and black gravel 2 feet, limestone 6 inches. A Sand and gravel 4 feet, blue clay 110 feet, hardpan 1 foot, sand 1 foot, limestone 3 feet. i Well when opened lowered head of other wells near it, and is now closed. i Sand and gravel 20 feet, blue clay 100 feet, hardpan and gravel 2 feet, limestone 3 feet. k Sandy loam 8 feet, blue clay 75 feet, quicksand 85 feet, and gravel 10 feet. A strong flowing well was obtained many years ago in the Saline River Valley, in sec. 1, Saline Township, Washtenaw County, at a depth of 150 feet, when making a test boring for salt, but it is now plugged. This well suggests the possibility of extending the York district up the Saline Valley to Saline. It is probable also that flows could be obtained along the Saline bottoms from York down to Milan, thus connecting the York district with the Milan-Cone district. Another line of connection with that district may be found along the valley of North Macon Creek. Outside of the valleys there seems no chance of obtaining flows in the tract lying between these two flowing-well districts, the water head in wells that have been made being a few feet below the surface.. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 87 HOLLOWAY DISTRICT. This district lies along the southeastern border of the Belmore beach, in the eastern part of Lenawee County. It is about 10 miles in length and from 2 to 4 miles in breadth, thus embracing an area of about 30 square miles lying between Britton and Lenawee Junction, with Holloway near the middle of its western border. The flowing wells occur in Ridgeway, Raisin, Blissfield, and Palmyra townships. Flows have not been obtained everywhere within this area. In. Lenav ee II. 12 7 8 9 "\__ Junc. FIG. 6.-Map of Holloway flowing-well district, Lenawee County. some cases the texture of the water-bearing beds is too fine to permit a copious discharge, while in others the head seems to be a little too low to give a flow. This district is practically a continuation of the York district, which extends from Washtenaw into northeastern Lenawee County, there being only a narrow interval near Ridgeway in which flows have not been obtained, and even there the failure seems to be largely due to the fine texture of the water bed. Further drilling may develop wells with good flow in this intervening territory. ï~~88 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The data on wells in this district were collected chiefly by Jon A. Udden in 1904. The data on wells at Britton, however, had been previously collected by the present writer. No estimates of rate of flow nor observations of temperatures were made at Britton. The temperatures reported in the table are, in many cases, higher than the normal temperature of water from wells of these depths in this latitude, but are probably due to exposure of the pipes through the summer heat. The normal temperature is about 52Â~ F. The altitudes are estimates made from comparison with altitudes of the old shore lines which traverse this district, except at Britton, where they are determined by comparison with the railway crossing, which is 701 feet, by levels run in making the Ann Arbor topographic sheet. The Britton wells are so much shallower than most of the other wells in this district that they should perhaps be considered a separate supply. In the village the wells are not deep enough to test conditions for a flow from depths corresponding to the average for the district, but on farms in the vicinity wells carried to the rock are found to have heads similar to those obtained at a shallow depth. Below are given two partial analyses for the purpose of comparing the composition of the drift and rock waters at Britton. There has been much typhoid in the town, and the shallow drift waters should be looked upon with suspicion. The analyses were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of rock and drift waters at Britton. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color..............------------------------------------------------------------ 19 32 Iron (Fe).-- --------------------------------------------------------Decided Decided trace. trace. Chlorine (Cl)........................................................... 16.5 14 Carbon dioxide (CO).....------------------------------------------------- 66.83 83.98 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)..................................................20 20 Hardness (as CaCO3).................................................. 118.7 146 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Haight (rock); depth, 142 feet. 2. Vandeveer (drift); depth, 32 feet. The altitude to which water will rise decreases rapidly in passing southeastward across this district, being about 740 feet in the vicinity of the Belmore beach and less than 700 feet 3 miles southeast. The catchment area may be anywhere in the region northwest of these wells where water is readily absorbed. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 89 As suggested above, the area is likely to be extended somewhat by sinking further wells. The present limits are outlined from the few tests indicated in the table below: Wells of Holloway flouwing-well district. 1 J W U A j 5 Owner. "O,2 E S A A In. IFeet. 24 6 4... J. McIntyrea.................... 25 6 4 A James Lane.........1895 2 90 25 6 4 B -- Munch... -.............. 27 6 4 A W. Judsonb........ 1899 2 47 34 6 4 A A. Hoxy.................... 2 34 6 4 B J. W. Ashc.-..-..- 1894 2 191 34 6 4 C John Raineyd...... 1895 2 116 35 6 4 A D.T. Mitchelle..... 1896 2 178 35 6 4 B W. Miller........... 1894.... 110 2 7 4 A W. Damlow................ 2...... 2 4 B H. P. Woodard..-..1895 2 134 6 6 5 A Henry Palmer f...- 1903 2 136 7 6 5 A H. Pocklington.....1896 2...... 7 6 5 B C. Pocklington...... 1899 2 135 18 6 5 A Thos. Florenceg.... 1893 2 140 20 i 6,5 A H. Schwabh............. 108 Britton i..... New schoolhouse... 1903.... 45 Do....... Kishbaugh & Brit- 1903.... 26 ton. Do....... John Winsley.................. 28 Do....... Ann Exelby-----..........- 45 Do-....... Dutch Church par---------............ 45 sonage. Do....... Old schoolhouse.. -.......'.... 45 Do..... Britton Hotel-...- -............ 52 31 6 5 A W. Riddle Ji......... 1898 2 100 316 5 B Mrs. Stahlerk....... 1894 2 105 31 C J. Pangburn 1....... 1899 2 108 6 7 5 A August Minsterm............2 120 O Feet. 738 710 740 720 725 720 712 700 715 715 730 728 726 736 690 697 697 700 697 697 697 699 690 690 690 690 V Feet. 740 713 743 722 727 722 714 703 719 718 733 731 729 740 690 698 698 698 698 698 698 698 691 691 696 692 t Quality. Gals. Â~F. 0.75 54 Hard..75 53 Medium..25 62 Do..25 53 Weak. 65 D)o.. 75 54 Medium; salt..... Do..25 55 Do..25 62 Medium..75 56 Do. 20 53 Hard. Weak...... Soft..5 54 Do..75 54 Hard................................................ Weak..... Soft..75 54 Do. Weak. 56 Do. 1.5 55 Soft; salt. a No data. b The Black seam called coal is struck at 32 feet, but glacial deposits underlie it; high temperature due to exposure of pipe. cWater comes from a seam in blue clay at 97 feet: rock at 125 feet; stream too weak to give correct temperature at bottom. d Water sulphurous; from limestone at 113 feet. e Flow interrupted apparently by gas which comes up with the water. Well penetrated blue clay with occasional streaks of sand, and did not reach rock. I When opened had a head of 740 feet; water strong in iron. g Original head 744 feet and flow much stronger than now; shale at bottom. h Rock at bottom. i Several wells in Britton are bored and walled with large tile. Water is dipped from top of tile, which min some cases is carried high enough to prevent overflow. Does not flow above surface at present, but runs into a reservoir at a lower level. Clay, 60 feet; large sandstone (?) bowlder, 6 feet; quicksand, 40 feet; limestone at bottom. k Limestone at bottom; gas; water has a salty taste. 1 When first opened water was very hard. It rose 6 feet above surface; well now clogged with sand. Gravel, 3feet; blue clay, 35 feet; gravel, 12 feet; quicksand, 2 feet; hardpan, 8 inches; gravel at bottom. m Water lowered when Pangburn well was opened. Water has a sulphurous taste and deposits a white sediment in pipe; it is slightly salty, but not hard. OGDEN TOWNSHIP (T. 8 S., R. 4 E.). In Ogden Township, which is in the southern tier, flowing wells have been obtained in a small district extending northward from Ogden Center. About 20 wells overflowed when first made, but in 1904, when Mr. Udden canvassed the district, only seven were in use, the others having been filled with material from above. The wells are usually bored with a large auger and cased with tile, and ï~~90 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. if properly cared for would in all probability have continued to flow. The first well to obtain a flow was that of F. Pence, made about twenty-five years ago, but this has now become choked. The flows now in operation are in secs. 9, 10, 16, and 17. A. S. Burdsley has a flowing well at Ogden Center which discharges 1 gallon a minute and has a temperature of 530 F. The water is slightly saline and sulphurous. It was used for a time in a boiler at the mill, but is not used at present. It had a head of 5 feet when made. R.4 E. (OD FIG. 7.-Flowing wells in Ogden Township, Lenawee County. The well of Henry Case, in the west part of sec. 10, is 96 feet deep and was made in 1884. A 12-inch tile extends to 45 feet and a 7-inch thence to the bottom. The well now flows about 15 gallons a minute, or a quart every second. It flowed 12 quarts in ten seconds when made. The water is sulphurous and chalybeate, and has a temperature of 52.5Â~ F. The well penetrated 10 feet of sand and 83 feet of blue clay to the water-bearing sand at the bottom. At the southwest corner of sec. 10, on the Brockway farm, is a very weak flow. ï~~LENA WEE COUNTY. 91 In the eastern part of sec. 9, on the Stauf farm, is a flow amounting to 1 gallon a minute. The well is 100 feet deep and was made in 1892. It has a 6-inch tile to about 45 feet and thence a 3-inch wooden penstock to bottom. On the western side of sec. 9, N. Henderson has a flowing well 80 feet deep, with slightly saline taste and medium hardness; temperature, 53Â~ F. W. Emmons, in the southwest corner of sec. 10, has a flowing well 85 feet deep, with slightly saline water; temperature, 53Â~ F. It has a 12-inch wooden casing. In the northwestern part of sec. 16 is the well of William Comley, 80 feet in depth, with 12-inch wooden casing for 40 feet and 8-inch casing thence to bottom. It was made in 1882. There is a slight discharge of gas with the water. Several wells of similar depth near these flowing wells have-water 3 to 6 feet below the surface. On the plain between Ogden Center and Jasper water rises nearly to the surface in wells 90 to 200 feet in depth. In nearly all cases the water is slightly saline, and in several a small flow of gas has been noticed. SAND CREEK. At Sand Creek station, just east of the depot, is a well 103 feet deep, which barely flows at the altitude of the station, 779 feet above tide. It is owned by F. M. Smith, and was made in 1889. It discharges about 3 quarts a minute and has a temperature of 530 F. The well now has a half-inch pipe that extends 6 feet into the 11-inch pipe. It is stated that the water will not flow from the larger pipe. There is lower ground in the village of Sand Creek in which flows should be obtained, but as yet there has been no occasion to develop the field, shallow wells which supply the needs of the residents being easily obtained. Some families resort to the flowing well for drinking water. It is probable that the catchment area is in the higher land northwest of the village. MORENCI. The village of Morenci is situated on Tiffin River (also called Bean Creek) near the State line of Michigan and Ohio. Data on the flowing wells of this village were collected and tabulated by Jon A. Udden. It will be observed that wells have been in operation since 1887 which still have a good flow. The wells are all 2-inch, but differ widely in rate of flow, ranging from 32 gallons a minute down to a mere trickle. The strongest flows are in the eastern part of the village. The certainty of obtaining a flow within the limits of this district is such that drillers need take no risk and can afford to make wells at a lower price than where a risk is involved. This explains the low cost of $15 to $20 for certain wells 70 to 80 feet in depth, the ordinary charge per foot, including pipe, in a 2-inch well being ï~~92 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 75 cents. In some cases a driller is paid about $6 a day to make the well, instead of receiving pay by the foot. The 2-inch casing used costs ordinarily 20 cents a foot. The wells have been made by two drillers, F. Paine and B. Thomas. The water has considerable iron, and brown algae are developed in many of the pools or troughs into which it discharges. The water appears to be of medium hardness and is often used without the addition of softening compounds. The wells show only occasional instances of interference, and the field admits of still fuller development and may be extended some distance farther both up and down the valley of Tiffin River. In the central part of the village the altitude is 3 to 4 feet above the head reached by the wells. Flows are obtained on each side on lower ground. I ________________________________ OX X N SCALE OF FEET 0 500 1000 1500" 2000 FIG. 8.-Plat of Morenci, Mich., showing flowing wells. The catchment area is probably in the higher land to the northwest of Morenci. At the time of Mr. Udden's visit to Morenci, in July, 19b4, there was a strong sentiment in favor of putting in waterworks, and it was proposed to drill about five wells to supply the plant. The following partial analyses are results of the examination of two characteristic waters of flowing wells near Morenci. The wells, however, do not appear in Mr. Udden's list, and therefore these analyses can not be compared with the notes collected by him. The data are furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 93 Partial analyses of waters from flowing wells near Morenci. [Parts per million.] _ 1. Color......................................................................... 10 Iron (Fe)...................................................................... 1.5 Chlorine (Cl)................................................................. 11.5 Carbon dioxide (CO))................................................. 115. 2 Sulphur trioxide (SOa)........................................................ 20 Hardness (as CaCO3)........................................................ 139+ 2. 19 2.5 4 121.8.29? 139+ 1. Crabb well; depth, 104 feet. 2. Young well; depth, 75 feet. Wells at Morenci. Letter When on Owner. made. fig. 8. A...... Town of Morenci.... 1889 B.........do.................. 1889 C...........do-................ 1889 D..... A. L. Seberingb.........!1903 E...... R. P. Boodyc.......... 1887 F...... Geo. Webberd........... 1904 G...... S. B. Miller e............. 1895 IH...... J. H. Eldridge f......... 1891 I....... Louis Phillipar.......... 1888 J......... do................... 1889 K...... F. Paineg................ 1887 L.... Mrs. Hassh.............. 1890 M..... J. Bailey.................... 1891 N...... Mr. Carr i............... 1904 O0...... S.T. Snow............. 1889 P...... Ed. Wells........................ Q...... L. Woolcott i................... R...... W. S. Mason................... S...... O.Onweller.................... T...... Mrs. Aberling k.......... 1900 U.... Mr. Morgan............. 1889 V...... F. Kennedy............ 1888 W..... T. Warrens............. 1888 X...... J. Bailey................ 1890 Y...... Mr. De Merrits.......... 1888 A...... Kellogg & Buck......... 1900 B...... Burn Lee m.............. 1902 C...... F. Noeson............. 1891 D...... S. S. Beatty o............ 1894 E...... S.A. Schofieldp......... 1896 F...... W. S. Scottq........... 1892 G...... C.C. Wakefieldr........ 1895 ~Flow Water w erCost. Depth. Eleva- SeS r era- Quality. tion. to a- ute. ture. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. oF. $35 70 755 758 4 53 Medium. 30 75 755 758 4 52.8 Do. 35 75 735 736 1 53 Do. 23 76 755 767 32 52.5 Soft. 30 72 755 76 7 54 Do. 30 74 755 756 Weak....... Do. 15 73 757 760 1 53 Medium. 18 70 757 759 }1 53 Soft. 25 78 757 760 1 53 Medium. 25 78 757 760 1 53 Do. 14 78............... 1 53 Hard. 33 72 760 762.75 53 Medium. 43 90 758 770} 1 53 Soft. 19 70 757 761 8 53 Do..... 78 755 757 1 53 Do............ 755 757 1 53 Do.. i.... 150. 756 758 1 53 Do..._. 78 758 758.75 53 Do.... 758 758k.75 53 Do....... 78 758 7581 1 53 Do. 35 78 758 760 1 5.3 Do. 35 78 755 758 1 53 Do. 35 78 757 760 2 52.5 Do. 35 90 755 758 1 53 Do. 35 90 755 756 1 53 Do. 35 54 755 758 2 53 Do. 35 64 756 758 2 53 Do. 50 108 755 758 10 53 Do. 14 70 756 758 1 53 Do. 18 100 755 757 1 53 Do. 35 125 755 758 1 53 Do. 36 104 755 757 1 3 Do. a Where two altitudes are given, the first refers to the original head. b Gravel 25 feet, blue clay 50 feet, hardpan 4 inches, sand at bottom. Head 12 feet; flow now reduced to 8 gallons a minute. c Sand and gravel 20 feet, blue clay 51 feet, hardpan 1 foot, sand at bottom. Original head 11.8 feet. First fountain in this section. d This is the east limit of flows. e Iron present; algae brown; clogged by sand. f Head 12 feet when opened; now clogged by sand. Sand and gravel 65 feet, blue clay 4 feet, gravel 1 foot. g Sand and gravel 22 feet blue clay 56 feet, hardpan, sand. h Carr's & Sebering's wells have lowered the head of the Hass well about 16 inches. i Sand 9 feet, blue clay 61 feet, hardpan 18 feet, gravel at bottom. i Sand and gravel 5 feet, blue clay 60 feet, hardpan with pebbles 5 feet, fine sand 75 feet. k Sand and gravel 9 feet, clay 60 feet, hardpan 3 feet, gravel at bottom. 1 Sebering's well has lowered head slightly. m Used for boilers and brickmaking. n Used in creamery for boiler, and also in manufacture of butter and condensed cream. o Sand 4 feet, blue clay 65 feet, gravel 1 foot. P Sand and gravel 15 feet, blue clay 85 feet, gravel 1 foot. q Sand 6 feet, blue clay 95 feet, pebbly hardpan 24 feet, gravel. r Sand 12 feet, blue clay 40 feet, dark-brown and very pebbly hardpan 6 feet, dark-blue clay 56 feet. Weak flow at 60 feet; a good flow at 104 feet. ï~~94 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. MEDINA. In the eastern part of the village of Medina, in the valley of Tiffin River, is a single flowing well on the Seeley property. It is 20 feet in depth, and flows one-half gallon a minute, with a temperature of 530 F. The water is of medium hardness. The well has been in operation since 1900. Other flowing wells may be obtained along the creek bottom, but the head seems to be insufficient to secure a flow on the bluff or bordering uplands. ROLLIN TOWNSHIP. East of the village of Rollin, in Rollin Township, Lenawee County (T. 6 S., R. 1 E.), is a small flowing-well district in a sag between morainic ridges. In 1904 there were a few wells located in secs. 22, R. IE. 1Hig h Moraine 24 20 21 22 23 eA. A 30 29Te r 28 27 26 25 *A iO C)) 0 *AB o" 31.AA 33 34 36 3C 35 41 132 S FIG. 9.-Map of southern part of Rollin Township, Lenawee County, showing distribution of flowing wells. 26, 27, or 32. They are so widely scattered that it is uncertain whether they occupy independent pools or form a single pool. The data were collected by Mr. Udden, and if his determinations are correct the wells display a difference of 65 feet in altitude, the shallowest being on the highest ground. The wells are probably supplied from an elevated catchment area to the west and north. How much the area may be extended is difficult to forecast. The wells are strongly chalybeate. In some cases they appear to have a decidedly stronger flow just before a storm. The deeper wells obtain water from gravel under a heavy bed of blue clay. The Foster well, in sec. 27, which is only 27 feet deep, was dug 20 feet and bricked up, and then lowered 7 feet by drilling in the bottom. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 95 Wells at Rollin. Letter See When Di- Eleva- Water Flow Tem-I on Owner. made. ame- Depth tion. rises Cost. per pera- Quality. fig. 9 tion. ter. to- minute. ture. In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. oF. A. 32 IH. J. Snyder...... 1900 2 96 985 986 $100 1 52.8 Medium. A. 27 J. B. Foster.-.. 1880 36 27 1,050 1,052.. 1 54 Hard. B. 27 D. H. Allen................ 1,022 1,023...... 1 54 Do. A. 26 M. Childs........ 1902 2 90 1,020 1,021 80 1._. Do. A. 22 F..Seeley.a............................. a No data. HUDSON TOWNSHIP. There is a single flowing well on the farm of Mr. Buck, 14 miles east of Hudson, in the western part of sec. 16, Hudson Township (T. 7 S., R. 1 E.). It is only 16 feet in depth and has a weak flow from a 14-inch pipe. The water is from sand under clay. This well is on the western slope of a moraine that furnishes the probable catchment area, and it is possible that other flows may be obtained near by, especially if made in depressions. TIPTON DISTRICT. This district leads both northeast and southwest from the village of Tipton, in northern Lenawee County, and at the southwest may Pentecost 4 L. 3 A Â~voN c* Station R.3E AA 88 i9" 20. "H.E"F FIG. 10.-Flowing wells near Tipton, Lenawee county. find continuation in the scattered flows along Wolf Creek Valey. The district is about 14 miles wide and 10 miles long if the Wolf Creek wells are included. The Tipton district proper lies entirely in Franklin Township (T. 5 S., R. 3 E.), and runs from sec. 13 southwest to sec. 31. West of it is a small isolated group of flowing wells ï~~96 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. in a basin near the line of secs. 19 and 30, Franklin Township, which is separated from the main district by a till ridge too high to permit flows. There are also numerous knolls within the district on which flows can scarcely be expected. In the flowing-well district there is a perceptible southeastward descent, the altitude of wells on the northwest border being 20 to 30 feet higher than that of those on the southeast. The altitude of the water declines more rapidly southeastward than this somewhat rapid descent, for wells east of the flowing wells lack a few feet of rising to the surface. In the village of Tipton flowing wells can be obtained only in sags a few feet below the general level, while wells east of the village, on ground lower than these, do not flow even when driven to depths of 100 feet or more. The wells usually pass through a clayey till, yellow at top and blue from a depth of 10 feet onward. The water is found in thin beds of gravel and sand in the till. These beds appear to occur at various levels, so that neighboring wells may differ markedly in depth. The water is hard and carries so much iron that it coats vessels rapidly and soon rusts tinware. In some wells -the iron is perceptible to the taste. The writer listed about 20 wells in this district north and east of Tipton in 1899, some of which are not included in the list prepared by Mr. Udden. As the writer's examination was incidental to other investigations, data on the wells are meager. Two of these wells are on a tributary of Evans Creek along the lines of secs. 13 and 14, and are about 2 rhiles from any reported by Udden. Possibly the intervening territory is too elevated to permit of flows. The wells referred to are only 20 to 25 feet deepmuch shallower than the average depth of wells in this district. There are two shallow flowing wells, not noted by Udden, near the center of sec. 22 on the farm of Mr. Whelan, the depth of which is even less than of those in secs. 13 and 14, being but 22 feet. The altitude, however, is about 30 feet lower than at a flowing well, 50 feet deep, at Mr. Whelan's residence. The flowing wells in the isolated basin on the line of secs. 19 and 30 are on ground about 20 feet lower than Pentecost station, which is at the south edge of the basin. The wells, 8 in number, are on the border of a peat bog used for a celery farm, and range in depth from 40 to 60 feet. They are controlled, and the water is distributed as needed. They are said to fill the 2-inch pipes and discharge many gallons a minute. The head, however, is not great, being estimated at 10 feet or less. Wells and basins of this kind may have their catchment areas on the bordering high land. The catchment area for the Tipton district probably lies along its northwest border, though some of the supply may be from still higher land to the west and north. ï~~LENAWEE COUNTY. 97 Wells in Tipton flowing-well district. Letter sec- When Di- Ele- Wa- Flow Temon tion. Owner. ae ame- Depth. va- er per ra Quality. fig. 10. tion.made ter. tion. toes minute. Qre.y Fent.Fe In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. oÂ~F. A..... 13 Loren Taylor................. 25 -860.................. A.. 14 Smith Munger..............25 -860.._-............... A.. 15 E.J. Whelan..... 1890 2...... -902 903 1 53 A...... 16 F.M. Dibblea... 1897 1.5 48 915 917 2 51 Hard. B...... 16 A. Morsemnan........... 2 4 905 907 2 52 Hard; iron. A..._ 21 John Conlin............ 2 40 900 900.2........_..Hard; sulphur, iron. B..... 21 Thomas Conlin..........2 66 904906 1 53 C...... 21 Orville Kemp..... 1888 2.......907 910 1.5 54 Hard. D...... 21 B. F. Norcross........ 2 I..... 904 906.5 52 Hard; iron, sulphur. E...... 21.....do................... " 2 80 907 911 5 52 Do. F.... 21 W. A. Beebe...........2... 905 906 1 53 Hard; iron. G..... 21 W.E. Camburn...... 2 1.. 910 911 1.5 53 Do. A...... 22 John Conlinb..... 1880 1.5 40 899 900 Weak..... Hard. B..... 22 Martin Whelan... 1891 2 51 905 907 4 53 C..... 22.....do.............. 1891 2 64 905 907 1 53 D...... 22 School district 1890 2 70 905 907 1 53 Hard; iron. No.3. E.. F.. 22 Martin Whelan................. 22 875 880 A...... 28 Charles Lewis............. 895 898 3 50 Hard; iron, sulphur. B....._ 28....do.................... 1.5.. 895 897.7 52 Do.....75...d.. 95 8852 Do C..... 28.do..................1.5...895 898 8 52 Hard; strong in iron. D...... 28.....do................... 1.5..... 898 899 1 53 Hard. E...... 28 John Buttrick........... 2 62 905 907.75 52 Hard; iron. A.....I 29 R. Kerr................... 2.... 905 907 1.5 53 Do. B... 29 John Cook............. 2 70 900 902 20 52 Hard. C...... i29 W. S. Pentecost... 1889 2 75 916 917 15 52 Do. D..... 29 A. Preston c............ 2 42 905 908 20 52 Do. E. ". 29 W.S. Pentecostd'...... 2 40 903 905 2 52 Do. F...... 29 Lilly & Strong.........2 70 915 918 2 52 Hard: iron. G...... 29 R. Warren e..........2..... 912 914 2 52 Do. A...... 30 C. Ridgebridger.... 2. 912 914 1 51 Do. A......32 C. B. Beebe f...................... 905 907........ 51 Hard. B......32 F. E Derby...........2.. 895 897 5 52 Do. A..... 33 Charles Kemp........... 2 905 906 2 51 Hard iron. a Four other flows have been in use but are now plugged. Black muck 24 feet, gravel 1 foot, blue clay 2 feet, hardpan 6 inches. b Flow decreased on account of sand and gravel filling pipe. First well in village of Tipton. c Three-fourths inch reducer used head originally 932 feet. d Needs sand pumping; flow has decreased. e Original head, 930 feet, weak flow at 27 feet; one-half inch reducer used. I Has had 6 wells. WOLF CREEK DISTRICT (TPS. 6 S., RS. 2 AND 3 E). There is a narrow strip along Wolf Creek Valley, in northeastern Rome and western Adrian townships, in the vicinity of Wolf Creek post-office, in which flowing wells have been obtained. The head is not sufficient to give a flow except in ground 25 feet or less above the creek. Wells on higher ground show a rise corresponding to that in the flowing wells, so that water is frequently very near the surface. This district may, as indicated in the discussion of the Tipton district, be a continuation of that district. Data on these flowing wells were obtained by the writer in 1899, and it is not known whether other flowing wells have since been obtained. C. E. Marshall has a well at Wolf Creek village, 94 feet deep, which penetrated till 50 feet and then sand to bottom. There may have been a crust of hardpan above the water. The water rises fully 10 feet above the surface, and the well is about 15 feet above the stream. ï~~98 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. A well at L. B. Knoll's store at Wolf Creek, 78 feet deep, flows with a head of about 10 feet. This well has till at the same level as the sand in the Marshall well. Richmond Ross has a flowing well, 81 feet in depth, a mile south of Wolf Creek, in sec. 7, Adrian Township. On the Wilcox farm, in sec. 13, Rome Township, 1 miles south of Wolf Creek, is a strong flowing well about 40 feet deep. It is a dug well, into which the water came so rapidly that it was not walled, but was filled with bowlders. Across the road from the strong well on the Wilcox farm, on the farm of Henry Thomas, is a weak-flowing well, thought to be 76 feet deep. There is also a shallow and weak-flowing well one-half mile north of Wolf Creek, in sec. 1, Rome Township. There were, in 1899, two weak-flowing wells, 70 feet deep, 1 miles northeast of Wolf Creek post-office, in sec. 31, Franklin Township, on the farm of Cornelius Derby. WATER SUPPLIES OF HILLSDALE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Hillsdale is the most elevated county in the southern part of the State, its altitude ranging from about 830 feet in the southeast corner to 1,284 feet at "Bunday Hill," a prominent gravel hill near the north border. This county includes the sources of Grand, Kalamazoo, and St. Joseph rivers, tributary to Lake Michigan, and also of Raisin River and St. Joseph, of the Maumee tributary to Lake Erie. A prominent morainic system traverses it from northeast to southwest, constituting the divide between the Lake Michigan and Lake Erie drainages. Parallel with this on the southeast are other moraines at lower altitudes, and below these moraines are sags and narrow plains. The northwestern part of the county is broken by sandstone ridges, which in' some cases are only thinly veneered with glacial deposits. In the sandstone ridges, and also in the loosetextured drift that make up the bulk of the morainic ridges, the ground-water table is usually at considerable depth, so that wells 75 to 125 feet in depth are not rare, while a few extend 200 feet. On the plains and in depressions among the ridges the distance to water is usually but a few feet. There are, however, places in which a compact clayey till underlies the plains, and there it may be necessary to go to considerable depth to find a good well. Flowing wells have been found in valleys or deep depressions at several points, and may perhaps be obtained at other points. They are usually ï~~HILLSDALE COUNTY. 99 from the drift, but near Reading they are obtained from the rock. In addition to these valley districts there is a district covering several square miles in Ransom and Amboy townships, where flowing wells have been obtained. WATERWORKS. There are but three towns in the county in which public water supplies have been developed: Hillsdale, Jonesville, and Reading. HILLSDALE. The public water supply of Hillsdale is drawn from Bawbese Lake, which lies in the valley of a tributary of St. Joseph River, about a mile above Hillsdale. The waterworks plant was built in 1886 at a cost of $75,000, and has 12 miles of mains, 81 hydrants, and 1,180 taps. There are two Block pumps with a capacity of 2,000,000 gallons. JONESVILLE. This village, which stands in the St. Joseph Valley, obtains its supply from three tubular wells, two of which are in gravel at about 55 feet and one in rock at 80 feet. It enters rock at about 60 feet. By pumping, the wells yield about 500,000 gallons a day. The following is a partial analysis of the village supply at Jonesville, furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The supplies are from three wells, two in gravel and one in the rock, so that the sample represents a mixture of the three. Partial analysis of well water at Jonesville. Parts per Parts per million, million. Color-.............-....... 19. Carbon dioxide (C02)............. 110.80 Iron (Fe) _................... 2. Sulphur trioxide (SO3)............ 29 Chlorine (Cl).................... 1.5 Hardness (as CaCO3)............. 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 56 feet. READING. This village derives its supply from 4 tubular wells 58 to 65 feet in depth, which enter rock at about 28 to 30 feet. The water stands 7 feet below the surface. The wells are on low ground outside the village. The plant was installed in 1900 at a cost of $22,500, and has 43 miles of main, 38 hydrants, and 165 taps. Below is given a partial analysis of the public supply at Reading. It is obtained from shallow wells in the lower part of the village. The data are furnished by M. 0. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey, ï~~100 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Partial analysis of well water at Reading. Parts per ' Parts per million, million. Color....................... 19 Carbon dioxide (C02)- ------- 106.76 Iron (Fe)-----......-.............-. 8 Sulphur trioxide (SO3).......... 25 Chlorine (Cl)............... 4 Hardness (as CaCO3) _----139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 56 feet. Private wells 15 to 30 feet deep are still in common use. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. At Cambria, which is located about 6 miles southwest of Hillsdale, in the valley of a tributary of the St. Joseph of the Maumee, wells are all shallow, ranging from 8 to 35 feet in depth. The best supplies are at about 30 feet. At Litchfield, in the valley of St. Joseph River, in the northwestern part of the county, many wells are drilled into rock and obtain strong supplies at 45 to 60 feet. The deepest wells are about 100 feet. Some wells obtain water from the drift at 10 to 15 feet. At Mosherville, in Kalamazoo River Valley, in the northern part of the county, wells are generally 20 to 30 feet deep. A few in the vicinity are drilled in rock to depths of 100 feet or more. At North Adams, in the north-central part of the county, wells are usually 40 to 80 feet, though a few are shallower. Rock is entered at about 80 feet, but supplies are usually found in gravel above the rock. Fire protection is provided in a reservoir supplied from wells. In the vicinity of Pittsfield some wells are 150 to 245 feet deep, and a depth of 150 feet is common. In some the water stands 100 to 130 feet below the surface. At Waldron wells are usually about 30 feet deep, but the largest supplies are from 90 to 120 feet. FLOWING WELLS. RANSOM TOWNSHIP. This district embraces half a dozen shallow flowing wells scattered over three sections in Ransom Township south of Ransom Center and only 2 or 3 miles from the Ohio-Michigan State line. (See fig. 11.) They are on a till plain sloping southeastward, the catchment area probably being on higher land immediately northwest. The data on these wells were collected and arranged by Jon A. Udden: ï~~HILLSDALE COUNTY 101 Wells near Ransom, Hillsdale County (T. 8 S., R. 2 W.). Letter Sec- Flow Teon ee Owner. ahn D me- Depth. Head. per pera- Quality. fig. 11. tion.minute. ture. Inches. Feet. Feet. Galls. o F. A...... 27 Charles Moore......... 1900 4 26 +1.5 2.5 50 Hard, iron. B...... 27 Frank Day............ 1900 4 20 +.83 1.5 51 Do. C.... 27 J. Gear a............... 1883 4 27 +8 4 50 Do. A...... 28 Isaac Ely.................... 4 22 +1.25 1.5 51 Do. B...... 28 M. Weider....................4 22........ 1.5 51 Do. A...... 33 J.C. Gear........... 1883 4 27 +8 4 50 Do. B...... 33 (b).................. a When made this well flowed 32 gallons a minute; it now has a i-inch reducer. The water in this and other wells in this group is from the gravel below the till. b No data. FIG. 11.-Flowing wells near Ransom, Hillsdale County. JEROME. At the village of Jerome, in northeastern Hillsdale County, in a basin at the head of Raisin River, is a group of shallow flowing wells. They are obtained only on low ground near the stream. The well at the Jerome Creamery is 35 feet deep and had a head of 8 feet in 1901. Mr. Udden visited it in 1904 and found the head only 6 feet. The well is 3-inch, and in 1901 discharged 5 gallons a minute. In 1904 its flow, as determined by Udden, was 7 gallons. The temperature in April, 1901, was 53Â~ F. The well was through blue clay most of its depth, and obtained water in gravel. The water is slightly chalybeate. At the public school there was a very weak well in 1901, but Udden reports a well drilled there in 1904 that had a flow of 3 gallons a ma 182-06---8 ï~~10 2 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. minute. It is on ground 5 feet higher than the creamery well, and its depth is correspondingly greater, being 40 feet. The Cincinnati Northern Railroad had a well at its station in Jerome in 1901 that flowed vigorously a few feet below the surface into a shallow dug well. The well is about 60 feet deep. H. S. Walworth had a flowing well at his barn that discharged in 1901 into a dug well 4 feet below the surface. Udden reports a well 40 feet deep made by Mr. Walworth in 1904 that has a head of 1 foot and a discharge of 2 gallons a minute. Another flowing well reported by Udden is that of J. Chandler, which is 40 feet deep, has a head of 1 foot, and discharges 21 gallons a minute. Wells at Jerome. Owner When Diame-Depth Eleva- Water Flow per Quality wner. made. ter. D tion. rises to- minute. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Creamery well-............ 1900 3 407 1,107 1,113 7 Hard, iron. Public school---.......... 1904 2.5 40 1,112 1,113 3 Do. H. S. Walworth............ 1904 2.5 40 1,110 1,111 2 Do. J. Chandler....................... 40 1,109 1,110 2.5 Do. MOSCOW TOWNSHIP (T. 5 s., R. 2 w.). A single flowing well was in operation in 1901 on the farm of R. O. Showday, about 11 miles south of Moscow, in Moscow Township, in Kalamazoo River Valley. No further data were obtained. This valley is much lower than bordering uplands, and may prove to have conditions favorable for flows along its course down to Moscow. WHEATLAND TOWNSHIP (T. 6 S., R. 1 W.). A flowing well on the farm of H. E. Williams in sec. 16, Wheatland Township, is reported by W. F. Cooper to have a depth of 50 feet, a head of 15 feet, and a temperature of 52Â~ F. The altitude is about 1,100 feet, or a little lower than the general elevation of the region. ALLEN TOWNSHIP (T. 6 S., R. 4 w.). A well on the farm of Walter Jones, in Allen Township (sec. 34), is reported by W. F. Cooper to flow in the spring and through wet seasons but usually to fall to about 5 feet below the surface in dry seasons. The well is 55 feet deep, and the altitude, as determined by Mr. Cooper, is 1,113 feet. Other wells in that vicinity vary several feet in accord with the rainfall, but no others ever flow. ï~~HILLSDALE COUNTY. 103 CAMDEN. There is a single flowing well in the valley of a tributary of St. Joseph River about I mile northeast of Camden village, on the property of B. R. Alword, in sec. 22, T. 8 S., R. 4 W., or about 3 miles east of the northeast corner of the State of Indiana. It was made in 1892, is 120 feet deep and 3 inches in diameter, and obtains its supply from gravel. It flows about 6 gallons a minute, and the water is R.3 W. reported by the owner to have a temperature of only 490 F. It 18 17 16 is used in a creamery and cheese factory for cooling purposes as * '. well as by residents for drinking. cambria The water contains considerable 9 o a21 iron and is hard.. CAMBRIA TOWNSHIP. In the western part of Cam- 30 29 28 bria Township (T. 7 S., R. 3 W.) are three flowing wells from rock. They are along a valley considerably below the general level of 31 32 33 the region. The water is softer than that from neighboring wells that terminate in the glacial FIc. 12.-Flowing wells (from rock) near Cambria, Hillsdale County. deposits. The wells are cased to the rock, and in some instances a short distance into the shale, which is the upper rock. Water is found in sandstone. The catchment area is not easily located where wells are so deep seated, and is especially hard to ascertain when the water has a shale cover. It is probable, however, that this cover has been eroded in places, allowing waters from the drift to have access to the sandstone. The tabulated data are from notes by W. F. Cooper and Jon A. Udden. Wells near Cambria. SOwner. When Diame- Depth. Head Flow per Length Temperfig. 12. tion. Owne made. ter. ep Hea minute. of casing. ature. Inches. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Feet. F. A..... 18 Arthur Lane......... 1902 2 90 13 2.5 65 51 A..... 19 U. Woodring......... 1904 2 125 14 5.......... 51 B..... 19 E. Meada............. 1900 2 104 2 2.5 85 51 a Sand and gravel, 20 feet; blue clay 57 feet; shale, 27 feet; water probably at top of sandstone. The other wells each entered sandstone a few feet, and the drift in them is largely sand and gravel. ï~~104 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF BRANCH COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Branch County is in the south tier of counties, about midway between Lake Erie and Lake Michigan, its county seat being Coldwater. St. Joseph River crosses the northwestern part and its tributaries drain the entire county. A broad gravel plain along the river and others along the tributaries together cover fully one-third of the surface, the remainder being a till tract in which moraines are not conspicuous, much of it being a gently undulating plain. So far as ascertained no flowing wells occur in the county. The wells are generally too shallow, however, to test the chances of a flow. Water in abundance is ordinarily found at depths of 20 to 40 feet, or even less on the gravel plains. On the moraines and till plains, also, wells are shallow and usually 'dug. Near Sherwood and Union City there are a few driven wells 75 feet to 100 feet in depth. The driven wells are usually on the high points and show but little rise of water. WATERWORKS. COLDWATER. There are public water supplies at Coldwater, Quincy, and Union City, all from tubular wells of moderate depth. Those at the Coldwater waterworks are 50 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter. They will yield by heavy pumping 1,500,000 gallons a day, which is the maximum consumption. The average consumption is about 500,000 gallons a day. QUINCY. The public supply at Quincy is from a 6-inch well 30 feet deep, in which water is found at 15 feet and at 35 to 38 feet. The well will yield by heavy pumping 20,000 gallons an hour. Below is given a partial analysis of the water from this well, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The water is very hard and not entirely safe for drinking purposes because of liability to contamination. Partial analysis of well water at Quincy. Parts Parts per million, per million. Color-...................... 15 Carbon dioxide (CO2)......... 110.80 Iron (Fe)................. Slight trace. Sulphur trioxide (SO,).....--------... 20 Chlorine (Cl)................ 2. 75 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 36 feet. ï~~BRANCH AND ST. JOSEPH COUNTIES. 105 UNION CITY. Union City is supplied from a group of nine drilled wells, but little information could be obtained concerning them. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The table below gives data furnished by residents to whom watersupply blanks were submitted: Village supplies in Branch County. SEle- Depth of wells. Depth Town. lation ti-n Source. to rock. From ToCorn- water Head. Springs. tion. From- To- mon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Batavia..... 100 945 Open and driven +25 20 25 25 25 -15 Small. wells. Bronson... 1,176 926 d.....do.................... 12 40 30 30.... Butler........... 1,0151 Dug wells.......... 30 20 40 30 30....... California........do...-...............0.......... 30 30. Coldwater... 6, 216k 982 Driven wells....... 115 30 50 50 50.....0 Girard............ 960 Dug and driven........ 18 30 30 30..... wells. Kinderhook............... Dug wells................. 18 40 25 25I...... Quincy.......1,563 1,026 Driven wells....... 30 15 35 20 30 -12 Sherwood... 366 875 Shallow wells, dug........ 15 20 20............ or driven. WATER SUPPLIES OF ST. JOSEPH COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. St. Joseph County is very largely occupied by gravel plains on which water is easily obtained at depths of 20 to 40 feet or less. It has a morainic tract along its western edge and another leading from Centerville southeastward on which the wells vary in depth from 20 to 100 feet or more. There also is a till tract in the northeastern part of the county where wells are of various depths up to 100 feet, a common depth being 70 feet. Flowing wells have been obtained on the border of Klingers Lake in the southern part of the county and in St. Joseph Valley at Three Rivers. It is probable that flows would be obtained at other points along St. Joseph River if deep wells were sunk. FLOWING WELLS. KLINGERS LAKE. A large number of excellent flows have been obtained on the border of Klingers Lake, some yielding as high as 15 gallons a minute. The wells are mainly 40 to 50 feet or less in depth, but some are 75 to 80 feet. The water will rise to a height of about 20 feet above lake ï~~106 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. level. The temperature is quite uniformly 530 F. Resorts which have been built up on the shore are known as "Mound Springs" and "Mineral Springs." Nearly all the cottages have wells, which, when fully developed in fountains and grottoes, will form a very attractive feature of the resorts. Below is given a partial analysis of a representative sample from a flowing well near Klingers Lake, together with a sample of lake water from the same locality. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton "of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well and lake water at Klingers Lake. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color-------------------------------------------------------------.......................................................................... 19 10 Iron (Fe)...----------------------------------------------------------- 2. 5 Slighttrace. Chlorine (Cl) -------------------------------------------------------- 1.5 1.5 Carbon dioxide (CO2)..................------------------------------------------............................. 100.56 59. 14 Sulphur trioxide (SO)......------------------------------------------------........................................... 15 15 Hardness (as CaCO3)...................................--------------------------------------------------------........ -......... --118.7 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. George Corson; depth 47 feet. 2. Lake. The basin in which Klingers Lake stands is so much lower than bordering tracts that the latter may easily furnish the head displayed in these wells. Whether the supply is from a moraine north of the wells or from the gravelly plain forming an outwash east and south of the lake is not determined. WATERWORKS. THREE RIVERS. The flowing wells at Three Rivers constitute the supply for the waterworks. There are nine 6-inch wells 75 to 100 feet in depth, obtaining water in sand, but thought to have reached shale at the bottom of the deepest. The supply is ample for the present needs of the town. The water will rise only a few feet above the surface, so that flows can be expected only on ground of similar elevation or on the low bottom along the river. There are occasional private flowing wells in Three Rivers. It has been reported that a single well has been obtained in the St. Joseph Valley, in sec. 14, Lockport township, in which Three Rivers is located. The following is a partial analysis of the public supply at Three Rivers. The water comes from a number of connected wells varying in depth from 75 to 108 feet. The analysis was furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. ï~~ST. JOSEPH COUNTY. 107 Partial analyses of well water at Three Rivers. Parts per Parts per million million. Color..............-.......... 5 Carbon dioxide (CO2)-............. 101.13 Iron (Fe).................... 1. 5 Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)........... 10 Chlorine (Cl)-................. 2.75 Hardness (as CaCO3)............. 139 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 75 feet. STURGIS. The public supply at Sturgis is from a large open well 30 feet in diameter by 60 feet deep, in which four tubular wells 6 and 8 inches in diameter have been driven to a depth of 140 feet. The water stands 40 feet below the surface. The supply exceeds the present needs of the town, there being seldom a consumption of more than 125,000 gallons a day. The superintendent of waterworks has kindly furnished the following analyses, one being from the large open well, the other from the tubular well. Analysis of Sturgis water supply.a [Parts per million.] Open Driven well. well. Calcium carbonate.....................................----....---.. --.....-........ 263.99 282.46 Magnesium carbonate........................................................ 94.50 104. 42 Calcium sulphate.................................................................. 45. 34 45.02 Sodium chloride......------------------------------------------------------ 45.02 45. 02 Iron oxide and silica---------------------------------------------------............................................................... 3.42 3.94 Volatile m atter.................................................................... 69. 70 105. 44 Total solids.........................---------------------------------------------------- 521.97 586.30 a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon; recomputed to parts per million at U. S. Geol. Survey. CENTERVILLE. Mr. S. J. Lewis reports that the Centerville plant is nearly obsolete and supplies water for little besides the main street. It seems to be largely for fire protection. It has three wells sunk so as to tap a large spring located at the head of Hawk Creek just below the town at 10 feet below the surface. Below is given a partial analysis of the water, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well water at Centerville. Parts per Parts per million. million. Color......................... 15 Carbon dioxide (CO2)-............. 89.22 Iron (Fe)--...............Very slight trace. Sulphur trioxide (SO3)............ 10 Chlorine (Cl)-.................. 2. 125 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 10 feet. CONSTANTINE. This village uses Fawn River water as a public supply, but there are many private wells in use that range in depth from 15 to 60 feet. ï~~108 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF CASS COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Cass County consists of a series of prominent moraines, between which are strips of gravelly plain, formed as an outwash from the bordering moraines. The moraines have wells of various depths up to 100 feet and more, there being apparently no uniform water table. The gravel plains have a water table usually 20 to 40 feet below the surface of the plains, but in places 60 feet below. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The following table contains data furnished by residents: Village supplies in Cass County. c Depth of wells. oo Town. 0 "Source. 0 oa Feet Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Cassopolis.............. Public supply f r o m........................... Stone Lake. Dowagiac........... 760 Waterworks from driv- 202............ 47 47 - 2 en wells. Edwardsburg 400 Â~834 Dug and driven wells......... 25 27 25 25 -22 None. Glenwood..... 72 750 Driven wells..."......138+ 14 138 18 18 + 8 Large. Jones................ 921 Driven wells and lakes........ 14 60 50 40 (?) Marcellus............ 983 Waterworks and driven 265............ 35 35.... wells. Newburg............... Drven wells.................12 60 50 50. Penn............. 904.....do....................... 18 75 25 20 -40 Small. Vandalia... 407 883....do..................... 10 60 30 30 -25 Do. Wakelee....... 200 913..do...................... 25 65.. 50 -35 Do. FLOWING WELLS. Flowing wells have been obtained along Dowagiac Valley at Glenwood and north and west of Dowagiac, as well as in that town; also northwest of Marcellus at Fish Lake, and in a valley 2 miles east of Wakelee. None have been reported from other points in the county. GLENWOOD DISTRICT. There are three wells near Glenwood on the Hampton stock farm, two in the SW. sec. 3, and one in the NE. sec. 10, T. 5 S., R. 1 W. One well has a depth of 138 feet, and the others are similar. They yield strong flows of hard water carrying iron. The catchment area seems likely to be in the moraine lying southeast of the wells. Springs are also abundant along the base of this moraine near Glenwood. Mrs. C. Wells has one in sec. 11, T. 5 S., R. 15 W., piped to supply house and barn. ï~~CASS COUNTY. 109 LONG LAKE. About 5 miles west of Glenwood on the bank of Long Lake is the flowing well of William Peterbaugh, but no data were obtained as to depth or rate of flow. South of this well in sec. 18, Wayne Township, A. F. Hatch has a flowing well 36 feet deep that flows 2 4 gallons a minute; temperature 530 F. The well was made May 10, 1904. WEST OF DOWAGIAC. L. J. Pray, a driller at Dowagiac, states that J. C. Becker has a flowing well west of Dowagiac near Dowagiac River, 77 feet deep, with a head of 6 feet that will flow a barrel a minute from a 2-inch pipe. The well was made in 1893. Water beds were struck at 20, 30, and 40 feet, as well as near the bottom. Another well reported by Mr. Pray is on C. E. White's farm, west of Dowagiac, and this has sufficient force to bring up fine gravel. It flows about a barrel a minute. The well is 152 feet deep. A flowing well west of Dowagiac on the farm of J. F. Cook in sec. 33, Silver Creek Township, was visited by M. L. Fuller and Jon A. Udden in 1904. It flows 15 gallons a minute from a 2-inch pipe. The depth is 76 feet and diameter 2 inches. The water is hard and chalybeate and has a temperature of 520 F. Across the road from Mr. Cook's well, in the northwest part of Pokagon Township, is the well of J. C. Becker, noted above, which was shut off in August, 1904, while Fuller and Udden were there. A well a mile south on the farm of E. W. Whitmore in sec. 9, Pokagon Township, had just been made in 1904, and flowed about 30 gallons a minute from a 2-inch pipe. The depth is 86 feet and altitude about 745 feet. The temperature is 52.50 F. FISH LAKE. A single flowing well is in operation on the shore of Fish Lake 3 miles west of Marcellus. It was put down for Doctor Davis and has a depth of 90 feet. a WATERWORKS. DOWAGIAC. The waterworks at Dowagiac have eleven wells 100 feet deep, and two 47 feet deep, all but one being 6 inches, and that is 4 inches in diameter. There is also an open well 30 feet in diameter and 16 feet deep. The deep wells flow, and in the shallow ones water stands about 2 feet below the surface. The water has a temperature a Data furnished by W. F. Cooper. ï~~110 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. of 52Â~ in the deep wells. The deeper wells appear to penetrate some clay near bottom, but the shallow ones pass through sand in which there are gravelly beds which yield water rapidly. The strongest supply is from the upper beds, which yield about 400 gallons a minute by pumping, while only 600 gallons a minute are obtained from the eleven deeper wells.a The wells are not so strong as when first made, but the superintendent reports that water comes in as rapidly as the pumps can take it, for the water is pumped direct from the wells, and the vacuum gage shows that it does not decrease with pumping. The superintendent furnished the following record of the shallower well: Record of shallow waterworks well at Dowagiac. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Muck and fine sand.....................................................2 2 Coarse sand, pebbly.......................................................... 3 5 Fine sand......................................................................2 7 Gravel with cobblestones.................................................... 15 22 Cemented sand and gravel................................................... 10 32 Fine gravel, water-bearing......-----....--..................................... 15 47 CASSOPOLIS. The public supply for this town is pumped from Stone Lake, but private wells are in common use, the depth being from 15 to 40 feet. MARCELLUS. The village of Marcellus obtains its public supply from driven wells 35 to 50 feet in depth. The pumping is direct with an ordinary pressure of 40 pounds and fire pressure of 90 pounds. WATER SUPPLIES OF BERRIEN COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Berrien is the southwest corner county of Michigan, with Lake Michigan on its western border and the State of Indiana on its southern. St. Joseph River traverses it nearly centrally from southeast to northwest, and, with its tributaries, drains all the county except the southwest corner and a narrow strip along the lake shore. In the southeastern part are plains of sand and gravel in which the water table is adjusted to the streams and lakes, and is tapped by wells at depths of 20 to 80 feet, the greatest depth being on an elevated plain west of St. Joseph River, just north of the State line. a Data by superintendent. ï~~IIERRIEN COUNTS11 111 The city of Niles has sunk wells to a lower water horizon beneath a sheet of clay for its public supply, and thus obtains flows. A prominent morainic ridge east and south of Buchanan is surrounded by gravel plains and carries wells of depths ranging from 25 feet to more than 100 feet. The Valparaiso morainic system forms a belt 5 to 10 miles wide that runs northward from Galien and Dayton, crosses St. Joseph River between Buchanan and Berrien Springs, and then passes eastward out of the county south of Watervliet. Between two members of this morainic system, in Pipestone and Bainbridge townships, is a depression in which an important flowingwell district has been developed. Flowing wells have also been obtained along the inner or northwestern border of this morainic system near Galien and near Watervliet. In the moraines wells are of various depths and differ widely in head. Between the Valparaiso morainic system and the shore of Lake Michigan are till plains interrupted by small till ridges. A narrow strip between the westernmost till ridge and the shore of Lake Michigan has been covered by lake waters, and in places is capped with dunes. A few flowing wells have been obtained in low places along the lake shore. This western part of the county, though much lower than the eastern, and probably in the line of underground drainage toward the lake, does not display as strong hydrostatic pressure as might be expected. The wells are of various depths and seem to be supplied from water beds that are not widespread at any one horizon. A large amount of blue clayey till is found throughout the district between the Valparaiso morainic system and the Lake Michigan shore, but in this morainic system the blue till is interbedded with thick deposits of sand and gravel, while east of this morainic system the till is relatively scarce, except perhaps at considerable depth. WATERWORKS. Several towns in the county are supplied with waterworks, as indicated below. In those not thus supplied, the residents depend to a large extent on tubular wells driven to moderate depths, seldom over 40 feet. The dug wells made in the early days of settlement are being superseded by the less easily contaminated driven wells. NILES. Two systems of waterworks are in operation in Niles; one, taking its supply from Barron Lake, is owned by a private company; the other, taking its supply from driven wells, is owned by the city. The private works were built in 1879 and were the sole supply for about 16 years, when the city built its own works, because satisfactory terms could not be made with the private company. ï~~112 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The wells in the municipal plant are in St. Joseph Valley and are reported to have a head of several feet. The water is pumped from the wells to a standpipe and also direct to the mains. The reservoir pressure of 55 pounds may be doubled in case of fire. The average daily consumption is about half a million gallons. Water power is used in pumping. There are 15 miles of mains, 158 hydrants, and 763 taps. The cost of the plant is $175,000. BUCHANAN. a The public water supply of Buchanan is furnished by six wells 27 to 40 feet in depth and 6 inches in diameter, having a head nearly level with the surface. The water is pumped direct to the mains, with a day pressure of about 65 pounds and a night pressure of 30 pounds. In 1904, in prospecting for additional sources, the wells were carried to the rock. The water for the present supply is from gravel. The plant is municipal. There were two flowing wells on low river bottom at Buchanan, but since the dam was built the land has been flooded and the wells abandoned. THREE OAKS. a The public supply of Three Oaks is owned by the municipality and is from one 6-inch well 76 feet deep and one 8-inch well 86 feet deep. The wells are largely through blue till but obtain water in a sandy gravel. The water in each well stands 30 feet below the surface. The combined yield is 125,000 gallons a day; this supply is scarcely sufficient in case of fire, but arrangements have been made with the Warren Featherbone Company to pump directly from a well at their factory into the village mains in case of fire. SBENTON HARBOR. a Both springs and wells are in use and furnish an adequate supply for present need, but Lake Michigan will probably become the source of supply should the present prove inadequate or unsuitable. The plant is municipal. The wells range in depth from 43 to 80 feet. ST. JOSEPH. a The public supply of St. Joseph is pumped from wells sunk in the bed of Lake Michigan a half mile or more south of the mouth of St. Joseph River. The wells are 25 feet deep and filled by gravity from the lake. The water is pumped to standpipe and to the mains direct, the ordinary pressure being 50 pounds and the fire pressure 100 pounds. The plant is municipal. a Information furnished by Jon A. Udden. ï~~BEBRIEN COUNTY. 113 EAU CLAIRE. The village of Eau Claire is reported to have a partial public supply, which is obtained from wells and used for both fire protection and drinking. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The following table is largely made up from data furnished by officials to whom water-supply schedules have been mailed; it shows the conditions in 19 of the most important towns: Village supplies in Berrien County. Popu-Eale- Depth Town. ation. va- Source. to tion. rock. Feet. Feet. Baroda........ 300 640 Driven wells; cis-....... terns. Benton Harbor....... 596 Driven wells; 140 springs. Berrien Springs 808 650 D and driven }110 Bridgeman..... 250 640 Mos wellsy driven +14 +28 Buchanan...... 1,708 680 D)riven wells; 60 springs. Coloma........ 687 647 1)riven wells......_..... Dayton........ 250 716 Driven and dug +90 Eau Claire........718. do....... 718....... +120 Galien.......... 440 680 Driven wells..... +100 New Buffalo... 629 587 Open and driven 200 wells. New Troy............625.....do...... 65? Niles........... 4,287 {675 }Driven wells; lake. { 265 Riverside... 150 637 Driven wells.......... St. Joseph...........!590 Lake Michigan; 133 driven wells. Sawyer......... 150 640 Open and driven 125 wells. Stevensville.... 250 630 Driven wells............. Three Oaks.... 994 667.....do............ +140 Vineland.............. 587 Wells and stream. +100 Watervliet..... 717 645 Driven wells...... + 95 Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 10 50 18...... -6 None. 15 1,200........... -12 Large. 15 670 25 25 5 } Do. 12 800 100 150 - 6 None. 40 60 40 40 - 3 Strong. 48 99 50 -42 Medium. 20 90{ 5 5...... Large. 16 120 16 120 -60 Small. 17 100 40} 30 -2 Do. 12 212 60 30 +2 Do.. 120.................. Do........1,438 110 110 (?).............. 22................... 165................. 12 150 +50 +50....... 30 50.. -15 Medium. 3O 50... 40 140 80 80 -20 None. 20 100 20....... -15 40 95 50 { }-15 Large., 1 1 I FLOWING WELLS. GALIEN DISTRICT. a Two flowing wells have been obtained on low ground, elevation about 660 feet, a short distance northeast of Galien village. One on the farm of William Goodrich, in the north part of sec. 2, was made in 1897; it is 44 feet deep, 11 inches in diameter, and flows 2.5 gallons a minute, with a head of 6 feet. The temperature is 530 F. The other well is in the northeastern boundary of Galien, in sec. 3, but no data concerning it were obtained. a Information furnished by Jon A. Udden. ï~~114 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The catchment area for these wells in all probability is in the higher land in the Valparaiso morainic system to the south and east, and flowing wells can probably be obtained in other similar low tracts along the inner slope of the Valparaiso morainic system. One of these forms the next district discussed, but in most of these depressions no explorations have been made. WEESAW TOWNSHIP. There are three flowing wells along the valley or depression heading in the Valparaiso morainic system in southeastern Weesaw Township, about 3 miles north of Galien. The well of John Beckwith, in sec. 25, was made in 1895, is 92 feet in depth, and 2 inches in diameter; it flows 21 gallons a minute, with a head of 5 feet or more, and has a temperature of 53Â~ F. The well of F. Prinkert, in sec. 27, is 42 feet deep and 11 inches in diameter; it obtains water from gravel at 28 feet. It has a head of 12 feet, flows 8 gallons a minute, and has a temperature of 530 F. A flow on sec. 23, on the property of Mrs. Gallivan, is noted, but no data are given. NEW BUFFALO DISTRICT. a There were several flowing wells near New Buffalo in 1887 when the writer mapped the glacial features of the region. These were on low ground, scarcely 10 feet above Lake Michigan, and had a depth of about 30 feet. From the lake there is a rapid rise to a till ridge in the eastern part of the village, which probably serves as the catchment area. The drift at the village extends to a level about 200 feet below Lake Michigan. Mr. Udden visited New Buffalo in 1904 and learned of three flowing wells in or near the village. The well of Mr. Williams is 117 feet deep, 2 inches in diameter, and has a head of 11 feet. The well mouth is noted by Udden at 619 feet. It flows one-half gallon a minute, with a temperature of 530 F. Henry Gallwitzer has a well, which appears from Udden's notes to be at New Buffalo, that struck a flow at 46 to 50 feet in sand and gravel. The water is hard and is impregnated with iron. Murdock & Co., of New Buffalo, are also reported by Udden to have a flowing well, but no data are given. PIPESTONE DISTRICT. The Pipestone district lies between two morainic ridges of the Valparaiso system in northeastern Berrien County in a basin drained by Pipestone Creek. The wells are mainly in Pipestone Township, a Data by Frank Leverett and Jon A. Udden. ï~~BERRIEN COUNTY. 115 but also are obtained in the southeastern part of Bainbridge Township. They occupy a belt about 5 miles in length and 1 to 21 miles in width, forming an area about 6 or 7 square miles (see fig. 13). The first well was made in 1877, in the southwest part of sec. 2, Pipestone Township, and several have been flowing since 1878. In 1904, 51 wells were in operation. Within the limits of this district only about a dozen wells were noted which do not flow, and these FIG. 13.-Map of Pipestone flowing-well district, Berrien County. are too shallow to reach the beds from which flows are obtained. The combined discharge of the 51 wells was 116 gallons a minute, or about 170,000 gallons a day, but many of the wells have reducers or are regulated by faucets, so that this discharge represents but a small fraction of what the wells would flow if the pipes were left open. Probably the district, as now developed, would yield more than 1,000,000 gallons a day, or enough to easily supply a city of 10,000 ï~~116 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. population. The water is used for cooling as well as for drinking, its uniform temperature of about 520 F. being well adapted for creameries. Wells which have received proper care appear to show little, if any decrease in head, and seem to possess a uniform rate of flow throughout the year. Many of the wells have not been properly looked after, and are clogging with sand or are in need of new screens. The wells best cared for have been cleaned about once a year. If properly distributed, many new wells could be put down in this region without drawing seriously from those now in operation. A well made in sec. 13 in 1904 flows 12 gallons a minute, and seems not to interfere with the flow of neighboring wells. The catchment area for this district appears to be in the moraine lying east of it, which rises in places to an altitude of more than 100 feet above the wells. Probably the gravel plain east of the moraine also contributes to the supply, for it stands high enough to furnish considerable head at the level of these wells. The wells pass through a large amount of clayey till before reaching the water-bearing sand and gravel, which forms an excellent cover to prevent natural escape, and springs are consequently rather scarce and weak. The water is highly mineralized in most wells, and forms a yellow coating where it discharges; the amount of mineralization is such as to sustain the view that the water passes underground for some distance-probably more than a mile before it is tapped by the wells. It is from medium to very hard. The tabulated data given herewith were collected and arranged by Jon A. Udden. The wells are all 2 inches in diameter, except a 3-inch well of J. H. Price (E 10), and a well with 12-inch wooden pipe (E 15) on the Rosenbaum farm: Wells in Pipestone district. Letter Sec- Eleva- Water Flow Temon fig. iec- Owner. WhenDepth. e -rises per pera- Quality. 13fi. tion. e. made. t. tion. to i n-tre 13. to e a ture. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. F. A...... 1 Fred Wolf.......................... 725 725 R 0.5 53 A..... 2 J. F. Hastens.............. 1901 60 720 721.75 53 B...._. 2 W. Bateman....-........... 1878 156 727 729.75 52 C..... 2 M.G. Matran b............. 1901 130 720 723 R 3 52.5 A-..... 3 E.Collins.................. 1902 28 720 720.9 R.25 52 B..... 3 P. L. Northrop........................... 712 714 2 52.5 A..... 9 J.H. Price............. -................ 705 707 R 1.5 52 A -..... 10 E. O. Davis................ -........ 710 712.5 53 B...... 10 W.B.Graham----......... 1885 55 710 712 R 1.5 52 C...... 10 Mr. Grieme c............... 1902 40 715 718+ R 1.5 52 D-...... 10 J.H. Price................. 1903 97 710 710.75 52 E.. 10.....do..................... 1899 57 675 679 R 2 52 F...... 10 Clarke--d............-. 1882 52 720 723 R 2 52.5 G...... 10 Irvin Hague-....--.---.. - - -........ 718 719 R 2 52.5 a Where wells are reduced the letter R is prefixed. b Original head, 730 feet. Clay, 30 feet; quicksand, 30 feet, from which water came to the surface; blue clay, 65 feet, with hardpan crust at bottom covering the water gravel. c Original head, 719 feet. Clay to within 2 feet of bottom. d Original head, 732 feet. Water strong in iron. ï~~BERRIEN COUNTY. Wells in Pipestone district-Continued. 117 Letter s on fig. tion. 13. H...... 10 I...... 10 J...... 10 A...... 11 B...... 11 C...... 11 D...... 11 E...... 11 F...... 11 G...... 11 H...... 11 I...... 11 C....... 14 D...... 14 E...... 14 F...... 14 G...... 14 H...... 14 A...... 15 B...... 15 C...... 15 D...... 15 E...... 15 A...... 22 B...... 22 C....... 22 A...... 23 B...... 23 A...... 27 B..... 27 A... 28 B..... 28 A...... 35 B...... 35 C....... 35 A..... 36 B...... 36 Owner. When made. C. Bailey a................ 1901 M. J. Sheppard........._....... F. Hackstedt.............._.. Fred Holler........................ Joe Dupree...................... Charles Rush.............. John Cannon............. 1894 H. Vanecken b.............. 1880 Bert Collins c............. 1900 Frank Johnson................... B. Putterbanch................... Charles Haskins................... 0.Collins d................. 1899 School District No. 3....... 1902 E. W. Claussen............. 1890 HI. Frecky e............... 1885 J. W. Kelley.................... T. Langlin /............... 1896 Guy Hawkesg............. 1900 C. F. Hartelrack........... 1902 Louis Whiteh.............. 1880 C. F. Hartelrack.............. W. Rosenbaum i.......... 1889 J.Aumeck J............... 1886 N. Prestonk.............. 1900 Mrs. Walsh.............1887 Robert Ganol............ 1880 John Aumeck m........... 1904 Fred Och n................ 1878 Mrs. Kingsley o............1880 Henry Price p.............. 1902 Wm. Ferry....................... John Smith......................... L. C. Goodrich q............ 1894 A. M. Stewart...................... F. Bateman r............. 1891 T. Morlock............... 1889 Depth. Elevation. Feet......... 40 62 401 117 601 6o.......100 601 60 60........ 50 62 75 108 87 97 36 30 96 96 96 160 146 Feet. 720 712 714 720 720 720 720 715 715 712 712 712 712 715 713 710 700 712 715 710 710 710 -710 710 710 712 710 702 710 725 710 710 730 730 733 715 725 S Flow Water per Ternrises p pera- Quality. to- min- ture. ute. Feet. Galls. Â~ F. 722 R10 51.5 714 R 2 52 Hard. 716.75 53 Do. 722 2 52.5 Do. 721 1 53 723 R 3 52.5 721 1 53 717.75 53 717 R 2.5 53 715 R 1 53 714 1 53 715 1 53 713 2 52 716 R 1.5 52 715 R 1.5 52 712 10 52 703 3 51.5 715.5 52 715 R 2 51 712 R12 51.5 714.5 53 714 R 1 52 710+........ 52 712 2 51.7 712+ 1.5 51.5 714 2.5 51 712 1 51.4 705 12 51.5 712+ 1.5 53.5 726 2 51.5 713+ 7 52 711 R.25 53 732 1 53 732 1 53 735.75 53 717 R 1 52.5 727 R 2.5 53 a Blue clay, 35 feet; quicksand, 5 feet; water in gravel at bottom, strong in iron. Pipe has a 1-inch reducer. b Clay, mainly blue, 40 feet; quicksand and gravel, 5 feet. c After penetrating 50 feet of clay a weak flow was struck, but the well was continued through 10 feet more of blue clay to a stronger vein in sand and gravel. The pipe has a 1-inch reducer. Cost said to be $30. d Blue clay, 75 feet; sand, 30 feet; gravel, 12 feet. Cost, $30. e Original head, 718 feet. Entirely through clay to gravel at bottom. Cost, $40. f Blue clay, 60 feet; sand, 40 feet; gravel at bottom with water strong in iron. Cost, $45. g Blue clay, 20 feet; sand and gravel, 20 feet. A Flow has decreased because of filling by sand. i 12-inch wooden pipe. i Entirely through clay to gravel bed at bottom. Well needs cleaning. Cost, $75. k Vein at 27 feet had a head of 10 feet, and one at 75 feet had a head of 12 feet. I Pipes are rusted and flow is less on this account. Cost, $1.25 a foot. Sand and gravel, 12 feet; blue clay, 74 feet; gravel with water at bottom. m Original head, 716 feet; clay, mainly blue, 97 feet; fine sand, 20 feet. Cost, $46. n Needs cleaning. Fornerly flowed 7 gallons a minute. o Clogged with iron rust. P Clay, 10 feet; quicksand, 18 feet; coarse gravel at bottom. q Original head, 736 feet. Water strong in iron. Cost, 65 cents a foot. r Original head, 723 feet. Blue clay, with streaks of sand, 155 feet; liardpan, 6 inches; gravel at bottom. s Original head, 743 feet, and original flow, a barrel a minute. Blue clay, 20 feet; fine sand, 80 feet; clay and quicksand, 45 feet; blue clay, very hard, 1 foot; gravel at bottom. Cost, $90. BAINBRIDGE DISTRICT. There is a recess on the inner border of the Valparaiso morainic system, in the northern part of Bainbridge Township and southeastern part of Watervliet Township. It occupies about a square mile, chiefly in the west half of sec. 2 and east half of sec. 3, Bainbridge Township, there being but one well north of the township line (see n 182-06-9 ï~~118 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. fig. 14). In this district the principal group is on the farm of Henry Gerling in the southwest part of sec. 2. One well furnishes water power to run a feed mill and 5 others are used to supply the house and stock. Mr. Udden visited this group of wells, but in the absence of the owner was unable to get data R. 17 W. as to the yield and the power Sfurnished. The wells vary in 34 35 36 depth and obtain water apparA. ) ently from two or three different WATERVLI T A TOWNSHIP beds of gravel or sand in the till. BAINBRIDE A LINE This district may be capable B. 3 A' I of extension to the north, but,. the morainic hills which border _--- it on the east, south, and west Moa prevent extension in those direc10 a tions. The catchment area in FIG. 14.-Flowing wells in Bainbridge and Water- all probability lies on t h e s e vliet townships, Berrien County. bordering hills. bordering hills. W... F. Cooper obtained data concerning a well reported by the owner, Charles Wasco, to be in sec. 6, Bainbridge Township. This was not visited by Mr. Udden. If correctly located it lies in a different district from that under discussion. The data collected by Mr. Udden and also data from Mr. Cooper are embraced in the following table: Wells at Bainbridge. Letter Sec- When Diam- Depth. leva- Water Flow Termon Owner. made. eter. Depth. tion. rses per perafig. 14. made. to- minute. ture. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o. A 2 Nicolas Moser................._.. 2 100 700 702+ 31 51 892 2 30 690 700+..... 51 B-G 2 Henry Gerlinga-...-.......... 190 4 ).... A 3 J. Warskob1............... 1903 2 45 707 B 3 Township well-.............. 1904 2 40 703 705.75 52 A I 6? Charles Warsko c....---1892 2 45- +10 25 A 35 II. W. HIarrd--------------. 1903 2 89.....-- +10 3 50? a Henry Gerling has five 2-inch wells and one 4-inch well ranging in depth from 30 to 80 feet. The large well furnishes water power to run a feed mill for home use. The wells obtain their supply from sand and gravel beds, the principal bed being at about 50 feet. The average cost per well is $50. b Blue clay, hard toward bottom, 43 feet, grave! 2 feet. Cost, 85 cents a foot. c Data are from a schedule filled out by Mr. Warsko, in which he placed the well in sec. 6, but possibly it is in sec. 3. dData furnished by driller, J. Fritz. of Coloma. Water veins occurred at 36 and 55 feet. The casing is 17 feet. The well supplies house, barn, and fish pond. It is located just north of the line of Watervliet and Bainbridge townships in Watervliet Township. Cost $64.40. PAWPAW LAKE. On the north side of Pawpaw Lake in Watervliet Township, northern Berrien County, is a flowing well on the property of J. K. Blachford. It is 75 feet deep and 2 inches in diameter, but has only a half-inch escape pipe. The altitude is about 625 feet and head 3 feet or more. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES OF SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 119 WATER SUPPLIES OF VAN BUREN COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Van Buren County lies north of Berrien and Cass counties, with a narrow frontage on Lake Michigan. Its principal stream is Pawpaw River which runs westward through the central part of the county. South Black River drains the northwestern part, and Dowagiac River the southeastern. A part of the lake shore is bordered by high sand dunes. Morainic systems traverse the county in a northeast to southwest direction, the Kalamazoo system crossing the southeast corner, the Valparaiso system the central part, and the Lake Border system the western part. The Kalamazoo system is largely of loose-textured drift which absorbs rainfall rapidly and presents a rather deep-lying ground-water table. The loose-textured drift is unfavorable for flowing wells on its inner border though the altitude there is much lower than on the morainic ridges. There are sandy plains between the Kalamazoo and Valparaiso morainic systems in which flowing wells seem to be obtainable only on the low ground along streams or around lakes. In the Valparaiso morainic system there is great variation in texture of drift as well as great irregularity of surface. In low parts of the moramines till is usually present, and water rises nearly to the surface in the wells and in a few places overflows. The high parts of the moraines are usually of loose-textured drift, and the head is not sufficient to bring the water near the surface. 'West of the Valparaiso system are plains partly of till and partly of sand, in which water rises about to the surface and occasionally flows from wells that go to considerable depth. The head is especially high in recesses on the immediate inner border of the Valparaiso morainic system, and flows are obtainable in some of these recesses. Flows are also obtainable in this plain near South Black River in the northwest part of the county. A ridge of clayey till, known as Covert Ridge from Covert village standing on it, runs across the western end of the county at a distance of 2 to 4 miles back from Lake Michigan. On this ridge and on its inner slope wells often reach considerable depths, and the water does not flow even on the slopes or on the plain between this village and the lake. Hon. C. D. Lawton, of Lawton, who is one of the early settlers in this region, states that springs seem to him to be weaker in the southwestern part of Michigan than when the country was first settled. They are still of such strength, however, as to supply a strong dryweather flow to most of the streams. ï~~120 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATERWORKS. BANGOR. a. The Bangor waterworks are municipal. The supply is from wells about 60 feet deep, in which water stands 7 to 9 feet below the surface. An excavated well 14 feet deep receives the water, which is pumped to a tank with a capacity of 50,000 gallons. The pressure is 55 pounds to the square inch. The plant was put in operation in 1903. DECATUR. b The supply is from two 6-inch wells 90 and 115 feet deep, with water 32 feet below the surface. The wells yield 400 gallons a minute, and are seldom lowered more than 10 feet by pumping. One well is cased 81, and the other 90 feet. There was some water at 36 to 60 feet but this was cased out. The waterworks, which are municipal, were installed in 1895. The pumps are placed in a pit 28 feet deep and deliver the water to a standpipe 115 feet high. HARTFORD. c The Hartford supply is from wells 40 to 42 feet deep, with water about 10 feet below the surface. Water is pumped to a tank. The plant is municipal. LAWRENCE.c The supply is from two 6-inch wells, 60 feet deep, which yield about 40 gallons a minute. The water is pumped direct to the mains. The plant is municipal. PAWPAW. a At Pawpaw there is a large well 20 by 25 feet, in the bottom of which two 6-inch wells are drilled about 40 feet; the water rises into the excavated well about 17 feet. Four hours are required in dry weather and about three hours in wet weather to fill it to that level; the first 9 feet will fill in one hour. The water is pumped to a standpipe 120 feet high, which gives a pressure of nearly 60 pounds. In case of fire direct pressure is applied. The works are municipal. They were installed in 1893 at a cost of $20,000. There are 6.5 miles of mains, 40 hydrants, and 318 taps. SOUTH HAVEN. d The supply is from horizontal Cook wells pumping to a standpipe. The wells are pushed into sand 8 feet below the bed of Lake Michigan, a Information furnished by Jon A. Udden. b Information furnished by I. B. Galbraith, superintendent of waterworks. c Information furnished by postmaster. a Data mainly from Manual of American Waterworks. ï~~VAN BUREN COUNTY. 121 and consist of several 8-inch pipes 150 feet long. The standpipe has a capacity of 140,000 gallons. The plant was built in 1892 at a cost of $37,000; it is owned by the village. The following partial analysis of the water from the Rector well at Hartford was furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey: Partial analysis of well water from Hartford. Parts per million. Color....................... 5 Carbon dioxide (CO,)......... Iron (Fe)................... Good trace. Sulphur trioxide (SO3) Chlorine (Cl)-.......... -... 2.75 Hardness (as CaCO).......... S. J. Lewis, analyst. Parts per million. 122.46 20 +139 MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. * The following table presents data on village supplies which have been obtained largely by correspondence with residents: Village supplies in Van Buren County.! I IDepth of w Town. 0 I Feet. Bangor-....... 1,021 650 Bloomingdale. 379 730 1. 750 Breedsville.... 236 667 Covert...................... Decatur....... 1,356 780 Gobleville-..... 506 800 Grand Jun-....... 680 tion. Hartford...... 1,077 662 Keeler................ 800 Kendall.............. 780 Kibbie............... 630 Lacota............... 700 Lawrence...... 598 700 Lawton........ 942 776 Mattawan............ 858 Pawpaw....... 1, 465 730 South Haven.. 4,00 9 { 5 Source. f Driven wells and waterworks wells. Flowing wells, other driven wells. Driven wells, river, springs... Driven wells.................. DI)riven wells at waterworks.. Driven wells.......................do....................... Drivenwells, includingwaterworks. Driven wells......................do.............................do.-...--....................... do........................, D)rivenwells,includingwaterworks. Driven wells......................do..................... D)riven and open wells, including waterworks. Waterworks from Lake Michigan and private driven wells. 0 Feet. 18 20 78 10 40 35 12 12 201 12 11 25 25 10 28 20 20 Feet. 70 220 100 110 125 100 72 42 125 50 25 80 100 60 115 60 347 ells. o a Q Feet. Feet. Feet. 60 -10 38 38 {+9 40 40 -15 80 80 -25 90 32 50 50 -40 30 30 -10 25 25 -12 35 35...... 25 25 -20 15 15 -10.- -- - - -15 60 55 -20 25 25 1-15 35 35.... 30...... 2 0 -1 100 100 -20 Springs. Small. } Do. Do. None. Small. Do. Do. Do. None. Small. Do. FLOWING WELLS. HARTFORD TOWNSHIP. Flowing wells have been obtained in 4 small pools in Hartford Township (T. 3 S., R. 16 W.)-one near Rush Lake, in the northwest part; another in the valley of Pawpaw River, in the west part; a third along a small tributary of Pawpaw River, in the southwest corner of the ï~~122 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. township; and a fourth in the headwaters of Pine Creek, in the southeast part. No data were collected concerning the first and second districts. In the third the data on a single well, that of O. S. McGowan, was obtained by W. F. Cooper through correspondence with the owner. The well is in sec. 31, and was made in 1885. The depth is 44 feet, water being struck at 40 feet in gravel under clay. The head is 10 feet above the surface, and the flow is about a half-inch stream. The water has been piped to the kitchen and also supplies stock. It is medium hard, with some iron. The cost of the well and piping was $75. The fourth district, in secs. 26 and- 27, includes 4 wells on the farm of Easton Brothers, of Hartford, and 4 others on farnis of Fred Warren, W. P. Smith, John Ray, and Charles Floate, all of which were reported to W. F. Cooper by Easton Brothers. The Easton wells are about 58 feet deep, and obtain water in gravel near the bottom. There are 30 feet of sandy drift at the surface, below which is blue clay to the water-bearing gravel. One or more of the wells have been in operation since 1887, and together they now yield about 300 barrels a day. The flow appears to be regular throughout the year. The Smith well, made in 1886, is about 68 feet, and the Warren well, made in 1892, 58 feet deep. Mr. Udden visited these wells in 1904, and found the Smith well to flow 3 gallons and the Warren well 2 -gallons a minute, while one of the Easton wells flowed 7 gallons. This district and that in sec. 31 are each in a recess in the Valparaiso moraine, which forms the catchment area and governs the head. PAWPAW TOWNSHIP (T. 3 s., R. 14 w.). a In addition to the flowing wells at the Pawpaw waterworks, which, as noted above, discharge into a large open well, there are occasional flows on low ground in that vicinity. The head is probably from a catchment area on higher ground to the southeast. One well, on the farm of Aaron Hathaway, in the southwestern part of sec. 23, 2 miles south of Pawpaw, in the valley of West Pawpaw River, is flowing about 2 gallons a minute, with a head of 11 feet. The well is 45 feet deep, 1 inches in diameter, and cost $30. It was made in 1901. The two partial analyses given below show the qualities of waters obtained from the shallow wells at Pawpaw. The situation of this type of shallow wells within the city is such that they are liable to contamination and are unsafe sources of domestic supplies. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. a Data collected by Jon A. Udden. ï~~VAN BUREN COUNTY. 123 Partial analyses qof well water from Pawpaw. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color............................................ Iron (Fe)-......................................... Chlorine (Cl)...................................................... Carbon dioxide (COs)............................................ Sulphur trioxide (SO3)................................... Hardness (as CaCOs)................................. 24 Very slight trace. 1.5 76.73 0 139+ 5 None. 2.75 80.03 0 15 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. City well; depth, 20 feet. 2. Dykeman House; depth, 30 feet. ANTWERP TOWNSHIP. a Mr. Fred Bassett has a flowing well 2 miles northeast of Lawton, in the valley of a tributary of Pawpaw River, in the northwest corner of sec. 22, Antwerp Township (T. 3 S., R. 13 W.). It was made in March, 1904, is only 13 feet deep, and has a head of 8 feet. It discharges 12 gallons a minute from a pipe 1 inches in diameter. The temperature is 520 F. The water supplies a trout hatchery known as the "Glen Spring Trout Company." This valley could probably be developed for other flows, either from this shallow source or from deeper sources. The prominent Kalamazoo moraine to the east forms a good catchment area. WAVERLY TOWNSHIP (T. 2 s., R. 14 w.).b About 8 miles northwest of Pawpaw, in the valley of Pawpaw River, is a group of 8 flowing wells, 7 being in sec. 30 and 1 in sec. 31, Waverly Township. (See fig. 15.) are between 45 and 50 feet deep. to water-bearing gravel at bottom. 1880 and 1884, and, with one exception, are reported to flow with as much strength as when first made; indeed, the owners think some of the wells are increasing in rate of flow. They have always been very weak, however, flowing a gallon or less per minute, except in one well, that of W. North, which flows about 9 gallons. It is this stronger well that is thought to have decreased in rate of flow; it One well is 63 feet and the others They are mainly through blue clay Most of them were made between 830, 31 32 33 FIG. 15.-Map ox Waverly flowing-well district, Van Buren County. is about 15 feet deeper than the others, and probably struck into a lower and better water bed. It rises to about 6 feet above the surface, while the others will rise to but little more than 1 foot. The water is hard and strong in iron. The wells are all north of the river, a Information furnished by Jon A. Udden. b Data mainly collected by Leverett in 1887, but the district was visited by Udden in 1904 The tabulation is by Udden. ï~~124 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the ground on the south side being too high for a flow. The country to the east probably serves as the catchment area. Wells at Waverly. Letter Sec- When Diame Flow Former on figte Owner. made. ter. a-Depth. Head. Casing. per flow 15. minute. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. A..... 30 W. North............... 1884 1.25 63 +5.5 50.4 9 Greater. B...... 30 0. Y. Culver-----------........... 1880 2 49 +1 9.75 Less. C...... 30 C.B. Smith------------............ 1884 2 49 +.5...........5 Do. D-...... 30 L. Crawell.............. 1903 2 50 +1........5 E-...... 30 Albert Cornell........... 1889 1.25 50 +1........ 5 Do. F...... 30.....do................................. 49 +1....... 1 G...... 30 W. Beeching...........1884 1.25 49 +1 14.5 Do. A...... 31 John Brooks...........1880 1.25 45 +1 15.75 Do. On the Snow farm, in sec. 2, there is a single well at the western base of a morainic ridge that runs north toward Gobleville. The well is 58 feet deep, and is in clay, except 8 feet of gravel at the bottom. The head is scarcely 1 foot. Probably other flowing wells could be obtained on the lowest ground along the inner border of this moraine. ARLINGTON TOWNSHIP. There is a group of flowing wells in a marsh in the northeast part of Arlington township (T. 2 S., R. 15 W.), in secs. 11, 12, 13, and 14. (See fig. 16.) Four of the wells + 1 'TILL 2 =7-... PLAIN p Ill.. "-- A*...":,L" _ 15 4-- & O... ". 22 23 24 FIG. 16.-Arlington Township flowing wells, Van Buren County. were put down by H. Hogmire to obtain water for use in a peppermint factory to strain and dissolve the peppermint and to cool the coils in the distillery. The others are used to supply stock in pastures. With the exception of the two shallow Hogmire wells, 27 and 28 feet, the wells are about 50 feet in depth, and pass through 40 feet or more of blue clay. There is a thin deposit of muck and marl above the clay, usually 5 to 10 feet thick. The water is from sand or gravel, and is hard and strong in iron. The catchment area is probably in the higher land on the immediate border of the basin in which the wells are situated. The further development of flowing wells will be restricted to the low marshy ground on its immediate borders. This marsh extends southeastward into Waverly Township, about 2 miles farther than wells have yet been developed, and farther extension of the district in that direction may be expected. ï~~VAN BUREN COUNTY. 125 Wells in Arlington district.a Letter.sec- When Diame- D Ha.Cs Flow per on fig. tion. Owner. made. eter. epth.Head. Cost. minute. 10. Inches. Feet. Feet. Gallons. A.... 11 Mr. Slupeck.................... 1902 2 50 +1 $70 0.5 B... 11 M. H. Hogmire........................ 1.25 27 +6.............. A 1...... 12.....do...............1.................... 1.25 B...12...do...............................1.5 51.........-..........5 A...... 13.....do................................. 1.25 47............... 5 B...... 13 Charles Mohns................. 1904 2 68 +3 50 3 A...... 14 A. Couleson..................... 1898 1.25 50 +3 15.5 BANGOR TOWNSHIP. The greater part of Bangor Township (T. 2 S., R. 16 W.) is unfavorable for obtaining flows, but there are occasional low tracts, either basins or long sags traversed by drainage lines, in which it is possible to obtain flowing wells. Mr. Udden noted the following wells: Davis Clinard, in sec. 8, has a well from gravel; depth, 47 feet; diameter, 2 inches; water within 1 foot of surface. Bruce Kinney, in sec. 15, has a flowing well; no data concerning it. G. W. Overton, in sec. 18, has a well 42 feet deep that flows with a head of 11 feet. The well penetrated muck 10 feet, blue clay 30 feet, and gravel 2 feet. GENEVA TOWNSHIP. A flowing well was obtained some 20 years or more ago on the farm of Irving Pierce in the southwestern part of Geneva Township (T. 1 S., R. 16 W.) at a depth of 230 feet. It penetrated 190 feet of drift, largely blue till, and 40 feet of shale rock. The water rises 7 feet above the surface and the flow is weak.b Mr. M. W. Hyenga has a well, in sec. 24, that flows 2 gallons a minute. Its depth is 48 feet, diameter 2 irthes, head 16 feet, temperature 52Â~ F. The well is said to flow stronger than usual if a stiff southwest wind is blowing. The water is from fine sand. The head in the waterworks well, in Bangor, is such that a flow could be obtained at the level of the lowest ground along Black River. COLUMBIA TOWNSHIP. Mr. Udden ascertained that thirty years ago there was a flowing well at Breedsville on P. A. England's property near Black River, about 15 feet below the level of Breedsville station, or 652 feet above tide. The head was 7 feet above the surface. The well was very popular for drinking. The notes seem to indicate that it has ceased flowing. a Data collected in 1904 and arranged by Jon A. Udden. b Information obtained by Leverett in 1887. ï~~126 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. F. L. Pease has a weak flowing well in Breedsville that barely drips. It is about 25 feet deep, About 2 miles east of Breedsville, in sec. 34, Columbia Township, is a flowing well on the farm of John Quackenbush, that has been running for twenty years with no apparent decrease, and now discharges 3 gallons a minute. It is 54 feet deep, 2 inches in diameter, and has a head of at least 21 feet. It penetrated sand 3 feet, blue clay 50 feet, and gravel at bottom. It is probable that flowing wells may be obtained along the lowland bordering Black River from Breedsville eastward past the Quackenbush well, and also down the valley to Bangor. The highland south and east furnishes a natural catchment area capable of giving strong head to wells along the valley. BLOOMINGDALE. In the south part of the village of Bloomingdale are several flowing wells about 40 feet in depth. They are all south of the Michigan Central Railroad, the altiSC tude north of the railroad ZOO being too great to permit a e9 feet above the surface, according to height of well "o mouth, the full elevation EW being but little above the wAC S.. level of the Michigan CenItral tracks near the depot, FIG. 17.-Map of part of Bloomingdale, Van Buren 732 feet. The land east County. showing distribution of flowing wells, from Bloomingdale rises to about 810 feet on the moraine between Bloomingdale and Gobleville. The plat of Bloomingdale village (fig. 17) shows the distribution of the wells. This plat and the few data concerning the wells just given were obtained by Jon A. Udden. PINE GROVE TOWNSHIP. Mr. A. M. Todd of Kalamazoo has flowing wells on his mint farm in sec. 25, Pine Grove Township (T. 1 S., R. 13 W.), which is in a swamp bordering Pine Creek. No data concerning the wells were obtained. They were reported by D. W. Broadhead of Kendall, Mich. This swamp is several miles long north and south, and lies at the base of a very prominent drift ridge. The situation seems favorable for flowing wells the entire length of the swamp. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES OF SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 127 WATER SUPPLIES OF KALAMAZOO COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. A gravel plain about 15 miles wide runs across Kalamazoo County from north to south through the central portion and another covers most of the northwestern township. The Kalamazoo morainic system, which traverses the northwestern part, lies between these plains and includes another plain between its two ridges, which are largely of gravel and sand. It occupies northwestern Cooper, southeastern Alamo, most of Oshtemo, and the western part of Texas Township. In the eastern part of the county, in Charleston, Climax, Wakeshma, and Brady townships, there is a till tract covering about 100 square miles, including, however, around the village of Climax, a gravel plain of several square miles. Kalamazoo River traverses the northeastern part and drains much of the northern half of the country. The southern half is mainly tributary to St. Joseph River. Lakes abound in the moraines and gravel plains, but are not numerous on the till tract in the southeastern part. On the Kalamazoo morainic ridges and on the elevated gravel plain in the central and northern part of the county, water is seldom obtained at a depth of less than 50 feet, and frequently only at more than 100 feet. The water table in these tracts is probably about on a level with the surface of lakes and streams, which are usually in deep basins or channels. But toward the south end of the county the lakes are about on a level with the gravel plain and wells are obtained at shallow depths. In the gravel plain in the northwestern part of the county also wells are shallow, for it is a comparatively low plain, with the water table near the surface. The till tract in the eastern part of the county usually affords wells at moderate depths of 25 to 40 feet, but in places they are driven 100 to 200 feet if water-bearing beds are wanting or inadequate for a strong well. Flowing wells are obtained only in the valley of Kalamazoo River in or near Kalamazoo. WATERWORKS. KALAMAZOO. The city of Kalamazoo obtains its public supply from wells in the drift at its pumping station in the southern part of the city. The wells are in the edge of a shallow valley excavated in the broad valley of Kalamazoo River and are near the south bluff of the river. The first waterworks plant was built in 1869 and reconstructed in 1884. The total cost to date for construction and repairs has been ï~~128 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. about $750,000 There are at the pumping station two Gaskell pumps with a capacity of 3,000,000 gallons each. The distribution system April 1, 1905, comprised a total of 297,042 feet, or about 561 miles, as follows: Kalamazoo distribution system. Feet. 24-inch suction pipe or siphon--...._...--.............. 2,939 20-inch mains................------------------------------------------------------ 1,300 16-inch mains........... ------------------------------------------------------4,741 12-inch mains..---------------------------...........--------------------------- 2,275 10-inch mains..................------------------------------------------------------ 35,687 8-inch mains.....................------------------------------------------------------ 50,770 6-inch mains.................------------------------------------------------------ 102,508 4-inch mains..........------------------------------------------------------------94,622 2-inch mains............---------------------------------------------------------........... 200 297,042 The ordinary pressure is 45 pounds to the square inch and the fire pressure 80 to 90 pounds at the pumping station. The cify stands mainly in the river valley at a level differing but little from that of the pumping station. The water supply is in part from a large open well 22 feet in diameter and 32 feet deep, and a second large well around which are 13 tubular wells 6 inches in diameter and 80 to 120 feet deep, which overflow into it. The wells from top to bottom are in sand and gravel saturated with water. The depth of the tubular wells varies with the distance to a gravel bed that screens readily, much of the material passed through being rather fine sand. The water would rise in the tubular wells to 2 or 3 feet above the surface, but is turned into the large well, at 8 to 10 feet below the ground in order to increase the yield. The rate of flow from these wells is as high as 250,000 gallons a day from a single well when working most favorably, but some wells have diminished because of rusting of the pipes and consequent leakage. In one case a well which at first yielded only 50,000 gallons a day was so developed by proper adjustment of the screen as to yield a much larger amount. The maximum yield from the 13 tubular wells has been about 2,000,000 gallons a day, but the yield at any particular time will depend upon the condition of each well at that time. The open well can be depended on to furnish about 3,000,000 gallons a day, and constitutes the chief supply for the city.a The insane asylum at Kalamazoo has a waterworks supply independent of the city system. It is derived from nonflowing drift wells. The number of inmates is about 1,660 and of employees 300, making a total of nearly 2,000 consumers.b a Data obtained from the engineer of waterworks. b Data obtained from Dr. E. A. Christian, March, 1906. ï~~KALAMAZOO COUNTY. 129 Analyses of Kalamazoo waters.a [Reduced to parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. CaCO...................................................................------------------------------------------------------.180 140 150 CaSO - ----------------------------------------------------------21 23 22 FeO3Â~5S102----------------------------------------------------------- --- --- 4 "-"M% O3---------------------------------------------------------------- 62 67 101 eSi...9....... NaC-....--------------------------------..------.... -------------------........ 23 7 Volatile matter --------------------------------------------------36 43 30 Total matter ---------------------------------------------------371 300 320 Total hardness---- ---.......... - -................... -........ 160 140 Permanent hardness- -----------------------------------------------50 60 Nitrates-------------------------------------------------------------1.5. Free ammonia-- ------------------------------------------------------. 02.05 Albuminoid ammonia-.....- -......-.........-............. -.......... 02.02.. Oxygen from permanganate-......-...-.....-.............-..........28.25. In the following table are given a number of additional partial analyses from the vicinity of Kalamazoo, showing the relative composition of the public water supply in the river water and the water from flowing well at the Bryant paper mill. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of waters near Kalamazoo. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. Color................................................................-------------------------------------------------------... 10 46 5 Iron (Fe)----------------------------------------------------................................................................2 1 0 Chlorine(C1).......................................................... 4 1.5 2.5 Carbon dioxide (COs)---------------------------------................................................... 95.85 87.68 88.73 Sulphur Trioxide (SOa).................................................. 0 -29 -29 Hardness (as CaCOs)..................................................................... +139 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Bryant paper mill; depth 125 feet. 2. River. 3. Public supply; depth 30 feet. VICKSBURG. The public supply at Vicksburg is from three 6-inch wells 60 feet deep, from which water is pumped direct to the mains. An ordinary pressure of 50 pounds, and a fire pressure of 90 pounds is given. The works were established in 1897 at a cost of $12,000. FULTON AND OSHTEMO. Fulton and Oshtemo have partial systems of waterworks, water being pumped to a tank for village use. The village of Fulton built the tank and sunk the well, but the tank and well at Oshtemo were put in by M. Gibbs. The terms on which water is furnished have not been ascertained. a Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, pp. 39-40. ï~~130 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. Reports showing general conditions in several towns in this county have been obtained by correspondence with residents, and the results are tabulated below: Village supplies in Kalamazoo County. - Po Depth of wells. Depth Pop- Eleva- - - -- to Town. ula- ion Source. Co- water Head. Springs. tion.- mon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Alamo...................... 765 Driven wells............... 25 50 25 25 -.-Small. Augusta..... 541 800 Driven wells; Kalamazoo 25 150 30 30. River. Climax...... 398 975 Open and driven wells....i 20 40 30 30 -20 None. Fulton...... 275 900....do-.................... 10 50 25 25 -10 Do. Galesburg... 689 785 Driven wells............... 18 50 30 30 -20 Small. Oshtemo..- 125 960.....do.................... 90 10') 100 95 -75 Do. Portage............ 860 Driven wells; creek........ 12 35 28 28 -15 Do. Richland.... 312 928 Driven wells............... 45 130 50 50 -45 None. Schoolcraft.. 859 883.do....................15 50 40 40 -20 Do. Vicksburg... 972 857 Lakes and driven wells, 20 60 50 50 -10 Do. including waterworks wells. Yorkville........... 972 Driven wells............... 40 80 80 70 -40 Do. FLOWING WELLS. There are two flowing wells in Kalamazoo at the Bryant paper mill in Portage Creek Valley a short distance east of the waterworks wells and on ground perhaps a few feet lower. One well, 6 inches in diameter and 143 feet in depth, which was made in 1901, has a head of 24 feet, and is estimated to flow 300,000 gallons a day. The strong flow was struck at 122 feet, and the water bed is 22 feet thick; the well passed through 50 feet of blue clay under the surface gravel before striking the vein. The data concerning this well were furnished by the driller, James A. Newell, of Kalamazoo, who states that this is only one of several artesian wells in the vicinity. He has never struck a flow in a well closer to the river than these, which are about a mile from it. Notes collected by Jon A. Udden state that Henry D. Knowles drilled a well 122 feet for this paper company that will flow 250 gallons a minute from a 6-inch pipe. In notes collected by Mr. Udden reference is made to three other flowing wells which appear to be in Kalamazoo. One on Vine street is 47 feet deep, 14 inches in diameter, and flows 3 gallons a minute. Another, not located, is 78 feet deep, and 2 inches in diameter, and flows 5 gallons a minute; it passed through coarse gravel 25 feet, black.soil 15 feet, blue clay 35 feet, and gravel 3 feet; it was drilled by Mr. Knowles and cost $68. A gas company, apparently in Kalamazoo, has a well 60 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter, in which water rises to the surface. It penetrated gravel and clay 48 feet, blue clay 4 feet, and gravel 6 feet; the cost was $120. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 181 WATER SUPPLIES OF CALHOUN COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Calhoun County, which lies east of Kalamazoo County, has extensive gravel plains following its principal streams, and loose-textured drift in moraines and uplands outside the gravel plains. The Marshall sandstone, which forms the bed rock under the drift in much of the county is also loose-textured and a great water-bearer. This sandstone rises in hills in the eastern part of the county, but in the central and western parts the drift knolls and ridges give the relief above the gravel plains. A prominent moraine of the Saginaw lobe runs across the northern part of the county, and a somewhat complex system of moraines across the southern half, all trending from east to west. Kalamazoo River runs westward across the county a little north of the middle, and together with Battle Creek, a northern tributary, drains the northern half of the county. The southern part of the county is drained by the St. Joseph and its tributaries. This county has generally abundance of water for wells at moderate depth, wells being usually but 20 to 40 feet, though on the high gravel plain north of Kalamazoo River they are 75 feet deep. Outside the cities water is generally obtained in the drift, but in the cities many wells have been sunk into the Marshall sandstone. This sandstone furnishes the public supply for Albion and Marshall, and tests are now being made to determine if the city of Battle Creek may not also take its supply from this source. WATERWORKS. ALBION. The city of Albion draws its supply from a group of flowing wells on low ground near Kalamazoo River. Those first made are 110 to 114 feet, but one made in 1902 is 176 feet. They have a head 8 to 10 feet above the surface or about 940 feet above tide. In the well made in 1902 the principal supply is from a depth of 164 to 176 feet, and it will furnish by pumping 400 gallons a minute. Its head is 9 feet, and it, as well as the others, discharges into the waterworks reservoir, whence the water is pumped to a standpipe 128 feet high with a capacity of 108,000 gallons. BATTLE CREEK. The present supply is from Goguac Lake, which stands near the southwest edge of the city at an altitude about 80 feet above the business part. Water is pumped to a standpipe. Wells are being ï~~132 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. sunk (in 1904) in Battle Creek valley and at other points near the city to obtain a supply less objectionable than the present, since inhabitation of the shore of the lake threatens to pollute the water. MARSHALL. The city of Marshall is supplied from wells in the sandstone, as at Albion, and water is pumped to a standpipe 100 feet high, with a capacity of 235,000 gallons. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The following tabulated data on village and city supplies were obtained from personal visitation and correspondence with residents: Village and city supplies in Calhoun County. Popu-Ele- Depth Depth of wells. Depth Town. lation. va- Source. to Com- water Head. Springs. tion. rock. From- To- mon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Albion....... 4,519 940 Wells in sandstone 10 20 176 110 164 +8 Large. and drift; Kalamazoo River. Athens.............. 885 Driven wells............... 20 40 30....... -20 Battle Creek. 18,563 820 Goguac Lake and 10 20 100 80 80 + 5 Small. rock wells; Kalamazoo River; Battle Creek. Burlington... 334 Â~930 Open and drilled 30 10 108 12-20 16-20 -15 Do. wells; stream. Clarendon........... 973 Driven wells........ 75 10 100 20 20 -25 None. Homer....... 1,097 990.do..............90 24 190 30.. -17 Joppa........ 20 916....do............. +65 8 65 18.. Marengo............. 920 Driven wells; Kala- 60 20 60 30 50 -20 mazoo River. Marshall..... 4,370 820 Wells in sandstone; 20 20 100 80 80 -20 Kalamazoo River. Partello...... 100 Â~950 Open and driven +50 16 50 45 45 -30 Medium. wells; springs. Tekonsha.... 573 945 Open and driven....... 15 30 20 20 -15 Small. wells. FLOWING WELLS. So far as ascertained no flowing wells from the drift have been obtained in Calhoun County, except around Battle Creek, in tests for a city supply, and there the water is obtained at the top of the rock. Flowing wells may be obtained from the Marshall sandstone on low ground along Kalamazoo River and Battle Creek, from Battle Creek up to Albion, at depths of 75 to 200 feet or more. Tests of the capacity of wells at Verona, a suburb of Battle Creek, in Battle Creek Valley, showed that strong pumping of one well would affect others to a distance of about a mile; pumping 5,000,000 gallons a day for ten days lowered the head in wells one-fourth mile distant about 3 feet, and in wells one-half mile distant about 6 inches, while at a mile it was scarcely perceptible. This wide connection between wells leads t6 the conclusion that if a large well is opened on ground a little lower than those now flowing it is very liable to draw down ï~~CALHOUN AND JACKSON COUNTIES. 133 the water level and perhaps stop the flow in wells for some distance around. If reports concerning a decrease in the supply at Albion are correct, it would seem that the wells in rock are supplied from a catchment area close at hand, for they are said to become weaker in dry weather, when the ground-water table in the surrounding region is lowered. Dr. A. C. Lane mentions a shortage in the Albion wells in July, and a cessation of the National Bank well in that city in dry weather.a The hardness of the water is such as to favor the view that it is taken from the overlying drift deposits. The head displayed by this water, like that from wells in the drift, may depend entirely on the height of the water table in the drift deposits in the region adjacent to the valley. Several analyses of flowing wells at Albion and Battle Creek have been made. Those at Battle Creek are from the prospective waterworks wells and were made at the hygienic laboratory of the University of Michigan. Those at Albion are from wells 100 feet or more deep, and were made by Delos Fall, of Albion College. Analyses of sandstone waters. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Iron. - -...2.5 4.0 Chlorine --------------------- 36.88 4.5.5 5.6 13.2 8.0 8.0 SuLphuric acid -------------..................... -.... 33.59 Trace. Trace. Hardness---.....................------------------. 307 1 293 - 293 243 250 230 230 Total solids................-------------------. 386 309 305 232 385 290 310 1-4. Albion. 5-7. Battl Creek. The iron in the Battle Creek waters will stain crockery ware placed under the flow. The presence of the iron is thought to lead to a clogging of pipes by organic growths (COrenothrix, etc.), and keep the supply below the original estimates from flows made when the wells were sunk. The hardness is largely temporary in the Battle Creek waters. WATER SUPPLIES OF JACKSON COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Jackson County, like Calhoun, has a large amount of loose-textured drift both in moraines and in gravel plains, and also is like Calhoun County in being underlain by Marshall sandstone. In part of Jackson County other sandstones of Carboniferous age, which are large waterbearers, overlie the Marshall sandstone. The gravel" plains are a Ann. Rept. State Geologist for 1903, p. 103, 1RR 182--06-----10 ï~~134 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. extensive in the eastern half of the county, but in the western half the glacial drainage was restricted to channels running among the moraines. In the southwestern part of the county sandstone hills, rather than drift deposits, give the surface its inequalities. Elsewhere the knolls and ridges are principally of drift. Rock, however, is within easy reach of the drill all through the county, and wells in rock are very common on the farms as well as in the villages. About three-fourths of the county, chiefly the northern and southcentral portions, is drained by Grand River and its tributaries, Portage River and Sandstone Creek. The southwestern part of the county is tributary to Kalamazoo River, and a small area in the southeastern corner to Raisin River. The drainage is thus chiefly toward Lake Michigan, only that of the Raisin being to Lake Erie. Good wells are ordinarily obtained at depths of 25 to 50 feet, but in the sandstone hills in the southwest part of the county they are often 75 to 125 feet or more, and have but little rise of water. WATERWORKS. JACKSON. The city of Jackson, with a population of about 25,000, is near the geographic center of Jackson County, and is the only town in the county having waterworks. The plant was built in 1870 and is owned by the city. The wells and pumping station are in the valley of Grand River, in the south part of the city, at an altitude about 930 feet above tide, and the wells are distributed over a length of three-fourths of a mile. The supply is from twelve wells drilled into sandstone and ranging in depth from 200 to 400 feet. Eight are 10 inches and four 8 inches in diameter. The water stands only 2 to 6 feet below the surface. Its underground course is northward, for heavy drafts at the pumping station have more effect on wells to the north than on wells located in other directions from the pumping station. The wells, as stated by the engineer of waterworks, are capable of yielding about 6,500,000 gallons a day when siphoned at a level 17 feet below the natural head, or 19 feet below the ground at the pumping station. The average daily consumption, however, is- only about 2,000,000 gallons, and the highest less than 5,000,000 gallons..The temperature of the water in the collecting basin November 25, 1905, was 500 F. At the pumping station are two Holly pumps, one with a capacity of 4,000,000 gallons, the other of 8,000,000. The distribution system at the time of the last annual report, February 28, 1905, embraced about 64 miles of mains, with 3,963 taps and 564 fire hydrants. The ordinary pressure is 60 pounds per square inch, and the fire pressure 80 to 100 pounds. The cost of the plant was approximately $500,000, but the precise figures are not available. ï~~JACKSON COUNTY. 135 The income is $35,000 and the running expenses, including fuel, $12,000 a year. The State penitentiary, located within the city limits of Jackson, has a water supply independent of the city system. The source of supply for boilers is Grand River. For all other purposes water is pumped from wells in sandstone located on the prison grounds. The number of inmates supplied is about 700 and of free employees about 100.a MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. Village supplies in Jackson County. o-Depth of wells. Depth DtTown. lation leve.Source. Dt Co- to Head. Springs. P0Pu Elvar oure. o I t om.water (1900)ton. rock. From- To-- mon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. /Drilled wells; mill {8 6 42-5l Brooklyn..... 494 980 ponDrille.wells; mill +185 10 185 60 40 { Small. Drilled wells; Clarks Lake... 56 976{ mainly fro m 40 22 118 40 40 Â~ Do. I rock.1 Concord....... 534 1,010 Drilled wells; 40 60 90 75 65 -30 Large. Kalamazoo River. Openand driven }30i Devereaux.... 995 {Oenld driven 40 25 85 30 } -20 Small. Francisco..... 125 1,014 Driven wells............ 20 45 40 40 -14 None. Grass Lake... 648 1,000 Wells and lake.... 60 20 85 60 60 -18 Small. Hanover...... 378 1,122 Drilled wells.... 50 80 100 80 80 -80 None. Horton.. 250..........do......... 75 50100 60 60 -35 Large. Napoleon.........9.. Driven wells. 0.. 7 210.. 0...30.. -1 Small. 30..............16}Sal Norvell.............. 942 Driven wells;...... 15 75 35 35 -15 Do. Raisin River. fpnaddriven 0 Parma.........420 983 Oe1and driven 0 25 75 35 35 -20 Do. Pulaski.......... Â~1,094 Drilled wells... 15 80 120 100 100 -80 None Rives Junction....... 920 Driven wells...... 60 25 150 100.. -10 Small. Spring Arbor......... Â~1,000....do........... 30 30 75 60 60 -2 Large. Springport.... 559 990 d...do........35 30 60 60 60 -35 Do. Waterloo..... 50 950...do............ 50 20 200 50 50 -20 Do. FLOWING WELLS. Flowing wells are obtained at several places in the county, usually from rock, as indicated below. JACKSON. Wells similar to those at the waterworks are not uncommon in the city. Scne of the earliest ones made between 1865 and 1885 had sufficient head to flow about 10 feet above Grand River, but the head has been gradually lowered with the increased demands made on the water beds. The prospects for a long-continued supply, however, are good, for the lowering of head thus far amounts to but a few feet, and the loose-textured sandstone in which water is found transmits it with sufficient rapidity to prevent even temporary exhaustion by pumping. It is probable that flows could be obtained along Grand a Information furnished by the warden, A. H. Armstrong. ï~~136 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. River and its tributaries in the northern part of the county by penetrating the Marshall sandstone, and possibly they could be obtained in the drift deposits. So far as known no such wells have been made in this vicinity, though they have been obtained to the north in adjacent parts of Ingham and Eaton counties, at Leslie, Onondaga, Winfield, and Eaton Rapids.a The character of the water from this sandstone is excellent, being sufficiently soft, as a rule, for laundry use or boiler use, and free from all surface contamination. NORVELL-BROOKLYN-CLARKS LAKE DISTRICT. Flowing wells have been obtained on low ground along Raisin River and its tributaries, both in Norvell and Columbia townships, from near Norvell to Clarks Lake. They are either from sandstone or at the base of the drift. The easternmost well noted is on the farm of J. M. Horning in sec. 13, Norvell Township (T. 4 S., R. 2 E.). It is on the edge of a swamp, standing about 940 feet above tide or 100 feet lower than Mr. Horning's residence. It is 95 feet in depth and entered a blue rock at 80 feet which yields a weak flow that will rise 41 feet above the surface. L. M. Greene, of Brooklyn, has a well 41 feet deep and 3 inches in diameter, made in June, 1902, which flows about 3 feet above the surface. The water is chalybeate. George C. Greene has two flows 30 and 40 feet deep which strike sandstone at 29 to 30 feet. They penetrate about 10 feet of surface gravel, then a bed of blue clay, below which is another gravel bed resting on the sandstone. They flow about 1 gallon a minute and have a temperature of 52Â~ or 530 F. At the railway station in Brooklyn a well 45 feet deep strikes sandstone near bottom and water rises about level with the surface. G. M. Barstow, of Brooklyn, has a well 40 feet deep which flows a 11-inch stream from a 2-inch pipe. The well is cased to rock at 25 feet. Clyde Beckwith, of Norvell, has a well on ground 15 feet below the railroad station that flows one-half gallon a minute, with a reported head of 13 feet and temperature 530 F. There are several flowing wells in the village of Clarks Lake and east from there on the border of the lake and its outlet. The head is scarcely 10 feet above the lake, so flows are obtained only on the low ground. There are a number of. wells in the village that lack about 2 feet of flowing. The majority of the wells enter rock slightly. They are usually about 40 feet deep, but some are deeper. a See pp. 165-166, 169-170. ï~~JACKSON COUNTY. 137 A well owned by Dr. W. W. Lathrop obtains a supply from gravel without reaching the rock. It is 36 feet deep and 3 inches in diameter, and has a head of 7 feet above the lake. It is on the south bank of the lake, only 10 feet from the water's edge. It passed through 8 feet of mixed clay and gravel, and then 19 feet of blue clay to waterbearing gravel. A strong stream gushed up, bringing small stones to the mouth of the well. After two years the flow, which had become somewhat reduced, was restored to its full strength by plunging a gas pipe into the well. There is a flow about a mile south of Clarks Lake at the side of the road running to Cement City. It is situated in a swamp that heads westward from Grand River to Goose Creek, a tributary of Raisin River, and thus is on the divide between Lake Michigan and Lake Erie. The wells in Clarks Lake village are just east of this divide. The water in the wells around Clarks Lake is said to be rather hard, and as the wells terminate in sandstone, which would furnish but little calcareous material, there is a strong probability that the calcareous water from the drift fills the sandstone. The higher land bordering the depressions in which the flowing wells are found may thus have a water table in the drift which gives the head to the flowing wells. The following data concerning flows at Clarks Lake were obtained by Mr. Udden in 1904: L. W. Beach; 3-inch well, 61 feet deep, drilled in 1895, struck sandstone at 59 feet; flow 33 gallons a minute, with head exceeding 5 feet; water hard, sulphurous, and chalybeate. It is carried to a hotel by hydraulic ram. Jacob F. Loeb; 11-inch well, 30 feet deep, made in 1901, struck sandstone; water chalybeate, with head of 21 feet, and flow 2 gallons a minute. E. B. Cooper; 2-inch well, 42 feet deep, made in 1900, struck sandstone; flows 12 gallons a minute, with a head of more than 5 feet. B. F. Grazioni; 21-inch well, 51 feet deep, drilled in 1899, struck sandstone at 31 feet; flows 15 gallons a minute, with head exceeding 3 feet. J. F. Ebbert; well 40 feet deep, one-half inch diameter, made in 1899; flow from gravel, one-half gallon a minute, with temperature 530 F. The names of 19 other well owners are given in Mr. Udden's notes in connection with these flowing wells, but it is not stated whether flows were obtained in every case, nor any data given concerning them. ï~~138 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGA*N. WATER SUPPLIES OF WASHTENAW COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Washtenaw County, of which Ann Arbor is the county seat, has a great diversity of surface, ranging from the sharpest of morainic knolls to very flat old lake bottom. A prominent morainic belt with accompanying outwash gravel plains occupies the western range of townships and swings eastward across the northern edge of the western half of the county. It is dotted with lakes, many of which are held in deep basins among sharp knolls. The wells in this region are often sunk to depths of 100 feet or more. East of this morainic belt is a tract of 150 square miles or more in which the surface is gently undulating and largely of loose-textured till in which wells are generally shallow. This is succeeded on the east by a prominent morainic belt that runs from the northeast to the southwest corner of the county and occupies a strip 4 to 6 miles wide. In this belt wells are frequently 100 to 150 feet, and occasionally 250 feet in depth, though wells 50 feet or less in depth are not uncommon, and in the southwestern part are generally shallow. East of this morainic belt is a sag which was utilized largely as a line of glacial drainage outside or west of a later moraine, known as the Defiance moraine. The wells are generally shallow along this sag. On the Defiance moraine they frequently reach depths of 100 feet or more in the northeastern part of the county, but are generally shallow from Huron River southwestward. Immediately east of this moraine the lake plain sets in which extends eastward to Lake Erie. The elevation of its western edge is about 800 feet, but drops to less than 650 feet in the southeastern part of the county. This lake plain is largely covered with gravel and sand in Ypsilanti Township and southward to the county line, but is mainly clay elsewhere. The wells are ordinarily shallow on the sandy tracts, but on the clay they reach depths of 100 to 150 feet in many instances, this being about as difficult a region as any in the county in which to obtain shallow wells. It is on the clay in the southern part of the county that the flowing wells of part of the York district occur, which are discussed in connection with those of Lenawee and Monroe counties (pp. 82-86). The use made of flowing wells in this county is probably as great as in any in the State. Aside from the large flowing-well district that extends from York and Saline townships into Lenawee County, there are strong flowing wells at Ypsilanti supplying the waterworks, and at and near Ann Arbor supplying the waterworks and a few family wells. Another strong supply is on the Steere celery farm, 4 miles south of Ann Arbor, and in the district extending thence ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 139 nearly to Ann Arbor. There are a score or more of flowing wells in the village of Manchester, and a small district with strong flows midway between Manchester and Chelsea. In addition to these as indicated below are scattered flows in valleys on low tracts at several points within the county. Springs are a conspicuous feature in much of the county, and together with general seepage give to the streams a strong dryweather flow. The map of the Ann Arbor quadrangle a shows the effect of marsh land along the drainage lines. The head produced by the accumulation of water in the moraines causes a marshy condition of the valleys by the continual seepage, and from the marshes the streams are fed. The utilization of springs in the vicinity of Ann Arbor has been considerable, and is treated in the discussion of the supplies of that city. The springs are generally of fresh water with but little sulphur or iron. There are, however, a few that are highly mineralized and produce a coating on objects over which the water flows. An occasional salt spring is reported. One of these gave the name to Saline village and river; it is located just south of the village in the valley of the river and was a conspicuous deer lick and was also used by the Indians in the manufacture of salt. It gushed up from considerable depth and built a mound at its place of discharge. A boring was sunk many years ago a few yards from the edge of the spring to determine if salt beds were present within convenient depth to mine. The boring was carried 150 feet without reaching the bottom of the drift, and the drillers became discouraged and abandoned it. Although only a few yards from the salt spring this boring struck a strong flow of fresh water. It is probable that the salt water found its way up from the rock strata containing salt, for the drift can scarcely be supposed to yield water of such salinity as this spring is reported to have possessed. The spring still discharges but is said to have become much fresher after the test boring was made, probably through the inflow of a large volume of fresh water opened by the boring. This county is chiefly drained by Huron River and its tributaries, but the southern part is drained by Raisin River, and the northeastern by River Rouge, while a few square miles on the western border are drained by Grand River. The Huron flows through Dexter, Ann Arbor, and Ypsilanti, and may eventually be utilized to supply the waterworks of these places. The village of Manchester may take a public supply from Raisin River, though the flowing-well conditions there are such as to encourage development for a public supply. Saline River, a tributary of the Raisin, may be utilized for public supplies by the villages of Saline and Milan, which have not as yet been able to find an adequate supply from wells to warrant a Obtainable in separate form from the United States Geological Survey; price, 5 cents. ï~~140 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. building a waterworks plant. Milan now has fire protection from Saline River, the pumping being done at the electric light plant. The supplies from rock in Washttnaw County are generally poor because of the salinity of the water. Some of the wells in the southern part of the county, however, obtain a fresh water and so do wells in the northwestern part, the former from limestone and the latter from the Marshall sandstone. The Coldwater shale, which immediately underlies the drift, in a considerable part of the county yields very little water and that is usually salt. Wells that penetrate the black Devonian shale in the southeastern part of the county often strike gas, in some cases in amounts sufficient to justify piping to dwellings for light. The gas is in some cases found in beds of sand and gravel that overlie the rock. The occurrence of gas has led to the organization of a company to drill in and near Ypsilanti for gas and oil, not only in the Devonian shale but also to lower horizons. Several deep borings have been made in Ypsilanti, two at Ann Arbor, and one at Milan, none of which found anything of value but salt water after entering the rock and casing out the fresh water found in the drift. Some use has been made of the salt water for baths at two of the deep wells in Ypsilanti. Water from a depth of 930 feet in the well on the University Campus at Ann Arbor was found to contain about 13 per cent of salts as follows, the analysis being made under the direction of Prof. E. D. Campbell of the University: Analysis of brine in campus well, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.a Parts per Parts per million, million. Sodium (Na)............... 30,008.98 Sulphate radicle (SO4)_....... 11, 524. 30 Magnesium (Mg)............. 3, 121.01 Calcium (Ca)................ 13, 464.07 128, 805.00 Chlorine (Cl)................ 70, 686.64 Saturated with hydrogen sulphide. ANN ARBOR. GENERAL SUPPLIES. The city of Ann Arbor, county seat of Washtenaw County, and seat of the State University, is located on Huron River 35 miles west of Detroit. There is strongly morainic topography in and around the city, and between the moraines are lines of glacial drainage filled with gravel and sand. These deposits of gravel and sand lie above the present river level and rest upon beds of till. Wells are obtained in them at depths ranging from 15 to 80 feet. Numerous hillside springs occur at the junction of the gravel with the underlying till, and at the borders of the moraines. Several of these springs a Expressed by analyst in percentages and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 182 PL. IV A. TYPE OF DRILLING APPARATUS USED AT YPSILANTI AND VICINITY. B. BONSTEEL FLOWING WELL IN 1902.?,0 Showing old wooden casng and size of stream thirty-two years after its completion. The original flow was. a 3-inch stream. ï~~ ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 141 have been developed and one has been turned into the waterworks supply. There are also springs which appear to boil up through the till. In addition to the natural supplies from the river and from springs the city is favored with strong flowing wells, largely developed by the Ann Arbor Water Company, and other supplies from the glacial drift and its associated gravel and sand. Water from the rock formations beneath the city is found to be brackish and not suitable for drinking. FLOWING WELLS. The flowing wells, so far as developed, are in a recess in a moraine in the western part of the city. Subsequent to the withdrawal of the ice sheet this recess was occupied by Huron River, which at one time flowed southward from Ann Arbor. The river made a deposit of gravel and sand in this recess in the moraine. This deposit has been trenched by modern drainage, and the flowing wells are chiefly in these trenches. The shallower flows obtain their supplies at the base of this deposit of gravel and sand without entering till, but the deeper ones pass on through till to water beds associated with it. The supply for the shallow wells is not entirely from water falling on the immediate borders of this recess, there being along the ravine in which they are located several springs which appear to rise from considerable depth, and which may be fed from sources more remote than the bordering slopes of the moraine. Observations on one spring, conducted through an entire year, showed a constant water temperature of 510 F.; thus agreeing very closely with the temperature of the deeper flowing wells. This seems to indicate that the water comes from a depth sufficient to be unaffected by seasonal temperatures and probably from as deep seated a source as that which supplies the wells which pass through till. The wells first made passed through till and reached depths of 75 to 150 feet, the deepest being nearly down to bed rock. Several were in operation prior to 1895, when the Ann Arbor Water Company began an extensive development of the district. Some were located on the north side of West Huron street, on the old bed of Huron River or in a ravine trenched in it. Others were along a ravine two blocks south on the south side of West Washington street. The water company has developed only the latter strip, but by so doing has lowered the water table north of Huron street sufficiently to stop all the wells from flowing. The wells in the same ravine with the water company's wells are nearly all maintaining a flow, but much less vigorous than at first. When first made they discharged several gallons a minute from 2-inch pipes, but now only discharge 1 to 2 gallons a minute. The only private wells now in operation are one 80 feet deep on the Allmendinger property, a few rods northeast of the ï~~142 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. waterworks pumping station; one 74 feet deep on the Hutzel property, a few rods north; and one on the Lutz property, 112 feet deep, about one-eighth mile west of the pumping station. The Allmendinger and Lutz wells supply fish ponds and are also used for drinking. The Hutzel is used chiefly for drinking. The head of the Hutzel well is said to have been 22 feet when made about 1894, but is now only 5 feet. Part of this decrease is perhaps due to leakage around the pipe. The A lmendinger, well, also made about 1894, is reported to have had a head of 20 feet, but now barely overflows. There is some leakage in this well which makes it impracticable to get the full head. Another well on the same property was so reduced after the water company wells were made that it was abandoned. The head in the Lutz well is only 3 feet, but no data have been obtained as to whether it was once greater. There is close sympathy between the Hutzel well and the water company's wells near it, for it is stated by the superintendent of the waterworks that almost immediately after the pumps are stopped and the flow of the water company's wells shut off this well increases its flow about one-third, Temperature observations have been made monthly for a year on the Hutzel and Lutz wells. The former has been constant at 510 F.; the latter has only ranged from 50.80 to 51.10, and this may be due to the effect of the atmosphere on the escape pipe. WATERWORKS AT ANN ARBOR. The supply furnished by the Ann Arbor Water Company was divided for a few years, from 1886 to 1895, between Huron River and a group of flowing wells and springs north of the city. But a prejudice against river water having arisen, the water company developed another tract of flowing wells within the city limits and thus made it possible to dispense with the use of river water except perhaps at times when the consumption is unusually great. It has built a second pumping station at the wells inside the city limits, and this station it claims now furnishes about three-fifths of the supply. A reservoir with a capacity of 2,500,000 gallons was built in connection with the first pumping station and stands about 200 feet above it on the most elevated point in the city (about 1,000 feet above sea level); the second station supplies for the same reservoir. For fire protection the city has had only the reservoir pressure, which ranged theoretically from about 30 pounds per square inch in elevated residence parts of the city to 100 pounds on low ground along Huron River. The distribution system when the works were put in operation had only 14 miles of mains, but with the growth of the city and increased use of the public supply the mains have been extended to about 40 ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 143 miles. Nearly 30 miles are of cast-iron pipe from 16-inch down to 4-inch, and in the remainder wrought-iron pipe, chiefly 2-inch or less, is used. The size most extensively used is 6-inch, and the smaller sizes are being replaced by this size. At present there are about 2,400 private taps and 150 meters in use, which, together with water supplied to the city and to the university, called for a daily average supply in 1904 of about 1,800,000 gallons. There is an occasional demand in dry seasons for 3,000,000 gallons or more. a Prof. I. C. Russell, in an examination made in June, 1905, for the city council of Ann Arbor, determined the present condition of the wells of the water company as follows: Station 1 (in Huron Valley): One tank well 25 by 30 feet, gravel bottom, brick lined, with four tubular wells in bottom (one 2-inch and the others 6-inch), extending to about 120 feet from the surface of the ground, which discharge into the tank well; a collecting gallery or trench which originally had in its bed several tubular flowing wells 60 to 120 feet in depth, of which only three are now flowing; one 6-inch well 100 feet deep, from which water is pumped for condensing purposes and then turned into the city supply;b one dug well, about 8 feet deep, near the pumping station; two dug wells 9 feet deep fed by springs in a valley across Huron River; a 12-inch receiving pipe still connected with Huron River. The water pumped at this station in 1904 averaged 738,356 gallons daily, as shown by the books of the water company. c At station 2 (in the western part of Ann Arbor) there are 57 wells in use which range in diameter from 2.5 to 8 inches. About 50 of these are driven past a bed of till into a water-bearing bed and have depths of 75 to 150 feet or more. The remainder obtain their supply from the surface sand and gravel at depths of scarcely 30 feet. Nearly all discharge into a large receiving well near the pumping station. The manager of the water company claims to be able to get 1,700,000 gallons daily from this supply and to have averaged 925,000 gallons in the year 1904. To increase the supply at this second pumping station, water from White Spring, which issues from a hillside just west of the city limits, was connected in 1905 with the supply from wells. In addition to the fifty-seven wells now in use there are several wells that are clogged, apparently by precipitates on their strainers. Means for estimating the prospects of this supply are not adequate enough to justify a positive statement. It is merely known that the head in private wells near by in the same ravine with those of the water company has fallen from about 22 feet above the surface to less than 5 feet, and that wells on adjacent higher ground have ceased flowing. The latter wells, however, appear to stand fully as near the surface in 1905 as they did in 1902, thus indicating that the process of lowering is at a standstill. a Data furnished by A. K. Hale, manager of the water company. b The original supply for condensing purposes was drawn from Huron River, and the superintendent of the waterworks states that the intake pipe is still in place; also that there are two other wells that may be drawn upon for condensing purposes. c The superintendent estimates that 90 per cent of this amount comes from the tank well and the collecting gallery, and scarcely 10 per cent from the wells used for condensing purposes. ï~~144 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The shallow wells supplied by water not confined by clay or other impervious bed are reported to pass through a few feet of peaty material, then fine sand saturated with water, to a coarser sand or fine gravel at bottom, resting apparently on the surface of the till. The sand being relatively slow to transmit water compared with the gravel beneath, it acts virtually as a cover to the water flowing through the gravel, so that the water working through the gravel from higher tracts to the west has sufficient head to rise in the pipes and overflow when borings are sunk to it, just as is done by the deeper-lying water under the till. The wells which pass through till into lower water beds show sections that differ widely in structure, there being in some a considerable thickness of water-bearing material interbedded with the till, while in others the till is a nearly unbroken sheet from the surface down to the rock. The weak wells are at points where the water beds in the till are very thin or are wanting. The strong wells are at points where there is a good development of gravel or coarse sand in the till. The till itself is not uniform, the upper part being a soft adhesive blue clay, while the lower part is a hard or partly cemented clay thickly set with stones and apparently of greater age than the overlying soft clay. The water beds in wells 140 to 150 feet or more in depth are interbedded with the hard clay or lie at the base of the drift series. Analyses of water.-The following analyses from each pumping station were made at the chemical laboratory of the University of Michigan in June, 1905, under the direction of Prof. E. D. Campbell: Analyses of water from Ann Arbor pumping stations. Parts per million. Per cent of total solids. 1. 2. 1. 2. Carbonates (CO3)..................................... 175 2 166 1 38.87 39.97 Sulphates (SO4)...------------------------------------96 9 76.8 21.49 18. 48 Chlorine (Cl)........................................... 3.7 8 5.82 2.05 Nitrates (NOs)-------.................--------------------------------.............................-.4.12.08.02 Calcium (Ca)............................................. 115.6 105 3 25 65 25.34 Magnesium (Mg)........................................... 27.8 30.8 6.16 7.42 Sodium (Na)............................................... 4 7 4.2 1.04 1.01 Potassium (K)...................................... 5.6 4 9 1 24 1.18 Silica (Si02).................................. 17 16. 2 3, 77 3. 88 Alumina (Al20..).................................... 1.6.6.36.19 Ferric oxide (Fe20~)........................................ 2.3 1.9.52.46 450.8 415 6 100 100 Specific gravity......................................... 1.0006 1.0006................ Total sohlids found..................................... 491.9 450 2...... Sample No. 1, Ann Arbor water, pumping station No.1, known as upper station; composite sample from all wells at this station. Sample No. 2, Ann Arbor water,.punlpipg station No. 2, between Washington and Liberty streets, known as lower station; compo ite pample from all wells at this station. The spectroscope gave no test for strontium and lithiu.. No nitrites were found. The difference between the total solids found on evaporation and the.total solids in columns 1 and 2 is water of crystallization, in large part due to the formation of gypsum (CaSO4,2HiO ). The water was clear when collected, but upon standing became cloudy, owing to the escape of the carbon dioxide (CO2) and the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Almost all the salts in the water will form scale in boilers, but the water would be much improved by soltening with sodium carbonate (soda ash), either alone or in conjunction with calcium hydroxide (milk of lime). ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 145 Sanitary analyses have been made at frequent intervals at the hygienic laboratory of the University of Michigan. The water has been found safe for drinking, except when surface water has gained access to the supply, and Dr. V. C. Vaughan, the director of the laboratory and dean of the medical school of the university, states that in the twenty years since the waterworks has been in operation he has learned of no case of disease that can be referred to contamination of this water supply. The sanitary surroundings of the shallow wells, however, is such that their use should be discontinued. WATERWORKS. YPSILANTI. The public supply at Ypsilanti is from a group of flowing wells in the Huron River Valley in the southeastern part of the city. The location seems an unwise one, since the city, with all its contamination by cesspools, naturally drains past the waterworks plant. The plant might easily have been located above the city, and thus have avoided this chance for contamination. The wells are 60 to 80 feet in depth and obtain water from gravel below a blue till. The head is sufficient to cause the water to rise only a few feet above the surface. The wells made prior to 1904 are situated around and discharge into a large receiving well, from which water is pumped to a water tower 190 feet above the wells and 75 feet above the high ground in its vicinity. The supply from the flowing wells became inadequate in 1903, but new wells were added in 1904, which, by heavy pumping, yield enough to meet the present demands. The following section of one of the wells made in 1904 was furnished by the driller, W. J. Richards: Record of well at Ypsilanti waterworks. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface m aterial.................- --........- -.......................... 8 8 Hard stony clay- -----.. -----------..... -----------........ ---...28 36 Gravel with water, rather muddy............................................... 2 38 Hard stony clay........---------------------. --.......-------. ---------.........4 42 Gravel with artesian water..................-...................--..... 26 68 Diameter of well, 8 inches; cost, 32.25 per foot; flow, 25 gallons a minute; head 4 feet above surface, or 685 feet above tide; temperature, 51.5Â~ F. It may be thought that the addition of new wells from time to time may keep the city supplied. The water is chalybeate and hard, but is of pleasant taste. The chances for contamination depend on the protection offered by the clay cover against the access of the city drainage. ï~~146 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. CHELSEA. The water supply of Chelsea is from about 20 wells, 20 to 25 feet deep, arranged in an L-shaped system on a low tract in the northern part of the village. The water rises about to the surface, but is pumped. This system was put in operation in 1899. Prior to that time some 6-inch wells were in use, which not being properly protected became clogged with sand. It would seem wise to substitute for the present supply one outside the thickly settled part of the village. Several deep wells in the village obtain supplies from rock, which is struck at 90 to 110 feet. A village well 90 feet deep near the center of the business part of town is provided with a pump, and is utilized extensively. The following partial analysis, furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey, shows the character of the city supply at Chelsea. The water seems to be satisfactory for domestic purposes, but gives much trouble in boilers, and creek water has been pumped for this purpose: Partial analysis of well water at Chelsea. Parts per million. Color..............................----------------------------------------------------------------. 32 Iron (Fe)...............-------------------........................--------------------------------------- Trace. Clorine (Cl)................................---------------------------------------------------------. 12.5 Carbon dioxide (CO2) -----------------------------------------------....................... 147.92 Sulphur trioxide (XO3)................---------------------------------------------.......................... --110 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 18 feet. VILLAGE SUPPLIES. DEXTER. The village of Dexter has no waterworks system, the residents depending chiefly upon shallow dug wells, so that chances for contamination are very great. These wells in many cases are surrounded by privy vaults and stables. There are a few driven wells in the business part of town of shallow depth-30 feet or less-which are perhaps less liable to contamination than the dug wells, though not above suspicion. On the high ground in the southeast part of the village there are deeper wells, two of which have been driven into the rock and obtain a fresh supply said to be from sandstone. Inasmuch as there are abundant supplies of good water both underground and in the streams in the vicinity of this village from which a public supply might be obtained, there would seem to be no sufficient excuse for continuing the use of the shallow wells inside the village limits. ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 147 SALINE. Saline has no waterworks system. Many of the wells are dug 35 to 45 feet deep, but those in the northern part of the village are shallower. There are a few driven wells in the northeast part about 75 feet deep which are said to strike water which rises much nearer to the surface than in neighboring dug wells 40 to 50 feet deep. MILAN. There is only fire protection at Milan, and some difficulty is found in obtaining a supply suitable for domestic use. Several wells are driven to depths of over 100 feet. There are a few shallow flowing wells in the low ground along Saline River on the Monroe County side of the village, which are discussed in connection with the Milan-Cone flowing-well district (pp. 27-29). The village is a thriving town, and should have a waterworks system as soon as an adequate supply can be found. Possibly it will need to use river water, though this seems a poor supply except for fire protection and sprinkling, as the stream becomes low and foul in dry weather. In the table below are given a number of partial analyses of well waters in the vicinity of Milan, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The waters, as indicated by the percentage of CO2 are not very hard, for in most waters examined in Michigan it exceeds 130 parts per million. The analysis of the rock water from the Whitmarsh well is of interest for purposes of comparison: Partial analyses of well waters near Milan. [Parts per million.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Color............................................. 42 19 46 51 14 Iron (Fe).......................................... 2 Trace. Trace. 2 Trace. Chlorine (Cl).................................. 9 59 21.2 9 14 Carbon dioxide (CO) ).......................... 94. 18 121.36 108.87 122.15 64.81 Sulphur trioxide (SOd)...-.......................-29 185 113 -29 -29 Hardness (as CaCO3)............................ +139....... S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Throop, depth 116 feet. 2. Whitmarsh (rock), depth 144 feet. 3. Whitmarsh, depth 412 feet 4. Reves, depth 40 feet. 5. Wardlop, depth 62 feet. FLOWING WELLS. PITTSFIELD JUNCTION DISTRICT. In the old valley of Huron River leading south from Ann Arbor is a belt of flowing wells which has its chief development near Pittsfield Junction (T. 3 S., R. 6 E.), on the celery farm of J. B. Steere. Most of the wells are shallow, the average depth being about 28 feet, and the greatest 48 feet. They usually penetrate a few feet of peat, beneath which is a bed of clay, apparently a lake or stream sediment,which forms ï~~148 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the cover to the coarser material yielding the water. This clay is limited to the low part of the valley, the borders of the valley having generally a thick deposit of gravel, which probably absorbs the rainfall and also the drainage from the bordering uplands, and thus supplies the flowing-well district. Before wells were sunk in this valley strong springs gushed up at a few places, one of the strongest being on the celery farm. These springs are apparently from the same source as the wells. The first well in this district was made on the Steere farm in sec. 16 Pittsfield Township, in 1887, and there have been about 20 wells driven by Mr. Steere, 16 of which are now in operation. They range in depth from 26 to 32 feet. Water rises in them 3 to 7 feet above the surface. The wells are on the divide between Huron and Saline rivers, at an altitude of about 820 feet, the highest ground being 823 feet. The underground flow apparently passes from the district where these wells are located southwestward along the line of glacial drainage, but the head decreases in that direction, so that wells a mile southwest of the celery farm lack 2 feet of reaching the surface. The flows between the celery farm and Ann Arbor are scattered, there being two in the southwest part of section 9, on land belonging to John Lawrence, one in the southeast part of the same section on the land of F. Tichnor, and two in section 4 on the land of H. Schwab. Measurements of flow were made in August, 1904, as given in the table below. It is the opinion of the well owners that the flow is slightly less in dry seasons than in wet, but this has not yet been verified. Rate of fow and temperature of wells in Pittsfield Junction district. Flow per TemperaLocation. minute. ture. Gallons. F Steere well at north house, east side of road, 4-inch pipe................45 50 Steere well at middle house, east side of road, discharge pipe 1-inch_..............8.25 49.6 Steere well at south house, east side of road, discharge pipe 1-inch............. 6 49. 5 Steere well at house on west side of road, discharge pipe 1-inch-............... 6.25 49.7 Steere well 200 feet southwest of.ast-named well, 22-inch pipe-------.. -------...-----57.7 49.7 Well on west side of celery field, 3-inch a.............------------ 110 49.3 Lawrence well, farthest west in sec. 9, discharge pipe 4-inch---------------....................... -5.75 49.4 a About 4 feet from this well is a 2-inch well which draws from the same bed. When both wells flowed the 3-inch well yielded 90 gallons and the 2-inch 46 gallons a minute, or a total of 136 gallons. The 3-inch well when the 2-inch well was closed flowed 110 gallons, and the 2-inch well when the 3-inch was closed flowed 61 gallons. There is thus a gain of only 26 gallons per minute by the addition of the 2-inch well. These wells were measured by taking the height of the jet above the top of the pipe and calculating by the tables in Water-Supply Paper No. 67, page 92. Measurement of the first well in the above list was made by the rate of flow past a weir over which the water passes. The other wells were all measured by holding a 10-quart bucket under the stream. Observations of temperature on five of the wells in this district at four different dates show that they are less steady than the deeper wells at Ann Arbor, as well as lower in average temperature. It is a matter of interest to know whether wells located in a swamp have a lower average temperature than those located on dry ground, where the surface heat can more readily penetrate to considerable depth. ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 149 Variations in well temperature in Pittsfield Junction district. Temperature Well. June. July. August. November. Â~F" / F ]- oF. Â~F. Lawrence, western well............................... 48.9 49 49.4 50.8 Lawrence, eastern well.............................. 49.8 49.8 50 50 Steere, well at north house........................... 50 50 50 49.5 Steere, well at middle house.......................... 49.8 49.8 49.6 49.5 Steere, well at south house......................... 49.3 49 I 49 '49.5 Steere, well at west side of celery field................................... i 49.3 49.3 An analysis of the water at the north house on the Steere celery farm was made at the hygienic laboratory of the University of Michigan for the purpose of ascertaining its purity as a water supply. Sanitary analysis of Steere flowing well near Pittsfield Junction. Parts per million. Total residue........................................................... 295 Sodium chloride..................................................... 7 Nitrates................................................................ Trace. Nitrites................................................................ None. Free ammonia.......................................................0.0106 Albuminoid ammonia....................................................025 Hardness.............................................................. 178.57 SHARON TOWNSHIP. Several flowing wells have been obtained in the northeast part of Sharon Township (T. 3 S., R. 3 E.) at the eastern base of a prominent moraine that occupies much of these townships. They are chiefly in the recesses in the moraine from which the headwaters of Mill Creek flow. (See fig. 18.) Several of the wells have a discharge of about 8 gallons a minute, and one discharges more than a barrel a minute. Six have been fitted with half-inch reducers in order to lessen the flooding,,A caused by the overflow. The - ' -x A" deepest well reported is 70 3(,- ': feet, and several are about 50 -feet. The water is hard and c, strong in iron. Possibly rock Â~ is struck at the bottom of some 0Iz of the wells. This district can probably be extended westward along the line of Sharon and Sylvan FIG. 18.-Flowing wells in Sharon Township, Washtenaw County. townships up a valley, and possibly eastward a short distance into the plain east of this moraine. It is probable also that along Mill Creek Valley northeastward and along some of its tributaries flows can be obtained. Indeed, two wells on tributaries of Mill Creek have been reported to flow, but urn 182--O6-----11 ï~~150 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. were not visited. One is on the Spaulding farm, 2 miles south of Chelsea, and the other on the Fletcher farm, 21 miles southeast of Chelsea. Wells at Sharon. Letter Water Flow Ternon fig. r Sec- Owner. When Diam DepthEleva- rises per peration. made. eter. tion. tint 18. to-- minute. ture. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. o F. A 1 M. Kusterer................. 1901 2 70 937 939 8 52 A 2 J.. Houck.................... 1900 2 54 930 938 8 52 B 2.....do-....................... 2........ 930 932 8 52 C 2 J. Meyers-.................... - 2-........ 930 932 8 52 D 2.....do------------..... ---- _---- -2-........ 930 932 8 52 Ea 2 F. Everett (house).------... -.._ - 2 55 930 932 75 52 -F. Everett (barn)----------.............. 2 62 --- 75-------- 75........ a At the time of Leverett's visit in 1899 Mr. Everett had two flowing wells, each discharging about 75 gallons a minute from a 2-inch pipe; in 1904 these were found by Mr. Udden to be under control and supplied with faucets. The house well terminated in gravel, but the barn well, which is 57 feet deep, went through 2 feet of hard material at bottom, suspected to be Marshall sandstone. Sandstone was reached in a well 1 miles southeast in sec. 7, Freedom Township, at only 54 feet depth, and penetrated 48 feet, leaving no doubt as to its identity. MANCHESTER DISTRICT (T. 4 s., R. 3 E.). In the village of Manchester, on Raisin River in the southwestern part of Washtenaw County, are about 20 flowing wells 28 to 60 feet deep, all from the drift. The shallowest is on the lowest ground, but several on the highest ground at which flows are obtainable (900 feet above tide) are less than 40 feet in depth. The wells occur on both sides of Raisin River at levels 10 to 25 feet above the stream. The oldest well, that of W. Brighton, made in 1876, has been clogged, and its water now stands about 1 foot below the surface. A well made in 1883 is still flowing, but with reduced head. Wells made in 1884 are still flowing with about the original strength, and so are most of the wells made within the past twenty years. In two cases weak wells are reported to have increased slightly in strength. The flows range from about 1 quart a minute up to 6 gallons. The water contains enough hydrogen sulphide to be readily detected by the odor in most of the wells. This is probably produced by the decomposition of pyritiferous material in rocks included in the drift. Iron is also conspicuous in most of the wells. The catchment area for this district is immediately north and west of Manchester, in the gravel plain and morainic hills, which reach an altitude about 100 feet above the highest flowing well. Very little prospecting for flowing wells has been done in the neighboring part of Raisin River Valley, but it seems probable that flows could be obtained along the valley for some miles below Manchester. The flows thus far have proved inadequate to furnish a waterworks system in Manchester, the population of the village being about 1,200, but it is possible, if not probable, that large wells sunk to the ï~~WASHTENAW COUNTY. 151 water-bearing beds at 35 to 40 feet might give a sufficient amount. Raisin River, however, furnishes a suitable and convenient source for a public supply. Wells at Manchester.a Owner. When made. C. J. Thorn b............1901 W. Hensen c.............. 1883 M. Traubd--------------................ 1900 G. W. Kief--------------................1886 German Lutheran Church. 6. H. Pfuffle................ -1902 G. Goodyear.............. 1884 Geo. Roller............... 1899 W. Brightone...........1876 F. P. Maginn.............1888 Baptist parsonage........ 1899 C. Marx b................. 1890 C. Staeblerg-------------.............. -.... M. Scheible................ 1884 Mr. Staebler g..:............. Hildinger & Bowler....... - 1898 William Neubling-------......... 1893 J. M iller............................ Mr. Kemble...................... Manchester Canning and Packing Co.h............ 1902 Diam- Depth. Eleva- Water eter. Depth. tion. rises toInches. Feet. Feet. Feet. 1.25 39 890 891 2 37 887 890 1 38 898 899 1.25 60 897 898 2 40 897 898 1.25 36 892 893 1.5 40 894 895 1.5 40 894 894 3 38 895 894 1.5 57 897 898 1.5 40 897 898 1.25 40 892 891 1.25 40 892 893 2 35 888 890 1.25 40 892 893 2 35 890 890 2 38 900 900 2 38 900 900 2 28 885 889 2 40 890 895 Flow per Temper- Cost minute. ature. Cost. Gallons. 6 2.75.75 2.75 1 1 1 2.75.5 3 3.25 1.5 4 5 _J o F. 51.5 51 52 52 52 51 52 51 52 52 51 52 52.....52.. 52 52 52 52 52 $11 22 28 21 20 20 30 22 10 10 40 a Data collected and arranged chiefly by Jon A. Udden. b Has to be sand pumped once a year. Iron present in large quantity; also sulphur. Original water elevation, 896 feet. c Original water elevation; 898 feet. Large amounts of iron and sulphur. Sandy soil, 6 feet; blue clay, 27 feet; red hardpan, 1 foot; gravel and sand, 2 feet. d Flow is less in dry weather than in wet. Iron and sulphur present, e Well used to flow at surface, but has not been properly cared for. It was the first flowing well put down in the town. I Flow decreased by sand clogging. g Flow decreased by clogging. h Used for boilers; iron and sulphur present. Below are given a number of partial analyses of waters from Manchester, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The deeper waters are considered satisfactory, but the shallow water at the livery barn and elsewhere shows evidence of contamination. Partial analyses of well waters at Manchester. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. Color................................................................... 19 46 36 Iron (Fe)...... -------------------------------------------------Trace. Trace. 2.5 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)-----------------------------------------..................................................50 63 -29 Chlorine (Cl)............................................................ 19 9 1.5 Carbon dioxide (CO,).....-.......................................... 58.92 76.07 47.93 Hardness (as CaCO3).................................................... + 139.......... S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Livery barn; depth, 20 feet. 2. Freeman House, depth, 70 feet. 3. Dwelling; depth, 36 feet. ï~~152 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF ALLEGAN COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Allegan County fronts on Lake Michigan in the third tier of counties from the southern end of the State. It is drained chiefly by Kalamazoo River and its tributaries, but the southwestern part discharges through Black River into Lake Michigan at South Haven. The southeastern part is on the Kalamazoo moraine, but most of its eastern border is a gravel plain that lies between the Kalamazoo and Valparaiso morainic systems. The outer member of the Valparaiso system rises but little above the gravel plain, but forms, with the plain, a catchment area for flowing-well districts west of it, between its outer and inner members. Its inner member traverses the central part of the county from north to south. West of it are sandy plains known as the pine plains, which cover about five townships. West and north of these plains is a clayey till ridge, which in the south fronts on Lake Michigan, but farther north bears away from the lake. On its inner or northwestern slope, in northwestern Allegan and southwestern Ottawa counties, flowing wells have been obtained at several points. In the gravel and sand plains of Allegan County the wells are of shallow or moderate depths, 20 to 50 feet, but on the moraines they frequently reach depths of 100 feet, and occasionally 200 feet or more, though wells of moderate or even shallow depths are not uncommon. The flowing wells in the till plains are often 100 feet or more in depth, but usually wells that do not flow are much shallower. There are very few wells that have reached rock, the drift being from 90 to 300 feet or more in depth. WATERWORKS. There are public water supplies in Allegan, Plaizwell, and Otsego, though the supplies at the two last are only for fire protection and sprinkling, private wells being used for drinking and general domestic supply. ALLEGAN. a The public supply of Allegan is pumped from a well on the bank of Kalamazoo River. It is 37 feet deep and 24 feet in diameter. The works were installed in 1872, and have cost about $100,000 to date. There are 11 miles of mains, 89 hydrants, and about 800 taps. The average consumption is about 700,000 gallons, and the pumps have a capacity of 3,000,000 gallons. a Data collected by Jon A. Udden. ï~~ALLEGAN COUNTY. 153 OTSEGO AND PLAINWELL.a Each of these villages pumps its public supply from Kalamazoo River, the water being pumped direct to the mains with the pressure called for in the case of fire, which at Otsego runs as high as 180 pounds. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The data on village supplies presented in the following table were obtained chiefly by correspondence with residents of the respective villages: Village supplies in Allegan County. Town. Pop- Eleula- Vation. tion. Feet. Allegan----2,667 J 710 Brooklyn............ 789 Bravo.......... 200 661 Dorr........... 250 703 Douglass-...... 444 {6 Dunning......-----... - 672 East Saugatuck--...... 734 Fennville....... 454 662 Hamilton----......--...... 640 Hilliards....... 50 727 Hooper-........ 150 740 Hopkins....... 400 712 Lee............ 25 647 Martin----......... 300 837 Moline...-...... 150 808 New Richmond 75 59 Ohio Corners... -......750 Otsego-......... 2,073 718 31 {720 Plainwell---1,318 70 Shelbyville.... 100 835 Saugatuck..... 707 600 Watson........ 25 720 W 1 740 Wayland -... 619 760 t Depth_ Depth of wells. Depth Source. to tomhw D tr ead Springs rock. From- To- mon bed.ri Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Waterworks from driven 240 -.... -------- 2 wells. Driven wells-..... 170+ 80 174 (a) (a) + 10.....do.................. 10 30 20........ +2-10.....do........-...1..... 15 30 20 20 6....do...30 60 (?) (?) 1 (?)..... do...........16 65 25 25 - 16 Openwells..1..1 10 220 10 (?) {-12 )Driven wells-------.... 1 1J-15 or.l100--120 ---.. )lower. Tubular wells... 225 5 120 30 30..... No report- - --...... ----- ----..--- Driven wells...----....... - 40 75 (a) (a) - 20 Wells and stream....... 20 40 30 25 Surface Driven wells....---. --....... ---- 16 100 16 16 -2 18 -- 6 S.... do.................. 14 160 60 60 - 8.....do.................. 30 200+ { 0 30 - 30 --do...------ 25 120 40........ - 60....do.. 12 100-----......--- (a) (?) S do..---------90 30 90 (a) (a) - 10 Open and driven....... 20 20 20 20 15 wells and river..... do.................. 15 30 2 20 - 15 201f- 15Wek Driven wells.--.. --.... 42 100 46 80 {+ 36 }Weak.....do.--................. 15 50 20 20 (?) Do......do----------...........-....... 45...... 45----------- S....do........... 130 18 178 50 50 + 5 Do. a Variable. FLOWING WELLS. WATSON-OTSEGO DISTRICT. Reference has been made to the occurrence of flowing wells on the western or inner border of the eastern ridge of the Valparaiso morainic system. There are two districts, one lying north and the a Data from Manual of American Waterworks. ï~~154 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. other south of a prominent spur of morainic knolls in Watson Township (T. 2 N., R. 12 W.). The northern district is known as the Wayland, from Wayland village, which is situated on it. This was studied by Mr. Bowman and is discussed by him below. The southern district covers about 5 square miles in southern Watson and northern Otsego townships (see fig. 19). The location of wells and owners' names are from notes by Mr. Udden. R. 12 W. ti, I I IT716 15 ' I43 I -71 %, xr A TI O, N 'A 32 33 3436 AA,/ oA oA 5 3 2 2 4 A,-' " O I 12 01 e_____ 10__11_12 i'7 16 15143 I FIG. 19.-Location of flowing wells in Watson and Otsego townships, Allegan County, in relation to topography and drainage Wells in Watson-Otsego district. WATSON TOWNSHIP. OTSEGO TOWNSHIP. Grange Hall..................... Sec. 15 A. McEwerSec3 AlbertS Taylor-----Sec. 27 Mrs. Charles Edmonds.......... Sec. 4 Mr. Kitsmiller (2 wells).......... Sec. 33 John KrauseSec. 4 Charles Clock................... Sec. 34 Charles Moore.................... Sec. 4 Mrs. Helen Dugan................ Sec. 5 ï~~ALLEGAN COUNTY. 155 The following partial analyses are of two nonflowing wells near Watson, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton of the United States Geological Survey: Partial analyses of well waters near Watson. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color----.......-------------------------------------------------------------............................................... 46 32 Iron (Fe)..................................------------------------------------------------------------.............................1.5.5 Chlorine (C1)......................................----------------------------------------------------------........................ 1.5 1.5 Carbon dioxide (CO,)-------------------------------------------------............................................................. 134.55 111.68 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)--------------------------------------------------............................................................ 5 5 Hardness (as CaCO3).............................................................-------------------------------------------------- 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst, 1. F. H. Tefft; depth, 68 feet. 2. John L. Hughes; depth, 92 feet. WESTERN PART OF COUNTY. Mr. Udden reports that there are scattered flowing wells southwest of Allegan in Cheshire Township, but he did not secure data on them. It is probable that flowing wells could be obtained along the valley of Kalamazoo River and its main tributary, Rabbit River, for wells on the slopes give a head above the level of the valley bottom, but whether flows have yet been obtained was not learned. GRAATSCHAP AREA.a One mile west of the village of Graatschap, in sec. 2, T. 4 N., R. 16 W., is a single flowing well on the property of H. M. Lemmer. It is on the western slope of a moraine at an altitude about 65 feet above Lake Michigan. The flow occurs near the tiny valley of a short unnamed stream tributary to Lake Michigan. The head is only a few inches above the surface and the flow 1 pint a minute. The well was drilled in 1896 and has a depth of 90 feet. In a branch of the same valley a mile south of Graatschap the water in tubular wells is within a few inches of the surface, and flows might be secured by trenching. On the east side of this moraine, in an intermorainic basin between Graatschap and Overisel, the water rises almost to the surface in the wells. The bordering moraines are the probable catchment areas for all these wells. WAYLAND AREA.a The Wayland flowing-well district, in eastern Allegan County, comprises an area of about 30 square miles and is one of the largest in western Michigan. The flows occur near the headwaters of Rapid River, which is formed by the junction of three smaller streams a By Isaiah Bowman. ï~~156 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. draining a triangular intermorainic basin. It is between the moraine which bounds this basin on the east and the two streams at the base of the triangle that the flows occur. There are no flows west of the streams, the water supply here coming from local pockets at variable depths in the moraine. The following table is arranged roughly in 25 30 29 HIL 27 R T.3N., R.12W. I R \\ 1.11G HILLS 3 FIG. 20.-Map of Wayland flowing-well district, Allegan County. three series following the occurrence of the wells from the head of each of the converging streams down the valley to their confluence. The decrease of head in this direction locates the catchment area in the moraine lying east of the wells: ï~~3 13 36 A 3 12 19 L 3 1220 M 4 11 21 M 4 11 29 L 4 11 21 K 4 11 29 I 4 11 29 I 411 30 G 4 11 32 A 4 11 32 B 4 11 31 F 3 11 7 A 3 11 7 B 3 11 7 D 3 11 7 D 3 12 12 A 3 12 13 B 3 12 13 C 3 12 13 E 3 12 14 G 3 1224 F 3 12 24 D 3 12 24 V 3 12 20 W 3 12 36 T 3 12 36 S 3 12 36 R 3 12 26 Q 3 12 27 P 3 12 27 O0 3 12 27 N 3 12 20 K 3 12 29 I 3 12 29 J ALLEGAN COUNTY. Wells at Wayland. Owner. Driller. When Eleva- Water I made. Depth. tion. rises to' Feet. Feet. Feet. A. Lohrberg...... H. Webber. 1897 77 737 762 Wm. Ederle...... G.:Webber.. 1884 90 707 7064 D. B. Kidder.................... 100 707 707 A. Brogg......... C. Ladd. 1892 80 768 772 J. Steeby......... W.Griswold 1896 71 768 772 M r. Tobin.................................... 752..... M. C. Heyward... L. Morford. 1892 50 752 775 E. Smith...........do... 1892 80 757 759 G. B. Chambers......do.....1891 73.. +1 L. A. Walsh...........o...... 1900 33...... +4 J. D. Stockdale (4.....(10do...... 1889 48............... wells) Wayland (grist-.....(o1..... 1896 178 745 749 mill). D. Iuttleston.... L. Shay.... 1892 108 723 743 D. J. Sigeler...... J. L. Smith. 1901 131 753 777 A. R. Johnston...........................50 759 762 A. Damoth....... L. Morford. 1896 90 755 777 S. W. Parker..... S. W. Parker 1890 277 727 745 J. Huggard....... B. Catt.. 1889 130 730 730 B. Farnhamn...... C. Yaekly... 1893 140 726 736 C. Simpkins..... S. Yaekly.. 1895 86 723 725 F. Wilcox................................... 734. W. M. Buskirk... W. Brown.. 1884.115 727 729 A. Baker...... C. Yackly... 1895 174 736 740 W. G. McClintock Brown & 1883 80 710 720 Brophy...do.................do...... 1883 108......... 710 Perry............ B. Catt..... 1886! 88 711 715 J. Blair......... H. Norton.. 1887 96 716 727 School district.....do...... 1892 No. 1. I. A. Buskirk...................1901 127 702 706 J. O'Brien....................................... 702 708 S. Preslay.............................. 100 702 708 C. A. Overheiser..i W. Brown.. 1883 109 694 697 P. Baker.........A. Webber.. 1887 65 709 708 Walter Bulmer..!.....do...... 1887 65 709 708 Wm. Bulmer..........do...... 1904 67 709 708 157 Flow Temper mi- peramin- tore. ute. Galls. o F. 2 51.2 &..... 2 50.8 (l..............52 25 50.8 S 52. 4 50.6 4 51.2 5 51.1 4 52.2 4 51.1 1. 51.7 6 51.2 12 6 50.2 1 53.3 * 52 4. *. 2 2 2 -.... g - 14 52 2 50.8 U 52.2 it 53.1 21 51.3 2 51.2 4. A marked and extraordinary characteristic of the Wayland flows is the occurrence at greatly differing depths in each of a variable succession of clay, sand, and gravel layers, and the uniform increase of head toward the east of all the flows, whether from slight or great depth. The direction of increase points to a supply from the moraine on the eastern border of the basin. Wells at Wayland are driven at the rather uniform cost of $1 per foot. The diameter of the pipe used in nearly all cases is 2 inches. The water is everywhere chalybeate in character, most strongly so in the shallower wells between Bradley and Wayland. The development of the area began about 1883 and has continued up to the present, so that the limits of the area are pretty closely defined, although many more flows could be obtained, especially in the southwestern part between the well of A. Lohrberg and Hopkins station. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to obtain artesian water near here, but always on the moraines near by and at an altitude above the head of the known flows. ï~~158 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The inhabitants of Wayland village are supplied from individual wells, those which flow being located on the lower ground on the north side of the village. Not only the health of the inhabitants but also the proper protection of property commends the installation of a village water system to which the flowing-well supply seems admirably adapted. Some of the Wayland well drillers maintain that the head of the wells is decreasing, following closely a reported lowering of the water level in the adjacent morainal lakes attributed to better drainage of the area than formerly. Specific data show that such decrease may with better reason be referred to the sand-choked condition of many, if not most, of the wells, a condition depending on the lack of screens in so many of the Wayland wells. When sand pumped the original head is nearly if not quite resumed. A number of cases of interference by a second well near the first have been taken to indicate a very limited supply, but the wells in question are so near each other and both have, on account of their location, such a small head (about 2 feet) that the mutual interference is easily noticeable, an effect which is commonly present but not noticed in wells of greater head. Moreover the wells are shallow here and a study of the well depths in the above table shows artesian water down to rock and beyond, so that no doubt need be entertained of the adequacy of a supply for the village, if the supply is drawn from a considerable depth. Record of Wayland gristmill well (sec. 31, T. 4 N., R. 11 W.). Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface sand................................................................... 15 15 Clay with pockets of sand...............................................115 130 Sandstone................................................................... 49 178 The flow continued from top of sandstone, but the water was constantly roiled by the clay from above until a depth of 178 feet-was reached. Record of S. W. Parker flowing well (sec. 12, T. 3 N., R. 12 W.). Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface sand................................................................... 4 4 Gray clay........................................................ 11 15 Coarse water-bearing sand................................................. 92 107 Water bearing quartz gravel, with head of water of -4 feet.................... 5 112 Sandstone with water near bottom............................................ 130 242 "True hard rock" at 242 feet. ï~~ALLEGAN COUNTY. Record of B. Farnham flowing well (sec. 13, T. 3 N., R. 12 W.). 159 Clay.. I ClHardpany.......................................................... Hardpan---------------------------------------------------- Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 128 12 12 14 8 0 Water-bearing gravel at 140 feet. Record of C. A. Overheiser flowing well (sec. 27). Thickness. Feet. Total. Feet. 60 80 100 105 109 Clay......................................................................... Q uicksand..................................................................... Alternate layers of quicksand and clay......................................... Hardpan...................................................... Water-bearing gravel and sand.................................................. 60 20 20 5 4 Record of J. Blair flowing well (sec. 36). Record of J. Blair flowing wall (sec. 36). Clay......................................................................... Gravel.......................................................................... Record of W. G. McClintock flowing well (sec. 24). _I Loam. - Loam.......................................................................... I Gravel.............................. Blue clay...................................................... G ravel........................................................................... H ardpan...................................................................... Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 4 26 3 75 10 2 10 1 10 4 0 5 7 8 Water-bearing gravel at 108 feet. Record of D. T. Sigeler flowing well (sec. 7, T. 3 N., R. 11 W.). Thickness. Total. { Sand................................................................................... Thin alternating layers of sand and clay, sand water bearing in wet seasons only. Clay layers becoming thinner and harder.............................. Coarse gravel................................................... Flow began at 80 feet and continued to last depth given except in clay layers. Feet. 20 20 87 4 Feet. 20 40 127 131 The Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway made a test well near its station in Wayland in 1905 which penetrated sand 25 feet, clay 120 feet, sand 10 feet, sandstone 42 feet, making a total depth of 197 feet. After passing through the clay a small flow was obtained in the lower sand, but the pipe was driven firmly down to the rock and a stronger flow obtained after penetrating the rock a short distance. The flow from this well appears to have lowered the head in surrounding wells, but after flowing a short time it lost head until in ï~~160 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. July, 1905, the water in it stands 21 feet below the surface of the ground. The test has therefore proved unsuccessful in obtaining a strong flow, but by going as deep as the Parker well in sec. 12 there is possibility of an increase in the supply, unless the sandstone proves too close textured. Below are given partial analyses of waters from drift and rock wells at Wayland, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The similarity of the two is striking. Partial analyses of well waters at Wayland. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color............................................................................---------------------------------------------------------------.. 24 19 Iron (Fe)-----------------------------------------------------------.......................................................................... --1 1 Chlorine--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................... 1.5 1.5 Carbon dioxide (C02) ------------------------------------ ---------------................. 83.1 80.02 Sulphur trioxide...................................................................------------------------------------------------------- 0 Hardness (as CaCO3)............................................................. -----------------------------------139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. A. H. Clark (rock); depth, 145 feet. 2. D. Stockdale (drift); depth, 26 feet. WATER SUPPLIES OF BARRY COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Barry County is situated north of Kalamazoo County and east of Allegan. Its southern part embraces a reentrant angle where the Kalamazoo moraine of the Lake Michigan lobe connects with the contemporary moraine of the Saginaw lobe. An elevated gravel plain stands in this reentrant angle, on which the villages of Prairieville, Delton, Milo, and Hickory Corners are situated. The moraines and also the gravel plains are thickly set with small lakes which occupy depressions 25 to 100 feet or more below the surrounding land. The moraine just referred to passes eastward along the south side of Thornapple River. A later moraine lies north of the river, and this connects near the northwest corner of the county with the Yalparaiso moraine of the Lake Michigan lobe. There is an extensive gravel plain in the reentrant angle lying south of the point where these moraines connect, which covers parts of Yankee Springs, Rutland, and Thornapple townships. Wells are often sunk to depths of 100 feet and in some cases 200 feet or more on the moraines, but on the gravel plains water is obtained at about the level of the lakes, or 25 to 50 feet depth. Mr. Bowman has discussed the public water supplies of Hastings and Nashville, which are obtained from flowing wells, and also a flowing-well district at Woodland in the northeastern part of the county (see p. 163). ï~~BARRY COUNTY. 161 WATERWORKS.a HASTINGS. The city water supply at Hastings, the county seat of Barry County, is derived from one bricked dug well 18 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, and from six 4-inch wells 55 feet deep. Six 4-inch pipes without screens have been driven into the bottom of the open well, increasing the supply. The dug well is just outside the pumping station, which is on a terrace 12 feet above the surface of Thornapple River and 150 feet south of it, at an altitude of 788 feet. The driven wells are 9 feet lower, or but 3 feet above the normal river level, being located on a narrow flood-plain strip on the immediate bank of the stream. The pumps in the six wells were at first adjusted to take the natural flow at river level which, together with the supply from the dug well, was about 600,000 gallons daily. Later, an increase of supply became necessary and the air-lift system was introduced, which, at a pressure of 26 pounds to the square inch, immediately increased the possible combined maximum daily draft on all the wells to 1,500,000 gallons. To secure still further increase it is proposed to drive, in the spring of 1905, six 8-inch wells in the bottom of the open well in addition to the six 4-inch wells already there. It is suggested that an increase can be more readily obtained with less interference of flow in the present well by sinking wells some distance up or down the river instead of so near the wells already installed. The capacity of the pumps being 1,500,000 gallons daily and the average actual amount pumped about 400,000 gallons daily, the desired increase is rather for greater ease of pumping and corresponding economy in machinery and fuel than for any real necessity. The present system was established in 1887. Water is furnished to over 800 families. The preceding data were furnished by F. W. Collins, engineer at the pumping station. W. E. Kelly, former superintendent of the water system, is authority for the statements which immediately follow. The materials penetrated in putting down the driven wells at the pumping station are as follows: Sand and gravel, 43 feet; blue clay without any admixture of sand, 11 feet; and at a depth of 54 feet very coarse water-bearing gravel. There are no screens in these wells, the water entering through -inch holes, of which there are about 300, drilled in each pipe. The coarseness of the water-bearing material prevents all clogging and permits the maintenance of the original flow. The clay layer noted in the section is found from the other well records to be persistent. It is but 4 feet thick two blocks west of the a By Isaiah Bowman. ï~~162 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. pumping station, in John Shay's 39-foot well, which flows slightly at the surface. Near it is another well, which also used to flow but which has since been capped and the flow discontinued. The village of Hastings stands on a terrace higher than that on which the wells and pumping station are located, thus naturally bringing forward the question of contamination through the surface drainage in the path of which the open well at the pumping station lies. The deeper sources of water beneath the clay are likely to be wholesome because of the continuity of the clay layer above the water, bed. The dug well does not have this particular kind of protection, but possibly it is as well protected by other means. Into it the deeper water is allowed to flow, and, having a head 5 feet greater than the surface water, really keeps the surface water out except the little that may possibly enter through diffusion. The quality of the water may be seen from the partial "mineral " analysis made in 1897 by the Viscosity Oil Company, of Chicago. Analysis of water of Hastings public supply.a Parts per million. Silica......................-------------------------------------------------------------- 2.6 Oxides of iron and aluminum- -....................-.---------- - 6.9 Calcium carbonate.............--------------------------------------------------- 124 Magnesium carbonate.......-------------------------------------------------89 Alkaline carbonates_ _. - - - - -....................------...... 554.1 Alkaline chlorides.......-----------------------------------------------------.. 5.9 Alkaline sulphates-.......-............. - ----------- -- - -.. 47 Total solids....-------------.....................-------------------------------------. 329 This is a fair boiler water, the percentage of magnesium being a little high. NASHVILLE. Nashville is built on a gently sloping terrace on the south side of Thornapple River. The inhabitants are supplied from individual shallow wells 10 to 20 feet deep, yielding hard water, and from a village system drawing from wells in sandstone more than 300 feet deep. The latter are 6-inch wells driven in 1891, the year in which the present water system was established. The water supplied by the municipal system is used for drinking purposes for a short time only during the winter. Its principal use is for lawns, closets, and fire protection. The deep water is artesian, and has a head of 30 feet. It is said to contain a considerable quantity of magnesium and to be less desirable for drinking purposes than the water from shallow wells. The capacity of the pumps is 750,000 gallons daily, and the actual water pumped daily is about one-twelfth of that amount. The desired head is obtained by means of a stand tower 12 feet in diameter and 80 feet high, with a capacity of 2,200 barrels. The above data were furnished by D. L. Hullinger, engineer. aExpressed by analyst m grains per gallon; recomputed to parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~BARRY COUNTY. 163 MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The following data on village supplies have been obtained by correspondence with the residents of the respective villages: Village supplies in Barry County. Town. lation. Elevation. Source. Feet. Assyria......{ Open and driven wells A ssyria _..... _. '_...... 9 0 Carleton.......... 825....do............... Cloverdale...... Â~100 907 Wells and lakes...... Cressey.... -....... 934 Driven wells......... Delton........ 200 935!...do............... Freeport.... +600 850 Open and driven wells Hastings...... 3,172 { 765 }.....do.............. Hickory Corners Â~100 925.....do............... Irving.................743 Wells and river...... Maplegrove............875 Open and driven wells Middleville..... 829 730.....do.......... Morgan............... 804 Driven wells and lake Nashville....... 1,164 805 Driven wells......... Orangeville................... Open and driven wells Prairieville............ 1,000 )riven wells......... 820 Driven wells, some Woodland...... 319 860 f flows. Depth of wells. f Depth From-. To- Com- water Head. Springs. From- To- mon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 20 2, 300 40 40. Small.. 20 60 40 40...... Do.. 20 80 40............. Do.. 40 80 55 55 -40 Do.. 14 40 30 30 -25 Do. 10 80 30 30 -20 Do.. 30 70 40 40 40 Do. 25 60 40 40 -30 Do.. 10 14 12 12 -10 Do. 40 60 40 40 -25 Do.. 20 50 35 35 -30 Do. 17 64 20....... -17 Do. 15 308 25 25 Â~+0 }Medium. 40 80 40 40 -35 Small. 60 150 75 75 -75 Do. 30 125 100 100 + } Do. FLOWING WELLS.a A few flowing wells have been obtained near Woodland station in northeastern Barry County. All of the flowing wells in this locality were developed about twenty or thirty years ago, and data with reference to them are therefore extremely meager. A flow was first obtained on the farm of T. S. Reisinger one-half mile north of Woodland Center, where a 2-inch pipe was driven down 12 feet into the bottom of a spring. It is well established that clay occurs from this depth to 58 feet, where water-bearing gravel was encountered which gives the present flow. The original normal static head was 11 feet above the surface, but has decreased to 4 or 5 feet at the present time. The well is located on the floor of the valley of School Creek, a small tributary of Little Thornapple River. One-half mile west of the above well is that of B. O. Smith, which was originally just below the level of the upland on the southern edge of the valley. The decrease in head which this well experienced necessitated trenching to the valley in order to maintain a flow. The same method has resulted in what is practically a flow on the farm of W. A. Greizinger, across the road to the east of the Reisinger well. This well was dug to 80 feet, and on the water rising to within a few feet of the top, trenching to the barn, which is located on the valley side, secured a flow. One-fourth mile north of Mr. Smith's well in the south part of sec. 9 and in the same valley as the three preceding wells there a By Isaiah Bowman. ï~~164 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. used to be a flowing well, now no longer in use, concerning which data could not be obtained. All the records of dug wells and driven wells show the persistent occurrence of a clay layer underneath 10 or 15 feet of surface sand, and it is believed that flows could be obtained throughout the few miles of extent of School Creek. The flows from the wells in this valley are inconstant, being stronger in wet than in dry seasons. The effect of increased precipitation is felt within a few days. Two miles west of Woodland Center, on the farm of Mr. Homer in the valley of another small tributary of Litte Thornapple River, a well 200 feet deep used to flow about a pint a minute, but the flow has ceased and the well is at present pumped. The catchment area of the wells in this district includes but a few thousand acres, and in no field is loss of head more clearly due to waste of water. Although the wells have been cleaned repeatedly the original head is not resumed and the supply is steadily falling off. The enforcement of the law limiting the flow of water in artesian wells would conserve the supply to the advantage of present as well as future well owners in the valley. Wells in Barry County. Head. Flow per Tem- minute. Owner. Depth. Diam- Eleva- Pres-Origi- pera- Quality. eter. tion. ent. Oal. ture. Pres- Origient. nal. ture. ent. nal. Feet. Inches Feet. Feet. Feet. F. Gallons. Gallons. J. S. Reisinger........... 60 2 820 +4 +11 51.5 Iron.... 1 15 B. O. Smith.. 55 2 825 +4 +10 (?)...do.. 2 5 WATER SUPPLIES OF EATON AND INGHAMCOUNTIES. By ISAIAH BOWMAN. GENERAL STATEMENT.a The greater part of these counties, which stand in the third tier from the south, about midway between the eastern and western borders of the State, were examined in part by the writer, but the northern portions were reported upon by Doctor Lane in the discussion of the region around Lansing (pp. 170-175), the city of Lansing being in the northwestern part of Ingham County. Except for a few square miles in the southeast corner of Ingham County, which are tributary to Huron River, and for the southern edge of Eaton County, which is tributary to Kalamazoo River through Battle Creek, Eaton and Ingham counties lie within the drainage of Grand River, much of the former being tributary to Thornapple, and much of the latter to Cedar a By Frank Leverett. ï~~EATON AND INGHAM COUNTIES. 165 River. The drift in these counties is of moderate depth, so that wells in nearly every township have reached the underlying rock. Water supplies are good both in the drift and in the rock. WATERWORKS. EATON RAPIDS. Eaton Rapids is located on the low ground adjacent to Grand River in the southeastern part of Eaton County. The municipal wells and pumping station are in the southwestern part of the village near the Michigan Central Railroad. The supply is derived from six 6-inch wells 60 to 75 feet deep. The normal static head of water is -18 inches, the drafted head -10 to -25 feet. Elmer Strope, of Mason, Mich., who has drilled many wells at Eaton Rapids, gives the following generalized record of material penetrated in sinking wells at this place: Generalized section at Eaton Rapids. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 1. Sand and gravel with no water................................................. 28 28 2. W hite sandstone; water bearing............................................. 20 48 3. Black shale................................................................... 50 98 4. Sandy shale...................................................... 74 172 5. Water-bearing sandstone, colored blue when dry............................ 12 184 The waterworks wells get water from the upper sandstone (No. 2 in the section), but, being on higher ground than the village, go deeper for their supply. In the village there are several flowing wells with a head of 20 to 30 feet and yielding a strong flow. The shallowest are 30 to 35 feet deep, but the usual depth is about 175 feet. The deeper water is 0 oi 50 oo 5 so0 ooo feet FIG. 21.-Plat of Eaton Rapids, showing distribution of flowing wells. much harder than the shallower supply, and the latter is preferred by r sidents. The principal flowing wells of Eaton Rapids are those of (1) Fred Mendell, (2) George Strunk, (3, 4, and 5) city, (6) Arcana bath house, and (7) Mrs. U. Arnold. The numbers refer to fig. 21. mR 182---06-----12 ï~~166 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. An analysis of the public water, made in 1898 by Prof. R. C. Kedzie, of Lansing, gave the following results: Analysis of public water at Eaton Rapids.a Parts per million. Silica(SiO2) -----...............---------------------------------------------------- 1.43 Sodium (Na)....................-------------------------------------------------------........... 11.25 Magnesium (Mg)................----------------------------------------------------........ 18. 14 Calcium (Ca)........................-------------------------------------------------------. 62.16 Chlorine (Cl)...........-----------------------------........--------------------------.. 17.32 Carbonate radicle (C03)............................... 134.76 Sulphate radicle (SO4).....................------------------- 5.04 250. 10 Hardness, by soap test, totai............................. 214.29 Temporary hardness......................------------------------------------------------ 100 Permanent hardness_......................... 114.29 Permnenthardess--------------------------------------142 The water contains no iron or alumina. It is clear, bright, and destitute of taste and odor. The capacity of the pumps is 1,500,000 gallons daily, the average amount pumped being 145,000 gallons. The water is forced into a stand tower 14 feet in diameter and 100 feet high; 41 miles of distributing mains convey the water to all parts of the village, giving adequate fire protection. The present system was established in 1898 at a total cost of $25,000. About 300 families use the public water, although there are but 250 taps installed. The present supply is not sufficient during the driest summer months, when the head of water falls off appreciably, indicating that, although in rock, the water is locally supplied. The remedy seems simple, however. More wells installed along Grand River or Spring Brook on considerably lower ground may fairly be expected to meet any demand ever made on them. This position would have the added advantage of allowing suction much below the normal head instead of above it, as is the case at present, during the summer months. CHARLOTTE. Charlotte is in the center of Eaton County, 18 miles southwest of Lansing. The pumping station is on the north bank of Battle Creek and about a mile south of the center of the town. The slope of the surface is very gently toward the creek. The water supply in present use is obtained from five tubular wells 90 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter. The material in which the water occurs is a coarse gravel, which begins about 30 feet below the surface; above it is quicksand and ordinary sand, there being no marked division between the different materials. The water stands at the level of the surface of Battle Creek, and the catchment a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~EATON AND INGHAM COUNTIES. 167 area is probably the bordering gravel plain. The drafted head is much below the static head, and in consequence the water is practically pumped from the creek into the mains, with this favorable difference that in the 100 feet between wells and creek the water is drawn through sand, which acts as a natural filter. The dredging now in progress in the creek will result in lowering the water level and greater difficulty in securing an adequate municipal supply. The wells now in use were sunk in 1886 and yielded at that time 1,500,000 gallons daily, bpt the present daily supply of 400,000 to 450,000 gallons taxes their capacity. To increase the supply and at the same time the ease of pumping, the village is constructing a large open well 20 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep. The curb is built of cement blocks and is being gradually sunk by lowering the foundation. Into the bottom of the well, when completed, will be sunk two 10-inch wells. Great difficulty in lowering the curb has been experienced through the inflow of water and quicksand at a depth of 20 feet. The plant was built in 1886 at a cost of $40,000. Length of mains about 12 miles, supplying all but the outskirts of the city. An analysis of Charlotte water was made in 1903 at Ann Arbor by Dr. V. C. Vaughan, of the University of Michigan, with the following results: Analysis of Charlotte public water supply. Parts per million. Total residue after evaporation at 1100 C..................... 384 Fixed residue ------------.......---------------------------------------- 231.2 Loss on ignition -- ---........-------------------------------------- 152.8 Chlorine ----- -....--..-.--------------------------------------------- 8.43 SO3--. -- --....---------------------------------------.. 0 Free ammonia -------------------....-------------------------------.. 023 Albuminoid ammonia.......------------------------------------------------. 032 Nitrates as NO............................. Slight trace. Nitrites as N203.--...........-----.---------------------------------------- Slight trace. Hardness ---------------------------------------------------.. 195.43 No visible development of germs in twenty-four hours. Inoculation negative. Color, clear; odor, none; reaction, alkaline. No evidence that the water can cause disease. While the analysis shows the water in present use to be pure, the sewer mouth draining the entire filth of the village was heedlessly located but 73 feet downstream from the center of the group of wells, and may very seriously affect the quality of the water. There seems absolutely no good reason why it should not have had its outlet a quarter or even half a mile farther downstream, entirely out of danger distance. With a strong draft at the pumping station, there must be some danger from the sewer, even though the mouth is downstream from the wells, to say nothing of the consequences should an unobserved leak be formed north of the pumping station and in the direct line of drainage toward the wells. This is a condition that should be remedied as quickly as possible. ï~~168 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. MASON. Mason, the county seat of Ingham County, is located about 12 miles south of Lansing. The waterworks pumping station is on the east side of Sycamore Creek, in the northern part of the city. The supply is derived from five flowing wells 150 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter. The flow from the wells is sufficient to keep the pumps supplied with suction. The water flows from a sandstone formation, beginning 40 feet beneath the surface and.extending to 200 feet. It appears more porous with increasing depth, yielding a copious flow at 180 feet. During 1903, 37,500,000 gallons were supplied to the city. There are only 323 taps installed, but about 350 families actually use the water. Pressure is secured by means of a stand tower 100 feet high and 16 feet in diameter. The plant was established in 1891 at a cost of $33,650. It is operated in connection with the electric light plant, the whole being superintended by R. E. Darling. There are several flowing wells in the city owned by private parties. They are along or near Sycamore Creek, or on the lowest ground. Like the public wells they obtain the flow from sandstone. FLOWING WELLS. CHARLOTTE DISTRICT. Four miles west of Charlotte, in sec. 9, T. 2 N., R. 5 W., is a small group of flowing wells on a southern tributary of Thornapple River. They are located very near the head of the tributary known as Bakers Drain, the main drainage line of a flat intermorainic area, bordered on the south by low hills which form the divide between the Grand and Kalamazoo river systems. The flows are obtained in gravel at a depth of 25 to 40 feet. Above the gravel is hardpan and clay. The surface material, a sandy soil, is 5 or 6 feet in depth. None of the flows are strong, the head being from several inches to several feet above the surface, which has an altitude of approximately 860 feet. The area has been fairly well developed and can not be extended much farther. The water is moderately hard and contains a small percentage of iron. The following detailed descriptions are given: A. Owner, Frank Baker; drilled in 1888 by Shaw & Tice; diameter, 11 inches; depth, 42 feet; head a few inches. The flow was not sufficient to supply the amount of water required and the well is now pumped by a windmill. B. Owner, Lewis Young; drilled in 1904 by J. B. Mount; diameter 11 inches; depth, 23 feet; flow, 3 gallons a minute; temperature, 50.3Â~ F.; head, 4 feet. The original head was said to be 7 feet. It is reported that when a small lake, called Lazy Lake, 1 mile west of ï~~EATON AND INGHAM COUNTIES. 169 the well, was lowered 3 feet, the head of the well fell a corresponding distance. C. Owner, E. E. Bosler; drilled by J. B. Mount; diameter, 2 inches; depth, 23 feet; head, 4 feet; flow, 8 gallons a minute; temperature, 50.80 F. A flowing well about 30 to 35 feet deep was made in 1897 in the lowland in sec. 5, northeast of Charlotte, on the farm of Eugene Thomas. It struck rock at 30 feet and obtained a sulphurous soft water. Data were furnished by the driller, Elsa Wells, of Charlotte, but the well was not visited. The occurrence of another flowing well in or near the north edge of Charlotte was reported, but not verified. BISMARCK-ROXANA DISTRICT. The flows of this area occur in the broad, gently undulating till plain on the divide between Grand and Thornapple rivers in northwestern Eaton County. They are in close association with the drainage, being found only in the low ground adjacent to streams. In sec. 25, T. 4 N., R. 6 W., is the well of John Childs: Depth, 26 feet; diameter, 2 inches; head, 5 feet; altitude of surface, 930 feet; flow, 10 gallons a minute; temperature 50.20 F. This well was drilled in 1879 by James Phillips. The water flows from a sandy layer which is overlain by clay to the surface. The water is strongly chalybeate. In the village of Bismarck are at least a half dozen wells, drilled many years ago and now no longer flowing on account of clogging of the screens. Two wells, owned by W. R. Brown and Daniel Ferris, are still flowing. In each the depth is 40 feet; head, 21 feet; flow, one-sixth gallon a minute, and temperature 52.50 F. The flows in all of the wells are said to vary with the seasons. In sec. 25, Roxana Township, are the flowing wells of Charles and Sylvester Edgel: Depth, 50 feet; diameter, 2 inches; altitude, 970 feet; head, 21 feet; flow, 12 gallons a minute; temperature, 50.80 F. The water is strongly chalybeate and occurs in the same material as at Bismarck. The area of flow is restricted to a depression of several acres. LESLIE DISTRICT. The village of Leslie stands in the valley of Hunton Creek, in Leslie Township (T. 1 N., R. 1 W.), in the southern part of Ingham County, and has a population of about 1,100. There are 20 flowing wells in the village, ranging in depth from 100 to 217 feet, the average depth being about 160 feet. These wells are owned by individuals and furnish nearly all the water used. The large percentage of sulphureted hydrogen in the flowing water at this place gives the water, after standing some time, an ï~~170 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. unpleasant taste, so that few families use the public supply for drinking. The unpleasant quality is still further enhanced through taste imparted by the tar with which the water mains are smeared inside and out. The water is used, however, by about 60 families for lawn sprinkling and toilet purposes. It is extremely hard but is made much softer by boiling. The necessary fire protection is secured through a public water system which includes 3" miles of mains. It was established in 1898 at a cost of $16,000. The municipal wells, 2 in number, are 180 feet deep and 6 inches in diameter. H. C. Yerby supplied the following well record: Record of waterworkcs well at Leslie. - Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sandy soil.................................................................. 8 8 Sand and gravel, water bearing below 10 feet-----------------------------................................... ----12 20 Blue clay--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 15 35 "Slate rock".................................................................----------------------------------------------------------- 65 100 "Sand rock," very porous and white at bottom of well--------------------........................ ----80 180 The average daily amount pumped is 1,700 barrels. The necessary head and pressure is obtained by means of a stand tower 14 feet in diameter and 80 feet high, with a tank having a capacity of 2,300 barrels. The original head of the flows at Leslie was 10 feet above the surface, but at present it is not more than 6 feet. The flow is apparently affected by the seasons, being reported as considerably less in the dry. summer months than during the remainder of the" year. The flows are also said to be stronger at night than in the daytime. From 5 to 9 p. m, when the pumps are in most steady operation, the flow in adjacent wells is appreciably decreased. WATER SUPPLIES OF LANSING AND VICINITY. By A. C. LANE. GEOLOGY. Lansing and its vicinity are wholly underlain, at no great depth, by the coal measures, so that wells may readily reach and draw their supply from the sandstones of that horizon. In fact, the two principal streams, Grand River and its large tributary, the Cedar, are rock bottomed a good part of the way, as appears not only in comparing the sections of the drift shown by wells with the depth of the valleys, but in outcrop and excavation. At Grand Ledge the river flows through a sandstone canyon 40 feet deep for a mile or more. At Lansing the bridge abutments and those of Platt's dam are upon bed rock. ï~~LANSING AND VICINITY. 171 Up Grand River near Dimondale, in sec. 25, T. 3 N., R. 3 W., a sandstone quarry was at one time opened: Also up the Cedar, in sec. 28, T. 4 N., R. 1 E., shales of the coal measures are exposed, and at one time coal was taken from the river bed. The first rock struck is generally a water-bearing sandstone. Consequently the majority of the deeper wells enter the sandstone. Others are merely dug down to gravel at ground-water level. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. CHARACTER OF THE DRIFT. Because of the abundant supply of water from the rock, drillers have paid comparatively little attention to the variations in the drift or kinds of beds of which it is composed. They.tend to class it all as "surface" and urge going on into the rock. The prevailing character of the drift is a clay till, but there are two belts that contain considerable sand and gravel. One is a moraine which leads from east to west past Lansing on the north side of the Cedar and Grand rivers, which has more or less gravelly material in it and outwashed from it over the plain to the south. Sometimes the outwash is covered from 2 to 20 feet deep with a veneer of till, suggesting a readvance of the ice. The second gravelly belt is known as the Mason esker and runs from the Lansing cemetery southward past Holt and Mason. It is due to deposition from drainage of the ice sheet and runs about at a right angle to the. morainic ridge. Along its course are springs and superficial supplies of water. There were other similar deposits near Weberville, Williamston, and elsewhere, but they have been largely used for ballast on roads. In places these ridges reach a height of as much as 40 feet. The Mason esker has apparently been overridden at its north end by the readvance of ice that formed the moraine. The gravel 'buried under the moraine is traceable northward into Clinton County and supplies wells at moderate depth. DEPTH TO ROCK. The depth to rock immediately around Lansing generally varies from 60 to 80 feet, according to the surface topography. In the valleys it is less, but on the morainal ridges it is greater. There have also been found one or two pre-Glacial channels in the rock surface where it is lower down. One of these channels may be traced from Alaiedon Township (T. 3 N., R. 1 W.), where on sec. 9 it is over 105 feet to rock, northeastward through sec. 4, where it is 135 feet, and sec. 3, where it is 180 feet, into sec. 34, Meridian Township, where it is 130 feet, and sec. 23, where it is 148 feet. In the border sections rock is found at 60 to 75 feet. Around Pine Lake bed rock is at 165 feet in sec. 11 and 150 feet in sec. 2, and on the north line of the county 174 feet. We can not follow it definitely in Clinton County, ï~~17 2 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. but it apparently bears northeast into Woodhull Township, Shiawassee County, for in secs. 8 and 17 it is 120 to 125 feet to rock. East of this valley, from a point near Eaton Rapids northeastward through Aurelius, Vevay, Alaiedon, and Wheatfield townships at least to Williamston, there appears to be a buried ridge in the rock surface, which is often struck at considerably less than 40 feet, and along which wells have in places very soft water. In Victor Township, Clinton County, a well 155 feet to rock on sec. 19, and 145 feet to rock on sec. 9, may indicate another rock valley, a part of the same system. In Delta TQwnship (T. 4 N., R. 3 W.) there are puzzling irregularities which if not errors suggest rock valleys. In sec. 35 it is said to be 200 feet to rock; in secs. 24 and 25, from 75 feet to over 135 feet; in sec. 26, 75 feet; in sec. 21, 103 feet; in sec. 20, 80 feet; in sec. 15, 30 feet; in sec. 8, 70 feet; in sec. 7, 55 feet; in sec. 6 is a flow at 80 to 90 feet; in sec. 5 it is 130 feet to rock; in sec. 4, 55 feet; in sec. 3, 75 to 80 feet; in sec. 1, 95 feet. In Oneida Township (T. 4 N., R. 4 W.), in sec. 18, there is a well 100 feet deep in gravel, but most of the wells in the township, especially around Grand Ledge, find rock much sooner. In Roxana Township (T. 4 N., R. 4 W.), in sec. 11, on the west side, is a well which goes 210 feet to rock, with pervious beds and water at 231 and 251 feet. In sec. 17 it is but 102 feet to rock. In the south part of the township all the reports are of water in gravel at from 25 to 85 feet, with flows in secs. 28 and 32 (see pp. 169). QUALITY OF WATER. The water from the drift is usually harder than that from the sandstone. Around Durand, Byron, and to the south salty water is likely to occur, which may be due to salt water coming up through a fissure, or to an extension of the lower Grand Rapids group. The following analyses show fairly well the chemical character of the various waters which are likely to occur. Analysis of Piatt well water.a Parts per million. Calcium (Ca)....................------------------------------------------------------- 95.43 Magnesium (Mg)------------.............-------------------------------....---------. 35.32 Carbonate radicle (CO3) ---- ---------------. ----...... 187. 82 Sulphate radicle (SO4)..........-------------........ 38.88 Silica (SiO2) -----------------------------------------------------.. 22.60 Irorn (Fe)..................----------------------------------------------------------- 4.90 Sodium (Na) ---------...-------------------------------------------. --.... 48.60 Chlorine (Cl) ------------------------------------------------- -----107.21 540. 76 Inorganicm atter not present. Difference (O, Na20, and Fe20)-....-........... 29 a Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. ï~~LANSING AND VICINITY. 178 This well is in the coal measures, and the presence of sulphates is significant, but the water is peculiar and has a peculiar history. It is 62 feet to bed rock and 115 feet deep. Only 125 feet away is the Downey House well,; which was put down 740 feet in hope of a flow. None was obtained, and the water grew salty, so the well was plugged at 72 feet. When the Piatt well pump is nriot running the Downey well a stands about 22 feet below ground level, but when the Piatt well is pumped the Downey drops. The first of the year the Piatt well was not salt, but lately it has become so through increased use. It can give 17,000 gallons an hour, and as much as 6,000 pounds has been used. Evidently the Piatt draws from the Downey well below the plug. Analysis of well at 1316 Washington avenue south. Parts per million. Total solids --.--.-- --- --------------- -------- ---......-------.. 565.6 Organic ----..-- ----- ----------..---.------------.-..... 96 Inorganic.......-------------------- -.-......... 469.6 Chlorine---- - --------......---.---- - -- -- -----------......... 37.2 Sodium chloride-. - ---.....-- --- -- ----.-.---......... 61.5 Prof. R. C. Kedzie, analyst. WATERWORKS. Lansing is supplied by wells from 28 to 350 feet deep. Of these there are 27 in an area of only a few hundred feet near the pumping station, on Michigan avenue, close to the river. Though the neighborhood is all built up, the water appears safe, and no case of typhoid can be traced to it. This is inferred from the fact that immediately adjacent to the pumping station there is a well, that of F. N. Rounseville, which penetrates surface gravels, and is not at all affected by the pumping station. Heavy clays without pebbles, of which 15 feet were recently seen in the Lamrned street sewer, come beneath it. b The most of the water is said to come in between 150 and 200 feet down; two wells by the city and a number by the Roe Car Company and the Oldsmobile works in the south part of the city have shown that there are heavy water-bearing sandstones from 250 feet down to 350 feet and more. These probably reach the Marshall sandstone, and would naturally contain less lime than those of the overlying subCarboniferous limestone. The temperature at the waterworks and at the Hazel street flowing well remains almost constant at 510 F. throughout the year, which is another sign of freedom from direct supplies of surface water or contamination. Twice, however, in the winter of 1904-5 bad breaks occurred in the mains that pass under the river and connect the west side with the east side on which the pumping station is situated. In view of this fact, and as the electric plant is under the same management, it seems worth considering whether it would not be well to a Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1875. b For analyses of these waters see above; also ane, A. C., Lower Michigan mineral waters: WaterSup. and Irr. Paper No. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899. ï~~174 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. scatter the wells more and have some on the west side pumped by electric pump. a The city is growing rapidly and consumes 1,250,000 to 1,500,000 gallons a day, or about 70 gallons to a person. There are 1,500 meters and 4,000 to 5,000 taps. The income for the year ending in 1904 was $27,606.58; the expenses for construction (including meters) were $12,194.58; and the operating expenses (including pumping station expenses of $6,299.45) were $14,685.52, making the total expenses $26,880.10. FLOWING WELLS. FLOWS FROM DRIFT. The only known flowing well in Lansing that did not penetrate the rock was one said to be about 30 feet deep near the Lansing waterworks, immediately adjacent to the bluffs of Grand River, and this very likely went to bed rock. FLOWS FROM ROCK. While flowing wells from the drift seem now to be scarce, flowing wells from bed rock may be obtained along all the principal lines of drainage, with a head which may vary from 5 to 10 feet. This head is lowered somewhat by the waterworks plants of Grand Ledge and Lansing, but not so as to prevent flows. The following list shows some of the flowing wells associated with the Grand-Cedar drainage system: Grand Ledge: E. H. Mudge, Seven Island Resort, 107 feet deep; Grand Ledge waterworks wells, 100 to 130 feet deep, temperature 510; Ball's well, eastern edge of Grand Ledge near the river, 500 feet deep, but flow is not from this depth, temperature 50Â~. Lansing: Lansing waterworks wells did flow but are pumped now; Hoffman's well, 700 feet deep, used to flow water at 65 feet; Hazel street well, 350 feet deep, water rises to about 10 feet above river, temperature 510 F., with slight variations from time to time; Old mineral well (which has been variously named, "Senator," "Americanus " or "Lansing Magnetic," or "Michigan Congress"), 1,400 feet deep, but plugged at about 700 feet. Grand River, main valley: Hazel street well, in the valley of the Grand, about 6 feet aboye the river, temperature 51.30; Dimondale, Van Osdalls quarry, sec. 25, T. 3 N., R. 3 W., depth 75 feet, flow 36 gallons a minute, temperature 50.50 F. Cedar River: It is probable that flowing wells could be obtained east from Lansing along Cedar River to past the Agricultural College. There is one well close to the pickle (formerly Potter's) factory, and another on the Turner farm. a This policy is now, 1906, in process of development. ï~~LANSING AND VICINITY. 175 Sycamore Creek: From Lansing up the valley of Sycamore Creek, past Mason, occasional flows have been obtained, there being instances in sections 21, 26, 33, and 35, Lansing Township, and as far up as sections 14 and 15 in Vevay Township. In 1897 the waterworks wells in Mason (five 6-inch wells) had a head of 21 feet, but were on ground 10 to 15 feet behw the railroad track and 42 feet below the standpipe. Their depth averages about 150 feet with a range from 67 to 172 feet. Mr. S. Lincoln's flowing well at Mason, 400 feet deep, had water carrying iron and sulphu reted hydrogen in noticeable amount. The temperature was 530 F. A well 100 feet deep just south of the railroad station at Mason flowed a small stream with temperature 510 F. A flowing well at Raynor's Park, 380 feet deep, discharged a large amount of water. MISCELLANEOUS FLOWS. The following table gives data of scattered flows: Miscellaneous wells near Lansing. Depth Depth Depth Locality. Depth o rk. of rock. of rift Remarks. to rck. wells, wells. Benton Towhship, sec.31 Benton Township, see.21 Fowlerville............. Bancroft........... Webberville............ Morrice............... Perry.................. Bennington......... Meridian................ Williamston............ Feet. 100 40 80 61-77 80 80-125 80 40-75 Feet. Feet. 150.......... 94..... 113 25-40......... 18-32 133.......... 105-328......... 125-175 15-35 150-260 12 75 60 40-200.......... One flowing well in southeast quarter. One flowing well in northern part. Water in rock at 113 feet. North of railroad at 18 feet; south of railroad at 22-32 feet; supply good. Water at about 13.3 feet. Water at canning factory is at 192 feet. One mile north salt water occurs at 328 feet. Shallow wells are in gravel. Drift waters are from gravel. Water from shale at 40 to 60 feet; from sandstone at 165-200 feet. Well at railroad got water in gravel at 40 feet. Hard water rising to within 7 feet of the surface was found at 76 feet at Laingsburg mill. Shaftsbury.............................18-40 Laingsburg............. 113 160 45-76 Haslett Park........... 105 178 30 Water in shallow wells is from gravel Okemos................. 65 80-100.......... Bath...5 85+.......... Two horizons, lowest in coarse gravel. Gearey................. 100 150 75-100 West of Gearey the wells are 150 feet deep. Holt................... 30 40-83.......... Wells flow. Agricultural College... 30-70 40-300..... Waterworks are about 300 feet. Trowbridge station..... 70 100.... West Holt.................................. Flowing well near Grand River in rock. Lansing................. 75 204.......... Flowing well at Holmes Gardens I mile south of city limits. Do................. 80-90 209.......... Flowing well 2 miles south and 1 mile east of Lansing. Lansing Township, sec- 50 200.......... Flowing well. tion 33. Dimondale....... 45-80.................... Good water at 100 to 200 feet. Delta.................50-90 106-140......... Good water at 106 to 140 feet in sandstone. Drift has 30 to 40 feet of cemented gravel. Milletts-................ 200................... Well is at sawmill, probably over the buried channel traceable 5 miles southward. Delta Township, north-.................... 80-90 Flowing well in southeast quarter section 6; west part. south of preceding it is 80 to 90 feet to water. Delta Township, south-........100-150........... In southwest part of township it is 100 to 150 west part. s feet to good water. Roxana Township, sec............ Flowing wells in southeast quarter. 32. Roxana Township, sec.......................... Wm. Litchfleld, Mulliken, Mich., completed 28. a well in January, 1904, which flowed 2 feet above surface. Vermontville....................... 60 Water good. Sunfield stave mill............................. Soft water at 100 to 126 feet. Sunfield.................'......................... Wells 40 to 50 feet deep; gas in south part at Delwood........................ 40-60 Wells 1. miles south 30 feet. ï~~176 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF OAKLAND COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Oakland County, of which Pontiac is the county seat, is one of the most elevated counties in the southern end of the State, though its southeastern part is down on the lake plain. There is a range in altitude from 1,300 feet down to 630 feet. A strong interlobate morainic system with associated gravel plains occupies more than half the county, leading from the northeast to the southwest corner. Its average altitude is about 1,000 feet, and its highest points may reach 1,300 feet. Southeast of this interlobate tract are weaker moraines formed by the Huron-Erie ice lobe which trend northeast and southwest, parallel with the interlobate tract. About 120 square miles in the southeast corner falls within the lake plain. This has an altitude of 800 feet at the northwest, but drops to 630 feet at the southeast corner. The northwestern part of the county is occupied by moraines formed by the Saginaw lobe, with their associated gravel plains and lines of border drainage. From the interlobate moraine there is drainage southeastward by Clinton River and its tributaries, southwestward by Rouge and Huron rivers, and northwestward through tributaries of Flint and Shiawassee rivers. In addition to the streams there are a large number of small lakes filling many of the basins in the interlobate tract. Wells are usually obtained at moderate depths on the gravel plains, for these are generally but 20 to 30 feet above the lakes, whiclh determine the depth to which the ground-water table sinks. Wells on the moraines vary greatly in distance to good water supplies, though on the most gravelly parts, as on the gravel plains, the water table is in harmony with the surface of the neighboring lakes. Where the moraines contain considerable till it is often necessary to reach levels lower than the lakes and streams before striking a good water bed. The lake plain is largely a stiff clay in which wells frequently go to depths of 75 to 150 feet. Moraines on the border of the lake plain contain a large amount of clay, and deep wells are numerous in them. Flowing wells have been obtained in basins and valleys and recesses in the interlobate moraine in the northwestern part, and on the lake plain in the southeastern part of the county. Those in the northwestern part were examined by Mr. Davis, while those in the northeastern part received the attention both of the writer and of Mr. Udden. Mr. Davis gave attention to village supplies at Oxford, Holly, and Ortonville. Data on other village supplies have been obtained by the writer in the course of mapping the glacial formations. Mr. Udden, however, gave attention to flowing wells that supply Rochester and Birmingham waterworks. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. 177 The drift is so thick in Oakland County that but few wells have been carried to the rock. They are chiefly in the lower parts of the county at the northwest and southeast corners. Wells at Holly and Belford, and on farms near these villages get water in sandstone, which is struck at 160 to 200 feet. At the Holly waterworks, however, a boring penetrated 265 feet to rock and this was a shale. At Pontiac the drift is 320 feet, as shown by a test boring for oil and gas reported in Geology of Michigan, vol. 5. At Auburn rock is reached at 265 feet and at Royal Oak at 164 feet. A boring on the Cooper farm 1 miles north of Birmingham struck rock at about 200 feet, and occasional wells in the lake plain have been carried to rock at depths of 72 to 150 feet or more. At Orion, in the northern part of the county, shale was struck at 165 feet, and sandstone yielding fresh water at 185 feet. The water in the rock is saline in the southeastern part of the county, but is comparatively fresh in the northwestern part. The supplies of water in the drift are generally abundant and of better quality than in the rock, and hence there is no need for driving to the rock. In the southeastern part of the county is a small tract in which the water in the drift is saline, as indicated in the discussion of the Troy flowing well district (pp. 191-192). WATERWORKS. PONTIAC. Pontiac obtains its public supply from wells about 175 feet in depth terminating in gravel and having a head about level with the surface. The plant was built by the city in 1888 and water is pumped direct to the mains, the length of which is about 25 miles. The ordinary pressure is 45 pounds and fire pressure 100 pounds or more. STATE ASYLUM FOR THE INSANE.a The State asylum for the insane, located at Pontiac, has a supply independent of the city system. It is obtained from a large excavated well 59 feet deep, in the bottom of which several wells (6-inch and 8-inch) have been bored to depths of 40 to 65 feet. The large well penetrated: Record of well at Pontiac asylum. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Tough yellow clay........................................................... 10 10 Blue clay with coarse stones................................................. 6.5 16.5 Blue stony clay with yellow seams........................................... 4.5 21 Blue stony clay with layers bf fine blue clay, very tough......................... 6 27 Fine yellow sand.....................-.................................... 1 28 Cemented sand, gravel, and bowlders........................................ 4.5 32.5 Hardpan crust...............................................:...................5 33 Coarse sand with bowlders and cobblestones............................. 26 59 a Data furnished by Dr. E. A. Christian, medical superintendent. ï~~178 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Water was struck at this depth and the borings continued in waterbearing sand to the bottom. One boring found blue clay under the sand at a depth of 119 feet. The pressure is only sufficient to bring water to the bottom of the large well. MILFORD. The public supply at this village is from a system of shallow wells atlong the bank of Huron River. The plant was installed in 1895 and is operated in connection with an electric plant. The mains are about 5 miles in length, and direct pressure is used, the ordinary pressure being 55 pounds and the fire pressure 125 pounds. The following is a partial analysis of the public supply at Milford, this being obtained from five connected wells. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well water at Milford. Parts per million. Color-.....-------------------...........----------------------------------------- 10 Iron (Fe)........----------------------..........-------------------------- Very slight trace. Chlorine (C1)........................-------------------------------------------------------. 23.5 Carbon dioxide (C02).................-------------------------------------.....---------- 91.55 Sulphur trioxide (SO3).......................------------------------------------------------. 15 Hardness (as CaCO,).......................------------------------------------------------.......... 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 40 feet. OXFORD.a Oxford is on a broad gravel plain, running, at this point, approximately north and south between two well-marked morainic, ridges. This plain is apparently more closely related to the western ridge, from whose base it slopes gently, than it is to the eastern one. Its surface is relatively smooth, and to the east of the town has in it a shallow depression, on the edge of which, about 15 feet below the level of the town, the wells and pumping station of the public waterworks are located. The water for these works comes from a group of five driven wells, 6 inches in diameter, which are about 85 feet deep, being in gravel the entire distance. The water rises to within about 8 feet of the surface, and under ordinary pumping is not materially lowered, but when the pumps are running under fire pressure, 650 gallons a minute, is lowered from 10 to 12 feet below this level, and there remains stationary. The following partial analysis shows the composition of the public supply obtained from 5 wells at Oxford. It may be taken as a representative sample of the region immediately around Oxford. The data were furmnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. a By Charles A. Davis. ï~~OAKLAND CYUNTY. 179 Partial analysis of well water at Oxford. Parts per million. Color----.......-------------- - -----.......... - 46 Iron (Fe)----------........--------------- ------- 2 Chlorine (Cl)------------------.....-.--.---..-------------------------- 11.6 Carbon dioxide (CO,)---.. -......-.-.. ------......... 95. 37 Sulphur trioxide(SO3)- -------------..--------------------------...... 5 Hardness (As CaCO3) ------- -- --- ------------- ---- 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 65 feet. The sanitary conditions in Oxford are such that they deserve especial notice. The gravel plain upon which the town is located is made up of a coarse gravel without any general admixture or interbedding of clay, and hence is very porous, so that water from the surface penetrates it readily, and passes rapidly through it to the water table or ground-water level, which is reported to be 15 to 25 feet below the surface, the differences in depth being due to variations in the ground surface level. As is usual in towns of the size of Oxford, the majority of people obtain water from private wells in the vicinity of their houses. These wells are from 18 or 20 to 30 feet deep, that is, just into the permanent ground water, from which a good supply is obtained. 00 Odet cia ----Q-oo- o. FIG. 22.--Conditions at Oxford Oakland County A, h House well; 2, cesspool open below. B Waterworks pumping station; soil above ground-water level is coarse gravel. Under earlier conditions these wells furnished water free from probability of contamination, but since the comparatively recent installation of the public water service, a constantly increasing number of people have introduced water into their homes for use in bathrooms, etc. Since there is no sewer system to carry off the waste water, the method taken to get rid of this waste is to construct an open-bottomed cesspool near the house, several feet below the surface, wall up the sides and top and run all the sewage into this. The porous gravel of the bottom allows the water to filter out into the soil and find its way where it will (see figs. 22 and 23). The result is manifest; a welldefined short circuit is established from the house to the cesspool, thence to the well, and from the well back to the house again. In this case the only purification which the water gets is filtering through ï~~180 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. a few feet of coarse gravel, which in course of time must become badly contaminated by the effete matter which it takes from the water, and by the more deadly, if less disagreeable, germs of disease. a b c No sewers have been conDo OCd po 0 o00 opp o000 oO0ooOO oOo OO. O Â~Â~Â~structed, because, it is stated, Oo0 O0 Â~ 'Â~.oÂ~' there is no stream in the neigh0 JO QO po pO. o0, o 0ooÂ~0o 0ooo0Â~o~Oob u[o oÂ~ooeo.0Â~ 0o.oooÂ~Â~ borhood which can be made the o O:.<:o.t..:.o....oo.. terminus of a sewer. However, ". 0 J'.,:.". o...Â~. o.o: o,.o.. 0.0.. Â~ "O? " " " - o". 0. o",;.... g " ''"0 S "Â~ 00.; 0.o.. p"Â~.... o.a.. Â~ the proper disposal of this waste "0 " o~~""..o.o,,.o..: oa.o.Â~ ':Â~o.O"i.. 0o0o o.O o....... o is a matter within the grasp of a o O: o.'.Â~:o o o.d..o", o Â~Â~o. o.Oo.'..o..6Â~0.0...o...:..oo... sanitary engineer, and should be FIG. 23.-Conditions at Oxford, Oakland County. arranged for at an early date. a, Well; b, privy vault; c, cesspool open below. In the meantime, several plans In the meantime, several plans more rational and healthful than that in use suggest themselves, some of which follow: (1) Dug wells and open wells of all sorts should be abandoned and filled up, as these are especially likely to become contaminated. (2) If private wells are to be used at all they should be tubular and driven nearly to the bottom of the water gravel, instead of stopping just below the water table. This would insure the most thorough filtration possible, while the latter practice gives the best chances of possible contamination. (3) Private wells might be abandoned entirely and only the public water supply used. The wells of the waterworks are deep and so far removed from the town that the danger of contamination in them is practically nothing. (4) All cesspools and vaults should be required by law to be constructed water-tight, and regularly emptied under supervision of a public sanitary inspector, and the contents disposed of in such a way that the health of the community is not endangered thereby. On the farm of Alfred Hagermann, on the southwest quarter of sec. 23, Oxford Township, within a mile of the town, is a large spring, which is piped to the farm buildings and furnishes a good supply of excellent water. The overflow fills- an inch pipe, and the supply is considered "as good as it was twenty years ago." HOLLY. a Holly is located on a sandy plain traversed by Shiawassee River with higher land near by on the east and south. The public supply is taken from a group of nine or ten drilled wells, 6inches in diameter, ranging from 23 to 47 feet in depth, all flowing slightly above the surface of the marsh on the edge of which they are located. a By Charles A. Davis. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. 181 Below is a partial analysis of the public supply at Holly, furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The water comes from two connected wells 23 and 85 feet deep, respectively. Partial analysis of well waters at Holly. Parts per million. Color----------------------------------------------..---------------......... 42 Iron (Fe) -----------------------------------------------------------........ 2. 9 Chlorine (Cl).....-------------------------------------------------------....... 25.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2) ------------------------------------------------. 121.27 Sulphur trioxide (SO).--- --------------------------------------------91 Hardness (as CaCOa) ------------------------------------------------......... 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Owing to the incrustation of the points or strainers of the wells, or to the inflow of sand, several of the wells have become useless and others are failing, so that ths supply is inadequate for the needs of the town. In addition to this the ground near the pumping station has become impregnated with fuel oil, stored there at one time, and the water is contaminated by it. To remedy this state of affairs new wells are being drilled on higher ground, and those completed were reported to be 140, 155, and 180 feet deep, with fair supplies of good water. The water from the 140 -foot and 180-foot wells is said to rise in the pipes so that it will flow at the marsh level. A well over 670 feet deep has also been put down at the waterworks, but the water was slightly brackish and the hole was plugged and the casing (drawn back to about 180 feet, where a good supply of water had been shut off in putting down the well. Shale was struck in this well at 265 feet. The drift materials passed through are as follows: Section of drift at Holly. Feet. Sand and gravel.-------- --------------------------------------------------........... 140 Clay----------------------------------------------------------------10 Water, sand, and gravel---.....---------------------------......--------------------... 30 Clay-----.......----------------------.......... 85 The private wells in I-olly are generally shallow, varying from 20 to 60 feet in depth, with sufficient supplies for domestic use. The flowing wells at the waterworks are at the marsh level, below that usually selected for house building, but it seems probable that the borders of the marsh, or any part of it, would give flows. There is no chance of getting flowing wells from these strata on the levels usually occupied by dwelling sites. Across the valley, opposite the pumping station of the waterworks, and a few feet higher, is a group of seepage springs, not flowing much now, but apparently capable of being cleaned out, and made more efficient. me 182--06--13 ï~~182 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. BIRMINGHAM. a The Birmingham waterworks plant is in the valley of River Rouge, in the western part of the village. It embraces five flowing wells, each 4 inches in diameter, which yield about 40,000 gallons a day. The water discharges into a reservoir, from which it is pumped direct to the mains. The capacity of the reservoir is about 22,000 gallons. The works were put in operation September 1, 1890, and there are at present about 5 miles of mains and 45 hydrants, supplying the principal streets with fire protection and nearly all the residents with water for domestic use. The water, though rather hard, is used to some extent in boilers. There is sufficient iron to give a brown color to the boiler scale. Field analysis of Birmingham vater supply. Parts per million. Hardness.........---------------------------------------------------------.. 200 Alkalinity....................... --------------------------------------------------------273 Chlorine.....................---------------------------------------------------------- 38.94 Jon A. Udden, analyst. ROCHESTER. a The village of Rochester obtains its water supply from flowing wells located on a branch of Paint Creek in the high moraine in the SE. 4 NE. 1 sec. 4, Avon Township, Oakland County. The supply is obtained from five 4-inch wells having an altitude of about 875 and a water level of 888 feet above tide. They range in depth from 60 to 80 feet, and have a flow of about 600,000 gallons a day, or a flow for each well of about 831 gallons a minute. The wells flow directly into a reservoir, which has a capacity of 125,000 gallons, from which the water is distributed to the village, which has an elevation of about 750 feet above tide. " The water thus has an average pressure of about 60 pounds throughout the village. The plant was built in 1895, at a cost of $25,000, and at present has about 345 taps, 45 hydrants, and a total of 51 miles of water main. It is used for domestic, manufacturing, fire, and sprinkling purposes. The water is harder and more highly mineralized than that of Paint Creek, as shown in the analysis on the next page. a By Jon A. Udden. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. Analysis of water at Rochester.a [Parts per million.] 183 I - - Total solids............... Volatile at red heat.......... Mineral residue.............. Calcium (Ca)................ Carbonite radicle (CO3)..... Chlorine (C1)................. Sodium (Na)................ Oxygen consumed..........,.. f........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Village Paint water. Creek. 369.981 200.010 99.995 29.998 270.843 169.991 77.880 40.040 114.110 59.960 11.340 7.100 7.370 4.610 7.142 29.998 a Expressed by analyst i' hypothetical combinations; recomput:'d to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. R. C. Kedzie, analyst, January 12, 1899. The small amount of salt and solids in Paint Creek water renders it superior for boiler use to the village supply, and perhaps more suitable for drinking, though in greater danger of pollution. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. Pillage supplies in Oakland County. Town. Popu- Elevalation., tion. Feet. Birmingham.... 1,170 780 Clarkston...... 360 1,000.] 1,025 Clyde................ - 1,050 Davisburg..{395 D a............. 1,0 Drayton Plains. 965 { 00 Farmington... 530 7 Franklin...............800 Leonard............ 00............. 1 n, i Source. Depth of wells. Depth to r - - Com- water Iead. Frotm- To- Trhon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.1 Feet. Springs. Milford........ 1,108 New IHudson... N ovi............ Orchard Lake.. Oxford......... 1,172 Rochester...... 1,535 Rose Center......... Royal Oak..... 468 Southfield............ South Lyon.... 657 I Thomas............. Troy............ Walled Lake....... {920 1,000 930 9001 925 937 1,060 750 988 660 678 940 1,100 745 940 Shallow wells in village, deeper flowing 10 90 75 wells in valley. Driven wells...... 35 Driven or bored wells.. 20 50 40 Driven wells........... 25 130.... Open and driven wells. 14 40 20 Driven and bored wells1 15 50 30 Driven wells........... 15 90 30. d...........................30..do. 30O --do.. 35 50 50...do................. 16 115 50...do............................. 30 Lake and driven wells. 20 40 20 Driven wells....-....... 35 120 60 Driven wells aside 25 277 25 from waterworks. Driven wells........... 15 30 30.....do................. 10 20 20 Driven well and stream 12 140 40 Driven and bored wells 20 50 25 Driven wells............ 75...... 75 Open and driven wells. 25 100 40 Open and driven wells 10 117 40 and lake. Open and driven wells. 20 50 20.....do................. 20 30 25...... -12 30 -20 25 -10 30....... 75 { 1 }Mediun 35....... Small. 40....... Do. { 50....... 50 -10 30 -20 25 -10 60 120f:::..... ] 26..... 20..... 40... 25....... 75- -50 100 -15 40 -30 50 -10 25. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Large. Small.' Do. Large. Small. Do. Do. Do. Do. Wixom............... 931 Waterford...................... ï~~184 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. FLOWING WELLS. ORTONVILLE DISTRICT. a Ortonville is situated in Brandon Township (T. 5 N., R. 9 E.) in a deep valley, the sandy bottom of which now forms the terraces of a small stream flowing through it. The valley is somewhat less than a mile wide at this point and runs nearly north. Its slopes are generally springy, where the overlying gravelly till rests upon a deposit of much more compact, darker material, which suggests by its character the pre-Wisconsin drift. This springy zone is generally swampy, and there are several interesting springs of considerable capacity running from it and forming roadside rills. (See fig. 24.) Ortonville is perhaps better supplied with flowing wells than any town of its size in the area visited by the writer, nearly every house having one (see fig. 25). The water seems to come from a single stratum of very fine sand or silt, mixed, in places, with gravel. This Compact till:. o:r:: ow.. Comrn ct till oarses d.-..". FI. 24.-Diagram across valley at Ortonville, Oakland County; vertical scale greatly exaggerated. has a cap of from 15 to 30 feet or more of tough blue clay, without pebbles, on top of which is a layer of sand and gravel from 15 to 35 feet deep. The sandy water bed is about 65 feet below the surface on the higher part of the district in which flows occur, and is nearer the surface in the vicinity of the stream. The first flow was obtained Fbout 20 years ago, at the mill in the valley. The usual method is to case the wells down into the clay, then bore down to the water, after which the water runs through the clay. The largest flows and strongest heads are found in the stream valley, that of J. H. Mann (No. 1 on fig. 25) being located very near the bank of the stream. A number of the stronger flows were said to have brought up large quantities of sand when first put down, that of Milo Giles, at the blacksmith shop, pouring it out by wagon loads for the first three months after it was put down. Several people also reported that just before storms their wells flowed more freely, and the water became roily. This is not unusual in flowing wells, and is due to a oy Charles A. Davis. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. 185 F- MU L Pond FIG. 25.-Plat of Ortonville, Oakland County, showing location of flowing wells. List of owners. 1. Mann's slaughterhouse. 26. Chester D. Berry. 51. Bert Smith. 75. D. Irish. 2. Mann's house. 27. Dr. Guiles. 52. Hummer & Jone. 76. Frick estate. 3. Scotts. 28. Alex. Stollicar. 53. Alonzo Mills. 77. Frank Miller. 4. J. Evarts. 29. John Lindsay. 54. Schoolhouse. 78. Len.Gniles. 5. Alonzo Flagler. 30. Frank Collins. 55. Mrs. Savness. 79.) Len. Guiles. 6. Fred Bennett. 31. Daver Van Tyne. 56. W. J. Ball. 80. Robt. Skinner. 7. Conrad Savener. 32. J. Keller. 57. James Lane. 81. Fred. Wilders. 8. Richard Randall. 33. Lewis Savner. 58. Mrs. C. S. Rodenhaugh. 82. A. Sands 9. John Markham. 31. Frank Cliff. 59. Daniel Wells. 83. Thos. Tucker. 10 Robert Hewett. 35. Ed Sawner. 60. Lovin Torrence. 84. Milo Giles blacksmith 1 t. Nathan Patten. 36. Louis Givens. 61. Mill. shop. 12. W. F. Bingham. 37. Vin. Richmond. 62. Mrs. C. S. Stewart. 86. Win. Petters. 13. Wm. Patterson. 38. George Eaton. 63. J. J. Evests. 86. Win. Neally. 14. Benj. Brosieus. 39. Wm. Rathbone. 64. R. Skinner. 87. Mrs. Sands. 15. Mrs. Quick. 40. John Skinner (store). 65. Baptist parsonage. 88. Westcott. 16. Herman Profrock. 41. Walter Clark. 66. J. J. Evarts. 89. Scott. 17. Chas. Protfrock. 42. Town well. 67. Dr. Uloth. 90. Geo. Norrin. 18. Alex. Guiles. 43. Frank Frick. 68. Mrs. Alger. 91. H. Profrock. 19. Wm. Addis. 44. William Case. 69. Baptist parsonage. 92. H. Frick. 20. Archie Zimmermann. 45. 70. H. K. Jones. 93. Mrs Evarts. 21. Mrs. Enders 46. Alex. Stollicer. 71. Mrs. Mills. 84. Jas. Arnold. 22. Chas. Stevens. 47. 72. G. Terry. 95. Milo Giles. 23. Wm. Patterson. 48. Nath. Auten. 73. N. Welch. 96. Chas. Kier. 24. M. E. parsonage. 49. } Dr. Atcherson. 74. L. Purrett. 97. Unknown near 29. 25. Win. Brosieus. 50.r ï~~186 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. lessened atmospheric pressure at such times. The wells at the higher levels of the town are affected by dry weather and some nearly cease flowing in a prolonged drought. This might be in some measure prevented by shutting down some of the large flows in the lowest places, where there is an enormous waste of water, which tends to lower the head of the entire area. The catchment area might easily be the sides of the valley, especially if the clay capping of the sandy water bed is thin or wanting near the sides, as is possible, or it might be the bottom of the valley itself up the stream, since the head or elevation to which the water rises in the town is only about 15 feet above the stream, and above this level there are no flowing wells. The following proximate quantitative analysis of the water at the well at Mann's slaughterhouse (No. 1 on fig. 25) shows that the water is not excessively charged with mineral matter, but is of good quality, and while hard is no more so than is usual for waters from the glacial deposits. Quantitative analysis of well at slaughterhouse (No. 1), Ortonville.a Parts per million. Calcium (Ca)............--------------------------------.........----------------------.. 104.51 Carbonate radicle (C03) ---------------------...------..-------..----...-------. 156.49 Iron (Fe)...........----------------------------........------------------------------. 2.25 Sulphate radicle (804) - - - - - - - - -Trace. Chlorine (Cl)...........--------------------------------------------------------...... 3.75 It is probable that the entire flow of the area is above 100 gallons a minute or about 150,000 gallons a day, enough for a much larger town. The plat of the village (fig. 25) shows the location of the wells and their relation to the stream, while in the table are to be found statistics of the more interesting wells. a Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. Representative wells at Ortonville. 187 No.' on fig. 25. 1 2 3 4 21 29 30 31 37 54 60 62 69 80 81 84 DiamTemOwner. eter.- Depth. Cost. Head. perae. ture. Inches. Feet. o F. G. H. Marna.... 2 35...... +20 50.3.....do.......... 2, 40...... - 6 Stephen Scott.. 2 40...... + 2 50.7 J. J. Evarts........... 65 $15 + 1 50.2 Mrs. Enders.... 2 50?...... + 3..... John Lindsay 2 65...... + 2 51 D. Van Tyne... 2 50..... +1 50 Frank Collins... 2 40... + 2 51.3 V. Richmond.. 2 53..... + 2..... School district. 2 45..... + 9 51.2 Lorin Torrence. 2 48.. Mrs. C.S. Stew- 2 65......51 art. Will L. Giles........... 65 20 + 4 50.2 R. Skinner...... 2 50 15 + 4 53 Flow n Quality. ute. Galls. 8 Hard; iron. Strongest flow in area. 5.....do..... Irrigating lawn. 8.....do... 1.....do...... Flow stopped by obstruction. 1.....do...... For refrigerating use.......do......1........do...... Do. 1.....do... Do. 1.....do...... Sand and quicksand 30 feet; clay 23 feet........ do......do...... In creek valley. 1....do...... Flowed about a cartload of sand for 3 months. 1............ 1.............Piped in house; made in 1889. 1.........._ 1............Flowed about a cartload ot sand a day for 3 days. Remarks. F. Wilders...... Milo Giles...... 2 50 2 65 15 + 4 53..... + 3.5 52.1 On the farm of Mrs. Loesch, in sec. 29, Brandon Township, 3 miles south of Ortonville, is a flowing well about 50 feet deep, with a head 18 feet above the surface. It is in a sag near a lake, and was reported to give a very strong flow. This well was not visited by the writer, but was reported by the driller, R. E. Cassidy, who also stated that the water rises about to the surface in dug wells to the south of Ortonville on some farms. GROVELAND TOWNSHIP. a This area consists of a group of three wells, in T. 5 N., R. 8 E., about 5 miles west from Ortonville, one of which (the Thayer well) is from the rock. There is probably no communication between these wells, although evidently one of the strata passed through in the well of Mr. Thayer is the same as that which furnished Mr. Coventry's supply. The flow at James Algoe's is an especially fine one, and gives a great quantity of pure water. The catchment area is probably in the higher land in the vicinity of the wells, and it seems likely that wells put down in other low places in the neighborhood would also yield flows. a By Charles A. Davis. ï~~188 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells of Groveland Township (T. 5 N., R. 8 E.), Oakland County. Flow Flow Term- Depth Sec- Owner. When Diam -Depth. Head. m pera- Quality. to Water bed. tion. made. eter. Dh e - ture. rock. ute. Inches. Feet. Feet. Galls. o F. Feet. 4 F.W. Thayera. 1899 2 175 +2.5 2.5 50.5 Medium 169 Shelly sandhard. stone. 3 J.J. Coventry.. 1899 2 5 +3.25...... 51.5 Hard..... 170 Gravel. 5 James Algoeb.. 1899 3 106 +10 4 50.5.....do.... Gravel and sand. a Water at 40 and 60 feet; nearly flowed at 80 feet; flows from 120 feet. b Said to flow 550 barrels per day. The flow is divided and is piped across the road to the house, where it runs i-inch pipe full. The well is 8 to 10 feet above the bed of the stream. BIG MEADOWS AREA.a Five miles west of Oxford, in the bottom of a wide valley running from northwest to southeast, is a large area of marsh land, now in part drained and cleared, used for pasture and in some cases for crops. The surface is nearly level, only slight depressions being observed. This is a flowing well area, but is only slightly developed, and but for its possibilities would need no further mention. If, however, the marsh is more fully drained, as it will be sometime, it is a matter of importance to note that practically over its entire surface at depths from 50 to 70 feet flowing water can be found. It was reported that in a number of places wells had been driven to get water for stock in the pastures, but only two were found by the writer. These were flowing up through the bottoms of watering troughs in such a way that no accurate estimate of the flow could be made, but the quantity was probably from 2 to 4 gallons per minute, with a temperature of 510 F. The flows are said to cease after a time, but usually because the pipes become clogged from above. The water just reaches the surface of the general level. The wells observed were on the south side of sec. 24, Brandon Township, near the road, at an elevation of 1,068 feet. On the north side of the valley and marsh, one well was seen which had a head of about 2 feet and a flow of about 3 gallons per minute, but no other information was obtained regarding it. This area is capable of much greater development. TROY DISTRICT.' Extent.-One of the largest flowing well districts in the southeastern part of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan is known as the Troy district, from Troy Township in eastern Oakland County, in which many of the wells are located. The district, however, extends eastward slightly beyond the Oakland-Macomb county line into Sterling Township, Macomb County, and has also a southwestward extension across the northwestern part of Royal Oak into Southfield a By Charles A. Davis. b By Frank Leverett and Jon A. Udden. ï~~U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 182 PL. V < i MAP OF TROY FLOWING-WELL DISTRICT, OAKLAND COUNTY, SHOWING TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES IN THAT AND BORDERING DISTRICTS. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. 189 Township, and thence northward into Bloomfield Township, past the village of Birmingham. Around the main district are small groups of flowing wells or isolated flows whose relations to the main district are not yet determined. P1. V shows the extent of this flowing well district and of the smaller districts near it in Troy, Bloomfield, Southfield, and Farmington townships, which may in some cases prove to be in the same pool or district. The relation of these well districts to the shores of the glacial lakes, to moraines, and to other features of topography or drainage are also presented. The Troy district covers about 20 square miles and as at present developed has not far from 150 flowing wells in operation. The portion in Troy and Royal Oak townships is nearly shut off from that in Southfield and Brookfield townships by a low, smooth clay ridge (a waterlaid moraine) running southward through the eastern edge of Southfield Township. Flowing wells have been obtained, however, on this low ridge in secs. I and 12, Southfield Township, and thus connect the fields on either side of the ridge. The ridge becomes so prominent farther north in Bloomfield and Troy townships that flowing wells can not be obtained on it. The small districts near the Troy district, as suggested above, may in some cases, if not in all, be closely related to it and isolated only because tests have not been sufficient to establish a closer relation. Thus the wells in secs. 27, 33, and 34, Avon Township, which have a similar topographic situation in reference to the moraine west of them to that of the wells in Troy Township, may, when borings become more numerous, prove to be a part of the Troy field. The isolated group of wells in the northwestern part of Troy Township is separated from the part of the Troy district to the southeast by a morainic ridge too high to permit flows to be obtained, but there is a possible extension down the valley of River Rouge to the flowing wells at Birmingham. The group of wells in sec. 34, Bloomfield, are likely to belong with those to the east, but the interval of a mile in which no flows have been obtained leaves the question open. The flowing wells to the southwest ih secs. 8 and 18, Southfield, and secs. 13 and 23, Farmington, are not only separated by an interval of considerable width from those in the Troy field, but two unsuccessful borings by Mr. Tibbetts in sec. 18, Bloomfield, were carried into the rock and throw doubt on the extension of flowing wells across the interval between the wells in Farmington and those in western Southfield township. There may, however, be only a local pinching out of the water bed at the place where the Tibbetts tests were made. Complete continuity of water beds is hardly to be expected throughout an artesianwell area drawing from the drift deposits, as is the case in the Troy district. Water beds with strong hydrostatic pressure are so generally distributed through the middle and lower parts of the drift ï~~190 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. deposits of this region that it is, on the whole, a more surprising feature than the occasional failure to strike a good supply or a supply with sufficient head to flow. Head.-The cross section (fig. 26) is drawn from west to east across the best developed portion of the Troy field. It takes the direction of the most rapid slope, which is about at a right angle with the trend of the moraines. It serves to show how rapidly the head falls in passing southeastward, there being a decrease of fully 100 feet in the 31 miles from Troy to the eastern border of the district, or nearly 30 feet to the mile. There are only a few wells in which the head is more than 20 feet, and it probably averages less than 10 feet throughout the district. The Shead given in the table is, in most cases, simply Sthe height above the surface at which water is "- escaping from the pipe, for means were not at Shand for testing the full head at the time the -other observations were made. S The catchment area for the wells is likely to Sembrace a wide extent of high country to the Snorthwest and not merely the nearest morainic Sridge. The ridge which lies east of River Rouge w may, however, have a water table high enough to produce greater head in the flowing wells Seast of it than they would have if this ridge were c ' oabsent and a plain extended from the flowing " wells to the ridge west of River Rouge. The Shigh altitude of the water table in this eastern E ridge may also give the wells south of Birmingo- ham head enough to flow, for it will be observed othat the wells there have somewhat greater head than the wells both to the west and east. The portion of the ridge south from Birmingham apo pears to have been formed between the Erie and Huron ice lobes (the Erie lobe on its west and the Huron on its east side). The ridge may, thereSfore, contain beds which dip to the west as well as a to the east, and distribute the water which it = collects in both directions. The underground...0. water would, perhaps, run westward from it as o Â~ 06r- t far as the surface water does, or to the valley of River Rouge. West from that stream the underground drainage, like the surface drainage, is probably southeastward. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. 191 Structure of drift.-The well owners and the drillers state that the drift is composed very largely of blue clay, which is ordinarily soft or easily penetrated by the drill to a depth of 75 to 130 feet or more. At the base of this clay is a thin crust, usually only 1 to 2 feet thick, overlying the water bed and probably due in some way to the action of the water. The character of the water bed is set forth in the tables below. In most cases wells only reach the top of the bed and do not determine its thickness. Development.-The Troy field will admit of many more wells without serious interference, if properly distributed and controlled. There are, however, a few cases of the lowering of head and decrease in flow of wells as a result of putting in additional wells. The well of Mrs. Ellinwood, in sec. 20, Troy Township, is thought to have thus affected six other wells in secs. 28 and 29, for their flow seems to be weaker when this well is flowing full strength than when it is shut off. The well of W. Erity, in River Rouge Valley, in sec. 2, Southfield, when allowed to flow to its full capacity, seriously affects the flow of the wells along the bluff of the river in that vicinity and was only checked after suit was brought against the owner. Some wells appear not to have returned to their original strength now that the flow of this well has been lessened. This shows the great need of putting strong wells under control as soon as made. Aside from the Birmingham public supply, the principal uses made of the flowing wells are the application to the needs of house and stock and dairies. The water holds a temperature of about 500 F. through the summer and serves admirably as a cooler for milk and other dairy products. Quality.-The principal variation in quality is that of saltness, the eastern portion of the field being characterized by salty water in many of the wells, while the western has in all cases comparatively fresh water. The line at which the change occurs runs about north and south not far from the electric road from Troy to Royal Oak. The saltness of the water in the eastern part of the district seems likely to be due to the escape of salt water into the drift from the underlying rock formations. A well in sec. 23, Troy Township, strikes salty water in sandstone at about 100 feet from the surface. Other wells near by go to greater depths without striking rock, but they may have struck into valleys in the rock filled with sand that receives the salt water from the rock. In one place a salt spring is reported to gush up to the surface, but was not visited, as it is in the midst of a marsh. Mr. Lewis has made analyses of one well in the salt-water and one in the fresh-water area. The amount of the salt in the former (the Lamb well) is more than 10 times as great as in the latter (the Buttolph well), which is considered fresh, though ï~~192 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. it has more salt than is usually found in flowing wells from the glacial deposits. The following are the two analyses: Partial analyses of well waters in Troy district, Oakland County. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color.......--------------------------------------------------------------122 96 Iron (Fe)... ------------------------------------------------------------ 2 2.5 Chlorine (Cl)....-------------------------------------------------------- 232 2,829 Carbon dioxide (CO2)............................................................. 101.97 97.48 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)........................................................... 0 10 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. J. Buttolph, sec. 22; depth 90 feet; called fresh water. 2. Cyrus Lamb, sec. 23; depth 122 feet; salt water; Udden reports depth 87 feet. Wells.-The following tabulated data on flowing wells were collected by Mr. Udden; they embrace also wells in isolated districts: Wells in Troy flowing-well district. STERLING TOWNSHIP (T. 2 N., R. 12 E.). Quar- 40. Owner. Wbedr Quality. Ster. -. t be. Â~ a, a a 5 o Ft. In. Ft. Ft. o F. Galls. 7 NW. NE. Chas. Hawker........ 640 2.5 95 Gravel.. + 1.5 49 0.75 Hard; salt. 18 NW. NW. Eli Renshaw......... 640 2.5.........do... + 1 49 1.25 Do. 3 NW. SW. Utica Village..... 616..... 158.......... +12... 3 NW. SW..do......... 616.- (?)........+12 TROY TOWNSHIP. 1 SE. NE. F. Reinholt.........Â~ 665 2.5 89 Gravel.. + 2 48.5 1 Hard; salt. 1 SE. SW. J. Dippert..........Â~ 665 2.5 92....do... + 2 49 1 Do. 4 SE. SE. Lakey & Phil-......Â~750 2 116....do... + 2 49 3.5 Hard; iron. lips. 9 NE. NE. J. Jennings........_ 750 2.5......... + 2 48 1 Hard. 9 NE. NW. Mrs. P. Brandt... 765 2.5 98 Gravel.. +15 48 4 Do. 10 SW. SW. Geo. Dawson.........716 2.5.........do... + 2 49 1 Do. 10 SE. SE. Geo. A. Clarke........670 2 86....do... + 4 49 2 Do. 10 NE. SE (?) 680 2.5.......... + 3 48.5 1.5 12 SE. SE. A. Jennings.........Â~650 2.5 85 Gravel.. + 2 49 1 Do. 12 SE. SE. do............. 650 2.5 85....do.. + 2 49.75 Do. 12 SW. SW. Fred Renshaw........660 2.5. do... + 2 49 1.5 Salt; hard. 12 NW. NE. C. Button...........665 2.5 95...do... + 2 49 1 Hard. 13 SE. NW. S. C. Hill.............. 650 2.5._-._do... + 2 49 1 Salt; hard. 13 NW. NE. John Harty..........650 2.5...+ 2 49 1 Do. 14 NW. NW. H. Schneider.........670 2.5 85......+ 2 49 2 Hard; salt. 14 SW. NW. C. Gratopp..... 1902 670 2.5 80 Gravel.. +15 49 2 Do. 14 SW. SW. R. A. Lamb.... 1897 670 2.5 85...do... +18 48.5 2 Do. 14 NW. NE. W. Schneider... 1903 670 2.5 90...do... +15 48.5 2.5 Do. 14 NE. NE. J. Renshaw........... 665 2.5............{+12 49 1 Do. 15 SW. NW. J. Aldrich a............ 680 2.5 130 Gravel.. + 7 49 2 Hard. 15 NW. SW. C. Sullivan._.......... 690 2.5 135....do... + 3 49 1 Do. 15 NW. NW. F. Belty..............706 2.5..........49 4 Do. 15 NW. NE.....do................690 2.5............49 2 Do. 15 NW. NW C. Harris.... __ 706 2.5 84.........+ 2 49 3 Do. 15 NE. SE. J..Measel b............ 670 2.5 85 Gravel.. + 2 49 2 Do. 16 SW. SW. J. Dennison.......... 740 2.5 95..-.do.. + 2 49 2 Do. 16 SE. SE. J. Buttolph.... 1878 690 2.5 95 Sand.... +16 49 7 Do. 16 SE. SE. A. Graves.. 690 2.5.............+ 2 49 2 Hard; iron. 16 NE. SE. J. Scott........ 1897 705 3 82 Gravel.. + 2 49 12 Do. 16 NW. NW (?)........760..................... a Blue clay 26 feet, hardpan 2 feet, gravel 2 feet. b Blue clay 75 feet, hardpan 5 feet, gravel 5 feet. ï~~OAKLAND COUNTY. Wells in Troy flowuring-well district-Continued. TROY TOWNSHIP-Continued. 193 SQuar- 40. Owner. O oi ter. c.0 o Ft. 17 NE. SE. Mr. Lakey...........760 17 SE. NE. S. Butler..... 1887 760 20 SE. SE. Schoolhouse.... 1902 730 20 SE. SW. Mrs. Ellinwood........ 740 20 NE. SE. C. Ford............. 740 21 SW. NW. W. Trumbulla...... 725 21 NW SW. F. Ford............. 730 21 NW. NW. Adams estate......... 740 21 NW. NE. W. Truesdell... 1874 725 21 NE. SE. Hill & Becker... 1881 690 21 SE. NE. S. Donaldson......... 690 21 SE. SE. E.J. Lockb.... 1898 680 21 SE. SW. E. Dennison c...... 700 21 SW. SE. A. Baileyd..........710 22 NW NW. John Buttolph.. 1893 680 22 NW NW. A. B. Wattles......... 680 22 NW SW. A. Wegner......... 680 22 SW. SW. Fred Parks..... 1900 675 22 NE. NE. J. Schneider.......... 670 22 NE. NW. Chas. Sturgeon...... 670 23 NW NW. Chas. Smith.......... 670 23 NW NE. C. Lamb..............65 23 NE. NE. Geo. Lamb e.... 1904 650 24 NW NW. A. Lamb............. 650 26 SW. SE. H. Hildebrand..... 645 27 NW NE. A. Gibbs....... 1889 670 28 SW. NW. Mr. Herr....... 700 28 NW SW. Jas. Phillips.......... 710 28 NW NW. Miles Dewey!... 1893 715 28 NE. NE. Tom. Boyd........ 680 28 NW NE. M. Spencer...... 700 29 SW. SE. J. Donaldson.........740 29 SE. SW. Robt. Groves.........725 29 SE. SE. A. f. Todd..... 1900 710 29 NE. SE. Robt. Groves.........720 29 NE. SE.....do.......... 720 29 NE. NW. TT. Parks.......... 741 29 SW. NW. Geo. Dawson.........750 30 NE. SE. W. Brooks..... 755 31 NE. NE. Chas. Moore... 750 32 SW. NW. M. Groves g..... 1904 735 32 NW. SW. P. Lambert..... 1892 740 32 NE. NE. M. Addison..... 1886 700 35 NE. NW. A.Davidson.........645 7 NE. NE. EzraBaileyh... 1890 790 7 NE. SE. J.Dennison.......... 785 8 NW. NE. F. D. Cutting... 1903 785 33............... W.M. Hall.......... 690 28...._....... W. Ferkins..........690 20............. J. H. Jackson........ (?) 20........_.... V. James i............ (?) 3................ Chas. Leonard J....... 710 Water Quality. ) bed. In. Ft. Ft. OF. Galls. 2.5............... 2.5 110 Gravel.. + 2 49.5 Hard;iron. 4 125....do... +10 49 3 Do. 2.5 112.......... + 2 49 1 Do. 2.5 117 Gravel.. + 2 48.5 2 Hard. 2.5 112....do... + 2 49 1.5 Do. 2.5 110....do... + 8 49 1 Hard;iron. 2.5 110....do... +2 49 2 Do. 2.5 115....do... + 2 49 2 Do. 2.5 130....do... +25 48.5 4 Do. 2.5..........+ 7 49 2 Hard. 2.5 110 Sand.... +30 48.5 5 Do. 2.5 138 Gravel.. +10 49 2 Do. 2.5 138....do... +10 4d 2 Do. 2.5 90....do... + 3 49 2 Do. 2.5 92....do... + 2 49 2 Do. 2.5 130....do... +25 48.5 4 Hard; salt. 2.5 130 Sand.... +10 49.5 Do. 2 130....do.. + 2 49.5 Do. 2.5 88 Gravel.. + 3 49.5 Do. 2 80... do... + 2 49.75 Do. 2.5 87....do... + 2 49 1.5 Do. 2.5 115....do... + 5 49.5 Do. 2.5........do.. + 1 49 1 Do. 2.5....do.... + 2 48 2 Hard;iron. 2.5 105....do... + 2 49.25 Hard; salt. 2.5.... _do... + 2 48.5 3 Hard. 2.5 128......... 2 48 2 Do. 2.5 112 Gravel.. + 2 49 3 Do. 2.5 110....do... +15 49 3 Hard: salt. 2.5 135... do... + 2 4J 1.5 Hard; iron. 2.5.............. + 2 48.5 2 Do. 2.5 115 Gravel.. + 1 49 1 Do. 2.5.............+ 2 49 2.5 Do. 2.5 130 Gravel.. +10 48 5 Dn. 2.5 96..do... +24 4IS 5 4 Do. 2.5 116.......+. 2 49 2 Hard. 2.5...............+ 2 49 1 Hard; iron. 2.5.............. + 2 49 1 Do. 2.5..Gravel.. + 2 48 2 Do. 4 220....do... +17 49 10 Do. 3 175_i...do...+ 2 49 5 Do. 2.5 108....do...;+ 2 48.5 3 Do. 2.5 170....do.. +10 49 2 Salt; nhard; +3 j iron. 2.5 90....do...' 3 49 2 Hard;iron. 2.5 95....do...+2 49 2 Do. 2.5 50....do... + 4 49 si Do. 2.5 117....do... +(?)............ Do. 2.5 115....do... +(?)..............Do. 2.5 165....do... - 6...............Do. 2.5 118....do.. - 1..............Do. 2.5 116....do... - 9 a Blue clay 107 feet, hardpan 2 feet, gravel 4 feet. b Blue clay 100 feet, quicksand 10 feet. c Blue clay 135 feet, hardpan 2 feet, gravel 3 feet. d Blue clay 130 feet, hardpan 3 feet, gravel 7 feet. e Sandstone 97 to 115 feet. I Blue clay 108 feet, hardpan 1 foot, gravel 3 feet. P Sand 3 feet, pebbly yellow clay 17 feet, pebbly blue clay 97 feet, hardpan 10 feet, cemented gravel 57 feet, clay 30 feet, gravel 6 feet. A Blue clay 85 feet, gravel 5 feet. i Blue clay 116 feet, hardpan 1 foot, gravel 1 foot. I Gravel and clay 13 feet, pebbly blue clay 37 feet, soft blue clay 50 feet, hardpan 7 feet, gravel 1 foot hardpan 7 feet, gravel. ï~~194 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Troy flowing-well district-Continued. BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP. Quaro ter. 25 SW. 25 SW. 25 SW. 25 SW. 36 NW. 35 NE. 34 NE. 34 NW. 36 NW. 40. NE. SW. SE. SW. NW. NE. W........ -..... Owner. Detroit United Railway. Frank Graglina. Geo. Shain b.... Mr. Jacobs c.... McClellan & Sattarlee. d J. N. Zimmerman. E. T. Brooks e.. M. M. Fisher f.. Birmingham waterworks(5 wells).a 6 a 1898 1889 1896 0 a Ft. 745 7v8 738 740 733 733 -760 +770 733 In. 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 Ft. 106 40 40 44 38 Water bed. Sand.... Gravel......do.......do....... do... b Ft. + 3 +2 +2 + 2 +3 50 50 50 50 51 50 49 49 49 aa 0 Galls. 2.5 2 2 2 2 2 4 1 5. 20 Quality. Hard. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 38 1....do... -+ 2..............do... + 3 +2................... 2 4 45 Gravel.. +14 ROYAL OAK TOWNSHIP (T. 1 N., R. 11 E.). 6 SW. NW. P. Simonoan.......... 745 2.5.............. + 2 49 2 Hard. 6 SW. SW. Mr. Roosarde.........730 2.5 187 Gravel. + 3 49 2.5 Do. 6 NW. NE. S. Cooper....... 745............do.. + 2 48 2.5 Do. 6 SW. NE W. Hunth... 1893 740 2.5 165....do.. + 6 49 2.5 Do. 6 SW. NE...do i....1896 740 2.5 126....do. + 2 49 3 Do. 7 NW. NW. A. Broadway......... 730............................ SOUTHFIELD TOWNSHIP (T. 1 N., R. 10 E.). i i NW. NW. NW. SW. NW. NW. NW. NE. NE. SE. NE. NE. SE. SE. NW. SE. NW. NE. NE. NE. SE. SE. SW. NE. NW. SE. SE. SE. SE. SE. SW. NW. SW. NE. NE. NE. SW. SW. NE. NW. NW. SW. John Keyser.... John Nixon.. W. Erity....... Erity schoolhouse. J.Heth i-...... A. White...... C. Moore....... Mrs. McKenney. J. Crawford.... Cash Crawford.. W. Erity............do.......... W. Master...........do.......... F. Youngk..... C. McDonald... J. D. Evans.... A. C. Blumberg. J. Bassett..... W. Maitrott.... J. Miller....... 1889 1895 1904 1904 1887 1885 188i 1892 1890 1894 750 750 700 720 740 730 730 730 745 745 720 720 715 720 710 740 740 715 730 710 2.5 2.5 6 2.5 2.5 1.5 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 100 53 85 140 78 95 97 114 130 85 149 60 142 142 183 140 90 140...............51 Gravel.. + 2 53....do........-- 48....do... +20 49....do... +11 50 Sand.... +20 48.5....do... +12 49 Gravel.. + 3 53....do-_.. +3 49....do... +4 49....do... +15 48....do... +25 48.... do...+22 49 ----do._ 24 49....do... + 2 49....do... +2 48....do........ 48....do... +3 48....do................do... +20 49 4 5 15 4 6 10 10 3 4 7 3 4 3 12 4 3 4 4 Hard. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Hard, iron. FARMINGTON TOWNSHIP. 13 NW. NW. A. B. Coleman.. 1904 785......... Gravel........ 53 1 13 SW. NW. do............ 740 2................ 53 1 23 NE. NE. H.Rockwell.... 1874 740 2 30......... +1 53.5 a Blue clay 38 feet, gravel 2 feet. b Blue clay 40 feet, gravel 8 leet. c Blue clay 40 feet, gravel 4 feet. d Blue clay 36 feet, gravel 2 feet. e Has 4 other flows. t Has 3 other flows. o Five flows: head+14 feet (or to 747 feet above tide). Yield 750,000 gallons daily. a Blue clay 155 feet, hardpan 4 feet, gravel 6 feet. SBlue clay 115 feet, hardpan 4 feet, gravel 6 feet. I Blue clay 138 feet, gravel 2 feet, a small flow at 113 feet, about j gallon. k Clay pretty soft 138 teet, hardpan 4 feet, gravel 18 feet. t Sana and gravel 5 fleet, blue clay 40 feet, quicksand 75 feet more or less, hardpan 20 feet, gravel. ï~~OAKLANT) COUNTY. AVON TOWNSHIP (T. 3 N., R. 11 E.).a In addition to the waterworks wells (see p. 182) the village of Rochester has two flowing wells, one on the property of the Detroit United Electric Railroad, in the valley of Paint Creek, the other on the property of the Barnes paper mill, near the mouth of Paint Creek, about one-third mile from the railway well. The railway well was made in 1903 and obtains water from sand at 98 to 100 feet. It has a head of 18 feet and discharges 4 gallons a minute. The water is hard and contains iron. The temperature is 510 F. The paper mill well was made in 1878 and obtains its supply from gravel at a depth of 150 feet. The water rises to 20 feet above the surface or about 750 feet above tide. It discharges 5 gallons a R"ILE. minute of hard"..' w.:ater containing some iron. It is probable that the number and area of flows could be extended some distance from Rochester along the valleys of Paint Creek and Clinton River, but the expense of sinking wells to depths of 100 to 150 feet is so much greater than that required to obtain surface water that few attempts have been made to obtain flowing wells. There are flows... in the southern part o' Avon Township, in which.:Rochester is situated, but "they are in another district, separated from in the Troy field. The wells are tabulated with the other wells of SBy Jon A. Udden..: =...... '.....t.: ""::..''.?::.846:..'::- U) "..2 I "" ':-.:22.-"",caN; 2 '-um'ber " and:area' "of-"f"ow's, coul.d."b.". ext"endedsel distace frÂ~ Rochester'along the vlleys"of"Paint Creek:nd ClintonÂ~River, bu th epes o ning wells: t,.Â~,Â~ o de-p::t!h o-_00 t.150fetis -"c gratr.ha tatreuiedtoobai srfcewaertht ewate. t have b en -ma e.to.. tain lowin.wel....::'....,,. "\. There are flows in.the.southern"part of vn Towns"ip, in"w-i" Rohete is situated,'bt they'arein:notherdistrc,,spaate" f.- m the wels at Rchesterby a pominentmorainc.ridgeandmabelon in the.roy f.ld.'Thewells.re talated with.the other.llso....:.'-.*:.':a.:.y J...... "':"".:"''"" " -" ", ^ " 1 0 ï~~196 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Avon Township, simply for convenience of reference. A boring in sec. 26, which failed to reach rock at 213 feet, also appears in the table, since it shows the great amount of drift present. It also shows that flows are not always obtained when the altitude is similar to neighboring wells that flow. Wells in Avon Township (T. 3 N., R. 11 E.). c 40. Owner. S a.WaterQuality., - bed. Quliy ca CS. Feet. Ins. Feet. Feet.Â~ F. Gals. 4 NW. SE. Ro terworks.wa- 1895 875 80 Gravel.. +13..........Hard; iron. 11 SW. SW. Detroit United 1902 745 6 100 Sand.... +18 51 4 Do. Electric Railroad, Rochester. 14 NW. NE. Barnes Paper 1878 730 4 150 Gravel.. +20 -.. 5 Do. Mill Company, Rochester. 26 NW. NE. (?)a........ 780..... 213.......................No water. 27 NE. NE. H. Jungel....... 1896 786 3 150 Gravel.. + 7 51 5 Hard; iron. 33 SE. SE. Mr. Durandb... 1878...... 4 147....do... + 3........... Do. 34 SW. SW. A.A. Iovey............. 2.5 145....do... + 3 - 25 Do. a No rock struck or flow obtained. b Blue clay, 90 feet; hard blue clay, 54 feet; gravel, 3 feet. WATER SUPPLIES OF MACOMB COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Macomb County, of which Mount Clemens is the county seat, fronts on the west shore of Lake St. Clair, and is nearly all tributary to Clinton River, there being only a narrow strip on the shore of Lake St. Clair not tributary to this stream. The entire county has been covered by glacial lake waters except about 50 square miles in the northwest corner where prominent moraines rise above the highest old-lake level. There is a weak moraine, known as the Detroit moraine, running through the lake plain in the eastern part of the county. It governs the course of North Clinton River, which follows its western edge for several miles, and also governs the course of the main river for a short distance before the latter receives its north fork. The lake plain is not covered extensively with sand, except in the southwestern part of the cdunty. Usually the soil and the material penetrated in wells is a stiff clay, in which are thin beds of gravel and sand, from which wells obtain water. In the sandy tracts water is usually obtained at the base of the sand, at depths of only 10 to 20 feet. The wells in the clay are often but 25 to 30 feet. There are, however, places in nearly every township where water can not be ï~~MACOMB COUNTY. 197 found at less than 50 feet and in some cases 100 feet or even more. On the morainic tracts in the northwestern part of the county are several wells more than 100 feet deep, but even there wells generally find water at depths of 25 to 50 feet. Waterworks have been put in at Mount Clemens, New Baltimore, Richmond (including Lenox), Armada, and Romeo. New Baltimore draws its supply from Lake St. Clair, but the other towns depend on wells as indicated below. Flowing wells are obtained on the St. Clair shore along some of the streams and in a part of the lake plain in Armada, Ray, and Washington townships, which lie east of the high moraines noted above and are probably supplied from these moraines. But few wells in the county enter rock, and these are nearly all at Mount Clemens and south from that city on the border of Lake St. Clair. The Mount Clemens wells are several hundred feet in depth and obtain brines used in sanitariums and bath houses, which have become so highly patronized as to give the city the name "bath town." a The following statement concerning the development of the wells was furnished by T. M. Crocker, an attorney at Mount Clemens: The first well was drilled about 1867 and is now known as the "original well." It was used for some years as a salt well, but by accident its curative properties were ascertained and a small bath house was erected and used while-the waters were still being used for the purpose of manufacturing salt. This well is now used wholly for bathing purposes in a very large bath house connected with the Avery House and the Egnew. The second well was drilled some time about 1883 or 1884 below the first well, and the water taken in pipes to the central part of the city and used in the Medea Bath House, which is connected with the Sherman House. Then there was a third well made, called the Fountain, which is connected with the Fountain, Clifton, and Crystal hotels by tunnel and covered way. The fourth well was constructed by Keiffer & Buregard, a very fine bath house built, and a commodious hotel connected with the same. The fifth was constructed by Mr. Coursin, and the Fenten House is connected with this. The sixth well was made; then the Colonial House and Sanitarium were constructed and connected. Each bath house is large and commodious and the management of each is in all respects first class. The flowing wells along the shore south of Mount Clemens have only entered rock in a few cases and have penetrated it a very little distance. The water from near the top of the rock is sufficiently fresh to be used in drinking and is softer than the water from the drift. Salinity increases greatly if wells are continued far into the rock. Wells in other parts of the county that have reached rock find in it water rather salt for drinking. WATERWORKS. MOUNT CLEMENS. The waterworks plant of Mount Clemens is supplied from a group of 22 wells ranging from 25 to 41 feet in depth, situated in Clinton a For sections of these wells see Geology of Michigan, vol. 5, and for analyses of the water see WaterSup. and Irr. Paper No. 31, U. S. Geological Survey, 1899. ian 182-06--14 ï~~198 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. River Valley in the southern part of the city. One dug in the summer of 1904 has the following section, reported by the driller, George Rocker: Muck, 2 feet; gravel, 4 feet; sand, 2 feet; blue clay, 4 feet; hardpan, 2 feet; blue clay, 4.5 feet; hardpan, 10 feet; water-bearing gravel, 6.5 feet. It is the bottom gravel that furnishes water to all the wells, some being driven into it farther than others. The works were established in 1889, and for a time Clinton River water was used, but this proved to be subject to contamination, and a filter bed that was put in is reported by Dr. V. C. Vaughan, of the University of Michigan, to have served as a culture bed for disease germs. The wells have accordingly been substituted. Their location however, on the downstream side of the town seems very unwise. Water is pumped direct to the mains and gives an ordinary pressure of 50 pounds -and a fire pressure of 100 pounds. NEW BALTIMORE. The public supply at New Baltimore is pumped from Lake St. Clair to a standpipe. Many private wells still in use range in depth from 8 to 24 feet, with a common depth of 20 feet. Rock was struck at 120 feet in a deep boring made some years ago in prospecting for oil. RICHMOND AND LENOX. The villages of Richmond and Lenox, which are virtually one community, in northeastern Macomb County, have a public supply from driven wells 130 to 150 feet in depth which obtain water from gravel. The water is pumped to a standpipe. The plant was established in 1895 at a cost of $19,000. The private wells, which are 10 to 25 feet deep, are largely discarded. In the following partial analyses a comparison is made between the public supply and the shallow well belonging to the proprietor of the hotel at Lenox. The shallow well seems to be heavily contaminated, but fortunately it is used for watering stock only. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well waters at Richmond and Lenox. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color............................................................... 10 107 Iron (Fe)..................................................................... Trace. 2 Chlorine (Cl) --------------------------------------------------------- 56. 5 76. 5 Carbon dioxide (CO')....-------------------------------------------------- 82.88 127.95 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)....................................................... 10 20 Hardness (as CaCO3)........................................139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyist. 1. City supply; depth, 120 feet. 2. F. Springborn; depth, 10 feet. ï~~MACOMB COUNTY. 199 ARMADA. The waterworks supply at Armada is from a flowing well 94 feet in depth and 6 inches in diameter, with a head of 16 inches. One water vein was struck at 15 feet, another at 40 feet, and the third or principal vein at 90 feet. Water is obtained in gravel at each level. The casing is driven about 40 feet to exclude the upper vein. The waterworks plant was established in 1903, at a cost of $20,000. The pumps have a capacity of 750,000 gallons a day and give 42 pounds pressure. The water is soft enough to be used without the addition of softening compounds. The public supply has supganted most of the private wells, which were 15 to 25 feet deep, and often obtained water at the base of the gravel in the Belmore beach upon which the town is built. C. J. Van Atta, of Armada, has a flowing well in a shallow sag, the water of which will rise 7 feet above the surface. It is a 2-inch well 42 feet deep and has been running since 1897. The water is soft with a trace of iron. It is cased with tile for 28 feet. Flows can probably be obtained on the lowest ground in and south of the village of Armada, but only these two have been reported. ROMEO. The waterworks supply of Romeo is from four wells 26 feet deep in a ravine about a mile south of the village. This plant was established in 1892, at a cost of $36,000. The water is pumped direct to the mains and has an ordinary pressure of 60 pounds and fire pressure of 100 pounds. Shallow wells are still in use within the city limits, though they seem an element of danger, the village having in 1905 experienced an epidemic of typhoid. The following are partial analyses from shallow wells at Romeo, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey: Partial analyses of well waters at Romeo. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color...........................................................................---------------------------------------------------------------... 56 19 Iron (Fe)------------------------------------------------------------.......................................................................... 2 2 Chlorine (Cl).................................................................. -- 19 21 Carbon dioxide (CO,)............................................................. 90.14 110.36 Sulphur trioxide (SO )............................................................ 15 20 Hardness (as CaCOa)............................................................. 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. John Kramer; depth, 12.5 feet. 2. City; depth, 15 feet. ï~~200 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The following data concerning supplies in villages having no waterworks have been largely obtained by correspondence. The villages are taken in alphabetical order. In the vicinity of Center Line, in the southwest part of the county, wells are usually dug to a depth of 10 to 16 feet. These wells often fail in dry seasons, and some difficulty has been found in getting water by driving deeper. Several tubular wells about 100 feet in depth have been made. At Disco, in the western part of the county, on a beach line, wells are obtained at 20 to 30 feet, ant there is seldom occasion to go deeper. The largest supplies are at 30 feet. At Fraser, in the southern part of the county, wells are generally 12 to 20 feet, but some have been driven to 100 feet. In dry times the shallow wells often fail, and water is drawn from Clinton River in wagons a distance of 2 miles. The deep wells also are in some cases easily exhausted. The best supplies are found at about.)0 feet. Near Roseville, in the southern part of the county, theie are shallow wells 20 feet in depth. Rock is struck at 100 to 150 feet. Wells ordinarily penetrate yellow clay 10 to 25 feet; blue pebbly clay, 30 to 50 feet; blue clay like putty with very little grit, 20 to 50 feet; either sand or gravel and water, or a hard clay, that reaches to the rock. The best supplies are from about 90 feet. As indicated below, flowing wells are obtained from this gravel and from the rock in the tract lying between Roseville and the shore of Lake St. Clair. At Utica wells are commonly about 25 feet with a head of 20 feet below the surface. Rock is struck at about 200 feet on low ground in Clinton River Valley (615 feet above tide) in a deep boring made in 1890. Two flowing wells at this village are discussed below. At Waldenburg wells are commonly 50 feet in depth, with a head 25 feet below the surface. Deeper wells are liable to strike salty water. Warren uses shallow wells 12 to 20 feet for the main supply, supplemented by cisterns. Water is hard to obtain in the clay which underlies the surface sand. Some wells about 105 feet deep have obtained suitable supplies. Washington has shallow wells 8 to 16 feet deep, with only an occasional deep well. The district northeast of the village yields flowing wells as indicated below, and flows can probably be obtained within the village limits by drilling 100 feet or more. ï~~MACOMB COUNTY. 201 FLOWING WELLS. BRUCE TOWNSHIP. A single flowing well has been obtained on the farm of Frank Gould, in the NW. I sec. 22, in the central part of Bruce Township (T. 5 N., R. 12 E.), in the northwestern part of Macomb County. It is a 2-inch well 36 feet deep, has a head of about 10 feet, a flow of 3 gallons a minute, a temperature of 490 F., and has been running since 1897." It is situated near the eastern border of a proiniPent U mapped,/ 33 34 / 35 36 3 / FI wing wells,' FIGo. 28.-Map showing relation of flowing wells in Washington and Ray townships, Macomb County, to lake beaches and moraine. moraine, which, within a mile west, rises to a height of more than 100 feet above the well mouth. It is probable that the moraine serves as a catchment area from which wells along its east border are supplied. It is also probable that wells located in sags or low parts of this border of the moraine will obtain a flow at moderate depths. a Data collected by Jon A. Udden. ï~~202 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WASHINGTON-RAY DISTRICT. The flowing wells of this district were examined by Mr. Udden. The flows are obtained in the lake plain east of the moraine that traverses the central portion of Washington Township in a northnortheast-southsouthwest course (see fig. 28). Two are reported by Udden in the southeastern part of section 2, Washington Township, back of the Belmore beach, at an altitude about 775 feet above tide. The others reported by him are below the forest beach in southeastern Washington and southwestern Ray townships at an altitude about 675 feet. There are, however, flowing wells between the Forest and Belmore beach at an altitude of 700 feet or more that were overlooked by Mr. Udden. Indeed conditions seem favorable for obtaining flows over much of the plain lying between the Belmore and Forest beach if wells are carried to sufficient depth to strike beds whose catchment area is in the elevated country to the west. The flowing wells noted by Mr. Udden in southeastern Washington and southwestern Ray townships are shallow, and perhaps have a near-by catchment area on the plain west of them rather than on the more distant moraine. The water is hard and contains iron in notable amounts. The wells in Ray Township are from gravel under clay. The wells in section 2, Washington Township, are from sand under clay, and had a head of 10 feet when struck. The well in section 36 penetrated the following beds: Yellow pebbly clay, 20 feet; blue clay, 18 feet; hardpan, 2 feet; gravel and water at bottom. Wells in Washington-Ray district (T. 4 N., Rs. 12 and 13 E.). 0 SeE-aWhenWDiam- eptto WaterF mnTeraTownship. e- Owner. hn Depth. E rister Tem+) btion. made. eter. t/ / o, ute.- Lure. ute. Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. oF. A Washington. 2 George Kramer. 1900 2 12 775 777 4 50 B. d....2... J. Habor............... 2772 774 3 49 A. do........ 28 Geo. Adams... 1888 2 38----------------6 49 A.do-------....... - 36 E. Hazelton.._ 1901 2 43-------------- 15 48.5 A Ray----------.......... 30 W. Wagelin..... 1864 2 29- -...... 2.5 49 A.....do........ 31 W. Gamme........ 2 20- ----- -3 49 UTICA AREA. The village of Utica, in western Macomb County, is largely built in the valley of Clinton River, and wells are obtained at very moderate depths. Mr. Udden reports that the village has two wells sunk to considerable depths, both of which flow and have a head of about 12 feet. The surface is 30 feet below the railroad station and 616 feet above tide. The first well struck the flow in gravel below hard bowlder clay at a depth of 152 feet. No accurate data were obtained concerning the other well, except that it had a similar section and head. ï~~MACOMB COUNTY. 203 The flowing wells obtained at this village have a head lower than the plain bordering Clinton River at that point. It is unlikely, therefore, that flows can be obtained in this vicinity except along the river valley. There are two flowing wells in the west part of Sterling Township (in which Utica stands) that belong in the Troy flowingwell district, but no flows have been obtained between these wells and Utica. The table for Sterling Township wells is presented with other wells of the Troy field (p. 192). LAKE ST. CLAIR SHORE. a On the plain bordering Lake St. Clair in Macomb and southern St. Clair County, wells which are sunk nearly to the bottom of the glacial drift and also wells in rock have head sufficient to flow when in the valleys and sags and lowest parts of the plain, but lack a few feet of flowing outside these low places. The majority of the flowing wells are found within 2 or 3 miles of the shore of Lake St. Clair, but in the vicinity of New Haven they are found at a greater distance. They are also fourl in Clinton River Valley several miles from its mouth in a district back of the Detroit moraine. This latter group should perhaps be considered as separate from those on the plain east of the Detroit moraine. In southern Macomb County, near Roseville, the flows are found at 50 to 100 feet in gravel beds beneath a stiff clay, and are mainly within 2 miles of Lake St. Clair. The water is soft enough in some cases to use for washing without the addition of softening compounds, and is even preferred to rain water. There is generally sufficient iron present to coat material over which the water flows. A few wells enter the rock at about 100 feet. The water from the rock is likely to be salty, and in some cases can scarcely be used for drinking. Mr. Charles Barth, of Roseville, who furnished the principal data concerning this part of the St. Clair shore, reports a decrease in head and in volume, attributed to the large draft made by the numerous wells, both flowing and pumped. He also states that flowing wells which have been entirely shut off showed a reduced flow when reopened. Barometric conditions seem also to affect the rate of flow. Probably the strongest well in this vicinity is that of Bruno Couchez, in the north part of sec. 14, Aaron Township, which is reported to have discharged about 2 barrels a minute when first made, and would shoot a jet into the air from the top of a pipe 10 feet above the surface. The well has a depth of 96 feet. Ordinarily the water rises but 3 or 4 feet above the surface and flows a weak stream. In some cases a The data from the St. Clair district are very meager, although two attempts were made to obtain them. Mr. Udden was instructed to cover this field but stated that he failed to find any flowing wells there. Mr. Cooper afterwards was detailed to collect the data, but seems to have collected data of only a few. He submitted a brief report based upon testimony of persons who chanced to know something of the subject. The present discussion is based partly on the data obtained by Mr. Cooper and partly on information obtained through correspondence. ï~~204 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. pumps have been attached to wells that have a head only 1 foot, and as the head becomes lowered many more will have to be supplemented by pumps, for only the strong flows on the lowest ground seem likely to long continue efficient. Along North Fork of Clinton River are a few flowing wells from drift. One of the most interesting wells is that of Mr. Alfred Little, near Clinton River, about 2 miles northwest of Mount Clemens. The well penetrated 130 feet of clay and there struck a black mucky deposit, apparently an old soil, beneath which was a harder clay than that above. The well was continued to 173 feet, when gas was struck which threw up sand and gravel and a stream of water to a height of 20 feet above the surface. The gas soon escaped, however, and the water dropped to 6 feet below the surface. a The flowing-well belt along Clinton River continues northward through the eastern part of Macomb Township, the northernmost well reported being on the farm of A. B. Green in sec. 3. In Chesterfield Township, which lies east of Macomb, several flowing wells have been obtained 3 to 5 miles from the shore of Lake St. Clair. One on the Joel Hart farm in sec. 7 has been running for 30 years. One on the D. L. Weller farm in sec. 30 is only 22 feet deep. George Fuller has one of similar depth in sec. 19, and wells in that vicinity are generally obtained at less than 30 feet, whether flowing or not. In New Haven village are shallow flowing wells. One at the residence of Edwin Collins in the north part of the village is 22 feet, and is from a black sandy gravel under a sheet of clay. Mr. Cooper estimates that the area in New Haven in which flowing wells can be obtained is not more than one-sixth of a square mile. There is also reported to be a flowing well one mile south of New Haven. One mile south and 2 miles east of New Haven is a salt spring, and within a short distance from the spring, a flowing well 11 feet deep, with fresh water. About 3 miles east of New Haven is a group of flowing wells having depths of 80 to 100 feet. They are distributed over a strip about a mile long, northwest to southeast. In Casco Township, St. Clai' County, to the east of New Haven, in places wells are difficult to obtain and borings have been carried to the rock, which is struck at 100 to 200 feet. The water from the rock is brackish, and the farmers have accordingly constructed cisterns and reservoirs which are filled with rain water. Brackish water is said to have been struck at the New Haven depot at 118 feet and 2 miles west of New Haven at 136 feet. Near the shore of Lake St. Clair, at Fairhaven and north of Anchorville, flows have been obtained. Cephas Rose has a flow at Faira Data by W. F. Cooper. ï~~MACOMB AND ST. CLAIR COUNTIES. 205 haven. August Kreisel has one north of Anchorville, and there are other flows about 1 miles east of Anchorville. The Kreisel well is 125 feet deep and the others 80 to 100 feet. Several wells near Anchorville have more or less gas with the water. In one case gas was struck at 22 feet, which was burned for sometime and served the fishermen for a guiding light. One mile west of Anchorville gas comes up a short distance offshore and the water there is reported not to freeze in the coldest weather. If confined in a barrel it will burn for some time. Mr. Wagner at Fairhaven struck gas sufficient in amount to serve as light and fuel for a year in his dwelling. WATER SUPPLIES OF ST. CLAIR COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. St. Clair County, of which Port Huron is the county seat, has its eastern front on Lake Huron and St. Clair River, and its southern front on Lake St. Clair. Its northeastern part is drained by Black River and its main tributary, Mill Creek; its central part by Belle River and Pine River, and its southern end by small streams. The county is largely lake plain, though moraines in the northern part rise above the highest level of the glacial lake which formerly covered the region. There are strips of sand and gravel along the old beaches, but aside from these the surface is generally a stiff clay both on the moraines and plains. The clay is not interbedded with gravel and sand to a sufficient extent to supply wells at all points in the county, an(l in nearly every township borings have been carried to the rock without striking any water-bearing gravel. On the whole St. Clair is one of the most poorly supplied counties in the State, although the water where obtained in-the drift is generally of good quality, and the water from the upper portion of the rock is not generally too salt for drinking. The distance to rock ranges from about 40 feet to 200 feet and more, with a general average of about 125 feet. There are several small flowing-well districts, one being located in Columbus Township near Hickey, another at Smiths Creek, and another at North street, while scattered flows occur over the southern end of the county and along the valleys in the northern and western parts. WATERWORKS. Public water supplies have been installed at Port Huron, St. Clair, Algonac, and Marine City, all of which utilize St. Clair River. The villages of Yale and Capac obtain public supplies from driven wells. ï~~206 WELLS AND WATER SUPPL1ES IN SOUTHERN MICHfGAN. CAPAC. There is a strip along the eastern base of a morainic ridge running from Capac to Yale, where conditions seem favorable for obtaining flowing wells, but so far as ascertained only one has as yet been obtained, that of Bert Aldrich, in the eastern edge of Capac. This well has been flowing for about fourteen years. It is only 16 feet in depth, and has a diameter of 12 inches. In dry seasons it occasionally stops flowing for a few weeks, so that water has to be dipped from it. In the past three years, however, it has been flowing nearly all the time. The drift in Capac is from 90 to more than 150 feet in depth, the difference being due largely to the unevenness of the bed rock surface. Indeed, the thickest drift is in the sags, for the drift was not quite sufficient to completely fill the old valleys. The drift in and near Capac is largely a compact blue till, with thin and irregularly distributed deposits of sand or gravel interbedded. The waterworks wells are n the southwestern part of the village and have been carried a few feet into the rock, which is struck at 90 to 100 feet. The water stands 10 to 15 feet below the surface, but a reservoir or large well has been made into which the wells flow. The supply, both from the drift and the rock, appears to be rather scanty in these wells and also in other deep wells in the village. Several wells in the village have a decidedly salty taste, among which is one at Hotel De Burt, though in this well rock was not reached. The waterworks wells have a barely detectable salty taste. The following is a partial analysis of water obtained in the sandstone by the city well at Capac. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well water at Capac. Parts per million. Color................------------------------------------------------------------- 19 Iron (Fe) ------ ------------------------------------------------------.75 Chlorine (Cl)..............------------------------------------------------------- 29. 3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) ------------------------------------------------.......... 85. 92 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)............------------------------------------------------.... 81 Uardness (CaCO3)............----------------...........---------------------------------- 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 100 feet. YALE. The village of Yale, in the northern part of St. Clair County, stands partly in the valley of Mill Creek, which here flows between two morainic ridges and partly on the outer slope of the eastern moraine. Flowing wells have been obtained only in the creek valley at a level about 20 feet below the business part of the village, or about 775 feet above tide. The head is barely sufficient to afford a flow, being only 3 feet at the waterworks. The flowing wells consist ï~~ST. CLAIR COUNTY. 207 of a group of five at the waterworks and one private well sunk by Daniel Ferguson. The waterworks wells are 6 inches in diameter, 85 to 90 feet in depth, and were made in 1898. They are all connected by one large pipe with the punips, and not allowed to flow. About 15,000 gallons a day is the ordinary consumption, and this draft holds the water about 11 feet below the surface. When extra demands are made for lawn sprinkling or in case of fire the head is drawn down to 20 feet or more. The water is from a gravel bed beneath blue clay. Water in the Ferguson well rises to 12 feet above the surface of the ground, about the same height as the waterworks, or 9 feet more than the waterworks wells. Its depth is 445 feet, but the water comes from a fine-grained micaceous sandstone of greenish-blue color, probably Berea sandstone, at a depth of 230 to. 245 feet. Below this was a shale formation and no increase of water supply. The temperature is 49.6Â~ F. The drift is 225 feet and the following beds were penetrated: Record of Ferguson well, Yale. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand and gravel................................................................ 50 50 Blue clay....................................................................... 30 80 Bowlder bed-----....................................---------------------............................ 8 88 Sand and gravelly drift (very little water).................................... 137 225 Blue shale............-....................................................... 5 230 Sandstone (Berea grit?)........................................................ 15 245 Light-colored shale.............................................................. 200 445 A boring at the waterworks, in progress in October, 1904, penetrated a similar amount of drift, and the section differed only in lacking the bowlder bed below the blue clay. The flow of water we s struck in the same sand and gravel that supplies the waterworks. In this well the sandstone that supplies the Ferguson well is apparently reduced to a single bed 6 inches thick, in which no water was obtained. A boring in the north part of Yale at a canning factory, on ground 810 feet above tide, or 35 feet above the waterworks, was sunk to a depth of 893 feet, but obtains its main supply from the sand and gravel in the lower part of the drift, the rock being shale as far as penetrated. The water is 22 feet below the surface, practically the same as at the Ferguson well, its level in both being 788 feet above tide. The drift beds are as follows: Record of well at Yale canning factory. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clayey drift, rather hard to penetrate.........................................65 65 Bowldery beds--............................................................. 20 85 Sand and gravel with water..................... - - - --...................... --- 140 225 ï~~208 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Below are given, for comparison, partial analyses of water from the shallow waterworks well at Yale and from the deep-rock well of D. Ferguson. An analysis was made of this water by Doctor Vaughan at Ann Arbor, which showed it to be dangerously polluted. Mr. S. J. Lewis, who visited the locality and made the present analyses, states that the water is pure and that the contamination reported must have been due to the use of a contaminated vessel in shipping the sample to Ann Arbor. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well waters at Yale. [Parts per million.] I Color.............................................................................. Iron (Fe)....................................................................... Chlorine (C1).................................................................... Carbon dioxide (COs)........................................................... Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)......................................................... Hardness (as Ca CO))................................................... 1. 32.5 121. 5 83.76 20 139+ 2. 24 1.5 752 89. 39 69 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. City; depth, 70 feet. 2. D. Ferguson; depth, 225 feet. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. City and village supplies in St. Clair County. Popu- EleTown. la- va- Source. (1900). tion. Feet. Algonac...... 1,216 590 St. Clair River for public supply; Sshallow driven wells. Adair.............. 642 Open wells; Belle S River. Avoca_........... 760 Driven wells......... Berville........... 815 Open and driven wells. Capac.........547 816 Driven wells.___ Emmet....2. 65 778 Open and driven wells. Goodells.......... 707.....do.............. Jeddo.............. 757.....do.............. Kimball........... 625 Driven wells St. Clair River by Marine City. 3,829 590 waterworks; few wells. Marysville......... 600 St. Clair River; shallow wells. J 590 St. Clair River by Port Huron.. 19,158 625 waterworks; few S wells. Smiths Creek....... 64 }Bored wells....._ S St. Clair River by St. Clair...... 2,543 6 0 waterworks; few wells. Wadhams.......... 650 Shallow wells in sand 790Drilled wells by Yale......... 1,125 815 waterworks; open wells. Depth to rock. Depth of well. Depth toCo-wer Head. Springs. From- To- mon. bed. mon. bed. Feet. Feet. 148 5...... 10 134+ 20....... 10 16 150+ } 16 100 15 - - - - 12 192+ 15 136+ 18 182 1 230 - - 110 - _ _ 80 125 200 40...... 20 1225 10 Feet. 10 100 134 36 150 100 30 192 136..... 100 156 12 900 Feet. 10 30 30 20 100 30 20 50 130 25 25 Feet. Feet. 10 - 5 30 -8 120 -20 14 -10 90 + --- -15 20 - 6 45. 100 -18 75 { 10..3...150 { -20....... 150 +20 None. Do. Weak. None. } Weak. None. Do. Small. Do. Large. None. Small. 40 ï~~ST. CLAIR COUNTY. 209 FLOWING WELLS. EAST GREENWOOD DISTRICT. North of East Greenwood, in the northeast corner of Greenwood Township (T. 8 N., RIt. 15 E.), St. Clair County, and the southeast corner of Fremont Township, Sanilac County, is a group of shallow flowing wells. The pool is restricted to a narrow strip, apparently not more than one-half mile wide, which runs from the southwest part of sec. 36, Fremont Township, in a course south of east' to Black River Valley, in sec. 6, Grant Township. The wells are all in Fremont and Greenwood townships, but there are springs in the northwest part of Grant Township which seem to be fed from this pool. The wells either.side of this pool go to much greater depths than the flowing wells before finding water, and have a much lower head. The flowing wells, as indicated in the table below, are but 12 to 25 feet in depth. They are all hard water and strong in iron, and so are the springs in sec. 6, Grant Township. One well carries a small amount of oil. The wells are on a plain about 80 feet higher than the neighboring part of Black River Valley, or 730 feet above tide. This plain rises gradually westward, reaching an altitude of 770 feet at the border of the Yale moraine, 3 or 4 miles from the wells. The elevation of the crest of the moraine, which is some 3 miles farther west, is 820 to 830 feet. The shallowness of the wells may suggest a catchment area close at hand, or at most no more distant than the Yale moraine; but the fact that the wells and springs are so hard and so strong in iron is thought to be an indication of a somewhat distant source, and may also indicate that the water rises from considerable depths through breaks in the clay. The field is too limited to throw light on the catchment area through the study of the differences in head displayed in passing across the district. Some differences in head are claimed by residents, bat the measurements were not taken with sufficient care to warrant any deductions. The wells with lowest temperature in this field are those with most rapid flow. The temperature at bottom is probably about 48Â~ to 49.5Â~ F. Wells in the East Greenwood district. Sec- Length Flow per TempertionSec- Part of section. Owner. of time Depth. minute. ature. Remarks. tion. in use. t Years. 1fFeet. Gallons. oÂ~F 36 SE.4..._...... D. Nechnier.. 1 25 0-2 50.5 Water pumped from 14 feet depth. Dug 16 feet; bored 9 feet. 36 SE.......... J. Hillock........ 25 12 1 48.5 Dug and curbed; water escapes into ditch at level of surface. 36 SW. 4_........H Palmetier..... (?) 14 Choked......... Stopped flowing because choked. 36 SE. corner.... D. Schell.......... 15+ 12 2+ 49.5 Flows -inch stream. 1 NE.......... Joseph Easton... 15+ 16 2+ 51 Dug well, filled with cobblestones. 1 NE. A......... George Easton... 15+ 16 1 50.5 1 N. part....... L. Nichols................ 16 0.......... Head nearly at surface. ï~~210 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. CLYDE TOWNSHIP (T. 7 N., R. 16 E). North Street station.-There is a narrow strip about 2 miles long near North Street station in T. 7 N., R. 16 E., where shallow flowing wells are obtained, as indicated in fig. 29.- The residents along the road that leads north and south past this station, through secs. 1, 12, and 13, found it very difficult to obtain water at their dwellings, and some of them were hauling it from Lake Huron, when by chance it was R. 16 E. /ZionZ 08738 Z 7I 'tDeepwe l/ 6/ o " MORAINE. o 1: ", "A z.... 5 1; 1 31 32 33 34 35 /136 FIG. 29.-Map showing relations of flowing wells in Clyde Township, St. Clair County. Shaded area represents part of Port huron moraine standing above the old lake level. found that flowing wells could be obtained in the back part of their farms along the western edge of these sections. The ground rises rapidly from the road back to these wells, being 635 to 640 feet above tide along the road, and 660 to 665 at the wells. Consequently the head is sufficient to permit piping the water to the dwellings. The depth of the wells is only 16 feet, and five have now been obtained. The first, on the farm of John Aitkin, in sec. 13, was made about 20 years ago, but the others, on farms of G. W. Davidson, George Lockwood, Charles Lewis, and George Lane, have been made within five years. They ï~~ST. CLAIR COUINTY. 211 all go through a bed of clay and strike water in sand. The wells are in some cases excavated to a depth of several feet to form reservoirs, from which pipes may be carried to the dwellings. The reservoirs overflow into ditches that lead away from the wells. The temperature October 7, 1904, was 510 F., which is perhaps slightly increased by atmospheric heating. A large sand ridge marking the shore of Lake Warren runs parallel with this line of wells, less than one-half mile distant on the west, but at an altitude considerably higher. On the eastern or lakeward border of this sand ridge strong springs are issuing. Immediately west of the ridge and at still higher altitude is the Port Huron moraine. It is probable that the moraine and sand ridge constitute the catchment area for the flowing wells. The bed of sand from which the flows are obtained seems to be a wedge between clay beds or to die out before reaching the North Street road. It seems also to be wanting northward from the north part of secs. 1 and 2 of this township, for residents farther north have failed to find it or to obtain flows. Further prospecting in that region may perhaps give better results. If found at the slight depth at which these flows are obtained considerable prospecting might be undertaken for the sake of fully developing the field. Atkins district.-In the valley of Black River, near the mouth of Mill Creek, about 11 miles southwest of Atkins station, a deep boring sunk for oil obtained a strong flow of water from the lower part of the glacial drift at a depth of 116 to 138 feet. The altitude is about 625 feet above tide and the depth 833 feet. The water forced its way up outside the casing, making an opening around the pipe, the strength of the flow warranting belief in the existence of a flowing-well district along that portion of Black River Valley. It may extend up to the East Greenwood district discussed above. The water horizon here, however, is much lower down in the glacial deposits than at the East Greenwood pool. SMITHS CREEK. There is a single flowing well at the creamery in the village of Smiths Creek in sec. 31, Kimball Township, about 8 miles southwest of Port Huron. It is in the creek valley about 10 feet below the level of the railroad station, and has insufficient head to flow at the level of the plain bordering the valley. The flow is a gallon a minute, and the water is hard with some iron. It had a temperature of 510 F. at the escape pipe October 13, 1904, but this may be slightly above the temperature of the water bed. The well has been made several years and is about 100 feet deep. A well at Hotel Fisher, in Smiths Creek village, at the level of the railroad station, is 60 feet deep. The water stands 10 feet below the a Ann. Rept. State Geologist for 1901, p. 278. ï~~212 WELLS AND W&TER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. surface, and this is said to be representative of the head in tubular wells in that vicinity. The only territory likely, therefore, to yield flows is the low land along the creek valley. COLUMBUS TOWNSHIP. In the eastern part of Columbus Township (T. 5 N., R. 15 E.), St. Clair County, 1 to 3 miles southeast of Hickey Station on the Grand Trunk Railroad, is a group of 11 flowing wells, indicated in fig. 30. They are found in a tract almost 2 miles long from north to south, and about 1 mile wide, embracing parts of secs. 13, 14, 23, 24, 25, and 26. The strongest flow is in the valley of Rattle Run in see. 14. The other wells are on a plain once covered by a glacial lake. They have an altitude determined by aneroid of 670 to 680 feet, while the one lowest in the valley of Rattle Run is about 660 feet *Aabove tide. The first well was made about _4,3!30 years ago on the Staley farm in the north AApart of sec. 24. It flowed for many years _with a strong stream, but now is very weak, and apparently is clogged by sand sv 24 Ior by incrustations. The remainder are only a few years old, and show but little c A diminution. The water is hard and con'A tains considerable iron. The flows are 26 25 from a bed of sand or sandy gravel under Sa thick sheet of clay. The deepest wells FIG. 30.-Flowing wells in Columbus pass at about 80 feet into an indurated Township, St. Clair County. clay, which is probably a sheet of drift older than the surface sheet. The water beds appear to be either upon or within this older drift sheet. The temperature of the strongest flows is about 50Â~ F., which apparently represents the temperature of the water bed, and agrees with the general averages of well temperatures in this region. The prospects for extending this area are rather unpromising, for several deep wells to the north and east fail to get water with sufficient head to flow, though those to the east are on lower ground. For example,Peter Yeip, in sec. 21, T. 5 N., R.16 E., has a well 147 feet deep, in which, although the altitude is about 30 feet lower than these flowing wells, the water is 26 feet below the surface. His neighbor, John Schaffer, in sec. 28, has a well 120 feet deep on ground of similar altitude with water 20 feet below the surface. Between there and St. Clair River the water is seldom nearer the surface than 20 feet. ï~~ST. CLAIR AND LAPEER COUNTIES. 213 Flowing wells in Columbus Township (T. 5 N., R. 15 E.) Sr pr' 1-4 ca m' Owner. 140 0 I Remarks. In. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Galls. F 13 Wm. Dupee...... (?) (?) (?) 660 (?) 660 (?) (?) HIard... Water just to sur6r face. A 14 Otto Kendall....1895 2 60 650 590 660 7.550 I ro n; Dug 23 feet; bored 1 14 t hard. 37 feet. B 14 Chas. Silk........ (?) 2 (?) 660 (?) 660..............do... Hlead near surface. A 23 Ezra Whitaker... 1894 2 7) 660 595 668 (?) (?). B 23 Fred Silk..... 1894 2 70 660 590 (665.650 Hard... Water from sand un-. der hardpan. C 23 Geo. Mackley..... 1898 4 90 660 570 660+ (?) 50.... do... Pump attached; water escapes around pipe. A 24 Brownfarmn... 1904 3 100 66 560 6(62+,.249.5I r o n; Weak flow, 21 feet (h ard. head. B 24 John Staley...... 1875 (?) 60 t650 590 660 5 (?)....do... Was much stronger at first. A 45 Chas. Conant..... (?) 4 148 660 511? 665+ 3 49.5....do... Flows from -inch nozzle. Slightly saline. A 26 S. Chase a........ 1899 2.5 158 660 5321 644 2 50 Hard... Discharges from 1-inch pipe. B 26 S. Mackley b...... 1898 4 116 660 550 660+... 50..do... Several kinds of material penetrated. a Section of Chase well: Clay rather soft, 80 feet; hard till of brown color, probably pre-Wisconsin, 48 feet; sand, becoming coarser at bottom, 30feet. The well became clogged and was redrilled in 1901, The original head was but 4 feet and present head is 2 feet. b Water escapes in a ditch and is not carried above the level of the surface. WATER SUPPLIES OF LAPEER COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMWENT. Lapeer County, like Oakland on its south border, stands in the reentrant angle between the Saginaw and Huron-Erie ice lobes, and is largely occupied by prominent morainic ridges which traverse the county in a curving course, convex to the north. The southern end of the county has drift knolls which reach an altitude of-.over 1,200 feet, but with the exception of about 60 square miles in the southern part of the county which stand above 1,000 feet, the elevation is generally between 800 and 1,000 feet. The moraines are separated by valley-like sags, from I to 5 miles wide, which were utilized as lines of glacial drainage. The southeastern edge of the county extends slightly into the plain covered by glacial-lake waters, and the northern part of the county is traversed by the Imlay outlet, a line of discharge for Lake Maumee, the earliest of the great Glacial lakes, and now occupied by Flint River. With the exception of a few square miles in the southeastern part drained by Belle River and Clinton River, and an area in the northeastern part drained by Cass River, the drainage of this county is tributary to Flint River. IRR 182-06- -15 ï~~214 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. There is an extensive flowing-well district near Silver Creek in the northern part of the county and smaller ones in or near Lum, Burnside, North Branch, and Columbiaville. There is a belt of flowing wells leading from Hadley southwestward to Ortonville in Oakland County, discussed by Mr. Davis under Genesee County; a the other flowing-well districts are discussed below. The flowing wells are distributed in the sags between or among the morainic ridges and may perhaps be developed at numerous other points in the county if care is taken to locate them in depressions near the hills. In some cases it may be necessary to sink them to considerable depths, though those already obtained are usually found at very moderate depth. At Imlay City, Lapeer, Lum, North Branch, and Columbiaville, and at a few points in the rural districts, wells have been carried to the rock, which at these villages is reached at depths ranging from 50 to 200 feet. The drift is probably 300 to 400 feet thick in the high points in the southern part of the county. The western and northern parts are underlain by the Marshall sandstone, which yields an excellent water, but the southeastern part is underlain by shale, and the water there is somewhat saline, as may be seen by reference to the analyses of the Imlay City water made by Mr. Lewis (p. 215). WATERWORKS. Only four towns in the county have public supplies: Almont, Imlay, Lapeer, and Columbiaville. IMLAY CITY.b Imlay City is situated on the west edge of a broad shallow valley in.which flows a small stream half a mile or more east of the town. Within a mile to the north and west are prominent morainic knolls. The public water supply comes from a group of 5 tubular wells 20 feet apart in a shallow depression just east of the town. Three of the wells are 6 inches and two are 4 inches in diameter. All enter bed rock and range from 155 to 175 feet in depth, with one exception, which was reported to be 300 feet deep. The water is pumped to a standpipe. The water is somewhat brackish to the taste and is said to be so corrosive that it can not be used with safety in boilers. It is used to some extent at the pumping station. It is also rather hard and deposits scale and is not generally liked and little used because of its "mineral taste," the "mineral" being principally salt. The following analysis shows its character: a e Wtr-u.an rr aprN. 8. y hresA Dv_ a See Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 183. b By Charles A. Davis. ï~~LAPEER COUNTY. 215 Analysis of water from public well, Imlay (ity.a Total solids........................... Volatile at red heat ----------..................... Mineral matter......................... Sodium (Na).-.................. Chlorine (Cl) ---------......... Sulphate radicle (SO4)...... Temporary hardness by soap test........ Nitrates -..- - - - - - N itritcs..- -........ Free ammnonia........... Albuminoid ammonia.................. Dr. i-. C. Kedzie, analyst. Water is usable. Parts per million.......... 1,580.07........ 120......... 1,460.07.......... 508.30.......... 781.73......... Trace......... 100........ None...... None.......... 25 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------------------......05 Following are additional partial analyses from a deep and a shallow well at Imnlay City. The water from the deep well is too salt for drinking except by those used to it. That from the shallow well, though showing much less salt, contains a considerable amount, probably due to the escape of saline water from the underlying rocks. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well waters at Imlay City. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color............................................................................ 10 64 Iron............................................................................... Strong 1 trace. Chlorine.......................................................................... 1,039 251.5 Carbon dioxide................................ _................................... 74.77 135.65 Sulphate radicle (SO4)............................................................ 159.57 109.81 Hardness......................................................................... 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. City; depth. 162 feet. 2. City; depth, 18 feet. This water is used for fire protection, for sprinkling, and for general purposes by some of the people, but is not as much used as it would be if it were freer from salt. Record of Imlay City waterworks wells. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay............................................................................ 16 16 Sand............................................................................ 37 53 " Salvey" clay................................................................... 10 63 Clay...................................................................... 14 77 Sand, rock, and clay........................................................... 7 84 Clay and sand................................................................... 9 93 Shale.......................................................................... 10 103 Soapstone and sandstone to bottom to water..................................... 52 155 a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~216 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MIUCHIAIv. The Grand Trunk Railway pumps water from the stream to the east of the town to supply the water tank at the station, not wishing to use the saline water of the town supply in the boilers. The wells of the town are mainly shallow, from 20 to 50 feet in depth, with sufficient water. Wells in the country near Imlay City in some cases reach dept of over 300 feet deep and are not infrequently 100 feet. Among the deeper are the following: Wm. Snowden, 21 miles northwest of Imlay City, in sec. 6, T. 7 N., R. 12 E., has a well 335 feet deep; made in 1896; 2-inch pipe; cased to rock at 200 feet; water level-35 feet; first water at 90 feet, small vein; water soft; turns dark colored and then clears up at intervals of several days. John Sisson, in sec. 33, T. 7 N., R. 12 E., has a well 153 feet deep; made in 1901; 2-inch casing for 84 feet; shale at 80 feet; porous rock at 148 feet; drift mainly sand and gravel; water level, -2 feet. Milo Quirk, sec. 19, Imlay Township, has a well 187 feet deep; drilled in 1891; 2-inch diameter; water level-24 feet; rock at 115 feet. LAPEER. a The city of Lapeer is situated along the sides of the shallow valley of Farmers Creek and spreads out over the adjacent rolling country, which is largely a clayey till. The waterworks wells are located near the bank of the stream, on the lowest terrace of the valley. There are six, put down in 1888, all 8 inches in diameter. They are in sandstone and are from 250 to 290 feet deep, striking rock at 100 feet from the surface, and flow with a head of about 4 feet. The amount of water used by the city per day was given as between 500,000 and 600,000 gallons, but at the time the writer visited the plant there was a 2-inch overflow from time to time, in spite of the fact that the pumps were working at usual speed. When pumped hard, the water is lowered to 11 feet below the surface. The supply is ample for the present needs of the town. As is usual in a town of this size, there are many private wells, ranging in depth from a few feet to nearly 300 feet. In the deeper the supply is obtained from the sandstone, as in the wells of the waterworks. The shallow wells are dug or tubular and range in depth from about 20 to 100 feet. No flowing wells were found aside from those at the waterworks. MICHIGAN HOME FOR FEEBLE-MINDED.b This institution, located 2 miles west of Lapeer, obtains a waterworks supply from three wells 337 feet deep which terminate in the a By Charles A. Davis. b Data furnished by Dr. W. A. Poiglase, medical superintendent of the home. ï~~LAI'EER COUNTY. 217 Marshall sandstone. The head is 6 feet below the surface, and the wells are reported to have a capacity sufficient to supply an institution of 2,000 (or 2 times the present number) for all purposes. The water contains a small amount of lime and is of excellent quality. ALMONT. The village of Almont has a tank to which water is pumped and held for fire protection and for sprinkling streets, but is not drawn upon for domestic use. COLUMBIAVILLE. The water supply of Columbiaville is in charge of the manager of the Peters estate, the plant having been put in by Mr. Peters. Application was made for information concerning the plant, but was not granted. Flowing wells on the Peters estate and at other points near Columbiaville are discussed below. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The data below were obtained largely by correspondence with the residents of the respective villages. Village supplies in Lapeer County. Town. Popu- Elela- vation. tion. Feet. Source. Driven and bored wells; some old Almont... 718 831 dug wells. Wa{.850 terworks for fire protection and sprinkling. Attica........ 350 900 Open and driven wells. Burnside............ - 800 Flowing wells.... Clifford....... 339 835 Driven wells...... Columbiaville. 457 760 D r i v e nwe 11 s; Flint River by waterworks. Dryden...... 328 920 }Open and driven 8 96 f wells. Elba..............{. 75 Driven wells...... Hladley............... 875 Driven wells; some flowing. Imlay City.... 1,122 829 Driven wells...... Kings Mill........6.. 0.do............ t900 1._o__.__ Lum................. 885...do........... Metamora..... 313 1,050....do........... Driven wells, 795 valleys near vilNorth Branch. '54 j it flw i lage. Otter Lake.... 212 868 Driven wells: lakes. Silverwood........... 810 Flowing wells.... Det Depth oz wells. Depth Depth{, to - - -- water Head. rock. From- To- Lmo - b ed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 140 10 165 16 80 -20 J 50 10 200 25....... -20 150............ 37 37 + 7 109.................... 60? 16 205...... 205 {+1 205 2 1010 100Â~ 25 100 60 50 -10 Springs. Small. Do. Do. Do, Do... 25 100Â~ 45 100Â~ 25 90 15 -----. 10: 100 4 30 200 30...... 10 50 38 100 115 150 223 60 114 120 250 50 50 50 45 30 165 25 60...... 65 20 40 50 -25 Do. 115 {--30}None. 145 + 5 Strong. 25 -10 Fair size. 60 +14 Do. 100...... Large. 60 -20 20.... 38 + 2 ï~~218 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. F LOWING WELLS. ATTICA TOWNSHIP. One well in the south part of Attica Township (T. 7 N., R. 11 E.) is reported by the driller, George H. Force, to flow 18 gallons a minute from a 2-inch pipe. The water is from gravel. This is in a low tract leading northwest and southeast between moraines, and other flows may be obtained in it. LUM. The village of Lum stands on the inner or iceward slope of a moraine belt at the border of a low swampy tract in T. 8 N, R. 11 E. At the border of the higher land on which the village stands, two flowing wells have been obtained, one a few yards south of the railway station on ground 4 feet lower or 867 feet above tide, made by William Bentley, the other at the condensed milk factory about one-eighth mile southwest of the railway station at about the same altitude as the station. They were made about 1895. Each enters rock a few feet, and the water is not so hard as water from wells in the glacial deposits. They differ slightly in temperature, the Bentley well being 49.5Â~ F, and the milk factory well 50Â~. They differ also a few feet in depth, the Bentley well being 116 feet and the other 104.5 feet. The milk factory well is stronger in iron than the Bentley. The original head of the Bentley well was 15 feet, but it may not be so great at present. The rate of flow has greatly diminished, and is now but 5 quarts a minute. The milk factory well flows still less or about 3 quarts a minute. The wells were largely through blue till. The rock is apparently sandstone. The extent of this pool has not been tested, but it seems probable that flows may be obtained along the low ground both to the north and to the southeast of the village if the wells are carried to the rock. Possibly the drift will yield flows, for the elevated land south and west of the lowland should give high pressure to waters that pass into it and flow toward the lower country on the northeast. Wells at Lum (T. 8 N., R. 11 E.). SWhn Diam- Flow TemOwner. Wen Depth. Diem- Head. per pera- Remarks. made. eter minute. ture. Feet. Inches. Feet. Gallons o F. Wm. Bentley.......... 1895 116 2 +15 5 49.5 Water soft with little iron. Milk condensing fac-........ 104 2 +? 3 50 Strong in iron and harder tory. - than Bentley well. BURNSIDE TOWNSHIP. This pool embraces a group of about 12 wells, of which nine are in the village of Burnside in secs. 8 and 9, T. 9 N., R. 12 E., two about one-fourth mile east of the village near the line of secs. 9 and 16, and one about 2 miles southeast in the southwest part of sec. 15. Some of those in the village have now ceased flowing. They are all ï~~LAPEER COUNTY. 219 situated on the northeast or iceward slope of a morainic belt which farther west lies immediately north of the Imlay outlet of Lake Maumee. It is probable that flows may be obtained along this border southeast from Burnside as far as the most remote well (in sec. 15) and possibly farther, but to the north and west from Burnside the head is insufficient to give a flow. Those in the village are along a small stream 3 to 5 feet below the general level. The moraine lying west and south of this district is the probable catchment area for the shallow wells, but the catchment of a deeper well at the Burnside creamery is not easily determinable. The earliest flows were obtained about 1875, and the majority have been made twenty years or more. They are all shallow drift wells with depths of 20 to 60 feet, except one at the Burnside creamery, which has a depth of 159.5 feet and extends about 50 feet into rock. The drift is chiefly a blue clayey till with thin beds of sand and gravel. The largest flow is on the farm of Fred Buby, 2 miles southeast of Burnside in the SW. I sec. 15. It was bored 20 feet through clay to the water-bearing gravel and a hollow log used as a penstock was inserted in the boring, giving a pipe of about 12-inch inside diameter. It flows about one-half barrel a minute, and has been running since 1876. The water is hard in all the wells, including the creamery well, which gets its supply from the rock. This well has less iron, however, than the shallow ones, the latter being strong in iron. The head in most of the wells is less than 3 feet, and two of them have to be piped to lower ground in order to flow. One well, however, on the Webster farm, one-fourth mile east of the village, flows a good stream from a pipe that stands 3" feet above the surface and is said to have a head of 7 to 8 feet. This is perhaps on ground enough lower than the other wells to give the difference in height above the ground, though no leveling was made to test the matter. Wells at and near Burnside (T. 9 N., R. 12 E.). Flow Tern Sec- Quar- Owner. When Depth. Diam- pera- Remarks. tion. ter wer. madeDt. eter. min- p- Rmrs ute. ture" Feet. Inc/. Galls. Â~F. 15 SW. Fred Buby........... 1876 20 12 20 (?) Entered gravel at bottom. 16 NW. Joseph Kohler........ 1875 25 36 1 49 Dug 12 feet, bored 13 through clayey drift. 9 SW. Daniel Webster....... 1901 66 2 1J 50.3 Head about 7 feet. Peter Miller, Burnside. 1892 37 (?)........... In sand from 21 to 27 feet; no flow. Burnside Creamery... 1899 1591 2 1 49.5 Flow from rock. Blacksmith shop, at 1891 37 2........... Largely through clay; flow Burnside. weak. Wilcox Hotel......... (?) 37 2..... (?) Water is piped to lower ground to get flow; very weak. Lot adjoining hotel on..... 37 2........ Piped to lower ground to north. 11ow. JosephShotwell,Burn- 1884 37 2............Stands in pipe near level of side. ground. Mr. Howe............ 1903 37 8... 48.5 Overflows from a tile into pool; all clayey drft except thin sand bed near bottom. E. Y. Koyle.......... Â~1880 40 2........Well now choked. Thos. Clement....... (?) + 40 2......Has stopped flowing. ï~~220 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. NORTH BRANCH DISTRICT. There are two groups and possibly two distinct pools embraced in the flowing wells near North Branch, as indicated in fig. 31. One group is in the Imlay outlet south and west of the village, and the other in a sag on the north side of a moraine that lies north of the Imlay outlet, and leads from the village eastward along the borders of North Branch and Burlington townships. The wells are shallow in both groups, the majority being between 16 and 40 feet in depth. The group east of North Branch seems favorably situated to receive its supply from the morainic ridge on its south border, but the group in the Imlay outlet stands outside the moraine, and its catchment area is a matter somewhat difficult to settle. The outlet here has a few feet of stiff clay at surface, which forms a good cover to water R.IIE. 3Z, 33 34 35s36 0 0 00.. - - - - - - -- - -.---- - -- 5 4 3 2 1 L-L Nor th B ranch ' High morainic tract... o. with no flows. FIG. 31.-Flowing wells near North Branch, Lapeer County. that may come in either from the north or south borders, where deposits are more porous, as well as at higher levels. The origin or mode of deposition-of this clay in the outlet is a matter of some uncertainty. At surface it appears to be a water deposit such as might be laid down in a pool in the old lake outlet, but exposures are scarcely sufficient to make certain that this is its character throughout, nor are they adequate to reveal the extent of the deposit and its relation to undoubted glacial deposits each side of the outlet. In the sag back of the moraine the wells penetrate a clayey till which, on passing southward into the moraine, graduates into a more porous till with pockets or intercalated beds of sand and gravel, and which itself contains thin beds of sand that furnish the supply to the flowing wells. A deep well on the moraine at the North Branch electriclight plant which obtains its supply from glacial deposits at a depth ï~~LAPEER COUNTY. 221 of 150 feet, has a water level 50 feet below the surface, or 20 to 30 feet less than in the flowing wells. This rather exceptional feature may be due to difference in the catchment area, that for the flowing wells being, as above suggested, from higher land in the immediate vicinity, while that for the deep one is from a more distant source. Wells in North Branch district. IN IMLAY OUTLET, NORTH BIRAN'H TOWNSHIP, ALTITUDE 790 TO 795 FEET. Location. NE. corner sec. 8. SE. corner sec. 5.. Center sec. 5...... NW. corner sec. 9. Whn Depth. Diam- Head. Flow per TerOwner. made. pth.eter. minute. terature. Feet. Inches. Feet. Gallons. oF. G. R. Cobb....... 1884 24 2 5+ 5 49 3 F. S. Porter...... 1888 16 2 5+ Choked..... S. Porter......... 1886 20 2 5+ Strong....... IfMrs. Fannie Cof-J 1896 20 2 5+ (?) Sfen (2 wells). 1896? 20 2 5 (?).. E 1 I_ Remarks. Chalybeate; hard. Do. Do. Do. - Do. IN SAG NORTH OF MORAINE, ALTITUDE ABOUT 800 FEET. Location. 4 mile north of North Branch station. Â~ mile north of station....... N. side sec. 3 North Branch Township. NW. part sec. 3, North Branch Township. SW. part sec. 34, Burlington Township. SW. part see. 35, Burlington Township. SE. part sec. 35, Burlington Township. SW. part see. 36, Burlington Township. SW. part sec. 36, Burlington Township.a North Branch electric-light plant.b Flow TerOwner. Depth. Diam- IHead. m - pera- Remarks. eter. dminute. ture. Feet. In. Feet. Galls. oF. D. McCurdy...... (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) R. Stafford....... 33 (?) (?) (?) I (?) J. Crocker........ 35 1.5 + 1.... 48.8 Flows 1-inch stream. J. Hiayes......... 35 1.5 + 1.5............. T. McLaughlin.............................. Wm. Coffen...... 26...................... T. FitzStephens.. 23 -. -. -. Choked. W. Slatterly...... 53..{ +2'......do........... 165 3 -20..... Rock at 135 feet............... 250 6 -50 (C). Rock at 200 feet. I a Altitude, 825 feet. b Rock at 200 feet, main water supply at 150 feet from gravel, also supply at 75 feet; altitude 817 feet. c Yields 1,000 barrels a day by pumping. CLIFFORD. In a low tract, back of a morainic ridge south and west of Clifford station, flows are likely to be obtained at shallow depths. At present but one boring has been made that throws light upon the conditions, that of Mr. A. Harvey, in the old village of Clifford, one-half mile south of the present village. This boring struck a flow at 16 feet, but it was not utilized. SILVERWOOD DISTRICT. This flowing-well district, as indicated in fig. 32, is spread over an area of 6 or 7 square miles, mainly in Rich Township (T. 10 N., R. 10 E.), Lapeer County, but touches the northwest corner of Burlington Township (T. 10 N., R. 11 E.), Lapeer County, and the southeast ï~~222 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. corner of Dayton Township (T. 11 N., R. 10 E.), Tuscola County. The village of Silverwood, at its north border, has given the name to the district. The wells are located on a plain at the south border of the Marlette moraine, and at an altitude of 75 to 100 feet or more below the level of the crest of the moraine. The altitude of Silverwood station, on the Pere Marquette Railroad, is 807 feet. Water stands 2 to 4 feet below the surface in wells in the village at the altitude of the station, flows being obtained only on ground less than 805 feet above tide. The altitude seems to be a few feet less, or about 790 feet above tide, in the southern part of the district, though only barometric measurements were made. A remarkable feature in this district is the apparent rise in head from south to north, a feature which suggests that the Marlette moraine is the catchR.IO E..,o. ment area rather 3 36 than districts to the 32 3 34 -- 6 south. Yet this disrioct trict is outside the USCOL -, COUNTY Â~.* ' Marlette moraine in LaI. silverwoo -a situation that PI." 3 CLAY PLAIN,4..* 2. "P. would be fed by it Py, only under excep' "* - *.*tional conditions. CLAY PLAN Ordinarily the waters 9o * - *2,...falling upon a moraine find under-. ground courses toward the inner bor16 15 14 13. 6 14 3 der plain rather than into districts outside. FIG. 32.-Distribution of flowing wells in and near Silverwood, in In order to have a Lapeer and Tuscola counties. movement into an outer border district the beds through which the waters find passage should descend toward that district. This might occur if the drift sheet is laid down on a rock surface that becomes lower in passing from the moraine to the outer border district, and this is probably the case in this district. From the few records of borings obtained there appears to be a tract of lower rock surface and thicker drift south of the Marlette moraine in Lapeer County than along the moraine. In the vicinity of the Marlette moraine, rock is struck at about 750 to 775 feet above tide, but a few miles south it is 50 to 150 feet lower. This higher altitude of the rock surface, rather than an exceptional thickness of drift, seems to be the cause of the prominence of the moraine, while a low rock surface, rather than a thin deposit- of drift, is responsible for the low altitude in the ï~~LAPEER COUNTY. 223 part of Lapeer County between this moraine and the Imlay outlet. In general, borings show 100 to 200 feet of drift in the vicinity of this outlet on ground 775 to 825 feet above tide, while on the moraine, at altitudes of 825 to 900 feet, rock is reached at 50 to 100 feet. There seems, in this condition of the bed-rock surface, to be sufficient cause for at least part of the water falling on the moraine to take a southward course beneath the outer border plain. Another condition which would perhaps tend in the same direction is that of the building of the Marlette moraine by a halt rather than by a readvance of the ice sheet, so that beds low down in the moraine would continue into the plain outside. Indeed, there are features which suggest either the persistence of stagnant ice or the presence of a lake on the plain outside the Marlette moraine while that moraine was in process of deposition. It is found that the outwash from the moraine does not cover certain low parts of the outer border district, such as that at Silverwood, while it does cover parts to the east and west of this village. The Marlette moraine may therefore, on the first supposition, be contemporaneous in time of deposition and a continuation of the surface portion of the drift in the outer border district, rather than the edge of an overlapping drift sheet. Between 40 and 50 flowing wells have been obtained in this district, but in some cases the owners have found it difficult to dispose of the surplus water by removal through ditches, and have not attempted to devise or to put in use any apparatus for shutting off the flow, but have, instead, attached pumps with spouts too high to permit a flow, and thus lost the advantage of this class of wells. In a few cases, however, the flow has become so weak that a pump was attached. Some of the wells have been flowing a good stream for about thirty years, and the majority have been flowing so long that the owners do not recollect the date of their drilling. They have, commonly, 1- or 2-inch pipes, or less. The depths are between 20 and 45 feet, and the water supplies are obtained from beds of sand or gravel, usually below blue clay: In some cases there is a surface sand of slight depth above the clay. The water is, as a rule, strong in iron and rather hard. It carries only enough salt to be detectable to the taste, and never enough to be objectionable. The waters are popular and are preferred by the residents to "surface water" obtained at less depth. The following list is incomplete in data on certain points owing to a failure to find the persons at home who made the wells. An attempt to supplement the information by correspondence has brought in but few returns, most of the letters remainiing unanswered. ï~~224 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Silverwood district (Tps. 10 and 11 N., Rs. 10 and 11 E.). Location. Owner. A A 6 9 Ft. In. 48 4 Water tank of Pere Marquette R. R., Silverwood. Brickyard, Silverwood. Blacksmith shop, Silverwood (7 wells in and around shop; 3 now in use). Silverwood...... Sec. 35, Dayton Township. Sec. 7, Burlington Township. Sec. 1, Rich Township. Do......... Do........... Do.......... Do....... Sec. 2, Rich Township. Do.......... D o.......... Do........... Do. Do........... Sec. 3, Rich Township. Do........ Do........... Do........... Sec. 4, Rich Township. Do........ Sec. 10, Rich Township. Sec. 11, Rich Township. Do........ Sec. 12, Rich Township. Do........ Do........... Do........... Sec. 13, Rich Township. Sec. 16, Rich Township.......-.......... (?) Head. Flow per minute. Feet. Gallons. +2 42 +1.5 1 +1 All weak. +1 Strong. Lower- Weakening. ing. (?) Strong. a Quality. oF 49 Remarks................. (?) 40.75.....-............ (?) 30 2 A. Johnson........... Matilda Cowles... 1888 J. Frank Mitchell. 1901 Win. Kincaid (2..... wells). Mrs. Henry Sy-...... pher. Levi Ayres... 1903 George Cowles_.... 1890 E. Losh........... Henry Sypher... 48 2 36 12 25 2 25 49... 49 (?) (?) 49..6 "............i " 50 2 10 37 2 Hard; iron Iron; medium. Hard; iron. James Vasbinder. 1879 45 2.....r.. em. (? Schoolhouse............. JD. G. Smith (2 J1886 45 1.5 +2 1............49 Swells). 11886 45 1.5 +4 Strong. (l) Claud Cowles..... - -_........ James Seddon....---. --. - __.. - Henry Seddon............................. McIntyre estate............................... Mrs. Bacon............................ McIntyre estate........... -_.. D. Huntley.................................. Mr.Deming.................. Jacob Bush........ 1874..... Charles Sypher....... M. L. Rowell (2 f1884 40 2 +1 Weak 49 wells). 11894 25 2 +4 4.5 49 Horace Lyman.............................. Walter Anderson..._......................... E. McGough................................Emerson Wilson...._............ John Hodge............................. Some water at 24 feet; rock (?) at bottom. At residence. Well in a pond. COLUMBIAVILLE DISTRICTS. The flowing wells near Columbiaville are not all in one district, those in Flint River Valley being separated from those a mile west of the village by a till ridge. There are two wells in the valley in Columbiaville on the Peters estate, and one 5 miles below Columbiaville at a farmhouse. One in the north part of the village is about 80 feet deep and 2 inches in diameter, with a 1-inch escape pipe. This well throws a jet 8 feet high from the 1-inch pipe, which calls for a discharge of about 55 gallons a minute. The water is from ï~~LAPEER AND CLINTON COUNTIES. 225 sand under a stiff blue clay. The other well is 4 inches in diameter and about 1,500 feet deep, but the supply of water is from comparatively slight depth. The head is 28 feet above the surface, or about 780 feet above tide, and the discharge is reported to be several barrels a minute. The well 5 miles below Columbiaville is on a terrace south of Flint River, 35 to 40 feet above the low-water level, and flows a weak stream. The well is about 60 feet deep. One of the wells a mile west of Columbiaville is at the residence of George Jerome, in the SE. I NE. I sec. 29, T. 9 N., R. 7 E. (Marathon Township). It is 62 feet in depth and 2 inches in diameter and has a head of 6 feet. It flows a small stream three-fourths inch or less. The well was made about 1893, and is mainly through blue clay. The other well, a mile west of Columbiaville, is only a few rods south of the Jerome well, in the NE. I SE. 1 sec. 29, at the residence of W. Sanford. It was made about twenty-five years ago, and flows a half-inch stream from a 2-inch pipe. The drift is about 80 feet thick. WATER SUPPLIES OF NORTHERN CLINTON COUNTY. By ISAIAH BOWMAN. GENERAL STATEMENT. In Clinton County two towns having public supply, Ovid and St. Johns, and the several flowing-well districts of the northern half of the county were examined. The district near Elsie, however, was assigned to Mr. Davis, and is therefore discussed by him.a One of the flowing-well districts, the Eureka, extends into southern Gratiot County, but is discussed as a whole in this place. The southern half of Clinton County is discussed by Doctor Lane as a part of the region bordering Lansing (pp. 170-175). FLOWING WELLS. EUREKA DISTRICT. The Eureka district occupies several square miles on the borders of Clinton and Gratiot counties, in Greenbush and Washington townships, and represents almost typically that relation between moraines a~nd drainage which results so frequently in artesian flows. The descent from the summit of the bordering moraine (fig. 33) is steeper in passing down to the edge of the plain than the slope farther north across the plain toward Maple River. Sec. 34 and the southern part of sec. 27 have imperceptible slopes and imperfect drainage. Near Maple River and its larger tributaries there is somea See pp. 230-233. ï~~226 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. what stronger relief, but in general the district is flat. As shown in the following table, there is a steady increase of head to the southwest of the area of flow in the direction of the moraine, from which the artesian supply is apparently derived. R. 2 W. 32 33 3,, 35 36 8 GR.ATIOT CO. os o, 5Q 4 32 8 9y / L 10oI."12\'" Fin. 33.-Map showing Eureka flowing-well area in relation to drainage and moraine. The known area of flows is shaded, but flows may be obtained north of Maple River. The Eureka flows are not confined to the stream valleys, but are distributed over the plain. The first flowing well in the area was sunk in 1865, and the development has continued steadily to the present, a length of time that affords unusual opportunities for the determination of the effect of flow on the head. Many of the wells show a decrease of supply not altogether due to the clogging of the pipe. Mrs. Youdan's well furnishes at present but one-eighth gallon a minute, whereas its yield when first put down was 5 gallons a minute. A similar decrease is noted in W. W. Williams's well. P. C. Zigler reports a decrease of 9 feet in the head of his well, which is 27 feet deep. The decrease affects deep and shallow wells alike. Seasonal fluctuations in head and flow are noted, these being in flows from sources no deeper than those at Eureka. The following sections indicate the nature and relations of the water-bearing material: Record of Wilson Keiser's well, Eureka. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay, with thin layers of water-bearing sand, one at 40 feet yielding a slight flow. 55 55 Sand and gravel..............................................................5 60 ï~~CLINTON COUNTY. Record of Edw'ard Burke's well, Eureka. 227 Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clayyarnd hardpan----------------------------------------------------------------------9--9 Red cclay................................................................---. 2 101 Rock (?).I Record of W. C. Bailis's well, Eureka. ---- --_-_- - - ___ -- -_-_ __ __ _---___._-- T hickness. T otal. Feet. Feet. Stony clay...................................................................... 90 90 Sand and gravel. In secs. 11 and 12, Greenbush Township, are two areas smaller than the one just discussed. These occur at the heads of smaller tributary streams, and in the valley of the stream which joins Maple River in sec. 25 there occurs what is probably a continuation of the area of flows found farther west. No flows are reported on the north side of the river, and none are likely to be found there, on account of the rapid slope from a moraine lying near by. Wells in Eureka district. J p dC When Depth. made. Owner. I C I I s? I C I C T I I C I J I r r I c F Feet. 1. 12 8 2 Ed Burke------------------------..1900 175 3. 12 S 2 Gilbert Beck...................... 1899 147 F. 12 8 2 Fred Russell...................... 1896; 190 F.ii 8 2 Enreka village................................. D. 11 8 2 S. Bnrrows........................ 1898 196 k.. 3 8 2 Saml. Strauser---------------.................... 3. 4 8 2 M. A. Youdani.................... 1894 94 C. 5 8 2 D. J1. Virrfith..................... 1903 124 N. 33 9 2 C. S. Patterson................... 1874 35 9. 4 2 E. Darling.......................1865 30 C 33 9 2 E. Weatherby.................... 1894 70 ). 33 9 2 Fred Keiser.............................. 22.34 9 2 P'. C. Zigler........................ 1889 27 F.34 9 2 WV. Church........................ 1903 109.27 9 2 W. C. Baylis......................1904 90 1. 34 9 2 W. Church........................ 1903 109 1. 27 9 2 SA.Miller..............................J. 27 9 2 13. K. Stormfeltz.................. 1888 3 b.3 2 W. Kei ser......................... 1901 65 1. 34 9 21 C. Brewbaker..................... 1884 56 NI 35' 9 2 J.E. Walker.......................... D. 33 9 2 WV. W. Williams.................. 1888. 100 P 33 9 2 J. Zigler........................... 1890 95~ S24 9~ 2 AB.Baum....................... 1903 50 R. 32 9~ 2 L. Lohrer.............................. 5 The diameter of the pipes is uniformly 2 inches. Feet. 696 688 6861 725 701 683 685 693 6182 6i83 681 684 677. 677 6801 676 680~ 692 690 700 675 680 673 673 Feet. Galls. -F. 728 1.75 55.7 --687-..25.1..53.4 689.12 56.2 695 1 51.8 685.11 53.8 686.5 51.2 686 1.25 52.1 6891 2 49.5 680.5 51.5 685! 12 52.7 700 2 51.3 684 15 52.7 686' 3 51.2 685 1.25 52.5 697 1.5 50.9 693'.25 52 705.75 51 683 1 52 689 3 51.5 674 1 51.8 ï~~228 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. MAPLE RAPIDS DISTRICT. In a test boring for coal at Maple Rapids, where the surface elevation is 640 feet above tide, a strong flow of water was obtained from three different horizons, as shown in the following section: Record of coal boring at Maple Rapids. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Hardpan--------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 25 25 Blu clay--------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 3 28 Stones----------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................... 8 36 Blue clay--------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 28 64 H ardpan......................................................................... 5 69 Sand with water---------------------------------------------------------................................................................. 1 70 Blue clay--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 6 76 Sand------------------------------------------------------------------............................................................................. 1 77 Brown clay-------------------------------------------------------------...................................................................... 7 84 Gravel----------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................... 2 86 Red sand with water............................................................ 82 168 Gray rock-------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 14 182 Red sandstone----------------------------------------------------------................................................................... 2 184 Dark shale------------------------------------------------------------....................................................................... 31 215 Red shale--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 3 218 Soapstone-------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 29 244 Light shale------------------------------------------------------------....................................................................... 17 261 Coal.............................................................................. L 261) Light shale------------------------------------------------------------...................................................................... 33 295 White sandstone with water-----------------------------------------------..................................................... 39 334 About 2 miles east and three-fourths of a mile north of Maple Rapids, in the NW. 1 sec. 3, T. 8 N., R. 3 W., is another flowing well that is supplied from the drift. It is located at the foot of a bluff which represents the southern valley side of Maple River. The height of the bluff as determined by aneroid is 75 feet, an unusual height, due to the fact that Maple River here crosses the St. Johns moraine. The bluff maintains this height for a half mile up and down the valley, and for this distance flows dependent on local relief may fairly be expected to occur. The owner of the well is Zalmon Wyman; the driller, Barney Norton, of Maple Rapids. The depth is 31 feet, diameter of pipe 2 inches, temperature 52Â~ F., altitude 660 feet, head 10 feet, flow 1.5 gallons a minute. The well was drilled in March, 1903, and has since yielded a constant supply of water, which is derived from gravel underlying 30 feet of gravelly clay or till, and is used for domestic purposes. ST. JOHNS DISTRICT. One mile northeast of St. Johns, near the source of Spring Brook, are the two flows first mentioned in the table below. They are obtained at a slight depth in gravel and sand underneath a layer of clay about 10 feet thick. The flows are supplied from the St. Johns moraine, and both are on the floor of the valley of Spring Brook. Flows farther down the valley are unknown, and farther up the valley the summit of the moraine is quickly reached. The water in both ï~~OLINTON COUNTY. 229 wells is hard and chalybeate and is used for ordinary farm purposes. In addition to this the water in the well belonging to the Spring Brook Ice Company is collected in an artificial pond about 2 acres in extent, from which most of the ice supplied in St. Johns is cut. A low dam and sluice gate permits the regulation of the height of water. Each summer the pond is drained and the bottom plowed, effecting thorough aeration, this being necessary because of the coating of iron oxide deposited from the chalybeate water. Northwest of St. Johns, in the valley of another small tributary of Spring Brook and in the same relation with reference to the St. Johns moraine, is another small group of four flows. As shown in fig. 32 33 34 35 34, these occur in close 35 association with the c drainage, as they must A " in this locality, where 4 2 the relief, though slight,4 is sufficient to prevent flows except along the he FIG. 34.-Flowing wells near St. Johns, Clinton County. stream courses. The character of water and the direction of flows are similar to those in the preceding group. Mr. Feightling has constructed a trout pond which is fed by the overflow from his well, and he intends to install a hydraulic ram for supplying his house with water. The other wells of this section are put to ordinary domestic and farm uses. Still farther northwest, in sec. 32, T. 8 N., R. 3 W., on the next western tributary of Spring Brook, is the flowing well of R. T. Ferguson. The well is at the top of the bluff above the little stream just Head mentioned. The water rose to o /Ow within 18 inches of the surface Sand by piping to the ravine 200 cay feet away a flow was secured. ISince this method is used to e - hep Arsecure flows in a number of places, a diagram (fig. 35) is FIG. 35. Illustration of flow obtained by trenching. given illustrating the relations. Mr. Ferguson has built his barn below the flow and installed a system of pipes so that the water runs by gravity through the basement. This combination of slope and flow might in many other cases be utilized to the great saving of money and labor. Between this well and the group east of here the surface is very level, especially in the western part of the area..The water rises in all the dug or driven wells with strong artesian effect, standing in many cases but a few inches below the surface, and is never more than 10 I 182-06---16 ï~~230 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. feet below it. But in tracts lying between the stream valleys flows are not obtained. Wells in St. Johns district. Ownr.When Eleva- Water Flow TemSmOwner. ade. Depth. rises per peramade. tion. to- minute. ture. Feet Feet. Feet. Galls. oÂ~F. C. 9 7 2 Spring Brook Ice Co.............. 1895 20 751 756 10 51.1 D. 4 7 2 T. L. Stewart............................ 726 727 3 51.2 A. 3 7 3 George Feightling.......................70 708J 7121 8 51.2 B. 2 7 3 John Matter..................1898 92 713 712............... D. 3 7 3 H. V. Hostetler.............. 1901 96 711 714 1.5 51.7 E. 2 7 3.....do....................... 1892 40 705 706.12 66? C. 32 8 3 R. J. Ferguson................... 1902 91 707 709.33 59.6 SHEPARDSVILLE DISTRICT. One mile south of Shepardsville in Ovid Township (T. 7 N., R. 1 W.), in western Clinton County, is the flowing well of E. R. Munson. It is at an altitude of 716 feet. The water at present is just level with the surface, but has fallen 8 feet since the well was sunk about forty years ago, the loss being probably due to clogging of the pipe. The flow is 1.5 gallons per minute, and the temperature 49.50 F. The water is strongly chalybeate. The following section was furnished by Mr. Munson: Record of Munson well, Ovid Township. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface sand...................................................................14 14 Quicksand................................................................. 2 16 Blue clay...... -7..........................................................7 23 Water-bearing gravel. Other attempts to secure flows in the valley of Maple River near Shepardsville have been made on slightly higher ground and have proved unsuccessful. One-half mile southwest of Duplain in the same valley, but in another township, is another flow belonging to A. M. Birmingham. It is located within a few feet of Maple River at an altitude of 713 feet. The water is unusually soft and comes from a water bed 20 feet below the surface and beneath blue clay. ELSIE AND VICINITY.a Elsie is situated in northeastern Clinton County in T. 3 N., R 1 W., on a low, gravel-covered ridge, sloping on the north to the Ann Arbor Railroad, on the south to the valley of a tributary of Maple River, a By Charles A. Davis. ï~~CLINTON COUNTY. 231 and on the west to Maple River. The ridge, in part at least, is the result of wave action on the shore of the Glacial Lake Saginaw. Hence it is porous, and since it is superposed upon a clay substratum at no great depth below the surface water is easily obtained. The wells in the town are generally shallow, some probably too shallow for the safety of those who use the water. On the north side of town they are from 7 to 20 feet deep; those on the top of the ridge are somewhat deeper-35 feet and more. The tile well is common, and this type of cdnstruction seems popular in some parts of the village. It is certainly less objectionable than the older type of dug wells. There is no public supply at present, and so far as learned none is contemplated, but eventually the town will need fire protection at least, and for this purpose Maple River is the nearest available source. This stream would not furnish a supply of water which would be recommended for any purpose except sprinkling and fire protection, and if drinking water were sought, wells would have to be developed. The most accessible place for putting down test wells would be in the lowest part of the river valley, within easy reach of the village, where a good supply of water would most probably be found. Wells in the vicinity of the railroad station might yield also sufficient water. Another possible place for the location of a pumping station would be at a powerful flow of water from the ground beside the railroad tracks 11 miles southeast of the village. Explorations in this neighborhood would probably yield other flows that would furnish a large quantity of excellent water, which could be pumped to town. There are no flowing wells in Elsie village, but in other parts of Duplain Township there are two districts with shallow yet strongflowing wells. One of these lies in a drainage valley on the eastern side of sec. 1. It contains but a single well, but is apparently capable of further development. Several farms along the valley could probably get good supplies of flowing water if the wells were put down at the lowest points. The present well has been in existence for twenty years at least and flows a large stream of excellent water at the present time. The other and principal area lies south of Elsie, beginning about 3 miles south and extending several miles in a southeasterly direction, the area seeming nearly coincident with the shallow valley of one of the small tributaries of Maple River. It is bounded on the west by a small, sharp, morainal ridge 30 to 50 feet high, which runs nearly north and south at its northern end and trends southeastward in its southern part. Within this area large flows are so easily obtained by boring with a common earth auger that many of the farms have several wells, running in the aggregate enough water to supply the needs of a small ï~~232 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. town. The cost of putting the wells down is said to be from $3 to $5, including labor, and the depth ranges from 8 to 25 feet. The usual way in which these wells are piped is to bore a 1'-inch hole lengthwise through a common fence post, then start the boring into the earth at the bottom of a hole a little smaller than the post and about the depth of an ordinary post hole. When water is reached, the post is driven into the hole. The head is frequently sufficient to drive the water out through the hole in the post; if it does not, the next step, after the post is set, is to bore a lateral hole through into the central one near the upper limit of the head, or at such point as may be desirable, and into this drive a spile of simple construction, through which the water is delivered. If the head lowers, the spile is easily lowered, and in this way fairly exact records of lowering of some of the wells may be had, some posts showing several successive orifices of this kind. The small ridge to the west is hardly large enough to furnish such a great quantity of water as flows from the larger wells, and it seems probable that the more extended rolling country to the south is the source of supply. Near the bottom of the embankment of the Ann Arbor Railroad 11 miles southeast of Elsie, in a marshy tract at the foot of a long slope from the north, is a fine spring, the overflow from which runs off as a stream a foot wide and 2 inches deep. The water comes up through a barrel and rises 6 inches above the surface of the ground about the spring from clean gravel and sand at the bottom. One informant said that this was merely a hole made by pushing a fence rail down into the ground 6 or 8 feet and breaking through the hardpan. The general character of the ground about the spring would indicate, however, that there have been natural springs in the neighborhood for some time, however this particular one originated. The altitude is about 715 feet, and the temperature of the water 48Â~ F. A well three-fourths of a mile south of Elsie on the west side of sec. 13, Duplain Township, is reported as about 200 feet deep, with rock at 98 feet. The water rises within 2 feet of the surface at the house, and flows one-half gallon a minute at a watering trough 3 feet below the level of the pump. This well is near the valley of the stream south of town and is about 12 feet below the village, or 725 feet above tide. South of Elsie the rock surface is said to be from 100 to 130 feet below the surface, but a mile or two to the north it is quite variable, running from 27 to 175 feet or more in depth within short distances. This information was given by Mr. Otto Heinze, a well driller who has worked in the region several years. ï~~CLINTON COUNTY. 233 Wells in Elsie district (T. 8 N., R. 1 W.). When ualit Water Owner. made. a uy' bed..... a bd In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. F 1 Unknowna............... 1884 3 20 715 + 3 10 48.5 Hard; iron. Gravel. 25 Ezra Waiteb..................1.5 18 712 + 5 2-3 48.5.....do... Do. 25 E. Bensinger c........... 1904 1.25 16 71 5 2 48.8...do... Do. 30 E. Munsond..................... 1.5 19 712 + 2 1.5 49.5..do.. Do. 25 G.W. Bowerse.......... 1874 2 {6 725 + 3 8+ 48.2......do..... 36 J. Bensinger f.................... 2 23 720 +2-5 1-3.......do. 25 G.W. Bowersg................2 20 718 + 2 4 48.5..do.. 25 H.M. Jeffreyh.......... 1884 2 22 725 + 3 6 50.....do... a Bored and never piped, except by pump log driven through the soil; fine flow. b In corn field; not cased. c Bored log with spigot in side. Yellow clay 12 feet, blue clay 4 feet, water gravel. Rock at 30 feet probably a bowlder in pump well near by. d T. 8 N., R. 1 E. Shows on post three successive lowerings from a head 2 feet higher than present. e Largest of group; great waste of water. f Mr. Bensinger has four wells from 16 to 23 feet deep. g Stock well at north end of farm. h Supplies a public trough on road from Elsie to Ovid. WATERWORKS. OVID. The village of Ovid is in Ovid Township, on the eastern border of Clinton County, near the headwaters of Maple River. The surface is gently rolling, being an intermorainic area of slight relief. The water system is operated in connection with an electric-light plant, and both are controlled by the village. The former was established in 1888, the latter in 1894. Water is drawn from a curb well 20 feet deep and 16 feet in diameter. The stand tower is 70 feet high and holds 1,300 barrels, 2,000 barrels being the average daily amount supplied. Ten or twelve years ago oil was used for fuel in running the engines. This was stored underground in a large tank, and, a leak having formed, the public water became polluted. Two or three years were required to purify the oil-sodden earth, during which time the water could not be used. ST. JOHNS. Admirable drainage is secured for St. Johns by the slopes on which it is built, and which, while weak for a moraine, are still strong enough to give a pleasing variety to streets and grounds-an important factor in the growth of a town. From the notebooks of James B. Henderson, superintendent of waterworks, accurate data were secured as to the depths of the different wells and the material penetrated. The 5 deep wells supplying the village are located in a group with intervals of 6 feet, and have the following depths: 222, 312, 544, 548, and 574 feet. The ï~~234 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. cost of the wells was $2 a foot, the village furnishing the casing. The section of the deepest well is as follows: Record of waterworks well, St. Johns. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay with thin layers of quicksand.............................................40 40 (This indicates the depth of the moraine at St. Johns. There was a heavy water ted at 28 feet, but the supply was too near the surface to be considered safe.) Coarse gravel....1.......................................................112 152 Red sandstone, bearing some water........................................... 20 172 Blue shale...................................................... 202 374 Black shale with alternating hard and soft layers...............................1 375 White water-bearing sand rock (Parma)...1.................................150 525 Gray water-bearing sand rock......................................... 10 535 Black shale.....................................................................15 550 Blue shale......................................................................24 574 Water is drawn from the first and second sandstones. The water stands at 40 feet below the surface, or 713 feet above tide; by pumping with forced draft it can be lowered 85 feet, or to 125 feet below the surface. It is pumped into two brick reservoirs 19 feet deep and 27 feet in diameter, together holding 150,000 gallons. The average daily amount supplied to the village is 275;000 gallons, over 800 families and all the steam plants in town making use of the public supply..The quality of the water, as determined by chemical analysis made by Thomas Cooley, of the University of Michigan, August 5, 1904, is as follows: Analysis of water of St. Johns waterworks. Parts per million. Total residue obtained by evaporation at 1100 C.......................... 446 Residue after ignition, or inorganic matter in residue...................... 312 Organic residue, or loss on ignition.......................... 134 Chlorine (as sodium chloride).......................................... 38 Sulphates (as SO,).......................----- -------- --------........................... --- Trace. Potassium permanganate reduced by organic matter in the water.............. 12. 1 Free ammonia......................................................... 06 Albuminoid ammonia.................................................06 Nitrates............----..................................................... -----0 Nitrites............----.....................................................---- 0 Color, clear; odor, none; reaction, neutral; no appreciable deposit; no germs except ordinary water germs; inoculation experiment negative. This is a very fair water, perfectly safe for domestic use in its present condition. FOWLER. The village of Fowler is reported to have a public supply, both for fire and domestic purposes, obtained from a drilled well, but no further information was gathered. ï~~ION1A COUNTY. 235 EAGLE. The village of Eagle is also reported to have a partial public supply for domestic use, the water being pumped by windmill from a driven well to a tank. WATER SUPPLIES OF IONIA COUNTY. By ISAIAH BOWMAN. GENERAL STATEMENT. In lonia County the writer examined each of the several flowingwell districts and visited each town in which a public water supply has been put in operation. But little attention was given to the portions of the county in which flowing wells were not obtained, though it was ascertained that water can generally be had at very moderate depths throughout the county. Indeed, the average depth of the pump wells is less than that of the flowing wells. Grand River flows through the bounty in a valley of considerable depth, the bluffs being ordinarily 100 to 150 feet high. The greater part of the upland is a gently undulating till plain, which in places assumes the form of definite morainic ridges of subdued type. There are also narrow strips of gravelly land leading southward between the moraines in the northern part of the county to the valley of Grand River. FLOWING WELLS AND SPRINGS. BELDING. The Belding flows occur only in the city of Belding, along the flood plain of Flat River in Otsico Township (T. 8 N., R. 8 W.), and, are distributed over an area of about 1 square mile, as indicated in the sketch map (fig. 36). An understanding of the nature of the flows may best be obtained after an examination of the nature and position of the water-bearing strata. The sections follow: Record of Richardson silk mill well, Belding. Thickness. Total. Feet. I' Feet. Water-bearing sand and gravel with occasional layers of brown clay.......... 35 35 Gravel hardpan................................................................ 10 45 Blue clay, no stones............................................................. 55 100 Very fine sandbearing water with a head of 8j feet. Material was so fine that it could not be screened and the flow ceased shortly.......................... 1 101 Light-colored sticky and stony clay.................................................. 19 120 Sand, fine but capable of being screened. Present flow from this bed at 120-122 feet........................................................................... 2 122 ï~~236 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Record of N. Lapham well, Belding. 1 Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 50 50 50 100 Sand and gravel with streaks of clay........................................... Sticky blue clay with no stones..................................... Fine, black, water-bearing sand. Record of Belding Brothers & Co. well, Belding. Thickness. Total. W ater-bearing sand........................................................... Blue clay without stones........................................................ Quicksand, producing roily water................................... Clay.......................................................................... Coarse water-bearing sand..................................................... Feet. Feet. 25 25 20 45 1 46 25 71 3 74 Record of Ballou basket works well, Belding. B lack m uck................................................................. Blue sticky clay, no stones........................................ Fine sand, water-tearing......------------------------------------------ Variegated clay...--------------------------------------------- Sand, clay, and stones, with water............................................. Coarse water-bearing sand. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 8 8 57 65.5 65, 34.5 100 40 140.5 The water from the wells of the different companies is used for drinking purposes by the employees. Water for boiler use is drawn out of Flat River. The depths of rr r, the different wells, as well as the " // $p,. ]succession of materials, show the $$ '// / ' uncertainty of finding water at the / *,%,,s"j particular depth apparently indi/cated by the conditions in a nearsect0 osec by well. While this is more or less characteristic of water supply FIG. 36.-Map of Belding flowing-well area. Ex- in glacial deposits it is more notatent shown by shading. bly the case in the Belding flows than in any others where the wells are as near each other as in this part of the State. The flow of water in the second well of Belding Brothers & Co., mentioned in the table below, has decreased from 51 to 4 gallons a minute. In the well owned by the Ballou basket works the decrease has been from 6 to 1 gallons a minute. This decrease is due either to the obstruction of the screen by the fine sand in which the water occurs, or to the corrosion of the screen, or to both, this being proved by the condition of different screens pulled up in cleaning wells. ï~~IONIA COUNTY. 237 The diameter of the wells mentioned in the table is uniformly 2 inches, and the cost of drilling $2 a foot, including pipe. The present city supply is from the various city wells or from ordinary dug wells. For fire protection, water is pumped from Flat River and conveyed by a system of wooden mains to every part of the city. The pumping is done for the city under contract by Belding Brothers & Co. The artesian-water resources of the place have encouraged the consideration of plans for the installation of a plant which will furnish water for all purposes. Wells at Belding (T. 18 N., R. 8 W.). Lette SecWhenWater Letter Sec- wner When Eleva- atrises Flow per Temperg.n tion. made. Depth tion. minute. ature. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o F. A 11 Richardson silk mills........ 1900 121 768 770 1 52.5 B 11 Doctor Little................ 1904 126 771 774 1........ C 11 N. Lapham................. 1894 100 771 774 6 52.2 D 11 Ballou basket works......... 1897 140 768 776 1.5 51.9 E 10 N. Lapham................ 1903 37 678 771 2 50.7 F 10 C.C. Briggs............... 1892 25 768 7711 8 49.7 G 10 Karl Eckert............... 1893 35 768 771 Pumped. 50. 5 H 11 H.J. Leonard............... 1890 156 769 773.75 51.5 I 11 Belding Land and Improvement Co.a...............1888 300 768 768 Pumped......... J 11 Belding Bros. & Co........... 1902 1314 770 774 6 52.2 K 11.....do..................................I 100) 771 780 4 L 11 Belding Hall Manufacturing9 768 776 1 51.6 Co................... 1899 155 768 776 1 51.6 a At 300 feet "rotten rock" was encountered, the drill broke, and the well was abandoned. A flow was passed at 120 feet. The well at present suppl es the Belding Hotel. Flow is 5 gallcns a minute 3 feet below surface. CLARKSVILLE DISTRICT. The flows of the Clarksville area in the southwestern part of Ionia County occur in and beyond the northern and western limits of the village, which is located on a level till plain extending eastward from a moraine lying a mile to the west. Extremely slight trenching of this plain by Coldwater Creek and its tributaries has occurred, and it is on the shallow valley floors or in natural depressions of the plain that flows are found. An examination of the accompanying table shows an increase of head in the general direction of the moraine on the southwest. The dug-well records near the southern limit of flow uniformly show the same condition, besides indicating that here, as in the flowing-well area, when the water-bearing stratum is tapped, the water rises with strong artesian effect, until it reaches the approximate level of the static head within the area of flow. This, together with the fact that the flowing wells are shallow and their depths uniform, points to a continuous water bed locally supplied, and attributes to the moraine west of the village the function of a catchment area. ï~~238 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Fig. 37 expresses these and other interesting relations. The low hill seems to divide the flows, and to constrict them between its southern limit and the higher ground to R.6.the south. Beyond the constriction they S spread out again, fan-like, and may be Sec. Se3 found all the way between this point and the creek. These relations, considered - with the topography, suggest that in the 1 same way flows may be obtained on the sowestern side of the hill between the railSec.9 sec. road track and the creek. The extreme 0 eastern limits of the area may also be extended a short distance, but' the exFIG. 37.-Location of Clarksville flows. treme western limits have been well dePresent extent shown by diagonal lines; probable extension by dotted fined by borings. The head and flow of lines. Arrow points in direction of Mr. Merrill's well on the southwestern underground flow.. undergroundow, limits of the area indicate a probable extension of the area as indicated in fig. 37. The water is in every case hard,, and leaves an incrustation of lime stained by iron on the pipe. It is used for stock and domestic purposes. The largest flow is that of the Merrill well (see table); the flows in the other wells, except the Hull well, are small. Mr. Hull furnished the following record of materials penetrated: Record of Hull well, Clarksville. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clayey soil....................................................................2 2 Solid blue clay.................................................................. 18 20 Clean quartz gravel, water bearing. The records of other wells show the same succession of material with remarkable uniformity in the thickness of the clay and the position of the water bed. Wells in Clarksville district (T. 5 N., R. 8 W.). See- Owner. When Depth Eleva- Water Flow Temtion. made,., Depthrises - per peraOwner. tio. to- minute. ture. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. OF. 3 G. Ferney.................................... 27 815 819 1.33 51 3 Dr. A. G. Bush.........................1894 27 819 819.5 49.9 3 L. A. Scoville..-.......................... 1894 27 820 822 1 50.4 3 J. Hull...................................... 1896 22 82(Y 824 10 50.4 3 G. Ferney...................................... 27 820 824 1 51.5 3 E. D. Troyer.....................................27 824 826 8 50.3 3 James Snyder........................................824 826 1 50.5 3 Eliz. Stewart...................................25 822 824.75 50. 3 3 F.E. Richards............................................... 822 825 '...... 3 M.J. Badder....................................... 27 8 24 825.14 51.2 3 Wesleyan Methodist Church............... 25 825 826.5... 50.5 3 Fred Hess...........................................827 826.......... 9 F.W. Merrill....................................... 20 826 832 15 49.8 9.....do...................................................... 826 832.5 5 50.3 4 L. Braendle................................ 1894 23 828 830 4.....do...................................... 1894 25 826.........12 52.3 ï~~IONIA COUNTY. 239 HUBBARDSTON DISTRICT. There are but 2 flowing wells in the village of Hubbardston; one is owned by the village, and the other by C. K. Bennett. The village well was drilled in 1894 by private individuals to supply a village watering place, and to throw light on the geologic formations present. The depth of the well is 265 feet; diameter, 5 inches; flow, 64 gallons a minute; temperature, 50.8 'F.; altitude, 670 feet; head, 20 feet; cost, $2 per foot. The driller was L. J. Lincoln, of Mason, Mich. John A. Tabor, postmaster at Hubbardston and one of the promoters of the well, kindly furnished the approximate section which follows: Record of village flowing well, Hubbardston. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand and gravel underlain by a few feet of hard blue clay....................... 50 50 Water-bearing sand................................................55 105 Very hard clay with occasional layers of soft clay.......................... 103 208 Thin layers of water-bearing red sand with a flow of 20 to 30 barrels a day....... 2 210 "Sandy hardpan" with no water............................................................ 40 250 Sand and gravel from which present flow is obtained......................... 2 252 Sandy hardpan in which drilling was stopped.................................. 13 265 The water contains considerable iron and occasionally roils slightly. No reason for this is assigned except that after having been driven to 265 feet the well was dynamited at 250 feet to break the pipe where a flow was known to occur. The depth of the Bennett well is 50 feet; diameter, 2 inches; altitude, 652 feet; head, 12 feet; temperature, 51.3 Â~F.; flow, 8 gallons a minute. This well is at present used to supply a sawmill. At one time the citizens of the village undertook to found a sanitarium to make use of the well, but the project was abandoned. The water is said to be derived from gravel beneath a clay hardpan. In sec. 21, Bloomer Township, Montcalm County, 5 miles northwest of Hubbardston, an old well is reported which was drilled in search of coal. No data are at hand further than the authenticated statement that the well is at least 200 feet deep and flowed when first put down. Between this flow and the one at Hubbardston there is lower ground drained by a tributary of Maple River. This suggests that the field might be greatly enlarged. The depth is somewhat unfavorable, however, considering the fact that an abundant supply of surface water can be so easily obtained in the ordinary dug wells. Yet for some of the larger farms of this district flows even at the greater depth would be profitable. Three miles southwest of Hubbardston, on the farm of A. S. Jessup, in sec. 23, T. 8 N., R. 5 W., is a spring yielding 2 barrels a minute, the largest spring found in this part of the State. Two ï~~240 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. years ago its flow was concentrated on the river bluff 50 feet above Maple River, but since then it has cut a gully 250 feet long and 20 feet deep at the mouth. The gully heads in a kettle hole toward which both the surface and the subsurface drainage is directed. The temperature of the water at the head of the gully is 530, at the mouth 560. The gully is cut in a marl deposit of considerable thickness, formerly used in the manufacture of lime. Lack of railroad transportation stopped the industry, and no use is now made of the deposit. IONIA DISTRICT. General statement.-About 50 feet above the floor of the Grand River Valley are the numerous surface springs of Ionia. Their issuance so high up on the valley side is caused in most places by the outcrop of the clay of morainic origin underneath the sand and gravel in which the surface water accumulates. The water furnished by the springs is used for drinking and household purposes by private families and is the principal source of the supply at the municipal pumping station, the Michigan Reformatory, and the hospital for the criminally insane. The surface water is usually centralized at the mouths of the small valleys tributary to Grand River Valley or in the adjacent kettle holes, which have been tapped through the headward growth of the tributary gullies. A very good example of the latter kind of centralization of drainage is found just back of the river bluffs onehalf mile west of Ionia. John Flater, living just outside of the western city limits, has for years irrigated his garden from a stone reservoir built about 60 feet above the floor of Grand Valley and in the path of the surface drainage. More recently he has irrigated from flowing wells. Wells.-The following table gives data of flowing wells in the Ionia district: Wells in lonia district. Let-I ter Town- Range Seon ship l W. tion.ge ecfig. N. tion. 38. E 7 6 27 D 7 6 21 H 7 6 30 N 7 6 21 M 7 6 20 I 7 6 19 A 7 6 19 O 7 6 19 B 7 6 19 B 7 7 24 A 7 7 24 C 7 6 19 L 7 6 20 J 7 6 20 K 7 6 20 When made. Depth. Owner. J. Horrocks.................. Prospecting Company........ H. H. Pierce--............... G. W. & H. B. Webber....... Win. O'Brien.................. H. R. Welker-................. Ionia Water Company..... Ionia Gas and Coke Company County of Ionia........... W. Yoemans............... John Flater................. Township of lIonia............ F. A. Shattuck............. Harper Brothers............. H. A. Leek........................Â~........ -. 1900 'i95i 1896 1901 1898 1887 1897 1899 1900 1904 1900 1903 Feet. 340 540 247 a 107 340 525 650 190 320 240 228 80 67 77h 83 Elevation. Feet. 694 665 640 678 635 682 685 650 665 700 650 642 635 635 635 Water Flow Temrises Pmin- perato- ute. ture. Feet. Galls. Â~F. 715 36 52.3 725 300 52.3 670 1 52.2 700 4..637.25 53 696 '30 52.3 695.5... 693 1.5 53.8 720......... 700 10.. 672 18 51.5 637.5 52 640 1 51.9 643 4 51.2 a There is some doubt as to the depth of this well. It probably belongs to the 80-toot series. ï~~IONIA COUNTY. 241 The data in the above table show, besides the surface system just discussed, two distinct sources of water, one occurring at 80 to 100 feet in gravel underlying blue clay, and the other in rock at depths ranging from 200 to nearly 700 feet. The wells of the Afirst class yield a large supply of water, although strongly chalybeate in most cases, and might profitably be prospected by the city with a view to future increase of municipal supply. All of the wells drawing water from this stratum, except that belonging to lonia Township, are in a group on the north side of Grand River Valley; the township well is located almost due south of the above group on the south side of the valley. The deeper wells draw their supply from the rock. The well of the Prospecting Company has a larger flow than any other named in the table, penetrating so far into a rock formation known to yield water at various depths that it undoubtedly draws its supply from several horizons. The flow was originally a 6-inch stream under a 60-foot head, but through neglect the pipe has become partly filled with T.7N., R.7W. T. 7 N., R.6 W. 1 Cit f~Io ia20 21 Outcrop o 25 3yy 0 29 28 27 FIG. 38.-Area in and near Ionia in which flows are found. This could be extended some distance both up and down Grand River Valley. quicksand from the surface, and the flow, while still stronger than that of any other well in this vicinity, is considerably less than at first. The hole was drilled by a prospecting company in search of coal, and on being abandoned by the company the water was piped up the adjacent bluff to a farmhouse and for years supplied the farm. Later its use in this way was discontinued by the breaking of the pipe, and at present no use is made of the water, which is allowed to run into Grand River. The well records in the table are arranged in three series, approximately in the order of their occurrence down the valley: First, those deep wells which are located on the south side of Grand River; second, the deep wells on the north side; and third, the 80-foot wells on both sides. The extent of the area under consideration is about 6 square miles but it could be much increased (fig. 38). A flow has been obtained ï~~242 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. in Grand River Valley at the village of Saranac and others at Lowell, and there is apparently no reason why flows may not be obtained in the valley in the whole intervening distance between Lowell and Ionia. Up the valley from Ionia as far as Lyons the number of flowing wells, at least at present, seems to depend to a large degree on the number of people who have been able to bear the expense of putting down wells of sufficient depth. In comparing depths of wells it must be remembered that some are on the valley floor and others on the terraces and valley sides. This accounts for the considerable difference shown in the column of altitudes. No permanent loss of head is noted except in the case of Mr. Yeomans's well, in which the water stands several feet below the surface. This well was dynamited during the drilling, and the consequent filling may have caused the loss of head. Temporary losses are frequent through sand-choked conditions, which could be obviated were the same care exercised in entering the pipe in the rock which drillers in oil regions are forced to exercise. All the deep wells originally supplied from 15 to 75 gallons a minute, depending uniformly on the different depths and the difference between the surface elevation and the head. The following section of the strata as they occur on the south side of the river was kindly furnished by J. Horrocks, formerly a well driller of lonia: Record of well south of Grand River, near lonia. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Drift, sand, gravel, and clay...................................................50 50 Variegated sandstone................................................... 70 120 A long series of nonwater-bearing shales and slates, with thin interbedded layers of conglomerate and fire clay, with coal near the top and fire clay and slightly thicker seams of coal at the bottom. The maximum thickness of the coal layers is said to be 32 feet at 245 feet........................................... 170 290 Parma sandstone. The Parma sandstone yields water from the top, but the flow increases with the depth. Other sections are as follows: Record of well of lonia Gas and Coke Company, Ionia. Thickness. Total. Feet. " Feet. Black m uck.................................................................. 12 12 Soft marl clay............................................................... 8 20 Coarse white gravel......................................................... 20 40 Series of shales, with thin coal seams.............................................. 150 190 Parma sandstone, very much creviced and full of cavities. ï~~IONIA COUNTY. 943 Record of John Flater well (near valley bottom), lonia. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Water-bearing gravel and sand......................................... 90 90 Sandstone............................................................ 110 200 Parma sandstone............................................................... 28 228 Flow began as soon as this sandstone was encountered and increased with the depth, a fact reported in all wells in this formation. Record of H. R. Welker well (on terrace), lonia. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand, gravel, clay, stones, etc................................................ 257 257 Fire clay, no grit or sand............................................................. 3 260 Sandstone, very "soft" for the first 8 feet.....4....................43 303 Parma sandstone, very "soft," i. e., loose textured and easy to drill.......... 23 326 Grit, extremely hard, no water......................................................... 14 340 The supply is obtained in the Welker well from the Parma sandstone. Dynamiting is said to have increased the flow by half. The 80-foot series of wells all show approximately the following: Record of 80-foot wells, lonia. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface loam................................................................... 4 4 Blue clay..................................................................._.... 76 80 Clean, loose, water-bearing gravel. The Ionia Water Company, Charles Girard, superintendent, operates four wells supplied from the springs described on p. 240. It also owns four artesian wells varying in depth from 525 to 650 feet. The two deepest ones yielded brackish water, and were plugged. The water in the others is not considered so good as that from the surface wells, and is not used except in cases of emergency. The storage reservoir has a capacity of 13,000 barrels, and holds at all times 5,000 barrels for fire protection. About 800,000 gallons are used daily. The two pumps have a united daily capacity of 3,000,000 gallons. The following partial analysis shows the composition of water from a deep well owned by H. R. Welker, at Ionia, in the Parma sandstone. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. ï~~244 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Partial analysis of well water at lonia. Parts per million. Color.........................------------------------------------------------------------- 19 Iron (Fe).........---------------------------------------------........--------------... 2.25 Chlorine (Cl)........................-------------------------------------------------------. 21.5 Carbon dioxide (CO2)..................------------------------------------------------.......... 95.85 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)-............................... 213 Hardness (as CaCO3) -------------------------------------------------139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 336 feet. SHILOH AREA. But one flow has been secured in Shiloh, Ionia County. This is located on the farm of C. H. Brown, 1 mile west of Shiloh station in sec. 11 in the valley of a small unnamed tributary of Dickinson Creek. The altitude is 670 feet, the depth 24 feet, and the diameter 1 inches. The well was driven in 1904, the material being sand for the first 6 feet and then clay until water-bearing sand was encountered at 24 feet. The head is 3 inches, but in lower places in the same valley many flows could probably be secured with a head of several feet. The flow at the surface is one-fourth gallon a minute. The water is strongly chalybeate, and the screens are clogged and rendered worthless after only a few months' use. WATERWORKS. LAKE ODESSA. The pumping station which supplies water to this village in southern Ionia County is on the shore of Lake Jourdan, which lies southeast of the village. The lake is in a basin surrounded by more or less steep slopes leading up to the gently undulating area on which the village is built. The altitude of the lake is 810 feet; that of the village 840 to 865 feet- or more. Water is supplied from four 6-inch wells from 48 to 52 feet deep, the water standing 3 feet above the lake surface or 813 feet above tide. The direct-pressure system is in operation, and the average daily supply is approximately 175,000 gallons. A careful record of the material overlying the water bed is not available, but all reports place a clay layer of some thickness between the water bed and the surface. The water is from gravel beneath the clay. The surface of Lake Jourdan is much below the general elevation of the surrounding country, and it is doubted whether the flow found near it can be duplicated anywhere in this vicinity. Even at places near the waterworks wells on other parts of the shores of Lake Jourdan flows can not be obtained, the failure being attributed to the fine matri t hfnm ial in which the water is contained and to the small 2-inch pipes which the ï~~IONIA COUNTY. 245 owners use. The present system amply supplies the needs of the village. It was established in 1899. The superintendent is Emerson Pool. MUIR AND LYONS. Muir and Lyons, neighboring villages in eastern Ionia County, are situated, the one on Maple River just before it joins the Grand and the other on Grand River where it turns sharply to the west. Below this point the river follows an old line of glacial drainage. The villages are built partly on the slopes and partly on the floor of Grand River Valley. The water supply at both places is from dug wells 20 to 40 feet deep, the water level being about 12 feet below the surface of the flood plain, on which the business parts of the towns are built. In Muir a public drinking fountain is supplied with water from a spring 20 feet above it on the neighboring bluff to the northwest. The water runs by gravity pressure at the rate of 12 gallons a minute. The village has a population of 750, and has no fire protection. Lyons, with a population of about 880, has a system of fire protection with direct pressure. The pump is operated by waterpower in connection with a gristmill, and is set in motion in a very few minutes. A maximum pressure of 250 pounds may be attained. The pipes extend only along the main street, but are 1,000 feet in length, and give protection to practically all the village on the east side of Grand River. The extension of the mains to the west side of the river is under consideration. PORTLAND. The village of Portland, at the junction of Grand and Lookingglass rivers, in Ionia County, has its water supply from 1 well 32 feet deep, dug in 1889, into the bottom of which 18 feet of pipe has been driven, and from five tubular wells driven in 1900 to a depth of 38 to 43 feet. The wells are at an altitude of 727 feet, and are located on the edge of a terrace bordering the flood plain of Lookingglass River. The water rises within 2 feet of the surface under normal static conditions, but the drafted head is much less. When pumped at the rate of 40,000 gallons an hour, the wells show a lowering of head within one-half hour. A steady drafted head is maintained when the wells are pumped at the rate of 15,000 gallons an hour. The water is pumped into a stone tower, 65 feet above the level of the well heads, which has a capacity of 85,000 gallons. To insure a supply of water under high pressure in case of fire, connection is maintained with the river, and river water may be pumped into the mains. Ian 182-06---17 ï~~246 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The town is growing steadily, and the mains are being extended so rapidly that new sources of supply must be sought. No deep borings have been made, and in the absence of these tests possible deeper supplies may be neglected. Springs along Lookingglass River, one-half mile above the town, are looked to by the townspeople for increasing the supply. The superintendent of the waterworks is Charles Selleck. The original cost of the plant was $13,000, and the approximate amount pumped daily is 250,000 gallons. The following analysis of Portland water was made in 1899 by Prof. R. C. Kedzie: Analysis of water at Portland.a Parts per Parts per million, million. Total solids...................... 357.15 Temporary hardness.............. 57.15 Volatile at red heat (organic)--...... 42. 86 Nitrites....................... None. Mineral matter................... 314.29 Nitrates....................... 21.43 Chlorine......................... 30.00 Free ammonia....................11 Total hardness by soap test--..... 185.72 Albuminoid ammonia.............. 05 Permanent hardness.............. 128.57 Water colorless, odorless, tasteless. Quality good. Relatively large amount of nitrates. Hardness relatively high. Organic matter, containing nitrogen, is nearly oxidized. Small amount of chlorides tends to show the water free from sewage. If the water is boiled it is not so hard, some of the CaCO3 being precipitated by boiling. WATER SUPPLIES OF MONTCALM COUNTY. By ISAIAH BOWMAN. GENERAL STATEMENT. In Montcalm County the writer examined each of the several small flowing-well districts, and also each village and city in which public supplies have been established. The county as a whole is well watered, and, aside from flowing wells and a few deep test borings for coal, the residents have sunk few wells to depths of over 50 feet, and many of the wells are 30 feet or less in depth. FLOWING WELLS. CEDAR LAKE. The basin-like area in which the Cedar Lake flows are obtained is at the head of a tributary of Pine River and is partly encircled by sandy hills, the rainfall of which feeds the flows (see sketch map, fig. 39). The best records of materials penetrated in driving the wells are uncertain, but all agree in recording a thin clay layer about 25 feet below the surface, beneath which the artesian supply is obtained. The wells are all about 30 feet deep. a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~MONTCALM COUNTY. 247 The area has been well developed in its upper part but not in the lower or northern and northwestern part, where more flows can undoubtedly be obtained. The latter section is uncleared and marshy and R.6W therefore uninhabited, so that the full Marsh extent of the area of possible flows is tract not determined.ec4 The diameter of pipe used in nearly all cases is 1 inches. The water of all o. the wells is strongly chalybeate. The. I2.,ZN wells are lettered on the map in the order v,.. of their occurrence from south to north ' * over an area 100 rods long and 20 rods 'se s Sec.25 wide. The first flowing wells were driven Ky 5 about twenty years ago and the others " soon after, except the last one in the table, which was put down in 1900 and yields an Fin. 39.-Relation of Cedar Lake flows which wastputtdownrnp1900nanddyields a excellent flow. The rusting of the pipes to topography and drainage. and clogging by sand makes the other flows irregular at the present time. Wells at Cedar Lake (T. 12 N., R. 6 W.) Letter Se-Owner. Eleva - ater Flow Temperon fig. tion. Owner. tion rises per 39. to- minute. ature. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o F. A 25 Pere Marquette Railroad...................... 864 867 0.75 49.2 I 25 I. N. Collins................................... 864 870 1.25 48.3 J 25....do........................................ 866 867.25 49.2 R 25 D.E. Cole...................................... 859 867 3 48.8 E 25 A. Munn............................... 866 867.12 51.2 L 25 A. D. Jobes...............................t 864 871.25 50.5 F 25 Fred Brink...............................862 865.5 49.7 H 25 Win. Nelson.............................. 864 865.25......... K 25 Village of Cedar Lake........................... 859 865 1 50 Q 25 H. M. Devereaux............................. 859 865 1 51 P 25 Sidney Phippeny............................... 864 868 3 49.2 O 25 A. Pierce................................. 864 867 4 49.1 N 25 W.W. Carroll............................. 864 871.25 56.5 M 24 Sidney Phippeny............................... 854 868 20 48.9 CRYSTAL LAKE DISTRICT. Under Crystal Lake are treated four isolated and apparently unrelated flows in eastern Montcalm County, lying in a line running from the west end of Crystal Lake south to the Pere Marquette Railroad. Near the west end of Crystal Lake in sec. 7, T. 10 N., R. 5 W., is the well belonging to school district No. 7, Crystal Township. It is 2 inches in diameter, 100 feet deep, and barely flows at the surface, which is 777 feet above tide To facilitate getting water a pump has been installed. Attempts to obtain flows on the slightly higher ground elsewhere in the vicinity have been unsuccessful. On the ï~~248 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. shore of the lake flows may be obtainable, but no attempt has been made to secure them. The rapid growth of the little summer colony at the eastern end of the lake suggests that such a well might be profitable to the owner. Ordinary dug-well records show the material in which the water occurs to be a rather fine sand underlying clay with alternating layers of quicksand. At the surface is 16 feet of ordinary coarse sand. The other three flowing wells of the area are extremely shallow, one being 12 feet and two 16 feet in depth. In all three the material penetrated is nearly the same-a few feet of clayey soil, then clay or quicksand to the bottom, where coarse water-bearing gravel is encountered. The wells are all on low ground near brook courses and seem, so far as suggested by the topography, to depend on a very limited catchment area for their supply. The water is strongly impregnated with iron, and the flow, on account of the coating formed on the screen, soon decreases and finally ceases altogether. The pipe is then driven down a few inches with a stone or sledge hammer, which loosens the deposit around the screen and thus restores free circulation, so that the original flow is resumed. On account of the slight depth the total cost of each well was but a few dollars. Wells in Crystal Lake district. Town- Water Flow T n- e Se- Owner. a Depth. rise p er o T ship Range Sea- OWhen Eleva- TemperN. W. tion. On.made. Dep tion. to minute: ature. N.- to- minute: Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons oF. 9 6 12 F. B. Lovett.......... 1900 16 777 779 1 51.5 9 5 6 M. A. De Hart........ 1889 16 784 787.12...... 10 5 30 M. S. Gambee......... 1896 12 804 806 1 52.2 There are many springs in this locality, all yielding iron-impregnated water. The flows in the shallow wells apparently have a source identical with that of the springs. The fine quicksand, even where clay is altogether lacking, offers sufficient resistance to the upward passage of water to permit the maintenance of a low head in the underlying stratum. WHITE FISH LAKE. The single flowing well of C. C. Hartt at White Fish Lake in western Montcalm County (T. 11 N., R. 10 W., sec. 20-A) is of unusual interest in suggesting the possibility of obtaining artesian water in similar localities elsewhere on the shores of the larger morainic lakes, where flows are not usually expected. Steep morainic hills inclose White Fish Lake and ordinary dug-well records show the gradient of the clay and sand layers beneath the surface to be steep also. This, with the particular alternation of material found here, as shown in the carefully kept record below given by Mr. Hartt, favors the possibility of flows: ï~~MONTCALM COUNTY. 249 Record of Hartt well, White Fish Lake. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Fine, yellow, water-bearing sand...................................... 40 40 (This yields a flow at 30 feet, but the material can not be screened.) Blue clay, free from stones and sand............................................ 30 70 Clay and gravel mixed, running into clean water-bearing gravel................ 5 75 The well was driven by the owner in 1899. The temperature is 50.2Â~. The flow is so strong, because of the 20-foot head, that a screen is unnecessary. The 2-inch stream yields about 40 gallons a minute and supplies a small summer village of about 20 families, which have been attracted to the lake partly because of the excellent water. Enough iron, sulphur, and sulphureted hydrogen is contained in the water to make it medicinally valuable, a feature in greater or smaller degree present in most flowing wells in this part of the State. The above constituents were determined through a partial analysis made by Professor Kedzie in 1899. WATERWORKS. CARSON CITY. Carson City is located in the southeastern part of Montcalm County, on the western border of the Riverdale moraine. The district is drained by Fish Creek, a tributary of Maple River. The population of 890 get their water supply from dug and driven wells 12 to 60 feet deep in gravel lying beneath clay. The average depth of the wells in the village is 24 feet, the average distance to water being 20 feet. A village water system was established in 1888 at a cost of $13,000, which supplies water for manufacturing purposes and fire protection at the rate of 20,000 barrels daily. The water is pumped from Fish Creek and conveyed along the principal streets in 6-inch and 8-inch mains which have a total length of 10,824 feet. EDMORE. The Edmore water system was installed in 1880 and uses four 2 -inch driven wells each 60 feet deep. The depth to water is 40 feet and the surface elevation 944 feet. Pumping is not continuous, the pumps being run only four hours daily. The water is pumped into a reservoir with a capacity of 2,600 barrels, which stands sufficiently high above the village to give strong pressure. The system is chiefly for fire protection, the water being used by only about 60 families, and by these chiefly for toilet purposes. The water mains are located only on main streets and have a total length of 2,260 feet, half being of 6-inch and half of 3-inch pipe. The water is very ï~~250 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. hard, and continuous use of a borax compound is apparently the only way to preserve the boilers from scaling. The above data were furnished by H. T. Aldrich, engineer of Edmore pumping station. The dug wells, which supply the greater part of the village water, are from 16 to 40 feet deep in sand and gravel, and as they are frequently in close proximity to cesspools they are a menace to the health of the village, a feature of water supply by no means confined to Edmore. There are no flowing wells in the village. GREENVILLE. Greenville, in southeastern Montcalm County, gets its supply from wells in the valley of Flat River, the pumping station being situated on the flood plain west of the Pere Marquette Railroad bridge. The altitude of the surface at this point is about 800 feet. There is one open brick well, 24 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, connected with nine 6-inch wells 40 feet deep. The water, which is from the same bed in all the wells, stands from 3 to 5 feet below the surface. The material in which the water occurs is sand and gravel, which extends 40 feet below the surface-the depth of the tubular wells. The water bed is limited below by a layer of stony clay. The present system was established in 1888. Its original cost was about $44,000, but the extensions and improvements made since then will increase this amount to a total of $70,000. The Holly directpressure system is in use, pumping on an average for the year 300,000 gallons daily. At present between 400 and 500 families use the public water. Water is delivered and fire protection secured through nearly 10 miles of mains. With a view to an increased flow of water to the pumps and therefore ease of pumping, a deeper 4-inch boring was put down in 1900, 50 feet south of the pumping station, at a cost of $300, by Harvey Gardner, of Birmingham, under the direction of Mr. William S. Shepard, superintendent of the Greenville water system. Mr. Robert Motlet, engineer at the pumping station, furnished the following record: Record of deep boring at waterworks, Greenville. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. White, water-bearing sand.................................................... 42 42 "Hardpan," hard, stony clay.................................................. 2 44 Water-bearing sand and gravel................................................... 10 54 Hard, dry, stony clay........................................................... 45 99 Alternating layers of dry clay and water-bearing gravel, terminated by coarse sand and gravel containing water with greater head than any previously encountered...................................................................67 166 ï~~MONTCALM COUNTY. 251 The water rises to 820 feet above tide, or 20 feet above surface, and the flow is 20 gallons a minute. A high percentage of sulphureted hydrogen and iron gives the water an extremely unpleasant odor and taste, so that it is not used for public supply. Except for its limited use medicinally it is allowed to run to waste into Flat River from the jet fountain which it operates. The position of the waterworks with reference to adjacent slopes and shallow drainage has been well chosen, but the water is all surface water and contamination from near-by sources is not impossible. Danger would be lessened if the wells were driven 5 feet deeper, to the water-bed beneath the hard, stony clay. HOWARD CITY. The flows at Howard City occur near Tamarack Creek, and, as the table shows, they have such a small head that but a short distance back from the creek they can not be obtained. Flowing wells in Howard City (T. 12 N.,R. 10 W.). Sec-Owner. When Depth. Eleva- Wter Flow per Tempertion. made. Depth.tion. toes minute. ature. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o F. 23 Howard City............................ 1903 151 867 874 20 49.9 23 B. J. Lowrey........................... 1898 136 870 874 2 23 C.C. Messenger.......................... 1900 47 871 873.5.... The city well mentioned in the table is only 3 feet above the surface of Tamarack Creek. In driving it two water-bearing strata were encountered-one at 47 and one at 80 feet, with the same head that the deeper one exhibits. The ground water is within 7 feet of the surface throughout the area back from the immediate neighborhood of the creek. The surface sand is 35 feet thick and is underlain by several feet of hard blue clay. The first flow is found under the clay in a gravel layer about 4 feet thick. Blue clay extends below this to the bottom of the well, except for the layer of gravel, bearing artesian water at 80 feet. No further attempts to obtain flows are known to have been made near by along Tamarack Creek. Attempts have been made several miles upstream, but because of insufficient head have not succeeded. The pumping station at Howard City was established in 1890 and furnishes creek water for fire protection and toilet purposes only. The mains are 4, 6, and 8 inches in diameter. On an average 200,000 gallons are pumped daily. The capacity of the pumps is 1,500,000 gallons a day. The engineer is R. A. Smith. The city drinking water is obtained in part from the flowing well at the pumping station, the water being carried in buckets, and in part from ordinary dug wells, which have an average depth of about 35 feet. ï~~252 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. STANTON. The water supply of Stanton, the county seat of Montcalm County, is obtained from two wells dug to a depth of 20 feet, into the bottom of which 10-foot lengths of pipe are driven. Under pumping the water is 1 foot below the surface; the static head is 2 feet above the surface. The water is pumped into two basins-one is built of cement and has a capacity of 90,000 gallons, the other is formed by a wooden curb resting on clay and has a capacity of 7,000 gallons. The daily amount supplied to the village is about 150,000 gallons. The plant was established in 1890 at a cost of about $13,000. Since 1896 an electric lighting plant has been operated in connection with the waterworks. The character of the Stanton water may be better understood from the succession of deposits found here. The surface sand and gravel continue down, becoming increasingly finer to from 20 to 25 feet below the surface, where clay is found having a thickness of about 20 feet-in some places 50 feet. Water-bearing gravel and sand lie beneath the clay and it is chiefly from this source that the village is supplied. The water is artesian and of the quality indicated by the following analysis made by Prof. R. C. Kedzie in 1885: Analysis of water from Stanton artesian well.a Parts per million. Total solids...........................------------------------------------------------------- 296.01 Volatile at red heat (organic)................................. 38 Fixed mineral residue.................................... 258.01 Calcium (Ca)...........................------------------------------------------------------- 68.36 Magnesium (Mg)-----..........................----------------------------------------------- 23.05 Sodium (Na).......................---------------------------------------------------------..79 Chlorine (Cl)..............-----------------------...........---------------------------------. 1.21 Sulphate radicle (SO4)......................................... -----------------.71 Carbonate radicle (CO,) "- --------------------158.89 Silica (SiO2)----------............................----------------------------------------------- 5 258.01 The volatile matter consists chiefly of organized carbon and contains no organic nitrogen (yielding albuminoid ammonia). It contains a slight trace of free ammonia-0.01 per million parts of water. It contains traces of nitrates but no nitrites. In a sanitary view this water is good, with the exception that it is hard. About 25 rods north of the village wells and close to the west side of the railroad track is the well of O. D. Vandebogtt, which is 30 to 35 feet deep and penetrates similar material, the clay bed being a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~MONTCALM COUNTY. 258 thinner at this point. An analysis of the water made in 1886 gave the following results: Analysis of water from Vandebogtt well.a Parts per million. Total solids...............-------------------------------------------------------............... 279. 10 Volatile at red heat-----------------................------------------...-........... --------40 Fixed mineral reside------............................ 239.10 Calcium(Ca)..............------------------------------------------------------.............. 67.58 Magnesium (Mg)--------------.............--------.............------------------------------. 17.29 Sodium (Na).............----------------------------------------..........-----------------.79 Chlorine (Cl)------------.......................-------------------------------------------- 1.21 Sulphate radicle (SO4)----------- --------.29 Carbonate radicle (C03)..............----------------------------------------------............. 142.93 Iron (Fe).............................--------------------------------------------------------- Trace. Silica (SiO2)---- ----------------------------------------------------9 239.09 The temperature of the water is 49.20 F.; altitude, 870 feet; head, 2 feet; flow, 2 gallons per minute; diameter of pipe, 2 inches; driller, James David. The surface water in the vicinity of Stanton continues to the clay layer, and has a variable head, directly related to local rainfall. From the fact that the curb well at the pumping station rests on the clay and that the lowering of the head by pumping prevents the artesian water from counteracting the inflow of the surface water, it will be seen that more or less surface water enters the wells. There is thus a source of contamination, rendered the more easily possible from the fact that the pumping station lies below the village in direct line with the surface drainage, and the danger is augmented by the lack of a sewer system. About the village are numerous springs, differing greatly in mineral properties. Some contain large quantities of lime, others iron, and still others sulphur and magnesia in quantities sufficient to be decidedly laxative in effect. The springs are at the foot of gravel hills and express the concentration of surface waters at gradients too steep to enable the water table to adjust itself quickly enough for a continuance of subsurface flow. Aside from the small area of low ground adjacent to the pumping station, there seems to be no opportunity for the further development of artesian wells in this section. a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~254 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF OTTAWA COUNTY. By ISAIAH BOWMAN. GENERAL STATEMENT. This county, which borders Lake Michigan and was largely covered by the lake after the withdrawal of the ice sheet, has wide areas of sand in which surface wells are obtained at depths of 20 feet or less. Below the sand there is usually a compact clay into which wells may need to penetrate to considerable depths before striking the water-bearing sand and gravel. As yet the deeper water beds have been explored but little. The flowing-well districts lie in the eastern and southern parts of the county, and are associated with morainic ridges which serve as catchment areas, as indicated below. The writer gave attention chiefly to the flowing wells and public supplies of the several towns, and gave only casual attention to other supplies. FLOWING WELLS. CONKLIN DISTRICT. The flows of the Conklin area (see fig. 40) occur near the headwaters of a southeastern tributary of Crockery Creek in the northeastern part of Ottawa County. This R.13 W. NMO RAI NIc tributary drains the intermorainic area S just east of that described in the Coopers-. sec.34 6 ville report, but the stream flows north -Z and around the Coopersville area and reaches Grand River southwest of Coopersville. The flows have been developed ec. Sec. 3 at only a few places in the broad sag between the moraines, and their possible Sextension is unknown. The topography Sof this area is more irregular than that of the intermorainic area west of it, and ec.sec. o consequently the flows are not in such close relation as those at Coopersville. B.Originally the greatest flow was from FIG. 40.-Possible extent of Conklin the well of Mr. John Zimmer, which field over sections where flowing wells yielded 20 gallons a minute when first occur. drilled and had a head of 30 feet. Through deposition on the screen the flow has diminished to onehalf gallon a minute. The other wells have suffered similar but not so great decrease. ï~~OTTAWA COUNTY. 255 Wells in Conklin area (Tps. 8 and 9 N., R. 13 W.). Letter Water Flow L Sec- Owner. When Eleva- r r Temperon fig tion. Owner.made. Depth. tion. tr me ature. 40. to- minute. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. F. A 4 J. Zimmer...................... 1890. 50 842 872 0.5 52.5 B 9 A. Mapes...........-..... 170........................ 170 790..12 53 C 34 S. W. Wright............................... 8321 834.75 51.9 D 34....Do.......................... -........... 853 854.75 51.2 COOPERSVILLE AREAS. The Coopersville flows occur in two areas near the village, in northeastern Ottawa County, each about 200 acres in extent, and on low ground adjoining Deer Creek. (See fig. 41.) The creek drains a very gently rolling, narrow, intermorainic plain, extending roughly in a north-south direction and terminated on the south by Grand River Valley. The influence of the deep Grand River Valley in lowering the waterR.4W. table of the higher contiguous areas is felt some distance up each of the streams. sec.ec Flows are to be expected, therefore, not. near the mouths of short tributary streams - e such as Deer Creek, but some distance 2 c z above the mouth and nearer the source sec._ 3 se z of the stream, the precise location within *_K "the limits thus defined being determined *,. by local relief. The entire catchment basin and valley FIG. 41.-Coopersville flowing wells. of Deer Creek occupy only about 30 square Village is inclosed by broken line; miles. The moderate depth of the wells flowing-well areas are shaded. and their steady increase of head toward the northeast indicate that the subsurface direction of artesian-water movement is from the moraine lying east of the creek. A small catchment area for flows generally results in seasonal fluctuations in the strength of the flow, and probably all the wells in this area have such fluctuation, though only a few observers have noted the fact. Mr. Henry Jackson says that his well flows one-fourth stronger in winter than in summer, "winter" here including much of the spring and autumn. Mr. Jackson furnishes the following record of material penetrated: Record of Jackson well, Coopersville. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Porous clay....................................................................8 8 D ry sand..................................................................... 6 14 Quicksand.....................................................................20 34 Clay with alternating layers of sand containing considerable iron and "lignite": 66 100 Water-bearing sand, becoming coarser with increasing depth.............. 36 136 Water-bearing gravel. ï~~256 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. This water rises to within 15 feet of the surface. The deeper supply failed at the end of six months and the well was dynamited at 100 feet; the pipe was broken and the present flow resulted. Other sections are as follows: Record of Heinz pickle factory well, Coopersville. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. lay.......80 80 Quicksand, water bearing and becoming slightly coarser with increasing depth. 29 109 Record of C. P. Lillie well, Coopersville. Thickness. Total. Surfacesand.Feet. Feet. Surface sand............................................................. 88 Clay with occasional layers of sand, some of which are water bearing-...--........ -142 150 Fine water-bearing sand, becoming coarser with increasing depth................ 10 160 Water-bearing gravel. The cost of drilling this last well was $1 per foot. The Osiah Noble well penetrated clay 112 feet to a bed of water gravel, but ceased to flow one hour after the village well (see table) began to flow. They are but a few hundred feet apart. The flows in a number of wells decreased when the village well was made, in some instances causing serious inconvenience to the owners, as in the case of Alex. Noble and the Heinz Pickle Company. The water from the village wells has until recently been allowed to run to waste. There has been a marked decrease in flow in all the wells of the area as the number of wells has increased, and it will be necessary to enforce the State law against waste of artesian water if this district is to receive the maximum of benefit from its artesian waters. The two flowing-well areas are apparently not parts of the same field or pool, for efforts to secure flows along the creek or the higher ground between them have been unsuccessful. The approximate limits of each area have been defined by borings. The water everywhere is chalybeate and hard, leaving an incrustation with strong iron stain on the pipes. This condition tends to corrode the screens and decrease the flow, in addition to the cause of decrease noted above. The lack of screens in many of the wells tends toward the same result. Repeated sand pumping and the insertion of new screens have been temporary remedies. ï~~OTTAWA COUNTY. 257 Wells at Coopereville (T. 8 N., R. 14 W.). LetterwneWater Flow Sec- Owner. When Depth. Eleva- r Temper41. tion. made. tion. to- minute. ature. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o F. A 23 Village of Coopersville......... 1903 92 622 646 3 51.9 B 13 L. Terry...................... 1904 182 658 690 3 51.2 C 24 S. Fynewever................... 160 658 659.12. D 13 H. Jackson..................1895 100 668 683.05......... E 23 C. P. Lillie..................... 1904 166 640 644 1.......... F 2o Mr. Parker.......................... 335 642 645................ G 23 Heinz pickle factory.................. 109 637 650.06.......... H 13 Peck trothers................1899 203 644 644............. I 23 0. Noble-................... 1898 113 640 646 4.......... J 23 Alex. Noble................... 1892 94 638 641.1......... K 23 Miss Hamilton...................6 5..0................... L 24 Henry Lake.................. 1903 204 658 656............. DRENTHE AREA. The first three flows in the table below *have hydrographic relations somewhat different from those of the rest of the flows in this section, and are therefore discussed separately. They occur on Drenthe Creek at the border between the moraine and the till plain, which extends south and southwest from the central part of Zeeland Township into Fillmore Township, Allegan County. They belong to that class of flows which have their catchment area in a moraine, and are made possible by the erosion, in this case slight, which the streams have effected, this erosion having worn down the surface to a level lower than that to which artesian water will rise. East of the flows the moraine offers, by its gentle slopes and in places sandy nature, a good opportunity for the imbibition of the rain water that supplies the wells. Ter Haar reports clay in his well for the first 85 feet followed by water-bearing gravel. The following section for C. Verhulst's well is similar: Record of C. Verhulst well, Drenthe. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay............................................................... et90 90 H ardpan........................................................................ 2 92 Soft clay or quicksand..-.................................................... 5 97 Water-bearing gravel...-.................................................... 11 108 All other wells in this vicinity are from 90 to 100 feet deep, but being on slightly higher ground, do not flow. In many cases the water-bearing material, which is often a fine sand, can not be screened well enough to allow pumping directly from the pipe. The owners have adjusted their methods to meet this condition and built reservoirs 10 to 15 feet deep, into the bottoms of which pipes are driven down to the water bed. The bottoms of the reservoirs are below the ï~~258 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. head of the water, which thus flows into the reservoir. This arrangement gives a greater supply of water in case of fire than would otherwise be possible. The flow in all the wells has decreased, a condition attributed by the owners to the clogging of the pipes and the rusting of the screens. The water is hard and contains a great deal of iron. Relations of flows and relief similar to those at Drenthe may be found along the other streams south of Drenthe at points where a line drawn from Drenthe to Overisel intersects the drainage lines. Wells near Drenthe (T. 5 N., R. 14 W.). LetterWae t See- wner. When Elev a- Water Flow per Temperf ig. tion. Owner, made. Depth. tion. toes minute. ature. 42. to-_ Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. Â~F. A 27 Drenthe Canning Co........... 1889 100 642 j 644 1 52.2 B 27 TerHaar-------------------...................... 1889 93 -.--- _ 2.5......5. C 27 c. verhulst-----------------.................... 1897 108 632 --- - 1 51.9 BEAR CREEK AREA. One mile south of Forest Grove, in southeastern Ottawa County, is another group of flows in the valley of the northernmost tributary of Bear Creek. Their occurrence within the moraine noted above and not on plains at the border of moraines is unique. They are T.5 N., R.14W. T.5 N., R.13W. 27 2 6 30 '29 2 27 A\ Drenthe e, 34 35 36 31 32 33 34 FIG. 42.-Map of Bear Creek and Drenthe flowing-well districts. found in a basin shaped by the ice, whose slopes are sufficiently long and steep to favor the development of artesian flows. The sections are not unlike those at Drenthe, given above, and the water is strongly chalybeate. Record of Edward Kropschot well, Bear Creek Valley. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay........................................................................... 3 0 30 Hardpan...................................................................... 1 31 Sand, too fine to permit low............................................... 39 70 ï~~OTTAWA COUNTY. 259 Record of Albert Karsten well, Bear Creek Valley. Thickness. Total. i Clay........................................................... W ater-bearing sand............................................................ Feet. Feet. 35 21 35 37 Surface water in pockets of sand in the clay supplies wells where flows can not be obtained. The extent of this flowing-well area has not been determined because of the small number of borings. However, it is unlikely that it will be extended much farther. Wells near Bear Creek (T. 5 N., R. 13 W.). Letter Secon fig. tion. 42. Owner. A 29 Ed. Kropschot............... B 32 H. Strick..................... C 32 B. Schreur..................... D 32 Thos. Palmbus............... E 33 A. Karsten................... F 33 George Nash.................. G 27 K. Closter.................... When Depth. Eleva- Water Flow per Tempermade. Depth.tion. ristoes minute. ature. toFeet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o F. 1901 73 648 660 0.2 52.2........ 15 658 659.5 1902 26 645 660 12.5 52 1904 37 635 637.12 53 1903 37 650 652.25 51.1 27 655 660.16 52.5 1903 38 653 661 2. 5 52 HARRISBURG AREA. The flows at Harrisburg occur in an area of 1 or 2 square miles extent along the southern and eastern side of the main branch of Crockery Creek (fig. 43). They are obtained only on this side of the creek, and show increase of head toward the east in the direction of FIG. 43.-Location of flowing wells at Harrisburg, Ottawa County. Area of probable flows is shaded. the moraine, which bounds them on that side. They occur on a flat clayey plain, through which Crockery Creek flows rather sluggishly. The water of the whole area is strongly chalybeate. The material encountered here is shown by the record furnished by Mr. Gilbert. ï~~260 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Record of Gilbert well, Harrisburg. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay, no stones, occasional pockets of water-bearing sand, which supply dug wells of the area..............................................................28 28 Coarse water-bearing gravel. Flow begins directly beneath clay, but being at first from somewhat finer material increases with depth................... 42 70 Peat. The flowing well on the Sherk estate is described as having a peculiar origin. A dug well furnished water for the farm until about seven years ago, when a break occurred in the clay bottom and the present flow began. The same conditions are reported in a few other places in the State. The area has been tested well enough for the determination of the limits of flow, but many more flows could be obtained within those limits. The water is used for general farm purposes, and much of it allowed to run to waste. Wells at Harrisburg (T. 9 N., R. 13 W.). Letter Water n Sec- Whe Depth. Eleva- tr Flow pert Temperg.tion. Owner made. pth.tion. torises minute. ature. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. o F. A 5 A. Bodell...................... 1897 72 695 700 1.5 50.9 B 8 W. H. Harrison.............. 1894 90 707 711 1.5 50.5 C 7 Wm. De Valve................. 1897 60 655 661 2 50.5 D 8 Jos. Gilbert.................. 1884 42 702 714 6 54.2 E 4 Sherk estate.................. 1884 22 718 720 4 51.2 WATERWORKS. GRAND HAVEN. Two separate water plants supply Grand Haven with water, one being owned and operated by the city and the other by a private company. The latter, called the Grw.d Haven Water Company, is the outgrowth of an earlier organization, which was established in 1884 as an independent company. The Grand Haven Water Company pumping station is in the eastern part of the city; the municipal plant is in the western part: both are on the banks of Grand River. The city also has sunk a deep boring for the purpose of obtaining artesian water. The following record of the strata found was furnished by Dr. A. C. Lane: ï~~OTTAWA COUNTY. 261 Record of Grand Haven artesian well. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand........................................................................... 25 25 Coarse gravel................................................................... 15 40 Stiff blue clay......................-.......................................... 6 46 Soft clay mixed with gravel and sand----------------------------------------........................................... 24 70 Hard blue clay.................................................................. 95 165 Hard yellow clay mixed with gravel and sand.................................. 16 181 H ard blue clay.................................................................. 16 197 Red sandstone................................................................. 6 203 R ed clay......................................................................... 5 208 Black shale with occasional very thin layers of limestone....................... 278 486 Gray limestone....-.......................................................... 1 487 Dark shale with thin limestone layers-........................................ 35 522 Light shale with thin limestone layers........................................ 24 546 Hard blue limestone............................................................ 8 552 Sand and limestone, water very salty......................................... 6 558 Dark-gray sandstone........................................................... 8 566 Sand and limestone mixed, water very salty and increasing.................... 22 588 Unreported...................................................................... 12 600 The 72 driven wells of the Grand Haven Water Company are 5 inches in diameter and about 28 feet deep. There are also two open wells 12 feet in diameter and 28 feet deep. The normal level of water is 12 feet below the surface and the pumped level 15 feet below. The elevation of the surface above the river is 24 feet, or 605 feet above sea level, and the distance from the river is 500 feet. The direct-pressure system of pumping is used. The mains have diameters of 12 to 6 inches and a total length of 84 miles. About 375,000 gallons are supplied daily, the capacity of the pumps being 1,500,000 gallons. The material penetrated in putting down the wells is as follows, the supply being from the gravel above the clay: Record of Water Company wells, Grand Haven. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Ordinary sand becoming coarser with increasing depth...................... 24 24 W ater-bearing gravel..........................................................4 28 Blue clay, no stones. The city pumping station is in part supplied with water from one bricked dug well 24 feet deep and 30 feet in diameter, in which the water stands about 12 feet below the surface. Its natural level is from 11 to 15 inches above the river, which is about 75 feet away. The material is fine dune sand at the surface, changing rapidly to coarse sand and then to fine gravel. Three feet below the bottom of the well, or 27 feet below the surface, is a very obstinate layer of hardpan, which appears in the bed of Grand River and renders drilling or spile driving difficult. The spiles used have i be tipped with steel, as those solely of wood are splintered when driven down to the hardpan. The water comes into the dug well from the land side, and not from the river side. IIR 182-06--18 ï~~2642 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The other wells are tubular-45 are 4-inch and 8 are 8-inch. The water level and the material are the same as in the dug well. The wells are all arranged parallel with the river bank and extend over a distance of 250 to 300 yards. The direct-pressure system is in use. On an average for the year 750,000 gallons are pumped daily, the capacity of the pumps being 1,500,000 gallons. The elevation of the wells is about 10 feet above the level of Lake Michigan, or 591 feet above tide. The mains are 12, 10, 8, 6, and 4 inches in diameter. The two following analyses show the character of the water supplied from the city pumping station: Analysis of water from Grand Haven waterworks. Parts per million. Total solids.......................------------------------------------------------------- 148 Volatile solids........................------------------------------------------------------. 40 Fixed solids.........................-------------------------------------------------------. 108 Nitrogen as free ammonia----------....................... None. Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia................................ 04 Nitrogen as nitrites........------------------------------------..--------------......... None. Nitrogen as nitrates......................---------------------------------------------------. 3.20 Chlorine in chlorides........................------------------------------------------------- 17 Turbidity, none. Sediment, slight. Color, faint opalescent. Odor, none. A pure and wholesome water, free from all objectionable elements and suspicious bacteria. J. N. Hurty, Indianapolis, analyst, November 19, 1898. Doctor Hurty says further: The water contains iron, and in the warm summer months certain minute vegetable growths which are perfectly harmless get started in the water. They flourish in the bends and dead ends or other quiet places in the pipes, and when considerable in amount break loose and are drawn out in the faucets. These plants have a great liking for iron and have the power to extract it from water. They are so very small that in the aggregate they appear like slime, and when mixed with iron the mass is not inviting. The musty od6r is imparted by the plants just as an onion odor would be imparted by onions or a turnip odor by turnips. The name of the plant in your sample is Crenothrix Kuhniana. It is as harmless as turnip, but is objectionable on account of the musty odor which it imparts and which is characteristic of the plant. The plant might be gotten rid of by aeration and filtration. Aeration would probably precipitate the iron, and if it did filtration through sand would remove the iron so precipitated. Whether aeration would precipitate the iron or not, would have to be determined by experiment. Analysis of water from Grand Haven waterworks.a Parts per million. Total solids..........................--------------------------------------------------------------. 150 Volatile at red heat (organic). - -..............-........... 48. 57 Mineral residue after ignition-............................... 101.43 Calcium (Ca)--......................--------------------------------------------------------... 32.03 Sodium (Na).............--------------------------------------------------------.... 4.61 Magnesium (Mg)..................-------------------------------------------------------.... 2.79 a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~OTTAWA COUNTY. 263 Parts per million. Carbonate radicle (CO)..----------............................ 54.89 Chlorine (Cl)---.-------------------------------------------------------.......... 7. 10 Ammonia (free)...------------------------------------------------------...... 05 Albumninoid ammonia ---------------------------------------------........ 03 Colorless, tasteless, odorless. Bacteriological tests show absence of disease germs. Quality excellent for potable use. R. C. Kedzie, of the Michigan Agricultural College, analyst, October 8, 1898. COOPERSVILLE. The village pumping station is a few feet above the flood plain of Deer Creek, 15 or 20 feet below the even till plain on which the village stands and in which th creek is incised. The present system, including the wells, pumps, reservoir, and 2.6 miles of mains, was installed in 1903, at a cost of $14,000. The pumps have 12 feet of suction and a capacity of 30,000 gallons. Up to the autumn of 1904 creek water was pumped through the mains, giving fire protection to the whole village, besides furnishing 55 families with water for washing and toilet purposes; but in the spring of 1904 two 90-foot artesian wells were installed, yielding a flowing pressure of 40 pounds to the square inch at the surface, and their water was substituted for that of the creek. A cement brick reservoir, 20 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep, with the top at the level of the well head, is being built. Into this the water is to flow, and is then to be pumped into the stand tower to run by gravity into the mains. The substitution of potable for creek water is expected to increase the number of consuming families to about 150. Superintendent Horling gives the following careful record of material penetrated. Other data may be found in the table of wells. Record of village well at Coopersville. Thickness.. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay and peat................................................................ 10 10 Micaceous quicksand-----------------------------------------------------............................................................ 2 12 Blue clay--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 10 22 Quicksand...--- -................................................................. 2 24 Conglomerate ("hardpan")..................................................... 4 28 Coarse, water-bearing sand...................................................... 6 34 Blue clay with occasional layers of sand......................................... 50 84 Fine water-bearing sand, bearing a high percentage of muscovite-mica scales... 12 92 HOLLAND. The city of Holland, with a population in 1900 of 7,790, is located in the southwest corner of Ottawa County at the head of Black Lake, 5 miles from the shore of Lake Michigan. The sandy plain on which it is built is terminated on the east and south by a moraine, and on the west is surmounted by several long lines of sand dunes ï~~264 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. actively growing near the lake shore, but inactive farther inland. Penetrating to the border of the rich and extensive farming region which centers in Holland, the long and narrow Black Lake is navigable for all lake craft and gives Holland commercial advantages surpassed by but few lake ports. The public water supply is derived from wells at two different stations, one on Nineteenth street, the other on Fifth street. The water is raised by electrically driven triplex pumps, motive power being supplied by an electric-light plant owned and operated by the city. This plant is located on Fifth street not far from the head of Black Lake. Near it are 4 open dug wells 25 feet deep and having about 20 feet of water. At the Nineteenth street pumping station are 6 tubular wells 25 feet deep, siphoning into an open brick and cement well 40 feet in diameter and 29 feet deep, to which they are located radially. Three of the wells are 5 inches and three are 4 inches in diameter. The siphon lines are 8 inches in diameter and are started by suction from the pumps. During the year ending March 21, 1904, the total amount pumped from the main station on Fifth street was 98,500,000 gallons, and from the Nineteenth street'station over 104,500,000, making a total of over 203,000,000 gallons. The average amount pumped daily was 557,000 gallons, which is nearly 70 gallons daily per capita. The total number of taps installed is 1,095, of which 1,032 are in active service. Of the water meters in service 818 are g-inch, 16 are 1-inch, 9 are 1-inch, 4 are 41-inch, 4 are 3-inch, 2 are 2-inch, and 1 is 4-inch, making a total of 854. There are 108,809 feet, or about 21 miles, of water mains, ranging from 14-inch down to 2-inch, about half being 6-inch. The standpipe is 18 feet in diameter and 130 feet high and has a capacity of 247,000 gallons. The total cost of operating during 1903, including salaries of employees, fuel, repairs, and sundries, was $7,780. The total cost to date is $134,000 and the estimated present value is $118,000. The yearly increase in the consumption of water is large, and there has been apprehension lest in the dry summer months, when the head of water falls off 7 or 8 feet, there might be a serious shortage in the supply. In the attempt to secure deeper sources a tubular well was sunk to a depth of 111 feet in 1903 at the Nineteenth street pumping station, and water found which rose 5 feet above the surface. The superintendent, Mr. James De Young, estimated that with a 20-foot screen 50,000 gallons could be drawn from this well daily. Unfortunately, the water is strongly saline and unsuitable for public supply. ï~~OTTAWA COUNTY. 265 The following record of material penetrated is supplied by Mr. De Young: Record of flowing well at waterworks, Holland. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Medium beach sand........................................................... 29 29 Blue clay without stones, but gravelly for the first 3 feet....................... 60 89 Stony clay................................................................... 22 111 Very sharp gravel, water hearing, mixed with silt. In the southern part of the city is the flowing well of Benjamin Walter, over 100 feet deep, on ground slightly higher thati Nineteenth street, and also yielding saline waters. The flow from this well is one-eighth gallon a minute, the temperature 530 F., and the head 8 or 9 feet. It was drilled by Edward Riemink in 1896, the same succession of material being encountered as in the Nineteenth street well. It appears, in view of the foregoing, that unless a suitable supply of water is found at greater depths than these saline flowing wells, or is obtained from remote sources, the shallow-well system will have to be extended. Southeast of Nineteenth street station is an open tract of land available to the city. If this is purchased and kept clear of dwellings, it may yield a pure supply sufficient for some years. Eventually the city may find it necessary to draw its supply from Lake Michigan, which, fortunately, is near enough to be reached without great expense. The following partial analysis of the public water supply at Holland has been furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. The supply is from about ten wells sunk to an average depth of 30 feet. Partial analysis of well water at Holland. Parts per million. Color...........-------------------------------------------------------------........... 19 Iron (Fe).............-------------.........--------------------------------------------......... _Trace. Chlorine (Cl)...........----------------------.......--------------------------------. 1.5 Carbon dioxide (CO2)........... -------------------------........... 58.04 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)................................................ 25 Hardness (as CaCO3)-----..........................-------------------------------------------. 139 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 30 feet. ZEELAND. The village of Zeeland is in southeastern Ottawa County, about 12 miles from the shore of Lake Michigan. The Zeeland Light and Water Company's present system was established in 1902 at a cost of $20,000, not including the cost of the mains. About 225,000 ï~~266 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. gallons of water a day are supplied to about 100 families besides six different factories and mills. The water is obtained from two brick-curb wells 20 feet deep and 14 feet in diameter, which were dug in 1890. The level of the water is 8 feet below the surface, and is not affected by pumping 2,000 gallons a minute. The capacity of the two compound duplex pumps in use is 1,500,000 gillons a day. The direct-lpressure system is used. There are 31 miles of mains with a diameter of.6 inches, but these will soon be replaced by 8-inch mains, being inadequate to supply the growing demand for water. There is at present no map of the mains. The wells are located off the main street in Zeeland. Near them Pre the cesspools and privies common to smaller villages. The supply of water is wholly from the surface and would seem to be particularly liable to contamination, though the surface is quite flat and subsurface drainage is slow. The present system has been in use only two years, and the increased pumping seems likely to drain a larger and larger area around the wells, and so increase the danger of pollution. No chemical or hygienic analysis of the water has been made, so far as known. The water should be subjected to frequent analysis, and deeper sources of supply should be sought and substituted. MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF WELL WATERS. By ISAIAH BOWMAN. Analyses of water from wells in Clinton, Ottawa, lonia, Montcalm, and Newaygo counties. [Parts per million.] SSec- Quar- Town or district. Well. Owner. Hard- Chlo- Alka0 ntion. ter.ohess. rine. linity. 7 2 12 SE. Ovid.............. Public.... Municipal...... 130.9 2.500 150 9 2 27 SW. Eureka district._... _lowing.. W. C. Baylis.. 154.7.816 7 8 3 3 NW. Essex township..... do.... Z. Wyman...... 178.5.170 6 7 3 3 NE. St. Johns district.......do.... G. Feightung... 226.1.067 125 8 14 24 NW. Coopersville district...do.... S. Tynewever... 107.1.600 66 9 13 7 NW. Harrisburg district...do.... W. DeValve.... 83.3.301 50 5 14 27 SE. Drenthe district.........do.... Drenthe Can- 178.5.300 53.5 ning Co. 11 11 31 SE. Ensley district.........do.... School district 77.35.335 120 No. 9. 5 8 3 SW. Clarkville district.....do.... Parsonage...... 95.2.248 77 9 8 9 SE. Greenville.............do.... Municipal...... 71.4.335 127.5 8 8 11 NW. Belding................. do.... H. Leonard... 107.1.167 110 12 10 26 SE. Howard City...........do.... Municipal...... 142.8.330 105 12 6 21 SW. Edmore-...................... do.......... 47.6.300 150 Isaiah Bowman, analyst. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 267 WATER SUPPLIES OF KENT COUNTY. By JOHN F. NELLIST. DRAINAGE AND WATER POWER. The surface water supply of Kent County embraces four rivers and their small affluents, numerous springs, and an extensive artesian district which gets its supply from the Marshall sandstone. Strong wells are obtained in drift, some of those in the valleys being artesian. Grand River, the main stream of the county, enters the county on the east side and flows for 37 miles across it, making a long bend to the north and returning to the west side on its way to the lake. This river has within the county a fall of less than a foot to the mile except at the rapids in the city of Grand Rapids, where it falls about 17 feet over limestone ledges in less than one-half mile. A dam was placed at the head of the rapids about 1836, and canals dug on both sides of the river to supply mills. A town, which grew up around these mills, has developed into the flourishing city of Grand Rapids with 100,000 inhabitants and a world-famous furniture industry, the result of its water power and timber resources. The river has a valley about 150 feet deep cut by a stream flowing from the receding ice sheet. The width is over a mile, and the valley is marked by terraces and islands. The minimum flow in the last three years, since the gage statiorn was established at Grand Rapids, was 1,885 second-feet; the maximum flow during the extreme flood of March 24-30, 1904, was 39,400 second-feet. This flood was 19.30 feet above low-water mark, the danger line being at 10.73 feet, as determined by Fred Schneider, section director of United States Weather Bureau. The tributaries of Grand River in Kent County are Flat, Thornapple, and Rouge rivers. Flat River, emptying into it from the north at Lowell, is a stream of remarkable steadiness of flow due to its many lake tributaries and porous soil. It has a drainage area of 610 square miles and a mininrum flow of 215 second-feet, as measured by R. J. M. Danley in September, 1899, and by the writer in September, 1904. Its rapid fall of some 8 feet to the mile has been extensively used for power, four plants being located in Kent County. The Lowell dam is used for local mills. The two plants of the Grand Rapids Edison Company of 300 and 1,000 horsepower, respectively, transmit power to Grand Rapids by high-power electric transmission. Still farther up the valley is the old Fallasburg dam not now in use. Thornapple River has a drainage of 824 square miles and a minimum flow of 155 second-feet, as measured by L. W. Anderson in September, 1899. The small minimum flow per square mile (less than half that of Flat River) is due to the rapid run-off in the wet ï~~268 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. season, there being few lake basins to act as reservoirs and much' impervious clay soil. It has several power plants, one owned by Wesley N. Hyde, of Grand Rapids, being located at Labarge, and supplying electric power to neighboring villages; another at Alaska is used to run a sawmill; another, purchased by Grand Rapids parties, is at Cascade, where they propose to build a 20-foot dam; and another at Ada is used to drive a gristmill. The average fall is about 4 feet to the mile. River Rouge has a drainage area of 230 square miles and a minimum flow of 110 second-feet, as measured by Otto Krause, September, 1902 and 1904. Two power plants are located on this stream, one at Rockford supplying current for lighting the village, pumping its water, and running a shoe factory and another at Childsdale used to run a paper mill. The fall of this river is only a few inches to the mile except in the last 6 miles of its course. It has the largest flow in proportion to its drainage basin of any river in Kent County. WATERWORKS. GRAND RAPIDS. The chief water supply of Grand Rapids for domestic and various other purposes is obtained from Grand River. It is pumped to a low-service reservoir one-half mile east of the river on a bluff 177 feet above city datum and to a high-service standpipe located at the same place at an elevation of 256 feet. A new standpipe of concrete is being erected in the southern part of the city at an elevation of.206 feet to supply that district. The city had, in 1904, a daily consumption of 14,000,000 gallons. The pumps consist of one Holly of 10,000,000 gallons capacity for the low service and a Norburg engine of 15,000,000 gallons capacity for the high service. Two old Butterworth and Lowe engines are kept in reserve, but are not in regular use. There are 152 miles of mains in use, as follows: Water mains at Grand Rapids. Diameter Length in Diameter Length in in inches. miles. in inches. miles. 36 0- 019 12 14. 723 24 1.660 10 7.045 20 1.853 8 19.811 18 -.749 6 56. 754 16 6.088 4 40.556 14.239 The total cost of the water-works up to April 30, 1904, was $1,505,521. The income for the year 1904 was $127,897. A small supply of water has been furnished to the northeastern part of Grand Rapids by a private concern known as the Hydraulic ï~~KENT COUNTY. Company, which must soon go out of business, as its charter was repealed by the State legislature in 1905. This company has a few miles of pipe and a pumping station one-half mile north of the city limits, which draws from a well on the bank of the river. On account of the large number of cases of typhoid fever in the city each year, there has arisen a prejudice against the present supply from Grand River. Several new sources have been suggested, among which three are prominent: Bailey Springs, supplemented by filter beds for Grand River; Flat River, and Lake Michigan. Bailey Springs is situated 3 miles north of the city and has a groundwater drainage area of some 14 square miles, nearly all the water of which can be intercepted by a conduit 4,000 feet long laid along the east bank of the river below the level of the river bed. It is estimated that a supply of from 7,000,000 to 10,000,000 gallons a day can be thus collected. With sand filters at Grand River for the additional supply a sufficient amount of pure water could be obtained. The cost of establishing this system is estimated at $700,000. A gravity system from Flat River can be obtained by going 35 miles northeast of the city, where the water is 330 feet above city datum. The plans embrace building a concrete conduit of 12 miles from the source to Silver and Bostwick lakes, which are 265 feet above city datum and which have storage capacity for one hundred days consumption, or 2,500,000,000 gallons. From these storage reservoirs to Grand Rapids steel pipe could be used and connected to the present system at a net head 10 feet above the present system. A plan to draw from Lake Michigan has been proposed by A. C. Sekell, of Grand Rapids. It calls for (1) a pipe line 27 miles long, leading directly west from the city; (2) a storage reservoir about 1 mile from the city limits on the west bluff of Grand River; (3) a 4-foot steel-riveted pipe laid to the pumping station on the shore of the lake where collecting mains would be distributed parallel with the lake shore and wells sunk in batteries below the level of the lake bottom, so that the ground water would be intercepted. This system, with gas producers and gas-engine pumping units, could be built for $1,100,000, and would have a capacity of 35,000,000 gallons a day. Engineers Hazen and Gray were employed in 1899 to make a report on additional water supply for the city, and, after a thorough survey of all the sources, recommended the placing of sand filters about 2 miles above the present station, at a cost of $1,062,000, to supply the immediate needs of the city and the adding of filters as they should be required. ï~~270 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. MICHIGAN SOLDIERS ' HOME. The Soldiers' Home is located near the northern limits of Grand Rapids. Maj. E. B. Taylor, adjutant at the home, reports as follows concerning the water supplies and equipment in March, 1906: You are informed that this home has a waterworks system of its own entirely independent of any municipal system. The supply is from three sources: First, from three springs, which are used by this home for drinking and cooking purposes; second, from what is known as "Soft Water Lake," the water from which is used for the boilers; third, from a pond made by damming Lamberton Creek, the water from which is used for sprinkling purposes and fire protection. Our pumping plant consists of one pump of a capacity of 15,000 gallons, one of 20,000 gallons, one of 30,000 gallons, and one fire pump of 500,000 gallons per day. From 700 to 1,250 persons are supplied, according to the membership of this home at various times of the year. ROCKFORD. Rockford, situated on the banks of River Rouge, has a municipal water system consisting of a tank of 3,000 gallons capacity, situated on a hill west of the village. The distributing system consists of 1,350 feet of 8-inch, 2,310 feet of 6-inch, 6,270 feet of 4-inch, and 1,000 feet of 2-inch, mains. Cast-iron pipes are laid in the principal streets. The pumps and pipe are owned by the village, and the pumps are operated by electric-motor current furnished under contract by Hirth, Krause & Co. The daily consumption is 216,000 gallons. An ordinary pressure of 60 pounds and a fire pressure of 100 pounds is carried. The plant cost $11,200. SPARTA. Sparta is supplied by a system owned by the Welch Folding Bed Company, which consists of a tank of 3,000 gallons capacity and a cast-iron pipe distributing system of 1,200 feet of 7-inch, 1,880 feet of 6-inch, and 5,280 feet of 4-inch, mains. The supply is obtained from Sparta Creek, and a fire pressure of 75 pounds is carried. LOWELL. The village of Lowell is supplied with water by a system consisting of 20 2-inch wells pumped to a reservoir of 3,000 gallons capacity, which stands on a hill east of the village. The distributing system consists of 9,240 feet of 8-inch, 9,200 feet of 6-inch, 7,020 feet of 4-inch, 2,310 feet of 23-inch, and 1,450 feet of 1-inch, mains. The 2.- and 1-inch pipes are of wrought iron; the others are cast iron. The system is owned and operated by the Grand Rapids Edison Company, and was built by A. C. Sekell in 1893. FLOWING WELLS. There are several flowing-well districts obtaining supplies from the drift and one obtaining them from the rock. The writer investigated the rock district and five of those which obtain supplies from the drift, and Mr. Bowman the two others (pp. 274-276). ï~~KENT COUNTY. 271 CANNON TOWNSHIP. Near the point where Bear Creek opens into Grand River Valley in Cannon Township (T. 8 N., R. 10 W.) a single flowing well has been obtained in the NW. -, sec. 29. It is at an altitude of 700 feet, or about 80 feet above the river, but the bordering uplands rise above 800 feet. The well is 150 feet deep, mainly through bowlder clay. It has been running about ten years and has nearly stopped flowing. Probably a narrow strip along Bear Creek Valley and the neighboring part of Grand River Valley would yield flows, but no tests have as yet been made. ADA TOWNSHIP. In a recess on the east side of Grand River Valley in sec. 9, Ada Township (T. 7 N., R. 10 W.), are 2 flowing wells with a surface altitude of 720 feet, or about 100 feet above the river. They are each 184 feet deep, mainly through clay, and are about exhausted. It seems probable that flows may be obtained in the neighboring low bottoms of Grand River Valley, and perhaps this district is connected with the Cannon district. SPARTA. At Sparta village, in T. 9 N., R. 12 W., several wells formerly flowed, but have now entirely stopped, apparently because of exhaustion of the field. The wells were all very shallow, and the general lowering of the ground-water level may account for their cessation. PARIS TOWNSHIP. In an abandoned valley forming a line of glacial drainage in the western part of Paris Township (T. 6 N., R. 11 W.) are 2 wells located in NW. 1 sec. 29 that are only 13 feet deep. They are at an altitude of 680 feet and the water rises just even with the surface. The material is blue clay down to a water-bearing gravel overlying the limestone. The water is rather soft and is bottled and sold in Grand Rapids for drinking purposes under the name of "Ponce de Leon water." It has been used commercially since 1848. An analysis by John De Boe follows: Analysis of Ponce de Leon water. Parts per million. Calcium carbonate........----------.........---------------------.... -123.12 Calcium sulphate----------.........-------.---------.........----------------------- Trace. Sodium chloride.................---------------------------------------------------- Trace. Organic matter------.........-------------------------------.........--------------- 30 Total solids............----------------------------......-...------------------------- 153. 564 Nitrites..............--------------------........---------------------------------------. None. Nitrates......................------------------------------------------------------------- 422 Free am m onia...................................................... 015 Albuminoid ammonia... -....................-..-.-....... 022 Total hardness, 7. 2. ï~~272 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. BELMONT. At a hotel in Belmont, in T. 8 N., R. 11 W., there is a flowing well 100 feet in depth, with a surface altitude of 660 feet and a flow of 2 gallons a minute. It carries considerable iron. Belmont is situated in a recess in the north bluff of Grand River near the mouth of River Rouge. It is probable that flows may be obtained elsewhere in this low tract and perhaps for some distance up River Rouge Valley. GRAND RIVER VALLEY DISTRICT. From the north line of Grand Rapids to a point several miles down the river there are flowing wells penetrating in some cases to the Marshall sandstone and obtaining a flow of water sufficiently fresh to be suitable for drinking. They pass through the salt- and gypsumbearing beds of the lower Grand Rapids group, which, as indicated below, was at an early date tested for brine. Most of the wells in the northeastern part of Grand Rapids, however, have been abandoned on account of the brine which has permeated from these old salt wells down into the Marshall sandstone. Below the Marshall sandstone the water again becomes more saline. Care must therefore be taken in sinking to case out the upper salt water and to stop drilling before reaching the lower salt water. In this district the surface altitude is within a few feet above or below 600 feet. The largest well is located in the Hermitage basement, corner of Canal and Bridge streets. It is 8 inches in diameter, 385 feet in depth, and flows at a pressure of about 3 pounds. The temperature of the water is 500 F. At Eagle Hotel a well 209 feet deep has some brine in it. At the Widdicomb Block is a well furnishing the sole water supply for the establishment. At the county jail there has been a flowing well, but no data were obtained as to its present condition. The Leonards refrigerator works at the corner of Market and Railroad streets have two wells, one plugged, the other used for fire protection. The water is unfit for boiler use. The wells are 245 feet deep; one is 5 inches, and the other 7 inches in diameter. In the basement of the Rindge Kalmbach Block, corner of Ionia and Fulton streets, is a flowing well only 33 feet deep with 13 feet of earth and 20 feet of rock. It flows about 1 gallon a minute and is used for drinking purposes. In the basement of the Weatherly & Pulte Block, near the corner of lonia and Pearl streets, is another flowing well whose water is used for drinking. The Furniture City Brewing Company has a 6-inch well, drilled in 1904, 170 feet deep, in which the water rises to within 5 feet of the surface. At the Grand Rapids gas works and the Wallin tannery are flowing wells. There is also one on a vacant lot at the corner of Shawmut and Gold streets. The Luce Furniture Company has a well at the factory on Godfrey avenue. ï~~KENT COUNTY. 273 The Alabaster Company have three wells at their factories southwest of the city. The Pere Marquette Railroad shops have a new 5-inch well 165 feet deep, flowing 1,500 gallons an hour. At the tollgate at forks of road to Grandville is a well flowing a weak stream. Between the wells just mentioned and Grandville is an interval of 2 miles in which no borings have been made, but conditions seem to be as favorable for obtaining flowing wells as in neighboring districts above and below. FIG. 44.-Plat of Grandville, Kent County, showing distribution of flowing wells. Grandville uses no other supply than its flowing wells. There arc ten wells within the village limits, two on the Grandville road onefourth mile east of the village, and two one-half mile south. Some of these wells are 5- and 6-inch, and are capped with fire plugs so that an engine can be attached in case of fire. Small faucets or pet-cocks on the wells flow all the time in cold weather to prevent freezing. ï~~274 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. At Jennison, 1 mile west of Grandville, are four wells put down some fifteen years ago and in good condition to-day. These wells were all drilled by O. S. Taylor of Grandville and are from 120 to 170 feet deep. The cost was $2 a foot for 5-inch and $2.50 for 7-inch holes, including pipe. LOWELL. a The writer examined only two of the flowing-well districts of Kent County, located one on the east and the other on the north border of the county, and closely connected with adjoining counties whose entire area received attention. Kent County, with the exception of these two flowing-well districts, is reported on by J. F. Nellist. The village of Lowell stands at the mouth of Flat River, on the north side of Grand River in eastern Kent County, in T. 6 N., R. 9 W., and had a population of 1,776 in 1900. The Grand Rapids Edison Company controls the water system, and data concerning this system appear in the report of Mr. Nellist (p. 267). The old waterworks system once operated by the village is located on the flood plain of Grand River at an altitude of 636 feet, at which elevation the wells were said to flow 11 feet above the surface. The material in which the wells were sunk consists wholly of sand, which is very fine near the surface and offers greater resistance to the upward movement of the water than does an open pipe and thus enables the water to flow. The most interesting well in Lowell is that of Goodrich Kopf, located in the southern part of town near Flat River. It was drilled in 1887 to a depth of over 100 feet and flowed for six months, when in attempting an alteration of the pipe a break resulted and the flow ceased. Below 20 feet of surface sand there is 80 feet of blue, slightly stony, clay, beneath which is a black water-bearing sand which yielded the flow. The water rose 3 feet above the surface, which has an elevation at that point 10 feet above the old waterworks well, or 646 feet above tide. The water was of good quality, containing a little iron and sulphur, but not in sufficient quantities to affect the taste. It was said to be remarkably clear and pure. No other well in Lowell seems to have penetrated this blue-clay layer. That it is persistent is shown by the dug-well records collected, in all of which, where the depth was sufficient, the clay was found. No one besides Mr. Kopf searched for water below it. That it is a potable water and that the supply is ample seems fairly indicated by the results which he obtained. Hundreds of acres of land along Grand River are 10 to 15 feet lower than the surface at Mr. Kopf's well, and flows should be obtained over the whole of this area, even when differences of head are considered, these being generally small in short distances. a By Isaiah Bowman. ï~~KENT COUNTY. 275 SAND LAKE. a The wells in this area are located near the head of the valley of Black Creek in T. 10 N., R. 10 W., in northern Kent County. Mr. Farnham's well is 1 mile below the source of the creek, which originates in a kettle lakelet on the divide between Rouge and Flat rivers. A half mile farther down the valley is the well belonging to the school district 1 mile east of Sand Lake, and a mile farther down the valley is the well of Mr. Grosvenor. The following sections show. the character of the water-bearing material in this area: Record of R. Farnham well, Sand Lake. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface soil and muck------------------------------------------------------------ 4 4 Hard stony clay -------------------------------------------------------- 11 15 Quicksand, changing gradually to coarse sand-...................-............ - 30 45 The material could not be screened until the final depth given was reached. Record of schoolhouse well, Sand Lake. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Ordinary surface sand_....................................................... 3 e 3 Oreldin ry rac andog----------------------------------------------------- -327 3 Blue clay, dry and tough................................................. 27 30 Clean water-bearing gravel.------------------------------------------------- 6 36 There is no quicksand between the clay and gravel. Cost of well, $20. Record of Grosvenor well, Sand Lake. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clayey subsoil, becoming sandy with increasing depth........................t 20 20 Blue clay.............................. 4 24 Quicksand, becoming coarser until coarse sand and gravel were reached......1 6 30 These records are typical of all others for this area. The blue clay layer is persistent throughout, and with but two exceptions is underlain by quicksand or very fine water-bearing sand, which is difficult to screen. This condition, combined with peculiar drilling methods and the wishes of well owners, is the reason for some peculiar differences of head and flow and therefore of temperature. In this locality there is a decided preference among well owners for the use of easily operated pitcher pumps in wells instead of allowing the water to flow. The flat surface would allow the waste water to collect in pools in the yard, giving it an unsightly appearance. a By Isailm Bowman. ï~~276 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Fortunately, the conservation of the water supply is by this means secured, although it is not a primary consideration in the mind of the well owner. It is said to be difficult to install the pump if there is a strong flow of water, and the driller who has driven most of the wells in this locality, J. S. Parker, says that for this reason he tries to drive the pipe only so far into the fine sand below the clay as will permit merely a slight flow. The true head of the water is by this means rendered indeterminate except where a flow is secured under more favorable circumstances, as in the well of Mr. Philo. Here the temperature of the water is lower than elsewhere in the area, a condition in this as in other cases due to the strong flow and the consequent slight effect of the relatively warmer pipe in raising the temperature during the ascent of the water. Where the flow is slight the temperature is always modified. The true temperature of the subsurface water therefore is nowhere closely expressed except in the case of strong flows. Compare the temperature of the Philo well (47.5Â~) with that of the Reed well (50Â~). The Sand Lake flows occur in an area of 5 square miles extent. They have in general a low head which could be considerably increased (though the present method of drilling works an advantage), yield chalybeate water, whose source is in the moraine and clay plain at the head of Black Creek, and belong to that general class of wells which obtain water of local origin at slight depth beneath clay. From the head of the water in the well in the series farthest down the valley it is clear that if other conditions are favorable more flows could be obtained in that locality. The valley some distance below this point is wooded and flat and therefore not settled, which accounts for the undeveloped condition of this section of the area with respect to wells. The cost of installing wells is 50 to 75 cents a foot. The pitcher pumps in common use cost several dollars. The last two wells described in the table are used in supplying the boiler in a sawmill. The others are for stock and domestic purposes. Wells at Sand Lake (T. 10 N., R. 10 W.). Sec- OwnerWhen Depth Eleva- Water Flow per Tempertion. Owner.made. pth. tion. torises minute. ature. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gallons. oF. 4 R. Farnham........................... 1899 45 885 8851 3 53? 4 T. J. Blanchard-------------------------1.......................... 1892 32 882 8831.12 52 4 C. Cavanaugh...---------------------------- 1902 41 897 900 1.5. 4 School district...------------------------- 1904 36 900 901 Pumped...--- 10 T. J. Blanchard.......................... 1902 43 895 897.12..... 3.....do.................................... 1902 33 899 902 3 49.4 3 D. B. Phillips............................ 1892 33 900 901 Pumped...... 3 A. Hudson...............................1892 33 870 874.5 50.9 3 J. W. Marshall........................... 1890 30 899 901 Pumped........... 10 Mr. Grosvenor........................... 1900 30? 893 895.06 53 2 L. Reed.................................. 1898 30? 887 886 Pumped...... 2.....do.................................... 1898 30 885 886...do............ 2...do................................... 1898 35 879 883.5 50 1 A. J.Philo....................................... 22 867 871 10 47.5 1....do............................................ 25 870 871 2 3 W. Kohn................................ 1894 32 880 881 __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __........._....... ï~~KENT COUNTY. 277 NONFLOWING WELLS. A large number of the wells obtained from the drift are not flowing wells, and yet yield large amounts of water, there being a general distribution of water-bearing sand and gravel beds in clayey areas as well as in sandy areas. On the highest moraines the wells frequently reach a depth of 100 to 200 feet and have but a few feet of water. On the more level tracts, especially the broad sandy plains of the northeastern part of the county, also the terraces along the rivers, the wells are shallow, ranging from 10 to 50 feet in depth. The wells on upland tracts that are not morainic, especially in the portion of the county south of Grand River, are frequently sunk to depths of 50 to 100 feet. The wells from the rock are confined almost entirely to Grand River Valley, where flows are often obtained as noted. SALT WELLS. Several salt wells were drilled in Grand Rapids about 1860 on each side of the river. The range in depth was from 260 to over 500 feet, but the deeper wells passed below the Marshall sandstone and obtained no additional flow. Considerable brine was pumped for a time, but the wells have all been abandoned. The Taylor well on Canal street in the bed of Cold Brook Creek is still flowing. The others never had a strong flow, and some barely reached the surface. a SPRINGS. There are strong springs along Grand River between Grand Rapids and Ada, also along Thornapple Valley near Whitneyville and at Cascade. Crystal Springs are in the north bank of Plaster Creek south of Grand Rapids, and farther southeast others occur along a depression in which no surface stream is found. Besides these there are numerous weaker springs along nearly every stream in the county, which, as a whole, is exceptionally well supplied with springs, some of which are already of high commercial value. Crystal Springs, on Madison avenue, 11 miles south of the city limits of Grand Rapids, on the bank of Plaster Creek, comprise some 60 springs. The water of the largest is bottled and sold for drinking purposes as Crystal Spring water. About 3,000 gallons a day is sold. In the same township, Paris, in the SW. 1 sec. 8 and the NW. I sec. 9, are two springs known as Pantlands Springs, one used for a fish pond and stock, the other for a public watering trough and known as the "watering-trough spring." Custer Spring on East Bridge street hill in Grand Rapids is used to supply the Grand Rapids Brewing Company and is also bottled and sold as Arctic Spring water, the amount sold being perhaps 1,500 gallons a day. aWinchell, A., Ann. Rept. Mich. Geol. Survey, 1860; also, Lane, A. C., Geology of Michigan, vol. 5. The latter contains the record of a deep boring which extends down into the Devonian limestone. IR 182-06---19 ï~~278 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Harrison Springs, on the Fourth street hill on the west side of Grand River, issue at several places along a small valley. The water is bottled and sold as Minnehaha water in about the same amount as that of Custer Spring. Mill Creek has two large springs that have been piped down from the hills west of the village, one supplying the West Michigan Fair Grounds through a 6-inch pipe, and the other supplying the Michigan Black Bass Fish Hatchery at a head of about 24 feet. Three miles north of the city on the east bank of Grand River are the extensive Bailey Springs, which have been proposed for a partial water supply for Grand Rapids and a e estimated to yield 7,000,000 gallons a day. These springs apparently embrace in their catchment area a large part of the high tract in the bend of Grand River above Grand Rapids. There is considerable water coming to the surface for a distance of 3 miles along the east bank of the river from sec. 6, Grand Rapids, to sec. 29, Plainfield Township, but the strongest springs are in sec. 29. At Cascade, on Thornapple River, east of Grand Rapids, are extensive springs used for fish ponds and for a sanitarium. These springs are derived largely from drift deposits; but in the center of the river are others carrying sulphureted waters that may be from gypsum rock. They are used for baths and for medicinal purposes. The Whitneyville Springs west of the village have not as yet been developed, but are of great strength and of excellent quality. ï~~INDEX. A. Page. Page. Aaron Township (Macomb County), well Antrim County, rainfall in................. 10 Aaron Township (Macomb County), wells wells in, water of, temperature of. 16 Acme Township (Montcalm County), plat Antrim shale, occurrence of................ 73 of, showing well distribution... 247 os wn eldsruin..27 wefo6wellsin.............246-247 Antwerp Township (Van Buren County), AdaTwsi (K..... oun.....wel..2-27wells in......................123 Ada Township (Kent County, wells in To ip elln.8 271 Adair, water supply of...................208 Arcadia Township, wells in...............218 Addison, water supply of................. 81 Arenac County, rainfall in................ 10 Adrian, waterworks of..................... 79 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 wells at and near....................... 78 Arkona, Lake, character and location of... f61 water of, analysis of.................. 79 Arkona beach, location of................. 6 Adrian To nship (Lenawee County), well Arlington Township (Van Buren County), Adrian Township (Lenawee County), well plat of, showing well distribuin......8tion......................... 124 Agricultural College, wells at.............. 175 wells in.......................... 124 Alaiedon Township (Ingham County),....124-125 depth to rock in................ 171 Armada, waterworks at.................199 Alamo, water supply of.................. 130 Armstrong, A. 11., information by......... 135 Albion, waterworks at............... 131,132,133 Artesian map of Michigan................. waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 133 Ash Township (Monroe County), wells Alcona County, rainfall in................. 10 in..................... 27,30,38 wells in, water of, temperature of..... 16 Assyria, water supply of................. 163 Algonac, waterworks at................. 205,208 Athens, water supply of................. 132 Algonquin, Lake, location of............... 6 Atkins, wells near....................211 Algonquin beach, location of.............. 6 Attica, water supply of.................... 217 Allegan, waterworks at.................. 152,153 Attica Township (Lapeer County), wells in. 218 Allegan County, flowing wells in......... 153-160 Auburn, depth to rock at.................. 177 rainfall in............................. 10 Augusta, water supply of............... 130 topography of........................ 152 Avoca, water supply of................... 208 village supplies in...................... 153 Avon Township (Oakland County), wells waterworks in....................... 152-153 in................... 189,195-196 wells in.............................. 152-160 B. records of...................... 158-159 temperature of.................... 16 Bailey Springs, location of................. 278 water of, analysis of.............. 155,160 water supply from..............._.... 269 Allen Township (Hillsdale County), wells Bainbridge,wells at....................... 118 in............................... 102 Bainbridge district, plat of, showing well Almont, waterworks at...................... 217 distribution..................... 118 Alpena, rainfall at and near................ 11 wells in................................. 117-118 Alpena County, rainfall in................ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Amboy Township (Hillsdale County), wells in........................ 99 Anchorville, wells near.................. 204-205 Ann Arbor, springs at............... 16,140-141 springs at, temperature of............ 17-20 temperature at, variation in, chart showing....................... 20 waterworks at................... 22,142-145 wells at and near................ 138,140-142 water in, analyses of............. 140,144 temperature of............. 15,17-20 variation in, chart showing. 20 Bainbridge Township (Berrien County), plat of, showing well distribution......................... 115,118 wells in.................. 111,114-115,117-118 Bancroft, wells in......................... 175 Bangor, waterworks at................. 120,121 Bangor Township (Van Buren County), wells in........................ 125 Baroda, water supply of................... 113 Barron Lake, water supply from.......... 111 Barry County, flowing wells in........... 163-164 rainfall in............................. 10 topography of......................... 160 village supplies in..................... 163 279 ï~~280 INDEX. Page. Barry County, waterworks in............ 161-162 wells in------------------------............................... 160-164 temperature of-------------------..................... 16 water of, analysis of-------------............... 162 Batavia, water supply of----------------.................. 105 Bath, wells in-------------------------.............................. 175 Battle Creek (post-office), waterworks at. 131-132 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 133 wells at------------------------............................... 132-133 Battle Creek, drainage of-------------................ 131,164 wells on---------------------------................................ 132 Bay County, rainfall in------------------.................... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Beaches, glacial-lake, locations of-.......... 6 underground water on--------------................. 7 Bean Creek. See Tiffin River. Bear Creek, wells on-----------------..................... 258-259 wells on, records of---------------................... 258,259 Bear Creek area, plat of, showing well dist r i b u t i o n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---....................... 2 5 8 wells in------------------------............................... 258-259 Bedford Township (Monroe County), wells in------------------------------27,32 Belding, plat of, showing well distribution. 236 wells at----------------------.......................---....... 235-237 records of.-------------------2. 35-236 water of, analysis of--------------266 Belford, wells at and near----------------.................. 177 Bellaire, wells at..........................------------------------ 8 Belle River, drainage of....--------------205, 213 Belmont, wells at.....---------------------- 272 Belmore beach, location of------------................. - 6,25 wells of......--------------------67,82,88,199 Bennington, wells in...--------------------175 Benton Harbor, waterworks at-.-........ 112,113 Benton Township (Eaton County), wells in. 175 Benzie County, rainfall in-----------------.................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...-... 16 Berlin Township (Monroe County), wells in. 27,30 Berrien County, flowing wells in..113-118 location of.....-------------------------110 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of----------------------.......................... 110 village supplies in...................... 113 waterworks in...................... 111-113 wells in----------------------............................. 7,111-118 water of, temperature of-........... - 16 Berrien Springs, water supply of----........... - 113 Berville, water supply of----------------................... 208 Big Meadows area, wells in---------------................ 188 Bingham Township (Clinton County), plat of, showing well distribution... 229 wells in------------------....................---....... 228-229,230 Birmingham, depth to rock at-------........... 177,183 rainfall at--------------------------.............................. 49 waterworks at........................---------------------- 182 water of, analysis of--------------182 Bismarck, wells in.........................169 Bismarek-Roxana district, wells of- -.-- 169 Black Creek, wells on...-------------------275 Black River, drainage of................... 205 wells on.............................. 126,209 Blissfield, wells at and near--................ 78,81 Blissfield Township (Lenawee County), plat of, showing well distribution... 87 Page Bloomer Township (Montcalm County), well in----------------------.......................... 239 Bloomfield Township (Oakland County), wells in---------------------......................... 189 Bloomingdale, plat of, showing well distribution----------------------.......................... 126 water supply of---------------------........................ 121 wells in---------------------------................................. 126 Bog lime, water from-------------------...................... 7-8 Bonsteel flcwing well, view of-............. 140 Bored wells, description of----------------................. 13 Bowman, Isaiah, analyses by------------.............. 266 on Barry County----------............. 161-162,163-164 on Clinton County---------------................... 225-235 on Eaton County................... 164-170 on Graatschap area------------------.................... 155 on Ingham County---------------................... 164-170 on lonia County-----------------..................... 235-246 on Lowell wells---------------------........................ 274 on Montcalm County-------------................. 246-253 on Ottawa County.....--------------- 254-266 on Sand Lake wells---------------.................. 275-276 on Wayland area.....---------------- 155-160 work of-------------------------................................ 2,270 Boyne, wells at....------------------------- 8 Branch County, flowing wells in......... - - 104 location of-------------------------............................. 104 rainfall in--------------------------.............................. 10 topography of-------------------------104 village supplies in......................105 waterworks in...................... --------104-105 wells in------------------------------104-105 water of, analysis of------------.-. -104 temperature of----------------................. 16 Brandon Township (Oakland County), wells of---------------................... 184-187,188 Bravo, water supply of------------------.................... 153 Breedsville, water supply of............... --- --- 121 wells at and near.----------------.125-126 Bridgeman, water supply of--------------113 Brines, salt secured from-----------------................... 75 Britton, wells at---------------------........................... 81,88 wells at, water from, analyses of-....... 88 Bronson, water supply of----------------.................. 105 Brooklyn-Clark-Lake-Norvell district, wells of-...----------------................. 136-137 Brooklyn (Allegan County), water supply of.............-----------------------............ 153 Brooklyn (Jackson County), v:ater supply of---......----------------------................. 135 wells near----------...............---------------............. 136 Brownstown Township, springs in-------......... -74 wells in---------------------........................... 65,67,70,76 water supply in---------------------........................ 75 Bruce Township (Wayne County), wells in. 201 Buchanan, waterworks at--.----- - - -............. -- 112 wells at and near_.....................111,113 Burlington, water supply of.......--. 132 Burlington Township (Lapeer County), plat of, showing well distribution........------------------------........... 220 wells in--.....------------------.................... --220-221,224 Burnside, wells in and near-...... 214, 217,218-220 Burnside Township (Lapeer County), wells in----------------------............................. 218-219 Butler, water supply of.................... 105 ï~~INDEX. 281 C. Page. Cadillac, elevation near.................... 5 Calhoun County, flowing wells in........ 132-133 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of.......................... 131 village supplies in...................... 132 waterworks in....................... 131-132 wells in............................... 131-133 water of, analyses of............... 133 temperatures in................ 16 California, water supply of................. 105 Cambria, water supply of.................. 100 Cambria Township (Hillsdale County), plat of, showing well distribution... 103 wells in................................. 103 Camden, well near......................... 103 Campbell, E. D., analyses by............. 140,144 Campbell Township (Ionia County), plat of, showing well distribution... 238 wells in............................... 237-238 Cannon Township (Kent County), wells in. 271 Canton Township (Wayne County), wells in 65, 66,67,68-69,70,76,77 Capac, waterworks at-................ 205-206,208 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 206 Carleton, water supply of.................. 163 Carleton region, wells of................... 38,44 Carson City, waterworks at................ 249 Cascade, springs on........................ 278 Casco Township (St. Clair County), wells in 204 Cass County, flowing wells in............ 108-109 rainfall in............................... 10 topography of.......................... 108 village supplies in...................... 108 waterworks in.......................... 109 wells in............................... 108-110 record of............................ 110 temperatures of.................... 16 Cass River, drainage of..................... 213 Cassopolis, water supply of................ 108 waterworks at......................... 110 Catchments areas, distribution of.......... 5 Cedar Lake, plat of, showing well distribution............................ 247 wells at............................... 246-247 Cedar River, drainage of................. 164-165 wells on................................ 174 Cement City, water supply at.............. 81 wells at................................. 78 Center Line, wells at....................... 200 Centerville, water supply at................ 107 water supply at, water of, analysis of.. 107 Chamberlin, T. C., water-supply data collected by....................... 1 Charlevoix County, rainfall in.............. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Charlotte, waterworks at.......-.........166-167 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 167 Charlotte district, wells of.............. 168-169 Cheboygan County, rainfall in............. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Chelsea, waterworks at.................... 146 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 146 Chesterfield Township (Macomb County), wells in........................ 204 Page. Chester Township (Ottawa County), plat of, showing well distribution... 254 wells in................................. 255 Chicago, Lake, location of................. 6 Christian, E. A., information from....... 128,177 Churn drill, well sinking by................ 13 Clare County, rainfall in................... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Clarendon, water supply of............... 132 Clark, J. E., analyses by................... 60,67 Clarks Lake, water supply of.............. 135 wells near........................... 136-137 See also Brooklyn-Clarks Lake-Norvell district. Clarkston, water supply of................. 183 Clarksville district, plat of, showing well distribution.................... 238 wells in............................... 237-238 record of............................ 238 water of, analysis of................ 266 Clayton, water supply of................... 81 Clifford, wells at and near............ 217, 221 Climax, water supply of.................... 130 Clinton, wells at and near............... 78,80,81 Clinton River, drainage of............ 176,196,213 wells on.............................. 203-204 Clinton County, depth to bed rock in..... 171-172 flowing wells in................... 175,225-233 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of....................... 225-226 waterworks in.................... 225,233-235 wells in.......................... 171,172,175 records of............. 226-227,228,230,234 water of, analysis of................ 266 temperature of................ 16 Cloverdale, water supply of................ 163 Clyde, water supply of..................... 183 Clyde Township (St. Clair County), plat of, showing well distribution...... 210 wells in............................... 210-211 Coal measures, water from................. 7 Coldwater, waterworks at.................. 104 Coldwater shales, occurrence of............ 73 water from............................ 67,140 Coloma, water supply of................... 113 Columbia Township (Van Buren County), wells in......................... 125 Columbiaville, waterworks at.............. 217 wells near.................... 214,217,224-225 Columbus Township (St. Clair Cbunty), plat of, showing well distribution............................ 212 wells in..................... 205,212-213 Concord, water supply of................... 135 Cone. See Milan-Cone district. Conklin district, plat of, showing well distribution.......................254 wells in.............................. 254-255 Connors Creek, drainage of................. 55,58 Constantine, water supply at.............. 107 Cooley, M. E., on rainfall................... 50 Cooley, Thomas, analysis by............... 234 Cooper, W. F., information from......... 109,203 work of............................. 3,118,203 ï~~282 INDEX. Page. Coopersville, plat of, showing well distribution............................. 255 waterworks at....................... 263 wells near......................... 255-257 records of...................... 256,263 water of, analysis of-.............. 266 Covert, water supply of -................. 121 Crawford County, rainfall in-.............. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Crenothrix, occurrence of................. 133 Cressy, water supply of-................. 163 Crocker, T. M., on Mount Clemens's wells... 197 Crockery Creek, wells on-................. 259 Crystal Lake district, wells in.......... 247-248 Crystal Springs, location of.............. 277 Crystal Township (Montcalm County),wells in.......................... 247-248 Custer Spring, location of................. 277 D. Davis, Charles A., on Big Meadows district. 188 on Elsie and vicinity................. 230-233 on Groveland Township.............. 187-188 on Holly wells...................... 180-181 on Imlay City wells.................. 214-216 on Lapeer wells...................... 216 on Ortonville district.............. 184-187 on Oxford wells................... 178-180 work of.............................. 2,176 Davisburg, water supply of-.............. 183 Dayton, water supply of................ 113 Dayton Township (Tuscola County), plat of, showing well distribution... 222 wells in............................... 222,224 Dearborn, water supply of, analyses of.... 68 Dearborn Township (Wayne County), water supply of...............65 wells in.................... 76,77 Decatur, waterworks at............... 120,121 Deer Creek, water supply from............. 263 wells on............................. 255 Deerfield, wells at........................ 81 Defiance moraine, location of............... 138 wells on............................. 138 Delray, water supply of.................. 53 wells at.............................. 75 Delta, wells at.......................... 175 Delta Township (Eaton County), depth to rock in...................... 172 Delton, water supply of -................. 163 Delwood, wells at....................... 175 Dentons, water supply at............... 68,74 water supply at, analysis of............ 69 Depth, influence of, on temperature........ 14-15 Detroit, population of -................... 24 rainfall at........................... 49 water supply of.................. 24,53-54 Detroit River, description of.............. 52 flow of............................... 52 Detroit River, region of, wells of........... 43 Detroit River, water supply from.......... 52 water supply from, anulyses of... 52,55-56,58 contamination of................ 55-58 wells on............................... 7 Devereaux, water supply of -.............. 135 Devonian shales, gas in-.................. 140 Page. Dexter, water supply of-................. 146 Dimondale, wells at..................... 175 Disco, wells at.......................... 200 Dorr, water supply of -................... 153 Douglass, water supply of................. 153 Dowagiac, water supply of............... 108 waterworks at.................... 109-110 wells at and near.................. 108-110 record of........................ 110 Dowagiac River, drainage of.............. 119 Drainage, character of.................. 9-10 See also Topography Drayton Plains, water supply of........... 183 Drenthe, wells at...................... 257-258 wells at, record of -................... 257 water of, analysis of............... 266 Drenthe area, plat of, showing well distribution....................... 258 wells of............................ 257-258 Drenthe Creek, wells on-................. 257 Drift, Glacial, character of................. 8 distribution of....................... 5 structure of......................... 8-9 water from.......................... 7,25 analysis of -...................... 88 Drilling, use of............................ 13 Drought, effect of, on wells............. 26, 46-48 Drumlins, distribution of-................. 6 Dryden, water supply of................. 217 Duffield, S. P., analyses by.............. 64,75 Dug wells, dangers of -.................... 12 description of....................... 12 Dundee, rainfall at-...................... 49 Dundee limestone, occurrence of........... 35 Dundee Township (Monroe County), wells in............................ 31 Dunning, water supply of -................ 153 J)uplain Township, wells in............... 230-233 E. Eagle, waterworks at.................... 235 East Greenwood district, wells in.......... 209 East Jordan, wells at..................... 8 Easton Township (lonia County), plat of, showing well distribution...... 241 wells in.............................. 242 East Saugatuck, water supply of...-...... 153 Eaton County, depth to rock in............ 172 flowing wells in....... 136,165,168-169,174-175 rainfall in........................... 10 topography of..................... 164-165 waterworks in..................... 165-167 wells in........... 136,165,168-169,172,174-175 temperatures of.................. 16 water of, analysis of............. 166,167 See also Lansing. Eaton Rapids, plat of, showing well distribution....................... 165 waterworks at.................... 165-166 wells at.............................. 136 record of........................ 165 water of, analysis of............... 166 Eau Claire, waterworks at-............... 113 Ecorse, well at.......................... 75 Ecorse River, drainage of.................. 58 ï~~INDEX. 283 Page. Ecorse Township (Wayne County), wells -in---------------------------.67,70,76 Edmore, waterworks at.........--------------249-250 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 266 Edwardsburg, water supply of---------............. --108 Elba, water supply of...................... 217 Elevations, leights of...................... 4-5 Elkton Beach, location of................. 6 Eloise, rainfall at.......................... 49 water supply at-- --.................58,63-64 analysis of......................... 64,75 Elsie, wells at and near............... 230-233 Emmet, water supply of................... 208 Emmet County, ground-water table in... 11 rainfall in.............................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of. 16 Ensley district, wells of, water of, analysis of............................ 266 Erie lobe, location of-......................213 Erie Township (Monroe County), wells in.. 32 Essex Township (Clinton County), wells in, water of, analysis of........... 266 Eureka, wells at....................... 226-227 wells at, records of.....h.......... 226-227 Eureka district, plat of, showing well distribution...................... 226 wells in.............................. 225-228 water of, analysis of---.......... 266 Exeter Township (Monroe County), wells in..................... 27,30,35-38,42 F. Fairfield, wells at.......................... 81 Fairhaven, wells at...................... 204-205 Farmington, water supply of............. 183 Farmington Township (Oakland County), wells in...................... 189,194 Feeble-minded, Home for, waterworks at. 216-217 Fennville, water supply of................ 153 Fish Creek, drainage of................... 249 Fish Lake, well on......................... 109 Flat River, description of................. 267 water supply from.................. 236,269 wells on...................,....... 235,251 Flint River, drainage of................. 176,213 wells on................................224 Flowing wells. See Wells, flowing; also particular counties. Ford, water supply of................... 54,58 Forest beaches (upper and lower), location of............................ 6 Forests, distribution of..................... 5 Fowler, waterworks at.................... 234 Fowlerville, wells in....................... 175 Francisco, water supply of................ 135 Franklin Township (Lenawee County), plat of, showing well distribution... 95 wells in............... -........... 95-97,98 Franklin, water supply of................. 183 Fraser, wells at............................ 200 Freeport, water supply of.................. 163 Fremont Township (Sanilac County), wells in............................ 209 Frenchtown Township (Monroe County), wells in-...................... 30 Fuller, M. L., on loss of head............... 26 on lower Huron River region........... 33-48 work of............................... 3,4,33 Fulton, waterworks at.................. 129,130 G. Page. Galbraith, I. B., information from......... 120 Galesburg, water supply of................. 130 Galien, wells at and near................. 111,113 Galien district, wells in...............113-114 Gearey, wells in........................... 175 Gelston, L. M., analysis by................. 59 Genesee County, rainfall in.................10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Geneva Township (Van Buren County), wells in.:....................... 125 Geography, description of................ 4-6 Geologic history, outline of................ 4-6 Geologic map of Michigan.................. 8 Geology, account of........................4-9 Girard, water supply of................. 105 Glacial epoch, history of................. 4-6 Glacial lakes, description of................6 Glaciers, distribution and character of...4-6 Gladwin County, rainfall in............... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of.... 16 Glenwood, water supply of................ 108 wells at and near.................... 108,109 Glenwood district, wells in.................108 Gobleville, water supply of................. 121 Goguac Lake, water supply of............. 131 Goodells, water supply of.................. 208 Graatschap area, wells in.................155 Grand Haven, rainfall at and near......... 11 waterworks at...................... 260-263 water of, analysis of.............. 262-263 wells at, record of..................... 261 Grand Junction, water supiy of.......... 121 Grand Ledge, waterrks at............... 174 Grand Rapids, waterworksatews.......... 268-269 wells at and near....................7, 272-273,277 Grand River, description of................ 267 drainage of................134,139,164,235,267 water supply from.................... 269 wells on............................135-136,174,241 location of, figure showing........... 241 Grand River Valley district, wells in. 272-274,277 Grand Traverse Bay, wells near........... 16 Grand Traverse County, rainfall in......... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Grandville, plat of, showing well distribution............................ 273 waterworks at.......................... 273 wells at............................. 273 Grant Township (St. Clair County), wells in.............................. 209 Grape, rainfall at....................... 49 Grasmere beach, location of................ 6 Grass Lake, water supply of............... 135 Gratiot County, rainfall in)................10 wells in............................... 225,227 water of, temperature of........... 16 Greenbush Township (Clinton County), plats of, showing well distribution........................... 226,229 wells in....................... 225-227,229,230 Greenfield Township (Wayne County), wells in......................... 77 Greenville, waterworks at................ 250-251 well of, record of....................... 250 water of, analysis of................ 266 Greenwood Township (St. Clair County), wells in......................... 209 ï~~284 INDEX. Page. Gregory, W. M., information from......... 41 work of----------------------------................................. 3 Grosse Isle, wells of-------------..................... --43-44,76 Sec also Swan well. Grossepoint farms, water supply of-------........ -51 Grossepoint Township (Wayne County), water supply of---------............. -51, 68,77 Ground-water table, depth of.............. 11-12 Groveland Township (Oakland County), wells of-----........,-------------............. 187-188 Gypsum, influence of, on water--------............ -- 14 H. Hadley, wells near....................... 214,217 Hale, A. K., information from------------............. 143 Hale Creek, drainage of---------......--------.............- 58 Hamilton, water supply of----------...-----............. 153 Hamtramck, water supply of------.. --------53 Hamtramck Township (Wayne County), wells in-------------------......................... 65,77 Hanover, water supply of------------.................. ---135 Harrisburg, wells at-----------------..................... 259-260 wells at, record of-------------------...................... 260 Harrisburg area, plat of, showing well distribution-----------------.................... 259 wells in------------------------............................... 259-260 water of, analysis of............... 266 Harrison Springs, location of.............. 278 Hartford, waterworks at----------------.................. 120 water supply at--------------------........................ 121 water of, analysis of--------------............... 121 Hartford Township (Van. Buren County), wells in....... -------------.............. -121-122 Haslet Park, wells in-------------------....................... 175 Hastings, waterworks at............. 161-162,163 waterworks at, water of, analysis of-... 162 Head, loss of--------------------......................... 22-23,33-48 Headlands, distribution of-------------................. 5 Hickory Corners, water supply of......-.... 163 Highland Park, water supply of-------........... -53 Hilliards, water supply of---------------.................. 153 Hillsdale, waterworks at................... 99 Hillsdale County, flowing wells in.. 98-99,100-103 rainfall in............................-------------------------- 10 topography of----------------------.......................... 98 village supplies in...................... 100 waterworks in-------------------......................... 99-100 wells in-------------------------.............................. 98-103 water of, analysis of............... 99 temperature of----------------................. 16 Holland, waterworks at--------------.................. 263-265 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 265 wells at, record of-------------------...................... 265 Holloway, wells at----------------------......................-.. 81 Holloway district,plat of, showing well dist r i b u t i o n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---....................... 8 7 wells of-------------------------................................. 87-89 Holly, waterworks at----------------.................... 180-181 wells at and near----------------..................... 177,181 record of-----------------------........................... 181 water of, analysis of--------------............... 181 Holt, wells in-------------------------............................... 175 Homer, water supply of-----------------.................... 132 Hooper, water supply of................... 153 Hopkins, water supply of--------------.................. -153 Page. Hopkins Township (Allegan County), plat of, showing well distribution... - 156 Horton, water supply of-----------------................... 135 Horton, R. E., work of-------------------.................... 3 Howard City, waterworks at.............. 251 wells at..............................---------------------------. 251 water of, analysis of-------------............... 266 Hubbardston, wells in------------------..................... 239 wells in, record of-------------------...................... 239 Hubbardston district, wells in-------........... -239-240 Hudson, waterworks at----------------.................... --80 Hudson Township (Lenawee County), well in-----------------------.......................... 95 Huron lobe, location of----------------.................... -213 Huron River, course of----------------..................... 25,58 drainage of------------------....................... 139,164,176 low water in, effect of.................. 46 pollution of-------------------------............................ 60 region of, geology of---------------.................... 34-35 rainfall in---------------------.......................... 47-48 topography of...................... 33-34 water supplies of................ 33,35-48 decline of----------------.................... 33,44-47 wells on----------------.................... 48,68,138-145 Huron Township (Wayne County), wells in. 41 Hurty, J. U., analysis by----------------.................. 262 on Grand Haven water................ 262 1. Ida Township (Monroe County), wells in... 31 Illinoian stage, drift of-------------------..................... 8 Imlay City, waterworks at............... 214-216 wells at---------------------------................................. 217 wells at, record of-------------------...................... 215 water of, analyses of--------------............... 215 Imlay Township (Lapeer County), wells in----------------------............................. 214-216 Ingham County, depth to rock in--..--...... 171 flowing wells in........... --136,169-170,174-175 rainfall in--------------------------.............................. 10 topography of-------------------........................ 114-165 waterworks in----------------.................... 168.173-174 wells in---....-.-----------.............. 136,169-170,173-175 record of-----------------------........................... 170 water of, analyses of-----------............. 172-173 temperature of................. 16 See also Lansing. Insane Asylum, well at---------------.................. 177-178 well at, record of....................... 177 Institutions, water supplies of---------............. 23-24 Intermediate Lake, wells on-------------............... 8,16 Ionia, waterworks at-------------------...................... 243 Ionia County, flowing wells in-.-........ 235-244 rainfall in.............................-------------------------- 10 springs in-------------------........................ 239-240,246 waterworks in......................------------------- 244-246 wells in....................... 235-244,245-246 records of........ 235-236,238,239,242-243 water of, analyses of----------............. 244,246 temperature of----------------................. 16 Ionia district, springs in-----------.......... --......... 240 wells in------------------------............................... 240-244 records of........................ 242-243 water of, analysis of.............. 244 ï~~INDEX. 285 Page. Ionia Township (lonia County), plat of, showing well distribution...... 241 wells in................................ 242 Iron, presence of........................... 14 Iroquois Lake, location of................. 6 Irving, water supply of.................... 163 Isabella County, rainfall in................ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Jackson, water supply of................... 24 waterworks at....................... 134-135 wells at............................... 135-136 Jackson County, flowing wells in......... 135-137 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of.......................... 133 village supplies in...................... 135 waterworks in........................ 134-135 wells in............................... 134-137 water of, temperatures of.......... 16 Jasper, wells at............................ 81-82 Jeddo, water supply of..................... 208 Jefferson, M. S. W., on rainfall............. 50 Jerome, wells at.......................... 101-102 Jones, water supply of..................... 108 Jonesville, waterworks at.................. 99 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 99 Joppa, water supply of..................... 132 K. Kalamazoo, waterworks at.............. 127-129 wells at and near....................... 130 water of, analyses of............... 129 Kalamazoo County, flowing wells in....... 130 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of.......................... 127 village supplies in...................... 130 waterworks in.......................... 127 wells in............................... 127-130 water of, analyses of............... 129 temperatures of................ 16 Kalamazoo moraine, location and character of..................... 119,127,152,160 Kalamazoo River, drainage of............. 127, 131,134,152,164 wells on...................... 127,131,132,155 Kalkaska County, rainfall in............... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Kathairo water. See Swan well. Kedrie, R. C., analyses by.................. 166, 173,183,215,246,252,263 Keeler, water supply of.................... 121 Kendall, water supply of................... 121 Kent County, drainage of................ 267-268 flowing wells in....................... 270-276 rainfall in.............................. 10 springs in.............................. 217 water power in....................... 267-268 waterworks in........................ 268-270 wells in............................... 268-277 records of.......................... 275 water of, analysis of............... 271 temperatures of................ 16 Kibbie, water supply of.................... 121 Kimball, water supply of.................. 208 Page. Kimball Township (St. Clair County), wells in............................. 211-212 Kinderhook, water supply of............. 105 Kings Mill, water supply of................ 217 Klingers Lake, water supply at.......... 105-106 water supply at, water of, analysis of.. 106 L. Lacota, water supply of................... 121 Laingsburg, wells in....................... 175 Lake Border moraine, location of.......... 119 Lake County, rainfall in................... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Lake Odessa, waterworks at............. 244-245 Lakes, occurrence of....................... 5 water supply from..................... 24 Lakes, Glacial, description of............... 6,8 Lane, A. C., on Kent County salt wells.... 277 on Lansing and vicinity.............. 170-175 on rainfall.............................. 50 work of......................... 1,3,14,33,133 Lansing, vicinity of, drift in............. 171-172 vicinity of, flowing wells of........... 174-175 geology of........................ 170-172 water supply of.................. 170-17y water supply of....................... 24 waterworks of........................ 173-174 wells at.............................. 173-175 water of, analyses of............ 172-173 Lansing Township (Ingham County), wells in............................... 175 Lapeer, waterworks at.................. 216-217 wells at................................ 214 Lapeer County, flowing wells in.......... 218-225 rainfall in............................. 10 topography of....................... 213-214 village supplies in..................... 217 waterworks in....................... 214-217 wells in.............................. 214-225 record of.......................... 215 water of, analyses of............... 215 temperatures of............... 16 Lasalle Township (Monroe County), wells in.......................... 32 Latitude, influence of, on temperature of underground water............ 15 Lawrence, waterworks at............... 120,121 Lawton, water supply of.................. 121 wells near............................. 123 Lee, water supply of...................... 153 Leelanaw County, rainfall in.............. 10 wells in, water in, temperature of...... 16 Legislation, character and text of.......... 21-22 Leighton, M. O., analyses furnished by..... 68, 69,88,92-93, 99-100, 104, 106-107, 121, 122-123,129,146,147,151,155,160,178, 181,198,199, 206, 208, 215, 243-244, 265 Leighton Township (Allegan County), plat of, showing well distribution... 156 Lenawee County, flowing wells in.... 28,78,82-98 location of............................. 78 map of................................ 28 rainfall in............................. 10 topography of......................... 78 village supplies in..................... 80-82 ï~~286 INDEX. Page. Lenawee County, waterworks in........... 79-80 wells in............................ 7,78,82-98 water in, analyses of............... 79, 88 temperature of................. 16 Lenox, waterworks at..................... 198 waterworks at, water of, analyses of... 198 Leonard, water supply of.................. 183 Leslie, wells at...................... 136,169-170 wells at, water of, analyses of...--..-.... 170 Leslie district, wells in................... 169-170 Leverett, Frank, information from........ 41, 114,123,125 introduction by........................ 1-24 on Allegan County................... 152-160 on Barry County..................... 160-164 on Berrien County................... 110-118 on Branch County................... 104-105 on Calhoun County.................. 131-133 on Cass County...................... 108-110 on Eaton County.................... 164-165 on Hillsdale County................... 98-103 on Ingham County................... 164-165 on Jackson County---------------................... 133-137 on Kalamazoo County............... 127-130 on Lapeer County.................... 213-225 on Lenawee County.................... 78-98 on Macomb County.................. 196-205 on Monroe County..................... 25-32 on Oakland County.................. 176-196 on St. Clair County.................. 205-213 on St. Joseph County................ 105-107 on Troy district...................... 188-194 on Van Buren County................ 119-126 on Washtenaw County............... 138-160 on Willow wells........................ 36 work of------------------------............................... 3,26,33 Lewis, S. J., analyses by.................. 68, 69, 88, 99, 100, 104, 106, 107, 121, 123, 129, 146, 147, 151, 155, 160, 178, 179, 181, 191-192,198,199,206,208, 215,244,265 work of------------------------............................... 3,14,82 Limestone, water from..................... 7 Litchfield, water supply of................. 100 Livingston County, rainfall in............. 10 wells in..............................---------------------------.. 175 water of, temperature of.........-.. 16 Livonia Township (Wayne County),springs in............................... 63 wells in-------------------------................................. 70,77 Lockport Township (St. Joseph County), wells in......................... 106 London Township (Monroe County), wells of------------------------............................... 28,29 Long Lake, wells near...................... 109 Lowell, waterworks at................... 270,274 wells at---------------------------................................. 274 Lum, wells near...................... 214,217,218 Lyons, waterworks at...................... 245 M. McLouth, C. D., work of.................... 3 Macomb County, flowing wells in.... 197,201-205 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of........................ 196-197 Page. Macomb County, village supplies in....... 200 waterworks in-------------------........................ 197-199 wells in------------------....................... 188,192,197-205 water of, temperatures of----.......... -- 16 Macon River, course of-------------------..................... 25 Macon Township (Lenawee County), map of--------------------------............................... 28 wells of-----------------------.............................. 83,84-85 Manchester, water supply of-------------............... 139 wells in........................... 139,150-151 water of, analysis of............... 151 Manchester district, wells in-----------............. 150-151 Manistee County, rainfall in--------------................ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of-...... 16 Map of Michigan, showing srea reported on 2 showing ground-water temperatures.__ 17 See also Artesian map; Geologic map. Maplegrove, water supply of------------.............. -163 Maple Rapids, wells at and near---........... -- 228 wells at and near, record of ---............ -- 228 Maple Rapids district, wells in............. 228 Maple River, water supply from........... ------- 231 Marcellus, water supply of-------------................. -108 waterworks at--------------------......................-.. 110 wells near-------------------------.............................. 108 Marengo, water supply of--------------.................. -132 Marine City, waterworks at............. 205,208 Marlette moraine, location and character of----------------------............................. 222-223 Marls, water from----------------------.......................... 7-8 Marshall, waterworks at-.....--------------.............. -132 Marshall sandstones, occurrence of....... 133,214 water from--------------................. 7,131,216-217, 267 Martin, water supply of.................... 153 Marysville, water supply of-------------................ 208 Mason, waterworks at------------------..................... 168 wells at---------------------------................................. 175 Mason County, rainfall in-----------------.................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Mattawan, water supply of--.--.---.----.---............ 121 Maumee, Lake, location and history of..... 6,219 Mecosta County, rainfall in--------------................ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Medina, well in-------------------------............................. 94 Meridian, wells in----------------------.......................... 175 Meridian Township (Ingham County), depth to rock in.--------------171 Metamora, water supply of................217 Michigan, Lake, water supply from........ 269 water table near---------------------....................... 12 Middleville, water supply of--------------................ 163 Midland County, rainfall in--------------................ 10 wells of, water of, temperature of...... 16 Milan, water supply of-----------........-....... 139-140,147 water supply of, analyses of-----------............ 147 wells in---------------------------................................. 140 Milan-Cone district, map of--------------................ 28 wells in...............................-------------------------- 27-29 Milan Township (Monroe County), map of. 28 wells of...............................-------------------------. 28,85 Milford, waterworks at.................. 178,183 waterworks at, water of, analysis of -...- 178 Mill Creek (Kent County), springs on...... 278 Mill Creek (St. Clair County), drainage of.. 205 Milletts, wells at-----------------------........................... 175 Missaukee County, rainfall in------------.............. -10 wells of, water of, temperature of...... 16 ï~~INDEX. 287 Page. Page. Moline, water supply of-----------------.................... 153 North Macon Creek, wells on.............. 86 Monguanon Creek, drainage of............. 58 North Plains Township (lonia County), Monguanon Township (Wayne County), spring in................... 239-240 wells in...................... 65,76 wells in.............................. 239 Monroe, wells at and near---------------.................. 32 North Steel station, wells near........... 210-211 Monroe beds, occurrence of................. 35,73 Northville, fish hatchery at, springs at..... 71 Monroe County, artesian belts in........... 25 fish hatchery at, springs at, view of.... 44 flowing wells in...................... 25-32 water supply of..................... 71-72 location of............................. 25 Northville Township (Wayne County), m ap of................................. 28 lake in......................... 51 rainfall in............................. 10 springs in.............................. 71 Sylvania sandstone in, water in........ 75 Norvell, water supply of -................. 135 topography of........................ 25 wells near............................. 136 wells in............................ 7,25-32 See also Brooklyn-Clarks Lake-Norwater of......................... 33 veil district. temperature of.................... 16 Novi, water supply of................... 183 Montcalm County, flowing wells in....... 246-249 rainfall in.............................. 10 0. - springs in........................... 254 Oakland County, flowing wells in.... 176,183-196 waterworks in..................... 249-253 rainfall in.............................. 10 wells in....................... 239,246-523 topography of........................... 176 records of.................... 249,250 village supplies in......................... 183 water of, analyses of......... 252,253,267 waterworks in..................... 177-183 temperature of................ 16 wells in............................. 176-177 Monterey Township (Allegan County), plat records of............................. 177,181 of, showing well distribution... 156 water of, analyses of............... 178, Moraines, character and distribution of.... 4-6 % 179,181,182,183,186,192 Morenci, plat of, showing well distribution. 92 temperature of.............. 16 water supply of........................ Oceana County, rainfall in................ 10 wells at......................... 82,91-93 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 water of, analysis of............... 93 Ogden Center, wells at and near........... 89 Morgan, water supply of................ 163 Ogden Township (Lenawee County), plat Morrice, wells in............................. 175 of, showing well distribution... 90 Moscow Township (Hillsdale County), well wells in.........................89-91 in.............................. 102 Ogemaw County, rainfall in................ 10 Mosherville, water supply of................. 100 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Mount Clemens, waterworks at.......... 197-198 Ohio Corners, water supply of............. 153 wells at and near.............. 197,198,204 Okemos, wells in........................ 175 Muir, waterworks at...................... 245 Oneida Township (Eaton County), depth Municipal water supplies, statistics of..... 23-24 to rock in...................... 172 Muskegon River, source and course of..... 5 Onondaga, wells at.......................... 136 N. Onsted, water supply at.................. 81 Orangeville, water supply of.............. 163 Nankin Township (Wayne County), wells in 66,77 Orchard Lake, water supply of............. 183 Napoleon, water supply of................ 135 Orion, depth to rock at................... 177 Nashville, waterworks at................ 162,163 Ortonville, plat of, showing well distribuNellist, J. F., work of..................... 3 tion............................ 185 Newaygo County, rainfall in............... 10 section at, figure showing............. 184 wells in, water of, analysis of.......... 266 wells at.................................... 184-187 water of, temperature of........... 16 water of, analysis of............... 186 New Baltimore, waterworks at............ 198 Ortonville district, wells of............. 184-187 New Buffalo, water supply of............ 113,114 Osceola County, elevations in............. 5 New Buffalo district, wells in............. 114 rainfall in........................................ 10 Newburg, water supply of................. 108 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 New Haven, wells at and near........... 183,204 Oshtemo, waterworks at................ 129,130 Newport quarry, effect of, on wells......... 46 Otsego, waterworks at.................... 153 New Richmond, water supply of.......... 153 See also Watson-Otsego district. New Troy, water supply of................. 113 Otsego County, rainfall in..................... 10 Niles, waterworks of................. 111-112,113 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Nipissing, Lake and beach, location of..... 6 Otsego Township (Allegan County), plat of, North Adams, water supply of............ 100 showing well distribution...... 154 North Branch, wells near............. 214,217 wells in................................ 154 North Branch Township (Lapeer County), Otsico Township (lonia County), wells in. 235-237 plat of, showing well distribu- Ottawa County, flowing wells in......... 254-260 tion.......................... 220 rainfall in............................ 10 wells in.............................. 220-221 topography of......................... 254 ï~~288 INDEX. Page. Ottawa County, waterworks in.......... 260-266 wells in............................. 7,254-266 records of........................... 255 -256,257,258-259,260,261,263,265 water of, analyses of..... 262-263,265,266 temperature of----------------................. 16 Otter Lake, water supply of-------------............... 217 Ovid, waterworks at....................... 233 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 266 Ovid Township (Clinton County), wells in. 230 Ovitz, F. K., analysis by-----------------................... 44 Oxford, ground-water conditions at, figures showing...................... 179,180 water supply of........................ 183 dangerous character of........... 179-180 waterworks at-------------------........................ 178-180 water of, analysis of................ 179 Oxford Township (Oakland County), wells in............................---------------------- 178-180 P. Palmyra Township (Lenawee County), plat of, showing well distribution... 87 wells in----------------------------................................. 89 Pantlands Springs, location of----------............. -277 Paris Township (Kent County), springs in. 277 wells at---------------------------................................. 271 analysis of......................... 271 Parma, water supply of.................... 135 Partello, water supply of.................. 132 Pawpaw, waterworks at............. 120,121,122 wells at and near----------------..................... 122-123 water of, analysis of.:.............. 123 Pawpaw Lake, wells on.................... 118 Pawpaw River, location of................. 119 wells on.............................. 121-122 Pawpaw Township (Van Buren County), wells in------------------....................... 122-123 Penn, water supply of-------------------...................... 108 Perry, wells in............................. 175 Pine Creek, wells on...................... 122,126 Pine Grove Township (Van Buren County), wells in......................... 126 Pine Lake, wells on........................ 8 Pine River, drainage of..................... 205 Pipestone district, plat of, showing well distribution....................... 115 wells in.............................. 114-117 Pipestone Township (Berrien County), plat of, showing well distribution............................ 115 wells in........................... 111,114-117 Pittsfield, water supply of................. 100 Pittsfield Township (Washtenaw County), wells in---------------------......................... 148 Pittsfield Junction district, wells of...... 147-149 Plainwell, waterworks at----------------.................. 153 Plymouth, mineral water at................ 66-67 mineral water at, analysis of------.......... 67 water supply of-------------------........................ 71-72 Plymouth Rock mineral water, analysis of. 67 source of............................... 66-67 Plymouth Township (Wayne County), springs in...................... 71 wells in................................. 70,77 Page. Points, well, use of......................... 13 Pokagon Township (Cass County), wells in 109 Polglase, W. A., information from--..-..... 216 Ponce de Leon water, analysis of-----........... -- 271 Pontiac, depth to rock at.................. 177 water supply of------------------...................... 177-178 well at, record of--------------------....................... 177 Population, estimates of-------------................. 4,23-24 Portage, water supply of---------------.................. 130 Portage Creek, wells on-----------------.................... 130 Port Huron, rainfall at and near-----........... 11 waterworks at....................... 205, 208 Port Huron moraine, location of........... 211 Portland, water at, analysis of............. 246 waterworks at------------------....................... 245-246 Prairieville, water supply of-------------............... 163 Precipitation, records of-------------................... - 10-11 Prescott, A. B., analysis by---------------................ 79 Presque Isle County, rainfall in............ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Pulaski, water supply of................... 135 Q. Quincy, waterworks at------------------..................... 104 waterworks at, water of, analysis of.. 104 wells at................................. 105 R. Rabbit River, wells on------------------..................... 155 Rainfall, effect of, on wells--------------................. 47-48 records of----------------------...........................- 10-11,47 Raisin Center, wells at..................... 81 Raisin River, course of----------------..................... 25, 78 drainage of------------------------............................. 134 water supply from-----------------..................... 79,80 wells on................................ 150 Raisin Township (Lenawee County), plat " of, showing well distribution.. 87 wells in----------------------------................................. 89 Raisinville Township (Monroe County), wells in.......................---------------------- 30 Ransom Township (Hillsdale County), plat of, showing well distribution............................ 101 wells in.....------------------------- 99,100 Rattle Run, wells on--------------------....................... 212 Ray Township (Wayne County), plat of, showing well distribution....... 201 wells in---------------------------................................. 202 Reading, waterworks at ----.................. 99-100 wella near.............................. 99 water of, analysis of............... 100 Redford Township (Wayne County), wells in..............................-------------------------- 77 Richland, water supply of---------------................. 130 Richmond, waterworks at---------------................. 198 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 198 Rich Township (Lapeer County), plat of, showing well distribution-...... 222 wells in------------------------............................... 221-224 Ridgeway, wells at----------------------......................... 81 Ridgeway Township (Lenawee County), plat of, showing well distribution-------------------------............................ 87 River Rouge, description of-------------................ 268 ï~~INDEX. 289 Page. Page. River Rouge, drainage of............... 139,176 St. Clair County, waterworks in.......... 205-208 water of, analysis of.................. 59-60 wells in.......................... 204,205-213 pollution of....................... 58-60 records of......................... 207 water supply from..................... 53 water of, analyses of............. 206,208 wells on............................... 189 temperature of................. 16 Rivers, course of.......................... 5 St. Clair River, contamination of.......... 56 supply of.............................. 9 wells on............................... 7 water supply from.................... 24 St. Johns, waterworks at............... 233-234 SSee also Topography. wells at, record of..................... 234 Riverside, water supply of................ 113 water of, analysis of.............. 234 River Junction, water supply of........... 135 St. Johns district, wells in.............. 228-230 Rochester, plat of, showing well distribu- water of, analysis of.................. 266 tion.......................... 195 St. Joseph, waterworks at.............. 112,113 waterworks at.................. 182-182,183 St. Joseph County, flowing wells in...... 105-106 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 183 rainfall in............................. 10 wells in................................ 195 topography of......................... 105 Rock, water from......................... 25 waterworks in....................... 106-107 Rockford, waterworks at.................. 270 wells in.............................. 105-107 Rockwood region, wells of............. 41-42,44 water of, analyses of............ 106,107 Rollin, wells at and near................... 95 temperature of................ 16 Rollin Township, plat of, showing well dis- St. Joseph River, drainage of........... 110,127 tribution...................... 94 wells on............................... 112 wells in................................ 94-95 Saline, water supply of.................. 139,147 Rome Township (Lenawee County), wells Saline River, course of.................... 25 in.............................. 98 water supply from..................... 139,Romeo, waterworks at.................... 199 Saline Township (Monroe County), map of 28 waterworks at, water of, analysis of.... 199 wells of................................ 85,86 Romulus Township (Wayne County), wa- Salts, presence of.......................... 11 ter supply of................... 65 Sand, occurrence of....................... 25 wells in................................ 77 texture of............................. 9 Roscommon County, rainfall in............ 10 relation of water supply and....... 9 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 water from............................ 25 Rose Center, water supply of............. 183 Sand Creek, wells near..................... 91 Roseville, wells at and near............. 200,203 Sand Lake, wells at..................... 275-276 Rouge River. See River Rouge. wells at, records of.................... 275 Roxana Township (Eaton County), depth Sand Plains, occurrence of................. 5 to rock in..................... 172 Sandstone, water from..................... 7 wells in.............................. 169,175 Sanilac County, rainfall in................. 10 Royal Oak, depth to rock at.............. 177 wells in................................ 209 water supply of..................... 183 water of, temperature of........... 16 Royal Oak Township (Oakland County), Saugatuck, water supply of................ 153 wells in...................... 188,194 Sawyer, water supply of................... 113 Rush Lake, well near..................... 121 Schoolcraft, water supply of............... 130 Russell, I. C., on Ann Arbor waterworks... 143 School Creek, wells on................... 163-164 Russell, T., on Michigan weather.......... 11 Shaftsburg, wells in........................ 175 Sharon Township (Washtenaw County), S. plat of, showing well distribuSA- ina T~L ln atin of 6tion............................ 14 gn,,aw,, ae, ieca1, no.................. Saginaw Bay, wells at and near, head in.. 23 Saginaw County, rainfall in............... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Saginaw lobe, description and location of... 4-5, 131,160,176,213 St. Clair, waterworks at................ 205,208 St. Clair, Lake, character of-............... 52 shore of, wells on.................... 203-205 utilization of.......................... 51 water supply from..................... 198 wells on................................ 7 St. Clair County, flowing wells in....... 209-213 location of............................. 205 rainfall in............................. 10 topography of......................... 205 village supplies in...................... 280 wells in.............................. 149-1,0 Shelbyville, water supply of...................... 1,3 Shepardsville, well near, record of......... 20 Shepardsville district, wells in............ 20 Sherwood, wells at and near............ 104,1(5 Sherzer, W. 11., information from.......... 25 on Huron River region................ 44-45 on Monroe County wells.............. 29 on Wayne County..................... 48-77 work of............................... 3,26,33 Shiawassee County, rainfall in............. 10 wells in................................ 175 water of, temperature of............ 16 Shiawassee River, drainage of............. 176 Shiloh, well near.......................... 244 Sickles, Mary, information from........... 80 Silver Creek, wells near................... 214 ï~~290 INDEX. Page. Silver Creek Township (Cass County), wells in---------------------......................... 109 Silverwood, water supply of-----------............. 217,224 Silverwood district, plat of, showing well. distribution-----------------.................... 222 wells in------------------------............................... 221-224 Smiths Creek, wells at and near-..- 205,208,211-212 Soils, buried, occurrence of-------------................. 8 Soldiers Home, waterworks at------------............. 270 South Arm, wells at----------------------........................ 8 South Black River, drainage of-------............ --119 Southfield, water supply of--------------................ 183 Southfield Township (Oakland County), wells in------------............... 188-189,191,194 South Haven, waterworks at--............ ----- 120-121 South Lyon, water supply of------------.............. 183 Sparta, waterworks at------------------..................... 270 wells at---------------------------................................. 271 Spring Arbor, water supply of............. 135 Springport, water supply of............... 135 Springwells Township (Wayne County), wells in-----------------...................... 67,70,76 Stanton, water at, analyses of--------........... 252,253 waterworks at------------------........................ 252-253 State Industrial Home for Girls, water supply for----------------------.......................... 80 Steere celery farm, wells at--------........... 138,147-148 wells at, analysis of----------------.................... 149 Sterling Township (Macomb County), wells in-------------------......................... 188,192,203 Stevensville, water supply of-------------............... 113 Stone Lake, water from-----------------.................... 110 Stony Creek, course of...................... 25 Streams. See Rivers. Sturgis, water supply at................... 107 water of, analysis of.................... 107 Sulphur, presence of.....---------------- 14,25-26 Summerfield Township (Monroe County), wells in-----------------...................-.--... --31 Sunfield, wells at-----------------------........................... 175 Swan, James, information from............ -------- 33 Swan Creek, course of-------------------...................... 25 wells on and near-------------................. 33,38-40,44 Swan well, description of------------................ 43-44,74 effects of................................ 45-46 history of------------------------............................... 43-44 view of.....---------------------------- 44 water from, analysis of -........... 44 Sycamore Creek. wells on------------.........----......... ----175 Sylvania sandstone, occurrence of.......... 35,73 water from-------------------........................ 7,38,41,75 T. Taylor, E. B., on Michigan Soldiers' Home water........................... 270 Taylor Township (Wayne County), wells in............................... 67,76 Tecumseh, waterworks of----------------.................. 80 wells near.............................. 78,80 Tekonsha, water supply of---------------................. 132 Temperatures of well water, map showing... 17 records of........................... 14-20,68 Thornapple River, description of-......... 267-268 drainage of............................. 164 Thomas, water supply of----------------................... 183 Three Oaks, waterworks at............. 112,113 Page. SThree Rivers, water supply at....... 105,106-107 water supply at, water of, analysis of... 107 Tiffin River, drainage of----------------.................... --78 wells on................................ 91,92 Tipton, wells in------------------------............................ 96 Tipton district, plat showing well distribution...------------------------......................... 95 wells in.....-------------------------............................ 95-97 Topography, outline of.................... 4-6 See also particular counties. Traverse City, wells at..................... 16 Troy district, flowing wells in------------............. 15 Trenching, advantage of, in obtaining flow, figure showing---------------.................. 229 Trenton, water supply of................ 54,55,58 Trowbridge Station, wells at-------------............... 175 Troy, water supply of------------------...................... --183 Troy district, drift of-------------------...................... 191 plat of, showing topography........... 188 section of, figure showing-............. 190 wells in------------------------............................... 188-195 water of, analysis of............... 192 Troy Township (Oakland County), wells in----------------..................... 188,191,192-193 Tubular wells, description qf-------------............... 13 Tuscola County, rainfall in................. 10 wells in............................... 222,224 water of, temperature of----------........... 16 Typhoid fever, occurrence of......... 24,56-57,88 U. Udden, T. A., analyses by.................. 182 information from----------------.................... 112-114, 120, 122,123,125, 152, 201 on Avon Township---------------................... 195-196 on Birmingham wells................... 182 on Rochester wells................... 182-183 on Troy district...................... 188-194 work of... 2,3,79,82,88,91,94,100,102,116,117, 122, 125, 130, 137, 155, 176, 202, 203 Union City, waterworks at................ 105 wells near.............................. 104 Utica, wells at........................ 200,202-203 Utica area, wells in...................... 202-203 V. Valparaiso moraine, location and character of.....................111,113,119,152 Van Buren County flowing wells in...... 121-126 rainfall in--------------------------.............................. 10 springs of-------------------------.............................. 119 topography of----------------------.......................... 119 village supplies in...................... 121 waterworks in------------------........................ 120-121 wells in............................... 120-129 water of, analysis of--------------................ 121 temperature of----------------................. 16 Van Buren Township (Wayne County), water supply of............. 65,66, 67 wells in-----------------------.............................. 70,76,77 Vandalia, water supply of----------------.................. 108 Vaughan, V. C., analysis by..-..........--.... 167 on typhoid fever........................ 57,58 work of----------------------------................................. 3 Vermontville, wells at--...................... -----------------175 Vevay Township (Ingham County), wells in-------------------------............................... 175 ï~~INDEX. 291 Page. Vicksburg, waterworks at............... 129,130 Victor Township (Clinton County), depth to rock in...................... 172 Village supplies. See particular counties. Vineland, water supply of.................. 113 Viscosity Oil Company, analysis by........ 162 W. Wadhams, water supply of...............208 Wakelee, water supply of................108 Waldenburg, wells at...................... 200 Waldron, water supply of.................. 100 Walled Lake, water supply of............. 183 Warren, wells at.......................... 200 Warren Lake, location of............... 6,25,211 Washington, wells at...................200 Washington-Ray district, plat of, showing well distribution...............201 wells in................................ 202 Washington Township (Gratiot County), plat of, showing well distribution........................ 226 wells in.............................. 225,227 Washington Township (Macomb County), plat of, showing well distribution........................ 201 wells in................................ 202 Washtenaw County, flowing wells in....... 128, 138,140-141,147 gas in............................ 140 rainfall in.......................... 10 springs in.........................139 topography of...................... 138 village supplies in................... 146-147 waterworks in................... 140,142-146 wells in............................ 7,138-151 record of.......................... 145 water of, analyses of.............. 146 144,146,147,149,151 temperature of........... 16,148,149 Waste, restriction of................... 13,21-22 Water, underground, occurrence of........ 7-8 quality of............................. 14 temperatures of....................... 14-20 map showing.................... 17 Water-bearing formations, distribution of. 7-8 distribution of, map showing.......... 6 Waterford, water supply of.............. 183 Waterloo, water supply of............... 135 Watervliet, wells at and near........... 111,113 Watervliet Township (Berrien County), plat of, showing well distribution........................... 118 wells in.............................. 117-118 Waterworks, statistics of................. 23-24 See also particular counties. Watson, water supply of................... 153 wells at and near..................... 153-155 Watson-Otsego district, plat of, showing well distribution............... 154 wells in.............................. 153-155 water of, analysis of.............. 155 Watson Township (Allegan County), plat of, showing well distribution... 154 wells in.............................. 154-155 water of, analysis of............... 155 Page. Waverly, wells near....................... 124 Waverly Township (Van Buren County), plat of, showing well distribution........................... 123 wells in.............................. 123-124 Wayland, water supply of................ 153 wells at and near...................... 7 Wayland district, location of............. 154 plat of, showing well distribution...... 156 wells of.............................. 155-160 records of....................... 158-159 water of, analysis of............... 160 Wayland Township (Allegan County), plat of, showing well distribution... 156 Wayne, water supply of.................... 63 water supply of, analysis of............ 69 Wayne County, artesian belts in........... 67 bed rock in, character of............... 73 water of........................... 73-77 analyses of..................... 68 flowing wells in.................. 67-70,73-74 geology of............................. 73 Glacial deposits in, character of........ 64-65 water of........................... 65-72 analyses of.................... 68 ground water in........................ 60-77 analyses of........................ 64 lake and river deposits in, character of. 60-61 water of........................... 61-64 lakes in................................ 51 location of............................. 48 mineral wpater in...................... 66-67 population of.......................... 48 rainfall in.......................... 10,49-50 reservoirs in........................... 50-51 springs in................... 63,71-72,74 streams in............................. 52-60 surface waters of...................... 50-60 analyses of................ 55-56,58,59,60 topography of...................... 58,60-61 water of, contamination of............ 55-58 waterworks in................ 51,53-55, 59,60 wells in..................... 7,61,65-70,73-77 water of........................... 33 analyses of.............. 68,69,70,75 contamination of.............. 62 temperature of................ 16 Wayne County Infirmary, water supply of........................... 59,63-64 water supply of, analysis of........... 64,75 Weather Bureau, United States, records of. 10-11 Webberville, wells in...................... 175 Weesaw Township (Berrien County), wells in......................... 114 Well points, use of......................... 13 Wells, boring of, methods of.............. 237 descriptions of......................... 12-13 flow from, obtained by trenching, figure showing........................ 229 water of, temperature of............16, 68 map showing...................... 17 water supply from..................... 24 See also particular localities. Wells, flowing, character of................ 9,22 defects in................................ 23 districts of............................ 22 head of................................ 22-23 ï~~292 INDEX. Page. Wells, flowing, occurrence of............... 8 use of................................. 22 waste from.......................... 13,21-22 water supply from..................... 24 See also particular localities. West Holt, wells at......................---------------------.. 175 Weston, wells at........................... 80,82 Wexford County, rainfall in................ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Wheatland Township, well in.............. 102 White Fish Lake, well at................. 248-249 well at, record of....................... 249 Whiteford Township (Monroe County), wells in......................... 31 Whitneyville Springs, location of.......... 278 Whittlesey Lake, location of---------............. 6,25,67 Williams, G. S., on river contamination.... 56-57 Williamsburg, wells at..................... 16 Williamston, wells in-------------------....................... 175 Willow, wells at and near.................. 36 Willow-Exeter region, wells of.......... 35-38, 44 Winchell, A., on Kent County salt wells.... 277 Windmills, use of.......................... 13 Winfield, well at-----------------------........................... 136 Winter, effects of, on wells................. 48-47 Wisconsin stage, drift of------------------................... 8 Wixom, water supply of---------------................... -183 Wolf Creek, wells at----------...........-............ 97-98 Wolf Creek district, wells of................ 97-98 Woodland, water supply of................ 163 wells near-------------------------.............................. 163 Woodland Center, wells near----------............. 163,164 Woodmere, water supply of................ 53 Page. Woodstock, water supply of---------............... -----81 Wright Township (Ottawa County), plat of, showing well distribution... 254 wells in---------------------------................................. 255 Wyandotte, water supply.of............ 54, 57-58 water supply of, analyses of........... 58 Y. Yale, waterworks at................. 205,206-208 wells at, records of------------------..................... 207 water of, analysis of............... 208 Yale moraine, location of-------------.................. ---209 Yerkes Lake, data on-----------------...................... 51,71 York, plat of, showing well distribution... 82 York district, map of...................... 28 wells of--------------------------................................. 82-86 York Township (Washtenaw County), map of--------------------------............................... 28 wells of--------------------------................................. 85-86 Yorkville, water supply of-------------................. -130 Ypsilanti, drilling 'apparatus used at, view of--------------------------............................... 140 rainfall at--------------------------.............................. 49 water supply of........................ 145 wells at------------------------.............................- 138,140 record of-----------------------........................... 145 Ypsilanti Township (Washtenaw County), wells in---------------------......................... 138 Z. Zeeland, waterworks at.................. 265-266 Zeeland Township (Ottawa County), wells in............................. 527-258 ï~~CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. [Water-Supply Paper No. 182.] The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United States-folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of the United Statesfolios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists can be had on application. Most of the above publications can be obtained or consulted in the following ways: 1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they can be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application. 2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress for distribution. 3. Other copies are deposited withthe Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., from whom they can be had at practically cost. 4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public libraries in the large cities thruout the United States, where they can be consulted by those interested. The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, Systematic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investigations; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports. This paper is the sixty-second in Series O, the complete list of which follows (PP=Professional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS=Water-Supply Paper): SERIES O, UNDERGROUND WATERS. WS 4. A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. 65 pp., 12 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 p1s. (Out of stock.) WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 1898. 56 pp., 21 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 21 Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett. 1899. 64 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 30. Water resources of the lower peninsula of Michigan, byA. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 7 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 31. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 34. Geology and water resources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. 1900. 34 pp., 19 pls. WS 53. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho. Pt. I. by 1. C. Russell. 1901. 86 pp., 10 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 54. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by 1. C. Russell. 1901. 87-141 pp. (Out of stock.) IRR 182--06- 20 i ï~~II SERIES LIST. WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County, Wash., by G. O. Smith. 1901. 68 pp., 7 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 57. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. I, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 60 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 59. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 95 pp., 11 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. II, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 96-140 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. II, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 67 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 67. The motions of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pls. (Out of stock.) B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russell. 1902. 192 pp., 25 pls. WS 77. Water resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by Waldemar Lindgren. 1903. 62 pp., 4 pls. WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basin in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon, by I. C. Russell. 1903. 53 pp., 2 pls. PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pls. WS 90. Geology and water resources of a part of the lower James River Valley, South Dakota, by J. E. Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pls. WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris, with discussions of their uses for water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pls. WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 522 pp. WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 5 pls. WS 106. Water resources of the Philadelphia district, by Florence Bascom. 1904. 75 pp., 4 pls. WS 110. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1904; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1904. 211 pp., 5 pls. PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton. 1904. 433 pp., 72 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 111. Preliminary report on underground waters of Washington, by Henry Landes. 1904. 85 pp., 1 pl. WS 112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Hamlin. 1904. 55 pp., 7 pls. WS 114. Underground waters of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1904. 285 pp., 18 pls. WS 118. Geology and water resources of east-central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905. 96 pp., 4 pls. B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. Russell. 1905. 138 pp., 24 pls. WS 120. Bibliographic review and index of papers relating to underground waters, published by the United States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller. 1905. 128 pp. WS 122. Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. 1905. 55 pp. WS 123. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, New Mexico, by C. R. Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pls. WS 136. Underground waters of the Salt River Valley, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 194 pp., 24 pls. B 264. Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, and A. C. Veatch. 1905. 106 pp. PP 44. Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch and others. 1905. 394 pp., 34 pls. WS 137. Development of underground waters in the eastern coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 140 pp., 7 pls. WS 138. Developmentof underground watersin the central coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 162 pp., 5 pls. WS 139. Development of underground waters in the western coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 105 pp., 7 pls. WS 140. Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1905. 122 pp., 15 pls. WS 141. Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley, by C. S. Slichter. 1905. 83 pp., 5 pls. WS 142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 124 pp., 13 pls. WS 145. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1905. 220 pp., 6 pls. WS 148. Geology and water resources of Oklahoma, by C. N. Gould. 1905. 178 pp., 22 pls. WS 149. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, second edition, with additions, by N. H. Darton 1905. 175 pp. PP 46. Geology and underground water resources (if northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by A. C. Veatch. 1906. 422 pp., 51 pls. ï~~SERIES LIST. III WS 153. The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas, by C. S. Slichter. 1906. 90 pp., 3 pls. WS 154. The geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas, by C. N. Gould. 1906. 64 pp., 15 pls. WS 155. Fluctuations of the water level in wells, with special reference to Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch. 1906. 83 pp., 9 pls. WS 157. Underground water in the valleys of Utah Lake and Jordan River, Utah, by G. B. Richardson. 1906. 81 pp., 9 pls. WS 158. Preliminary report on the geology and underground waters of the Roswell artesian area New Mexico, by C. A. Fisher. 1906. 29 pp., 9 pls. PP 52. Geology and underground waters of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado, by N. H. Darton. 1906. 90 pp., 28 pls. WS 159. Summary of underground-water resources of Mississippi, by A. F. Crider and L. C. Johnson, 1906. 86 pp., 6 pls. PP 53. Geology and water resources of the Bighorn basin, Wyoming, by C. A. Fisher. 1906. 72 pp., 16 pls. WS 160. Underground-water papers, 1906, by M. L. Fuller. 1906. 104 pp., 1 pl. WS 163. Bibliographic review and index of underground-water literature published in the United States in 1905, by M. L. Fuller, F. G. Clapp, and B. L. Johnson. 1906. 130 pp. WS 164. Underground waters of Tennessee and Kentucky west of Tennessee River and of an adjacent area in Illinois, by L. C. Glenn. 1906. 173 pp., 7 pls. WS 181. Geology and water resources of Owens Valley, California, by Willis T. Lee. 1906. 28 pp. 6 pls. WS 182. Flowing wells and municipal water supplies in the southern portion of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan, by Frank Leverett and others. 1906. 292 pp., 5 pls. The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado, by G. K. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Preliminary report on artesian waters of a portion of the Dakotas, by N. H. Darton, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Illinois, by Frank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank Leverett, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and irrigation in eastern South Dakota, by N. H. Darton, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock waters of Ohio, by Edward Orton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian-well prospects in the Atlantic coastal plain region, by N. H. Darton, Bulletin No. 138. Correspondence should be addrest to THE DIRECTOR, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WASHINGTON, D. C. NOVEMBER, 1906 - 0 ï~~ ï~~Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 183 Series 0, Underground Water% 63 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR FLOWING WELLS AND MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES IN THE MIDDLE AND NORTHERN PORTIONS OF THE SOUTHERN PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN BY FRANK LEVERETT AND OTHERS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1907 ï~~ ï~~CONTENTS. Page. Introduction, by Frank Leverett-----------------------1 Scope of report------._.---------------------------------------------- 1 Geographic features--------------------------------------------------- 3 Water-bearing formations-------------------------7 Structure of drift----------------------------------------------------- 8 Character of drainage------------------------------9 Rainfall------------------------------------------------------------ 10 Ground-water table------------------------------------------------ 11 Wells and apine-------------------- ----12 Quality of water----------------------------- ------------------------ 14 Subterranean-water temperature---------------------14 Legislation---------------------------------------------------------- 21 Flowing wells--------------------------- --- ------------------------- 22 Municipal and institutional water supplies_-------------------- Muskegon County, by C. D. McLouth-----------------------25 Topography, by Frank Leverett------------------------25 Water-distributing systems------------------------25 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------26 Flowing wells.------------------------------------------------------ 26 General statement-------------------------- --------------------- 26 White Lake district------------------------27 Muskegon Lake district-----------------------31 Lake Harbor district----------------------------37 Spring Lake district-----------------------------39 Moorland district------------------------------------------------- 40 Fruitland district------- --- ------------------------------------41 Casnovia district------------------------------------------------- 41 Summary------------------------------------------------------- 42 Oceana County, by Myron L. Fuller--------------------------46 Topography------------------------------------------------------ 4 Flowing wells-------------------------------------------------- ------ 46 Flower Creek dsrc---------------- ------46 Shelby district----------------------- ------------------------ - 49 Hart district--__------------------------------------------------- 52 Crystal Valley district-- - --- --------------------53 Elbridge district------------------------------------------------- 54 Tigris district----------------------------------------------- 5 Lattin district------------------------------------------------- 56 Weare'district-------------------------------------------------56 Ferry district---------------------------------------------- -- 5 Greenwood dsrc-----------------------58 Waterworks.------------------------------------------------------- 59 Hart--------------------------------------- --------- --- ---- 5 Shelby-------------------------------------------------------- 60 Pentwater----------- ------------------------------------------ 60 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------__ __ - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -----62 ï~~IV CONTENTS. Page. Newaygo County, by Myron L. Fuller--- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - - - -62 General statement--------------------------------------------------- 62 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 63 Hlesperia------------------------------------------------------- 63 Fremont district------------------------------------------------- 65 Fremont--------------------------------------------------- 65 Fremont Lake------------------------------------------------ 67 Outlying wells------------------------------------------------ 68 Summary-------------------------------------------------- 69 Newaygo------------------------------------------------------- 70 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------- 70 Waterworks----------------------------72 Ensley district-------------------------------------------------- 73 Isolated flows--------------------------------------------------- 74 Miscellaneous village supplies--------------------------75 Mecosta County, by Myron L.Fulr-------------------75 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 75 Flowing wells-------------------------------------------------------- 76 Barryton district------------------------------------------------ 76 Sheridan Township---------------------------77 Mecosta-------------------------------------------------------- 78 Paris---------------------------------------------------------- 78 Millbrook------------------------------------------------------- 78 Town supplies------------------------------------------------------- 78 Big Rapids----------------------------------------------------- 78 Miscellaneous--------------------------------------------------- 79 Mason County, by Myron L. Fle--------------------80 General statement, by Frank Leverett---------------------80 Flowing wells-------------------------------------------------- ------ 80 Bass Lake district------------------------------------------------- 80 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 81 Miscellaneous village supis--------------------82 Lake County, by Frank Leverett------------------------82 Osceola County, by Myron L. Fle--------------------83 General statement, by Frank Leverett---------------------83 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 84 Evart---------------------------------------------------------- 84 Reed City------------------------------------------------------ 85 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 85 Evart district--------------------------------------------------- 85 Reed City------------------------------------------------------ 87 Marion---------------------------------------------- ---------- 88 Rose Lake----------------------------------------------------- 88 Springs------------------------------------------------------------ 88 No-che-mo Springs---------------------------88 Miscellaneous village supplies_-------------------------- Quality of water in Oceana, Newaygo, Mecosta, and Osceola counties, by Myron L. Fuller----------------------------------------------------- 90 Isabella County, by W. M. Gregory-------------------------92 General statement, by Frank Leverett---------------------92 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 92 ï~~CONTENTS. V Page. Isabella County-Continued. Flowing wells-Continued. Isabella basin---------------"------------------------------------ 101 Nottawa basin-------------------------------------------------- 105 Isolated flows--------------------------------------------------- 108 Mount Pleasant water supplies-----------------------109 Clare County, by Frank Leverett-----------------------------------------___ 111 General statement--------------------------------------------------- 111 Waterworks-----------------"--------------------------------------- 112 Clare---------------------------------------------------------- 112 Farwell-------------------------------------------------------- 112 Harrison------------------------------------------------------- 112 Miscellaneous town supplies----------------------112 Flowing wells-------------------------------"----------------------- 113 Sheridan Township----------------------------113 Gladwin County, by Frank Leverett----------------------113 General statement-------------------------------------_____-------113 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------ 114 Gladwin district-----------------------------114 McClure district---------------------------114 Edwards district------------------------------------------------ 115 Bay County, by W. F. Cooper-----------------------115 Flowing wells--------------------------------115 Williams Township--------------------------115 Kawkawlin Valley----------------------------------------------- 116 Fraser field----------------------------------------------------- 117 Pinconning field-------------------------117 Mount Forest field---------------------------------------------- 117 Summary------------------------------------------------------ 117 Nonflowing wells--------------------------------------------------- 118 Quality of water-------------------------"-------------------------- 120 Water temperatures------------------------------------------------- 120 Town supplies--------------------------"--------------------------- 120 Bay City and West Bay City---------------------120 Saginaw Bay drainage basin south of Bay and Isabella counties, by Charles A. Davis--------------------------------------------------------------- 121 Introduction-------- ----- ---- ---- ---- ---- --- -- ---- ---- ---- -- -- -- --121 Location and boundaries-----------------------121 Physiographic features-------------------------121 Wells------------------------------"--------------------------- 124 Types----------------------------------------------------- 124 Utilization of flowing wells-------------------125 Loss of head----------------------------- ------------------ 126 Overdevelopment_-------------------126 Leaks caused by splitting the casing------------------127 Leaks caused by rusting of casing-----------------127 Imperfect driving-----------------------------------_-- 127 Fine sand and sit-------------------128 Caving at sides------------------------------------------- 128 Obstructions put in at top of casing----------------128 Clogging of the strainer on the pon------------128 Drought in the catchment ara--------------130 Surface drainage------------------------------------------ 131 ï~~VI CONTENTS. Saginaw Bay drainage basin south of Bay and Isabella counties-Continued. Page. Tuscola County----------------------------------------------------- 133 General statement---------------------------133 Topography and water supply--------------------133 Lake-plain region----------------------------------------------- 135 Source of water--------------------------------------------- 135 Surface waters-------------------------------------------- 135 Deep-drift waters----------------------------------------- 136 Rock waters-----------------------137 Flowing wells----------------------------------------- ------ 139 Morainal region------------------------------------------------- 142 General conditions----------------------142 Flowing wells--------------------"---------------------------- 143 Arbela Township---------------------143 Fremont and Watertown townships--------------144 Wells Township------------------------------------------- 144 Valley region---------------------------------------------------- 145 Miscellaneous town supplies----------------------146 Lake-plain region--------------------------------------------- 146 Unionville-------------------"---------------------------- 146 Akron-------------------------------------------------- 146 Fairgrove---------------------------------------------- 147 Reese-------------------------------------------------- 148 Ridge region------------------------------------------------ 149 Gagetown---------------------------------------------- 149 Kingston----------------------------------------------- 149 Mayville----------------------------------------------- 150 Millington---------------------------------------------- 150 Fostoria----------------------------------------------- 151 Cass River Valley region----------------------151 Cass City----------------------------------------------- 151 Caro--------------------------------------------------- 151 Vassar------------------------------------------------- 152 Tuscola------------------------------------------------ 154 Wilmnot------------------------------------------------ 154 Deford------------------------------------------------- 154 Silverwood---------------------------------------------- 154 Genesee County-------------------------------=--------------------- 155 Topography---------------------------------------------------- 155 Public and private supplies-------------------------156 Otisville district---------------------------156 Clio district------------------------------------------------ 156 Montrose Township------------------------------------------ 157 Montrose----------------------------------------------- 157 Brent Creek-------------------------------------------- 158 Flushing--------------------------------------------------- 158 Flint Township----------------------------------------------- 158 Flint-------------------------------------------------- 158 Otterburn---------------------------------------------- 160 Richfield and Genesee townships----------------------160 -Davison and Burton townships-----------------161 Davison------------------------------------------------- 161 Vicinity of Davison---------------------------------------- 166 ï~~CONT~ENTS. VII Saginaw Bay drainage basin south of Bay and Isabella counties-Continued. Page. Genesee County-Continued. Public and private supplies-Continued. Gaines and Mundy townships_-----------------------168 Swartz Creek-------------------------------------------- 168 G*ines and Mundy area--.--.---------------169 Gaines------------------------------------------------- 170 Grand Blanc------------------------------------------------ 170 Argentine-------------------------------------------------- 171 Fenton Township--------------------------------------------- 171 Linden------------------------------------------------ 171 Fenton------------------------------------------------- 171 Atlas Township--------------------------------------------- 172 Atlas area---------------------------------------------- 172 Goodrich-----------------------"------------------------- 172 Atlas-Hadley area----------------------------------------- 173 Livingston County-------------------------------------------------- 175 Topography----------------------------175 Supplies by districts-------------------------176 Howell----------------------------------------------------- 176 Waterworks------------------------176 Flowing wells------------------------------------------- 176 Pinckney area------------------------179 Cohoctah area------------------------180 Deerfield--------------------------------------------------- 180 Hartland area---------------------------------------------- 181 Shiawassee County----------------------------------------------_-- 183 Topography----------------------------183 Supplies by districts------------------------------------------ 183 Owosso-----------------------------183 Flowing wells-----------------------------------------183 Springs------------------------------------------------ 185 Waterworks--------------------------186 Burns Township---------------------------------------------- 191 Vernon Township------------------------------------ -----192 Durand------------------------------------------------ 192 Vernon------------------------------------------------ 192 Corunna--------------------------------------------------- 193 Saginaw County---------------------------193 General statement----------------------------------------------193 Waste water--------------------------------------------------- 196 Catchment area---------------------------------------------- - 196 Flowing wells--------------------------------------------------- 196 Flows from rock----------------------------------------_---196 Flows from drift---------------------------------------------- 197 Flows by districts--------------------------------------------- 198 Merrill area--------------------------------------------- 198 Marion Township----------------------------------------- 198 Brant area--------------------------------------------- 198 Fremont Township-----------------------------------_-- 199 Swan Creek area---------------------------------------199 Luce area---------------------------------------------- 199 Albee area----------------------------------------------- 200 BirchlRun area-----------------------200 Chesaning area----------------------200 ï~~VIII CONTENTS. Saginaw Bay drainage basin south of Bay and Isabella counties-Continued. 1Pago. Gratiot County----------------------------------------------------- 202 General statement----------------------------------------------- 202 Supplies by districts--------------------------------------------- 204 Arcada Township-----------------------204 Alma-------------------------------------------------- 204 Vicinity of Alma------------------------------------------ 212 Seville Township-------------------------------------------- 213 Riverdale---------------------------------------------- 213 Elwell------------------------------------------------- 214 North of Elwell------------------------------------------- 214 Pine River Township------------------------------------------ 215 Flowing-well areas---------------------------------------- 215 Forest Hill--------------------------------------------- 218 Bethany Township-------------------------------------------- 219 St. Louis----------------------------219 Breckenridge--------------------------------------------- 220 West of Pine River---------------------------------------- 221 East of Pine River--------------------222 Summary----------------------------------------------- 223 Elbe Township---------------------------------------------- 224 Bannister---------------------------------------------- 224 Ashley area-----------------------225 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------229 Ithaca-------------------------------------------------- 229 Beebe------------------------------------------------- 229 Edgewood----------------------------------------------- 230 Elm Hall----------------------------------------------- 230 Middleton----------------------------------------------- 230 Newark and New Haven-------------------230 North Star----------------------"------------------------ 230 Ola---------------------------"------------------------ 230 Perrinton-----------------------"------------------------ 231 Pompeii------------------------------------------------ 231 Rathbone-----------------------"------------------------ 231 Wheeler----------------------------------------------- 231 Midland County ----------------------------------------------------- 231 General statement, by Frank Leverett----------------231 Supplies by districts--------------------------------------------- 232 Larkin Township-------------------------------------------- 232 Midland Township-----------------------234 Midland----------------------------234 Vicinity of Midland--------------------------------------- 237 Summary---------------------------------------------- 238 Ingersoll district-----------------------240 Greendale Township------------------------------------------ 243 Jasper Township-------------------------------------------- 243 Geneva and Warren townships, by W. M. Gregory---------245 Sanilac County, by Frank Leverett---------------------246 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 246 Waterworks-------------------------------247 Brown City---------------------------------------------------- 247 ï~~CONTENTS. IX Sanilac County-Continued. Page. Waterworks-Conti nued. Carsonville----------------------------------------------------- 248 Sanilac Center-------------------------------------------------- 248 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------248 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 249 Lexington district----------------------------------------------- 249 Buel field---------------------------252 Peck district--------------------------------------------------- 253 Valley Center area---------------------------------------------- 254 Port Sanilac fields---------------------------255 Sanilac Center field---------------------------------------------- 256 Snoover field--------------------------------------------------- 256 Argyle Township------------------------------------------------ 257 Minden City field------------------------257 Huron County, by A. C. Lane-----------------------257 General statement------------------------------------------____----257 Waterworks-------------------------------------------- ------ 259 Harbor Beach--------------------------259 Bad Axe------------------------------------------------ 259 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------260 Supplies by townships----------------------------------------------- 260 Sebewaing----------------------------------------------------- 260 Brookfield------------------------------------------------------ 262 Grant------------------------------------------------- ------ 262 Sheridan------------------------------------------------- ----- 262 Bingham------------------------------------------------------- 263 Paris---------------------------------------------------------- 263 Sherman------------------------------------------------------- 263 Whiterock----------------------------------------------------- 263 Sand Beach----------------------------------------------------- 263 Sigel------------------------------------------------- 264 Verona-----------------------------------"-------------------- 264 Colfax--------------------------------------------------------- 264 Oliver-------------------------------------------------------- 264 Winsor-------------------------------------------------------- 265 Fairhaven------------------------------------------------------ 266 Caseville---------------"--------------------------------------- 266 Chandler------------------------------------------------------- 266 Meade---------------------------- ----------------------------- 267 Lincoln----------------------------267 Bloomfield----------------------------------------------------- 267 Rubicon------------------------------------------------------ 267 Lake---------------------------------------------------------- 267 Hume--------------------------------------------------------- 268 Dwight----------------------------268 Huron-------------------------------------------------------- 268 Gore---------------------------------------------------------- 268 Port Austin---------------------------------------------------- 268 Northwest border of Saginaw Bay, by W. M. Gregory----------------269 General statement----------------------------269 Waterworks---------------------------------269 Flowing wells-----------------"-------------------------------------- 269 ï~~X CONTENTS. Page. Northwest border of Saginaw Bay-Continued. Flowing wells-Continued. Twining------------------------------------------------------- 271 Tawas--------------------------------------------------------- 274 Miscellaneous--------------------------------------------------- 279 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------281 Ogemaw County, by W. M. Gregory------------------------281 General statement, by Frank Leverett--------------------281 Miscellaneous village supplies------------------------282 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 282 West Branch area----------------------------------------------- 282 Rose City area-------------------------------------------------- 288 Manistee County, by Frank Leverett--------------------293 General statement------------------------------293 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 294 Manistee City--------------------------------------------------- 294 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------295 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 296 Arcadia-------------------------------------------------------- 296 Vicinity of Kaleva---------------------------------------------- 296 Bear Lake----------------------------------------------------- 297 Onekama, by W. M. Gregory--------------------297 Wexford County, by Frank Leverett--------------------301 Missaukee County, by Frank Leverett-------------------303 Topography-------------------------------------------------------- 303 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 304 Dolph district-------------------------------------------------- 304 McBain district-------------------------------------------------- 304 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 305 Lake City------------------------------------------------------ 305 Jennings------------------------------------------------------- 305 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------305 Roscommon County, by Frank Leverett-------------------305 Alcona County, by Frank Leverett---------------------306 Oscoda County, by Frank Leverett---------------------------------------310 Crawford County, by Frank Leverett---------------------310 Kalkaska County, by Frank Leverett----------------------312 Grand Traverse County, by Frank Leverett------------------314 General statement_-----------------------------------314 Miscellaneous village supplies-----------------------315 Flowing wells, by W. M. Gregory-------------------------315 Williamsburg area----------------------------------------------- 315 Traverse City--------------------------------------------------- 319 Benzie County, by Frank Leverett-----------------------324 General statement--------------------------------------------------- 324 Flowing wells------------------------------------------------------- 325 Thompsonville-------------------------------------------------- 325 Honor--------------------------------------------------------- 325 Beulah and Benzonia, by W. M. Gregory_--------------------327 Frankfort area, by W. M. Gregory------------------330 Waterworks-------------------------------------------------------- 330 Frankfort------------------------------------------------------ 330 ï~~CONTENTS. XI Page. Leelanaw County, by Frank Leverett-----------------------331 Antrim and Charlevoix counties, by Frank Leverett---------------333 General statement--------------------------333 Flowing wells----------------------------335 Alden------------------------------------------------- 335 Intermediate Lake district----------------------335 General relations---------------------------335 Bellaire---------------------------------------------------- 336 Central Lake------------------------337 Summary-----------------------------338 Norwood-----------"------------------------------------------- 339 East Jordan-South Arm district-------------------------339 Ironton-----"--------------------"----------------------------- 340 Boyne------"------"-----------"--------------------------------- 341 Spring-water siding-----.- - -- - - - 343 Boyne Falls--------------------------------------------------- 343 Walloon Lake district--------------------------------------------- 343 Waterworks_------------------------------------------------------- 344 Antrim County------------------------------------------------- 344 Central Lake------------------------344 Elk Rapids-------"----"---------"---------------------------- 344 Mancelona-------------------------------------------------- 344 Miscellaneous-----------------"----------------------------- 345 Charlevoix County------------------------345 Bay Shore-------------------------------------------------- 345 Boyne--------------------------"-------------------------- 345 Charlevoix-------------"-------------"---------------------- 346 East Jordan--------------------------346 Miscellaneous----------------------------------------------- 346 Otsego County, by Frank Leverett---------------------347 Montmorency County, by Frank Leverett------------------349 Alpena County, by Frank Leverett---------------------350 Presque Isle County, by Frank Leverett--------------------352 Cheboygan County, by Frank Leverett-----------------------353 General statement-------------------------------353 Springs------------------------------354 Waterworks-"--"---------------------------------------------------355 Cheboygan--------------------_---------"----------------------355 Miscellaneous village supplies--------------------------355 Flowing wells, by W. M. Gregory--------------------------------------- 355 Mullet Lake, by Frank Leverett---------------------------------- 355 Haakwood---------------------------------------------------- 356 Cheboygan--------"-----"-------"----- --------------------------- 357 Indian River area----------------------------------------------- 357 Mullet and Burt lakes--------------------------------------------- 363 Emmett County, by Frank Leverett----------------------364 General statement------------------------------------------------ 364 Miscellaneous village supplies- __---- _--------------------365 Flowing wells----------------------------365 Petosky and Bay View----.---------------------365 Harbor Springs and Wequetonsing areas_----------------366 ï~~ ï~~ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. PLATE I. Artesian water map of Michigan.-.................................. 6 II. Geologic map of Michigan8.................................. 8 III. Topographic and artesian well map of Bay County..................... 116 IV. Topographic and artesian well map of the north shore of Saginaw Bay. 270 V. A, Large flowing well from rock, Turner, Arenac County; B, Fire service test showing five streams from a single well under natural pressure, Arcadia, Manistee County.--.............................. 272 FIG. 1. Sketch map showing area covered by report........................... 2 2. General average of flowing-well temperatures in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan.........................---------------------------.........................-------------------------.. 17 3. Diagram showing fluctuations in air and well temperatures at Ann Arbor, Mich----------...................................----------------------------------..........--........... 19 4. Sketch map of Flower Creek artesian district, Oceana County........... 46 5. Sketch map of Shelby artesian district, Oceana County..-...-....-..-...... 49 6. Diagrammatic section across Shelby artesian district from north to south. 51 7. Sketch map of Hart artesian district, Oceana County................... 51 8. Sketch map of Crystal Valley artesian district, Oceana County........... 54 9. Sketch map of Elbridge artesian pool, Oceana County.................. 55 10. Sketch map of Tigris pool, Oceana County......................... 56 11. Sketch map of Weare pool, Oceana County.......................... 57 12. Sketch map of Ferry district, Oceana County.......................... 57 13. Sketch map showing flowing and adjacent wells, Greenwood district, Oceana County.......................................---------------------...........--------------------------------... 58 14. Plat of Hesperia, Newaygo County, showing location of wells and private waterworks.................................................. 63 15. Plat of Fremont, Newaygo County, showing location of waterworks and important wells-----------------------------------------------.................................................. 65 16. Arrangements at Hain well, Fremont Lake, Newaygo County............ 67 17. Map showing location of outlying flowing wells of Fremont district-....... 69 18. Plat of Newaygo, showing location of waterworks, mains, and flowing wells. 70 19. Location of Ensley flowing wells, Newaygo County, in relation to local drainage---------------------------------.............................................. -------------------73 20. Sketch map of Barryton artesian district, Mecosta County.............. 76 21. Sketch map of Bass Lake artesian district, Mason County............... 80 22. Sketch map of Evart artesian district, Osceola County................ 86 23. Profile of water beds and surface in Isabella County.................... 92 24. Sketch showing fluctuations of Abbott's well, 2 miles north of Shepherd, Coe Township, Isabella County.................................. 94 25. The Coe flowing-well district of Isabella and Midland counties-...-........ - 95 26. Cross section from Isabella to Denver Township........................ 101 27. Relation of wells near Dover, Clare County............................ 106 28. The Nottawa flowing-well district in Isabella and Clare counties, and the Isabella flowing-well district in Isabella County...................... 107 XIII ï~~XIV ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. FIG. 29. Sketch map of Montrose flowing-well area, Genesee County.............. 157 30. Sketch map showing valley in which flowing wells occur in Genesee and Richfield townships, Genesee County...-.-............-....-........... 160 31. Sketch map showing flowing-well district in Davison and Burton townships, Genesee County----------------------------------------------................................................. 162 32. Diagram showing probable relationship of the water beds across sections 10 and 11, Davison Township....................................... 162 33 Plat showing distribution of flowing wells in Davison village, Genesee County.....................................................-----------------------------------------------------.. 163 34. Map showing flowing wells in the Gaines-Mundy area, Genesee County.... 169 35. Sketch map of the Ortonville, Hadley-Atlas, Groveland, and Atlas flowingwell areas...------------------ ---------------------.................................................-------------.. 174 36. Plat of portion of Howell, Livingston County, showing flowing-well district. 177 37. Sketch map of Cohoctah flowing-well area, Livingston County -------------. 180 38. Sketch map of Hartland area, Livingston County, showing location of wells. 182 39. Sketch map of Maple Ridge Park and vicinity, Owosso, showing approximate location of flowing wells-...................................... 184 40. Distribution of wells at Owosso waterworks, on a terrace of Shiawassee River, 5 feet above low-water level....................................... 186 41. Sketch map showing location of flowing wells in Burns Township, Shiawassee County.....................................----------------------------------------------- 191 42 Plat of Alma, showing distribution of flowing wells -.....-..-......-........ 205 43. Sketch map of flowing-well district in areas 1 and 2, Pine River Township, Gratiot County...............................................----------------------------------------------. 215 44. Sketch map showing approximate position of the flowing wells in areas 3 and 4, Pine River Township, Gratiot County........................ 216 45. Bethany Township flowing-well areas, Gratiot County...-..-....-..-......-. 221 46. Plat of village of Bannister, Gratiot County........................... 224 47. Ashley and Bannister flowing-well areas outside of village wells.......... 227 48. Sketch map of Larkin flowing-well district, Midland County....-......... 233 49. Map showing distribution of flowing wells in and near Midland.-.-....-..-... 236 50. Map of Greendale Township flowing-well area, Midland County.......... 243 51. Map of Lexington, Sanilac County, showing flowing wells and neighboring springs....................................................-----------------------------------------------------.. 250 52. Contour map showing the elevation of the top of the upper Marshall sandstone above sea level............................................ 258 53. Cross section from Bayport quarries southwest, showing the relations of present surface, rock surface, flowing wells, etc...................... 259 54. Map of Pinconning, Bay County, showing distribution of flowing wells.. 270 55. Map of Twining, Arenac County, showing distribution of flowing wells 272 56. Map of Tawas flowing-well district, losco County....................... 275 57. Map of West Branch, Ogemaw County, showing flowing wells........... 283 58. Map of Rose City showing location of flowing wells.................... 289 59. Ideal section showing distribution of water beds....................... 290 60. Flowing wells in and near Onekama, Manistee County.......-....-..-..... 297 61. Contour map of Williamsburg flowing-well district.................... 316 62. East-west section through Williamsburg district_..................... 317 63. North-south section through Williamsburg district...................... 318 64. Map of southeast end of Crystal Lake, Benzie County................... 327 65. Contour map of Indian River flowing-well district...................... 358 66. Contour map of Harbor Springs flowing-well district.................... 367 67. Sketch map of flowing-well region between Conway and Indian River.... 371 68. Contour map of Oden and vicinity............................... 372 69. North-south section at Oden, showing water beds...................... 373 ï~~FLOWING WELLS AND MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES IN THE MIDDLE AND NORTHERN PORTIONS OF THE SOUTHERN PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN. By FRANK LEVERETT AND OTHERS. INTRODUCTION. By FRANK LEVERETT. SCOPE OF REPORT. A large amount of data on water supplies was collected by the writer in the course of glacial investigations made under the direction of Prof. T. C. Chamberlin in the last five years in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. These investigations resulted in a partial acquaintance with conditions in about 200 separate flowing-well districts and brought out matters of such exceptional importance that arrangements were made to extend them by examining each of the flowingwell districts in the State sufficiently to determine its essential characteristics, present state of development, and probable capacity for future development. It was arranged also that the quality of various classes of water, both surface and underground, as well as water supplies of cities and villages, should be given attention. As the mineral waters of the State had already been discussed in some detail by the State geologist, Dr. A. C. Lane, in Water-Supply Paper No. 31 of the United States Geological Survey, it was deemed unnecessary to prepare another report on that subject, but arrangements were made with Doctor Lane for embodying in this report the large amount of material which had accumulated at his office relative to other classes of water supply, and also for furnishing reports on certain counties in which special investigations had been carried on by the State survey. The results of all these studies, so far as they apply to the middle and northern counties (see fig. 1, on next page), are embodied in the present report; the remainder appears in a companion report on the southern counties of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. In completing the necessary field work for this report several persons were employed for a short time and were assigned to separate ï~~2 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. districts, as follows: Jon Andreas Udden, of Rock Island, Ill., was employed from July to December, 1904, in an investigation of the southern counties, chiefly those south of Kalamazoo River, and parts of Macomb and Oakland' counties in the eastern part of the State. Mr. Isaiah Bowman, of Yale University, was engaged for six weeks& August and September, chiefly in the region tributary to Grand River. I ND I AN A FIG. 1.-Sketch map, showing area covered by report. The ruled area is discussed in Water-Supply Paper No. 182. Prof. C. A. Davis, of the University of Michigan, was employed during July, August, and September in the investigations of the southern and eastern portions of the basin of Saginaw River. Mr. W. M. Gregory, of the department of physiography in the Cleveland, Ohio, high school, was employed during July, August, and part of September ï~~SCOPE OF REPORT. 3 in the investigation of the northwestern portion of the Saginaw River basin, and also of flowing-well districts in the northern part of the peninsula, in Cheboygan, Emmett, Grand Traverse, Benzie, and Manistee counties, to which he had previously given some attention in.onnection with stream measurements under Mr. Robert E. Horton. Mr. M. L. Fuller, of the Geological Survey, under whose direction the work was carried on, visited several of the men in the field and spent August and part of September in an investigation of the deficiency of water supplies along the Huron River Valley near Detroit, and in a detailed study of the flowing wells in four western counties, Oceana, Newaygo, Mecosta, and Osceola. Muskegon County was investigated by Mr. C. D. McLouth, of the department of physics of the Muskegon high school; Kent County, by Mr. J. F. Nellist, a civil engineer of Grand Rapids; Bay County, by Mr. W. F. Cooper, of the State Geological Survey; and Wayne County, by Prof. W. H. Sherzer, of the State normal college at Ypsilanti, who also furnished the data for the report on Monroe County. Doctor Lane, the State geologist, investigated and reported on conditions in the vicinity of Lansing and also prepared a brief report on Huron County, condensed from his more elaborate State report. The present writer's investigations during the last season were chiefly in Sanilac, Lapeer, and St. Clair counties on the eastern border of the State, and in Charlevoix, Antrim, and Benzie counties in the northwestern part. Mr. S. J. Lewis, of the United States Geological Survey, was detailed for a special investigation of the quality of waters and spent about a month in the State, in January and February, 1905, during which time he made about 90 analyses. Dr. V. C. Vaughan, dean of the medical school of the University of Michigan, kindly placed at the disposal of the Survey a large number of analyses made for sanitary purposes, but including determinations of hardness, chlorides, and sulphates. Field analyses were also made by Messrs. Fuller, Gregory, and Bowman, which will be found in connection with their reports herewith presented. Reports were.ubmitted by all those engaged in this investigation with the exception of Mr. Udden, who merely turned in his tabulated data and notebooks. Much work, however, was necessary in order to bring the several reports to a more nearly uniform standard, and the present writer has amplified portions, inserted additional data at many points, and supplied most of the geologic and other general descriptions. The several reports, however, naturally differ somewhat in mode of treatment, according to the personal standards of the individual writers. GEOGRAPHIC FEATURESo The Southern Peninsula of Michigan is bordered on its entire western coast by Lake Michigan, on the north by the Straits of Mackinac, and on the east, from north to south, by Lake Huron, St. Clair River, mL 183--06---2 ï~~4 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, successively. Its only land border is on the south, and this is divided between the States of Ohio and Indiana. The range in latitude is a little more than 4Â~, from about 41045' to about 45050' north. The area is 40,761 square miles, or about 71 per cent of the entire State (57,430 square miles). Lansing, the State capital, is situated south of the center of this peninsula. The population of the Southern Peninsula, as given in the census of 1900, is 2,169,620, or about 90 per cent of the population of the entire State (2,420,982). The population is very largely in the southern half. If a line be drawn midway between the northern and southern ends, only two cities, Manistee and Alpena, with populations exceeding 10,000, will be found to the north, while there are 14 such to the south. Fifteen counties of the northern half of the peninsula, with an aggregate area of 8,160 square miles, had in 1900 a combined population of only 93,704, or less than one-third the population of the city of Detroit (285,704). In consequence of this unequal distribution of population there is an unequal development and utilization of water resources. In the northern counties there are entire townships which have no records of wells or tests of underground water supplies, while in the southern counties the underground water supplies have been tested sufficiently to afford a fair basis for this report. The map, P1. II, presents the principal reliefs of the peninsula. It will be observed that a plain 20 to 40 miles wide runs along the southeastern edge of the State, rising from less than 600 to about 800 feet above sea level. This plain was covered by ice from the Huron and Erie basins and later by large Glacial lakes. West of this is a prominent belt of rolling country about 25 miles wide interspersed with numerous small lakes and representing a strong development of morainic topography. Its altitude ranges from about 800 to 1,300 feet, with a general elevation of nearly 1,000 feet. This constitutes a catchment area from which the waters are distributed to the east and the west both in surface streams and underground courses. The head furnished the underground waters in this catchment area gives rise to numerous flowing wells which are found on the plains to the southeast and to the northwest. A broad plain extends from Saginaw Bay southwestward well toward the southern edge of the State. Through this plain an ice lobe, known as the Saginaw lobe, is found to have flowed, its extreme limits on the southeast being marked by the belt of morainic country just mentioned, on the northwest by an equally prominent morainic belt, and on the southwest by moraines of less prominence lying in the southern end of the State. During the retreat of this ice lobe there were halts at several lines which are marked by small morainic ï~~GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES. 5 ridges. These small ridges serve as catchment areas for flowing-well districts on the inner or iceward border of the moraines. West of the district covered by the Saginaw ice lobe is another rolling belt of country running from the southwestern part of the State northward nearly to Grand Traverse Bay. Like the belt in the southeastern part of the State, this contains numerous small lakes. Its altitude ranges from about 800 to 1,700 feet, the highest point being a few miles south of Cadillac, in northern Osceola County, near latitude 440 15' and longitude 850 20'. This is by far the highest point in the Southern Peninsula, there being few others which exceed 1,500 feet. This belt was formed between the Saginaw ice lobe and a still larger ice lobe occupying the Lake Michigan basin. It is a catchment area for flowing-well districts on each side, and there are also depressions in it found to be favorable points for the development of flowing wells. This belt is crossed by the principal rivers of southern Michigan (the Grand, Kalamazoo, and St. Joseph), while Muskegon River has its source in it in the north-central part of the State and leaves it only a few miles before entering Lake Michigan. Along the eastern border of Lake Michigan, from the southern end of the State northward to Oceana County, or to about the middle of the western border of the Southern Peninsula, the country is generally low for a few miles back from the lake, with the exception of a strip of dunes formed adjacent to the present beach. But from Oceana County northward to the Straits of Mackinac there come out to the lake shore at frequent intervals headlands which are the termini of prominent ridges that form or connect with moraines a few miles back. The low tracts between these headlands are favorable places for the development of flowing wells. The interior of the northern half of the Southern Peninsula is an elevated tract in which extensive sand plains have been developed in connection with the moraines. On these plains and on some of the moraines connected with them there formerly stood extensive tracts of pine forest, now largely cut away. Since the lumbering days the plains have been developed somewhat for agriculture, but are still in large part sparsely settled. On the northeastern border of the peninsula, from near Alpena to the Straits of Mackinac, rock ledges become conspicuous as a topographic feature; but elsewhere in the State they are subordinate to the glacial features outlined above. The rock ledges have low escarpments facing the northeast, along the base of which are occasional small lake basins. The drift in this region is thin, and wells are consequently largely in rock. On the projecting point between Little Traverse and Grand Traverse bays, in the northwestern part of the peninsula, is a drumlin area ï~~6 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. to which attentionis directed in the discussion of Antrimand Charlevoix counties, in which it appears (pp. 333-335). The features of the State thus briefly outlined receive fuller treatment in connection with the discussion of each county. On the retreat of the ice from the basins bordering and including the Great Lakes large bodies of water were held between the ice and the rims of these basins. One, in the Lake Michigan basin, was known as Lake Chicago and discharged southwest from the site of that city to Illinois River. Another, in the Saginaw basin, was known as Lake Saginaw and discharged westward through Grand River into Lake Chicago. A third, covering the western end of Lake Erie and the southern part of Lake Huron, stood at several successive levels in accordance with the lowest available outlet, the highest being known as Lake Maumee with its outlet past Fort Wayne to the Wabash and later past the present site of Imlay, Mich., westward into Grand River and Lake Chicago. Below this is the largest shore line of the series, known as the Belmore beach, which borders Lake Whittlesey, whose outlet was westward from the present site of Ubly, Mich., into Lake Saginaw. A little lower than the Belmore beach is the Arkona, which antedates the Belmore and was submerged at the time the Belmore was forming. The lake which formed the Arkona beach was probably confluent with Lake Saginaw and discharged westward through Grand River to Lake Chicago. Two lower beaches, known as the Upper Forest and the Lower Forest, mark the border of Lake Warren, which covered the Saginaw and southern part of the Huron basin as well as Lake Erie, and discharged westward, for a time at least, through Grand River to Lake Chicago. Below the Forest beaches are two others, known as the Grasmere and Elkton, which appear to be the shores of a lake that discharged eastward past Syracuse, N. Y., to Mohawk and Hudson rivers. At still lower levels are beaches which are conspicuous on the borders of the Lake Huron and Lake Michigan basins, especially in the vicinity of the Straits of Mackinac. One is known as the Algonquin beach; Lake Algonquin, which formed it, discharged along the present line of drainage through Lake Erie to the Ontario basin into a Glacial lake known as Lake Iroquois, whose outlet was through the Mohawk and Hudson. A lower beach, known as the Nipissing beach, borders a post-Glacial lake, Lake Nipissing, and was formed as the lake was changing from a discharge eastward from Georgian Bay through Mattawa and Ottawa rivers into the St. Lawrence to the present line of discharge through St. Clair River. The sand and gravel in these beach.ridges and on the lake beds frequently serve as sources of supply in shallow wells, water being found at the base of the sand or gravel. ï~~INTRODUCTION. 7 WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. The greater part of the Southern Peninsula is covered so deeply with drift that wells do not reach rock. The shaded portions of the map, P1. I, show the parts of the State where rock is within easy reach of the drill and is drawn upon to some extent for drinking water. In the northern end of the peninsula water is found chiefly in limestone if not in the drift. There is also a limestone district in the southeastern part that serves extensively as a source for drinking water; in some cases in southeastern Lenawee County the wells are driven through shale to reach the limestone. The extensive district running from Hillsdale and Calhoun counties northeastward to Saginaw Bay obtains water chiefly from sandstones of the coal measures and from the Marshall sandstone, if water is not found in the drift. There are, however, small limestone districts in this region the full extent of which have not been worked out. Sandstone is also drawn upon occasionally in western Wayne, southern Washtenaw, and northern Lenawee counties in the deep flowing wells. The Sylvania sandstone of Monroe County is also an important water bearer, yielding a good quality of water. There are small areas around Grand Rapids-in Kent and eastern Ottawa counties-and around Wayland, in northeastern Allegan County, where wells are driven to the Marshall sandstone. Water is found in the glacial formations at various horizons, wherever gravel or sand chance to be present. The clay plains bordering St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and Detroit River are deficient in gravel and sand, and are perhaps the poorest water bearers in the peninsula. As a rule, water in large quantities is easily obtained in the drift. Even in the regions where wells are driven to rock, as indicated by the shaded portions of P1. I, there are numerous wells obta:ing water from the glacial deposits. The water from rock is usually softer in sandstone areas than that from the overlying drift, and for that reason is preferred and is the cause for going to the rock in many instances. The sand along the present shore, and also along abandoned shores of the Great Lakes, is often of sufficient depth to furnish water, though not that of the best quality in many cases. It so happens that these sand deposits occur on parts of the lake plain where the glacial formations are deficient in water-bearing beds and thus become of great importance locally. In general, however, the water from the underlying glacial formations is preferred and is used wherever it can be easily obtained. The newest formations drawn upon for water are the beds of bog lime bordering the little lakes. Pipes are driven down into the marl sometimes with a sledge hammer far enough to get the water. In some cases, in the northern part of the State, flowing wells have been ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. obtained by penetrating the marl a few feet. Conspicuous instances are found on the borders of Pine Lake at East Jordan, South Arm, and Boyne, and on the borders of Intermediate Lake near Bellaire. STRUCTURE OF DRIFT. The structure of the drift is intimately related to the drainage conditions that attended the melting of the ice. It is more variable in Michigan, both on the surface and below, than in a large part of the neighboring States of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In those States the till or commingled drift greatly predominates over the sand and gravel or assorted drift and contains a large percentage of fine clayey material. In Michigan, sand and gravel form a large part of the drift, and much of the till is loose textured. The great amount of loose-textured drift seems attributable to the voluminous discharge of water resulting from the convergence of ice lobes. It is best developed on the high portions of the State, which were built up between the ice lobes. The most clayey portion of the drift is found in plains bordering the lake basins. On these plains more difficulty is found in obtaining adequate supplies of water than in the higher tracts bordering them. Portions of the plains have a thin coating of sand deposited in the beds of the Glacial lakes that covered them after the withdrawal of the ice, and in these localities many wells draw their supply from the surface sand. Flowing wells are usually found under a bed of clayey drift, and for this reason, as well as because of topographic conditions, the largest artesian districts are found on the old lake plain. The clayey drift differs greatly in degree of induration at different horizons, and the sand and gravel also become cemented at certain horizons. The induration in the clay or till seems to be largely a result of secondary changes produced slowly, and is in some cases an index of age. The surface-till sheet, which is of the Wisconsin stage, is generally a soft, adhesive clay, even where very fine textured, and well diggersand drillers find very little difficulty in penetrating it. Below this the drift is found to be extensively indurated, so that excavation is difficult, and the till approaches a shale in its resistance. The precise nature of the induration has not been ascertained. It is thought that much of this indurated clayey drift was deposited in a Glacial stage earlier than the one that formed theupper part of the drift-probably the Illinoian stage. In some places a soil appears between the two sheets of till, showing that an interval separates them. The buried soils are much more abundant in northern Indiana than in southern Michigan, but they have been noted in well borings as far north as Bay and Oceana counties. Another kind of induration of the drift is very common in flowingwell districts. Just above the water bed which yields the flow is found a cemented crust, having a thickness usuallyof only a few inches. ï~~rr!,,l;END i. ErT '~~2 CHEW) tft PR I 11 \i _. 4. ALPENA:.. oU IIa~ h 114-ENI 1z 1 2 KAL SK - _ _5484.5419 1 CJ.A+.O 143SCD L ) 7 0 7 8 18 MEk~ I7 jI <. - I 28. WFX1"OR1 { 1171 'I~949899 24. 0, C+ 1FOLAt5 %d %yv74~n'U 2'. C- C ï~~CH=ARACTER OF DRAINAGE. 9 This crust is apparently due to contact with the water, but the precise chemical or physical changes that have produced it have not been given much attention. In some cases it has the appearance of bog-.. iron ore and in others it is chiefly carbonate of lime. Probably the quality of the water determines the nature of the crust. A crust has also been frequently noted in sand and gravel deposits just above the water table, where it is somewhat constant at a definite horizon. It is a common experience to find sand so close textured that it will not furnish water fast enough to supply the wells. Such sand is encountered in the plains, perhaps, more frequently than in the rolling or morainic belts. It is the custom in such places to continue the drilling to a looser textured bed, though in some localities no such bed is found. If a looser textured bed is reached, the water often rises in the pipe to a higher level than in the overlying sand, the sand apparently serving as a cover to prevent the upward escape of water from the porous bed. In a few places flowing wells have been obtained in which nothing but sand was penetrated from the surface down to the coarser bed that yielded the flow. CHARACTER OF DRAINAGE. The character of the drainage depends on the structure of the drift, as well as on the topography. Where the soil is very loose textured, as on gravel plains and on many of the larger moraines, very little surface run-off occus, so that even the steep hillsides show little or no gullying. Basins are numerous on the gravel plains and to some extent along the moraines. When of sufficient depth to extend below the water table, they contain water, but a large proportion of them are so shallow as to have dry bottoms. The drainage lines are therefore best developed in the clayey portions of the State, where the rainfall can not be quickly absorbed by the soil. The regimen of the stream varies also in accordance with the structure of the drift. Where the drift is loose textured, the streams are supplied by seepage from the underground drainage and are not subject to freshets nor to very low stages, but in the clayey tracts, where the surface drainage is the principal factor, there is a marked difference between the high- and low-water stages of the streams. Often, however, the sources of the streams are in districts having a loose-textured drift, while the lower courses run through clayey districts. In such cases the streams have a correspondingly regular flow. Data concerning the flow of the principal streams of the peninsula may be found in the reports on stream measurements, which appear in the water-supply series of the United States Geological Survey. The regularity of flow, as well as the considerable fall of the principal streams of the peninsula, ï~~10 WELLS ATND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. renders them valuable for water power to an exceptional degree, considering the small size of their drainage basins. The subject of water power, however, is not taken up in the present report. RAINFALL. From the reports of the Weather Bureau it appears that the rainfall is greatest in the southern tier of counties and decreases northward to a little beyond the middle of the peninsula, where a change occurs toward heavier precipitation. This is set forth in the following table, which gives the average precipitation by tiers of counties from south to north, each tier having a uniform width of 24 miles: Average annual precipitation in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. Inches. First or southern tier (Monroe to Berrien County).--. --.................... 34.59 Second tier (Wayne to Van Buren County)............................ 31.99 Third tier (Macomb to Allegan County)............................. 30.81 Fourth tier (St. Clair to Ottawa County)...._......................... 31.19 Fifth tier (Sanilac to Muskegon County).-..-......................... 30.66 Sixth tier (Bay to Oceana County)- ---------- " ------ 27. 21 Seventh tier (Arenac to Mason County)..-............................ 25.44 Eighth tier (Iosco to Manistee County)................................ 26.62 Ninth tier (Alcona to Benzie County).............................. 33.04 Tenth tier (Alpena to Leelanau County).-...............-..-........ 32.53 Eleventh tier (Presque Isle to Charlevoix County)......-.................... 28.07 Twelfth tier (northern Cheboygan and Emmett counties)....................... 31.41 Average for the peninsula................................ 30.30 The distribution of precipitation by months and the percentages by seasons in the southern, central, and northern sections of the peninsula are given in the following tables, which are based on the monthly rainfall data of the Weather Bureau: Average monthly rainfall in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. [Inches.] Month.Southern Central Northern Month. third. third. third. January----------------------------------------------------.............................................................. 2.33 1.96 2.42 February---------------------------------------------------............................................................. 2.31 2.16 1.60 March-----------------------------------------------------................................................................ 2.68 3.09 2.20 A pril................................................................ 2.34 2.16 1.86 ay.................................................................. 3.68 2.73 2.70 June-------------------------------------------------------.................................................................. 3.54 3.00 2.80 July......................................................-------------------------------------------------------. 3.43 2.96 4.47 August-----------------------------------------------------............................................................... 2.64 2.58 2.08 September--------------------------------------------------............................................................ 2.76 2.98 3.41 October----------------------------------------------------.............................................................. 2.48 2.40 3.10 November--------------------------------------------------............................................................ 2.82 2.44 2.28 December---------------------------------------------------............................................................ 2.47 1.53 1.60 ï~~RAINFALL AND GROUND-WATER TABLE. 11 Distribution of precipitation in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan by seasons. [Per cent.] Season.Southern Central Northern Entire Season third. third. third. peninsula. Winter (December to February).......................... 21.23 18.73 18.40 19.45 Spring (March to May).................................... 26.00 26.43 22.15 24.86 Summer (June to August)............................... 28.70 28.28 30.63 29.20 Autumn (September to November)....................... 24.07 26.56 28.82 26.48 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.99 It appears from the above tables that the rainfall is most deficient in the winter months at a time when the frozen ground would prevent its absorption, but is well distributed throughout the growing season all over the peninsula. It should be noted that the greater evaporation in the southern part of the peninsula causes it to be a drier region than the northern part, notwithstanding the fact that it has a little more rain. Determinations made at signal-service stations, and discussed by T. Russell in the Monthly Weather Review for September, 1888, show that the evaporation near the southern border of the State is 37 to 38 inches a year, while in the latitude of Port Huron and Grand Haven it is about 29 inches, and at Alpena 24.3 inches. Only a small part of the evaporation occurs in the winter months or during the time of deficient precipitation, so the deficiency is not noticeable. Indeed, as a rule snow remains continuously over much of the peninsula from December to March. GROUND-WATER TABLE. The ground-water table as ordinarily understood marks a level to which the saturation of the earth's crust rises. In a region of heavy rainfall it is commonly very near the surface, but in arid regions it may lie at a considerable depth and is sometimes beyond the general direct percolation of the rainfall, there being a moist layer at the surface supplied by the rainfall under which the material is dry down to the ground-water table. Ordinarily the ground-water table in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan lies only a few feet below the surface, within easy reach of the roots of trees and other plants. A few places, however, have been revealed by well borings in which comparatively dry material is present between the moist surface beds and the ground-water table. The most conspicuous instance is found in Emmett County north of Little Traverse Bay, where the wells on an elevated table-land underlain by gravel and sand reach depths of 350 to 400 feet before striking the water table; instances of this are cited in the discussion of the county (p. 364). The rainfall in that region appears to moisten chiefly the surface portion, but is yet adequate to the needs of the forests, orchards, and crops. On many of the elevated gravel plains the water table is 40 to 60 feet, and ï~~12 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN 1MICHIGAN. occasionally 100 feet below the surface, and wells must be driven to these depths to obtain water, and yet vegetation ordinarily thrives on these plains. Similar conditions are found in a number of the prominent moraines, in which a sheet of bowldery till at the surface is underlain by sand and gravel of considerable depth. The till at the surface is kept moist by the rainfall, so that the crops obtain the necessary water. In all these localities there are probably places where conditions are such that the rainfall percolates directly down to the water table, but there does not appear to be a general percolation to this depth. Where the ground-water table lies only a few feet below the surface, and the percolation of the rainfall to it is general, marked fluctuations are found in its level corresponding with the amount of rainfall. The underground drainage into the streams is maintained in times of drought as well as in wet seasons, and the water table drops down or flattens out beneath the hills to depths sufficient to seriously affect not only the crops but the supply for wells. As a result the so-called surface wells (which are merely basins sunk into the upper part of the ground-water table) are being rapidly abandoned and driven wells reaching to deeper supplies substituted. This condition is also conducive to health, for many of these shallow or surface wells are receptacles for all sorts of filth. There is a slight variation in the ground-water table due to barometric changes, the level of water in the open wells being highest in times of low barometer or just before a storm. It is barometric fluctuation of this sort which produces the blowing wells reported at various points in the State. According to the testimony of well owners the barometric conditions also affect flowing wells, an increase in the rate of flow resulting from a decrease in atmospheric pressure. An instance of remarkably high water table is found in the dunes along the shore of Lake Michigan, where a fine or uniform textured sand in sharp ridges with a height of 200 feet above the lake is found to be wet to within a very few feet of the surface. Because of this condition some of the dunes are covered with hardwood forests. WELLS AND APPLIANCES. One of the most common types of well is the large open or dug well, walled or curbed, which furnishes a basin in which the water collects or stands.- This kind of well is in very common use on the farms, and is also in use as a collecting reservoir in the villages for the waterworks supply. In districts where the drift is of a clayey texture and the yield of water is small, these large wells serve a valuable purpose as collecting basins, and in, many cases can not be dispensed with even though known to be more or less subject to surface contamination. ï~~WELLS AND APPLIANCES. 13 A type in use locally, especially in clayey districts, is known as the bored well, the excavation being made by means of a large auger. These wells are usually lined with tile. They can be sunk without difficulty to depths of 50 to 100 feet. Some of the oldest flowing wells in southeastern Michigan are of this type. A type which is coming into very general use throughout the State is known as the tubular well. It is made with the ordinary churn drill, the material being brought up by means of a sand pump. The size of thesewells ranges from 2 inchesor less to about 8 inches. They are in very common use in the villages for obtaining public water supplies, as well as throughout the country districts. Ordinarily they are driven some distance into the water bed, making up in vertical direction for the small diameter of the well, no casing being used after entering the water bed. Where flowing wells are obtained, however, it is customary to stop the drilling about as soon as the water bed is reached. The drills used in making wells of this type are usually handled by steam or horsepower, but in some instances only hand power is used, the drill being lifted by a windlass a few feet and dropped into the hole. In some cases no drill is used, but the pipe is driven to the water bed, the material being removed by a sand pump if the well is deep or if it has a large-sized pipe. Shallow wells with small pipe are often driven through to the water bed without sand pumping. It is common to attach a sharp perforated cone or "point " to admit the water, which aids in reducing the resistance to driving the pipe. In some cases these wells are made by simply using a maul to drive the pipe. In the discussion by Mr. Davis attention is directed to strainers or screens, which are employed in the tubular wells, and to the clogging which they experience (pp. 128-130). Windmills are in very common use throughout the State as a means for lifting the water to the surface. In some of the deeper wells on elevated tracts the windmill has become a necessity, for the water in some instances has to be lifted about 200 feet-one case was found in which the lift was 400 feet. In this well a 12-foot wheel was in use. Many flowing wells are allowed to discharge the water without restriction, but there is a growing sentiment in favor of using reducers or faucets to prevent waste. a In some cases pumps have been attached in order to prevent the slop attending the flow or, where the wells are weak, to increase the supply. a For State laws on this point see p. 21. ï~~14 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. QUALITY OF WATER. The chemical character of the water, both surface and underground, has been considered at some length by Doctor Lane in Water-Supply Paper No. 31, where numerous analyses are presented. The present report contains many additional analyses, some of them made by chemists in the laboratory and some by men in the field. Although the latter are designed to show. the general characteristics of the waters, without pretense to the accuracy of a laboratory analyses, the results are usually correct within a few parts per million. In general, the waters from all horizons, both surface and underground, in the Southern Peninsula are hard compared with waters found in regions in which readily soluble rocks, like limestone and gypsum, are not present. There are very few waters in which the carbonate of lime is less than 50 parts per million. Salt is present in varying amounts, from a mere trace up to several thousand parts in a million. An analysis of one water from the drift made by Mr. Lewis shows 2,829 parts per million of chlorine, the well being supplied presumably from water contributed to the drift from the underlying sandstone. Ordinarily the drift waters show less than 25 parts per million. Sulphated and sulphureted waters are found at various points in the State, both in the drift and in the underlying rock, but ordinarily the drift waters have very small amounts of sulphureted hydrogen gas and sulphates seem to be principally in the portions of the State where gypsum forms a conspicuous ingredient in the drift, as in the region bordering Saginaw Bay, and reached by the Saginaw glacial lobe and in the region near the gypsum outcrops around Grand Rapids. Iron is commonly supposed to be present in large amount in the flowing wells, and in wells of similar character whose waters are confined below impervious beds. In some cases its presence is proved by the staining of objects over which the water passes, but in many instances what seems an abundant iron-oxide precipitate is in the main a vegetable growth of alga. The few available analyses indicate that the amount of iron is small compared with other mineral constituents. SUBTERRANEAN-WATER TEMPERATURE. Considerable attention has been given to the temperature of the water in flowing wells in order to obtain information concerning the heat gradients due to depth and to latitude. It was found, however, that the temperatures obtained are of very little value in showing the increase of heat with depth, for as a rule wells in a given district having variations of 100 or even 200 feet in depth, if in the glacial deposits, are very similar in temperature. The circulation of subterranean ï~~SUBTERRANEAN-WATER TEMPERATURE. 15 waters appears, therefore, to be such that little value can be determined concerning the heat gradient within 200 feet of the surface. The change in temperature corresponding to the latitude, however, is very marked, there being a difference of about 5.5Â~ in about 40 of latitude between the northern and southern ends of the peninsula. The air temperature shows a similar range, but averages about 40 lower than the water temeprature. The true temperature of the water at the bottom of a well can be obtained only in wells of rapid flow having but little exposure of pipe. Nor can the pipe be carried horizontally through the soil without affecting the temperature. It was not possible in the hasty examinations in the field to determine the causes of variation from the bottom temperature in any given well, since this would necessitate much inquiry into all the surrounding conditions. As a result many of the temperatures given in the numerous tables of data concerning flowing-well districts are liable to be misleading. Interesting variations in temperature of the wells of a given latitude suggest several problems. For example, wells in swamps are generally a little cooler than wells of similar depth on the dry land, especially if the wells are comparatively shallow in both cases. Thus the wells in the celery swamp south of Ann Arbor have a temperature of a little less than 500 F., while those on the dry land in the vicinity are commonly 51Â~. The question arises whether the evaporation from a swamp, being greater than that from the dry land, may not prevent the heating of the soil beneath to the degree experienced in that region on ground where evaporation is less; also whether the slow heat conductivity in a swamp may not cause waters beneath it to have exceptionally low temperature. The flowing-well district in southeastern' Oakland County known as the Troy district has salt water in its eastern portion and fresh water in its western portion from wells of similar depth, and the temperature of the salt water averages somewhat lower than that of the fresh water. The salt water probably comes up from the underlying rock, and one would naturally expect it to be warmer instead of colder than water supplied entirely from the drift. The observations on temperature were made in 1904, when the air temperature was considerably below the normal, the average temperature for the year being 2.70 below the normal throughout the peninsula. This raises the question whether flowing wells of moderate depth may not have suffered a slight lowering of temperature because of this deficiency in heat received by the surface. On the whole flowing wells less than 30 feet in depth are found to present a slightly lower temperature than do wells exceeding that depth, but there are so many exceptions that some doubt is felt as to the lowering effect of the low air temperature of 1904 on even the shallowest of the ï~~16 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. flowing wells. Some of the very shallow flowing wells may, however, receive contributions of water from considerable depths, from beyond the influence of the low air temperature. In the city of Ann Arbor there are springs having a uniform temperature of 510 throughout the year which must come from depths sufficiently low to have been unaffected by the low temperature of 1904, or even by the winter severity of cold. There are certain districts in which the temperature is different from what would be expected for that part of the State, a conspicuous case being the wells in the vicinity of Grand Traverse Bay, in Antrim and Grand Traverse counties, the temperature of which is generally 480 to 50,Â~ whereas about 470 is to be expected. The high temperature at Traverse City may. be referable to the great depth of the wells, the general depth being over 300 feet, but this would not apply to the shallow wells at Williamsburg and around Intermediate Lake. There is, however, a possibility that these shallow wells are supplied by water rising from considerable depths. The observations on temperatures were taken by several thermometers which have not as yet been standardized. They were, however, compared by tests made on the same wells at Ann Arbor and found to agree within a fraction of a degree. Errors from this source are not likely, therefore, to be appreciable. In the table below the general averages of air and water temperatures are presented for each tier of counties, as in the rainfall table already given, the counties being of the uniform width of 24 miles. The excess of the water temperature above the air temperature is probably in large part due to the blanketing effect of snow, which prevents the earth from reaching the low temperature which the severity of winter might otherwise give it. The extent to which this and other factors, such as the topography, the character of the soil, etc., apply, is a matter difficult of determination. General averages of air and water temperatures in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. [Degrees F.] Excess Air. Water. of watertemperature. First or southern tier (Monroe to Berrien County)....................48.25 52.25 4 Second tier (Wayne to Van Buren County)............................ 48.1 51.3 3.2 Third tier (Macomb to Allegan County).............................. 47.0 50.3 3.3 Fourth tier (St. Clair to Ottawa County)............................. 46.4 50.1 3.7 Fifth tier (Sanilac to Muskegon County)........................... 46.5 49.4 2.9 Sixth tier (Bay to Oceana County)............................ 45.5 48.9 3.4 Seventh tier (Arenac to Mason County)............................ 44.5 48.1 3.6 Eighth tier (losco to Manistee County)........................... 43.4 47.7 4.3 Ninth tier (Alcona to Benzie County).............................. 43.6 47.8 4.2 Tenth tier (Alpena to Leelanau County).............................. 41.3 47.2 5.9 Eleventh tier (Presque Isle to Charlevoix and Emmet counties)........ 43 46.8 3.8 ï~~SUBTERRANEAN-WATER TEMPERATURE. 17 The averages of water temperatures given in the above table are based on the temperatures of strong wells which appear to have been subject to little surface heating. They fall slightly below an average based on all the wells, weak and strong. The accompanying 4Sto10 46to49 47to 050 48to51. 49t052 50 tO53 o:o o o e miles FIG 2.-General average of flowing-well temperatures in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. W map (fig. 2) presents the results of a grouping of all the wells except those that are known to be subject to surface heating. Monthly observations were made between May, 1904, and May, 1905, at Ann Arbor, Mich., on the temperature of springs and wells of various classes, an attempt being made to include all the classes within ï~~18 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. easy reach of the city. Three springs were selected-one on State street issuing from the base of a gravel deposit, another on the White estate west of the city issuing from the base of a till bluff, and a third which bubbles up from the bed of a ravine on the Rash property in the western part of the city. Five shallow dug wells and one deep dug well were taken because of the various conditions which they include, one being in a ravine, another on the brow of a bluff, another on a gravel terrace, and two others on an elevated moraine, one being covered and the other open. The deep dug well maintains a water level 40 feet below the surface, while the shallow wells have water within 5 to 22 feet of the surface. Two shallow tubular wells, in one of which the water stands near the surface and in the other at a depth of 18 feet, were selected, and two deep tubular wells which overflow. The tubular wells showed very little range in temperature, but the dug wells varied greatly. The bubbling spring showed a steady temperature, while the springs issuing from the hillside were influenced by the seasons. The lagging of the effect of summer heat and winter cold was a matter of principal interest in connection with the observations on the dug wells, the effect of the former culminating in October and that of the latter about April. The accompanying diagram (fig. 3) sets forth this feature, while the observations are presented in the following table: ï~~H H z I l l I [9 4( 9P 5 II AN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. Air temperature -- Shallow well with wooden pump - - - - - - Shallow well with iron pump --- - Shallow well with windlass and bucket - - - - - FIa. 3.-Diagram showing fluctuations in air and well temperatures at Ann Arbor, Mich. ï~~Observations on wells and springs in and near Ann Arbor, Mich., May, 1904, to April, 1905. Name and location. State street spring; base of gravel, piped Issui several rods. White estate spring; base of bluff, piped.....d several rods. Rash spring; bed of ravine.............. Boili Buehler well, in ravine................... Dug Rash well, on bluff, 34 feet above Rash.....d spring. Schaeberle well; on gravel terrace capped.....d by clay. Levy well; on terrace sunk through.....d gravel into till. Observatory well; on moraine, with.....d plank cover. Carroll well; on moraine near observa-.....d tory, no cover. Niederhammer well; on slope of ravine.. Tubs Dunn well; on South State street, in old Tubs Huron River channel. Lutz flowing well; in ravine.......... Tubt Hutzel flowing well; in ravine...........d Air temperatures at Ann Arbor, from. daily observations at the observatory. Temperature (yÂ~F.). Class. Pump. Depth Head in feet. in feet. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. ng.....----------................ 0 0 51.2 53 54.5 55.5 54.8 53.5 50.3 47 lo....-...................0 0 50.8 51 51.3 51.5 51 50.3 49.8 49 ng.....-------................. 0 0 51 51 51 51 51 50.8 50.7 51.............. Wooden.. 12 -10 45.5 47.5 49 50 51.2 52 51 49 o............ Iron.... 23 -22 45 47 48 48.9 49.9 51 50.5 48.8 o............ Wooden.. 18 -19 46.5 48.5 49.5 51.6 52.4 53.52 49 lo............ Iron..... 80 -40 48.3 49 49.8 50.5 51 51 50.5 50.5 o-..........None..... 15 1 45 46.5 48 51 52 52.5 50 46.9 o............ Windlass. 24 {-22 46.5 46.5 48 50 49.6 50.3 48.9 45 ular (2-inch). Iron... - 36 -18 50 51 51 51.15 51.15 51.1 51.4 50.3 ular............do... 28 - 2 49.8 50.5 50.3 51 51 51.5 50.8 50.5 ular (2-inch).. None_.... 112 + 3 51.1 51 51 51 51 51 51 50.8 Io............ do.... 72 a + 5 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51..................... 58.4 66.7 70.8 67.3 62.2 49.4 37.2 22.9 a Original head +22 feet; loss of head due in part to leakage around pipe. Jan. I Feb. 45 49 51 45.8 46 47.5 50.3 41 37 49.7 50.5 50.8 51 22.7 42.5 51 45 46 45.5 46 37 40 50 50 50.8 51 16.5 Annual Mar. Apr. averages. 42.5 46 49.8 49 49.7 50.2 51 51 50.95 44.3 44 47.86 45.5 45 47.6 44 45.8 48.77 48.3 48.3 49.5 43 41.6 46.2 41 45 45.57 50.2 49.8 50.57 50 49.5 50.45 50.8 51 50.9 51 51 51 37.7 44.8 46.4 z 0 Hi 0 ï~~INTRODUCTION. 21 LEGISLATION. There are two important legislative acts in reference to Michigan water supplies, copies of which are presented below: [Act No. 43, Public Acts of 1897; 4484-4486, Compiled Laws, 1897.] AN ACT to provide for the analysis of water in use by the public in certain cases. The people of the State of Michigan enact: SECTION 1. That in any case where any city, village, or township in this State shall be supplied with water for domestic uses by any individual, company or corporation, city or village, or where there is within such city, village, or township any water in swales, wells, rivers, or other places, which might be the cause of disease or epidemic, a sample of such water may be sent to the University of Michigan for analysis, by the mayor of such city or village, or by any alderman or trustee of such village, or by the supervisor of any such township, upon the resolution of the common council of such city, or board of trustees of such village, or the township board of such township, for that purpose duly passed. SECTION 2. Upon receipt of such sample the regents of the University of Michigan shall cause a correct analysis of such sample of water to be made, and a correct statement of the properties contained therein, with a further statement whether or not such sample contains any substance deleterious to health, and return such analysis together with the statement aforesaid to the person so sending the same, free of charge, except the actual cost of materials and animals used in making such analysis and experiment. SEcrrloN 3. It shall be the duty of the board of regents of the University of Michigan to cause a record to be kept of every sample of water received under and by virtue of this statute, and in no case shall a second analysis be required of the same water within one year except in the case of the breaking out of some disease among the consumers of such water, and then only upon the certificate of at least two physicians engaged in active practice in that community that in their opinion such disease arises from the use of said water. Approved March 26, 1897. [Act 107, session of 1905.] A BILL to regulate the use of artesian and other wells to prevent the waste of waters therefrom, and provide a remedy therefor. The people of the State of Michigan enact: SECTION 1. Any artesian or flowing well, the water of which is unnecessarily allowed to run to waste in an unreasonable manner to the depletion or lowering of the head or reservoir thereof to the detriment or damage of other wells supplied from the same head or reservoir, shall be deemed a nuisance, and its owner and the owner of the land on which it is situated shall be subject to all the actions for abatement and damages in favor of the person or persons injured that are or may )be provided by law for other nuisances or tortious acts. SECTION 2. Where any well is supplied by a head, reservoir, stratum, or vein, or by percolating waters common to other streams or wells, and the owner thereof or his lessee or licensee puts its waters to a use unreasonable or unnecessary, in view of the condition and situation of the land on which it is situated, and through such unreasonable or unnecessary use, lowers or depletes the head, pressure, or supply of water of any spring or well dependent on the same head, vein, or stratum, to the detriment or injury of the owner or any person entitled to the use thereof, the well so unreasonably and unnecessarily used shall be deemed to be a nuisance, and its owner and the owner of the land on which it is situated shall be subject to all the actions for abatement and damages in favor of the person or persons injured that are or may be provided by law for other nuisances or tortious acts. SECTION 3. Where any decree is rendered under this act declaring any well a nuisance because of the waste or unreasonable use of its waters and directing the abatement thereof, such decree shall specify in some practicable manner the daily amount or volume of water ï~~22 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. that may be used or allowed to flow therefrom without violating such decree, and specify such reasonable time as to the court shall seem just within which the provisions thereof shall be carried into effect: Provided, That any such decree may be reopened at any time after entry on the question of reasonable use on a proper showing of change of circumstances or other equitable reason therefor. FLOWING WELlS. Although the number of flowing-well districts already exceeds 300, it is probable that many more can be developed in low places either among or along the borders of the moraines and in the valleys of streams. The fact that wells are usually placed near the dwellings and that the sites of the dwellings are naturally on well-drained and usually elevated points account for the small amount of testing that has been made on the lower land, where flows might be expected. The flowing wells already in operation have been put to comparatively little use and there seems to be a general lack of appreciation of the applications that can be made of these fountains. It is a common thing to find flowing wells running to waste in dooryards in rural districts in seasons of drought when the gardens and lawns are suffering for lack of water. In many cases it would be necessary only to attach a hose to obtain means for properly irrigating the premises. The wasted water might also in some instances, by the installation of a hydraulic ram, be forced to tanks in the attics of farmhouses, where it would have pressure necessary for distribution through the buildings and would also afford a supply for fire protection. In some cases the wells have been used to fill ponds stocked with fish and thus yield a valuable resource for farm and market--a device which might be more generally adopted. The principal use to which flowing wells have been'put, however, aside from furnishing water for domestic and farm use, is that of cooling milk in the dairy houses, the very uniform temperature of the water fitting it admirably for this purpose. In some flowing-well districts a loss of head has been reported, and in many districts individual wells are either losing head or have fallen short of the full head customary at the time of their construction. Where the loss of head is general throughout a district it may be inferred that there is an overdevelopment by which the water is drawn out faster than it can be supplied from the surrounding formations. The Ann Arbor waterworks furnishes a case in point, the water drawn from the small field in which the wells occur having been sufficient to stop those on the border of the field from flowing. Often a single strong well on ground lower than the neighboring wells will draw down the head sufficiently to stop the wells from flowing. In cases of this kind the law pertaining to the restriction of artesian wells should be enforced. There seems to be a growing appreciation of the need for checking the flow of the strong wells and reducing the waste which is sure in time to work to the detriment of the district. ï~~FLOWING WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES. 23 Flowing wells are often deficient in head and rate of flow because of defects in the casing which allow leakage into upper strata where the water pressure is less than in the lower portion of the well. The head is also deficient where water is allowed to rise around the casing. This is in some cases due to imperfect driving of the casing and might be guarded against. Any obstructions either in the bottom of the well or at the top tend to reduce the head. Instances are found where, through carelessness, wells which had been cut off near the surface of the ground were so filled by sand washed in from above as to cease flowing. The district in southeastern Michigan in which a large number of flowing wells have failed was investigated and is reported upon by Mr. Fuller, who attributes the loss of head chiefly to drought and surface drainage. Wells in certain regions have lost head through subsurface drainage, several instances of which are found in the coal-mining region bordering Saginaw Bay. The extensive pumping necessary to remove water and permit mining operations to be carried on draws down the head for considerable distances around, and often deprives the border district of its flows. The conditions under which flowing wells may be obtained are so various that the reader is referred for detailed information to the special reports presented below. MUNICIPAL AND INSTITUTIONAL WATER SUPPLIES. In the entire State there were at the beginning of the year 1906 about 250 cities and villages and at least 15 State institutions provided with waterworks systems. About 50 of the villages, however, use water chiefly for fire protection, and in some cases they have no distribution systems. The population of.-the towns and institutions provided with waterworks aggregated about 1,150,000 in 1900, when the last Federal census was taken, but in most of the towns a large part of the people have not connected with the public supplies and still continue the use of private wells. On the basis of the number of taps reported it is estimated that in the cities with a population between 10,000 and 100,000 about two-thirds of the people are connected with the public supply, and in towns of less than 10,000 population one-half or less are thus connected, while in Detroit, the only city with more than 100,000 population, nearly all are connected. From this it appears that the probable actual users of public supplies are between 750,000 and 800,000, say 775,000, or 32 per cent of the entire population of the State in 1900 (2,420,982). Of these, nearly 600,000, or about 24 per cent of the population, are supplied from surface water and less than 200,000 from wells. Of those not, connected with public supplies probably not more than ï~~24 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 20,000 depend upon springs and surface waters, while about 1,625,000, or two-thirds of the State's inhabitants, depend upon private wells. There are 37 towns on the borders of the State, with a population of about 510,000, which obtain public supplies from the Great Lakes and their connecting streams-St. Marys, St. Clair, and Detroit rivers. The metropolis, Detroit, with a population of about 300,000, is among the number. The water from this source is not so hard as from the majority of the wells, and is therefore especially suitable for boiler use. In an unfiltered state it is often found to be unwholesome and in some cases dangerous for drinking, because of contamination in the vicinity of intake pipes. The worst epidemics of typhoid in the State have prevailed in towns taking their supply from this source. It is therefore incumbent on the cities and villages thus situated to put in filtration plants with up-to-date methods of purification. Indeed, all surface water, including that from springs, streams, and inland lakes, should be properly filtered before it is used for drinking or other domestic purposes. Many of the inland towns have taken public supplies from the streams and inland lakes, the population of such towns aggregating about 300,000. In not a few cases, however, the domestic use of the public supply is largely restricted to closets, baths, and lawn sprinkling, while private wells are used for drinking, there being considerable prejudice against drinking the public supply, not alone for fear of its contamination, but because it is less palatable than the well water. This is especially true in hot weather, when the surface water becomes too warm to readily quench thirst. The streams and lakes are seldom rendered objectionable for drinking because of a muddy condition due to freshets, for on account of the prevalent porosity of the soil the rainfall is absorbed, and except in clayey districts is lrgely supplied to streams by underground seepage. Only the most violent rains cause much disturbance of the streams. Michigan is more highly favored in this respect than the neighboring States. Of the cities drawing public supplies from wells only 5 had in 1900 a population of more than 10,000, namely, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lansing, Ann Arbor, and Manistee. The supply at Jackson is from deep wells in sandstone and probably is not excelled by any city in the State. Lansing also obtains its supply from sandstone. The three others obtain supplies from glacial deposits or from the overlying gravel. Many smaller cities, the majority of villages with public supplies, and several of the State institutions are entirely supplied from wells, there being 29 using wells in rock and 104 using wells in the drift, while 15 others are supplied in part from wells and in part from surface water. The rock wells are chiefly from ï~~WATER SUPPLIES OF MUSKEGON COUNTY. 25 sandstone, those from limestone being almost wholly restricted to the Northern Peninsula and to the northern part of the Southern Peninsula. Many data concerning the public as well as private supplies from wells will be found in the special reports herewith presented. WATER SUPPLIES OF MUSKEGON COUNTY. By C. D. McLOUTH. TOPOGRAPHY.a Muskegon County borders Lake Michigan near the middle of the east side of the lake, the city of Muskegon being the county seat. It is drained centrally by Muskegon River, while White River crosses its northwest corner and Crooked Creek, a tributary of Grand River, its southeast corner. Along the shore of Lake Michigan are several wide-mouthed streams, some of which head but a few miles inland. Muskegon and White rivers also enter lakes near their mouths. The county is very largely a sand plain, though there are prominent moraines in the eastern end and weaker ones in the northwestern part, in which productive land is found. On the sand plains water is ordinarily obtained at depths of 25 to 50 feet, the water table being in harmony with neighboring streams, but on the moraines the wells vary greatly in depth within short distances, irrespective of elevation, because of the irregular distribution of water beds. WATER-DISTRIBUTING SYSTEMS. In Muskegon County four communities have public distributing systems, viz, Muskegon, North Muskegon, Whitehall, and Montague, while Casnovia has fire cisterns. In all of these the water is used for fire protection and for lawns and gardens, and in all except Montague and Casnovia for general domestic use as well: In Muskegon a considerable quantity of the water is used for general mill purposes. In Whitehall such use is limited to refilling boilers. In the Muskegon system water flows from the lake by gravity into two wells at the pumping station, from which it is distributed by direct pressure through 4 miles of 24-inch, 2 miles of 16-inch, 3 miles of 12-inch, 1 mile of 10-inch, 1 mile of 8-inch, 26 miles of 6-inch, and 11 miles of 4-inch mains. At Whitehall the ordinary supply is pumped from four wells described on pages 28-29. The water is stored in large tanks, from which it is drawn and forced through the mains by a pump larger than those working in the wells. Before the wells were opened the supply was drawn from White Lake, and the old intake is still cona By Frank Leverett. ï~~26 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. nected with the distributing pump and is used in case of fire or other emergencies. At Montague water from a small brook is collected above a dam and pumped into the mains. Casnovia has a municipal supply stored in cisterns for use in fire protection. The following table gives the statistics for the waterworks systems in the towns. All are owned by the municipality and all use steam power for pumping. Statistics of water-distributing systems, Muskegon County. I I I PopuTown. lation Sou (1900). Muskegon....... 20,818 Lak 41 North Muskegon. 513 Bea: fe Whitehall...... 1,481 Fou Montague....... 998 Bro Town. Muskegon................... { North Muskegon............ Whitehall..................{ Montague.................. rce of water. e Michigan, at feet. r Lake, at 7 et. r wells........ ok reservoir... Pressure. D Pounds. a40 b85 f b40 b120 b)170.... Depth of well. Feet. 20 None. 67 Water bed. Sand........ do.......do..... Mucky.. Quality of water. Pump. Medium hard.... Holly vertical. Soft............ Walker. Medium soft..... Downie deep well double-acting. Soft........... )aily capacity. Gallons. 6,000,000 1,000,000 72,000 Mains. HyMains. drants. Miles. 48 600 5 40 4 40 1.5 17 When Taps. Cost. huilt.en 21,000 $450,000 1891 175 28,000 1884 160 20,000 1892........ 4,350..... c Ordinary. a Domestic. b Fire. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. Village supplies in Muskegon County. Dept Town. Source. FromFeet. Bailey............ Open and driven wells...... 10 Canada Corners.... Wells and springs........... 9 Casnovia.......... Open and driven wells; cis- 25 terns for fire. Holton............ Driven wells............... 25 Lake Harbor...... Driven wells and lakes...... 25 Ravenna.......... Bored wells................ 10 Slocum............ Driven wells................ 12 Sullivan...............do-..................... 24 th of wells. ToFeet. 30 20 100 30 35 130 20 32 Common. Feet. 25 20 25 30 30 24 Depth to Head. water bed. Feet. Feet. 30 -15 20........ 25......... -40 25..... 30 -20 130...... - -.. -20 Springs. Small. Large. Small. Large. Small. Do. Medium. None. FLOWING WELLS. GENERAL STATEMENT. The flowing wells known in this county seem to indicate seven districts, which may be designated (1) White Lake, (2) Muskegon Lake, (3) Lake Harbor, (4) Spring Lake, (5) Moorland, (6) Fruitland, and (7) Casnovia. ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 27 The first four of the districts named are very much alike in surface features. Each includes a lake, from which it is named, and the narrow shore margins and the underlying portions of the more or less extensive marshes and river valleys continuous therewith. The elongated lake troughs all have a general direction from northeast to southwest and extend from about 4 to 7 miles inland from Lake Michigan, into which all have outlets. The principal feeders of these lakes enter through marshes and the valleys in which they flow exhibit such features of continuity with those of the lakes as to leave little doubt that the lakes are but drowned valleys where the streams once flowed directly into Lake Michigan, when its level was lower relatively to the land surface. The land in the region including these districts is mostly a plain of glacial sand, having an elevation of about 50 feet a at the north and descending gradually to lake level at the south. A moraine traverses all these districts, except perhaps that of Spring Lake at the extreme south, its prominence compared with the sand plain being much greater northward. Throughout this region the surface stratum of coarse sand generally extends to some depth below the lake surface, consequently the water that falls upon the land in the vicinity of the lakes and their larger tributary streams filters down near to surface level of the lakes, thus making the water table low. The other three districts differ from the lake districts so greatly and have so little in common among themselves that no general description is applicable. WHITE LAKE DISTRICT. Topography.-In the vicinity of White Lake the crest of the moraine is of medium height and has a general direction nearly at right angles to the length of the lake. It is intercepted by the marsh, White River seeming to have cut a gap about 1I miles long in the moraine. Montague lies north from the head of the lake and Whitehall on the east about a mile down the lake. The crest of the moraine lies outside both corporation limits, running northward on the east side of Whitehall and nearly northwest on the north side of Montague. The morainic till, at an elevation of about 50 feet, extends into the northern part of Montague and to the lake bluff in the northern part of Whitehall, constituting perhaps one-half the area of the latter place. From White Lake to Lake Michigan the surface is mostly a sand plain, which is 50 or more feet above lake level where it meets White Lake, in the vicinity of Montague, and seems to overlap the edge of the moraine. The same sandy features continue to the south and east of the lake, but with less even surface. a All altitudes, unless otherwise stated, are given in feet above Lake Michigan. ï~~28 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells.-All the wells, except one at the United States life-saving station at Lake Michigan, are in Montague and Whitehall. Thus a large part of the district is undeveloped. Most of these wells are situated near the border of White Lake, the farthest being not more than 1,000 feet from the water margin, and a number are on docks built into the lake. More than one-half of the wells are less than 5 feet above Lake Michigan. The shallower ones, which are also the most remote from the lake shore, are on higher ground, between 10 and 15 feet above lake level. The wells which have flowed in this district number somewhat more than 25. Most of them are still active and yield about 70,000 gallons daily, including 50,000 gallons pumped from four wells at the Whitehall municipal plant. The depth of the wells varies greatly. The shallower ones referred to above are near the edge of the moraine in Montague and vary from 28 to 40 feet in depth, one of them being possibly only 18 feet: There are eight wells clearly belonging to this group. The most satisfactory record obtained was that for the well in the village hall, driven by R. D. Hall, the village marshal, in the autumn of 1903. The record follows: Record of well at Montague. Depth (feet). Depth (feet). Muck--------............................------------------------------------------------------ 4-5 Red clay..............................------------------------------------------------------------. 5-6 Quicksand........................-----------------------------------------------------------...7-8 Blue clay..................................------------------------------------------------------------ 15 Fine sand, coarse sand, and water. Another well which should probably be classed with those just described is in the Montague iron works, about 400 feet toward the lake from the village hall well. Its record is very indefinite, although it was driven in the spring of 1904 and is the latest well opened in that vicinity. The depth is stated to be between 40 and 50 feet. It is remarkable in having water which stands several feet lower than in the others. The water from all these wells is soft. Nearer the lake and on lower ground are two old wells said to be between 60 and 70 feet in depth, both of which are more "sulphury" and "irony." No definite records were obtained. The temperatures were 0.50 and 1.50 C. higher than that of the water from the well in the village hall, the difference of 10 between the two evidently being caused partly by unequal exposure. On the Whitehall side the four 6-inch wells from which the village supply is pumped are 67 feet deep, the strata being as follows: Record of Whitehall village wells. Depth (feet). Sand..............................................---------- --- 12 Blue clay-----------------------------...............---------- 57 Sand............................................................ 67 ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 29 About one-half of the wells in Whitehall are stated to have depths running between 55 and 70 feet, and presumably their records are represented in a general way by that of the village wells. The well of the Nufer Cedar Company, located some 700 feet southwest from the pumping station, may be taken as an example. Its elevation is several feet lower and its depth 57 feet, all through blue clay below a level 10 feet lower than that of the water of White Lake. The deepest well found is the one at the life-saving station. This has a well-authenticated depth of 153 feet, entirely through blue clay below 12 feet. The nature of the water bed is not known. The well was driven by W. H. Dennis in 1887. At the office of L. T. Covell, very near the head of the lake, is a well 129 feet deep, which, so far as known, is next in depth to the Government well. Its water is decidedly strong in mineral quality. The character of the strata is not remembered by the owner, but he states that there were sand, clay, and some marl, and that turbid flowing water was found at 54 feet. The well was driven by Peter Denneau, of Montague. It appears, therefore, that there may be several sources of the flowing wells in this district. The two deepest ones must penetrate nearly to bed rock, if, indeed, they do not reach it. It seems fair to suppose that the shallow wells in Montague have their sources in the moraine and that the veins tapped are not essentially different from those that break out in numerous springs along the foot of the bluff. The municipal wells of Whitehall represent another class supplied from a sand stratum between strata of blue clay which probably lie below the greatest depth of White Lake. Mr. W. F. Nufer, of Whitehall, asserts positively that the first well to flow in this district is the one farthest to the south in Whitehall and located on the property of the New York Mill Company. It was put down about 1868 by Mr. George M. Smith of the firm of C. A. Alley & Co. Its depth is 107 feet. It is still flowing. Mr. J. W. Young, of Montague, claims that the well in the blacksmith shop at the corner of Water and Spring streets antedates all others in Montague and Whitehall. The well was dug with a spade, evidently without expectation of finding a flow. After the hole overflowed with water a pipe was inserted and the earth was returned. Mr. Young places the date at 1873. The well of Mary Reed (see p. 31) is stated to have been put in about 1870. Quality and uses of water.-The character of the water has been referred to above in relation to the various depths. Mr. S. J. Lewis, of the United States Geological Survey, analyzed samples from well No. 25 in the Montague village hall, 37 feet deep, and from No. 18 on village property near Church street, said to be 62 feet deep, and found ï~~30 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the chlorine content to be very low compared with that in water from Muskegon wells. (See p. 37.) Most of these wells were opened to get water for drinking purposes. Three of the shallow Montague wells along Water street are in private houses, and the water serves for general household uses. The one in the Montague iron works supplies water for cooling. The water from the well at the life-saving station is reported to be "soft" and suitable for "family use." The Whitehall village supply is taken in houses, stores, and stables, and used on lawns and gardens, for fire protection, and in the mills for refilling boilers. Head.-Except in a very few cases the water head is not known. Mr. Berndt Carlson, keeper of the life-saving station, found by careful trial that the water there would rise 8.5 feet above Lake Michigan. Water from the well in Montague village hall has been carried in a pipe that was found to be about 12 feet above the Pere Marquette rail at the station, which indicates a head of 20 feet or more above lake level, and from appearances a similar head is present in the shallow wells, except in that at the Montague iron works, which does not flow, although, according to the statement of Mr. R. D. Hall, who was present when the well was finished, the water then rose about 2 feet above ground. The Whitehall municipal wells now rise only a foot or two above the ground, or about 6 or 7 feet above the lake. Mr. J. H. Williams, who was president of the village at the time the wells were opened in 1892, states that the rise then was fully 6 feet above the ground. It is notable that the wells which are pumped, viz, those at the Whitehall plant and the Montague iron works, have suffered a loss of head. At the iron works the maximum amount pumped per minute is estimated at 10 gallons, and this is sometimes continued for hours. The supply has not been noticed- to fail. At Whitehall waterworks the four wells are placed so that the lines joining them form a trapezium, the least distance between two wells being about 25 feet, the greatest about 50 feet. When one of these wells is pumped alone at full capacity the water is lowered slightly in the others. When all the wells are in good order and are pumped simultaneously the yield per well is estimated at about 80 per cent of that when pumped singly. The opening of these wells caused a striking instance of loss of head in a well located about 200 feet northward and owned at that time by Mr. A. T. Linderman. This well was 82 feet deep and would flow at a height a little above ground, but ceased when the village wells began to flow. The depleted well appears to be on slightly higher ground. It is stated that by digging down and lowering the pipe the water was found to have fallen about 4 feet, and that the flow was kept up at the lower level for a time. The well is now not in use. ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 31 About 120 feet still farther north is a flowing well formerly owned by Charles Johnson, but now the property of E. Duttenhoefer. The flow of this well was diminished at the same time as that of the Linderman well, but not to so great a degree. It does not flow at present. Many of the wells continue to yield water nearly or quite as abundantly as when they were put in. A well by the mill of L. T. Covell, which was flowing about 5 gallons a minute in the summer of 1900, was not flowing in November, 1904. The cause is not known. The flow of the well at the life-saving station is stated to have diminished. A well at the corner of Colby and Lake streets in Whitehall, owned by Mary Reed, was put in about the year 1870 and had ceased to flow about ten years ago from accumulation of sand and silt. When it was pumped out, the flow was restored, and it now yields about one-half gallon a minute. The pipe is 41 inches in diameter and the depth 96 feet. This is possibly the oldest flowing well in the district, although the claim it disputed. In November, 1904, three of the Whitehall public wells were useless, and the entire ordinary supply was being drawn from one well. In February following one of the three was being pumped with a moderate yield. The cause of stoppage was not definitely known. Mr. Charles Deane, the engineer, thought that "magnesia" had accumulated on the sieves and that this, with the fine sand in which the sieves lie, effectively clogged the meshes when the pressure of the pump was applied. Mr. Deane asserts that the sieves do not corrode. Cost of wells. -A few typical wells cost as follows: Cost of wells in White Lake district. iam- Cost. Owner. Depth. teeter. Total. Per foot. Feet. Inches. United States Life-Saving Service.................................. 133 2 $174 $1.20 M ontague village..................................................... 37 2 25.67 NuferCedar Co............................................. 57 5 57 1.00 W hitehall village..................................................... 110 2" 100.91 MUSKEGON LAKE DISTRICT. Topography.-The moraine occurs here nearly parallel to the shore of Lake Michigan and about 3 miles inland. It is decidedly lower than it is to the north, barely exceeding 55 feet at its greatest elevation, and being entirely covered by sand except at a prominence on the south shore of Muskegon Lake, known locally as "Brewery Hill." About 1 mile of the moraine has been cut out in forming the trough occupied by Muskegon Lake, and the section of the bluff where the moraine meets the lake on the north side shows 20 feet of sand overlying the ridge. ï~~32 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. This district properly includes Bear Lake, a tributary of Muskegon Lake from the north. The water head, as shown below, seems to decrease toward the upper end of Muskegon Lake, and the same decrease continued would extinguish it 2 or 3 miles upstream from the head of the lake, thus making the limit of the district some 10 miles inland from Lake Michigan. These indications, however, are not borne out by a well belonging to Leon J. Smith in the marsh in the NE. 4 sec. 17, T. 10 N., R. 16 W. The well is about 2 miles northeast from the upper well in the lake proper and flowed with a head of 12 feet when first opened in 1898. The surface is probably not less than 6 feet above the lake, thus making the head above the lake about 18 feet. It would seem, therefore, that the river valley may be expected to afford flowing wells for many miles up. Wells.-With very few exceptions, the wells in this district are on the water side of the original shore line. They were located on docks and built land adjacent to the sawmills to furnish drinking water for the mill crews, and their elevations therefore are generally very low. The highest well, which belongs to Frank Alberts, is on the north shore of Muskegon Lake, on natural land 9.5 feet above the lake. About 15 flowing wells have been opened here. The total natural flow of water from those remaining active is about 15,000 gallons daily, to which must be added 50,000 to 100,000 gallons pumped from the well at the plant of the Central Paper Company. About 10 wells are now flowing. In this district most of the wells are so old that reliable information as to their strata is not obtainable. Three comparatively new wells, two on the north side and one on the south side of the lake, have records that are presumed to be accurate. Of these three, the one on the south shore, owned by the Central Paper Company, located in the SW. 4 NW. 4 sec. 35, T. 10 N., R. 17 W., has a record as follows: Record of well of Central Paper Company, Muskcegon. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand..-----.------------------------------------------------------------ 40 40 Blue clay (lake clay?)---------------------------------............................................................ 197 237 Hardpan---------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 2 239 Sandstone-------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 57 296 Depth to water, 237 feet. Surface elevation, 13 feet above Lake Michigan. Across the lake, 2 miles slightly east of north from the site of the paper mill, in the SE. 4 sec. 23, T. 10 N., R. 17 W., is a well on land owned by Dr. J. G. Jackson, which was drilled by C. C. Jacks in December, 1901. The record stated for this well is as follows: ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 33 Record of Jackson well near North Muskegon. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay (probably morainic till)- - --...............................................50 50 Q uicksand....................................................................... 3 53 Clay............................................................................. 7 60 Q uicksand....................................................................... 2 62 Clay (probably marly lake clay)-............................................ 170 232 "Hardpan".....-............................................................ 2 234 "Soft material"..-........................................................... 2 235 'Hardpan "................................................................. 1 237 Surface elevation, 1.5 feet above Lake Michigan. The third recent well is 4 miles nearly due northeast from the paper mill in the SE. I NW. I sec. 18, T. 10 N., R. 16 W. It was drilled for Gow & Campbell by C. C. Jacks in 1901. The record was given as follows: Record of Gow & Campbell well, Muskegon. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand........................................................................... 40 40 Clay............................................................................. 164.5 204.5 "Water rock"............................................................. 1 205.5 W ater........................................................................... 1.5 207 Surface elevation, Lake Michigan level. The surface stratum of clay in the Jackson well is doubtless the edge of the moraine of till, the crest of which lies about one-half mile east under a cover of sand, as stated above. The well is by the edge of the water at the outlet of Bear Lake, where the sand cover has been worn away. The other two wells are probably beyond the extent of the moraine, one west, the other east. Nearly due south, 1 miles from the Gow & Campbell well and about 3 miles east-northeast of the paper mill well, is a deep hole, drilled several years ago in search for oil. The record was carefully taken and is as follows: Record of well about 3 miles east-northeast of paper mill, Muskegon. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand........................................................................ 65 65 Lake clay (?).................................................................. 160 225 Till or "hardpan"..............................................................10 235 Surface elevation, about 10 feet above Lake Michigan. The four records given exhibit a uniformity that is significant. The quadrilateral drawn with the wells at the angles includes about onehalf of Muskegon Lake and more than 50 per cent of the deep wells on its borders. It is probable that the records of all the wells are essentially like those given. The bed rock penetrated in the two ï~~34 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. borings on the south side is a white micaceous sandstone of the Marshall group. None of the flowing wells are known to extend into this rock, but it is presumed that all, with one exception, reach it and that it forms their water bed. The water pumped from the well at the paper mill is evidently from the same source and would flow if the elevation of the well were a few feet less. The exceptional well to which reference has just been made is in the shade-roller factory of the Stewart Hartshorn Company, near the foot of "Brewery Hill," mentioned above as a conspicuous part of the moraine. The well is 57 feet deep, and the strata penetrated were given as follows'by Hubert Young, the driller: Record of well of Stewart Hartshorn Company, Muskegon. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sawdust....................................................---------------------------------------------------------------........... 7 7 Lake sand-------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 10 17 Marly clay-------------------------------------------------------------....................................................................... 10 27 Sand and clay-----------------------------------------------------------.................................................................... 3 30 Sand and gravel....--------------------------------------------------------- 10 40 Open water-bearing sand........................................................ 3 43 Quicksand....-------------------------------------------------------------- 7 50 Sand and clay---------------------..............................----...----------------------------------......... 7 57 At 40 feet water was found that rose about 6 feet above Lake Michigan. At 57 feet the head was about 10 feet. Assuming the depths of wells approximately correct as given, the inference follows that there is a general and decided dip of bed rock to the west, but by comparison of the two most reliable records only (those of the experimental oil well and the paper-mill well) the dip appears much less. Head.-The head evidently varies somewhat in the wells of this district, appearing to rise westward and northward. The highest rise of water was observed at the Alberts well, located near the mouth of Greene Creek in the NW. NW. sec. 22, T. 10 N., R. 17 W., where there is a strong flow of water at about 12 feet above Lake Michigan. The owner states that about twenty years ago the water from this well was piped into the second story of a boarding house near by, rising 18 feet above the surface or about 16 feet above the present exit, making about 28 feet above Lake Michigan. The statement of Mr. Alberts can be questioned only on the supposition that the house stood on somewhat lower ground, so that he was deceived as to the actual height. A man living near the well states that the present head is about 15 feet above Lake Michigan. At the paper-mill well, nearly 21 miles to the south, the rise of water is between 10 and 12 feet above the lake. At the Jackson well, somewhat less than a mile south of east, the head is about 9 feet. Four miles north of east from the Alberts well, one of the Gow & Campbell wells, on the site of a mill formerly operated by John Tor ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 35 rent, had a head of 7 feet at the time of Mr. Torrent's ownership. At the well of the Racine Boat Company, about 3 miles up the lake from the paper mill, the head is 71 feet. This well is 3 miles from the Alberts well also, and thus indicates a loss of head of about 1 foot a mile northeastward and of somewhat more than twice that amount southeastward. Very few instances can be found in this district in which a well is known with certainty to have lessened the flow or lowered the head of others. As indicated before, the Alberts well (No. 6) has undoubtedly decreased in both flow and head. The owner believes that the pipe leaks underground, but whether the change is due wholly to this or to the tapping of the water bed in a number of other places is uncertain. About 200 feet from the paper-mill well and on the same premises is another well of like diameter (8 inches), which was made about the same time, but was drilled to a depth beyond 1,600 feet in search of oil. Only a trace of oil was found, and the inner tube was withdrawn, leaving the casing, so that the water was admitted at the bed-rock level. It was intended to use water from both wells, but trial proved that when one well was pumped at the maximum rate of 150 gallons a minute the water was lowered decidedly in both to about the same level. It seemed that nothing was to be gained by operating both wells, and the deeper one was abandoned. Evidence of free communication between the wells now appears constantly in the presence of oil with the water pumped from the shallower well. When the well by the mill of Gow & Campbell, at North Muskegon, was opened in 1901, no effect was noticed in the flow of the other three wells in the immediate vicinity. But when the new well was tested, by putting on a boiler injector, which drew about 150 gallons a minute, the flow of one of the wells, 700 feet distant, ceased while the injector continued in action. The combined natural flow of the two wells is about 1 gallon a minute. According to the evidence collected, the yield of wells in this district has not materially changed in the aggregate, and in very few instances have individual wells ceased or greatly diminished their flow except from causes having no relation to the source or supply. Well No. 2, known commonly as the Blodgett well, has become isolated from the shore by the wearing away of the dock on which it was built, and is said to have ceased flowing because of obstructions thrust into the upper part of the pipe by meddlesome persons. A case has been mentioned in which it was believed that leakage in the pipe had diminished the apparent yield. Incrustation doubtless chokes the pipes of old wells more or less. Engineer Metcalf of Gow & Campbell's mill stated that 700 feet of pipe conducting water from well No. 8 was half filled with "magnesia" during one summer. IRR 183--06----4 ï~~36 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. A well on the Magoon & Kimball dock is stated by Mr. Jacks to be choked with "muck," by which he means a material like quicksand or silt that has filled the lower part of the pipe. In the severe winter of 1903-4, two of the four wells on the premises of Gow & Campbell (Nos. 8 and 9) stopped flowing for about two months. Observers of the phenomenon think the cessation was not caused by freezing in the pipes. A well near the intersection of Western avenue and Eighth street was probably the first to flow in the district. It was put down beyond 2,000 feet about the year 1868 by parties prospecting for salt. Mr; Hubert Young states that two pipes were afterwards planted so that water was delivered by one from a depth exceeding 300 feet and by the other from a shallower source, the deeper water being much the stronger in mineral qualities. This well flowed until a few years ago, and furnished an abundant public supply greatly relished by horses. The site is now owned by the Pere Marquette Railroad Company and is covered by a shed used in storage of coal. The well is supposed to have been stopped by plugging the pipe. Quality and uses of water.-With a single known exception these numerous wells were opened to obtain suitable water for drinking. The flavor of the water, which is variously called "irony" and "sulphury" as well as salty, is not pleasant to many at first, but becomes agreeable after continued use. The healthfulness has always been found superior in comparison with water obtainable from any other source except Lake Michigan. Before a satisfactory public supply was obtained for the town, people living near carried water from these wells to their houses. The water from Doctor Jackson's well is now used in culinary processes. The water from the well of the Central Paper Company is used for general mill purposes, especially for cooling. The temperature given is 110 C. or 51.80 F. The only complete analysis found is that of the well belonging to the Central Paper Company, which follows: Analysis of water from well of Central Paper Company, Muskegon. Parts per million. Parts per million. Silica.-..................... 12 Total evaporating residue...... 2202 Alumina....................------------------------- 22 Total hardness..........181 Iron oxide------.......................Trace. Temporary hardness....... 87 Sulphate of lime.................. 227 Permanent hardness-------------94 Carbonate of lime................. 156 Nitrites and nitrates------ _ 0 Calcium chloride.................. 87 Phosphoric acid-............ Present. Magnesium chloride................ 254 Free ammonia....--..-....... -0 Sodium chloride................... 1307 Combined ammonia--......... 1.7 Albuminoid ammonia...----------.....425 2065 Sediment...........-...... 36 Color, none. Appearance, turbid. Odor, none. Taste, salty. Reaction, neutral. ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 37 On the following table are given, in addition, the results of a number of partial analyses of water in the vicinity of Muskegon. The high chlorine constituent is considered as due to leakage from deep saline rock wells in the vicinity. The Montague samples were from wells in the village street sunk to obtain water for fire protection and other purposes. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of water near Muskegon and Montague. [Parts per million.] 1 2 3 4 Color.............................-------------------------------... Not det. 10 5 5 Iron (Fe)...------------------.------ Minute trace. Slight trace. Trace. Strong trace. Chlorine (C1)..--------------------------- 59 64 1.5 1.5 Carbon dioxide (Co(02)..------- 63.32 62.88 77.39 84.86 Sulphate trioxide (SO,)--------------............... 83 99 10 10 Hardness (as CaCO3)---------------..--- Not det. 139+ 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. I. J. G. Jackson; depth, 237 feet. 2. Ilackley & Hume; depth, 230 feet. 3. Montague village; depth, 60+ feet. 4. Montague village; depth, 37 feet. The water from the shallow well belonging to the Stewart Hartshorn Company was analyzed for sanitary purposes by Davenport Fisher, of Milwaukee. The analysis follows: Analysis of water from well of Stewart Hartshorn Company, Muskegon. [Parts per million.] Total solids..-........................ 440! "Free ammonia ".........................03 Chlorine.................................. 33 "Albuminoid ammonia"............... 068 Sulphate of calcium..................... 184 Nitrogen as nitrates..................... 110 The following comments are culled from a letter by Mr. Fisher, which accompanied the report: The water is contaminated with sewage or vault seepings. * * * The salt, represented by chlorine, also comes from the same source. * * * Though such water may be safe for a long time, it might at any time bring disease germns and any health officer would condemn it. LAKE HARBOR DISTRICT. Topography.-In the lower portion of the district the sand plain has an elevation of about 15 feet, increasing gradually away from Lake Michigan and reaching about 40 feet above the bed of Black Creek or 50 feet above the lake at the location of the upper well near Cloverville. The moraine lies about 2 miles inland. It is very low, appearing only as a clay bed a few feet under the level sand surface. Wells.-Only one flowing well is known in this district. It is in the valley of Black Creek on land owned by Doctor Gordon, of Muskegon, in the NE. - NE. lsec. 2, T. 9 N., R. 16 W. This well is about 6 miles from the Lake Michigan shore line and about 5 miles from the only other deep well known in the district. ï~~38 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. No accurate record of the well could be found, but it was put down to a depth of 1,500 feet or more in the season of 1903 by parties prospecting for oil. The elevation is estimated to be about 6 feet above the bed of Black Creek under the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad, somewhat less than half a mile distant, indicating an elevation of between 15 and 18 feet above Lake Michigan. Bed rock is stated to be more than 300 feet below the surface, and the water is thought to come from a crevice in the rock.at a depth of 340 feet. The temperature is 11Â~ C., or 51.8Â~ F., which would indicate a depth of not more than 250 feet. The 8-inch casing put down to bed rock by the drillers was not removed and stands about 3 feet above ground. The inner pipe was removed and the casing plugged at the top with a block of wood, leaving a hole about 1 inch in diameter. From this opening water gushes up about 10 inches, flowing 16 gallons a minute, or nearly 25,000 gallons daily. Aeresident of the neighborhood asserts that he saw the water rise at least 10 feet above the surface when the pipe was being driven. This shows a head of no less than 25 feet above lake. The quality of the water, judged by taste, is essentially like that of the deepest Muskegon wells but probably less salty. The only other deep well found in the district is the property of the Forest Park Association and is located in the SE. 4 SE. 4sec. 12, T. 9 N., R. 17 W. The surface is between 25 and 30 feet above the lake and the water rises to about 12 feet below the surface, or to 13 to 18 feet above the lake. The record given by C. C. Billinghurst is: Sand 15 to 18 feet, clay to 6 inches from bed rock; total depth 218 feet. The water bed is called "shaly," but is undoubtedly the same sandstone found in the Muskegon wells. The water is used for drinking and by some for cooking, but others find it undesirable for the latter purpose on account of its "mineral" qualities. When raised with an ordinary hand pump, the water has always been turbid. An attempt to siphon it over the lake bluff has not been entirely satisfactory, but the turbidity was corrected while the siphon flowed. A summer population of about 30 people is supplied from the well, which is said to have cost $250. Although the elevation of the land has prevented this well from flowing, it is believed that the water is from the same source as that of the deep Muskegon wells and the Cloverville well. Comparing its head with that of the latter well about 5 miles distant, it is seen that there is an average gain in head of at least 1 foot a mile up the valley of Black Creek. ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 39 SPRING LAKE DISTRICT. Topography.-Only a small portion of the upper part of Spring Lake is in Muskegon County. The land is generally sandy, with clay lying near the surface in many places. The general surface elevation is between 25 and 30 feet. In the near vicinity of Fruitport village, where the wells are located, water saturates much of the soil to the surface where not removed by artificial drainage. Wells.-The only flowing well found in the portion of the district lying in Muskegon County is in the SW. sec. 35, T. 9 N., R. 16 W. This well is on the property of the Spring Lake Iron Company and has flowed since 1883, when it was bored to furnish water for the employees of the company working at the furnace. The present measurable flow is about 5 gallons a minute, which is less than formerly, but some of the water is known to escape through a leak in the pipe below ground. The surface elevation is 16 feet, and the head about 26 feet. A partial record of the well was given by an employee who aided in the boring, as follows: Record of well of Spring Lake Iron Company, I"ruitport. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface sand-----------------------------------------------------------.................................................................. 10 10 Quicksand------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 22 32 Blue clay-------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 60 92 Light sandstone...............................................................---------------------------------------------------------A 92A Gravelly clay...................................................................-----------------------------------------------------------..8 1 Solid gravel................................................................------------------------------------------------------------. 4 104 Yellowish mucky clay......................................................----------------------------------------------------. 3 1071 Blue shale..--------------------------------------------------------------- 2 109 Sand and clay in thin alternate layers..--------------------------------------- 12 1211 Blue sandstone......---------------------------------------------------------- 2 121 -Grayish limestone.....................................................------------------------------------------------------- 2 1231 The total depth of the well was stated to be 150 feet, and that depth was verified by Mr. J. C. Ford, president of the company. The temperature, 120 C., or 53.60 F., suggests a greater depth. A partial analysis of the water follows: Analysis of water from well of Spring Lake Iron Company, Fruitport.a Parts per million. Sodium chloride.....................................................--------------------------------------------------. 3, 467. 17 Magnesium chloride.................................................. 327.15 Calcium chloride..........................-----------------............-------------------------.....---------...... 937.14 Potassium sulphate.........._.............................. -......... -- 91.43 Calcium sulphate-------------------------..................------------------..........----........................ --76.72 Calcium bicarbonate................................................. 1, 119. 15 The only other deep well in this portion of the district is on the resort property now owned by the Grand Rapids, Grand Haven and a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon; recomputed to parts per million at United States Geological Survey. ï~~40 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Muskegon Railroad, and located in the NW. 4 SW. sec. 36, T. 9 N., R. 16 W. This well does not flow, the elevation being over 25 feet above Lake Michigan. It was opened about 1871. The record on file in the office of the Spring Lake Iron Company follows: Record of well of Grand Rapids, Grand Haven and Muskegon Railroad, sec. 36, T. 9 N., R. 16W. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand -----------------------------------------------------------------............................................................................ 30 30 Blue clay..-----------------------...................................................................... -140 170 Hardpan and gravel------------------------------------------------------............................................................. 9 179 Blue sand rock----------------------------------------------------------................................................................... 24 203 Blue shale--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 5 208 Marshall sand rock------------------------------------------------------............................................................... 41 249 Blue shale--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 6 255 Some claims of medicinal properties have been made for the water. Before the well became the property of the railroad it was on public ground and the water was freely used by citizens of Fruitport. Formerly the water was shipped in carloads to places as distant as New Orleans and used for curative purposes in cold and hot baths. MOORLAND DISTRICT. Topography.-This district, indicated by a single well, is presumed to be. coextensive with the great marshy region that covers about one-half of Moorland Township and extends into the eastern part of Eggleston. The main branch of Black Creek, which flows into Lake Harbor, has its origin in the marsh. At Moorland station, where the well is located, the surface elevation is about 95 feet. On the south the marsh area terminates in gradually rising land that merges into a rolling surface of till. On the east it is separated from the valley of Crockery Creek by a morainic ridge. On the north and west the confine is sandy and somewhat higher. The soil of the marsh is generally sandy with a few streaks of loam. It was found covered with water by the pioneers, but by an extensive drainage system supplementing and deepening the natural lines most of the surface water now flows away. Well.-The well is located in the NE. 4 SE. sec. 29, T. 10 N., R. 14 W., on property now owned by N. A. Cook, of Moorland. The depth is stated to be 115 feet, but no one was found who knew the record of the strata, though it may possibly be among the papers of the State geologist. The well at first yielded a considerable amount of an inflammable gas, which was collected and burned experimentally by elevating the pipe and reducing the exit. The gas is not so evident now, if it is delivered at all. The water is strongly mineral in quality. The head of the water is about 8 feet above the surface or not far from 100 feet above the lake. The flow is 6 gallons a minute. ï~~MUSKEGON COUNTY. 41 It is notable that this well is in the catchment of Lake Harbor and on the same drainage line with the well near Cloverville. The location is somewhat more than 16 miles in a direct line from the outlet of Lake Harbor and about 10 miles from the Cloverville well, and, while the indications are strong that the water of the two wells rises from entirely distinct strata, yet their locations, height of head, and abundant flow, suggest the probability that the Lake Harbor and Moorland districts are continuous. FRUITLAND DISTRICT. Topography.-The extent of this district, which is represented by a single well, can only be conjectured. The well is located in the SW. sec. 36, T. 11 N., R. 17 W. The moraine, which gradually loses prominence, as it extends southward from Whitehall, appears to terminate somewhat abruptly on the same section near the northeast corner. In fact, the moraine probably continues unbroken to the point where it appears in the bluff of Muskegon Lake, but is so low that it is covered by 10 feet, more or less, of sand. The soil is sandy with spots slightly loamy. The surface is a plain interrupted by numerous swells and knolls that appear like very low dunes. The region was originally swampy, and Greene Creek, which flows southward about 4 mijes into Muskegon Lake, has its origin here. The elevation is probably between 40 and 50 feet. Well.-This well was probably driven about 1890 for Mr. John Miller, who then resided on the place. It has since become the property of Jacob Johnson, of Whitehall. When seen several years ago, the pipe stood about 5 feet above ground and the flow of water was very slow, seeming to indicate that the top of the pipe was about at the height to which the water would rise. The depth is stated to be 88 feet. The existence of a flowing well at the mouth of Greene Creek and another at the source suggests the probability that flowing water can be found throughout the course of the creek, although the great difference in depths of the two wells and in the quality of water, which is decidedly less mineral in the Fruitland well, tend to negative the inference that the so-called Fruitland district is a part of Muskegon Lake district. CASNOVIA DISTRICT. Topography.-The region in which the Casnovia wells are found has very pronounced features in the form of morainic prominences of till and gravel. The highest land in Muskegon County lies in Casnovia Township. The railroad track at Casnovia station is 300 feet above Lake Michigan. This elevation is greatly exceeded by hills ï~~42 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. in the immediate vicinity and much of the surface in the township is not far from 800 feet above the sea. The depth to bed rock is probably as great as 600 feet in some places and not less than 300 feet at any place. It is extremely improbable, therefore, that a flowing well from any except a local source would be found here. The high land in Casnovia village has been deeply penetrated, in one instance more than 300 feet, without encountering water. Wells.-A flowing well belonging to Mr. D. Neff is located in the NW. 4 NE. - sec. 33, T. 10 N., R. 13 W. (Casnovia Township). The well was driven in 1895 by May Doubledee, of Casnovia village. It is 45 feet deep, in clay and gravel, and flows 1 gallon a minute, the yield not having varied appreciably since the well was put in. 'The head is only about 1 foot. The cost vas $45. Near the northwest corner of sec. 28, slightly more than a mile from the Neff well, Mr. Charles Fraligh has a flowing well, the record of which is not known. The territory in which these wells are located abounds in natural springs, some of which are remarkable for their size and form the heads of small streams. SUMMARY. The flowing wells of the county are distributed as follows: White Lake, Nos. 15 to 37, inclusive; Muskegon Lake, Nos. 1 to 14, inclusive, and Nos. 46 and 47; Lake Harbor, Nos. 38 and 39; Spring Lake, Nos. 41 and 42; Moorland, No. 40; Fruitland, No. 43; Casnovia, Nos. 44 and 45. ï~~Data of flowing wells and of other deep wells having similar source and head, Muskegon County. z No. o a 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11 10 12 10 17 17 16 16 16 17 17 16 16 16 16 16{ Loc Io 33 26 30 19 20 22 23 18 18 18 18 {191 ation. Part t of secion. Owner. i a a Driller. Water bed. Quality Characterof Character, { water. Feet. Feet Ins. SW. NW... {CetralgPaper Co., 13 2 3 " tMuskegon. '1 296 R 193 SW. SW... J. M. Gerrish, Mus- 1 237 2 1886 kegon. ({Hackley & Hume,} NW. 4 NW.. Muskegon. 1 220 1 1889 NE. 4SE....{RacineBoatCo.,Mus- 5.5 208 2.5...... NW. NW.. John Torrent, Mus- 1 204.....1887 kegon. NW. 4 NW.. {FrankAlberts, Mus- 9 240 2.5 1883 SE. 4 NW. 4 {Di Mue n.Jackson, 1.5 237 2.5 1901 J~w&Campbell, SE. 4 NW... /GMuskegonmpbell, 5.5 --- SE. NW........do................ 1 207 3.5 1901 SE. NW.........do........... 1.. SE. NW. ".do.. NE. } SW. 4.. W. H. Dewees, Mus- "1"" kegon. Feet. Gallons. ~Central Paper 237 an iok 5See analy- lip 10 111 Ceral Paper 37 Sand rock Si e ps 36) P100000 51.8 IHead about 10 feet. C. C. Jacks, 237.............. Hard and Choked... Choked in upper part of Muskegon. ]salty. pipe......do........ 220 Sand rock.......do.... 250 {7 1...({517.I.....do........ 208.....do.............. 2,200 1 ' }Head 7.5 feet......do.................do..................... -.... {........... do. 240Hard and i 10.5.....do........ 240..... salty. 2760 50.9 ead about 15 feet...... do........ 237 Sand rock....do.. 400 eadabout 9 feet. SHard and 800 13 C. C. Jacks... 207 Sand rock..H salty 5 700554. I800?..................Sand rock.. Salty_.....-............ Head formerly 7 feet.......................................................Isolated by destruction of dock and flowing into lake. [H u b e r t 40 See.......... Head about 10 feet. WaYoung, eMrus- 1............. s a 3 Closed........ ter source local and conC kegon. (p' Â~Laminated. C. C.Jacks............................. Choked.... "Muck" in pipe. W. H.Dennis, 153............. "Soft"... 1,320..... Head 8.5 feet. Montague. Peter Den- Sl f neau, Mon- 1............. Salty..... 480 10 Turbid water at 54 feet. tague. I, Daily yield.a ' Remarks. h0 H { 13 14 15 10 10 11 17 25 16 19 18 2 17 28 SW. NE... tewart Hartshorn SCo., Muskegon. NE. 4SW. 4.. Magoon & Kimball, Muskegon. SW. 4 SE. 4.. United States LifeSaving Service. SE. NW. 4.. {L.T.Covell, White" hall. 5 I 57 2 11900 1............ 5.5 153 2.5 1887 2 129 2... i 16 12 a P under "Daily yield" indicates that the well is pumped. b The upper number in temperature column is the temperature as read in Centigrade. The lower number is the same value reduced to Fahrenheit. ï~~Data of flowing wells and of other deep wells having similar source and head, Muskegon County-Continued. Location. z No. Part ti o 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 17 29 17 28 17 28 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 NE. NE. 4.. NW. 4 NW. 4. NE. 4 NW. 4.. SW. 4 SW. 4.. SW. 4 SW. 4.. SW. SW. 4.. NW. 4 SW. 4. NW. 4 SW.4. SW. 4 SW. 4.. SW. 4 SW. 4.. SW. SW. 4.. 4 line W. 4.... 4 line W. z.... SE. 4 NW. 4.. SE. 4 NW. 4.. SE. 4 NW. 4.. Owner. Montague village..........do -............. L. T. Covell, Whitehall. W. E. Osmun, Montague. Charles Wyard, Montague. Dieske, Montague. Charles Rathbun, Montague. Herman Runcil, Montague. Montague village..... W. E. Osmun........ Montague iron works, Montague. Whitehall village......... do............... Carrie Mears, Chicago. E. Duttenhoefer, Whitehall. Mary Reed, Whitehall. O cd Feet. 1 2 }16 }10 9 8 10 9 12 }10 8 5 7 7 6 Feet. 62 37 30 18 28 37 40 50 67 110 82 96...... ca Ins. 2 2 2 2 Driller. 1870 1878...... Peter Denneau. Water bed. Character. Feet.................... Quality of water. Salty..... JSee analysis (p.37) Daily yield. Gallons. 1,440 } 260 Extinct. 2,880 900.......... 1,080 1,440 2,880 1,440 P. 3,000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - 1873 fJ. W. Young, 30 1 Montague. - - - -...................... Remarks..1903 2 1902 2 1900 2 1904 6 1892 2 1904 -4-.- -1-8 4.5 1870 Peter Den-... neau. JR. D. Hall, Montague..........do........... Frank Coleman, Montague........................ R. Saxton...... Whitehall.................................-............. Soft.................do -....-...................do..................do................. do......................do................do.......................do.... 111.1 152.7 12.5 54.5...... 49.5 {4.1 J11 11.8 148.6 {11 151.8 Water was much liked by horses; pipe probably clogged. In public place. Water r much sought by people. }Dug with spade; flowing } vein found unexpectedly. Said to have checked flow of No. 21 for a short time. Stated depth of 18 feet is doubted. Head much lower than in other similar wells in vicinity. A group of four wells furnishing Whitehall public supply. Flow slight. Frozen in winter. Shows clay bed of No. 28. Robbed by No. 28, about 200 feet distant. Said to have been gradually affected by opening No. 28. One of the old wells; date not certainly known. 0 Â~ Hd.....do.... P. 50,000.......................... E xtinct. --........................... do... - - - - - - -............ 720. - 32 12 ï~~33 12 17 28 NE. SW. Â~.. Nufer Cedar Co., Whitehall. 34 12 17 28 SW. SW... Eagle Tanning Co., Whitehall. 35 12 17 33 NW. INW. I. New York Mill Co., Whitehall. 36 12 17 33 NW. 4 NW. i.:.....do............... 37 12 17 28 NW. NW.. Boom Co., Whitehall. 38 9 17 12 SE. 4 SE.... Forest Park Associ4 ation, Muskegon. 39,T 1 Doctor Gorden, Mus39 9 16 2 NE. NE.. D kegn.g 40 10 14 29 NE. SIE... N. A. Cook, Moorland. 4 {5rn Lake Iron Co., 41 9 16 35 SE. 4SE..... ui Lake Iron Co., 9 1[Fruiport. 42 9 16 35 SE. SW.... Grand Rapids, Grand Haven and Muskegon R. R., Grand Rapids. 43 11 17 36 SW. SW. 4.. Jacob Johnson, Whitehall. 44 10 13 33 NW. 1NE. 4.' D. Neff, Ravenna, R. F.D. 45! 13 28 NW. NW.., Charles Fraligh, Canada Corners. 46 10 16 30 NW. NW..- Pere Marquette R. R. 47 10 16 17 SE. NE. a...' Leon J. Smith, Muskegon. 1 57 2.5 --- 107. 3 ------.... 25 218 2.5 16 1.600 8 95 115... 16 150 2 26 255. 1875...... 1868 1885 1903 1895 1883 1871 1895 Peter Den-.................. Soft...... 100..... neau....................................................................................... -.................... Oldest well in W hite Lake district according to W. SF. Nufer............................................................... One of the older wells; date about 1873. C. C. Jacks... 218 Sand rock?.. Salty P.... P....... Head 12 feet below surface. VFred Vance, 3l Sandr11ockStated depth seems about c 3Genevan 4? Sand rock.......do.... 23,000 Sta8 feet toogreat. Head........................ Mincral... 8,640.... Formerly emitted combustible gas abundantly..C. C. Jacks.. Salty 7,2. Flow decreased by leakC. C. Jacks....._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ alty.....,,200 153.6 f age. Head 25 feet.................................Mineral... P.... Formerly sold in carloads for medicinal use.... M. Doubleday....................Hard..... 1,440!...Head 1 foot. 50?...... 88 45 2 9 0 z...... __.. ---------------- 8 2,200... 1868................ 6...... 2 1898................................... Salty..... Choked...... Finally plugged to stop flow.......................................... Head about 18 feet ï~~46 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF OCEANA COUNTY. By MYRON L. FULLER, TOPOGRAPHY. Oceana County borders on Lake Michigan about midway of the eastern side of the lake, the village of Hart being the county seat. The southeastern part is occupied by a gravel plain, through which White River flows. North of this gravel plain is a very prominent morainic system about 12 miles in width running across the county in a course north of east, the villages of Hart and Crystal Valley being on its inner border and New Era, Walkerville, and Ferry near its outer border. White River drains its southern,.o2 part and Pentwater River most of its S,, northern. The south branch of Pere Maro0.,o;0/4 quette River drains a small tract in the 0, 9 8, northeastern part of the county, and there o0 0;23.; 24 are small streams directly tributary to Lake o 4 T Michigan along the western edge. In the - -o ---- northwestern part are sandy plains which,t s C / have been covered by the glacial lake r*l7 / SEC. /16, o o 02zs waters, but elsewhere the glacial lakes,'26 0extended but little beyond their present So limits of Lake Michigan. The morainic sysz 2 tem reaches altitudes of more than 1,000 Co SEC.35 Â~ SEC.36 0 o feet, or about 450 feet above Lake Michi-. o 0 gan, and has a general elevation of about R.. o300 feet above the lake. The rock surface. sC. '- SEC. appears to lie nearly 300 feet below the lake, FIG. 4.-Sketch map of Flower as indicated by borings at Hart and Shelby. FIG. 4.-Sketch map of Flower Creek artesian district, Oceana The drift may therefore reach a depth of County. fully 700 feet in places within the county. Numerous wells in the high parts are 100 to 180 feet in depth, and water there shows the very little rise. Flowing wells are obtained in recesses along the borders of the morainic system and in valleys traversing it. FLOWING WELLS. FLOWER CREEK DISTRICT. The Flower Creek district lies along lowlands, mainly in secs. 11, 13, and 26, T. 13 N., R. 18 W., including a small area in secs. 12 and 24. It is situated in the southwestern part of the county near where Flower Creek post-office was formerly located, and is about 5 or 6 miles northwest of Montague. The thirteen flowing wells of the district (see fig. 4) are located along the flat terrace bordering ï~~OCEANA COUNTY. 47 the creek, some 30 feet or more above it. Back of the terrace, on both the east and the west, the morainal hills rise to a considerable height. The statistical data relating to the wells are presented in the table below. Sufficient agreement of depths is shown to indicate for the northern wells at least (Nos. 3 to 11) a uniform source of supply from a water-bearing layer sloping somewhat rapidly to the northwest and drawing its water from the morainal hills to the southeast. Of the three wells (Nos. 15, 17, and 18) at the southern end of the district, Nos. 15 and 18, or the two easterly wells, yield a medium hard water containing iron, while No. 17, although drawing its supply at the same depth as No. 18, gives a soft water free from iron. This probably indicates a separate source of the water in the different wells, due either to the presence of two distinct beds or to a single bed receiving additions of water from both the east and the west, the former hard and irony and the latter soft. It seems probable that Nos. 15 and 18 are not on the same vein as Nos. 3 to 11, as the flow under similar conditions is many times greater. The source, however, as in the case of the latter, is in the hills to the southeast. The Charlotte Smith well (No. 1) belongs to a separate and very limited district occurring along the creek bottom in secs. 1 and 2, T. 12 N., R. 18 W. ï~~Wells of Flower Creek artesian district. 1 z 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Owner. Charlotte Smith a.. Unknown......"... Jacob Conrad bc........ Conrad & Fuller c.......... J. H. Conradd... George Kinkie-..--........ Peter Delemater e........ Aug. Lohman f--...--.-- George Kinkie /......... William Grumm -.... Peter Shirtumh........ Joe Schailler............... Carl Strohl i............... Unknown............. J. T. Fohlbrook------....-.......--- Eagle i.................... Richard Fohlbrook........ Pfund.................. Driller. William Dennis.....do............ Dennis............... Dennis (?)............ Peter Dennis......... Sykes.............. Denmnis (?)............ Sykes.............. Dennis............... Dennis................................. Dennis.............. ------do............ ApEleva- proxition of mate well. date drilled. Feet. 611 649 638 645 640 649 654 649 663 673 678 685 685 635 600 630 635 1890 1901 1891 1884 1872 1895 i886 1886 1899 1899 Inches. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Diam- Depth. eter. Feet. Deep. 30 103 107 105 120 112 130 130 139 180 100+ 150+ 90 117 40 150 153 Elevation of water bed. Feet. 546 531 540 520 537 524 519 524 493 578 535 595 518 560 480 482 Flows Flow TernFlat-s per pera- Water bed. minute. ture. Feet. Gals. OF. + 1 1.56........................................ + 4 4 491 Quicksand.... + 7 14 491.....do........ + 0.......do......... + 5 2 50.............. + 5 494 Sand and gravel.. S 2..... Gravel............ + 3-............................ + 2..... Sand............. - 3...............Quicksand........ - 3 i... - 9.................... S............................ + 4 3 10 49 Sand.............. + 3 10" 49, Sand........... Quality of Slight iron. Iron; very hard Iron; medium h Do. Slight iron. Iron; medium h Iron; hard. Medium hard. Iron; medium h No iron; hard. Iron; medium h No iron; soft. Iron: medium h water. ard. ard. ard. ard. ard. ard. w O a Located on a low terrace, less than 10 feet above the creek, and has flowed a tiny stream for many years, indicating a very close-textured water horizon. The outlook for wells in that vicinity is therefore not good. b Encountered clay all the way to the quicksand except through a few feet at the top. Flow varies with the season. c Used in a creamery and in boilers, the latter requiring cleaning every two months. Well reduced to one-half inch. Soil, 2 feet; clay, 5 feet; alternating clay and sand to bottom, with water between 35 and 60 feet. No decrease of supply. A curious statement is made that the wells on the west side of the road do not vary in flow, but that those on the east fluctuate with the level of a swamp 2 miles east, but it is doubtful if the fluctuation is anything more than a coincidence. d Formerly flowed, but now piped into barrel set in ground and supplying the barn at lower level by an overflow pipe. e First flowing well of the district. Nothing but clay was found except a thin water bed at 70 feet and the sand and gravel at the bottom. The water at 70 feet rose but little. / Decreased since first sunk; show seasonal variations of flow. g Now pumped. h Ceased to flow in dry spell about 1895, and has not flowed since, possibly because of the clogging of the well. i On a knowl in a rolling morainal country, some of the hollows being low enough to give a flow if the same water bed which occurs in the wells to the south is present. They have not therefore been tested. i No attempts to obtain flow. Houses along road bordering sees. 23 and 26 on the west have only shallow wells, mainly less than 40 feet. q ï~~OCEANA COUNTY. 49 The water of the Flower Creek wells carries a much larger amount of iron than most Michigan waters, but is of about the average hardness. Wells Nos. 15 and 18 are highest in iron and lime. Wells Nos. 3 and 11 carry somewhat less iron, but are about as hard. No. 17 is low in iron and unusually soft. It is probable that wells drilled anywhere along the road between Nos. 3 and 11 would obtain flows, but they would not be large, since the supply, as indicated by the seasonal fluctuations, is limited, being about all utilized by the present wells. Wells drilled some distance west of the road and nearer the center of the district would also probably obtain flows. The best wells will perhaps be found at the southern end of the district, where the supply seems to be more abundant. It is not probable that the flowing area will be extended much to the west, as the land begins to rise rapidly within a short distance, but it is not impossible that deep wells east of No. 15 and not far away would obtain good flows. The water bed at the Charlotte Smith well (No. 1) seems to be too close textured to give up water rapidly, hence the prospects for satisfactory flows in this vicinity are small. SHELBY DISTRICT. The Shelby district in western Oceana County is in secs. 30 and 31, T. 14 N., R. 17 W., and secs. 25 and 36, T. 14 N., R. 18 W., and is about 3 miles southwest of Shelby village. It lies along the east-west valley near the south line of secs. 25 and 30, and is bordered by high R. 18 W. R. I7 W. S.. ke ch.m p o,......,r n diSC..,.... County 22 ~ n 2dlS ofsha/Tow 4hc-.../ l of Â~/19 Â~t8 / s, SEC. 36 ~\4SC3 o Flowing wells o Nonflowing we/Is FIG. 5.-Sketch map of Shelby artesian district, Oceana County. morainal hills on both the north and the south. The creek has cut its channel to a considerable depth below the rolling terrace on which the wells are located. The character of the wells surrounding the district is shown in the table given below. (For locations, see fig. 5.) With only one or two exceptions, every house in the district has a deep well 'which flows. All are stopped down to small pipes. ï~~Wells of Shelby artesian district. No on fig. 5. 2-4 5 6 7 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18' 19 20 21 22 23 Owner. Several a................ F. Perkins b.............. John Lewis c............. I. Floydd............... G. O. Anderson e....... A. Andersonf........ John Anderson g.......... Geo. Nelson h............. John Josephson i....... Moses Burke............... S. E. Lewis............... L. Lewisk................. P. J. Esperhaug......... H. Hendrickson.......... Andrew Myrmal... Thos. Kelley.............. Schoolhouse.............. B. Karstad................ Driller. Wm. Dennis........do................ J. Round............ Wm. Dennis..............do................ Chas. Denno.------...do....... (i) (i)................................................................................................ Elevation of well. Feet. 700 705 685 677 685 675 675 667 657 666 687 693 650 655 640 680 665 660 Approxi-D ma to Diam date eter. drilled. Inches. 2 ------.. 2 2 1891 2 1894 2 1892 2 1894 2 1890 2 1893 2 1865........ 1892 2 -------. - -.---..---..--..-.---- Depth. Feet. All shallow. 112 115 125 174 125 100 220 182 180 50 20 55 50 40 12 85 80 Elevation of Head. water. Feet. Feet. 593 -5 570 +18 552 +Many.' 511 +15 550 +Several 575 +6 447 +6 475 +20 486 +20 637 -Few. 673 +0 595 -0 605 -0 600 -0 668 -8 580 -12 580 -0 Flow Temper peraminute. ture. Water bed. Qual Gallons. F.....- --.--- -. Sand.............. Soft................Sand or gravel.. Hard. 8 48.....do............ Do. 18 48.....do............ Do. Many............do............ Iron; hard. Many. --...do............ Hard. Several. i?....... do.............Do. 10! 49'.....do....... Iron; medium hard..........do.......... Iron; hard........... 474.....do............ Iron; medium hard.....do............ Hard................... do............ D o....................... do............ D o...............d o............ D o.......................do............ D o........................ do............ Medium soft......................do............ H ard........................do............ Good. ity of water. J12 a All shallow, being simply short pipes driven into the sand and other material, and using suction pumps. b Small flow, a mere drizzle at 90 feet, but lost it on going deeper. c Used for the irrigation of strawberries. d Started with a small flow, which rapidly increased. Sand 5 feet, hardpan 3 feet, sand 5 feet, quicksand 47 feet, clay 65 feet. e Piped to a residence, a house across the street, a barn, and a watering trough in the road. f Under cover in a house. g Threw a 2-inch jet 5 feet high at first, now piped to residence, milk-house, and barnyard. h In sinking well 100-foot length of pipe sunk under its own weight and disappeared in the soft gravel. i In clay for practically entire depth..lDug. k Went 20 feet without getting water, but during a thunder shower, when the workmen were away, the water broke through from below, filled it to the top, and overflowed. The breaking through was possibly due to the lessening of the atmospheric pressure during storm and the weakening of the stratum below which the water was held under pressure. w t1 Q Hi ï~~OCEANA COUNTY. 51 If the records of the wells are studied two interesting points are evident: (1) Wells Nos. 9, 13, 14, and 15 are much deeper than the others of the district, and (2) the waters of these wells contain much iron, while the others do not. Constructing a section from the records (see fig. 6) we have not only evidence of two distinct water beds, o,,15 along the township line, but evidence of slopes toward the valley in both directions, presumably due to the bending of the beds into a trough, which probably accounts in FIG. 6.-Diagrammatic section across Shelby artesian district from north to south, showpart for the unusually large flows. ing upper and lower artesian horizons and The water of the Shelby district trough-like structure. is considerably softer than the average Michigan water, and is therefore unusually satisfactory for domestic purposes. There is a very slight amount of iron in the waters from the upper sand, but about three times as much in the lower sand. Partial analyses of the John Anderson water, representing the upper sand, and the Nelson water, representing the lower sand, are given on page 91. The area in which flowing wells may be expected is outlined in fig 5 (p. 49). This area might be extended slightly by wells at low points 0Mo16 """ "0 o 0 0 0 G ~*ebhart2; " Flowing we//s o Nonf/owing well//s FIG. 7.-Sketch map of Hart artesian district, Oceana County. of the valley to the east or to the west, but not to the north or to the south, as the land rises steeply in these directions. There is sufficient water in the district to supply the needs of a much greater number of people than now live there. InR 183---06----5 ï~~52 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. HART DISTRICT. Hart, the county seat of Oceana County, is located on a somewhat irregular sloping terrace. At the north edge of town it is cut by a valley occupied by ponds and a large creek some 30 feet below the railroad. To the south, or away from the creek, the surface rises gently for three-fourths of a mile or more to the foot of morainal hills of some height (see fig. 7). The shallow-water supplies at Hart have been found to be irregular in depth and in amount, but in general only small amounts of water have been obtained. At present very few shallow wells are used, nearly every house at the upper end of town having either a flowing well or a deep well pumped by windmill, while in the town itself nearly all supplies are obtained from the public water system (p. 59), which furnishes an abundant supply from an unusually complete system of mains. The location of a portion of the wells is shown in fig. 7, while data relating to these and to others not shown on the figure have been compiled into the following table: Wells of Hart artesian district. on Quality o Owner. Driller. a Water bed. Qualt of Â~ ab watr. Ft. In. Ft. Ft. Gals. OF. Robt.Currie................ 747 1900 2 110 637 +0...................... Ed. Spencera................ 736 1903 2 135 654 0..................... B. Gebhartb....... 742 1901 2 160 582 -1.................... S. C. Brigham c..... Joe Mull. 730 1904 2 100 630 +18 36 49 Sand, gravel Hard. J. K. Floodd...........do.. 730 1900 3 117 613 +9 Many......do..._Medium hard. Village(seep.59).... Jacks... 730 { }6 +20 Many.........o...... Do. John Billings e....JoeMull. 710 1901 2 107 603 +20 Many.................... Hard. Van Alsburg I...........do--. 700 1900 2 150 550 +40 Many..... Sand, gravel Iron; hard. H.B.Thompsong.......... 690..2......... +2 2 49............. F.M. PringleNo.lh.........720.. 2 120 600 -0...........Sand...... F.M. Pringle No. 2......... 715...... 2 40 675 -0............ Clay........ F.M.Pringle No. 3i..._..7105 5 6 4.......... d0.......................o...... a Obtained water at 82 feet and below, but on reaching depth of 135 feet it was all lost in the hardpan at that point. b Originally about 50 feet deep, but deepened to 160 feet on account of failure of the supply. c Shallow water was encountered above clay at 40 feet; flow from the lower horizon is a strong one but it is restricted to a small pipe; not affected by the village wells. d No water above the main flow except at the surface. Piped to barn, house, and watering trough. There are several hydrants on the place to which fire hose and hose for sprinkling can be attached. The supply is said to be affected by the town wells. e Threw jet to top of porch 15 feet high when first sunk. I Located near south line of block 137, several hundred feet south of a slaughter house, and oneeighth of a mile from the road. Head tested to height of 40 feet; a 2-inch jet was thrown 8 feet. Much sand and gravel was brought up by the water at first. Soil 3 feet, hardpan 1 foot, sand 15 feet, clay 127 feet sand and gravel 4 feet. Water is piped to barn, slaughterhouse, and residence and used for all purposes. No effect by the town wells is noted. 9 Formerly owned by Mr. Waller; is small well, but is used by 5 families. h& Encountered only sand. i Penetrated only clay until near the bottom. The deepest well at Hart is the test boring made just north of the railroad opposite the warehouse, at an elevation of about 730 feet,4(see p. 59), which was drilled by Mr. Jacks to a depth of 412 feet, ï~~OCEANA COUNTY. 53 Sandstone was encountered at 371 feet and the bottom of the well was in shale. The vein furnishing the flows in the vicinity was drilled through without stopping, and the final well furnished little water. A boring known as "Henman's boring," said to be located some 40 feet lower than the preceding and to be 200 feet deep, is reported, but could not be located. Four wells are reported at the warehouse: One is said to be 171 feet deep and flows; the other three are noted in connection with the waterworks on page 59; the materials penetrated were: Clay 5 feet, sand 25 feet, clay with pebbles to bottom. The water was from sand and gravel, surface supplies being encountered at 7 and 20 feet. These wells were drilled in 1902 and are 4 inches in diameter. Beginning with the Brigham well and going north to the warehouse there is a very regular increase in the depths of the wells. This indicates a uniform source of supply from a bed tilting gradually northward. The Gebhart well, if its depth is correctly stated, draws its supply from a bed probably 75 feet lower, while the Currie and Spencer wells seem to draw from a higher horizon, although if the bed furnishing supplies to the waterworks wells rises sufficiently abrupt it may be present at the depths indicated by the two wells mentioned. The Billings and Van Alsburg wells probably draw from the same bed, which possibly is the same as that at the waterworks. The Thompson well, judging from its small flow, is probably from a higher horizon, although its depth could not be ascertained. The horizon at the Pringle No. 3 well can not, with the present information, be correlated with any of the water beds nearer town. The water carries a small amount of iron, a considerable amount of salt, and is of average hardness. A partial analysis is given in the table on page 91. The conditions, while sufficiently variable to make prediction of the exact depth at which water will be found uncertain, appear to be unusually favorable to artesian flows, which can probably be obtained almost anywhere on the lowlands to the north of the morainal hills, indicated in fig. 5, where the altitude is less than 730 feet (or that of the Brigham well), and when the distance is not more than one-half to three-fourths mile from the hills. At distances greater than this flows are less likely because of the liability of the water-bearing sands to pinch out. The depths of the wells will generally vary from 125 to 175 feet, although it may be necessary to go deeper in some cases. If the well is properly sunk, the flow should be large. CRYSTAL VALLEY DISTRICT. The village of Crystal Valley, in northern Oceana County, is located on a terrace bordering a small stream, to the north and south of which the morainal hills rise to a considerable height. (See fig. 8.) There is ï~~54 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. only one well (No. 1) actually flowing at the point where drilled, although several (Nos. 2, 3, and 4) rise nearly to the surface, and one (No. 5) is piped sidewise to flow at a slightly lower level. Statistical data relating to the wells at this point are given in the following table: Wells of Crystal Valley district. Owner. Driller. S. Cree..... L. C. Beadle. S. Cree.-.........do...... O.r Ft. 712 72( 720 725 730 In. Ft. 2 97 2 40 2 16 2 126 2 87 C Ft. Ft. 615 +11 680 - 2 704 -15 599 2 643 - 2 a' 0 Galls. 5 Many. 1..... OF. a50'1 a502 Quality of water. Iron. Soft. Iron; medium. Soft. H. C. Lockwood. Mrs.Linn Kinney L. C. Beadle.... J. W. Perkins.. R. W. Kittridge. 1898...... 1898 1899 1899 Gravel. Sand. Gravel. _.do.. a Both measurements of temperature were made after the water had flowed through a pipe of some length and are possibly one-half degree too high. An examination of the table shows that there is no general water bearing bed, unless, as R. I6w. -r..--I l 1 - Morainal hills' 11 1 IP/l4 f//|,-"n |1',1 I1\'' V Valley 5o,p! LOW _______"______ c.) i10' I,; o 4- \r I5 20 o --, r ~Low c 0 0 it 1, z o._-4...... * F/l wing wel/ls o /Nonflowing wells FIG. 8.-Sketch map of Crystal Valley artesian district, Oceana County. is very likely the case, the Lockwood and Perkins wells draw from the same horizon. If this is so, its slope is decidedly to the south, and the source of supply is doubtless in the hills to the north. The water of the Kinney well, although having approximately the same head as the others, is not from the same bed. The Beadle well is inserted simply as a type of the shallow wells. The Kittridge well may possibly be from the same horizon as the Perkins and Lockwood, but in the absence of wells in the mile stretch intervening this can not be certainly determined. The deep-well water is of about the aver age quality. It tastes of iron, is hard, and gives considerable scale. The supplies from the surface wells are considerably softer. Flows can probably be obtained at almost any point which is not more than 6 or 8 feet above the level of the creek. The head is sufficient to give flows on the terrace on the south side of the stream, but not on the north. The volume is such that hydraulic rams attached to wells at creek level would pump sufficient water to the houses for domestic supplies. ELBRIDGE DISTRICT. The Elbridge district, at present represented only by a single flowing well, is located a few miles east of Hart along the broad valley bordering the streams in the northern portion of secs. 8 and 9, T. ï~~OCEANA COUNTY. 55 15 N., R. 16 W., the supply coming from the high morainal hills about Elbridge settlement, one-half mile to the south. (See fig. 9.) The flowing well (No. 2) is owned by Isaac Timmons. The data are as follows: Altitude, 712 feet; drilled in 1901; depth, 93 feet; water from blue gravel; flows at +4 feet; tested to 18 + feet; yield, 3 gallons a minute; temperature, 491Â~. The materials are: Sand, 35 feet; clay, 55 feet; gravel, 3 feet. The well is located several feet above the level of the creek bottoms. At the mill one-half mile east and a little north of Timmons a well failed to get water on the flats at 100 feet, although most wells in the vicinity (as No. 1) get abundant surface water. Near by are large sulphur springs, which form a considerable stream and deposit a white coating of sulphur. A deep well (No. 3), one-fourth mile north of Timmons, failed to get a flow, which was to be expected, as it is many feet higher. A well at the corner blacksmith shop in Elbridge (No. 4) went through 20 feet of sand and 40 feet of clay into waterbearing gravel at 60 feet, the water rising to within 16 feet of the surface. Surface water Low t- -_nd was obtained at the store on the- opposite 8r",s, side of the road at 16 feet. A well 60 feet is. deep in the hollow back of the blacksmith's. b, pÂ~ M bibride and 20 feet lower got water rising to within 5 - 1 foot of the surface. Gus May, 2 miles ver h mor ~ine east and one-half mile south of Timmons 1 16 I well, drilled 92 feet and obtained about 1 quart a minute. The well was drilled by * Flowing well Hardy. The wells in the morainal hills are o Nonnlowing wells generally 50 to 100 feet deep. FIG. 9.-Sketch map of Elbridge artesian pool, Oceana County. The water of the Timmons well is of average quality as regards iron and lime. For partial analysis see page 91. The only good prospects for flows are along the flats of the creek bottoms adjacent to the base of the morainal hills. The majority of wells sunk at such locations to 100 or 150 feet would probably be successful, although an occasional failure is to be expected, as was the case at the mill. Abundant water supplies, however, are generally to be had at slight depths, and will doubtless prove satisfactory as long as the country is not too thickly settled. TIGRIS DISTRICT. The Tigris district is a short distance east of Hart. Like the Elbridge district it has at present only one flowing well, although the drilling of others is contemplated. The conditions are illustrated in fig. 10. Along the north and east side of sec. 13, T. 15 N., R. 17 W. the land rises into morainal hills of considerable height, while the remaining portion of the section is moderately flat. Along the base ï~~56 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. of these hills occur a considerable number of springs, a few of -which have formed mounds of silt of some size. It was near the base of the hills that the Amos Relinger well was sunk in 1902. It is a 2-inch well, 115 feet deep, and obtains its water from gravel. The water, which will rise 15 feet or more, is piped into the house. The yield is 12- gallons a minute. It tastes slightly of iron and is medium hard, though.Tigris.. giving little scale. 'I,','h.. 4 MRAE - |The water of the Relinger well Lw,,d.. /doubtless comes from the east, Lowaoo" *- -. Mound although in the northern portion S"n.u-atinH "oAINE. of the section supplies may also undulatin;HG I OAIE I; * be received from the north. It is I Re/nger we/. %. | probable that deep wells almost FIG. 10.-Sketch map of Tigris pool, Oceana anywhere along the base of the county. hills would obtain flows. LATTIN DISTRICT. The postmaster at Lattin reports the wells in the neighborhood to be from 30 to 250 feet deep, the largest supplies being at about 100 feet, which is the common depth in the vicinity. The water in both the shallow and the deep wells is hard. He states that some flowing wells are obtained at the surface without pumping. WEARE DISTRICT. This district is located in secs. 34 and 35, T. 16 N., R. 17 W., a mile or two west of Weare and 3 or 4 miles northeast of Hart. The flowing wells are on a gentlyrolling slope pitching away from the high morainal hills in the northern portion of the sections (fig. 11). The ground is still lower to the south, but because of lack of persistence of the waterbearing beds and the loss of head no flows are obtained. Data relating to the wells are given in the following table: Wells of Weare district. rDriller.. Water Quality of Owner. Driller., bed. water. 6 a.~a aZ w"t G Â~. e Ft. In. Ft. Ft. Feet. Gal. OF. 1 Several... _............ 750...... 2 90 660 -75........ Sand and Slight iron, gravel. moderately hard. 2 Victor Symonds.... Joe Mull.. 690 1899 2 58 632 -2 I.... Gravel..- Do. 3 H. Warmuskarker.. - do.... 690 1900 2 58 632 -2............do... Do. 4 Unknown.......... 680...........680 2 (a) -._. - (b)........ Sand.... Do. 5 John Lipp........Joe Mull.. 670 1897 2 128 542 +5 ( 49( Gravel.. Do. 6 Henry Baker..----.- - - 665..... 2 6 659 -1..........do.... Do. SJohn Lipp, jr.... K. Clay... 662 1904 2 428.... None.........Clay.... Do..... do........... do.... 662.. 2 150 512 -15...........do... Do. a Shallow. b Several feet below surface. ï~~OCEANA COUNTY. 57 The wells at the crest of the hill (No. 1), of which there are several, get plenty of water, although it rises but little. The Victor Symonds and Henry Baker wells are piped sidewise to lower ground to give. flows. The surface material is sand to a depth of 15 to 20 feet, after which clay is struck, which continues, with the exception of a few thin sandy beds, to a depth of at least several hundred feet. Several attempts to obtain water were made at the John Lipp, jr., place. Except for 10 feet of sand at the top all was clay to the bottom of the deepest well at 428 feet. Another well a few feet away was sunk to 150 feet and found water at the bottom, which rose to within 15 feet of the surface, but the clay from which it came so clogged the pipe that the well could not be used. Another well 135 feet deep gave similar results. These wells are said to have been R.17 w. More S 34 03 35 o No. Owner. Qualit Kindof U Quality.A rock. Feet.YFeet. Feet. OF. Feet. 1 25 Schooldistricta. 1900 $120 111 750 +1.33 52.2 Iron; soft.+ Â~70 Sandstone. 2 25 Oak GroveSanitariumb....200 265 735 +8 51 Mineral 33 Do. water. a In valley of creek; flow, 1 gallon a minute. b Used for baths and medicinal purposes; flow, 7 gallons a minute. OTTERBURN. The wells in this vicinity range from 12 to 200 feet in depth. Bed rock is struck about 150 feet from the surface, and is reported to yield a good supply of rather soft water, while the water from the drift is hard. The R lnwater rises in some of the deep wells gRo - within 3 feet of the surface. - c RICHFIELD AND GENESEE TOWNSHIPS. Richfield Township, which is on the eastern border of Genesee County, is 25 l 30 Roln rather strongly morainic or rolling and is crossed by Flint River. The surface FIG. 30.-Sketch map showing valley in is sandy along the river and through the which flowing wells occur in Genesee central and northern sections. There and Richfield townships, Genesee county. are very strong springs along the north side of Flint River in sec. 1, one of which, on the farm of R. J. Whaley, is carried by hydraulic rams to the dwelling and barns. It issues from the bluff as a 4-inch stream. Wells were generally reported as shallow, and mostly of the open, dug type, although some are tubular. The depth was said to be from 12 to 40 feet or more, with the supply and quality generally good. Flows occur in three isolated areas, as follows: A group of two wells on the farm of Peter Cimmerer on NW. 4 sec. 30 (see fig. 30); a single shallow well on the north side of sec. 28 on the farm of J. F. Armstrong, near a spring in a pasture, and one on the north side of sec. 34, belonging to Dr. J. F. Roemmer. None of these seem favorably situated to make any marked extension of the present development possible. Those on Mr. Cimmerer's place are in a shallow valley connecting with one of the tributaries of Flint River, and it is probable that along the stream other flows might be struck if wells were put ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. 161 down near the bottom of the valley, but because of the slight head it is probable that they could not be obtained on higher levels. Other probable places for flows were noted along the valley of Flint River, but as the houses are all on high ground above the river no wells have been sunk to test the matter. Leverett says: "On the south bluff just east of the county line a flow has been obtained at a level of 50 feet or more above the river." In Genesee Township, which lies west of Richfield, one flowing well has been obtained near the Cimmerer wells and in the same valley. It is on the farm of C. and G. Galing in the NE. I sec. 25. The drainage relations are shown in fig. 30. There are a few deep tubular wells in this township which do not flow. One on the farm of K. B. Todd, in sec. 11, on a plain about 60 feet above Flint River, is 222 feet in depth, and strikes rock at 194 feet. The water, as reported by the owner, stands 50 feet below the surface, the temperature is 50Â~ F., and the water soft, with a trace of oil in it. The rock resembles a grindstone in texture. The drift is largely a hard,stony clay. Mr. Todd furnished the following data concerning a well at the schoolhouse in sec. 2 on the same plain. Rock was struck at 175 feet, and the well carried to a depth of 194 feet. The water stands 33 feet below the surface, and its temperature is 500 F. Wells of Richfield and Genesee townships. Xd. Owner. Quality. Remarks. 0 r. t 0 P.0H 5 U J Q A W ( In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. OF. 1 8 7 25 C. and G. Galing.. 1890 2 60 785 +3 0.5 51 Hard..... Stock use. 2 8 8 30 P. Cimmerer-...... 1896 1.5 65 788 +1.5.75 51 Hard;iron House well. 3 8 8 30.....do........... 1. 5 1 Â~60) 785+1.5.5.......do.... Stock well. 8 8 28 J. F. Cartwright-...- 1.5 20 800...... 2 49 d........ -- In pasture. 8 8 34 Dr. J. F. Roem-.. 1.5 50?.................. mer. DAVISON AND BURTON TOWNSHIPS. A flowing-well area lies in and about Davison village, in the northern part of the township of Davison, extending southwest into Burton, the next township to the west. The area covers approximately 10 square miles, 8 of which are in Davison. (See fig. 31.) DAVISON. Davison village and the flowing-well district about it is situated on the plain which lies on the western or inner slope of the morainic ridge running southwestward through the southeastern part of the county. Through the village a low, sandy spur runs nearly east and west, the top of which is about 15 feet higher than the bottom of a shallow stream valley, along which most of the flowing wells occur. IR 183-6----12 ï~~162' WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The largest number of wells which flow is in Davison village, on the Grand Trunk Railroad, where about one-half of all those in the district are located. The whole number of wells recorded is 156. A few are no longer flowing, however, but were noted as indicating the possibilities of the locality for properly constructed wells. R..7 E. R. 8 E. 6B5 T4T3 1 6 5 4473 so 2ison 2 3 F:t G T: 7 39 " 4 0 "12'.. * o 30 29 2 27 26 2 i 2 0 29 28 27 e6 85.",,,/.,, " "" "......:.,, - j aau, % 31 32 3 34 35 36 3' 32 33 34 35 36 FIG. 31.-Sketch map showing flowing-well district in Davison and Burton townships, Genesee County. The water comes from sand or gravel strata ranging from 20 to 80 feet, and in one case (L. Raisin, No. 24) from 95 feet below the general surface. A large percentage were reported as less than 40 feet deep. As in all districts where there are several water-bearing strata there is much variation between the depths of adjacent wells, owing to irregu FIG. 32.-Diagram showing probable relationship of the water beds across sees. 10 and 11, Davison Township. larity in the thickness of the strata, apparently in some such manner as is shown in the ideal section (fig. 32). This water is of about the same quality in all of the wells-rather hard with some iron present, but in other ways excellent. That from the deeper wells seems rather less impregnated with mineral matter ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. 163 than that from the shallower ones, but, no accurate determination was made. The water should be healthful and as pure as ground water in this type of territory ever is. A tough hardpan is reported as generally present over the waterbearing strata, which were said to be usually of fine sand for the upper and gravel for the deeper ones. Mr. A. Armstrong, however, reported FIG. 33.-Plat showing distribution of flowing wells in Davison village, Genesee County. that the well at the creamery, 66 feet deep, if shut off, always started roily, and when first put down discharged more than a wagon load of fine sand. The wells in many instances were reported to be cased down into the clay for a few feet only, and but few of them had sand screens on the points. ï~~164 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The deeper wells have the greater head and the stronger flows, except a well near the stock yard of the railroad company, which was reported to be only about 16 feet deep and which flowed 10 gallons per minute at a height of 8 feet above the ground, quite equaling any other well visited. The well of Mr. L. Raisin when first put down was said to have flowed over the top of 32 feet of pipe, and while now reduced still has a strong head. One other well, that of J. F. Cartwright, the first to be put down to 70 feet, was reported to have a head of about 30 feet at first, but slowly fell as others were put down and is now below 8 feet. The 30-foot wells are all apparently of slight head and small flow. At present the village has no public water system, and fire protection is obtained by allowing the water from some of the flowing wells to run into reservoirs. It is apparent, however, that it would be possible to get a good supply for public service by putting down a few wells in the lowest part of the valley to the depth of the lowest stratum, which, being least used, would give the best supply and would also interfere least with the existing wells. The well of Mr. A. Tenney (No. 56) was on slightly higher ground than any other flow and proved to be a rock well 115 feet deep and said to be about 15 feet into the shale rock. In case this is a correct record, the 95-foot well of Mr. Raisin is probably in gravel lying on top of the rock. Fig. 33 shows the location of wells in Davison village; the data are given in the following table: Wells in Davison, Owner. Quality. r Remarks. Quality, bed. In. Ft. Ft. Ft. Gal. Â~F. 1 A. N. Trumbull.. 1904 2 72 $72 785 +10 8j 50 Iron; lime. Gravel... 2 A. J. S. Seeley.. 1904 2 75 78 785 + 8 7.........do........do.... Slight flow because 3 of No. 1. 3.....do.............. 1 30 30 785 + 1 51....do.... Sand... 4...do.............. 1130 80 784 +1 li)51...do...do.... 5 Mr. Uptograff........ 1t 30 30 784 + 1 1 51.....do........do.... 6.....do.............. 1.... 30 785 0 51.do....do.... Flows at surface. 7.....do.............. 1.... 30 784 + 1 51.....do........do.... 8.....do........................................................Flows in cellar. 9.do................. 30 784 + 2 51 Iron;lime. Sand.... 1Used in boilers; 1 }Brickyard........... j.... 30 784 + 11 51..do....do... does not scale badly. 12...........................................................No data. 13.................................................................... Do. 14 G. Moore........ 1.... 30 782_+ 1.................. 15 G. Soper...........1... 1.... 30? 782 + 2 53.................Formerly flowed more. 16 J. Reeser...........2.... or788 -1i 52 Iron...... Sand.... Water not hard. [30I 17 Chas. Hurd.........2 95 94 790 + 2...................do.... Flowhas decreased. 18 Chas. Blackmore..... 11.... 30 785 + 1 1 54 Iron; lime....do.... Flows in crock. S}....do.............. 11.... 30 785 + 1......................... Flows in cellar. ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. Wells in Davison-Continued. 165 z 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 'C4. Owner. Quality. Water Remarks..u a A w 01w............... _ _ _ In. Ft. Ft. Ft. Gal. F. J. J. Schweitzer-.... i 2 -.... $70 i 787 - 67?I 1.... Iron; lime. Gravel... In cellar...... do................ 2.... 60 786 2 1........do........do.... At barn; flows on ground below well mouth. A. Bird........................................ Noudata. L. Raisin............. 2 90 95 788 +32 4 49 Iron;lime. Gravel... Flow controlled; said to have overflowed a 32-foot pipe at first. E. Pettis............ 11 40 40 7&3 +1 50.....do.... Sand.... Used for irrigating 4 garden. Mrs. Yearns.......... 1.... 20 780 +3 049 Hard.................Do. Storehouse of ele-.....3... 16 780 +7 10 50.....do............. Water mostly vator company. wasted. Grand Trunk..... 2.... 20? 780 +1........................... Not flowing now. R. R.40.................2... 40? 782 +3 4... Hard; iron........... Piped to town drinking fountain. W arehouse.................... 785.................... A bandoned; clogged. W m. Foote............................... No data. Davison House.... 2.. 73 785 + 1 2.: Hard;'iron Gravel... Storeuilding....... J30 784 - 5 Store building........3o 7&5 -- 5........ Both in basements. J. Smith............ 1.... 32 786 + 14 4 50 Hard;iron Sand.... J. Taggart......... 1.... 37 785 + 1 1 50.....do........do.... Flows into tank. C.S. Lucas...... 1903 1.... 70 783 + 2 1 50.....do............ W. Shoemaker.. 1902 1.... 50 785 + 11 4 do...........do............... Waste runs to village reservoir. M. Smith....... 1902 1.... 40? 783 + 14 1150.....do............... Ii. Welsh...... 1902 14.... 25? 785 + 1 1 49.....do.............. W. F. Burdick... 1902 1 25 274 786 0 4 -....................... Lowered by No. 39. Mrs. Fenton......... 1.... 27 786 0 4............................Do. FrankBlackman..... 1.... 18 785 + 71 151............ Gravel... Pioneer well; head -30 feet at- first --rov1CGLul/ 11 b; pi ed to houe.. 0 7 8 43 J. F. Cartwright.....2 70 70 785 + 8 2....................do... 44.....do................ 1.... 30 785 -4............ Sand.... In cellar; flow decreased. 45 Cartwright (ele-..... 1.... 30 785 + 2 4.... --............do.... vator).. 46 Cartwright (old..... 1.... 30 785 + 1.......................Just drops now. house well). 47 Sawmill............. 1.... 30 786 + 13.................. Does not flow now. 48 A. Armstrong... 1891 2 66 66 786 +12 8 50 Soft..... Sand and Small flow at 30 gravel. feet; used in boil49 H.ewbaker.... 78 78786+2er and creamery. 5049 H. Newbaker............ 78 786+12 850.....do............... 51 GeorgeHill......1 32 784 +2. 50 No data. 52 Mrs. Cottrell........11.. 30? 785 + 1 450 53 H.C. Dayton...-..... 14.... 104 787 + 1.. Small flow; pump well. 54 J. Austen............ 2. 92 794 + 2 50 55.---do..................... 26 794 +.1 51....................Flowsatbottomof tank. 56 A. Tenney 2115115 804 + 450............ Rock.... Water slightly mineral; 15 feet in rock. 57 Wm. Hall...............30 795................................... Intermittent.: 58 C. J. Adams..... 1904 2 65 93 789 + 4 50.5 Hard................ Water hardly rises above surface. 59 Mr. Johnson..... 1902 2........ -...... Hard; iron a... Incomplete. 60 Mrs. Towar............ 30 785 + 3.......................... Too hard for laundry. 61 S. Lane........... 1r.... 360 785 + 1 150................. 62 C. N. Sallick..... 18971..... 40 785 + 4........Hard; iron........... w In cellar. 63 J. Hibbard......... 60 789 - 6 64 G. Haynes..........2. 35 786 + 2 450 Hard; iron 65 L. Shales............__...... (?) 789 +...d......do... I Flows in bottom of tank. 66 Wm. Travis.............1(?) 791 0.. 67 George Hall..... 2....60? 786 + 3 +50 Hard; iron........... 68 Barney Cole..........I....I(?) 786 + 3 50.2.....do....... 69 L. Glfford............... (?) 786 + 3 I.....do............... Flows from pump. l i F ï~~166 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Davison-Continued. S Owner. oa z 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 C. A. Uptegraff..... J. P. H. Brad-..... shaw. Mr. Wagner........ F. H. McGreggor..... J. Deal........._ Mrs. Black....... J. F. Cartwright... Mr. Cummings........ D. Cobus........ 1876 c5 P In. Ft. 3 ---- $62 2... 80 1 _.... 25? 1.... 60 2....70 1".... 30 1i.._. 30? Quality. Water Remarks..d Ft. Ft. Gal. oF. 786 + 3 1 50.2 Hard; iron........... Piped to shop. 785 + 3 250.2..... do............. Lawn sprinkling. 788 + --.----'.-_------___,-- -Flows into crocks. 787 + 3 2 50.2 Hard; iron-------------Do. 785 + 1 -.......do....... 785 + 2.........do.............. Flow decreased. 785 + 1 1 50.....do......... 785 + 1 -.........do.........:...... Loses largely by leaky casing. 786 + 1..........do.............Gravel, 5 feet; hard. pan, one-half foot; clay, 25 feet. In cellars; use dis-......continued; about 7 ---- 4-------- 50 feet deep. 787+ 4 11 50 Hard;iron.......J... ~: i i i Ioe Y t H. Southworth.. 1898 2.... 60 VICINITY OF DAVISON. In the country district south and west of the village the wells were generally reported as bored by the owners and at most only a single length of pipe used for casing. This method of putting down makes the cost of construction very small, but it is not conducive to permanency. From the varying depths at which water was reported in this part of the area, it seems likely that the strata are not continuous with those of the village, nor is it probable that they are. It seems probable that the rolling land east of the area serves as the catchment area and gives the head necessary to make the wells flow. The diagram, fig. 32, and the sketch map, fig. 31 (p. 162), show the supposed relation of the strata in vertical section, and the approximate position of the wells of the area to the rolling lands to the east. In sec. 29, Davison Township, there is a single light flow in the bottom of a small marshy depression in the moraine. The marsh is but a few acres in extent and surrounded by hills. The well was remote from any house, and no data were obtained regarding it, but from the way it was constructed and its location it was evidently shallow. This was the only flowing well in the township found in the rolling country. BURTON TOWNSHIP. On the farm of A. C. Skinner, 3 miles southeast of Flint, in the NE. 3 sec. 28, in the valley of Thread River, is a tile well 25 feet deep. The water flowed the year round until recently, when it was purposely shut off, and now in a wet season it rises 41 feet above ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. 167 the surface and runs from the spout of the pump. The well is about 5 feet above the level of the water in the stream and 25 feet below the level at which any of the neighboring houses stand. This well suggests the possibility of putting down other wells in the valley of the stream, with the reasonable expectation of getting flowing water from no great depth. In the central part of the township the wells are commonly shallow, dug or bored 12 to 20 feet deep. One tile tubular well was reported to be 50 feet deep, with a good supply of water. Doctor Chase's well, at the northwest corner of sec. 16, flows from the rock, which is said to be 75 to 80 feet from the surface. Below 20 feet, until rock is reached, water is rather scarce in this part of the county. In the southeastern part of the township, especially in secs. 23 and 24, water is abundant, and there are numerous flowing wells, which form the eastern extension of the Davison area. SUMMARY. The following table gives data of the wells in Davison and Burton townships, exclusive of those in Davison village, which are given on pages 164-166. Wells in Davison and Burton townships. S Owner. - I., o M v. a In. Ft. Ft. Ft. 1 7 8 30 I. R. Thomas.... 1902 20 14 790 -5 2 7 8 19 Bert Thomas..... 1894 1' 25 782 +3 3 7 819 E. Thomas......... 14 30 785+2 4 7 8 30 A. A. Thomas... 30 780 +2 5 7 8 20 Fred Knapp......1884 1 40 785+2 6 7 8 20....do............ 1884 14 40 780+2 7 7 8 20, F. Blackman..... 1898 1. 48 780.... 8 7 81 19 Israel Iill............11 50 780 0 9 7 8 19....do............... 14 50 780+1 107 819.....do................ 1. 60 780+1 11 7 8 15 Oscar Harris..... 1894 14 40 810 +3 12 78 15 W. Walterhouse.. 1892 2 40 812 +3 13 7 8 16E. B. Terrill.........2.... 808+1 14 7 816 Mrs. Wm. Fagin.. 1902 2 55 790 +2 15 7 8 16.....do.......... 1902 2 55 790+1 16 7 8 16. do........... 1.. 1; 30 785 +2 171 7 8 16' L. S. McAllister... 1880 2 30 795+ 18 7 16.....do............... 2 30 790,+3 19 7 8 16 G. M. Gaylord........ 1 30 790,+14 20 7 8 30 Fred Blackmore...7.......... 21 7 723 J. Phelps.............2 20 770+2 22 7 723 R Van Tifflina...2... 2 15 775 +14 Water S Quality. Wber o a Gls. Â~F........ IHard... Gravel.. 1 50.5....do......do... 450....do.......do... 1........do.......do... 1 50...do.......do... 14 50....do.....do... 1............... S:0 Hard...Grave.. I - - do............. Remarks. This well is in neighborhood of flows, but on higher ground. Has two wells. Well in pasture; another at house. Well in pasture. Do. Water flows at surface; rock at 90 feet. Drilled well at bar, 111 feet deep, 16 feet in rock. 1........do........ 4 54....do... Sand.... 2 52.... do.....do... Another well about the same on back of farm. 1s4 -........."-.... do... Water nearly soft. 1 50.............do.. Do. 3 50..............do... Do. S..... ard........... Flow very small. j 50 Hard......----- 14 50....do............. In hollow in field. 4 50....do............. In field........_................... Bored well; small flow. 3 50 Hard........ 1 50....do.............' Easy to get flows........ here anywhere at about 15 feet. a W. Skellinger, a driller at Davison, states that the Van Tifflin wells are 30 to 40 feet deep. The strongest has a head of 12 to 14 feet. ï~~168 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Davison and Burton townships-Continued. n I d Owner. o non Â~S In. Ft. Ft. 23 7 7 23 R.VanTiffiina.......2 15 775 24 7 7 24.....do------------............ --.... 2 15 775 25 7 7 24.....do................ 2 15 775 26 7 7 24.....do................ 2 15 775 27 7 7 25 28 7 7 251 297 725 30 7 7 25 H. A. Day............ 31 7 7 25 32 7 7 25 33 7 7 24 Chamberlin place.....2 30 780 34 7 7 24 Mrs. Clark Day--....... 2 35? 780 35 7 7 24 A. Burns.............2 30 780 36 7 8 16 P. P. Hill............. 2 30 785 37 7 8 16.....do- -.... 2 30 785 38 7 8 16 ---do------------ 2 30 785 39 7 8 8 M. H. Flint..........-.... 789 40 7 8 8.....do.......----..... 2.... 789 41 7 8 8 E.N. Demanois-2.....21 790 4278 8 F. Hill-----------............ 1898 2114 785 43 7 8 8 B. Cartwright-... 2...... 780 44 7 810 I.W. Cole............------------ 25 785 457 810.....do ---............ - 1.... 40 788 46 7 8 3J. J. Worden--.....-.... 1 40 790 471 7 8 3 N. Haines.......--------... 1 40 790 48 78 2 W. Dillenbeck........ 30 785 49 7 8 2-.....do-----...........------..... 60 785 50 7 8 V. Henderson 2.... 0... 2 50 785 51 7 8 3....do------------2................ 50785 Water S Quality. bed. t.... - 1...._ Remarks. Ft. Gls.I o F -}14 2 50 Hard.. +2 2 50 1... do.... - +2 3 -- +2 1.................. SThese and others in neighborhood said to be 25 to 35 feet _.. _ __.._.......... _ _ deep. Flow varies from one-half gallon to 3 gallons. Mostly old wells. +12 14 50- --.... -..........Rather hard water. +2 50.................; trmD Â~2 1450 + 2 - 5................ +2 6 50........... +2 1 50.......... +11 150 ------------- In stream valley. +11 4150 ----------------In woods. +14 51-.......... Water medium hard..... -----...--.. ----- -_Flowed 2 years, then tstopped; water medium hard. +2 2 50 Medium..... +21 5 50....do--- +2 1 50.....do... +22 450 -.... -do... -----------In marshy pasture. +1 50.... do.. +2....--- Hard........ In pasture. +14 450....do.. -+11 150....do...... +2 150....do... a W.Skelinera dillr atDavson sttestha theVanTiflinwels ae 30to 0 fet eep Th a W. Skellinger, a driller at Davison, states that the Van Tifflin wells are 30 to 40 feet deep. The strongest has a head of 12 to 14 feet. GAINES AND MUNDY TOWNSHIPS. SWARTZ CREEK. The village of Swartz Creek is situated on the side of the ridge bordering the valley of the stream of the same name and is about 20 feet above it. In the village the wells are said to be generally shallow-from 12 to 30 feet in depth-the water coming from below a thin layer of hardpan. The well of Mr. William Clark, on the broad flat terrace of the stream, usually flows with a head of about 2 feet, but had just ceased when visited by the writer. The flow was said to be a small one. The well is about 25 feet deep. From this single well it seems likely that tubular wells put down in low places on the terrace of the creek would give flows, and especially so since the ridge bordering the valley gives a good catchment area and head. ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. 169 GAINES AND MUNDY AREA. This area lies 2 to 3 miles south and from 1 to 2 miles east of Swartz Creek in a flat trough or plain, with a low ridge to the north. (See fig. 34.) Both rock and drift flows occur, but the drift or gravel flows occupy, as would be expected, much the smaller part of the area. No attempt was made to get a full list of the flowing wells from the rock in these townships. The area where flowing wells occur covers only about 1 square mile and is entirely without features, being so flat that little difference of level can be seen over the whole of it. The wells are shallow, ranging from 10 to 12 feet in depth at the western end of the area to 40 or even 80 feet in other parts, though T. 6 N. R.5 E. T. 6 N. R.6 E. most of them were reported as o' R'oe being about 25 feet deep. The 12,28 water usually flows in sufficient 8_,, quantity for the owners' needs, 2zA 9,E/.. dbut a few wells had ceased flowing GAINE S MUN DY TWP. or had become so feeble that S13 18 17 pumps were used. This seems to T RWP. ' indicate that the catchment is 3 2... small and local, being affected by the local weather conditions, the 24 19 o20 head of many of the wells being ' reported as less in the summer than in the winter. FIG. 34.-Map showing flowing ells in the Gaines- The water is medium hard, with Mundy area, Genesee County. a small quantity of iron present. The catchment area may be a low ridge to the north of the area where the larger number of wells are, or it might be any tributary higher land near by, since the head is so low. Rock wells are situated aromund the border of the area of drift wells. The rock surface is reported to vary from about 100 feet in most of the wells to 180 feet in the well of Mr. J. H. Short, in which the rock is remarkably deep considering the showing in the wells on either side. The water is from sandstone, is fresh and sweet, is usually softer, has less iron than the waters from the drift, and the supply is likely to be more permanent because of the much greater area from which the water can come. The table on the next page gives data relating to this group of wells. ï~~170 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Gaines and Mundy area. a o zH 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 ai Owner. J. H. Short............do........... G. S. Eigentrager.. A. D. Stevens..... R. N. Barlow..... J. B. Coqingue.... J. D. Perry........ a3 a In..... 1 1903 2 1902 2 1896 2 1897 2.... 2.... 1 Ft. 17 0.3 a Ft. Ft. Gal 820? +1 5 280 830? +1 13 0800 +2 132830 +3 130 835 0 30830 +2 37 835 +2 1 3 3j 3 11 9 6 10 6 11 6 12 6 13 6 14 6 15 6 16 6 17 6 18 196 20 21 6 22 6 23 6 24 6 25 6 26 6 27 6 8 School district.... 1898 7 L. Close.............. 7....do............. 7....do............. 18 L. Shelton............ 18 I.D. Gazley.......1902 7 W. Beebe......... 1900 7 C.W.Curtis....... 18 Wm. Cummings...... 18.....do........... 3 101 820 11 15 820 1 25 820 11 40 820 2 80820 +3? 1 Â~14 4 +1 K. +2 1 -3. +24 55 2 Water Quality. bed. Remarks. OF. 50 Hard..... Gravel.. Bored in creek valley..... Soft...... Rock.... Sandstone at 180 feet; cost, $168. 55.2.....do........do.... Water from top of sandstone. 51.....do........do... 25 feet in sandstone. 51.....do........do.... 15 feet in sandstone. 51 Hard; iron Gravel.. Bored with auger; affected by drought.........do.-...do.. Very feeble flow; well near has ceased. 50.6 Soft...... Rock?... Said to be just to rock.... Hard; iron Gravel.. Affected by se asons; used for cooling.... --...do..do.... 50.....do......do.... Low ground in pasture. __. -do............ Small flow. 52..-do...: Gravel.. Flow has decreased. 52.....do........do.... 51.....do........do.... Flows.........do......do.... 50.....do........do... l /Three small flows;.............................. T ree m fws; ----- ---- t Treepumped.........................Flows no more.......Do. 49 Hard; iron Gravel.. Bored; flows in tub. 50. o do... i On bank of ditch. 0..... do........d....Ona ofdth....................... Crock well; overflows. 50 Soft..... Rock... Well in sandstone..........do........do.... Sandstone. 14 25820 +8 3 1[ 29820 +2 12 30818 +2 2 2 25818 +2 1 6 7 J.D. Burnham......................... 6 18 Mrs. C. Wood............25... 6 18 M.N. Wood...............30........... 5 13 J. W. Wood........... 11 20816 - + 2 5 12 M.N.Wood.......... 2 12815 +2 5 5 12 W.A. Stoner........... 10813 + 4 1 6 8 Chas. Allen....... 1903 2 100820 +2 2 6 8 W.S.Blass......................... GAINES. The wells at Gaines range from shallow dug ones to deep drilled ones-from 120 to 195 feet. Good supplies of water are found in sand and gravel below clay at from 20 to 175 feet. Rock has not been reached in any of the wells. GRAND BLANC. Grand Blanc village is located in a rolling district; and is perched on a low ridge overlooking the valley of Thread Creek. Wells on the ridge, to obtain permanent and sufficient supplies for ordinary use, have to be sunk into the rock (which is reported as being from 160 to 200 feet below the surface) to a total depth of 200 to 360 feet. Shallow wells vary from 25 to 70 feet deep, but usually do not give good supplies. The water rises in the deep wells to within 25 feet of the surface. On the edge of the valley on the east side of the town there ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. 171 are some quite shallow wells. A well of Mr. M. Frazer, bored to a depth of 20 feet, has the water within 3 or 4 feet of the surface, rising from below a thin. bed of hardpan. The locality is a springy one, and another well only 8 feet deep has the water nearly to the surface. The well on the place next south of Mr. Frazer's is said to be 56 feet deep, partly dug and partly bored, and the water rises to within 4 feet of the surface. Springs are reported to occur along the edge of the valley on the north side of the town. In case the village ever attempts to incorporate a public system of water supply the best place to make preliminary tests will be in the bottom of the creek valley at as low level as possible. The test wells would determine the best location for a pumping station. In the valley the water would be more likely to be abundant, land would be cheaper, and the chances of getting a flow either from the gravel or from the rock are excellent. The water could be pumped to a standpipe in the highest part of the town and good pressure thus assured. ARGENTINE. The wells in Argentine are from 15 to 30 feet deep, usually through a clay bed into water-bearing gravel. FENTON TOWNSHIP. LINDEN. The village of Linden is situated in the valley of Shiawassee River, and gets a considerable part of its domestic supply from dug wells 20 to 35 feet deep. The drilled wells are from 75 to 175 feet deep, reaching rock about 100 feet from the surface. The quality of the water is good, though hard, as is usual in the region. That from the rock wells is reported as softer than that from the dug wells. The water in the rock wells rises to within 20 feet of the surface. FENTON. Fenton is built on the terraces of Shiawassee River, which has here cut a narrow valley in the bottom of a line of glacial drainage. The pumping station is on the bank of the stream at the lowest possible level, about 20 feet lower than the railroad station. The water is from a group of nine or ten flowing wells with slight head, ranging from 70 to 240 feet in depth, the majority of them being about 90 feet deep. The water flows into a brick reservoir of about 50,000 gallons capacity, from which it is pumped at the rate of 155,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, in spite of which fact there is a constant overflow into the stream. The pumps are connected with the stream in case of emergency, although the wells furnish 500,000 gallons a day. ï~~172 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The quality of the water is excellent, and seems less hard and has less iron than is usual in supplies of this sort. The low bottom on which flows are obtained being subject to overflow, few if any dwellings have been built on it. For this reason the bottom has not been well tested for flows, but it seems probable that all along it flows might be obtained near the level of the river. The larger number of these private wells were said to be of the shallow basin type, 12 to 40 feet deep. The water in those from the rock in the country around is said to be soft. ATLAS TOWNSHIP. ATLAS AREA. These wells occur in the part of Atlas Township immediately adjacent to Oakland County on the slope.of a stream valley about 5 miles south and west of Goodrich, just east and south of a low ridge. This flowing-well area is practically continuous with the Groveland area in Oakland County. The Atlas area is a small one, containing about 1 square mile, with six wells, one of which is from the rock. The drift wells are noticeably deep, and seem to come from near the top of the bed rock. The water probably rises out of the rock and accumulates under the overlying clay in a sand and gravel stratum lying on top of the rock. There seems to be a locally developed shallow stratum, with slight head, in the eastern part of sec. 33, where two wells (one abandoned) of small flow from 20 feet down were reported. Wells in Atlas area (T. 6 N., R. 8 E.). o Owner. ~ Quality. Water bed. 0 In. Feet. Feet. Galls. 0 F. 1 33 G.S. Horton........... $95 1896 2 96 +15 8+ 51 Medium; Gravel. iron. 2 33 Drew Riesa............ 80 1892 2 78 + 3 10 50 Hard-s... Sand, gravel. 3 33 James Ferguson........ 81 1893 2 81 + 3 4 51 Iron; hard Gravel. 4 33 Milo Van Tyne......... 91 1891 2 91 + 1 3 51.....do.... Do. 5 34 C. Grovesb............. 1 20 + 2 2...........do.... Do. 6 33 J. P. Platt............ 186 1892 2 186 + 3.................do.... Sandstone. a Piped to house, horse barn, and barnyard. Mr. Ries formerly had a well in the low part of his garden 20 feet deep, with a small flow of 2 feet head. b Located in springy place in the woods. c Flows just above the surface; piped to barn and flows there a j-inch stream. GOODRICH. The village is situated in Atlas Township in a rolling district on the side of the valley of Hartley Creek, which is dammed at this point for power purposes. ï~~GENESEE COUNTY. 173 The wells are said to be mainly shallow, from 20 to 30 feet deep. They are dug or of the tile basin type, and have abundant hard water of good quality. There are several rock wells in and near the village in which, generally, the water rises within 8 to 15 feet of the surface. The water comes from a fine gray sandstone, and is of good quality, with some mineral matter, mainly iron, in it. It is softer than the waters from the gravel above the rock. Doctor Whelock's well is 171 feet deep, 40 to 50 feet into the rock, and the water stands 14 feet below the surface. The deepest rock wells are said to be over 200 feet. The well at the schoolhouse, 235 feet deep, is 105 feet into the rock. It flows 21 gallons a minute, 21 feet above the surface. The water has a temperature of 510 F. as it flows from the pipe, is slightly saline, and has considerable iron in it. The well was drilled about 1898, at a cost of $91. This well is on ground high enough to make it seem probable that good flows could be secured in other parts of the village by going down to the same stratum. The stream and pond at this place suggest the practicability of securing water for fire protection easily and cheaply, and eventually these sources of supply will probably be utilized for the purpose. ATLAS-HADLEY AREA. This area occupies a valley that lies between morainic ridges, and embraces perhaps 10 square miles in the townships of Atlas (Genesee County), Hadley (Lapeer County), and Brandon (Oakland County). (See fig. 35.) The Ortonville and Brandon Township flows are near its south end and are treated separatelya because of their great development. From Ortonville the flows extend as far as Hadley, Lapeer County, 7 miles to the northeast, appearing at frequent intervals along the valley and the lower part of its slopes. The area includes six or seven wells in Atlas Township, and at least eight in Hadley Township, and there may be some which escaped notice in both of these townships. The number in Brandon Township, which should properly be included, is about 100. It is probable that in many places in the lower parts of the valley flows could be obtained, but because of the undrained character of the soil and the scattered population of the district there are relatively few houses at low enough levels to be within the limits of flow. The fact that the porous gravels along the sides of the valley yield good supplies of water for shallow wells does away with the necessity of putting down deep ones. Along the road between secs. 15 and 16, Hadley Township, is the greatest development of any place in the a See Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 182, pp. 184-187. ï~~174 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. area. Here the first well to flow was a dug well, in which, at the time of construction, in the early sixties, the water rose so rapidly that the bottom had to be choked with stones to enable the owner to have it walled up. This well is still flowing several gallons a minute into a tile drain. o a R. 9 E. R. 8 E.. FIG. 35.-Sketch map of the Ortonville, Hadley-Atlas, Groveland, and Atlas flowing-well areas. At Hadley, the well on the school grounds, 147 feet deep, is 14 feet into the rock, and flows just above the surface. North of Hadley no flowing wells were found. The well of Mrs. Jones, in the northern part of sec. 22, Hadley Township, was reported as 284 feet deep, with rock at 274 feet. It passed through 50 feet of till at the top, and white sand thence to the rock. ï~~LIVINGSTON COUNTY. Wells in Atlas-Hadley area. 175 Owne. 1 149a Owner. Quality. Wer In. Ft. Ft. Ft. Gal. Â~F. 1 9 30 J. Toady............................... 2 80 950 - 4.... 51 Hard;iron Gravel. 2 6 9 19 C. Gregory..................... 4.... + 1........ Iron...... Do. 3 6 9 16 D. Rileyb..................... 2 31 900 + 1.... 51 Hard..... Do. 46 9 15 C.S. Riley.............. 2 67 890 +10 3 51.....do.... Do. 5 6 9 16 D. Riley c...................2 50 890 + 1.. 52..do.... Do. 6 6 9 15 SilasRileyd........1864.... 38 895....4 52.....do.... Do. 7 6 9 9 Hadley school...........1902 2 147 895 +1 151 Medium.. Rockl4ft 8 6 9 9 Hadley creamerye....... 1901 2 110 885 0....... Hard;iron 9 6 9 10 A.Eckers................. 1904 2 47 880 +5 2 50.....do.... 106 9 15 Spring f-..................... 1 5 875 +2 2 60.....do.... 11 6 9 15 R. Hartwig -............. ]...... 2 35.... - 4 1.......do.... 12 6 8 26 Calvin Rhodes.................. 2 68 888 + 1{ 2 50..do.... 13 6 8 25 J.R. Kipph..................... 2 60............. 14 6 8 25 W. Armstrongi................... 2 125 930 - 1........ Hard..... 15 6 8 36 Jas. Sheldon i................... 2 165 910 + 4 4.....do.... 166 8 23 S. Spicerk......................2 131................... Sandstone 17 6 8 27 Mrs. Rhodes 1................. 2 133...Do. 18 8 15 Goodrich school................................................ Rock. a Spring boxed in woods with spout to trough. b Flowed until within two months when it lowered 4 inches and is now pumped; flows at barn. c Used to flow i-inch stream; very small flow now. d First flow of the area; dug well; partially filled with stone to check overflow. eWould flow at surface, but is pumped. I From a near-by spring: used for watering stock. g Pumped at barn, but piped to stock trough on hillside and flows there. h In pasture; piped to farmhouse. i Piped to barn, where it flows. SSand 55 feet, clay 10 feet, gravel with water at bottom. k Piped to barn, where it flows. 1 Flows at barn; water at 118 feet in gravel; best flow from rock. WATER SUPPLIES OF LIVINGSTON COUNTY. TOPOGRAPHY. Livingston County, of which Howell is the county seat, is west of Oakland County. The interlobate morainic system which traverses Oakland County centrally from northeast to southwest passes across its southeastern part, and Huron River traverses it in a southwesterly course about on the line between the Saginaw and Huron-Erie portions of the interlobate system. There are numerous lakes along the river and in the moraines on either side. From this interlobate moraine there is northwestward drainage to Cedar and Shiawassee rivers. The former drains the western part of the county to Grand River and thence to Lake Michigan, while the latter drains the northern part of the county northward into Saginaw Bay. The northwestern part of the county is occupied by a much smoother tract than the southeastern, though feeble moraines are traceable, and there are several gravel ridges or eskers which lead up into the interlobate moraine. Wells are obtained throughout the county at moderate depths, usually without reaching the rock. A number of wells, however, in the northwestern portion have been sunk a short distance into the ï~~176 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. rock, which is reached at about 100 feet. This part of the county is embraced in the discussion, by Doctor Lane, of the region around Lansing.a SUPPLIES BY DISTRICTS. HOWELL. The town of Howell is situated on a gently undulating plain near the geographic center of Livingston County. To the south is a depressed area, in the bottom of which are marshes and several small lakes. WATERWORKS. Howell has a waterworks system, which obtains its supply from a group of ten 6-inch tubular drilled wells, located in a shallow drainage valley near the Pere Marquette Railroad station, in the western part of the town. These wells have been in use since 1894, and the water is said to come from gravel, lying at a depth of 65 feet below the surface, and to rise to withinafoot of the surface when thepumps are not in operation. When pumped at the rate of 600 gallons a minute, the water is lowered 7 or 8 feet, but at the usual rate of pumping during the summer season (from 275,000 to 300,000 gallons in twenty-four hours) the lowering is only 4 feet. The supply was said to show some signs of failure, but this is attributed to the tendency of the strainers to become clogged, as all the wells show this tendency after a few months of use, and unless the wells are frequently sand pumped the supply is reduced. The supply is, however, adequate for all the present demands, and the water is of good quality, though hard and containing some iron. It is used for fire protection, lawn sprinkling, for boilers, and for general domestic purposes. (1) There are many shallow dug wells in Howell, which are used commonly as sources of drinking water and as domestic supply. The depth of these wells ranges from 15 to 50 feet and the water is generally less hard than that of the city supply described above. FLOWING WELLS. In the southeastern part of the town, in one of the areas of marsh land mentioned above, is a group of flowing wells (see fig. 36) of slight head and generally small flow, which forms the largest group of this type in the county. From their situation in relation to the higher lands around it is difficult to determine whether the sources of supply for this area are in the morainal hills and sandyslopes to the south or in the long, rather sandy slope to the north, as either or both might contribute water. The small flows and slight head would indicate, however, that there is aSee Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 182, pp. 170-175. ï~~LIVINGSTON COUNTY. 177 either a small catchment area or one in which the porosity is too slight to yield any considerable amount of free water. The general configuration of the locality and direction of drainage seems to favor a catchment area to the south, where the area of porous soils is more limited than to the north. The obtainable records of wells put dbwn in this locality indicate that there are two water-bearing strata generally available. The upper, of about 1 foot in thickness, is a coarse sandy gravel, which yields a good supply of water at depths varying from 6 to 12 feet. This is usually capped by a clay bed, and the water has sufficient head to give slight flows at or slightly above the surface. The usual practice is to shut off this vein and go down to the lower one, a wise to moramna rs - Approximate border of draed marsh FIG. 36.-Plat of portion of Howell, Livingston County, showing flowing-well district. practice, since there is no general sewer system, and the chances of contamination from cesspools, etc., are considerable under existing conditions. The only wells obtaining their supply from this vein are those of Mr. Charles Arnold and his neighbor across the street. The lower water-bearing stratum is from 40 to 60 feet below the surface and is of unknown thickness. It is covered by a thick bed of blue clay so free from stones as to be easily bored through with the small auger commonly used in sinking the wells, and so compact that usually no casing is used, except enough to shut off the water from the upper vein. In most of the wells this water-bearing gravel is said to be white, rather coarse, and free from sand. The water is hard, with considerable iron in it. mR 183-06--13 ï~~178 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The valley extends east, west, and southwest, but at present is not inhabited, because of its marshy character. Wherever the surface is sufficiently low the conditions would seem to be favorable for finding flows, either from the stratum from which the present supply is obtained or at a greater depth, and as the marshy area becomes settled the present area of flows may be extended. The only other flowing well near Howell is that on the farm of E. P. Gregory, in sec. 2, Marion Township. This is a bored well, said by Mr. Gregory to be 34 feet deep, but by the driller, Mr. Andrew Feeley, from memory, to have the following record: Records of E. P. Gregory's well, Marion Township. DRILLER'S RECORD. MR. GREGORY'S RECORD. Total (feet). Total (feet). Sand------------------------ -- 12 Sand and gravel-------- - 7 Clay, very stony................. 57 Tough blue clay............... 33 Clay ------------- 67 Water gravel; strong flow ------34 Water gravel; strong flow. This well is situated 20 feet above and 60 rods north of Shiawassee River on the slope of a well-marked drift ridge. The head is about 7 feet, and the flow, as arranged at present, is about 12 gallons a minute. The water is hard and with considerable iron, but of excellent quality. It is used to cool milk, to water stock, and for all domestic purposes. From the situation of this well, so much above the stream level, it is probable that the side of the valley farther down the slope would yield flows, but there are few residences in the neighborhood, and these are all on higher ground, while the pastures bordering the stream are sufficiently watered to make the sinking of wells unnecessary. Mr. W. S. Papworth, in putting down a well some sixteen or eighteen years ago, struck a small flow of gas in the sand under the upper clay. When first struck, the gas was said to burn at the mouth of the pipe with a flame "as large as a barrel." The gas was piped to the house and supplied a single burner for six months with sufficient gas to give a constant bright flame. The sand constantly clogged the well so that the water could not be pumped, and the well was finally abandoned and filled up. The gas was in all probability "marsh gas," which in some way had accumulated in the sand as the result of decaying vegetation in the neighboring marshy area. ï~~LIVINGSTON COUNTY. Wells at Howell. 179 I cc 0 Owner. 0.0 c Do 1 W.S. Papwortha............ 1897 2! W.S. Papworth b............ 1888 3 Jos. Feeleyc................. 1896 4 Chas. Arnold d-.. ---. 1895 5 Wm. Duncan e.............. 1897 6 Win. Barrettf............... 1900 7 Fred Mischke g-...---... 1899 8 Mrs. L. Tilden....------------ 1901 9 F. Crandallh.......... 10 J.R. Austenz................... 11 George Perry)............... 1900 12 E. Bennett.............. 13 C. Cooper.............. In. 2 12 2 2 9 2 1 1 1 1 1 $12 5 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 S. Water bed. Feet. Feet Feet. Gals. o F. 55 910 13 0.5 51 Gravel. 20 915 -3............ 45 905 +5 1.5 49.2 Do. 12 915 +.5 1 50.5 Coarse gravel. 35 909 Â~1.5 1 51 Gravel. 37 912 +1.5.550 Do. 35 912..... 1...... Do. 42 914 +.5 1.5 49.5 Do. 40 913 +2 1.50 Do. 40 910 +2 2.5? 52 44 914 0 1 50 Do. 42 910 +2 1 51 Do. 40 912 +1.......-------..... Do. a Forty-five feet blue clay; 20 feet of casing. bWell flowed gas for a year, then filled with sand. c Muck, 5 feet; sand, 15 feet; blue clay, 20 feet; reddish hardpan, 5 feet; water gravel at bottom. d This well now flows in basin; used to flow above surface; pumped now. Sand, 6 feet; clay, 5 feet; gravel, 1 foot. Mr. Arnold has two similar wells. e Flow affected by pumping Arnold's well across street. Sand, 8 feet; clay, 26 or 27 feet. f Sandy loam, 2 feet; clay, 35 feet. g Has pump, but would flow if owner cut down to head and deepened slightly. h Surface sandy soil 4 feet; clay, 6 feet; gravel with water, 1 foot; blue clay to 40 feet. The lower gravel is coarse, white, and has little sand; more than 4 feet thick. i Best flow in group, but runs into tank. I Cut off just below surface; flows into basin. The following are partial analyses of the public supply and a shallow well at Howell. The city water has to be mixed with rain water from cisterns for use for laundry purposes. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well waters at Howell. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color............................................................................. 51 65 Iron (Fe)......................................................................... 2 2 Chlorine (Cl)....-- -............................................................. 11 27.6 Carbon dioxide (COs2)................................................ --........... 89.39 139.96 Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)........................................................ 10 51 Hardness (as CaCO3) ---------------................................................. +139 322 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. William Barrett; depth, 38 feet; water at 15 feet. 2. City; depth, 68 feet. PINCKNEY AREA. This area consists of a group of three wells in a shallow valley 1 miles east and 2 miles north of the village of Pinckney. These wells are about 60 feet deep, and flow 2 or 3 gallons a minute, 2 feet above the surface. No explorations were known to have been made to determine whether this area can be extended, but it seems probable that it could be to the east, toward Hay Creek. ï~~180 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. COHOCTAH AREA. Cohoctah Center is a small village located on one of the branches of Shiawassee River. The houses generally stand on a sandy terrace 10Oor 15 feet above the level of the stream, and water is obtained from shallow dug wells. Near the stream level are three a n mroraine.. ohocta h 3 9 FIG. 37.-Sketch map of Cohoctah flowing-well area, Livingston County. tubular wells which flow (fig. 37), but the quantity is small and the head slight, so that at one well a basin has been built into which the water flows and another has been fitted with a pump. The cost of one of these wells (No. 2) was but $4.50. The indications are in favor of a possible greater development along the valley of the stream if conditions should arise making this desirable. It is also quite probable that deeper wells would give larger flows with greater head. These wells were bored with an auger. The accompanying table gives the statistics of these wells and fig. 37 shows their approximate location: Wells in Cohoctah area. c z 1 Owner. 6 0 0 In. Ft. Feet. Feet..----1.5 33 915 882 1903 1.25 31 918 887 1892-3 2 49 918 868 Feet. +2 Gals..5 o 49 Sand.. Gravel. Quality. J. S. Gordon...... Hard, with some iron. An old well. Hard; some iron. Hard. 2.................... 3 J. Trowbridgea.. -{-.5.5 49 0........ a This well had just ceased flowing. Said to flow during the wet part of the year over the end of pipe, which is cut off near the surface of ground. Cohoctah station is situated on the Ann Arbor Railroad, above the level of the old village. It has shallow dug wells from 23 to 67 feet in depth, the usual depth being about 50 feet. The water in them rises from a gravel bed to within 18 to 23 feet of the surface. The water is hard and has considerable iron in it. DEERFIELD. About 2 miles east and 1 mile north of Oak Grove, on the north side of sec. 29, Deerfield Township, is the sawmill and cider mill of Wm. H. Wenk. This is placed on the edge of the terrace of a swampy ï~~LIVINGSTON COUNTY. 181 valley running off to the north, and at the foot of the terrace, in the boiler room of the mill, is a well 72 feet deep, which, if it were not shut off, would flow the full size of the pipe. The water comes from a stratum of sandy gravel 11 feet thick, and has a head of 16 feet. It was put down in 1896 by the owner, who furnished the following record: Record of Wenk flowing well, near Oak Grove>. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand and gravel..........................................................6 6 Blue clay........................................................................64 70 H ardpan....................................................................... 2 72 Coarse gravel with sand........................................................ 11 83 Hardpan. The pipe was drawn back to the top of the water-bearing stratum. The water was not hard, and had a temperature of 510 F. A bored well at the house of Mr. Wenk, across the road, showed nearly the same section, except that there were 22 feet of sand before the gravel was reached. This well is on high ground, and the water rises in it within about 7 feet of the surface. It is quite probable that other flows might be obtained along the sides of the valley to the north by going down to the level reached by the Wenk well. With the Large head and thick water-bearing stratum there should be abundant water with which to use a hydraulic ram or water motor for elevating water thus found to buildings at higher levels, but as yet, so far as learned, no other attempt than Mr. Wenk's has been made to strike a flow in this vicinity. HARTLAND AREA. Beginning a short distance west and south of Hiartland post-office and extending northward along a swampy valley drained by one of the minor branches of Shiawassee River are four or five flowing wells. The limits of the area are as yet undetermined, because of the sparse population and the general location of the houses and farm buildings upon the higher ground, but it is probable that flows would be struck in both directions along the valley beyond the present wells. The flows are from tubular wells, are rather weak, with slight head, and present no phases of general interest. Their approximate location, and the area of the basin, as at present developed, is shown in fig. 38. On the farm of J. B. Crause, sec. 17, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., Hartland Township, about a half mile west of Hartland post-office, is a remarkable spring, really a natural artesian well, although now given an improved outlet by the owner. It is located near to and east of the house and 12 or 15 rods south of the road, below the edge of the highest terrace of a marshy valley. The natural outlet of the spring has been ï~~182 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. dug out to a depth of 11 feet, down to the water-bearing stratum of fine gravel, and walled up with stone laid in cement, to a height of about 6 feet above the surface. The water rises to the top of this cistern and flows out in three streams; one, a waste pipe 1 inch in diameter, is allowed to run full into a ditch to the stream valley. A second pipe 1 inches i diameter runs into a cooling tank in the milk house, and a third pipe runs a hydraulic ram which pumps water to the house and barns. The waste water from the milk house runs through a series of watering troughs in the Mr... barnyard before it is allowed to go hMa,.... _ to waste. Besides these outlets, a 7 "' 8- considerable quantity of water runs A", off through cracks in the cement and Morana. stonework near the top of the cistern. hills artland The entire outflow from this spring can not be much less than 20 gallons 8. an -se prin 6 a minute, as the quantity received in the milk house is about 8 gallons. While the improvements were being r made on the natural spring the water FIG. 38.-Sketch map of Hartland area, was carried off at a low level by ditch. Livingston County, showing locations of Simultaneously some of the wells to the wells. northwest are reported to have stopped flowing, thus suggesting an underground donnection with the wells. Wells of Hartland area. Owner. Quality. Water; h ed. Inches. Feet. Feet. Galls. IF. 1 J.B. Crause............ 1 15 +1.5 1 49.2 Hard, with someiron..... Gravel. 2 C. Parsons.............. 2 50 +2 1 50 -.....do.................... Do. 3 A.M. Townley.......... 2 62 +3 1.5 50..... do............... 4 W m. Cullins............ 2 30 +3 1..........do.................... Do. 5 J.B. Crause (spring)... 48 11 +6 20 50.....do.................... Do. Below is given a partial analysis of the water from the Lockwood Hotel, at Fowlerville. It seems to be very highly contaminated from seepage from the livery stable across the road. It is probable that the typhoid, which has been prevalent in the town is due to the polluted supplies from wells of this sort. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well water at Fowlerville. Parts per million. Color........................-------------------------------------------------------------. 46 Iron(Fe)..................------------------------------------------------------------.5 Chlorine (Cl).......................-------------------------------------------------------. 57.2 Carbon dioxide (CO2) -----------...........------------------------------------- 137.58 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)-.-......................................... 55 H ardness (as CaCO ).............................................. 139 - S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 40 feet. ï~~SAGINAW BAY DRATNAGE BASTN. 183 WATER SUPPLIES OF SHIAWASSEE COUNTY. TOPOGRAPHY. Shiawassee County lies west of Genesee County, and is traversed by the same system of moraines noted in the discussion of that county. The northern edge was occupied by the Glacial Lake Saginaw. The county is generally either plain or gently undulating. Between the moraines are large valleys which represent lines of glacial drainage leading westward to Grand River. One of them, which passes just north of Durand and south of Corunna and Owosso, is known as the Imlay outlet and carried the waters of the large Glacial Lake Maumee. The southwestern part of the county is now tributary to Grand River, but the remainder drains northward through Shiawassee River and tributaries of Flint River to Saginaw Bay. The southwestern part of the county is discussed by Doctor Lane in his report on the region about Lansing.a SUPPLIES BY DISTRICTS. 0oWosso0880. FLOWING WELLS. The Owosso flowing wells form the most important group in Shiawassee County. They are located in and near a subdivision of the city known as Maple Ridge, which lies on a slightly sloping terrace in the valley now occupied by Shiawassee River and south of the stream. It is a short distance north of a morainal ridge, which seems to be the catchment area for the wells, and which here runs nearly east and west for some distance. The wells are in three groups; the larger one in Maple Ridge Park proper (see fig. 39) has about 25 wells, including those which would flow above or at the surface if not pumped, while the smaller one, five blocks west and one south, has only six wells. What is considered by the writer to be a third group in this area occurs still farther southwest near the south end of South Chipman street, where a single flowing well (No. 15 in table) and two pump wells which would flow occur in the same neighborhood and have the same characteristics. The water in each group comes from a gravel stratum 18 to 25 feet below the generally even land surface, the cover being a compact clay till. The water is moderately hard and is somewhat impregnated with iron, and judging from the analysis of the sample from the mineral spring given below, has a considerable amount of magnesium salts as well. a Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 182, pp. 170-175. ï~~184 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The water in the wells on the highest part of the Maple Ridge district rises not more than 8 feet above the lowest part of the district, which is a shallow drainage valley. A well (No. 1) recently put down in this lowest part has, because of faulty construction, allowed the water to rise around the casing and run to waste in large quantities. Coincident with this large waste several wells at higher levels have lost head and either decreased in flow or ceased flowing altogether. Some of the wells are on property which has frequently changed hands, and it was not possible to secure data regarding them. HowA.&-A. ia-.sse. G. AN -44/Z IM Cry 4127/NA. ]F7IflF7F~p4_ G1_, T. Q -n - MEI " " R" 0 nAL 1AUUNA FIG. 39.-Sketch map of Maple Ridge Park and vicinity, Owosso, showing approximate locations of flowing wells. ever, statistics relating to those of most interest, sufficient to show the characteristics of the area, are given in the accompanying table; the relation of the area to the river and moraine is shown in fig. 39. The districts between these groups are not yet built up, and it seems probable that wvhen they are the number of flows will be increased by new wells in the intermediate spaces unless the water is lowered so far by that time as to fail to give flows. This area should furnish a very constant and good supply of water for household use from tubular pump wells, at small expense, even where flows can not be obtained. ï~~SHIAWASSEE COUNTY. 185 Wells at Owosso. Owner. c z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 J. A. Armstrong.......do.................do........... F. J. McDavid.... L. A. Hamblin.... Dr. Sutherland... A. V. Leonardson. Baldwin estate........do................do.................do................do............ A. B. Pulver...... aQuality. War 03 P4 Wte bei d. s a+ a0 In. Feet. Ft. Ft. Gals. F. 1.5 20 753 +2 2.5 50 Hard; iron Gravel.. 1.25 26 760 +1.5 1-2 49.2..do......do.. 1.25 26 760 +1.5 1...do........do... 12 25 760+2.5 2 50..do. do... 1.25 20+ 762+.5..............do........do... 1.25 20Â~ 765 +2 2 49...........do... 1.25 20+ 765+2 1.5 49.5 Hard; iron...do... 1.5 25 765+5.............do........do... 1.5 28Â~ 766+0 1..........do......do.. 1.5 25+ 767+.5...... 49.5.....do......do... 1.5 100Â~ 765+.5 2 49.5.....do........do... 1.5 18-20 765+0.25 49.....do....!....do... 1.25 20Â~ 766 +1 2 47.4.....do........do... Remarks. Lowest in the series. 6 feet from No. 2. A second well used to flow. Pumped to avoid sewer connections. Water not very hard. Used to flow; now pumped. Now pumped. Just drops from pipe. Lowered by No. 1. Flows more after heavy and prolonged rains; 1884. Flow varies with seasons; water medium hard. Westernmost flowing well in district. 14 G.S. Kinneya.... 15 D.D. Rust...... 1.5 20Â~ 765 +1.5 1 1.5 25Â~ 768 +1.8 32 49.....do........do... 50.....do.... {....do... a Owing to change of owners no data could be had concerning four other wells in this group, but they were said to be of about the same depth as the others. The flows are small. The following is a partial record from a very shallow but good flowing well at Owosso, owned by Charles Terry. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well uwater at Owosso. Parts per million. Color............................................................... 51 Iron (Fe)......................................................... 1 Chlorine (Cl)......................................1.5 Carbon dioxide (CO2) ----------------............................................. 121.36 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)................................................ 56 Hardness (as CaCO3).................................................. 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 16 feet. SPRINGS. Associated with this area are two large springs, which may come from the same source. One is situated at the foot of the sharp slope of the moraine on South Washington street and is covered by a sanitarium and bath house, now closed, which were erected to utilize its waters as a remedial agent. The spring is a large one, issuing from an artificial basin in the basement of the cellar in several streams in such a way that it is hard to determine its amount; but the waste water finally runs off in a surface stream more than 2 feet wide and 6 or 8 inches deep. This spring water was for a time bottled and sold by the Owosso Sanitarium and Mineral Bath Company, but the enterprise was abandoned, and at present this large supply is entirely running to ï~~186 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. waste. The temperature of the water as it issues from the spring is 500 F. A second large spring occurs at the foot of the same moraine about a mile farther east and is utilized by the city as a source of supply to supplement that obtained from the wells at the pumping station. The water from the spring is pumped to the large receiving well at the station and furnishes no insignificant part of the supply. FIG. 40.-Distribution of wells at Owosso waterworks, on a terrace of Shiawassee River, 5 feet above low-water level. WATERWORKS. The records of the Owosso waterworks wells are of interest in showing the variations in depth, character, and thickness of the drift beds within a very limited area, and are therefore presented in full. Fig. 40 shows their relative positions. Driller's record of Owosso salt well (waterworks well No. 1). Thickness. Feet. Muck.................................................................................................. 3 Gravelly clay-----------------------------------------------------------..................................................................... 32 Gravelly mixture--------------------------------------------------------................................................................. 10 Gravel-----------------------------------------------------6............................................................................ 6 Clay............................................................................ 2 Quicksand.......-.............................................................. 7 Coarse gravel------------------------------------------------------------..................................................................... 6 Quicksand------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................ 19 Blue clay-------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 125 Sand rock..................................................................... 30 Salt water which flowed. Total. Feet. 3 35 45 51 53 60 66 85 210 240 ï~~SHIAWASSEE COUNTY. 187 "This well is located on the south side of the Ann Arbor Railroad tracks, about 200 feet west of the east line of the corporation of the city, in the low lands owned by J. L. Wright. It is 240 feet deep, cased for the first 85 feet with 5k-inch tubing. At the depth of 85 feet hard blue clay was reached, continuing down to the sand rock, which was struck at a depth of 210 feet. Drilling was continued into the rock a depth of 30 feet and there water was reached, which flowed at a height of 4 or 5 feet above the surface. The water was salt and the locality was abandoned, the drill being moved 150 feet northward and eastward across the track." a Driller's record of waterworks well No. 2. Soil.............................................................................. Clay............................................................................. Sand........................................................................... Coarse sand..................................................................... G ravel........................................................................... Clay.......................................................................... G ravel....................................................................... W ater flowed.................................................................... Fine sand....................................................................... Quicksand...................................................................... Coarse sand................................................................... Gravel and water flow.......................................................... Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 2 2 5 7 15 22 5 27 3 30 3 33 2! 35 5 40 6 46 6 52 16 68 1.5 69.5 This well was pumped 60 gallons a minute for eighty consecutive hours. The first few strokes of the pump lowered the water 12 feet, after which it did not lower it below 14 feet. The well is cased with 8j-inch tubing. Driller's record of waterworks well No. 3. Thickness. Total. M uck............................................................................ Sand............................................................................ G ravel........................................................................... Clay............................................................................. Sand............................................................................ Clay................................................................ Gravel (with water).............................................. Quicksand.................................................................... Gravel with flow................................................................ Feet. 7 5 1 14 12 13 312 13 3 Feet. 7 12 13 27 42 43 55 68 71 This well is 71 feet deep and is located 200 feet east of well No. 2 on the same line. a Record in waterworks office. ï~~188 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Driller's record of waterworks well No. 4. Thickness. Total. Clay..........................................................---------- Gravel........................................................---------- Clay.........................................................-------- Quicksand.....................................................---------- Clay..........................................................----- ---- Gravel and flowing water, with strong smell of gas at 4 et....... Quicksand-------------------------------------------------------------- Gravel -- ------------------------------------------------------------- Water gravel. Feet. 3 6 9 16 6 13 13 7 Feet. 3 9 18 34 401 53 66 73 This well is 100 feet west of No. 3. Driller's record of waterworiks well No. 5. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Soft clay..................................................................3 3 Quagmire..............................................................-----6 9 Gravel................................................................----- 23 32 Quicksand................................................---------.......6 38 Clay...................................................................--- 5 43 Gravel with flow.........................................................----5 48 Clay...................................................................6---- 6 54 Quicksand..............................................................-----3 57 C lay.... --. ------------- ----------------- ----------------- -----------------4 61 Quicksand.............................................................----- 11 72 Gravel with flow........................................................... 13 85 This well is 85 feet deep and is located 120 feet south of No. 4. "This well does not flow as strongly as the other wells do. There are large quantities of coarse sand mixed with the gravel, presumably keeping the water back." a Driller's record of waterworiks well No. 6. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Muck..................................................................4------4 4 Gravel.................................................................------3 7 Clay..................................................................11----- 11 18 Gravel.................................................................------8 26 Clay..................................................................-13 39 Gravel with flow.........................................................----2 41 Quicksand.............................................................------ 16 57 C oarse sand -. -. --------- ------------- ------------- ------------- -------------10 67 Gravel with flow.........................................................----4 71 " This is the best well obtained as yet."a a Record in waterworks office. ï~~SHIAWASSEE COUNTY. Driller's record of waterworks well No. 7. Soft mire............................................................... Gravel................................................................ Ca.............................. Grael with flow........................................................ Coarse sand............................................................ Gravel............................................................... Quicksand............................................................... Blue c lay........................................................ Quit drilling. 189 Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 22j 22 11; 54 13 67 3 70 15 85 Sr 90 This well is 100 feet east of No. 6. "This well is a failure. The gravel at 70 feet has quicksand below it, which prevents the flow of water. 'e Driller's record of waterworks well No. 8. Thickness. Total. Yellow clay............................................................. Sand.................................................................. G ravel with flow; stronger flow at 44 feet................................. Clay................................................................... Saud................................................................. Gravel; no water....................................................... Quicksand............................................................. Clay................................................................... Flue sand.............................................................. Hard blue clay. Feet. 12 21 10 10 9 2 9 4 9 Feet. 4 16 37 47 57 66 68 77 81 90 " This well was a failure at this depth, but a dynamite cartridge placed at 43 feet blew the casing off at that depth. The well then flowed at a tremendous rate for several months and was called the banner well of the lot."a Driller's record of waterworks well No. 9. Thickness. Total. Feet Feet. Clay and sand.............................................................. 5 5 Gravel..................................................................... 7 12 Clay............................................................................ 8 5 Gravel with flow............................................................ 2 52 "This well is 20 feet south of the bank of the river. The gravel at the bottom of the well is very clean."a a Record in waterworks office. ï~~190 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Driller's record of waterworlks well No. 10. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay----------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 6 G rav eel......................................................................9911 Clay....................................................................... 7 22 Sand...................................................................... 12 34 Clay...................................................................... 16 50 Sand.- ------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 70 Gravel with flow------------------------------------------------------------ 3 73 This Well is 65 feet southwest of No. 9 and 50 feet east of No. 2. "There is considerable coarse sand and fine gravel at the bottom of this well. The well was nearly lost by driving through the vein of water-bearing gravel, hoping to shut out the sand." a Driller's record of waterworlks well No. 11. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Muck..................................................................... 4 4 S a n d ---------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ---------6610 Gravel.................................................................... 20 30 Clay...................................................................... 10 40 Gravel with flow........................................................... 5 45 Clay...................................................................... 3 48 Sand.-................................................................... 3 51 Clay and sand mixed....................................................----- 5 56 Clay.-.................................................................... 13 69 Gravel with flow........................................................---- 1.5 70.5 This well 15 60 feet south of No. 9 and 50 feet west of No. 6. "Not a strong flow; about the same as No. 5." a Driller's record of waterworiksuwell No. 12. Thickness. Total. Sandy clay.................................................................Fe.3 Fee 3 Clay....................................................................... 3 6 Sand...................................................................... 23 29 Clay-.................................................................. 44 33 Gravel with flow........................................................... 17 5o This well is 50 feet west of No. 3 and in line with Nos. 2, 3, and 4. Driller's record of waterworiks well No. 13. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sandy clay............................................................------ 3 3 C la y - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -4 7 Sand........................................................................ 3 10 Sand and clay............................................................. 15 25 Clay................................................................... 7 32 Gravel with flow........................................................----- 2.5 34. 5 This well is 60 feet north of No. 12 and 60 feet west of No. 8. "The effect on this well of dynamiting No. 8 was to almost stop the flow of a Record in waterworks office. ï~~SHIAWASSEE COUNTY. 191 BURNS TOWNSHIP. This small area, covering about 1 square mile (fig. 41), is in the valley of one of the minor branches of Shiawassee River, 3 miles west of Byron, and at present has two wells. One of these has a fair flow, but with a slight head. The other has a pump attached to it, but flows through a branch pipe to a watering trough at a level below the pump platform and sometimes flows from the spout of the pump. It seems probable that other flows would be obtained by putting down wells near the level of the stream, but at present the lands adjacent are used only for pastures and fields and the need of wells is not great. Fig. 41 shows the approximate locations of the wells. Tabulated data follow: Wells of Burns Township area. Flow per minute. Owner. -. Quality. Water In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. Gals. OF 1 F. Robacher.............. 1901 1.25 25 845 +5 0.75 1.5 Hard;iron 50.2 Sand. 2 J. A. Holcomb............ (?) 1.50 20+ 835 +2 1.5................. There is reported to be a flowing well in sec. 3, Burns Township, in a creek valley on the farm of J. S. Smith. It is 84 feet deep and 2 inches in diameter, and was made in 1884 at a cost of $30. It flows about a barrel an hour and has a head of about 1 foot. These data " Â~ are from a water-supply schedule obtained from Mr. Smith by W. F. 17 Sandy Cooper. plain Byron is located on at broad gravelly terrace, 30 or 40 feet above Shia- z. wassee River. The water supply is mostly from dug wells or from tubu- j o 21 lar driven wells 15 to 50 feet or more Clay pla' deep, none of which flow. ----' A small amount of water is FIG. 41.-Sketch map showing location of pumped from the river for use in flowing wells in Burns Township, Shiawasboilers and for watering stock. see County. On the lowest river terrace, near the dam, there was formerly a spring of considerable size, the water of which was strongly impregnated with iron salts, as shown by the pebbles in the vicinity of its outlet. This spring is now closed up by the owner, who filled it with clay. ï~~192 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. It is probable that good supplies of water could be had by sinking tubular wells on the lowest terraces of the river, with excellent chances of flows, if the town should ever need a public supply. VERNON TOWNSHIP. DURAND. Durand is located on a very gently unduilating plain. The town has a public waterworks, the water being obtained from a group of driven wells near the business center of the town, where the pumping station is situated. The wells are from 40 to 75 feet deep, with one which has brackish water at 150 feet. The shallower wells have fresh water. They were put down in 1901. The supply is not large, and test wells have been put down in other parts of the town to locate additional sources of supply. There is a flowing well min the western part of the town, which is said to be 287 feet deep and goes a short distance into rock. The water from this well is rather strongly impregnated with mineral matter and slightly brackish to the taste, but is used for drinking and domestic purposes by the people in the vicinity. The flow now is only about 2 gallons a minute, with a head of more than 2 feet. The temperature was 51.80 F. in July, 1904. Near by this well is a second flowing well, of whose depth no record could be obtained, but as the water is of different character and temperature from that of the first, it is probable that it is from the drift above the rock. This water is hard and contains considerable iron, but is not saline. The head exceeds 18 inches, the rate of flow is 1.5 gallons a minute, and the temperature 50.90 F. This lower temperature would indicate a less depth than that of the first. In the same block, to the east of these two wells, is a third, which formerly flowed at a height of 6 o 7 feet, but which was stopped apparently by the putting down of the deep well. The water at present just reaches the surface of the ground. It was reported that feeble flows of a temporary nature had been secured a short distance south of town by driving short lengths of pipe into the ground in a swampy area of pasture land. None of these wells, however, are now in operation. VERNON. This village is situated on a morainal ridge and is without any public water supply. The wells are all from the drift, the deepest being about 50 feet. The depth to rock surface ranges from 50 feet in the valley of the river to 80 or even 100 feet on the higher ground. The supply of water obtained from the wells here is probably sufficient for present needs and is of good quality. ï~~SHIAWASSEE AND SAGINAW COUNTIES. 193 On the farm of John Pierce, one-half mile south of Vernon. is a well from the rock, 100 feet or more deep, the water from which is too salty for use. CORUNNA. Corunna, the county seat of Shiawassee County, is situated on the slope of a faint morainal ridge on the south side of Shiawassee River. The greater number of the wells of the town are shallow, but give an abundant supply of good water. In 1903 a public system of waterworks was installed, the pumpming station being located near the railroad station, on the south side of the town. A considerable part of the water now in use comes from driven wells only 30 to 40 feet deep, which give very good water, but a part of the wells are from 90 to 120. feet deep, penetrating sandstone from 40 to 60 feet. The water from these deep rock wells is said to be soft and free from lime compounds. An interesting fact is reported regarding these rock wells, namely, that pumping one of them affects the others 300 or 400 feet away, suggesting a coarse texture in the sandstone or communicating fissures along which the pressure is carried. A block east of the court-house, in the lumber yard of H. T. Wilson, is a shallow bored well 18 feet deep, which in wet seasons flows from the spout of the pump, 2 feet above the ground. It was formerly a flowing well, but the pump was put on to insure a supply at all seasons. Other wells of the same depth in the neighborhood were said to flow formerly, but all ceased some time ago. The valley between Owosso and Corunna seems favorable for the occurrence of flowing wells, as the water in the wells along the margin of the valley, even the shallow ones, shows a tendency to rise in the pipes in some cases nearly to the surface of the ground. The depth to rock at Corunna near the railroad station was stated by a driller at work there to be 72 feet. According to another driller, a resident of the town, rock is from 60 to 75 feet below the surface. A well in the park is said to be 120 feet deep and about 35 feet into the rock. This is near the river at the lowest level of the town. Another informant says the rock surface is only 50 feet down. WATER SUPPLIES OF SAGINAW COUNTY. GENERAL STATEMENT. This county was not visited in 1904, because it had already been studied by State Geologist Alfred C. Lane and his assistant, W. F. Cooper, a short time before. Their notes were placed at the writer's disposal, and from them the present report is principally compiled. As the State inquiry was made with somewhat different ends in view, IRR 183--06----14 ï~~194 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. it was found impracticable to construct tables for the county such as accompany the reports on other areas. Saginaw County lies south of Saginaw Bay, within the region formerly covered by a Glacial lake at a higher level than the present bay, and is very flat, with practically no relief forms except the shallow valleys of the numerous streams which cross it, and a few low, narrow, and irregular ridges of sand, sometimes blown up into dunes. The surface rises gently from the level of Saginaw Bay to about 100 feet above it along the southern, eastern, and western borders. The soils are principally heavy clays and clay loams, generally rather impervious to water, with scattered, more or less irregular, tracts of con siderable extent composed of sands and sandy loams, deposited chiefly by the Glacial lake. These are easily penetrated by water, and differ greatly in this respect from the clay types of soils. The depth to bed rock is somewhat variable in spite of the flat surface of the county, and is remarkably irregular in some localities, with variations of about 200 feet in short distances, showing that the rock surface here had hills and valleys before the present deposit of drift was left upon it. So far as is known the rock is nearest the surface a mile or two south of St. Charles, where it is from 35 to 45 feet below, and ranges from this to 200 feet below about Mierrill, 250 feet below just west of Saginaw, and more than 260 feet below in the northern part of Swan Creek Township. The variations in depth are sometimes so abrupt that a well-marked valley can be traced for some distance, where drill holes are frequent, and such valleys afford an excellent supply of water, because they are generally filled with relatively coarse material. In such cases it is probable that no inconsiderable part of the water comes from the rock walls of the valley, where the eroded strata come into contact with the material which fills the valley. The county is watered by four large but sluggish rivers and by numerous smaller streams which come in from various directions. The rivers finally unite near the city of Saginaw, forming Saginaw River. These numerous waterways, and the low gradient of most of them, produce extensive overflows during the wetter parts of the year, causing a large part of the low land to be swampy before the settlement and draining of the region. Because of the type of soil and because the overflows continued more or less frequently after the land had been cleared and drained, the water obtained from open, dug, shallow wells throughout the greater part of the county, was never entirely satisfactory or wholesome for drinking and other domestic purposes. The compactness of the soils, especially after drainage had been artificially improved, made the supply from this type of wells small and uncertain in quantity. ï~~SAGINAW COUNTY. 195 As a result of these conditions, early attempts were made to secure better and more certain supplies, and bored, driven, and drilled wells of considerable depth, drawing on the water from lower water-bearing strata,became common. In many cases these deeper wells extended down into bed rock, and here, while abundant water was found, in many cases it was brackish or salty, sometimes so much so that it was impossible to use it for many purposes. In the sandy districts and the higher parts of the county the upper ground waters are often more abundant and wholesome, and here dug wells may give a sufficient supply, although even in these districts the deep tubular wells are frequent and are the most reliable. The impurity of the water from shallow wells was due in part to the great accumulations of organic matter in the soils and in part to the readiness with which unwholesome and disease-impregnated matter found its way from the surface into the shallow basin wells, both by washing in at flood time and through fissures in the soil formed during drought. Aside from this, water from the clay is usually very hard and liable to be roily from the ease with which the finer matter of the clay is washed into the wells and the length of time which it remains suspended after it once mixes with the water. The water of such dug wells is sometimes colored brownish or blackish by organic matter. The water from the deeper layers of the drift, or clays, is usually hard, with considerable iron in it, but not enough to make any change in its appearance. The amount of hardness is variable, and without apparent reason, except that the beds from which it comes are variable in the amount of soluble calcium salts they contain. It is frequently true that the best and most certain supply of water from the drift is found just above the rock surface and in districts where the drift is very compact and fine grained, as in and around Saginaw; this supply is the one most depended upon for ordinary farm and domestic uses. This water is fresh, or only slightly saline, and often very hard. In and near Saginaw this supply is somewhat affected by leakage from abandoned salt wells, and is more or less brackish in consequence. The rock waters, though often brackish, and occasionally so salty that they are not used for drinking or cooking, are in some cases, where sandstones are the source, much freer from hardness than those from any other source. At from 200 to 300 feet down the salt content increases and becomes too high for any ordinary use; even stock will not drink it. At a depth of 300 to 500 feet a strong impure brine is struck, and below this, at from 650 to about 1,000 feet, the brines are found from which the Saginaw Valley salt wells have drawn supplies, which have yielded enormous quantities of salt, and which are still capable of great development. ï~~196 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WASTE WATER. In a region so flat as this, where the soil is not absorbent, the disposal of the waste water from flowing wells is often a rather difficult matter. The usual method is to turn it into the roadside ditches and give it no further attention. Here it forms stagnant pools, in which mosquitoes and gnats breed in abundance, and in which various waterloving plants flourish and help by their growth to clog the ditches, thus impairing their efficiency and shortening their period of usefulness to a very considerable extent. A much better method of procedure would be to turn the water over some considerable area of cultivated land by means of irrigating ditches, or better still, probably, to carry the pipe or casing up nearly to the level of the head into a large tank, and allow the water to rise in this to the level of the head, but not overflow, as at the level of the head the water would stop flowing until it was needed and drawn off, when it would begin to flow again. A properly fitted valve or cock could be placed in the casing to draw off water for domestic use, while the water could be distributed automatically to various points where it is needed, as it often is where a windmill pump is used to fill a tank. Such a method would not only make it unnecessary to dispose of waste water, but would tend to conserve the supply. The cost of this type of trough or tank would not usually, where the head is slight, be great, and in most cases would be less than the cost of putting in a drain to carry off the waste. CATCHMENT AREA. The shallowness of some of the wells (from 10 to 25 feet) is an indication that the water-bearing strata are not, for these depths at least, extensive, nor can they be continuous for any great distance. Hence it is not likely that they reach to the nearest high land, which is several miles away to the west. These facts would lead to the conclusion that the catchment area is in the immediate vicinity, and it may lie -in a district of heavy sand to the west and northwest, 2 or 3 miles from the shallowest wells, especially as the land rises slightly in these directions. The sands would readily absorb a large amount of the rainfall; and if the underlying strata are sufficiently permeable to take in this supply, or a large part of it, it is probable that this is the catchment area. FLOWING WELLS. FLOWS FROM ROCK. Flowing wells are numerous, and from a number of horizons, both in the rock and in the drift. Of the rock it may be said that, if the well is drilled deep enough, flowing water would be obtained in almost any part of Saginaw County; but it must be remembered also that this water would generally be salty if the well penetrated the rock for any ï~~SAGINAW COUNTY. 197 considerable distance. Hence it is not wise to go too deep for water for farm use when trying for a flow. A well on the north side of sec. 2, Chesaning Township, 350 feet deep, with rock at 60 feet, flows salty water. Another in the same neighborhood is 180 feet deep with fresh water, and is 130 feet in the rock. Still another is 150 feet deep, and flows slightly salty water. On the east side of sec. 1 is a flow 120 feet deep, with rock at 47 feet. On the south side of sec. 5 is a flow 117 feet deep, with rock at 45 feet, and on sec. 17 is a flow 250 feet deep, with rock at 65 feet. The temperature is reported as 540 F. The pump wells range, for drilled wells, from 61 feet deep with 10 in the rock, to 465 feet deep with 405 in the rock. In this last the water was fresh down to 260 feet, below which it was salty. The rock surface is reported as 119 feet deep on the north side of sec. 23, 45 feet deep on the south side of sec. 5 and the north side of sec. 2, 47 feet on the east side of sec. 1, and 70 feet on the south side of sec. 2. FLOWS FROM DRIFT. The flows from the drift are confined to definite areas. If a line is drawn from north to south through the middle of the county, all but one group of flows from the drift will be found on the western side of it. The exception is the area in Birch Run Township, in the extreme southeast corner of the county. All of these areas are on plains, with no noticeably higher land near by, yet the gradual rise toward the border of the county is sufficient to furnish head. There are seven areas in which three or more flows occur and five isolated wells apparently remote enough from other developments to be considered independent areas, thus making 12 in all. These areas are located as follows: (1) The Merrill area, in T. 12 N., R. 1 E., extending from Merrill north and northeast; (2) a single well in sec. 1, Lakefield Township (T. 11 N., R. 1 E.); (3) an area of considerable extent in Marion Township (T. 10 N., R. 1 E.); (4) the Brant area, in the northwest part of T. 10 N., R. 2 E.; (5) a single well in the south part of the same township (sec. 33); (6) the Fremont area, in the eastern part of T. 11 N., R. 2 E., and along the line between this and the next township east; (7) the Swan Creek area, in the northeast corner of T. 11 N., R. 3 E., near Swan Creek post-office; (8) an isolated well on sec. 18 (T. 10 N., R. 4 E.); (9) three wells near Luce post-office, in Albee Township (T. 10 N., R. 4 E.); (10) the Birch Run area in the southeastern part of T. 10 N., R. 6 E.; (11) a single well in sec. 1, Chesaning Township (T. 9 N., R. 3 E.); (12) a single well at Frost post-office. As the slope of the country is toward the north and east, it is probable that the valleys of streams and other depressions in that direction may yield flows beyond the limits of the present development. ï~~198 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. FLOWS BY DISTRICTS. MERRILL AREA. This is known to cover about 10 square miles, and is the most extensively developed area of flowing wells from the drift in Saginaw County. Merrill lies on the southern border of the area, from which it extends north and northeast; in it the majority of the flowing wells of the district are found, about 25 being reported from there, the water coming from depths varying from 35 to 150 feet from sand or gravel strata. It is possible that conditions here are similar to those of Alma (see p. 207), with coarser layers interspersed with the finer. The fact" that wells near together re of very different depths points to this as a possibility, but in the absence of accurate records of the wells nothing definite can be stated. North of Merrill the depth is generally 60 to 70 feet, but some wells are only 10 feet deep. None that flowed is more than 100 feet deep, so far as learned. The water in the flowing wells, as in the other wells of the Merrill area, is hard and more or less impregnated with iron and carbon dioxide. It is otherwise of excellent quality and is wholesome and good. In general, the head of wells of this area is slight, being only 1 to 3 feet above the surface. But the well of Mr. Dubay, 1 mile east and threefourths of a mile north of Merrill, is reported to have had a head of 11 feet. This well is also reported to have the largest flow in the area 10 to 15 gallons a minute-from a depth of 65 feet. The average flow of wells in this area -is, however, small, 1 to 5 gallons a minute, except in a few cases where the flow is from a dug basin, in which case the amount of water running away seems to be larger. MARION TOWNSHIP. The Marion area is about 6 square miles in extent, is narrow, and trends from northwest to southeast. It includes about 20 wells, ranging from 60 to 102 feet in depth. The records available indicate that after a shallow bed of sand and gravel 2 or 3 feet deep has been passed there is a thick bed of clay, with occasional thin beds of gravel from which the water comes. The flows are usually small with slight head, but sufficient for farm and domestic uses. BRANT AREA. The Brant area is about 7 square miles in extent and as developed has 11 flows, all but one being from the drift. These wells range from about 75 to 140 feet in depth, several of -them being between 90 and ï~~SAGINAW COUNTY. 199 100 feet, and only two more than 100 feet deep. At Brant post-office is a flowing well from the rock, 282 feet deep. It is probable that in this area a larger number of flowing wells may be developed. The low ground along the streams and the sags in the general surface would be the most fivorable places to test. The single well in the southwest corner of sec. 33 of Brant Township is 80 feet deep, and from its location would seem to be independent of the area to the north of it. It is possible that explorations along the creek valley in this vicinity would yield other flows. FREMONT TOWNSHIP. The Fremont area covers 4 or 5 square miles and, as developed in 1900, included about a dozen wells which flow from the drift. In this area the majority of the flowing wells were reported to be 42 to 85 feet deep, but one, in the southea st corner of sec. 12, is said to be 212 feet deep, entirely in drift. This is the more probable, since about 1 mile north nd one-half mile east is a pump well 260 feet deep, in which the rock was not reached; on the other hand, there is a well on sec. 14, only 2 miles southwest, in which rock is reported at 145 feet. In these wells the gener 1 report is that they L re in clk y from the surface down, the water coming from gravel or sand strata. The flows are reported as medium or small. SWAN CREEK AREA. The Swan Creek area is located 3 miles east and 1 mile north of the Fremont area and is much sm ller, consisting of three wells along the north and south road between secs. 3 nd 4. The wells are all of different depths, that of the southernmost being 58 feet, that of the northernmost 78 feet, nd that of the one between 69 feet. These wells are all reported Cs being through clay to the water-bearing stratum, which is s nd or gravel. This area may ppssibly be extended both north and south along the valley of Swan Creek, which lies one-half mile to the east of the present development, but at present this district is not settled thickly. LUCE AREA. Near Luce post-office, in Albee Township, is a group of three small flows, 32 feet deep, which are reported to pass through 3 feet of sand, then shallow sand and gravel, and then clay to the water-bearing gravel. Further testing may increase the extent of this area, particularly to the west ï~~200 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. ALBEE AREA. The single well on sec. 17, Albee Township, is 49 feet deep, with a small flow, in a relatively unsettled region. Further prospecting may extend this area to the north. BIRCH RUN AREA. This area is about 5 square miles in extent and is situated on the inner slope of a low morainal ridge, which just touches the southeast corner of the township and county. The slope of this ridge is gentle, but the differences in elevation here reach the maximum for this county, and amount to 30 or 40 feet to the mile. The flowing-well district lies near the foot of this slope and has its greatest length parallel to the axis of the ridge. The development of this area is small, only 8 wells being reported in it, and these range in depth from 25 to 65 feet. The water in some of the wells is reported to come from sand sufficiently fine to work into the casing and obstruct the flow. The rock surface within the limits of the area is from 60 to 90 feet below the soil surface and flows from the rock are not infrequent in the vicinity of the area. The drift flows give hard water in sufficient quantity for ordinary farm uses, though the wells tend to clog rather quickly, as mentioned above. The catchment area is probably the morainal ridge, from which is also derived the pressure which develops the head of the wells. The area might be extended to the northeast and to the southwest of its present development if care were taken to locate the wells in depressions below the general surface. CHESANING AREA. The single well from the drift in Chesaning Township, of which any record was obtained, is that of C. M. Johnson, which is only 18 feet deep, from a small vein of gravel in the clay. The water is hard and fresh. This is probably due to a purely local development of conditions favoring a flow. THOMASTOWN TOWNSHIP. As developed at present, this area has but a single flowing well from the drift, that of William Wurtzel, at Frost, 10 miles west of the city of Saginaw. This well is situated in the valley of a small stream, being developed in 1896 while boring for silver. The flow was struck at 40 feet, the water spouting out of the casing several feet above the ground. The flow is still good and the temperature is about 450 F. ï~~SAGINAW COUNTY. 201 This water is sold under the name of the "Wurtzel Saginaw Magnetic Mineral Spring Water," and its character is shown by the following analysis: Analysis of Wurtzel Saginaw Magnetic Mineral Spring Water. a Parts per million. Chlorine (Cl)-----------.............-.............----------------------------------------- 1,460.90 Sodium (Na)----------..........----------------------------------------......... ---949.82 Calcium (Ca).....................------------------------------------------------------. 260. 62 Sulphate radicle (So4)...........------------------------------------------------ 201.89 Magnesium (Mg)--...........------------------------.........--------------------------. 54.76 Iron (Fe)............---------------------------------.....--------------------------... 1.48 Silica (Si204).....................-------------------------------------------------------. 16.44 Carbonate radicle (CO3)-------------------------------....----..----...-......... 255.25 3,201.16 Organic matter: Free ammonia.............----------...........------------------------------------------. 15 Albuminoid ammonia-....-.................................. 05 20 Dr. R. C. Kedzie, analyst. It is not known that any other flows have been struck in this vicinity, but it seems probable that by making careful explorations others might be developed near the stream level. SAGINAW WATER SUPPLY.b The city of Saginaw has two pumping stations, inherited from the time, when there were two corporations. Both of them draw water from the river, the West Saginaw plant from the center of town, near Court street, the East Saginaw plant from farther up the river, being located at the corner of Lane and Douglas streets, about onefourth mile below the junction of Tittabawassee and Shiawassee rivers. Neither of the supplies is considered wholesome. They are used primarily for fire protection and incidentally for lawn sprinkling, etc. For drinking purposes the city has put down a large number of drilled wells. The last detailed list of these at hand gives 20 on the east side and 10 on the west side, the depths ranging from 120 to 185 feet. Many have been made since, and probably there are now (1905) twice as many. All draw their supply from sandstones of the coal measures. Bed rock is usually encountered at 80 to 100 feet, and not infrequently water is found in pervious beds at the base of the drift, but never in such quantity and quality as to be satisfactory for a water supply for so large a population (52,428). a Expressed by analyst in grains per gallon and hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form and parts per million at United States Geological Survey. b By A. C. Lane. ï~~202 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Besides these city wells most of the hotels and many of the factories and private institutions have similar wells. Analyses of well water and of Saginaw River water are given in Water-Supply Paper No. 31. Saginaw River is practically a dead-water estuary as far up as Saginaw, and the current runs up or down, according to the wind, the rainfall, and -the fluctuations of the Great Lakes. A table of elevations showing the height of the river each day and month from 1887 to 1890 is given in the first annual report of the board of public works in 1891, which shows plainly a correspondence between these fluctuations and those of Saginaw Bay. The range is from 6 feet above to 3 feet below the datum. There is no especial safety to be gained by going upstream, and there is no available safe supply within easy reach. A thoroughly effective system of filtration seems to be the proper means of obtaining a safe city supply. Some years ago a well was dug and bricked down about 80 feet, but then encountered such a rush of water and quicksand as to endanger the life of the man in the well and to fill the well with quicksand. More recently, in the spring of 1903, a well was put down in the "middle ground," a former island in Saginaw River, to test the water supply. It passed through lumber waste and sawdust, and at 12 feet struck river sand, then clay; at 42 feet it reached fine gravel, and from 44 to 53 feet coarse gravel. While there was quite a volume of water, it was contaminated from the old salt wells, and ran up to 2,809 parts per million of solids and 87 per cent hardness.a WATER SUPPLIES OF GRATIOT COUNTY. GENERAL STATEMENT. Gratiot County is just west of Saginaw County, and is partly within the morainal region and in part within the area formerly covered by a Glacial lake. The western half, approximately, is rolling, the ridges running in a general north and south direction, while the eastern half is a plain sloping to the east and south. The western and riorthern parts of the rolling area are higher and usually more sandy or gravelly than the eastern, and have been cleared and settled but a short time. The principal stream of the county is Pine River, which flows along the western border and northwest corner. The southern half drains into Maple River, and thence to Lake Michigan, while the northeastern third is drained by small tributaries of Shiawassee River, which leads to Saginaw River and the bay. The streams are small, and in the smaller ones there is little or no water during a large part of the year. These natural waterways have been extensively added to, in the flat portions of the county, by large ditching a neim Brothers, analysts. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 203 operations, so that portions of the area are overdrained except for a short flood time in the spring. The rolling portion of this county, as in the others discussed, has the more penetrable soils, with strata capable of storing large amounts of water near the surface. Hence in this area the wells are not usually deep, many of them being of the open dug type, with stone sewer tile or cement curbing. Such wells are often as shallow as 10 or 12 feet, while they sometimes reach a depth as great as 60 feet. They frequently yield abundant supplies of excellent water; but where they are in the depressions and valleys the supply is larger and less affected by drought than it is when they are on the slopes or tops of the ridges. Tubular wells are general in almost every neighborhood in the rolling portion of the county. In a list of over 200, furnished by Mr. Chivers, of Alma, the greatest depth reported was 195 feet, reached in attempting to increase the flow of a shallow well, while the shallowest was 13 feet deep. About one-half the entire number were less than 55 feet deep, while less than one-eighth were over 100 feet. Of the entire number nearly 25 per cent were flowing wells, located chiefly in the Alma area. In a list of wells on the farms of Mr. A. W. Wright, of Alma, in the townships of Arcada and Pine River, in the same region, 17 wells are reported. Of these all but four are more than 100 feet deep and two are over 200 feet, the deepest being 218 feet and the shallowest 45 feet. These are nearly all pump wells, equipped with windmills. There are several areas of flowing wells in this part of the county, the most extensively developed being in Alma. On the lake plain the supply varies with the character of the surface deposits, whether they are sandy or loamy, as they are in certain parts of the district, notably along its border, and in the vicinity of Ashley, Breckenridge, and Wheeler, or whether they are compact clays, as they are over the greater part of the district. Where the surface is covered with sand or gryvel strata, overlying clay, the wells are shallow dug basins from 8 to 20 feet deep, and where the clay type of soil is general, the wells are tubular and may be very deep, in a few cases running down over 300 feet and then getting only small supplies of water. The deepest drift wells in the county are found in Lafayette township, where a few wells nearly 400 feet deep have been drilled. In this part of the lake plain tubular wells are more common than in the rolling country, and probably average deeper. In the western part of the lake plain shallow dug wells are the main water supply. The only rock wells in the northwestern part of the county are the salt wells at Alma and St. Louis, where the rock surface is down 325 to 500 feet. ï~~204 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. In the southeast corner of the county, around Ashley and Bannister, the rock surface is not so deep as farther north, and here are many rock wells, a considerable number of which flow. In the same part of the county are areas of flows from the drift, while dug, bored, and drilled wells of various depths reach small supplies of water in the more porous strata of the drift, but the largest and most permanent supplies in this district come from the rock, which ranges from about 20 feet in sec. 24, Elba Township, to about 150 feet in the vicinity of Ashley. The western part of the district depends mainly on shallow bored or dug wells for its water supply. SUPPLIES BY DISTRICTS. ARCADA TOWNSHIP. ALMA. Alma is situated in the northern part of Gratiot County, on the broad terraces and slopes of the shallow valley, here a mile or more wide, in which Pine River flows. Public and private supplies.-The public water supply is furnished by a well-equipped municipal plant in charge of a public board, which has leased the pumping for a term of years to a private company which controls the water power developed by a dam in the river. The water is pumped from Pine River, below the dam, the direct system of distribution being used, and serves to give fire protection and street, lawn, and garden sprinkling, and also water for flushing, sanitary purposes, and manufacturing. There is a well-planned and partly developed sewer system. Since the public supply is not safe to use for cooking, drinking, and other potable purposes, a supply is obtained for these us, s from dug and driven wells of various depths-from less than 10 to 150 feet. Shallow dug wells are the only source of water for domestic use in some parts of town, and in a number of cases the water used by a family was reported to come from a basin made by sinking a single sewer tile of large diameter in the cellar of the house, the water rising in this sufficiently to be dipped or pumped out. This type of well is found at the foot of a low ridge with sandy slopes which runs irregularly across from the western to the northeastern part of the city. A second kind of well, common in the higher parts of town, is made by sinking a cement cylinder through the clay to some water-bearing stratum 15 to 30 feet down; this and the sewer-tiled well are about equally popular. Deeper wells are generally drilled or driven, and are 50 to 100 feet deep. Flowing wells.-In the parts of the city on the terraces of the river valley, however, the greater part of the water used for domestic pur ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 205 poses comes from flowing wells, a great development of this supply having been made here (fig. 42). The area of the present development is small considering the large number of wells, for the total length of it is somewhat less than 1 miles H 0 0 Fib 0 0 a 0 along the lower terraces of the river and the greatest width about a quarter of a mile. The wells are all or nearly all driven or drilled, and are from 20 feet or less to 150 feet in depth, and vary in the rate of flow from less than a pint to 20 or more gallons a minute. The head where greatest is only about 18 feet above the level of the mean water level of the river. ï~~206 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The water is invariably hard, and contains a considerable amount of iron in the form of the acid carbonate; enough to give a distinct blackish coloration to strong tea if turned into it when fresh from the well. The water also deposits these salts in the form of abundant reddish or yellowish incrustation on the surface of the glass and crockery ware in which it is allowed to stand. This incrustation is so closely adherent that it can be removed only by the use of some acid. The water also actively attacks tinware and soon rusts holes in it. The water when fresh from the wells contains an excess of carbonic acid, which decomposes on exposure to the air, the carbon dioxide passing off and the calcium and iron bicarbonates (which are also decomposed) being in part precipitated as the normal carbonates, forming the incrustations mentioned above and the tea-kettle scale. The carbonic acid is probably the active agent in rusting the tin. The water, although somewhat heavily charged with mineral matter, is a good chalybeate (iron) water, and except in certain cases should be as healthful as any ground water in this region. A certain amount of the excess of lime and iron may be removed by boiling if in any case this is considered desirable. The water is reported to come from a thick bed of sand, with gravel intermixed, apparently in beds of small lateral extent and rather slight thickness. The only well which has been put down to the bed rock is the deep mineral well at the Alma Sanitarium. The driller's record of this is as follows: Driller's record of Alma Sanitarium well. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay.......................................................................... e.60 60 Quicksand and water sand...................................................... 97 157 Gravel-----------------------------------------------------------------3............................................................................ 3 160 Clay and gravel....-------------------------------------------------------- 315 475 Sand and gravel to bedrock------------------------------------------------....................................................... 25 500 This record is in part confirmed by the report of Mr. Harry Chivers, of Alma, who kindly furnished the following record of the east town well, put down by him in 1904. Aside from those of the sanitarium this is the deepest well in the city. Record of east town well, Alma. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Hardpan (clay till, rather compact)............................................. 50 50 Sand............................................................................93 143 Mr. Chivers also reports that in general throughout the city the hardpan or clay on the higher elevations is about 70 feet thick, vary ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 207 ing from this to about 40 feet near the bottom of the valley. Below this depth it is rather rare to find clay, but beds of coarser sand and gravel in the finer sand bed are not uncommon, and from these the flowing water comes. It is apparent that this stratum of the drift consists of a very thick bed of permeable material, which has scattered through it coarser beds of greater or less extent, through which water can move more rapidly if opportunity offers. The fine sand is very greatly in excess of the coarser gravel, both in thickness and in area, and, while it contains water, probably to the point of saturation, will give it up to the more permeable gravel rather slowly. However, because of its greater abundance, the sand will yield a total amount of water which will always keep the gravel full unless the drafts on the latter are very heavy. Although the sand itself, because of its relatively small capacity of transmitting water, will not yield flows or even supply pumps of ordinary capacity (unless large-sized pipe is used, a thing not commonly done), it nevertheless serves an important purpose, for, being more or less completely saturated, it serves as a capping stratum to the gravel, and, as back from the valley it rises to a greater altitude than the wells, it may be a chief agent in causing the flows from the coarser material. It is probable that the whole or some part of the margin of this deposit of sand is more or less exposed, either directly at the surface or through permeable beds of surface material, to the rain water as it soaks into the ground. This exposure needs only to be far enough above the level of the height to which the water rises in the wells to hold the ground-water level sufficiently high (allowing for a certain loss due to friction) to give the existing pressure or head, which is about 18 feet above the river. This would not require land any higher than much of that which lies west and north of the city, and it is in this region, in all probability, that the catchment area lies, as the surface rises steadily in these directions. But it is also likely that all of the surrounding country to some extent contributes to the supply from its ground water. The head here could not have its origin in the region to the east and northeast, for this is too low, and the same may be said of the region to the south, where also the soil may not be sufficiently porous to take in the requisite amount of water. As the development of the area at the lower levels, near the bottom of the valley, has gone on there has been a gradual lowering of the head of the wells of the higher parts of the town, and not a few wells which formerly had good flows have ceased entirely, and are now pumped or flow below the level of the surface. A very large part of this permanent lowering of the head is due to entirely useless waste, which may even be a detriment to the ï~~208 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. owner in that it compels him to maintain a larger drain to carry off the water than would otherwise be necessary. Sometimes the waste is larger than necessary, because of thoughtlessness or indifference, but in most cases it seems to be due to the owner's vanity. He likes to have it said that his well has the largest flow in the neighborhood, and he does not consider that this spirit may eventually, or even immediately, cut off the supply to some other owner entirely and put him to the expense of providing a pump. By inspecting the list of wells it will be seen that some are allowed to flow at the rate of 10 gallons or more a minute, or more than 450 barrels per day-an amount enormously beyond the needs of any family or any neighborhood. Two wells at the lowest level of the river valley, very near the level of the water, were, at the time of the writer's visit, flowing the full size of the casing at the level of the ground and the water was not being used at all, as the wells were located on vacant land. These wells, because of the low level at which they are placed, have undoubtedly been a chief cause in lowering the general head of the area, as they have been running a number of years, except for brief intervals, when they have been temporarily closed. Alma is justly proud of these flowing wells, and it would be wise for her citizens to guard against the waste of this important natural resource by reducing the size of the flows of the wells near the river and in other low places to something like the needs of the owners. If the structure of the water-bearing beds is as explained above, then the waste of any large amounts of water from any well will affect the whole supply and tend to decrease the flows of all the wells, and of course this tendency will be first noticed in the wells nearest the level of the head and later on the lower ground. The wise thing to do would be to reduce the size of the outlet pipes in all the wells to such a diameter as will give water enough for the needs of the owners, but not allow any large waste. It would be very rare, indeed, that any family could not get all the water it needed from the flow which would run through a pipe one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and except in special cases this should be the size used. Aside from waste there are a number of other causes which in individual cases are responsible for diminution or cessation of the flow. Among these are leaking through or around the casing, the filling of the lower part of the well tube with fine sand, the clogging of the strainer by fine silt or mud or by incrustations, as discussed on pages 128-130, and probably also the general lowering of the ground-water level in the catchment area during dry times, which affects all the wells to a greater or less extent, those on. higher ground first and most. From consideration of the height to which the water will rise above the level of the river, it is evident that all parts of the river valley ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 209 which are more than 17 feet above this level will be too high for flows, so any extension of the area will be confined to the lower parts of the valley. Since the lower terraces of the valley are generally narrow, and in places, bioth above and below Alma, disappear almost entirely, it is evident that the area of flowing wells can not be greatly extended. Unfortunately, no records are available which give any correct idea of the directions in Which the water-bearing sand extends, for, as will be seen by inspecting the tables of the Alma wells (pp. 210-211), the depth to water is variable in the area, some well getting its water from nearly every foot of the vertical distance within which the beds have been explored, a fact which makes it practically impossible to identify the strata in isolated pump wells beyond the area of flows. It is probable, however, that both up and down the river valley for some distance flows could be obtained on the lower terraces of the valley, and it is quite possible that the Alma, the St. Louis, and the Jasper Township areas may all eventually be connected along this valley by continuous lines of flowing wells. The great depth to bed rock in this vicinity (nearly or quite 500 feet, as shown by the record of the Sanitarium well, p. 211) and the fact that the overlying drift contains abundant supplies of good water, have made it a rare thing for wells to reach down to the rock. At the sanitarium, however, is a rock well 2,860 feet deep. At this depth the water is very highly charged with salt and other mineral matters and is used only for medicinal purposes and baths and min the manufacture of several proprietary articles. The water in this well rises nearly to the surface. The fact that at Alma the rock surface is 500 feet below the surface of the ground, while at St. Louis and Ithaca the depth is about 150 feet less, the ground surface being about the same level, indicates the presence in the rock surface of a valley which has been buried by clay and gravel deposits. Such buried valleys are often important factors in producing flowing-well areas, although here the bottom of the waterbearing stratum is so far above the level of the bluffs of the buried valley that this may not have any effect on the head in this area. The data given in the following table are largely furnished by drillers or well owners. The drillers, except Mr. Hover, of St. Louis, all reside in Alma. IRR 183--06----15 ï~~210 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Alma. 1 2 30 0 z 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 Owner. W. A. Thomas-....... W. S. Turck...............do................ M. Ferris.............. J. M. Montigel...... I. Russell............ A. W. Wright........ F. C. Keenan......... Railroad restaurant.... M. Pollasky....... I. N. Brainard...... M. Pollasky........... Driller. H. Chivers...........do.... 1895.....do.... 1895.._--do.... 1897.....do...............do...........do....1884.....do..............do... 1897.....do.... 1900...do... 1896...do... 1882 a. In. 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2.1 A~ 5 Ft. Ft. 56 +2.5 68 +2 60 I+1.5 32? +1.25 72 +1.16 0 Gals. 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5.16 Mr. Griffeth........... D. Adams............. J. J. Glass........... A. J. Hall............ Hotel Fern.......... J. F. Suydam......... J. F. Schwartz........ G. S. Ward........... W. S. Turck.... Church Block......... E. J. Emmer.......... J.1. Caple.............. Alma village (east)... E Brewhaker..... do...... i........ 1882............ 1880 C. Hover.. 1893............................. 1900.............................. 1903 Chivers................................. Chivers... 1904 77 +2 1.25 125 +0.75 65 +1.8 1 48 +2 2 57 +3 2.5 48 +10 10 60 +6 4 55 +8 6 55......... 75 +1.25.5 103 +1.5 70 +.5.25 100 +.5.25 60 +6...... 55 +4... 5 60+Â~4 100} 98 +1. 1.25 73............ 65 +1.25 143 +1.25 2.5 60 +2.25 2 60 +2.5 1 55 +1.5 1 32 +.5.12 50 +1.25.25 55 +2.5 2...... +2.25....- +2.5 116 +2.5 1 50 +16.5 2 Remarks. Â~ F. F. Piped underground to outlet. 50 50 Pasture well. 50 53 First lowered by wells of N. Church (No. 22), then by those of Union School (No. 36), from 3 feet to 0, and from 5 gallons to 4 gallon. 49.8 50 50.6 49.8 49.8 49.8 Flow at 25 feet. 50 One of the oldest in town; reduced by No. 13. 49.8 51 Head and flow less than at first. 50.5 50........... In cellar; used to flow above. Do. In cellar; flow here form-.. erly at 100 feet. 50.2....................... E. Emsley................ J. M. Montigel..................1878 A. D. Woodward......................do........................... M. J. Dallas................-...... S. Wetherel......................... Chas. Deplanty....... ---....... --- H. Brewbaker........ Chivers... i897 Electric Light Co...............1904 Union school........ W. A. Bahlke........ J. M. Montigel........ G. W. Pringle......... H. B. Currence....... George Young........ T. M. Barker......... Doctor Pringle........ 1885 Chivers... 1888.......................... - 1903............ 1903... 1901.............19018. 1878 Mr. Struble...................... E. Amsberry......................... B. F. Thompson....................... W. S. Turck..... George Young.................... C. A. Hicks................. 0. M. Gargett................. 1880 G. Bildson....................... N. F. McCullough.................. Smith & Glass Co.............. 80 +1.5 55 -b 65 +6.... +2 65 +4.5 70 +3 72 +2 85 +3 71 +4 70 +4.5..... +3 70 +2.5 78 +.5 70 +1.5 90 +1.5.......+2 60 +.5 103 +.5 1 1 5 15 4 2.5 3 10 5 8.25 1 2.25 1.5.12 1 51 50 49.8 51 51 55 52 51 52 52 52 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50.2 52 49 Flow in cellar; pumped. Improved by sand pumping. Town well, used as drinking fountain. Head 2.5 feet lower than formerly. Feed barn on Superior street. At power station, bank of river, 8 feet above water; 3 veins of water above this; clay with hardpan between. Flows in cellar. Used to cool engine cylinder. Opposite residence. Head much more, but cut off here. Flows at 20 and 40 feet also. At dairy barn. Cut off at -3 feet to secure good flow. Formerly flowed above surface; now cut off in cellar. 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. Wells at Alma-Continued. 211 Ca O O z 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 Owner. Driller. In. Ft. Ft. Hotel Arcada......... Chivers......... 87 +1.5 S. Tubbs.......................... 1 60 +2 H. Clark............................... 2...... +2 Mrs. Wadleigh................ 1885 2... +1 E. P. Caldwell....... Chivers... 1898 2 73 +.75 Wm. Clubb............................2 60 +1 J. McCarthy........................... 2 55 +6 F. A. Leonard........ Chivers.........2 55 +3 Alma Sanitarium Co.......do.........2 56 -2.5 O Gals., 0.5. 25.16 1 1.5 5 1 1 I V Â~F. 50 50 50 50.5 50 50 50.5 50 50 50 1 a 1 1 i - Remarks. Nearly stopped flowing; formerly good flow. Park well, flows in bottom of well house; used for medicinal purposes. 63 M. Medler.............................. 64 A. Fechting............................ 65 H. Hudson.......... Chivers....... 66 T.F. Timby............................ 67 P. M. Smith........................... 68 M. Dearing...................... 69 Mrs. J. Paddock.................. 70 E. Hannah........................... 71 Alma village (west).. Chivers... 1904 72 T. Hypolite........................ 73 Alma Creamery........................ 74 Swigert & Moore................. 1888 75....do.......................... 1888 76 P. Bogardus.......................... 77 M. W ilcox............................. 78 Alma Sugar Co.?._................ 79 Storage Company................1903 80 Alma Manufacturing......_.... 1903 Co. 81 Sugar factory......... 82 James Chase.......... 83 F. L. Bennett........."........... 84 Sugar factory......... 85 A. Hodgkinson....... Eagon.......... 86 G. Hodgkinson....... Chivers......... 87 W. Vliet..................do.......... 88 Mrs. T. Nelson............do......... 89 Mrs. Conkite.......................... 90 John Glass............................. 91 G. Young........................ 92 M. Sloane........................ 93 P. M. Smith........................... 94 Mrs. C. Lane........................... 95 1. Coleman....................... 96 Caple & Vermenken.................. 97 Mr. Stoutenberg................. 1890 98 T.A. Ely.............................. 99 L. Bushnell............................ 100 M. Ring.......................... 1893 101 E. Ingersoll............ Chivers... 1888 102 J. Cheney........................ 103 Jas. Kress?...........-................ 104 Hotel Edwards....... Chivers........ 105 H. Clark................................ 106 E. Adams............. A. Eagon. 1886 107 V. M. Hollenbeck.........do.......... 108 M. Van Valkenberg... Chivers......... 109 H. Burris........ A. Eagon....... 110 J. Fullerton........................... 2 55 +1 2 60+1 2 58 +2 2 60 +1.5 2 100 +1.5 2 60 +1 2 65 +.5 2 70 +1.5 3 93 +1.25 1 55 +3 3 58 +4 3 40 '+8 3 58 +8 2 56 +0 2 55 +.5 2 55 +.5 2 63...... 2 53.......5 51.5 50 1 50.5 50 1 50.5 50.25..... Now pumped..5 50 1 2.5 50 Used for drinking fountain..12 52 3 50 In 1904 flowing full size 15 50.5 of pipe, but with di10 50.5 minished head; water entirely wasted. 2.2 50.2 Flows at surface, but pumped..75 50.5........ Two wells flow in base ment. Flow in basement. I...............r.............. No data. 2 2 21 2 21 2! 21 2, 2 2 2 70 67 83 80 65 22 20 77 +1 +1 +1.5 +1.5 +2.5 +1 +.5 +.5 1 50 1 49.8.5 50 1 50 4 50.5.......25................ Pumped, but would flow a little. 62 +.5.25...... Now pumped. 40 +.5 2...... 12 +.5.50. Do. 20.............. Flow small; pumped. 62 -1.5............ Pumped. 107........_......... Flow in cellar. 93 +.5.25.... Still flowing, bu pumped. 93 +1..33 50. Used to flow more; san has clogged strainer....... +2 2.5 50.3 93 +1 2 50 55 +1.5.5 49.5 60 +1.25...... 45 +1.5.5 50 78 +1 1...... 90 +0.5...... Flows top of ground. 65 +1.5 1 50 t d The elevation of the wells in the above table ranges from 728 to 746 feet above tide. The waters of almost all are reported as hard, with some iron. The water bed in all is gravel. ï~~212 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Number of wells of different depths. Num- NumDepth in feet. ber of Depth in feet. ber of wells, wells. 10 to 20.................................... 2 60 to 70--------------------------................................... 6 30 to 40...--------------------------------6 70 to 80-------------------------------................................... 6 40 to 50.................................... 21 80 to 130.................................. 4 50to 60-------------------------------.................................... 11 VICINITY OF ALMA. Aside from the large development of flowing wells at Alma, which is located in Arcada Township, there is a single small group of flowing wells 21 miles southwest of the town, on the farm of John Wolf, min the northeast part of sec. 8. This group consists of two wells situated on the terrace of Pine River, a short distance west of the stream and about 15 feet above its level. The flows are small, rising about 6 feet above the surface from gravel 41 feet below it. The water is not so hard as that in old dug wells near by. The catchment area is probably to the west or northwest, but the head may well be derived from the ground water inm the slight ridge which lies only a short distance to the west. It is probable that this terrace at other points would yield flows from the same waterbed. Indeed for many years there was a small flowing well at the schoolhouse, across Pine River, in the northwest corner of sec. 17, which has now ceased flowing. Water is reported to rise a considerable distance in tubular wells to the west and south, and in the "great swamp"' district in this township some of the wells were said to have flowed at one time. These, however, have gradually lost head, until now the water stands 3 to 4 feet below the surface. In this township the banks of the river have many places in which seepage springs occur at the junction of gravel and underlying clays. These springs are generally very small and unimportant. By the roadside in a stream valley, near the east and west quarter line of secs. 5 and 6, is a larger springy area, which, if it were developed and a basin provided, would yield a good supply of water for stock. Wells southwest of Alma (sec. 8, T. 11 N., R. 3 W.). When Di- Ele- F per TemOwner. made ame- Depth. va- Head. mi- pera- Quality. Water ter. tion. ute. ture.bed. In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. oÂ~F. John Wolf a.. 1902 2 41 755 +6 0.5........ Not very hard......... Gravel. John Wolf b.. 1902 2 41 755 +6.5 52.2.. do................ Do. a Inclosed in house. b Barnyard well. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 213 SEVILLE TOWNSHIP. RIVERDALE. Riverdale is situated in the broad flat valley now occupied by Pine River, and is only a few feet above the level of the river. The soil is coarse gravel, underlain at from 3 to 6 feet or more by a stiff blue clay. Wells are generally from 23 to 26 feet deep, the shallowest 16 and the deepest 100 feet. The water comes from a gravel stratum, and rises in the pipes nearly to the surface. A few wells in low places are allowed to flow into basins, and the water is then dipped or pumped. At Strong's hotel is a well 52 feet deep, in which the water rises from the bottom nearly to the surface. It is evident from the above that at the lowest points in the town the water would rise above the surface. Indeed, one such well at Bryant's mill, nearly three-fourths of a mile south of town, in the NW. I sec. 6, Sumner Township, flows at an altitude of 790 feet. This well is reported to be 25 feet deep. It used to flow about 1 feet above the surface, but in dry weather lowered a foot, the supply lessening from 2 or 3 quarts to 1 quart a minute. The temperature is 51' F. The well was bored in 1903, and the following beds were passed through: Record of well at Bryant's mill, near Riverdale. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Gravel.......................................................................... 12 12 Blue clay....................................................................... 9 or 10 21 or 22 Gravel.......................................................................... 3 24 or 25 There are several possible sources for public supplies: The river, which in the region north and west of Riverdale is a spring-fed stream flowing through a thinly-settled country, should furnish a good supply of pure water. Several brooks, fed by springs, are near enough to be considered, and would be more easily kept free from contamination than the river, because of smaller drainage areas. Mud Lake, a small lake near the town, should give a good supply of water in spite of its name, because of its situation and the amount of water which flows out of it. There are many strong springs within short distances of the town, and careful investigation might easily develop a good supply from this source. There is a very springy track a short distance south of town, across the river, which should furmnish an abundant supply of pure water by enlarging the outlets and constructing artificial basins. A series of large tubular wells might be put down in the lowest part of the town, or a large cistern might be built down to the water-bearing stratum which most of the private wells reach, and a sufficient supply be obtained. ï~~214 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. ELWELL. This village in the northwestern part of the county has wells dug from 14 to 26 feet deep and tubular wells to 40 feet deep. Several tubular wells get a good supply of water in gravel below clay at 26 feet. The water is hard and rises to within 4 to 8 feet of the surface. The average depth of 17 wells is 23 feet, the deepest being 27 feet and the shallowest 14 feet. NORTH OF ELWELL. About 12 miles north of Elwell there is a flowing well area, which lies on the south side of secs. 23 and 24, near the foot of the southeasterly slope of a high and gravelly morainal ridge, which here runs northeast and southwest. This ridge is the probable catchment area. There are two wells now flowing and three others in the area which were reported to flow when in order. One of these, a dug well, has purposely been partly filled to prevent the strong overflow and is now pumped. The flows were small with slight head, and the water is obtained from a depth varying from 9 to 110 feet, the supplies seeming very irregular in their distribution. The water is of medium hardness and rather free from iron. The table below gives the facts relating to these wells. It might be possible to extend the area to the south of the present wells if the water-bearing strata continue in that direction, as seems probable. No wells in that part of the town flow at present, but this is probably because they do not go deep enough. Three large springs in this vicinity were pointed out by Mr. Wm. T. Pitt, whose interest in this survey is highly appreciated. One of these, on the farm of Mr. George Sandel, in the SE. SW. sec. 23, is estimated to flow about 50 gallons a minute. The water boils up from coarse sand and gravel in the bottom of a shallow basin and flows off in a considerable stream. It is used only to water stock. The second.of these springs is really a group of considerable size on the farm of Henry Carl, situated in the NW. 4 NW. 4 sec. 26. These are "mound springs," built up of calcareous tufa to a height of about 2 feet above ground level, from which height the water now issues. The outflow from these springs is at least 50 gallons a minute, probably much more, running off through many small channels. The third "spring" is apparently a very shallow flowing well, dug to supply water for a portable sawmill. It is on the farm of Allen Sadler in the NW. I sec. 34. The outlet is about 31 feet square through 4 feet of clay to coarse gravel, with no attempt to wall it up. The water runs in at the bottom of the hole about 8 feet below the surface in a swift-flowing stream and overflows in an outlet 16 inches wide and 2 inches deep. It is now used only to water stock while in the pasture. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 215 The water from all of these springs is cold and clear, quite hard, and with no large amount of iron present. Wells north of Elwell (T. 12 N., R. 4 W.). a S 0 Water Owner. Driller. a$ Quality. r to. a a W W " In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. Â~F. 24 G. F. Taylora. Chivers... $35 1895 2 50 775 +0.5 0.12 51 Hard; iron Gravel. 24 Levi Hall b.... Owner............. 1.5 9 778 +2...................... Sand. 24 S. Anchovy c..do.... 20 1900 2 32 775 +1.......... Hard;ironr Do. 23 L. Small....... Chivers... 85.._ 2 113 775 +1.25 50.....do....i Do. 93 E. A. Daileyd. Owner................. 14 780 0..............do.... Gravel. 24 A. Sadler e.................... 1902 8.__ 785 -Â~50 }............do.... Do. 75 C......d...1o a Hard clay from 2 feet below surface; sanded up. b Not flowing at present because of loose casing. c Said to flow 8 to 10 gallons a minute; now stopped by sand. d Dug well; flowed a large amount formerly, but was partly filled at the bottom, and is now pumped. e Called a spring. PINE RIVER TOWNSHIP. FLOWING-WELL AREAS. Aside from the development of flowing wells in Alma and St. Louis, both of which were originally partly in Pine River Township, there are five small areas of flowing township which probably may N. I be considered as independent of ' 'I * one another and of those in the L ':= '' towns, since they are getting r o I o water from different depths, and Â~. Im. are separated from one another into well-marked and distinct 0" basins by low ridges. r Area No. 1.-The first area' o " (see fig. 43) is in a shallow, rather narrow, poorly drained valley, 2_ miles north of Alma, running 11 from the east side of sec. 20 FiG.43.-Sketch map of flowing-well district in areas southeast and then east toward 1 and 2, Pine River Township, Gratiot County. Pine River. The valley extends farther to the northwest, but no wells were reported in that part of it, possibly because it is not yet fully under cultivation. The area developed is less than 2 square miles. The wells are shallow, from 15 to 30 feet deep, bored or driven, and have slight head, which has already been lowered by increasing the number of wells and allowing the water to waste. The wells number about a dozen. The largest flow is that of George Weeks (No. 1), ï~~216 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. which flows 6 gallons a minute. The water is medium hard, with some iron. The catchment area most probably lies in loose-textured morainal ridges either to the north or south of the area, but may possibly be in a more extensive district of rolling country to the west and north. Conditions seem favorable for flows in the upper part of the valley, northwest of the present development, especially if the larger flows now running are reduced to conserve the supply. It is not probable that flows would be obtained from this water-bearing level on much higher land than that on which the present wells are located, because, as noted above, the head has already been lowered 3 or 4 feet by the existing developnmwnt. Area No. 2.-This second area (see fig. 43) is less than a mile north of No. 1, along and north of the line beP " tween sees. 21 and 22. It lies in a shallow S valley between low ridges; covers less than S, one-half a square mile, and contains only Z ' i three wells, two of which now flow. These ptt,'%"ewells might be considered a part of area sNo. 1, and possibly they come from the "same stratum, but they are at a slightly. higher level, and it was reported that they are considerably deeper, except that of Mr. Mills, although this statement could not be verified. This area is not likely to be extended, because it already includes the area below FIG. 44.-Sketch map showing ap- the level of the head. The wells to the proximate position of the flowing north for some distance are reported as wells in areas 3 and 4, Pine River Township, Gratiot County. having the water rise to within 5 or 10 feet of the surface. It is probable that one or both of the low ridges bordering the valley supply the water for this flowing-well area. Area No. 3.-The next area is 3 miles north and 11 miles west of St. Louis (fig. 44), and about the same distance north and east of area No. 1. It lies in a shallow depression which is the head of a drainage valley opening out to the south. Low hills of clay and gravel surround it on the three other sides. Like No. 2, this area is small-less than one-half a square mile in extent-and includes only seven wells, reported as varying in depth from about 15 to 42 feet. The flows are all of more than average size, ranging from 1 to 4 gallons a minute, of hard water of good quality. The head averages from 11 to 3 feet or more, although most are cut off about 2 feet above the surface. Just east of the area is a pump well at the schoolhouse, which was reported to be 12) feet deep, the water not rising very near the surface. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 217 As the ground level rises rapidly in all directions, except to the south, this is the only direction in which further development may be made, and here only near the bottom of the valley. Probably the ridges lying to the north and west of the area furnish the water for these wells, but it may come from the more porous areas 6 miles west. Area No. 4.-The fourth area (fig. 44) contains a single well about 40 feet deep belonging to Mr. W. J. Brooks, which flows in wet seasons but not in dry. It is located in a depression, and lies about a mile to the northeast of area No. 3, and may possibly derive its water from one of the strata which the wells in that area strike, but there is a high ridge between the two areas and they are best considered distinct. Area No. 5. This is a fifth area with a small group of wells 21 miles west and 2 miles north of Alma, and 1 miles west of area No. 1, covering only one-eighth of a square mile as at present developed. The wells are located on the slope of a stream valley, bordered on the north and west by a low ridge with a sandy slope. At the time visited only two were flowing; the other had recently failed and had been equipped with a pump. The well with the best flow (Whitcraft's well) was near the foot of the slope, and was flowing 5 gallons a minute of excellent, nearly soft water, with a head of about 5 feet. There seems to be no reason why this area should not be extended southward along the stream valley if the water-bearing stratum holds out in that direction, for the slope is favorable, and other conditions seem equally so. The catchment area is probably in the higher land to the north and west. Summary.-The flowing table contains data of the Pine River flowing wells, arranged by areas: ï~~218 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Pine River Township (T. 12 N., R. 3 W.). AREA NO. 1. V o cad d, bOwner., Quality, Water bed. z A A w H In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. oF. 1 28 Geo. Weeks.................. 2 26 762 +2 6 48.5 Hard; iron.. Gravel. 2 21 W.Lentza...................2 14 765 +3 3 49 Not very Do. hard. 3 21 N. Johnson..................2 16? 768 +1 2 48.8 Hard..... Do. 4 27 Gordus Smithb..............2 25Â~ 765 +.5.25 49.....do...... Sand. 5 27.....do.......................2 25 764 +.5.12 49.....do...... Fine gravel. 6 27...do_...................2 25 763+1.25 49.....do...... Do. 7 28 John Fafty...............2 25Â~ 764 +.5.25...........do.......Sand. 8 28.do................... 2 25Â~ 765 +.5.5 _..........do--- Do. 9 28 E. Wilkinson_.............. 2 20+ 760 +2...............do. -Gravel. 10 27 H.E. Kirbyc................ 2 195 763 +2..............do_.. 11 26 F.C. Olmstead..................................-.............. AREA NO. 2. * 1 21 T. J. Clark....................... 770 +0 2 49.5 Hard....... Gravel. 2 22 C. Sloane.....................2 770 +1.5 49 doDo. 3 15 D. Millsd................... 2 30 772 +1.-..._ --.o--- AREA NO. 3. 1 2 AWalls..................... 2 50+ 760 +1.5 1.5 49 Hard....... Gravel. 2 2 C.A. Kiter..................2 42 760 +2 3.5 49...do Do. 3 11 S. Porter....................1 33 758 +2.5 4 49.....do...... Do. 4 11 G. W. Mussere.............. 2 15? 756 +2 3 49. do...... Do. 5 2 BartonBailey...............2 18 760 +2.5 2 51.....do...... Do. 6 2.....do.......................2 20Â~ 760+2 1 49.....do..... Do. 7 2.2.do....................... 762.................... AREA NO. 4. 1 1 W. J.Brooksf-.............-2 40Â~ 770 +1 --------.-. -----. AREA NO. 5. 30 N.Whitcraft............... 2 33 760 +5 5 49 Rather soft; iron. 30.....do...................... 2 80 760 --3. - 30 Daniel Wood.............. 2.. 765 +.5 1 49 Hard. a A 25-foot well on this place stopped flowing when this one was made. b Pumping these wells affects all of them; head has lowered 6 to 8 feet. c Said to have struck flow at 25 or 30 feet, but to have been deepened to present depth inhopes of getting a larger flow. d Used to flow, but does not now. e Flows from old pump log in two streams. Evidently old, but has good flow into ditch. fIHas a small flow in wet seasons, but does not flow in dry. FOREST HILL This village, on the Ann Arbor Railroad north of Alma, has dug wells from 18 to 20 feet deep, and drilled wells 80 to 150 feet deep, not reaching rock. The water is hard, and rises within 20 feet of the surface. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 219 BETHANY TOWNSHIP. This township lies in the north-central portion of Gratiot County, next east of Pine River Township, and is almost wholly east of the morainal ridges and is, therefore, free from the roughness of surface present in the rolling portion of the county. ST. LOUIS. The greeater part of this city is on a flat gravelly terrace, which forms the bottom of the valley along Pine River, and which is 20 feet or more above the stream. The sides of the valley are morainal ridges, and these are occupied by part of the residence portion of the city. A public supply was formerly obtained from a group of three or four flowing wells at the level of the mill pond, near the north end of the principal street, but because of a partial failure of these, due to the incrustation of the sand screens by calcareous matter deposited from the water or to sand clogging, or both, they have been abandoned, and the water now used in the town is pumped from the mill pond. This is used for sprinkling, fire protection, etc., and not for drinking. Most of the flowing wells, which were said to derive their water from 50 to 75 feet below the surface, ceased to flow when the waterworks wells were put down. Many were abandoned; a few were deepened and the flow resumed; and some were furnished with pumps. Dug wells range from 15 to 40 feet in the clay on the ridges, and tubular wells have been drilled to various depths, some even reaching the rock at 325 to 350 feet. St. Louis has long been famous for its "Magnetic Mineral Spring," which for thirty-five years has been pouring out its waters. This is a flowing well 270 feet deep, situated on the bank of Pine River near the level of the water and has a head about 16 feet above the river. It flows a large amount of water, but from the way in which it was piped no estimate could be made of the amount of flow. The water is used for baths and various other purposes at the safiitarium near by and from 15,000 to 18,000 gallons are sold and shipped to Saginaw each week and a considerable quantity to Chicago. This well also supplies a large number of the people of the town with drinking water for table use, for which purpose it is supplied free of charge. It is sold at $5 for a barrel of 30 gallons, with a rebate of $2.50 when the barrel is returned to the shipping point. It is also shipped in cases of 50 quarts, carbonated, at $5 a case. A few other private wells in the town flow at the present time, and one, at least, of the old waterworks wells is still open, the water running to waste. ï~~220 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The following record of one of the wells at St. Louis was gathered by Alexander Winchell: Record of drift well at St. Louis. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay, gravel, and bowlders-------------------------------------------------....................................................... 40 40 Blue clay--------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 30 70 "Fire clay"-------------------------------------------------------------...................................................................... 13 83 Sand and gravel.................................................................. ---------------------------------------------------------39 122 Bluish induratedshalyclay------------------------------------------------...................................................... 15 137 Sand and gravel---------------------------------------------------------.................................................................. 55 192 Pebbles, water-----------------------------------------------------------................................................................... 8 200 Rock (not positively). There is a chemical manufacturing plant in the city which depends on deep drilled wells for the brine from which it obtains its product. No data could be obtained regarding these wells, as the plant was not in operation. Wells at St. Louis. b ' o Owner. Quality. Water O r.-b e d. In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. Â~F. Feet. Doctor Andrewsa........ 1869 4 270 725 +16 10? 52 Hard; iron 350Â~ Gravel. M. Hoffstetter..................2 60 730 + 1.12 52 Hard..... 350 Do. J. A. Burgess...................2 45 730 + 1.12 51.....do.... 350 Do. Citywaterworksb....... 6.. 725 + 2 3 52....do. 350 Do. East of HarringtonHotelc........2 40 733 - 2 1...........do.... 325 Do. a Waters, "magnetic;" used externally and internally as remedy for diseases. Sanitarium in connection. Water shipped to sell in cities. b Only waterworks well now flowing. Flow is through a hole in the cap of the casing. c Flows into tank 2 feet below surface. BRECKENRIDGE. This village is situated on a slight gravel ridge 6 miles east of St. Louis. The depth of the wells is very variable, according to their nearness to the gravel tract. On this tract dug wells are from 8 to 20 feet deep and driven wells 16 to 20 feet. Away from the gravel area the driven wells are much deeper (some between 100 and 200 feet deep), while one hole in the village was visited which was 208 feet deep and had no water. At this well there was 15 feet of rather porous surface material with a small supply of water, and then 168 feet of compact clay, below which the material was variable, but chiefly clay with stony streaks in it. There are no flowing wells here, but A. W. Stone's well, 115 feet deep, was reported to have water to within a foot of the surface. The water of this well has a strong taste resembling petroleum"much stronger after pumping, so the horses will not drink it." ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 221 Those of the wells about 100 feet deep strike a large supply. The water in all of the wells but the one just referred to stands from 8 to 10 feet below the surface. Rock was not struck in the 208-foot well. There is no system of public supply and no good prospect for sufficient supply except from deep wells, unless a supply should be found under the sand and gravel ridges lying north of the town a short distance. These serving as a catchment area should have considerable water below them if the condition of the soil is favorable for holding it. R. 2 W. 5 46 3514: _Z *to C, 7 1. 12;"53 o7 8 910 29 28 27 26 Z5 FIG 45.-Bethany Township flowing- vell areas, Gratiot County. WEST OF PINE RIVER. Besides the development at St. Louis, Bethany Township has two small areas of flowing wells separated by Pine River, one lying to the west and the other to the east of the stream. The first of these areas lies in the immediate vicinity and wholly on the west side of Pine River (fig. 45), extending down the river to the county line from a point 11 miles northeast of St. Louis. Its extent as at present developed is approximately 21 square miles, in which there are 15 or more flowing wells. It is possibly continued into the Coe- district of southeastern Isabella and southwestern Midland counties. ï~~222 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The wells of this area, like some of the others studied, show considerable variation in depth, head, and size of flow, the deeper wells having the best supply of water, which is not always the case in this region, notably at Alma, where deep flows are small. The flows were reported to come from a number of depths-30 feet for the shallowest and about 100 for the deepest. As the surface is nearly flat, these probably represent variations in altitude of strata. The most remarkable well is that of W. H. Fox, in sec. 4, about 3 miles northeast of St. Louis. This is located on the river terrace, is 86 feet deep, and is said to be 16 feet into the rock. It had a head of nearly 20 feet and was flowing the full size of the casing, at 4 feet above the ground, with such force that it was scarcely possible to fill a small vessel from it. The owner reported that the flow amounted to very nearly 3 barrels a minute, or more than 100,000 gallons a day, the greater part of which runs to the river as waste. The water-bearing stratum was said to be 31 feet thick, apparently, as it was described, an underground stream or basin below the rock. Small.flows were struck at 45 and 56 feet. It is possible that the rock reported at this point is not a part of the underlying Carboniferous deposits, but a thick, hard bed of glacial material indurated by calcium carbonate, which acts as a cap stratum to confine the water. At St. Louis rock is reported at from 332 to nearly 400 feet below the surface. The catchment area for the majority of these wells is the higher country to the west and north. If the Fox well is really in bed rock, the water may still come from the drift, working into the rock from the sides of exposed strata where these have been eroded. As the land rises quite rapidly to the west from the river, there is no probability of extension of the flowing-well area in that direction, and as it was reported that no flows had been struck on the east side of the river, although there were some deep wells, it seems possible that no extension can occur there, because of the slightly higher level of the land. To the north along the river and at low levels generally the chances of getting flows in this area seem excellent if the wells are made deep enough. EAST OF PINE RIVER. The other area (fig. 45) is 3 miles north and 2 miles west of Breckenridge, or 2 miles east of the first. It is in the northern half of sec. 11 and the southern half of sec. 2 in the scarcely perceptible valley of a small stream flowing northeast to Pine River. The entire area as developed is less than a square mile in extent and contains but five wells, which are from 65 to 75 feet in depth, with slight head and small flows of hard water, the largest flow being but 2 ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 223 gallons a minute. The Holton well (No. 4) is reported by the owner to receive most of its water from a fine sand at a depth of 35 feet. The catchment area is probably the higher land to the west of the river, and the stratum from which the water comes may be an eastward extension of one of the upper strata of the western area. There is no evidence to demonstrate this, however, because of the lack of consecutive borings between. The flows from the strata already reached seem to be limited to the shallow depression made by the stream; hence development of flows over a much larger area is not probable, except near the bottom of the creek valley to the northeast of the present area. The wells on the east side of the creek which reach down to the depth of this stratum do not flow, but the water rises to within a few feet of the surface, the land being slightly higher than that on the west side. SUMMARY. The facts relating to the wells of this area appear in the table below: Wells in Bethany Township (T. 12 N., R. 2 W.). WEST OF PINE RIVER. Owner. " Quality. Water 0 P4 In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. oF. 1 7 W. IH. Wallanda.......... 1895 2 30 740 +2.............. Hard;iron Gravel. 2 7 Noah Wilsonb.......... 1897 2 +100 740 +2.5 15 49.5.....do.... Rock? 3 7 Noah Wilson........ 1894 2 100? 735 +3.25..........do.... (?) 4 8 Mrs. E. Shook c- -- l~+80 743 +2.75 50.5.....do.... Gravel. 5 8 Mrs. E. Shook. l - 1- 50 735 +2.12...........do.... Do. 6 8..... do................. 1 50 733 +2.5.25 50.....do... Do. 7 5 P.D. Smith................. 2 86 740 +2.5 51.5.....do.... Do. 8 4 W. H. Foxd.............1904 3 86 730 +18 100 50.....do.... Rock? 9 4 F.Quidart- 2 85? 740 --2 8 50 d....do..I 10 4 C.H. Colbey.................... 2 100 735 +3 10...........do.. 11 4 F. Peach....................... 2 100 738 +2 5...........do.... Gravel? 12 5 Lydia Crawford e........... 40 745 +1..................do.... Gravel. EAST OF PINE RIVER. 1 11 D. D. Gidleyf...._....... 1900 2 75 740 +1 0.5 52 Hard; iron Gravel? 2 11 S. M. Barnes.............. 1902 2 65 738 +2 1 50.....do.... Gravel. 3 2 A. Gidley................ 1900 2 68 733 +1.33 51.....do.... Do. 4 2 IHarvey Holtonge.......... 1902 2 65 730 +1.5.2 51....do.... Sand. 5 2 Jas.Hearneh............1904 2 65 735 +.75 2 49.8....... a Flows a few drops a minute; formerly flowed much more. b Said to be in rock, but doubtful. c Piped to house; No. 5 is in pasture, and No. 6 at barn for stock. d Said to be from rock at 70 feet, hard rock at 78 feet. Flow said to be about 3 barrels a minute, but force too great to be measured with anything at hand. Water also at 45 and 56 feet. e Flows into cistern and is dipped out. f Cut off below surface and flows inside of gully. Will flow above surface at mouth. g Cased 27 feet; water from 35 feet; used to flow more but filled in with sand. Hard smooth clay with few stones all the way down. Water from fine sand under crust of hardpan. h Drill dropped 3 feet when water was struck. Cost about $45. ï~~224 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. ELBE TOWNSHIP. BANNISTER. Bannister is situated in a very flat region on the bank of Maple River in the southeast corner of Gratiot County. The soil is a heavy compact clay loam, hence it is not very porous and lets in very little water, now that the drainage has been so highly developed,, and therefore the shallow ground-water supply is poor and small. There are, as in many villages, shallow dug and bored wells from 18 to 25 feet deep. In the western part of the town it was reported that a bed of gravel 16 to 18 feet below the surface furnishes a small supply of water, usually enough for family purposes, but the shallow, dug, open wells, are not in good N, __ _ repute, and tubular flowing R..Stag,% BROWNELL S. wells scattered over the town C.. now furnish the greater part of "F Athe potable water used. O *F The drift clays and gravels HARvEY ST,, HARVEY S are reported to be about 150 -pfeet thick in the village, and o0 c ". the predominance of rather MA /N S compact stony clays makes the /.E difficulty of getting flowing o water from the drift very con(__j s:____j _siderable, but there are five __ ELBA ST wells which are certainly not in SCHOOL Wthe rock, and others are probeGROUNDo ably of this type. The characteristics of these wells are NELL STy 0 oo zoo 200 300 4o soo 00 500 FEET shown in the accompanying table. The water from them is FIG. 46.-Plat of village of Bannister, Gratiot County. rather hard and contains iron, but is as good as the waters from the drift usually are. The flows are rather small, with slight head. Wells here of this class are much more apt to fail than those from the rock, and the present tendency in the village seems to be to drill to the latter for water. These wells are numerous in the village and surrounding country, and are of varying depths, those of the village generally being reported to be more than 200 feet deep. They enter rock at about 150 feet. The deepest reported was 390 feet, probably a mistake, and the shallowest about 200 feet. The flows from the rock are generally better and with more head than those from the drift. In case the town desired a public water supply, it could be pumped directly from Maple River for fire protection and other general uses, ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 225 and its potable water be secured from private flowing wells from the rock. The cost of putting down wells in this locality is 75 cents a foot for drilling and casing, if a pump is required, but the drillers often hire out with their machine by the day, and the owners of the prospective wells may assist by their work or furnish casing themselves, thus reducing the cost of the wells materially. Wells in Bannister. Owner. c ) Quality. Water i bed. -. In. Feet. Feet Feet. Gals. oF. C A. Evans.......................... 2 50 688 +1 0.12.... Hard.... Gravel. D R. Russella........................... 2 160? 688 +.5 1.25 50.5 Iron.... Do. F Mrs. Davidsonb....................... 2 36 688 Â~+1.5........do... Do. HI D. Campbell c................. 1885 2 +90 (688 +3 2.5 52 '....do.... Do. J E. Westond........................... 2 60 688 +6.66 53....do... Do. K E. Bensinger e......................... 2 -550 690 +1........... do... Do. I a May be from drift as suggested by low head. d Piped underground 10 feet. b Now pumped from tank used for refrigerator. e Not flowing now but crocked above head and c Piped underground.' pumned. ASHLEY AREA. Ashley.-Ashley is situated in the southeastern part of Gratiot County, in the flat bottom land which marks the bed of the Glacial Lake Saginaw, which at one time covered the region. The site of the village is a faint terrace, which extends northeastward some distance and which is elevated a few feet above the level of the land to the south and southeast. The soil here is a compact clay, which, previous to the clearing and ditching, was covered with a heavy growth of swamp timber, and had its upper layers saturate(d with the product of decay of the abundant vegetation. As a result of this type and condition of soil the waters near the surface are impregnated with organic matter. The amount of water was small, and as clearing progressed became smaller, so that shallow (lug wells were early found to be inadequate, going dry quickly and furnishing poor and unwholesome water. Tubular wells were therefore resorte(d to, and deeper supplies of better water were obtained, so that at present the majority of the people get water for drinking and domestic purposes from deep-drille(l wells, which reach down nearly to bed rock, or, in some instances, penetrate it for considerable (distances. Wells in the rock frequently flow with a good supply-of water, and in all the rest the water rises nearly to the surface. The rock surface was reported( to be fromn 100 to 120 feet d(eep in the village. The public well, near the railroad station, is a good example of this class of IR 183-O0(----1; ï~~226 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. wells. It is 270 feet deep, about 170 feet in the rock, and the water flows 2 feet above the surface at the rate of 21 gallons a minute. The water is of excellent quality, rather soft, and has a small amount of iron and other mineral matter in it. The overflow runs into a reservoir from which it may be pumped in case of need for use in protection against fires. Within 150 feet from this well is a pump well, which was reported by the driller to be about 100 feet shallower but still deep in the rock, in which the water stands a few feet below the surface. When this well was vigorously pumped a very few strokes, the village well would cease flowing. This fact soon became a source of great annoyance to those using the flowing well on account of the temptation it afforded to play practical jokes, and after a time the authorities of the town purchased the pump well and dismantled it. This is an interesting case of transmission of change of pressure through considerable distances of rock very quickly. The raising of the water by the pump' evidently reduced the hydrostatic pressure and buried the head sufficiently to stop the flow in the other well. This lowering of head manifestly need not be more than an inch or two, provided the outlet of the flowing well was about at the level to which the water would rise under the existing pressure. One-half mile northeast of the village is a flowing well owned by Mr. Charles Kerr, which is reported to be about 600 feet deep. The water is strongly impregnated with mineral matter, the most noticeable constituents being hydrogen sulfid and salt. This water has been put upon the market, and is sold at the well at 1 cent a gallon. It is also used for mineral baths. Aside from the few shallow dug wells, there are also in the village a few bored, driven, or drilled wells from 50 to 65 feet into the drift, the water having sufficient head to rise to within about 5 feet of the surface. Such wells are sometimes provided with a cistern of drain tile, from which the water is pumped. The two partial analyses given below are from a deep sulphur well whose water is being bottled for medicinal purposes, and from a deep gravel well at Ashley, respectively. The analyses were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well waters at Ashley. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color..............--------------------------------------------------------------- 15 10 Iron (Fe)---------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.25 2.75 Chlorine (C1) ----------------------------------------------------------------- 384 29 Chlron d oe (CO ).............................................................. 79.4 86.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2)----------------------------------------------------------- 79.15 86.18 Sulphur trioxide (SO:)-------------------------------------------------------............................................................ +522 383 Hardness (as CaCO ) -...................................Â~.............. +139 +139 S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Charles Kerr; depth 600 feet. 2. Village; depth 270 feet. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 227 Vicinity of Ashley.-The country about Ashley, especially to the south, southeast, and southwest, has nearly the same soil characteristics as the village, being, if anything, more swampy. Hence it has been still more necessary to get supplies of water from the deeper gravel strata in the clay, or, failing in this, to go down to the sandstones and shales of the coal measures lying still deeper. This necessity has led to a large development of the deeper water-bearing strata, especially those in the bed rock, from which, in many cases, flows have been obtained in the east half of Washington and the south part of Elbe Township. (Fig. 47.) R. I W. 6, 4 3 2! 70 0'8 9 0 II 12.R "R, i, 6 *,, Rz "20 " "* R 22, 23 '\ 24 130*a 30 29 28 27, 26 25 B l cster 31 32 33 34 35 36 FIG. 47.-Ashley and Bannister flowing-well areas outside 6f village wells. As this region has been carefully prospected for coal, many of the prospect holes have been utilized for water. The usual arrangement made is that the owner of the land shall have the hole for a well if water is struck, by paying for the pipe used in casing down to the rock. Some of the prospect holes, usually 4 inches in diameter, have yielded large supplies of water with strong heads, but the owners have wisely reduced the flow to their needs rather than try to care for the larger waste in the flat and not easily drained region. ï~~228 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. East and south of Ashley, on the broad flat below the terrace on which the town stands, is an area of shallow wells deriving supplies from the strata of sand and gravel in the clays. The shallowest flowing well reported was 14 feet deep, but otherwise the range was from 25 to 72 feet. The flows usually are quite small, and show a tendency to decrease. The head is 1 to 4 feet and the water is hard, with some iron in it. The area as now developed is approximately 7 square miles, all north of the river, and in general it does not seem possible that this can be increased much, except in the number of wells, for in the eastern part of the township the rock surface rises until in places it is covered by less than 25 feet of drift. In this region also the material overlying the rock changes from clay to gravel, and as this is not covered by a compact stratum, the water is dissipated and does not rise in the wells. To the north of the area the ground rises above the level of the head, so there can be no flows in that direction. Much more extensive is the area over which flowing wells may be obtained from the rock. These occur both east and north of the area in which the drift flows are struck, and also throughout the eastern half of Washington Township. The water from the rock wells usually contains less iron and is less hard than that from the drift, and the supply is not so likely to fail, both because of the greater extent of the water-bearing strata, and because of the less danger from clogging from the action of the water on the pipes, the working in of sand, or the clogging of screens. Ijltimately the greater part of the water used in this region will be obtained from wells drilled in the rock. The sources of supply of this area may be, and probably are, in the gently sloping districts of considerably higher level lying north of the flowing-well area, where a large part of the rainfall is absorbed by the ground because of its loamy and sandy character, and finds its way very gradually to the lower levels, from which it is forced by the pressure behind it when a well tube finds its way into a more porous stratum than usual. Summary.-If, as assumed, the area to the north is an important source of supply, the present policy of developing an elaborate system of ditches across the contours in this region must operate to reduce enormously the supply of ground water, and one can not but view with concern the present activity in seeking means to carry off water which should have a chance to soak into the ground. Cultivation, as commonly carried on, tends still further to decrease the supply of ground water, by hastening evaporation, and of decreasing the absorbing power by rendering the surface of the soil hard and nonabsorbent. ï~~GRATIOT COUNTY. 229 Wells of Ashley area (T 9 N., R. 1 W.). be CIO 0 Water d Owner. Quality. W ber o a..c ed Z c r A W h H A In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals, o F. Feet. 1 8 E.. Strattona......1903 2 57 680 +2.5 4 50.3 Hard.... 150 Gravel. 2 8 E.J. Stratton- _. 1885 2...... 680 +0 8 50 Hard; iron.... Do. 3 7 Cyrus Stratton-.......1900 1 45 678 +2.5 50...do---...... Do. 4 7.....do.............. 1900 1 65 678 +3.25 50..do..----------- Do. 5 8 Chas. Green......---..... -2 30 680 +1.2 51 Hard........ Do. 6 7 Fuller & Lewis b...... 1895 2 30 680 +1.55.12.........do............ Do. 7 7 R. E. Parker8...... 1895 2 25 676 +3.25........do......-..... Do. 8 17 F. M. Baker..........1900 2 47 680 +1..12 51 Hard; iron...... Do. 9 16 J. IIasperc----------- ------2 72 685 +1..5........do......Â~125 Do. 10 16 C. J. Brubakerd...... ------ 2 14 680 +1 +-.5...............do------------Do 11 16 Levi Smith e-........... 2 85 680 +1......Â~do. +120 Do. 12 21 S. R. IHubbardf--.----...... 2 55 680 +1.25 52.do...... +133 Sand. 13 21 J. Sharpe............1894 2 72 685 +2.25 52...do............. Do. 14 21 Wm. Sharp.................2 50 685 +2.5 52...do............ Do. a Very little iron present; leaves granular scale d Will flow a small stream, but is pumped; bored. in teakettle. e Will flow a small stream, but is pumped. b Well at brickyard; casing leaks badly. f Supply is decreased by clogged screen. c Will flow 1 foot above surface, but is pumped: g Thought to be filling with sand at bottom. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. ITHACA. Ithaca, the county seat of Gratiot County, is situated in the exact center of the county, with no stream or pond in its vicinity. It is built upon a low morainal ridge, which slopes off to the east into a broad plain and to the west into an extensive swamp. The inoraine here is of compact till or clayey gravel, and does not yield much water. On its slopes it becomes more sandy, and shallow wells here give rather limited supplies. The problem of a public water supply was settled two years ago by putting down a series of three 6-inch tubular wells 600 feet deep, through 300 feet of drift, into the sandstone below, from which a supply of hard but otherwise good water, which rises to within 50 feet of the surface and is sufficient for present needs, was obtained. The water is used for all purposes, domestic, fire protection, sprinkling, and boilers, and the supply is constant. The plant is a public one in charge of a water board. The private wells are shallow, dug, open basins, or in a considerable number of cases tubular drilled wells, ranging from 50 to 90 feet deep. The water is hard and possesses the usual characteristics of water from the drift in this section. BEEBE. In the vicinity of Beebe, to the northwest of Ithaca, water is obtained either from open dug wells 25 to 30 feet deep or driven wells 30 to 40 feet or more. The water rises within 10 feet of the ï~~230 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. surface in some of these, and is hard, with considerable iron. It comes from gravel below rather stiff clay. There is a public well here, but nothing is known about it. EDGEWOOD. This hamlet, in the eastern part of the county, has dug wells 10 to 30 feet deep. The water is from sand or gravel, is hard, and rises within 6 to 10 feet of the surface. ELM HALL. This village lies in the shallow valley occupied by Pine River, which has here a gravel bottom. The wells are shallow, dug to the bottom of the gravel to abundant water at 12 to 20 feet below the surface. The deepest wells lying outside the valley are from 50 to 60 feet in depth. The "water is hard and from gravel. Water for fire protection could easily be obtained from Pine River. MIDDLETON. Middleton, in the southern part of the county, has dug wells from 12 to 30 feet deep and driven wells 50 to 65 feet deep. A large supply of water, found at from 60 to 65 feet, is hard and rises within 10 to 15 feet of the surface. The wells in this vicinity are frequently bored with large augers, driven by horse power, and walled up with drain tile carefully cemented. NEWARK AND NEW HAVEN. These two hamlets, southwest of Ithaca, are well supplied with easily accessible water, usually reached by digging or boring from 20 to 40 feet and stoning or tiling up the sides of the well. NORTH STAR. This village, which is southeast of the county seat, has open or dug wells 12 to 16 feet deep and one drilled well, 214 feet deep, which obtains a large supply of water in sand and gravel at about 200 feet. No rock was struck at this depth. OLA. This village, in the southern part of the county, has open wells 12 to 30 feet deep and driven wells down to 60 feet. The water rises within about 10 feet of the surface. ï~~GRATIOT AND MIDLAND COUNTIES. 231 PERRINTON. This village is on the banks of Pine Creek, a tributary of Maple River, in the southern part of the county. The wells are from 12 to 34 feet deep, either (lug or bored and tiled. The water, which is hard, is abundant, but does not rise much min the wells except in wet seasons. POMPEII. This village, in the southern part of the county, has (lug and bored or driven wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. There is no difficulty in getting a plentiful supply of good, though rather hard, water. There are no flowing wells in the vicinity. In North Shade Township, west of Pompeii, the wells are generally dug 20 to 45 feet. Water is plenty and easy to get. Around Brice post-office, in this township, wells are usually 16 to 30 feet deep, but a few are 45 feet. The water rises within 8 to 20 feet of the surface and is rather hard. RATHBONE. Rathbone, which lies in the eastern part of the county, has open wells ranging from 10 to 15 feet in depth, with water within 4 feet of the surface. Driven. wells are reported as deep as 160 feet, with the water rising within 20 feet of the surface. WHEELER. This town is located on a plain in the northeastern part of the county, which is here covered with a shallow deposit of gravelly loam. Most of the wells of the village are very shallow, from 6 to 15 feet deep, dug or bored through the gravel to the underlying clay. Those on the clay soils are (lug somewhat deeper. At from 25 to 28 feet there is plenty of water, though rather hard. The (leepest well was reporte(d to be about 80 feet deep. One-half mile east of the village, on SW. } sec. 22, Wheeler Township, there are wells 28 feet deep, in which the water rises within 9 feet of the surface, coming from a thick bed of gravel. In the vicinity of North Wheeler wells are often 60 feet deep, though some (dug wells are only 12 to 14 feet deep. WATER SUPPLIES OF MIDLAND COUNTY. GENERAL STATEMENT.a The examination of flowing wells in the western part of Midland County was made by W. M. Gregory. In the original plan Mr. Gregory was to have covered the entire county, but the time at his command did not admit his doing so. Mr. Davis therefore gave aBy Frank Leverett. ï~~232 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. such time as he could spare to this study, but it was scarcely sufficient to insure a thorough survey, and small districts in the northern part of the county were not visited. It is probable that flows can be obtained along all the valleys in the county, and perhaps over wide areas between the valleys in the western half and the southeastern fourth of the county; the northeastern part is too high to expect flows. Much of the county is covered with sand, and wells are obtainable at its base at a usual depth of 20 feet or less. This fact and the sparseness of settlement accounts for the present limited development of flowing wells. As in Saginaw County, the slopes are very gentle, and the catchment areas likely to be a little farther up the slope than the wells, rather than in some distant morainic ridge, though some water may be contributed from these remote sources. The very slight head is in keeping with the interpretation that the bordering parts of the sloping plain are the chief catchment areas. SUPPLIES BY DISTRICTS. LARKIN TOWNSHIP. About 4 miles north and 1 mile west of Midland, lying along the shallow valley of a small tributary of Tittabawassee River, is a group of ten flowing wells, which differ from those of the other areas in Midland County in yielding water which is noticeably brackish. These wells are from 45 to nearly 80 feet deep, the deeper ones occurring at the north and the shallower ones at the south end of the area. It is probable that the water comes from two or possibly three different strata. The flows are all of very moderate or small size, the largest being only about 2 gallons a minute. The head is slight, the maximum reported being only 5 feet. This part of Midland County is a region of salt springs, some large ones existing in the valley of Tittabawassee River, a few miles west of this flowing-well area. These probably owe their origin to fissures in the bed-rock, extending down to the salt-bearing coal measures, or to the deeper Marshall sandstone. The salt water from these formations, which rises in salt wells nearly to or above the surface, in passing through the unconsolidated clays and gravels above the rock surface, would spread out in the more porous strata, and give a brackish taste to the water already present. It might also be true, in some cases, that the brine would find its way directly upward from the fissure into a bed of sand or gravel and spread laterally for a long distance without breaking out at the surface at all. An interesting feature of these wells is that those which are shallow are rather more brackish than the deeper ones, a fact that would lead to the conclusion that the water comes from different strata, since the ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 233 heavy brine would naturally sink to the lowest part of the stratum in which it occurs, leaving the lighter mixed waters above. It is possible that the deposits above the bed rock may have been largely derived from salt-bearing rocks, and that this material now gives the brackish taste to the water. The limited area over which this brackish water occurs, its nearness to known salt springs, and the known history of the sands and clays from which the water comes, however, favor the first theory. The wells to the west of the present development which are deep enough to reach the water of these strata do not flow above the surface, although the water rises min some of them nearly to it, and if especial care were taken to find depressions in which to locate 30 the wells, flows might be secured for a mile to the west. The area might also be extended_ _ near the stream, both north and south, if the " strata which yield the water are present. As 4 3 a yet the country in these directions is not de-. veloped, and nothing is known of the extent 8..9 'o of the water-bearing strata. FIG. 48.-Sketch map of Larkin The question of the wholesomeness of salty flowing-well district, Midland County. or brackish waters is often raised, and while County. the matter is not absolutely settled, the consensus of opinion seems to be that slightly salt waters are not in any way injurious to health. Their use probably should be accompanie(d by a lessened use of salt for seasoning food, and in this way the salt ration kept from running too high, as excess of salt undoubtedly has an irritating effect on the excretory organs. The following table and the sketch map (fig. 48) give the data relating to these wells and show their approximate position with regard to the stream. The address of well owners and drillers is Midland. ï~~234 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells of Larlkin Township (T. 15 N., R. 2 E.). 06 r. a 14 a;;-4 Owner. 4 ' Quality. Waterbed.......... o_ In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. OF. 1 30 G. W. Stearns a.......1904 2 79 Â~625 +2 0.25 49.5 Brackish,. Sand. 2 29 J. Putnam............ 1904 2 4Â~75 Â~625 +1i.12 ---.... -.- do.... Do. 3 32 R. Blaine b............ 1904 2 73 Â~625 +4 2 49.2 Brackish; Gravel. bitter. 4 31 Geo. Jennings-......... 1895 2 70 Â~625 +2.25 49.8 Brackish.. Do. 5 32 J. Cole c.................. 2 -60 Â~620 +2.12 52 -do.... Gra.el. 6 31 W. Adams.............1903 2 45 Â~625 +.5 2 51 H a r d; Gravel. salty. 7 32 E. Townd.............1901 2 A60 Â~625...... 8 31 Ed. Caldwell e......... 1897 2 Â~50 Â~620 +3 1.5 49.2 Har d; Sandy gravel. slightly brackish. 9 32 G. B. Weidemann... 1897 2 +45 620 +1 2 49 I a r d; Gravel. SI slightly brackish; iron. 10 32.....do.....................2 2..2 620 +2.12................. a In barnyard. House supplied by seepage spring on bank of stream. b Clay all the way down to gravel. c Used for cooling milk, etc. d Head near surface; flows small amount into underground reservoir from which it is pumped. SUsed in cooling milk. MIDLAND TOWNSHIP. MIDLAND. The town of Midland is situated in the southeastern part of Midland County, on the banks of Tittabawassee River, at its junction with the Chippewa, which comes in from the west, shortly after uniting with Pine River from the southwest. The larger part of the town is on the north bank of the river valley, 35 or 40 feet above the lowwater level of the stream. The bank rises in a series of rather narrow terraces, the highest being a sandy ridge, which is probably part of a shore line of the Glacial lake which covered this county. The south bank of the river is much lower, and a broad flat terrace, the bottom of what may have been formerly a wide estuary or narrow bay connected with the lowest level of the Glacial lake, stretches away to the south for more than a mile before the south side of the valley is reached. Outside this broad shallow valley and others similar in origin, the greater part of Midland County is very flat, the soils varying from heavy clays to light wind-blown sand. The principal relief forms, as elsewhere on the "lake plain," are sand or gravel ridges which wind across the plain irregularly, forming low lines of elevations above the general surface. The plain in the vicinity of Midland is especially flat, and the river here is but a very few feet above the level of Saginaw Bay. There is a gradual rise of a few feet to the mile toward the west, northwest, and north. The whole county is exceptionally well watered by surface streams. ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 235 The town of Midland has a public water supply, the pumping station of which is situated on the lower river terrace, on the south side of the river near the point of union between the two streams. Formerly the supply was obtained from driven wells which flowed above the surface, but now it is drawn from the Chippewa River at its junction with the Tittabawassee, the wells having failed to give an adequate supply. The Chippewa is fed by springs along its entire course, and flows for a long distance through a practically uninhabited country, as does its tributary, the Pine, but the growing cities of Mount Pleasant, on the Chippewa, and Alma, and St. Louis, on the Pine, all turn their entire sewage into these streams, which ultimately will thus become highly polluted. At present the water is generally used for drinking and all domestic purposes, as well as for fire protection, etc. The wells of the higher part of the town are generally dug or driven from 12 or 15 to 30 feet. The sandy upper stratum of the soil in this part of town is underlain,' at a relatively short distance below the surface, by a compact clay on top of which it is usually easy to get water. Such shallow wells as are thus obtained, more especially the dug wells, in the more thickly peopled parts of town should be looked on with suspicion on account of the ease with which they may be contaminated from cesspools and outhouses. Driven wells from 25 to 200 feet or more deep are, however, frequent, and to these there can be no objection as sources of domestic supply. The deeper wells give the best supply of water, which, however, is often a trifle brackish and which rises in the casing to within a few feet of the surface. On the north side of the river only two flowing wells were found within the town limits, and these were both in the river valleysome distance below the general level (fig. 49). This seems to indicate that the head of the numerous flows on the south side of the river is not sufficient to raise the water to the height of the north bank. On the south side of the river, within the limits of the town, are many wells which flow. These are generally from 100 to over 200 feet deep, and the strongest have a head of 16 to 18 feet. The largest flowa are from 10 to 22 gallons a minute, while the smallest ran but a thread of water. The Burt farm, on the lower terrace of the river, on sec. 21, has one of the most powerful wells, flowing more than 20 gallons a minute with a strong pressure. It was reported that in putting down the well small flows were struck at four levels above the one from which the present supply is obtained. The water from the deeper flowing wells is nearly free from hardness, as is that of some of the shallower ones, and in many cases is slightly brackish. The salt probably comes from the neighboring salt wells, from some of which the brine may have leaked into the sands and gravels of the drift. ï~~236 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. R.1 E. R.2 E. I 6 5 4 3 2 jj2L718e9.Mid'510 ____ 02 *? 019 /203, 21 22 23 $7 -2 3 0 9 0"918 @1 12070'' 1"39 c1 *24 I 20" /52 22 o 3 24 3E6 31 "2 32 33 34 3 36 30 I00. 49.- ap2 howng2 istibtio offloingwels"n/ ad nar idlnd ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 237 The following partial analysis shows the composition of the water of the "Magnetic Mineral Spring" or well at Midland, owned by W. L. hearns. The high iron constituent is a conspicuous feature, but may be due to the rust of the pipe. Water is from the rock. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analysis of well water at Midland. Parts per million. Color........................------------------------------------------------------------ 214 Iron (Fe)---------------...................... 6 Chlorine (Cl)-...................................... 802 Carbon dioxide (CO,)..........- -----.......... 63.76 Sulphur trioxide (SO3).......................---------------------------------------------. +522 Turbidity.....................................---------------------------------------------------------. 293 S. J. Lewis, analyst. Depth, 375 feet. VICINITY OF MIDLAND. 0 The area over which flows are found beyond the limits of the town extends southward to the township line and into the southeast corner of Homer Township, the northeastern part of Mount Haley Township, and the northern part of Ingersoll Township. The entire area, as now developed, is about 14 square miles. The flowing wells to the south of the river valley are generally much shallower, have less head, and flow with much less energy (rarely more than 1 gallon a minute) and it is probable that they are derived from entirely different strata. In these wells the water was not saline, was frequently hard, and contained iron. Many of the wells in this and in the Ingersoll Township area were noticeably affected by the local drought which prevailed at the time of the writer's visit, and were commonly reported to be flowing much less than usual or to have ceased altogether since the drought had begun. North of Midland is a small extension of the area on secs. 9, 10, and 15, in which all but one of the drift wells, which was in a stream valley, had ceased to flow. It is probable that in almost any part of the southwestern portion of Midland Township, in the lower places, flowing wells can be obtained by going deep enough. The rock surface is, however, irregular, and may rise in places in such a way as to interfere with the continuity of the water-bearing strata above, but so far as learned the rock was not usually struck at much less than 200 feet from the surface south from Midland. On the top of the higher sand ridges the level is usually above the head of the flows. Wells would best be driven in depressions if flows are desired. Good water, though often somewhat brackish, may be obtained from the rock, and there is head enough to bring it nearly or quite to the surface. Some springs were reported along the river southeast of Midland running out from under the sand at its junction with the underly ï~~238 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. ing clay. In this case the catchment area is undoubtedly the sand ridge, and such springs should be rather common in the sandy region north and west of Midland wherever a stream cuts through to the clay. Mr. J. P. Sugnet kindly furnished the following record of his deep well on sec. 10, Midland Township: Record of Sugnet well, Midland Township. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Surface clay------------------------------------------------------------..................................................................... 50 50 Hardpan--------------------------------------------------------------........................................................................20 70 Clay--...----------------------------------------------------------------- 30 100 Sand and gravel---------------------------------------------------------................................................................. 19 119 Red clay--------------------------------------------------------------......................................................................... 19 138 Sand------------------------------------------------------------------............................................................................3 141 Clay-----------------------------------------------------------------............................................................................. 114 155 Sand rock. It was reported also that in the neighborhood of Midland the surface clays and sands were only 10 to 12 feet deep, followed by a bed of sand, often full of water, below which was a hard dark-colored clay or hardpan with small bowlders in it, which was very hard to work. The top clay, often a relatively thin surface deposit, was as hard as the lower bed, and dark colored. SUMMARY. The following table gives well data in Midland Township: Wells in Midland Township (T. 14 N., 1R. 2 E.) bb z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 20 20 20 21 21 20 29 28 28 29 28 Owner. Ins. E.Shoupe a....... 1904 2 W. Vanceb........ 1893 2 T. Dunn c..........--- -2 W.M. Leed........._- ' 2 Burt Farm----........----...... ---2 S. E. Taft......... 18901 2 C h a s. H o v e y e..... -f- - 2 C. Cromleyf -.. 8. 89 2.....do-............. ------1889 2 E. F. Abbott ----.-----_ 2 F. Clisdaleh...-.._1889 2 Feet. 119.1 120 208 98 206 98 95 95 1135 95 113 p 0 Feet 600 600 595 598 590 595 }600 600 598 600 600+ Feet. +20? +20Â~ +3 +3.5 +4 +3 +20Â~ +4. +4 +3.5 5_ Galls.. 12 a 10 20 Galls..52 10Â~ 20Â~ 4.5 15.25.75 4 Quality. P4 OF. 49.5 Soft-...... 53.8.....do_..........---....------do.... 49.2.....-do.... ---..... --- Soft; salt._ 50 Soft-................ do.... 49.3 Fresh; soft. -.-.......do.... 49.2.....do.... 49.5.....do.... 0 0.0 Feet. Water bed. Gravel. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. a 75 feet of tough clay, stony below that. Cost, $60. b Flow cut off at 1 feet. c Formerly good flow; water has some salt. d Piped into house. e Three wells in small ice pond. f Piped to house and barn and fish pond. Used for ice pond in winter. Would flow more, but cut down to prevent waste. g Head about 15 feet when first put down; cased 15 feet; cost, $35. h Piped to milk house for refrigerating, and to barn. ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 239 Wells in.Midland Township (T. 14 N., R. 2 E.) -Continued. z 1 2 2 8 13 27 14 33 15 34 16 34 17 33 18 33 19 29 20 19 21 19 22 19 23 31 24 32 25 32 26 17 27 32 28 31 29 34 30 35 31 35 32 9 33 9 34 10 35 10 36 15 115 38 21 39 29 40 29 41 31 42 31 43 32 44 20 45 33 Owner. W. J. DelIarte.......... F. Bennetta............ iH.E.Ackermann.... Chas. Cone b............. W. M. Stoats............ J. Stranahan............ B. Pessley.............. J. Tolman c............. A. Burgoond...... 1904 C. M. Sinclair e.... 1903 S. H. Smith f........... R. C. Stokes................ T. J. Burgess....... Reardon Brosh. S. Richardson i......... H. Gifford i............ E. McArdle k...... 1900 County Farm..............do............... S. Leonard m.............. J. Malony n... 1903 J. P. Sugnet o..... 1898 J. P. Sugnetp..... 1902 C. Overton.............. A. Hinkley r........... Dow Chemical Co.. 1900 C. Martindale......... J. Reardon.............. Wm. Haley........... T. Pear................ R. C. Stokes.............. Midland water- 1884 works. A. D. Salisbury......... ca Quality. o Water bed. Ins. Feet. I Feet. Feet. Galls. F. Feet. 2 94 595 +4 3.5 49 5 Fresh;...... Gravel. soft. 2 127 600 +4 1.5 50.4....do.......... Do. 2...... 610 +2.5 51.....do.......... Do. 2...... 610 +3.5 1.5 49.8.....do.......... Do. 2 55+ 615 +4.1251...do........... Do. 2 45 620 +2.06 51.5.....do......... Do. 2 64 615 +.5 12 51.5.....do.......... Do. 2............ 1+3.25 52 S o f t;...... Do. brackish. 2 80+ 615 +0.12.......d.....do.......... Do. 2 68 615 -4.12...........do.......... Do. 2 109 620 +2.5 49.8.....do.......... Do. 2 90? 630 4+1.5..5............ 2 32 630 +1.5.5 50 Medium;.... - hard. 2 11... +1.25..... Soft............ Sand. 2 192 610 1+1.5..... S o f t;...... Do. brackish. 2 45...... +2.5.................do.......... Do. 2.........-.+0.25...... Hard........... 2 10 590 +-.5.12 51 Sof t;... brackish. 2 100+ 590 +.5.25 i 50..do.... 200+ 2 200+ 590 +1 1.. Salt....0. 200 2 100+ 600 -7...............-do.... Do. 2 79 608 +1.12. Soft.......... Do. 2 116 605 +1.25. Salt..... 155 Do. 2 288 605 41.25 50.5.....do....' 155 Sa n d - stone. 2 50......-.5.......... Hard........... Gravel. 2 60.. +0..............do.......... Do. 2 127 '6(X) +2 3 50 Salt... 260 2 124... +2............................. Do. 2 144.................................... Do......................................... o 2 32...... +1............................. Do. i2 100........................ Do. I 1.f 2 2 2 210 190 106 592 + 4. 5 2 50 Soft; a. 260Â~...... +2 2 49, 5 Soft.......... a Cased only 16 feet. b Used for cooling milk. c Cut off at 3 feet below surface to flow into reservoir and is pumped. Flows to stock trough below tank. d Flows in cellar and at trough at side of bank. Cost, $27. e Used in milk house for coohling. I Stopped flowing from barrel into which pipe runs. g Flow smaller than usual; leaks around casing. h Just drops from pipe; decreased from 1 gallon a minute. Â~ Barn well flows more in wet season; house well, 16 feet, has large supply good water; head, -3 feet. 3 Flows into basin: water rises about to surface; two wells of same kind at barn. k Flows more than formerly. 1 Too salt to use. m Pumped with chain pump from tile basin; used to flow small stream 1 foot above surface. SIn stream valley in pasture 10 feet below general surface. o Being sand pumped when visited. p Flow from 195 feet, smaller one at 116 feet, also at 157 feet. q No. 36 stopped within an hour of the time No. 37 was completed; then had head of 2+ feet and flow of 1 gallon a minute; pumped now. r Flows into reservoir and is pumped. ï~~240 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. INGERSOLL DISTRICT. There is a distinct area of flowing wells in the southern half of Ingersoll Township, extending into Mount Haley and Homer townships and separated from the southern part of the Midland area by a broad, low-ridged tract of sand which runs nearly west across the township from the river to the western town line and then southward and eastward. The flowing wells in the north part of the township belong in the Midland area (fig. 49). The surface of this district is very flat, aside from sand ridges, and the soil, except on the ridges, is a heavy clay loam, which from its fineness of texture is relatively impermeable to water. In the sandy areas water is easily obtained by digging or boring from 10 to 20 feet through the sand to the underlying clay. Such wells usually furnish a good supply of water, the sand acting as the catchment area and absorbing about all the water that falls on it. In this type of wells, however, care should be taken to locate the well at a considerable distance from all sources of contamination, such as barnyards, outhouses, etc. In the early settlement of the township dug wells were general in the clay lands as well as on the sand, but as the timber disappeared and the land was cleared, the ground-water level became lower and the wells were deepened either by digging or, more commonly, by boring in the bottom of the basin of the old well. It was found that over a considerable part of the township the water which was struck by boring at a relatively short distance down would rise to the surface or flow over it. As indicated above, these wells are usually relatively shallow, with a few exceptions in the eastern part of the township, where they are reported to be from 100 to 200 feet deep, their depth usually exceeding 50 feet. The head is slight, not often more than a foot or two, and frequently the water does not rise quite to the surface. Many of the wells of the area flow, not from a casing, but from the top of the dug basin, through an open ditch to the roadside. This is a probable source of contamination to the basin, since in this open ditch filth of all sorts may accumulate and, despite the fact that there is a constant current flowing from the well, will eventually find its way to the basin and pollute it. A glance at the condition of some of these open ditches would convince even a casual observer that they were foul in the extreme, and it is easy to see how a heavy rainfall might wash much of the filth into the basin. If this type of well is to be used and the overflow is to be allowed to run off near the surface, a tile drain should be carefully laid to replace the open ditch. In every flat country where it is difficult to dispose of waste water. it would be a most excellent plan to construct a basin of concrete, which should be water-tight and built high enough above the ground ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 241 to prevent overflow. The same purpose could be attained by the use or large-sized sewer tile, or by piping the well above the surface and into a trough, which should be high enough to prevent overflow. In this way a surplus of water would always be on hand, and yet there would be no waste. The water from these wells is of medium hardness in most cases. fresh, and of good quality. The water is said to come from a thick bed of sand, lying under a relatively shallow clay deposit. In one well on sec. 4, the record was clay 60 feet, sand 116 feet. In another well farther south it was reported that the record was clay 35 feet, sand 72 feet. Neither of these wells flowed, and they were deepened in the hopes of securing flowing water. It is frequently reported that there has been a loss of head in these wells. Several have ceased flowing entirely, and have been cut off and fitted with pumps. The cause of this loss is not apparent, unless it be the dry weather. It did not seem to be generally true that the supply had been drawn on too heavily by overdevelopment, for in no case were the wells closely crowded together, nor were there any very large flows found. The apparent cause, therefore, is the general lowering of the ground-water level by excessive drought, which has in turn reduced the pressure that caused the head. An extension seems possible to the west when the country is fully settled, and it also seems likely that a greater number of flows might be had in the district at present developed if care is taken in putting down the wells and in properly casing them. The sketch map of southeastern Midland County (fig. 49) shows the relation of this area to the Midland area, and the approximate extent of the area, while the facts relating to the wells are to be found in the table on the next page. S ma 183---06----17 ï~~242 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Ingersoll district. INGERSOLL TOWNSHIP (T. 13 N., R. 2 E.). CO 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 5 7 5 8 5 8al 4 9 10 10 14 11 25 12 35 13 35 14 27 15 27 16 34 17 29 18 29 19 20 20 20 21 20 22 22 23 27 24 27 25 23 26 23 27 12 28 13 Ellen Patrey.......................do........................ Thos.Bailey a....-.---1890 Thos. Lindsay.......... 1890 Jos. Yott b............... Wm.Downs.................. F.Yott c............. _........ do.c...................... G. Warner................... W. Saas d............... 1895 G. O. Walker e.......... 1896 Geo.Cookf......._......... D. L. Chamberlin g........... W.Gould............... 1894 W.Bakerh............. 1894..... do................. 1888..... do.i..................... G. Stuart i............. 1903 G. McDonald............ 1902 F.Compton k.......... 1903 S.Locke I.............. 1895 Cheese factory m....... 1901 B.B.Bartlettn......... 1884.....do.o............... 1884 G. Bartlett................... Mary LeeP.-......... 1898 L.O. Schoffler..................----do- -................... In. 2 Feet. 50Â~ 50 33 108 625 112 97 110 36 180+ 167 160 30 37 26 30Â~ 25Â~ 22 58 38 17 50 90+ 70 60 204 -20 36 60 O Feet. 630 Feet. +1 6301 +1 625 +2 625 +2 625 +2 62 +2..- +2.... +2..- +1.-- +0.+5..---- -3.. +0 +1.5 +1.5.._._.+0 +0..... +0.-- +2.-- +1.5 0.Â~---- +2.5 -4 ----- +1.+1.2..... +2.5 ------ +0.-- +0 0 - - - O0... o S Quality. Water bed. Gals. Â~F. 0.25 51 Soft...... Gravel or sand. 12.........do.. Do..06'.......do-..-- Sand.. 12...Medium... Do..2552 Hardiron. Gravel..25 50 Soft....... Do..25 50.....do..... Sand..5 49.6.....do..... Do..25............... 4-8...... Salt....33...... Soft....... Gravel. 5.-_Soft....... Sand..25...........do.._.12...... Hard...... Do..25...........do..... do Do. 1...........do.. 2...........do..... Do. i 1............do..............Medium hard. 1 i..Medium hard..5............... 5................. S.5 50 Hard...... Sand. 5-10...... Iron....... Do. 1-2...... Hard...1.... Iron-.--- HOMER TOWNSHIP (T. 14 N., R. 1 E.). 1 36 A.McLaughlinq.......... 1896 2 36 630 +1.5 0.55 49 Soft; iron.. 2 36 C.Muddr.............1895 2 35 630 +1.5......51._ do. Gravel. 3 36.....do.s......................40 630-5.................do... Do. 4 36 W.Blowerst.......... 1895 2 35 635 -1................do Do. MOUNT HALEY TOWNSHIP (T. 13 N., R. 1 E.). 1 1 IH.A.Craneu................ 2 100 635 -2 0.06.. Soft.......Gravel or sand 2 1.....do.................... 2 55 635 +0.12 50.2.....do..... Do. 3 1. do...................... 2 65 635 +.5.................do..... Do. 4 1.....do....................2 72 635 +1.12 54....do..... Do. a Flows more in wet seasons. b Flow has decreased. Dug well here formerly used to flow; head, -1 foot. c Both wells flow less than in the spring. d Flows into old dug basin from which a good stream of water runs into roadside ditch. e Cut off into basin. I Formerly flowed in barnyard on side of bank, but is stopped now. g Dug 9 feet, drilled 21; flows from basin into ditch: pumped. h Flows more in wet seasons. i Partly dug; pumped with chain pump; flows into ditch. SPumped; lost head during dry weather; water turbid when pumped. k Pumped. I Flow stopped temporarily by sand. m Flows into cemented tank. Factory uses 6 to 8 barrels a day. n Mr. Bartlett has four or more wells of about this depth which formerly flowed; now pumped. o House well, pumped from brick cistern 261 feet deep. P Bored in bottom of dug well; flows over surface in large stream. q Flows less than formerly. r Water just drops from pipe because of drought. s Does not flow, but water comes near surface. t In a pasture; water rises to within a foot of surface into a barrel. u Flows into barrel near barn; flows better in wet parts of year. v Much affected by drought; runs only about a drop a second. ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 243 GREENDALE TOWNSHIP. This area is located in the south part of Greendale Township. about midway between Midland and Mount Pleasant, in the valley of a tributary of Chippewa River. (Fig. 50.) The area includes four wells, all about the same depth, located within a mile of each other. All have small or medium flows presenting no peculiarities. It is probable that other flows could be developed along the stream valley east and west. The owner's postoffice address is Stearns. The driller, Mr. A. Kinney, resides at Pleasant Valley. The following table sets forth the available facts: Wells of Greendale Township (T. 14 N., R. e W.). No. See- Flow tion. Owner. When Diam- Depth. Head. per Quality. Water fig. ma de. eter.miue bed. _______________............__ 5() minute., Inches. Feet. Feet. Galls. 1 28 T. C. Gibbs.................1900 2 72 +2Â~ 0.25 Good... Sand. 2 27 W. Conrad..................... 1900 2 68 +3.5 Soft.... Do. 3 27 H. Gotham.................... 1900 2 68 +2Â~ 5....do... Do. 4 28 G. W. Hitzmann.............. 1900 2 -A +2 3...do... Do. JASPER TOWNSHIP. This area lies in the southwest corner of Midland County, 5 miles east of Shepherd and 5 miles north of St. Louis, and covers an area of about 10 square miles, a location that brings it well within the region formerly covered by a Glacial lake in the Saginaw basin. Because of this history its surface is nearly flat and its soils are usually clays or clay loams, broken by low, irregular ridges of sand. Depending on situation and the kinds of soils, there are two types of wells-shallow dug wells and deeper drilled or bored wells. The former are generally in sandy districts and the latter in the clay and Stearns, 4a 4* Rve Sandy plain 33 34 FIG. 50.-Map of Greendale Township flowing-well area, Midland County. loamy areas. The sand is usually rather shallow and superposed upon the clay. This allows the rain water to run through to the underlying clay, saturating the bottom layers of the sand, from which shallow wells may draw an abundant supply of water at a depth of 6 to 15 feet. Such wells are usually made by sinking a few lengths of sewer tile of sufficiently large diameter to the wet sand. In the clay and loamy sections the dug wells are usually deeper than in the sandy areas, but there are many which were originally about 15 feet. These obtained their water from thin strata of sand or gravel in the clay. Since the settlement and clearing of the country these shallow wells have in many cases failed and have been ï~~244 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. deepened by boring. Tubular wells are very common in the clay lands, and range from 17 to 200 feet in depth, generally obtaining good supplies of rather hard water from sand or fine gravel interbedded with the clays. Many of the tubular wells flow above the surface, and the whole southwestern part of the township is apparently underlain by waterbearing strata at depths varying from 15 to more than 200 feet, from which the water rises 6 to 14 feet or more above the surface. Mr. Armstrong Kinney, of Pleasant Valley, stated that one-half mile west of Pleasant Valley flows are obtained at from 16 to 30 feet. At Pleasant Valley post-office the shallow wells do not flow, and flows are only obtained from below 100 feet, but 1 mile east ot the post-office there is a flow, said to be from about 200 feet. Farther east the flows are from nearer the surface, forming a distinct flowing-well area. The usual head is only from 1 to 4 feet, but J. M. Fox's well, in sec. 32, was reported to flow 14 feet above the surface when first completed. Mr. Kinney estimated the average height to which the water rises above the surface in the flowing wells of the township as 18 inches or less. The water usually comes from fine sand, and drillers report it as too fine to be screened out. In confirmation of this some wells are said to become more or less turbid before a storm and to require frequent sand pumping. This turbidity, in part at least, is'due to the effects of lessened pressure of the atmosphere at such times, which allows the water to flow from the, outlet more rapidly and carry with it the finer particles of sand or gravel from the water bed. The flows are generally of medium or small size, but sufficient for ordinary farm and domestic purposes. The wells of Messrs. M. Robeson and J. W. Fox, sec. 32, and J. Tuger, sec. 29, are among the largest flows in the area, while a few of those visited are apparently nearly clogged up from the packing in of sand at the bottom of the casing. A few wells were reported as affected by the weather, flowing more freely in the rainy seasons. The water of the wells of this area is moderately soft and contains less iron than is usually present in waters from the drift. This township may be considered as having two areas of flows, the deeper wells on the western side belonging to the Coe area, extending from Isabella County, and the shallow ones deriving water from local strata. The latter area is best developed along the east and west county line in secs. 15, 16, 21, and 22, where the wells give small flows with rather slight head at depths from 30 to 70 feet. These wells are affected by droughts, and several of them have ceased to flow. Flows from shallow strata are obtained in various other parts of the township, notably in the southern sections. In sec. 32 are three ï~~MIDLAND COUNTY. 245 wells arranged in a triangle about 100 feet on a side which are 32, 55, and 76 feet deep, respectively. These are on the farm of Mr. Mark Robeson, who has another well 43 feet deep which flows a 2-inch pipe full. It is possible that these areas of flowing wells may be extended to the north a. id to the east beyond Pine River, as the need for deeper wells in these districts arises. At present, since there is considerable sand in these sections, the wells are mostly shallow. The well at the schoolhouse, sec. 27, is reported as being the most eastern flow in the township and the most northern in the vicinity of the river. If flows are desired, it should be borne in mind that here, as elsewhere, other things being equal, the wells put down where the ground surface is lowest, that is, in depressions, are most likely to flow and give large quantities of water. Where the owners' buildings are on elevations, the wells should be at the lowest possible point and the water from them forced to the buildings by a hydraulic ram. For particulars relating to the flowing wells of this area and a map showing their distribution see pages 93-100, which include also data previously gathered by Mr. Gregory. In some cases where there is a slight disagreement the record obtained by the writer is supplemented by the data collected by Mr. Gregory, the latter being followed by the initial "G." GENEVA AND WARREN TOWNSHIPS.a There are a few flowing wells in secs. 16, 17, and 18, Geneva Township, and one in sec. 19, Warren Township, which are so remote from the wells of the Isabella basin that it scarcely seems advisable to include them in it. The data given below concerning the depth and flowage of these wells were obtained from a well driller, none of the wells being seen by the writer. Possibly other flowing wells occur farther east in the county, for the surface descends eastward and the underground water probably takes that course from the higher land in Isabella County. There was insufficient time at the writer's disposal to clear up that district properly. Wells in Geneva Township, Midland County (T. 15 N., R. W.). Se- PFlow Sec- Part of Owner. Depth. per Remarks. tion. section. minute. Feet. Gallons. 8........... E. Curtiss...................... 80......... No flow. 16 NE. 4... M.McDonald........................... 106......... Small flow from sandy bed. 16 N.side.. D.A. Wilson........................ 106 2.5 17 W. side.. Lyman Childs........................... 115........ Through clay; small flow. 17 NE.... Albert Beuhke..................... 90. 17 NE.4... Sam Walker....................... 190.5 18 NE... D.McFarlane-..................... 80 3.1 4......... Wm.Tripp........................ 29 2. Cased 16feet. a By W. M. Gregory. ï~~246 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in Warren Township, Midland County (T. 16 N., R. 2 W.). Sec- Part of Fo tion. section. Owner. Depth. per Remarks. minute. Feet. Gallons. 19 SE..... L.A.Bliss------------------------.......................... 80 0.8 Small flow. 7 NE.... Phil Preston---------------------....................... 100.........Water scarce. 19 Center.. Test well........................... 300 --.-- No flow; water scarce. 17 NE.4... J.Marihood........................ 70 Do. WATER SUPPLIES OF SANILAC COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Sanilac County fronts on the southern part of Lake Huron. Along the border is a plain 3 to 5 miles wide, once covered by lake waters, on which several small flowing-well districts have been found. Back of this is the Port Huron moraine, filling the interval of 2 to 6 miles between the lake plain and Black River and forming a catchment area for the flowing wells east of it. Along and west of Black River are extensive swamps, and the western two-thirds of the county is largely level land. The Marlette moraine crosses the southwestern part of the county from Marlette to Melvin. Narrow ridges run from the inner or north border of this moraine northward several miles into the plain. There are also narrow strips of ridged drift, generally gravelly, scattered over the western part of the county. The northwestern part of the county, on each side of Cass River, is morainic and very thickly strewn with bowlders. There are a few small flowing-well districts west of Black River discussed below. The western part of the county is tributary to Cass River through streams draining westward or northward. The central portion is drained southward through Black River, which enters St. Clair River at Port Huron. The eastern edge of the county drains directly toward Lake Huron. The waters of the Glacial Lake Whittlesey covered much of the swampy land along Black River and discharged through the Ubly outlet in southern Huron County into a lake across whose bed Cass River takes its course from Ubly southwestward. The southern part of the county and all the shore except the northern third is thickly covered with drift. But in the remainder, or more than half the county, rock is struck at depths usually of 25 to 75 feet, and there are a few rock outcrops along Cass River in the northwestern part and along the lake shore in the northeastern part. The rock in the central, northern, and western parts is Marshall sandstone, and contains abundance of excellent drinking water. The southeastern part is underlain by shale, and this affords but little water and that generally of poor quality. The drift is therefore the main source for ï~~SANILAC COUNTY. 247 water in the southeastern part, but the sandstone is largely drawn upon in the remainder of the county. East of Black River in parts of the morainic ridge and in parts of the lake plain the drift is also a poor water bearer. As a result farmers on the lake plain have in some cases been obliged to haul water either from neighboring wells or from Lake Huron and have impounded water for stock by placing dams across small streams tributary to Lake Huron. WATERWORKS. The following villages have waterworks for fire protection and lawn sprinkling, but not for domestic use: Brown City, Croswell, Lexington, and Carsonville. Marlette has a supply for domestic use as well as fire protection. BROWN CITY. This town, in the southwestern part of the county, has several shallow wells, excavated to depths of 6 to 20 feet along the base of a drift ridge. These are drawn upon in case of fire. There is also a village well 217 feet deep and 3 inches in diameter, made in 1903, which is strong and is used for street sprinkling. It struck rock at about 190 feet. The water in it rises to 12 feet below the surface, or 787 feet above tide. Another well at the electric-light plant is about 200 feet deep, penetrating into rock a few feet. In it also water stands 12 feet below the surface, but it is not a strong well. The water is used in boilers. Other deep wells in the village similar to those just mentioned are at the Harrington Hotel, a creamery, and a canning factory. The Harrington Hotel, however, now obtains a supply at 140 feet from gravel Wells in the northwest or main residence part of town get plenty of water in gravel below till at 50 to 70 feet. MARLETTE. Marlette, in the southwestern part of the county, obtains a waterworks supply from wells drilled into rock on low ground in the northern part of town. The water stands nearly level with the surface and is pumped direct to the mains with an ordinary pressure of 40 pounds and a fire pressure of 80 pounds The plant was installed in 1896 at a cost of $15,000. CROSWELL AND LEXINGTON. The village of Croswell, in the eastern part of the county, has a supply from Black River for fire protection and sprinkling. Water is pumped to an elevated wooden tank. The plant has been in operation since 1895. The domestic supply is from private wells, usually about 30, but in some cases 100, feet deep. ï~~248 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Lexington is the only village on the lake shore in this county that has water stored for fire protection. The wells used for this purpose flow into.two underground wooden tanks 8 by 16 by 10 feet deep with which the hose and fire engine are connected. The wells are 21 to 23 feet deep. The public school has a flowing well 42 feet deep. (For flowing wells of the district see pp. 249-251.) In the following table partial analyses are given of water from several sources at Croswell and Lexington. The Black River supply is used only for sprinkling and fire purposes and is as good as the water from the shallow wells. A safer supply is from deep wells, such as that at the Croswell Hotel. The deeper well at Lexington is in the rock. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey: Partial analyses of waters near Croswell and Lexington. [ Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. 4. Color..................................................... 46 24 149 71 Iron (Fe)....-............................................. 1 1.25 3 2 Chlorine (Cl)-----------------------------------------.................................................. 36.9 29.3 49 11.5 Carbon dioxide (C02)----------------------------------.....................................r... 90.53 58.88 105.70 94.32 Sulphur trioxide (SO3)----------------------------------........................................ 36 5 15 5 Hardness (as CaCO3)----------------------------------.......................................... 139+ 139+ 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Black River, Croswell. 2. Croswell Hotel, Croswell; depth, 101 feet. 3. R. Pabst, Lexington; depth, 910 feet. 4. School district No. 6, Lexington; depth, 42 feet. CARSONVILLE. There is a waterworks plant connected with a mill in Carsonville, but it is apparently not for general use. The water is pumped to an elevated tank. SANILAC CENTER. In 1904 plans were developed at Sanilac Center to install waterworks and draw the supply from drilled wells, which afford a large and excellent supply from 70 feet or less. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The tabulated data on village supplies in 1904 were obtained largely by correspondence with residents. The data collected by C. H. Gordon some years earlier for the Michigan Geological Survey pertain both to village and rural supplies, and may be found in vol. 7 of the report of that survey published in 1899. ï~~SANILAC COUNTY. Village supplies in Sanilac County. 249 oo Town. Source, Feet. Feet. Amadore............. 763 Open and driven weds..... Applegate..... 740 Driven wells................... Argyle................ 800 Open and driven wells.. 40 Brown City...... 603 811 Bored and driven wells.- 2{ Carsonville...... 400 767 Open and driven wells......... Cash....--------------- 760 Open and driven wells 40 and creek. Croswell......... 606 731 Open and driven wells...... and river. Deckerville.... 398 {0} Open and driven wells.. 60 Elmer............... 790....do.................. 20 Forestville..... 282 610 Open wells, Lake Huron...... Freiburger........ 800 Drilled wells............. 40 Greenleaf........... 800 Open and drilled wells... 36 Laing................ 780.....do................... 40 Lexington. 619 {660} Flowing wells................ Marlette......... 996 840 Open and drilled wells... 60 Melvin................ 826 Bored wells............ 120 Minden..........!408 818 Drilled wells............. 75 Palm s................ 812.....do.. _................. 0 Port Sanilac..... 314 600 Open and drilled wells........ Sanilac Center5... 78 780.....do.................. 50 Wickware..... 780...do................... {10 Depth of wells. - U Feet. 15 10 16 14 15 20 10 16 20 10 20 8 8 18 20 12 20 13 12 10 15 Feet. Feet. 30 20 30 20 104 25 217 60 65 30 152 22 100 20 80 35 60 26 33 25 160 60 70...... 165 20 72 20 150 60 380 30 100 80 176 100 60 40 100 80 175 15 Feet. Feet. 25...... 20.. 65 -14 { -12 30 -12.......... 70 26 -20 25..... 60 -20 75 01 -101 20 + 7 100 -10 30 -30 100...... 100 -36 40 -25 80 - 6 75 -10 Springs. Small. None. Small. Do. None. Small. None. Small. Do. Do. None. Strong. Small. None. Do. Small. FLOWING WELLS. LEXINGTON DISTRICT. The flowing wells of the Lexington district are restricted to a narrow strip extending from the cemetery at the north end of Union street southward through the west part of the village between Union and Main streets and about a mile beyond, or into the southwest part of sec. 31, T. 10 N., R. 17 E., as shown in the sketch map (fig. 51). This strip is scarcely one-eighth mile in average width. The bordering tracts appear to have been thoroughly tested, several attempts to obtain flows at lower levels along Main street having been unsuccessful as well as those on the higher ground along.and west of Union street. There are springs to the north of this strip of flowing wells and also to the south, which may belong to the same pool. The entire area of the flowing-well strip, not including the springs, is less than half a square mile, while the number of successful flows in operation in October, 1904, is not less than 21. They are at an altitude about 50 feet above Lake Huron or 630 feet above tide. The wells are from a bed of sand beneath a thin sheet of clay apparently till, and those in the village are just east of the Elkton beach. With one exception they are less than 25 feet in depth, while some, as indicated in the table below, are but 10 or 12 feet. The schoolhouse well on the ï~~250 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. west side of Valen street is 42 feet deep. It reached a deeper vein than the others, and apparently is at the eastern edge of the district, for a boring 88 feet in depth on the opposite or east side of Valen street failed to get a flow. The water is piped to the school grounds. The first well was made about twenty years ago by John Bell near the north end of the present strip of flows. Others nearly as old are the Purkiss well on the north side of Lake street, west of Valen, and a well owned by Walters & Co., sunk only a few feet from the schoolhouse well. It is the custom for two or more families to join in putting down a flowing well and then pipe the water to each residence. In this way nearly all the residents east of the flowing-well strip as well as in it have been supplied, for there is a R. 16 E. R.17 E. rapid descent in the lake plain from.Sp,. the well strip to the lake bluff. *spr, The water is not very hard and 25 S o b contains only a moderate amount of ce. iron. (See analysis of schoolhouse spC. OLEXI G ON well, p. 248.) It is very highly ee~5.'oe P oa prized by the residents because of sp. its quality, and care is taken to pre* vent waste, most of the wells having 36 3 faucets or other means for shutting * off the flow when not needed. *p. The rate of flow where tests were sp,. made is about 2 gallons a minute from FIG. 51.-Map of Lexington, Sanilac County, 1-inch pipes having half-inch nozzles. showing flowing wells and neighboring In most cases the rate is difficult to springs. determine because of the distribution of water through two or more pipes. The temperature tests were of more value in showing the warmth of the soil through which the pipes are conducted than the water temperature. Several wells had, on October 11, at 9 to 10 a. m., a temperature of 55.50 or about 7Â~ above the usual temperature of the flowing wells in that region and 7.20 above that of a large flowing well 3 miles south of Lexington, discussed below. It is probable that the soil temperature at that time was sufficient to increase the temperature of the wells 7Â~. The winter and early spring temperatures of the water as it issues from the pipes are likely to be much below the normal water temperature. A series of carefully conducted water-temperature observations would, if carried through an entire year, be likely to yield important data on variations in soil temperature. ï~~SANILAC COUNTY. 251 The following data concerning the wells, and the plat of the village, were furnished by the president of the village, J. F. Meyer: Flowing wells at Lexington. Owner. Location. Depth. Feet. Cemetery Association North end of Union street.................................. 18 John Bell.............. About 20 rods southeast of cemetery..................................... 19 S. C. Tewksbury..... South side of Simmons street....................................... 19 M. Meyer.............. South side of Lapeer road............................................ 20 Hotel Cadillac......... South of Lapeer road................................................ 21 Schoolhouse.........W est side of Valen street............................................ 42 Walters & Co......10 feet from schoolhouse well............................................. 21 S. Purkiss............ North side of Lake street............................................ 21 Mrs. B. Miller....... South side of Lake street.......................................... 21 Village well.......... 20 rods west of Miller well........................................ 21 D. Hicks........... In sag between Lake and Hubbard streets_.._..._....._....._.._....... 17 Village well.......... North of Hubbard street............................................. 23 J. F. Meyer.......... 15 feet west of village well............................................. 23 F. E. Willard....... 200 feet east of Hicks well........................................... 20 A. Cruickshank....... South of Lester street................................................ 19 Sm ith Bros.................do.............................................................. 19 Mrs. P. Janett........ W est of Main street................................................. 18 H. Johnson........... 80 feet southwest of Janett well........................................... 18 Ira Lucia.......... Northwest corner of SW. tsec. 31, T. 10 N., R. 17 E................. 10 D. Clark............ West side of SW. I SW. - sec. 31..................................... 12 H. Ross.............. South side of SW. I SW. I sec. 31.................................... 12 Important springs near Lexington. Owner. Location. A. M. Clark........... SE. I NE. I sec. 25, T. 10 N., R. 16 E. (Boils up with great strength.) John Davison........ W. SE. sec. 25. Ira Armand.......... SE. I SW. sec. 25. E. G. Shipley.......... Near center of NW. j see. 25. Geo. Armand.......... Northeast corner of NW. I sec. 36. D. Clark............. East part of NE. 1 SE. j sec. 36. F. Kaneill.......... South part of NE. SE. I sec. 36. Joseph Kenney........ East part of SE. d SE. t sec. 36. Mrs. Janett.......... NE. 4 SE. 4 sec. 36. Mr. R. Pabst, of Lexington, sunk a well 900 feet deep in the valley of Mill Creek, 31 miles south of Lexington and about one-fourth mile from the shore of Lake Huron, at a level 10 to 15 feet above the lake or 590 to 595 feet above tide. At a depth of 132 feet, near the base of the drift, a strong flow of water was obtained, which runs 15 gallons a minute and will yield by pumping ten times that amount. The water is fresh and of excellent quality, with a moderate amount of iron. (See analysis, p. 248.) Another vein with sulphur water was struck at 540 feet, which rises to the surface but does not flow with such strength as that from the glacial deposits. The temperature of the combined waters as they escape from the well mouth was 48.30 F. October 11, 1904. The same water was found by Doctor Lane some years earlier to have a temperature of 480, but his observations were in colder weather. Whether this difference is attributable to a change of that amount in temperature of the water or is merely referable to differences in the graduation of the thermometers is not known. The water is going to waste at present, but may be developed if that part of the lake shore becomes a summer resort, for it stands in a very attractive piece of forest suitable for a park. ï~~252 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. BUEL FIELD. The main group of wells in Buel Township is on the western side of a sharply ridged belt of gravelly drift a short distance southwest of the center of the township. There are other flows at the south end of the ridge on the Fremont side of the line of Buel and Fremont townships and a very strong spring issuing from the base of the ridge between these groups of wells in the west part of sec. 33, Buel Township. It seems proper to throw all of them into a single field with the gravel ridge as the catchment area. There are two other flowing wells in Buel Township about 3 miles east of this ridge, which, though fed perhaps by the same catchment area, are on its opposite side and perhaps in a different pool, unless the flowing-well field completely surrounds the ridged belt. The group of wells west of the ridge are at an altitude about 760 feet above tide, those at its south end about 770 feet, and those on the plain to the east of the ridge about 750 feet, while the ridge has an altitude of 800 to 810 feet along its crest. The water has barely sufficient head to flow, and probably would not rise more than 5 feet above the surface in any well. In some it rises barely level with the surface and escapes along ditches connecting with the wells. In some wells pumps are attached. The oldest wells were made in 1871, and several have been made twenty years. The head seems to have decreased slightly, and this has led to the use of pumps, for it is considered more convenient to pump the water than to maintain a good drinking place for stock at a level a foot or two below the ground surface. The wells on the west side and south end of the ridge are very shallow, ranging from 10 to 30 feet in depth. Those on the plain east are 40 to 50 feet. They all pass through clay before striking the water, which is obtained in sand or fine gravel. The temperature showed a range from 490 to 53Â~ in the different wells, all being taken in a single forenoon on October 8, 1904. The temperature of the large spring referred to above was 52Â~ on that date. The varying effect of the warm surface layers of the earth on the waters rising through them seems a sufficient reason for the variations displayed. Only one well, that of C. J. Nelson, was in good condition for testing the rate of flow, and this yields but a gallon in four minutes. The spring flows a stream several inches in diameter, producing a small creek as it runs across the plain west of the ridge, and yields much more water than the combined flow of all the wells. The water is hard and has sufficient iron to produce the characteristic orange-colored scum upon objects over which it passes. ï~~SANILAC COUNTY. Wells in the Buel field (T. 10 N., R. 15 E.). 253 Sec- Part of tion. section. 29 28 28 28 28 21 36 25 14 26 NE.... Aaron NW......do NW. 4.. Aaron near W. side. Aaron ture N. side.. W. Fr S. side.. W.J. N. side.. Thos. S. side.. Geo. C SE.... A. Wh S. side.. W.H. Whe TernOwner. ae Depth. Head. pera- Remarks. made. tre. Feet. Feet. o F. French........ 1871 15 -1.5.. Well stopped flowing in 1896"................ 1874 17 -1 52 Well stopped flowing in 1901. French (barn 1894 25 (?) 50.5 Pump attached. house. French (in pas- 1893 30 0 49 Water rises to surface and ). forms pool. ancis........... 1889 21 +2 49 Dug 12; bored 9 feet through clayey till to sand. Stratton....... 1895 20 + 50.2 Pump attached. Coggin, Buel... 1884 50 +1 (?) Well plugged. arey, Buel....I 1880? 40 0 (?) Head was lowered by flow of Coggin well. eatley, Buel................_............ Not visited. Carey, Buel.......... 40 -10........ On ground 770 feet above tide. Head higher than in wells to the.east. elson, Fremont. 1894 13 +3 50.5 Crock well; flow 1 quart a minute. nson, Fremont. (?) 12 (?) 53 Pump attached. 4 N. side.. C.J.N 5 N. side.. I. Joh PECK DISTRICT. The village of Peck stands on the eastern slope of a morainic spur that extends northward from the Marlette nmoraine in Speaker Township (T. 9 N., R. 14 E.) into the southern part of Elk Township (T. 10 N., R. 14 E.). The water in the wells on the flanks of this morainic spur, both east and west, rises nearly to the surface in a strip extending from the base of the spur in secs. 9, 10, and 11, Speaker Township, northward about 4 miles; seven flows have been obtained on low ground in the eastern part of the village of Peck, along the line of secs. 27 and 34, Elk Township. The first was obtained twenty years ago by Barney McGrory; it was dug 18 feet and bored 20 feet farther, where a strong gushing flow was obtained that filled the dug well and flooded the street and dooryard. The dug portion was filled with cobblestones and bowlders to prevent caving, but the water continues to rise through these stones and flow out into a gutter in the street. The other wells have been made within a very few years. In most cases they have been banked up and pumps attached to prevent a flow, the pump spout being above the height reached by the water, thus avoiding a muddy place around the wells. The head is apparently but 1 to 3 feet, and in one or two cases is barely level with the surface, so it is easy to prevent a flow. In all the wells the water is strong in iron and hard, and is not popular for domestic use. The temperature of the water is 490 F., if pumped sufficiently to bring it up from below the effect of atmospheric heating. The observations were made October 3, 1904, on which date some of the wells showed 540 F. as the result of atmospheric heating of the pipes near the surface of the ground. The rate of flow could not readily be determined, for the escape is not through pipes, but from a tile into a ditch a little below the surface of the ground. ï~~254 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Peck. Sec- Part of When Diam- Terntion. section. Owner. made. Depth. eter. Head. pera- Mode of escape. tion setio. O ner. mad. eer. ture. Feet. Inches. Feet. F. 27.... S. side.. Mrs. Barney McGrory 1884 38-------........ -+2 49 Bypump and by ditch. 27.... S. side.. Mrs. Sunfield----......... -- 1898 30 2 +2 (?) 27.... SE.... John Welch...18........ --- +2 - --Not visited. 34.... N. side.. Calvin Chrystler.....-.................+1 49 Pump. 34.... N. side.. Mrs. Caroline Allen............................. 34.... N. side.. Lemington Hall-...... 1904 29 38 0 54 Do. 34.... N. side.. M. W. Henry........- +.... VALLEY CENTER AREA. Two flowing wells have been obtained near Valley Center (T. 9 N., R. 13 E.), at the border of a plain that lies on the northwestern side of a moraine passing just south of the village. They are both shallow, one made by Andrew Cook in the SW. 4 sec. 24, being 18 feet, and the other made by James Campbell in the east part of sec. 22 about 25 feet in depth. The latter well was dug 18 feet and then bored about 7 feet to the vein of water from which the flow was obtained. The former was dug to the water.vein. The wells were not flowing at the time of the writer's visit in October, 1904. No definite information could be obtained as to their head in wet compared with dry seasons, though they appear to have a lower head in the dry seasons of the year. It is the opinion of residents that the draining of marshes near the wells has lowered the head sufficiently to stop the flow. A well 876 feet deep one-fourth mile south of Valley Center in the west part of sec. 27, of which the record was published in the annual report of the State geologist for 1901, has water rising to 8 feet below the surface or 797 feet above tide. The supply apparently comes from near the base of the glacial deposits at a depth of 117 to 149 feet. This well is on ground a few feet higher than the two flowing wells, so may have fully as great head. The shallow wells probably derive their supply and their head from the neighboring moraine southeast of them. The catchment area for the water supply in the deep well is perhaps in the same moraine, since the record shows the upper 95 feet of the drift to be fine sand, saturated with water, and separated from the lower water bed by only 22 feet of clay. Conditions seem favorable for a rise of water nearly to the surface all along the northwest border of this moraine, for in other wells than those mentioned the rise is within 15 feet of the surface Yet it may not be possible to obtain flowing wells, since those already obtained seem to have suffered a permanent loss in head that has caused them to cease flowing. ï~~SANILAC COUNTY. 255 PORT SANILAC FIELDS. In Sanilac Township, on the shore of Lake Huron, southwest of Port Sanilac (T. 11 N., R. 16 E), flowing wells have been obtained in two distinct pools. One in the southern part of the township embraces a group of five wells, the other in sec. 10 has as yet but a single well. They are all on the old lake plain, less than a mile east of the shore of Lake Warren, and about 2 miles from Lake Huron, at an altitude 75 to 100 feet above the level of Lake Huron. The catchment area is apparently in each case on the inner or eastern slope of the Port Huron moraine. The sand and gravel ridges formed by Lake Warren are on this slope, and probably supply some of the water struck in wells farther east, though, as indicated below, much of the water thus absorbed comes out in springs along the eastern or lakeward base of the shore deposits. There is a rapid descent from the crest of the moraine past the flowing wells, the crest being 125 to 150 feet above the level of the wells and only 2 to 3 miles distant. The topographic conditions found in connection with the flowing wells are continued along all of this slope of the Port Huron moraine, but the stratigraphic conditions seem to be favorable for flowing wells in only a few restricted areas where water-bearing beds are present between sheets of clayey drift. There are intervening places where wells do not encounter such beds, and what little water is obtained shows much less pressure than in the flowing wells. No predictions can be made as to the extension of the flowing-well areas because of this restricted distribution of water beds. The flowing well in sec. 10 is at the residence of Joseph Pohizehl, on the west side of the northwest quarter of the section, at an altitude about 675 feet. It was made in 1895, and flows a very weak stream, at the rate of a gallon in six minutes from a pipe 21 feet above the surface. The depth is 48 feet, and it enters a sandy gravel below blue till at 44 feet. Neighboring wells toward the south, on ground of similar altitude, have been sunk to depths of 80 feet or more without obtaining a flow, the water in some cases remaining fully 30 feet below the surface. A well in the NW. I sec. 14 on ground 40 feet lower has a depth of 59 feet and only 15 feet of water. The group of wells in the south part of the township are very shallow, the deepest being only 30 feet. They are at an altitude about 660 feet above tide. The Suerwier wells are on the lake plain, but the Roys and Cronkheit wells are in the valley of a small stream trenched 10 to 15 feet into the lake plain. The escape pipes in each are 11 inches. ï~~256 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in the southern part of Sanilac Township (T. 11 N., R. 16 E.). Sec- Part of Owner. When E1 e- Di- Flow per tion. section, Owner. made.va- ame- Depth. m i pera- Quality. tion. ter. minute. ture. Feet. In. Feet. Â~F. 34 Center.. Wm. Suerwier (at house). 1894 660 4 28 1 qt....... 49.5 Chalybeate. 34 Center.. Wm. Suerwier (at barn). 1888 660 4 30 1 pt....... 49.5 Do. 27 S. side.. C. Suerwier (at barn)a... 1886 665 18 28 Pumped. 49.5 Do. 34 SW.... David Roysb----------............ 1904 660 4 20Â~1 igal......53 Do. 34 SW.1... Chas. Cronkheit....... 1903 660 3 16 3 gals. 49.5 Do. a Original head 6 feet. b Probably warmed by exposure of pipe in sunlight; date of observation on wells, October 12, 1904, a warm, sunny forenoon. SANILAC CENTER FIELD. A single flowing well was obtained in September, 1904, about a mile east of Sanilac Center, on the farm of James McCaren, in sec. 32, T. 12,'R. 14 E. It is reported by the owner to obtain the flow from shale rock at depth of 78 to 83 feet, rock being struck at 40 feet. The well is 4 inches in diameter, and flowed a 1-inch stream that rose when struck, to 1 feet above the surface, but within two months lowered 6 inches. The water is soft, with a slight taste of salt. This well is near the western edge of a swamp that stands only a few feet below the drier land to the west. It seems probable that other flows may be found in this swamp, or at least that water will rise nearly to the level of the well mouth. In the village of Sanilac Center, in wells of a depth similar to the McCaren well, the water stands 6 to 20 feet below the surface in accordance with the altitude, those on the lowest ground having water nearest the surface; probably in all it rises to very nearly the same altitude as in the McCaren flowing well. The water is soft, and has very little taste of salt. SNOOVER FIELD. South of Snoover, at the edges of the swamp which is traversed by the south fork of Cass River, are a few flowing wells from the rock. The strongest is in sec. 25, LaMotte Township, in the pasture of T. J. Miller, and has a depth of 280 feet. It flows the full capacity of an escape pipe one-half inch in diameter at a level 3 feet above the surface. The water is not chalybeate and is apparently soft. Samuel Moore's well, in the central part of sec. 32, Moore Township, has a pump attached, for it barely rises to the surface. The temperature (49.5Â~) was obtained by pumping. Albert Jones well, in the east part of sec. 30, Moore Township, was made in 1904 and flows 11 gallons a minute. This water is rather soft, with little or no iron, and flows 1 gallons a minute. A well across the street from the Jones well, on J. R. Dorman farm, in sec. 29, once flowed, though on ground several feet higher. It has stopped now, and as the head became less before the Jones well was made, that is not the entire cause for loss of head. ï~~HURON COUNTY. 257 Wells in Snoover field. Town- Range See- Part of Owner When Depth. Diame- Te Remarks. ship N. E. tion. section. Owner. made. ter. ture. Feet. Inches. OF. 12 12 25 S. side.. T.J. Miller.... 1903 280 3 49.3 Rock at 36 feet. 12 13 32 Center.. Samuel Moore. (?) 100 3 49.5 12 13 30 E. side.. Albert Jones.... 1904 148 3 49.0 Rock at 40 feet. 12 13 29 W. side. J. R. Dorman... (?) (?) (?) (?) ARGYLE TOWNSHIP. Two flows are reported in Argyle Township, one at Laing postoffice, the other on the farm of William Cole, in the southeast part of sec. 14. They are both on low ground along a tributary of South Cass River. The one at Laing post-office war not properly manipulated, and has become clogged, while the one on the Cole farm had so low a head and so slow a rate of flow that a pump is now attached. Each well enters rock a few feet, and the depth of each is not far from 70 feet. MINDEN CITY FIELD. A flow reported by Gordon a at the farm of E. Seaman, about 1 mile east of Minden City (T. 14 N., R. 14 E.), obtains its supply from the Marshall sandstone at a depth of 73 feet (67 feet to rock). A neighboring well on the farm of G. Schweighert has a head only 2 feet below the surface. These wells are at an altitude of fully 800 feet and stand near the eastern edge of the sandstone. In the lower country to the east, underlain by shale, no flows are reported, though wells frequently reach depths of 60 to 80 feet, and occasionally 200 feet. The altitude to the west is higher than at the Seaman flowing well, being 850 to 860 feet along the crest of the Port Huron moraine, so no flows are to be expected. The favorable conditions for flows seem to be restricted to a narrow strip along the edge of the Marshall sandstone at the inner border of the Port Huron moraine. WATER SUPPLIES OF HURON COUNTY. By A. C. LANE. GENERAL STATEMENT. The water and wells of Huron County have been treated quite fully in the writer's Huron County report.b This county constitutes the thumb nail of the thumb of Michigan and is bordered, except on the south, by the waters of Lake Huron. The lake is so shallow around much of the county that it can not be highly recommended a Geol. Survey Michigan, vol. 7, pt. 3, 1900, p. 26. b Ibid., pp. 118-201. IRR 183-0-----18 ï~~258 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. as a source for water, though it is used as the town supply of Harbor Beach. Wells in rock are common and are from three distinct horizons within the county. Those on the east shore strike into shale with little or no water, and that likely to be salt; those in the central part of the county into the Marshall sandstone, where a good supply of water, such as that furnishing the Bad Axe waterworks, can be readily obtained; those in the western part of the county for an area of about 10 miles around Pigeon, pass through gypsiferous beds, but may obtain a good water from the Marshall sandstone if that from the overlying beds is cased out. Probably a more permanent water supply can be obtained from the $ Charity I. Marshall sandstone throughout the region covered by it than from 4 rA. the drift. s c Â~Z At the highest out- o. crops of the Marshall sandstone the water level 30----. is about 760 to 780 feet "-oZ above tide, and probably B-continues so for about o orn 10 miles north of Ubly. -But toward the northSwest it drops down to.z lake level. In general, it may be stated that S.flowing wells are obtain" eable on the west-sloping SZ part of the county dioterectly in front of the R.9 E. R.Io E. R. E..2. west-facing terraces and FIG. 52.-Contour map showing the elevation of the top of the along the stream valUpper Marshall sandstone above sea level. leys, or that, at least, the water will rise very close to the surface of the ground. The altitude of the top of the Upper Marshall above sea level is shown in fig. 52, which is taken from the Huron County report. By comparing these contours with the altitude of the present surface the necessary depth of wells can be determined, remembering that the Upper Marshall or Napoleon should be penetrated a certain distance, not over 100 feet, to get the best results. With the exception of some high ridges in the southern part of the county the surface was once beneath the waters of the lake, and numerous sand ridges running more or less parallel with the present shore indicate old lake beaches. On these sand ridges surface water ï~~HURON COUNTY. 259 can be obtained, but it is liable to contamination. Water can often be found on this old lake bottom at various depths in the drift, and especially just above bed rock. Flowing wells can be found all along the shore from Grindstone City to Sebewaing, and sporadically as far as Owendale, Elkton, Grassmere, and even to Bad Axe, but draw largely from the underlying rock or its top. Near the Bayport quarries is a small flowing-well area, in Fairhaven and Winsor townships, in which the water level fluctuates with that in the Bayport quarries, as indicated in fig. 53. Although prospects for flowing wells are generally good on the northwest slope of the county below the 750 -foot contour line, there is not more than 3 or 4 feet of head in any well of which I have knowledge. In the high ridges in the south part of the county, in Sheridan, Bingham, Paris, and the south part of Verona townships, it is not difficult to get an ample supply of water without going into the underlying rock. There are also some springs in this region. The ridges are often composed of clay till at the surface, but have gravel in the lower parts. Feet (3) (2) () (,) - -60 U, Re -50 6140 27 FEET PER MILE 20 FIG. 53.-Cross section from Bayport quarries southwest, showing relations of the present surface, rock surface, flowing wells, etc. WATERWORKS. There are only two systems of village waterworks in this county-at Harbor Beach and Bad Axe. HARBOR BEACH. The Harbor Beach waterworks draw from Lake Huron, a supply pipe being carried 1,200 feet out into the lake and outside the harbor breakwater. It was put in by M. Walker, of Fenton, Mich., at a cost of $16,000, and is described in the Huron Times of September 17, 1897. It supplies 150,000 gallons a day, or about 100 gallons per capita, though more than half the supply goes to the starch factories. BAD AXE. The Bad Axe waterworks are supplied from a number of wells about 200 feet deep, from which water is pumped to a standpipe 200 feet high. The water originally rose 11 feet above the surface; now ï~~260 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. it is 15 feet below. It must be remembered that besides the draft on the formation by these and other wells, such as those put down recently in Bad Axe for the sugar factory, the region from which the water is derived has been extensively drained. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The following table, made up in large part by correspondence with postmasters, presents a summary of conditions at the post-offices of the county: Village supplies in Huron County. Ele- PopVillage. va- ula- Source. tion. tion. Feet. Appin.............. 780 (?) Gravel, sandstone... Ashmore........... 650 25 Drilled wells.. Bad Axe........... 758 1,241 Marshall sandstone. - Bayport......... 602 250 Drilled wells......... Berne............ 627 150 Drift............... Canboro........... 680 25 Gravel.............. Caseville........... 594 505 Wells and stream.... Center Harbor..... 590 (?) Rock............... Crown...............720 (?) Marshall sandstone.. Eagle Bay.........590 (7).....do........... Elkton........... 651 471 Sandstone........... Grassmere......... 694 25 Marshall sandstone.. Grindstone........ 590 450.....do............... Gotts............. 635 30 Drift............... Harbor Beach..... 600 1,400 Lake Huron......... Hayes............ 612 25 Michigan series..... Helena................ 716 35..................... IIuron............. 600 60 Drift, sand rock..... Ivanhoe........... 765 (?) Gravel.............. Johnston.......... 645 75 Lower Marshall.... Kilmanagh.... 6. 630 175 Sandstone.......... Kinde............701 150.....do............. Linkville.......... 648 50 Drilled wells........_ North Burns....... 770...... Gravel.............. Owendale.......... 651 75 Drilled wells......... Parisville.......... 785 125 Sandstone........... Pawlowski......... 775 25.....do............... Pigeon...........633 582 Drift and sandstone. Pinnibog..........630 175 Marshall sandstone.. Popple............770 45 Gravel.............. Port Austin....... 595 507 Lake and drilled wells Port Crescent...... 595 25 Sandstone and drift. Port Hope......... 597 319 Lake and rock wells.. Pointeaux Barques 597 (?)........... Rapson........... 740 25 Sandstone........... Redman.......... 710 25.................. Rescue............ 720 80 Drilled wells......... Ruth............. 754 180 Open and drilled wells. Sebewaing.........593 1,431 Drilled wells......... Sigel............. 740 60 At edge of Marshall sandstone. Ubly............... 785 432 Driven or drilled wells. Wadsworth........ 781 20.....do............... Depth Depth of wells. toComrock. From- To- Com-n. mon. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 40 43 102 30-40 30 90 60 30-50 12 400 180 5-20 12 60 30 40 28 36 30 30-40 12 145 22 5 30 10 19 25-- 30-35 27 200 65 40........... 10 19 25+. 30+............... 28 30-50 90....................... 5 12 1870........ 38-56 43 170 50-60 65 -- - - - - - -- - - 60 30 60O -- 40 65 250 175 30 87 110..................... 50........ 1................ 8075? 12 35. 20 (?)........................ 38-56 43 170 50-60 65........................ 60................... 40 65 250 175 30 87 110........ 80? 12 35 20 10 35 150 75 20 20 30........ 5 10 30 25 50-70........................ 40 -- - - -- - -- - - 57 73 126........ 70-90 10 100 30 60-80 10 300 60+ 5................... 70-80 10 100 10-12 30-40 20 115 80-115 Depth to water bed. Feet. 50-60 40-180 30 20 35-65.........5. 60 150 20 75 I 25 100-200 90-100 100-115 [lead Feet. (?) +3 -8 -5 -20 +2 -10 -20 -6 -3 +? --6-10 -4 Flow -6 -20 SUPPLIES BY TOWNSHIPS.a SEBEWAING TOWNSHIP. In Sebewaing Township (T. 15 N., R. 9 E.) there is very little water in the drift, for it is composed almost entirely of clay. In some cases, however, the wells obtain water just above the rock, but since coal mining has become extensive such wells are generally deepened into a From detailed records of State survey; see report on Huron County. ï~~HURON COUNTY. 261 the rock. These at first flowed, but pumping out the 100 feet of water from mines has stopped the flow. There are also shallow wells on the sand ridges supplied by surface water. A reference to the rock-contour map of the county (fig. 52) shows a pre-Glacial valley crossing the township southeast of Sebewaing. The extra thickness of drift seems to be due mainly to an addition of sand and gravel at the bottom. Possibly some of the sand and gravel is pre-Glacial, but all that has been inspected in the drillings is plainly Glacial. The three sections following illustrate the difference between a well in the pre-Glacial valley and those outside: Record of Charles Winter well in pre-Glacial valley, sec. 20, Sebewaing Township. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay............................................................................ 74 74 Sand and gravel................................................................ 45 119 Carboniferous rock.............................................................. 97 216 Record of Joseph Green well, sec. 11, Sebewaing Township. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Red or oxidized clay........................................................... 9 9 Blue clay.................................................................... 48 57 Hardpan and bowiders......................................................... 2 59 Sand and gravel with water a.................................................. 1 60 a Low in chlorides and strong in sulphates. Record of well at Saginaw mine, sec. 17, Sebewaing Township. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand.......................................................................... 8 8 Clay and dry fine sand......................................................... 12 20 Blue clay....................................................................... 28 48 Bowlders....................................................................... 5 53 Sand rock, etc.................................................................. 212 265 The waters vary in the amount of chlorine, are often strong in sulphates, and are not infrequently cathartic, especially in rock wells. In secs. 32 to 34 there is a flowing-well district, in which the temperatures are from 500 to 520. In. one case a well in sec. 34 obtained its supply just above the bed rock in quicksand at a depth of 60 feet, the altitude was 629 feet and the head 2 feet. The rock wells of the township may be divided into two groups: Wells from the Carboniferous limestone or from gravel just above it at from 56 to 100 feet, and wells from the Upper Marshall sandstone at depths of 150 to 200 feet. Since the latter pass through dolomitic shales and perhaps gypsum of the Michigan formation, there is need for casing off the sulphated and cathartic waters which these rocks carry. ï~~262 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. BROOKFIELD TOWNSHIP. Brookfield Township (T. 15 N., R. 10 E.) is very flat and except for a triangular tract of about 2 square miles in the southeast corner was originally swamp. The water rises generally above or nearly to the surface. The drift, like that of Sebewaing Township, is mainly clay, with sometimes a little sand or gravel above or below it. From secs. 10 and 14 southwestward the drift is not thick, being usually less than 50 feet, but in sec. 5 it is 115 feet, as shown in the record below, and in sec. 3, 135 feet. The water is variable in quality, chlorine being often perceptible and sulphates varying from nothing to strong. Record of L. Wisner well, sec. 5, Brookfield Township. " Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Red clay -------------------------------------------------------------- 13 13 B le clay..................................................................... 135 13 Blue clay-.------------------------------------------------------------ 52 65 Hardpan and bowlders...------------..----------------------------------------..8 73 Sand and gravel....--------------------------------------------------------- 2 75 Mainly sand.....------------------------------------------------------------ 40 115 Sand rock with water.....................................................--------------------------------------------------- 25 140 The well of Fritz Matz in sec. 3, 235 feet in depth, apparently penetrated 135 feet of drift, mainly blue clay. GRANT TOWNSHIP. In Grant Township (T. 15 N., R. 11 E.) the thickness of the drift varies from only 30 to 35 feet in the northwest corner to a very considerable thickness at the southeast and contains a larger proportion of sand than the townships to the west. Wells are usually obtained at 35 to 60 feet in the southeast part of the township without reaching rock, and the character of the drift is variable. The most detailed and accurate record is that of Mrs. Walsh's well, presented below: Record of Mrs. Walsh's well, sec. 17, Grant Township. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Clay............................................................................. 15 15 Quicksand................................................................... 20 35 Red clay, gravelly and hard-----------------------------------------------.................................................... 22 57 Rock. SHERIDAN TOWNSHIP. In Sheridan Township (T. 15 N., R. 12 E.) the wells are generally shallow, often getting an abundant supply in gravel at 12 to 20 feet, though occasionally bored 20 to 30 feet. No doubt a good supply of soft water from sandstone could be obtained within 200 feet. On the southeastern edge of the township are a few wells in rock, the ï~~HURON COUNTY. 263 distance to rock ranging from 24 to 102 feet, as follows: In sec. 13, 24 feet; in sec. 24, on a hill, 102 feet; in sec. 35, 73 feet; in sec. 36, 60 feet. BINGHAM TOWNSHIP. In Bingham Township (T. 15 N., R. 13 E.) the hills are largely of till, which is not a good water bearer, and the wells on them, often 100 feet deep, enter the underlying Upper Marshall sandstone. The well of R. Harrison, in the southeast part of sec. 2, at altitude 879 feet above tide, penetrated 130 feet of drift and has a water level 60 feet below the surface. There was 80 feet of hard till and blue clay beneath which was 50 feet of fine sand or silt. In the valleys sandstone is struck at 25 feet or less and the drift is largely gravel. Wells are often obtained around Ubly in the gravel at 10 to 12 feet, while at Wadsworth they are 20 to 40 feet deep. At Ubly there is a bed of till under the surface sand and gravel which in some cases is underlain by another gravel bed extending to bed rock at 70 to 80 feet. PARIS TOWNSHIP. In Paris Township (T. 15 N., R. 14 E.) the drift is thin at the northeast corner, but increases in thickness to the southwest, where the rock may be struck anywhere from 40 to 100 feet or more. Sandstone underlies the whole township. SHERMAN TOWNSHIP. In Sherman Township (T. 15 N., R. 15 E.) most of the wells are shallow and chiefly in the sand or gravel of the old lake shores, for the underlying drift appears to be a heavy clay and the rock is shale, in which salty water is struck in limited amounts. WHITEROCK TOWNSHIP. In Whiterock Township (T. 15 N., R. 16 E.) conditions are similar to those in Sherman Township, and the best reliance seems to be on shallow surface wells carefully protected from contamination. There are springs along the bank of the old Lake Algonquin. SAND BEACH TOWNSHIP. In Sand Beach Township (T. 16 N., Rs. 15 and 16 E.) the drift is mainly clay except for sand on the surface, and varies in depth from a feather edge to 83 feet or more. The wells into rock are likely to be salty. The village of Harbor Beach, as indicated above, is supplied by pumping from Lake Huron. ï~~264 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. SIGEL TOWNSHIP. In Sigel Township (T. 16 N., R. 14 E.) are large surface deposits of sand and gravel, and shallow wells using surface water are common. Good water may be obtained from the underlying sandstone. VERONA TOWNSHIP. In Verona Township (T. 16 N., R. 13 E.) the wells are either shallow, with a depth of but 10 to 12 feet, or are over 40 feet. There is usually 40 to 45 feet of clay above the sandstone. Wells in the sand rock flow at an elevation of 4 to 5 feet above the lowest level. The following are typical records: Well records in Verona Township. Thickness. Total. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Muck and shell marl....... 5 5 Gravel..................... 12 12 Clay........................ 20 25 Hardpan................... 20 32 Gravel..................... 5 30 Blue clay.................. 7 39 Hardpan.................. 15 45 Gravel...................... 3 42 Sand rock.................. 30+ 75+ Hardpan................... 2 44 Sand rock................... 16+ 60+ The flowing-well water has a temperature of about 470 F. and a hardness of 50 to 60 on Clark's scale. Wells put down to test the possibilities of water supply for a sugar factory in Bad Axe near the Pere Marquette Railroad tracks, in sec. 19, Verona Township, at an altitude of 756 feet, are all reported to flow at times after storms, etc. At the time of the writer's visit, however, only one was flowing. This had a temperature of 47Â~. These wells are 340 feet deep and have 46 feet of 7-inch casing, reaching probably to bed rock. The Bad Axe public supply is discussed above. COLFAX TOWNSHIP. In Colfax Township (T. 16 N., R. 12 E.), which includes the western part of the village of Bad Axe, the Marshall sandstone is struck at no great depth, the drift being usually 20 feet or less in thickness, but in sec. 19 the drift is 60 feet. A cherty limestone, with gypsum and shale in places, immediately underlies the drift, but the three have a combined thickness of only about 50 feet, thus making the depth to the Marshall sandstone about 70 feet. OLIVER TOWNSHIP. In Oliver Township (T. 16 N., R. 11 E.) there were many flowing wells, but most of them have failed, the failure being attributed in part to the draft made by the railroad water tank, in which the pipe was cut off below ground and the water allowed to flow into ï~~HURON COUNTY. 265 the tank. No doubt the lowering of the ground-water level by ditching has something to do with the failure. Wells in sec. 8 obtain their water just above the rock at a depth of 50 to 65 feet. At Elkton sandstone was reached at 25 feet, and the depth to rock is 20 to 35 feet through secs. 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, and 33. Flows are not uncommon and have a temperature of 47.50 F. An interesting feature is reported from a well in sec. 36 only 13 feet in depth and charged with H2S. When the wind is from the east the water becomes black. By some change of relative head an iron-bearing or chalybeate water may enter at such times. WINSOR TOWNSHIP. Winsor Township (T. 16 N., R. 10 E.) is a fertile, well-settled township full of wells, many of them deep. Some of those passing through the Michigan formation are highly mineralized. A preGlacial valley traverses the township from north to south, nearly following Pigeon Valley, and a limestone ridge with a steep escarpment toward this valley lies to the west of it, thus giving much variety in the wells. Near Berne, in secs. 1 and 2, wells 30 to 40 feet deep obtain, just at the top of the rock, water which rises barely to the surface. In sec. 6, also, wells almost flow, or flow until midsummer. They are obtained from the rock at depths of 20 to 29 feet, the rock being entered at 7 to 16 feet. Wells are shallow in secs. 4 and 5 and are liable to go dry. In sec. 7 wells 27 to 37 feet deep sometimes flow and give a temperature of 490 toÂ~ 50 F. In secs. 8 and 9 the rock isfrom 2 to 38 feet from the surface, and in the latter section wells 180 to 190 feet deep flow with temperatures of from 470 to 480. Around Pigeon the drift is largely clay and reaches a depth of 90 feet. The lower part is slippery blue clay, which tends to close up the wells. Water is obtained from sandstone at about 120 feet. In secs. 13 and 14 dug wells 12 to 15 feet deep occur, but are liable to go dry. There are also wells 175 to 200 feet deep which flow. In secs. 15, 16, 17, and 18 many wells are put to the limestone 24 to 40 feet, and shallow wells are usually obtained in secs. 19 to 26. In secs. 27 and 28 they pass through a large amount of drift. One at school district No. 1 struck rock at 74 feet, as shown in the following section: Record of schoolhouse well, sec. 28, Winsor Township. STotal Thickness. depth. Feet. Feet. Red or oxidized clay.....................................................12 12 Blue clay.................................................................39 51 Hardpan and bowlders..........................................................3 54 Sand and gravel.................................................................. 1 55 Hardpan and bowlders........................................................... 19 74 Slate rock........................................................................ 12) 86) ï~~266 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. In sec. 29, Winsor Township, wells range from 69 to 188 feet, the upper limit being the bed-rock surface. In sec. 30 bed rock is at about 60 feet and wells are from 40 to 200 feet. In this southwest part of the township they are likely to be strong in sulphates. In the southern sections the drift is thick, being about 60 feetin sec. 31, 64 to 80 feet in sec. 32, 70 to 80 feet in sec. 33, 104 to 120 feet in sec. 34, and 73 feet, at Linkville, in sec. 35. In these sections the drift is very largely clay, and water is obtained at its base or in the rock. FAIRHAVEN TOWNSHIP. In Fairhaven Township and Bayport (Tps. 16 and 17 N., R. 9 E.) a heavy belt of sand, the Algonquin beach and dunes, is present, on which surface wells can readily be obtained. Back of it is an old muck swamp under the north end of which limestone sets in at a very few feet and water comes nearly to the surface, rising a little above when the quarries are not pumped and falling below when they are pumped. The temperature of these wells when flowing in the summer was 500 to 51.5Â~ F. A flowing well on sec. 28 struck bed rock at 60 feet and terminated at 100 feet: temperature of water 51.5Â~. Most of the wells at Bayport are in the sub-Carboniferous limestone, which is covered mainly by sand. CASEVILLE TOWNSHIP. In Caseville Township (Tps. 17 and 18 N., R. 10 E.) is a belt of sand dunes east of which the soil and drift is mainly clay. An abundant, though highly sulphated, supply of water is generally found at the base of the drift. Wells which terminate in the Michigan formation or which are not cased through that group are often highly mineralized. When the wells are sunk into the Marshall sandstone, it would be better always to case off the supply from the Michigan formation. Bored or dug wells when over the line of pre-Glacial channels penetrate 70 feet or more of drift, but elsewhere rock is struck at less depth. In Caseville the water comes to within about 5 feet of the surface. CHANDLER TOWNSHIP. In Chandler Township (T. 17 N., R. 11 E.) there are good wells in the sandstone in secs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, rock being entered at about 25 feet. The deeper wells in sec. 4 have a head close to the surface. On the west side of sec. 5 wells begin to be brackish because of the gypsum, whose line of outcrop runs from this section to Soule. Wells in se' ' are shallow, in sec. 7 deep and saline, and in sec. 8 strongly sulphated, being drilled into the gypsum. They sometimes flow even when only 18 to 25 feet deep. In secs. 10 to 13 rock is entered at 30 to 37 feet and in sec. 14 at 40 feet, the drift being largely blue clay, but supplied with water beds at 12 to 18 feet in ï~~HURON COUNTY. 267 sec. 14. Sulphated waters are struck at the top of the rock in secs. 16, 17, 18, and 20 at about 30 feet. In sec. 19 a fair water was obtained at 16 feet, but a well 45 feet deep was too highly mineralized. In the southern half of the township wells in the drift are not very reliable, and in several sections wells have been sunk to the Marshall sandstone. There are springs on the banks of the Pinnebog in sec. 26 and some dug wells 18 to 30 feet in depth. In sec. 33 is a till ridge flanked by gravel, in which very shallow wells are sometimes obtained. MEADE TOWNSHIP. In Meade Township (T. 17 N., R. 12 E.) the Upper Marshall sandstone is usually drawn upon and bed rock is sometimes practically at the surface. A series of sand and gravel ridges, which afford surface water, traverses the township from the southwest to the northeast corners. LINCOLN TOWNSHIP. In Lincoln Township (T. 17 N., R. 13 E.) there are a number of shallow wells in gravel beneath blue clay. Those at Kinde run from 11 to 20 feet deep. Rock is struck in sec. 19 at 37 feet and in sec. 20 at 50 feet. In the northern part of sec. 22 a well 21.5 feet deep has water which comes from sand under the clay within a foot of the surface. The well apparently has iron and organic matter derived from the marsh. BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP. In Bloomfield Township (T. 17 N., R. 14 E.) the Lower Marshall sandstone is struck at from 11 to 30 feet, though in secs. 20 and 22 the distance to rock is 40 feet or more. RUBICON TOWNSHIP. Rubicon Township (T. 17, R. 15 E.) is traversed diagonally by several sand ridges parallel to the lake shore, which furnish surface water at a depth of about 12 feet. The drift beneath is largely clay with a scanty yield of water, and the wells which enter rock are liable to obtain salty water. LAKE TOWNSHIP. In Lake Township (T. 18 N., R. 11 E.) is a heavy belt of dune sand bordering the shore behind, which is a swampy area from which the surface rises back from the lake. Sandstone is very probably not very far down, though in sec. 26 the distance to rock is 40 feet. In sec. 32 are pits that suggest the presence of cavernous limestone or gypsum. ï~~268 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. HUME TOWNSHIP. In Hume Township (T. 18 N., R. 12 E.) the shore-sand belt and general conditions are much as in Lake Township. The drift in places is but 5 to 7 feet, though in sec. 13 it reaches 32 feet. The only well that reports anything but clay before reaching bed rock is on sec. 26. It strikes quicksand or silt at 12 to 14 feet. On sec. 28 is a flowing well bored 40 feet. The distance to rock in sec. 31 is 30 feet and about the same in sec. 35. DWIGHT TOWNSHIP. In Dwight Township (T. 18 N., R. 13 E.) sandstone is in places at the surface, and numerous wells are obtained from it at a depth of 20 feet or less A flowing well on sec. 8 is 100 feet deep with a head of 1 foot, the ground being 10 or 15 feet above the neighboring stream. Aside from the sand ridges the drift is generally a blue clay, though on sec. 35 a well is said to have passed through 20 feet of coarse gravel above the clay. HURON TOWNSHIP. In Huron Township (T. 18 N., R. 14 E.) are numerous wells which enter rock at depths ranging from 3 feet to 40 feet; usually they are said to be through clay. In secs. 18, 19, and 30 wells are obtained in gravel or sand just above the rock at depths of about 25 feet. Along the Lake Huron shore there is a strip of country about 2 miles wide, where shale is penetrated immediately below the drift and yields salt water in scanty amount. GORE TOWNSHIP. In Gore Township (T. 18 N., R. 15 E.) the rock water is likely to be somewhat salty and the supply from the drift scanty, since the latter is largely clay. The best chance for water is at the junction of the drift and rock at 26 to 30 feet. PORT AUSTIN TOWNSHIP. In Port Austin Township (T. 19 N., Rs. 12 and 13 E.) rock is usually struck within 12 to 22 feet of the surface. In the village of Port Austin the shallow wells penetrate clay about 10 feet and gravel 3 feet, obtaining water at the top of the rock. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 269 WATER SUPPLIES OF THE NORTHWEST BORDER OF SAGINAW BAY. By W. M. GREGORY. GENERAL STATEMENT. There is a gradual rise from the shore of Saginaw Bay northwestward across Arenac and losco counties to the upper limits of the Glacial lakes that once covered the region to an altitude about 800 feet above tide (P1. IV). The lake plain is in places sand covered and barren. Clayey portions are rapidly becoming settled. In northern Iosco County there is a large sand plain standing 100 to 150 feet above the valley of Au Sable River, in which the water table is probably nearly as low as the stream, but as the country is unsettled no wells have been made in it, except along the borders. On the clay tracts wells are ordinarily obtained at less than 50 feet and often at but 10 to 20 feet. WATERWORKS. Waterworks are in operation at Au Sable, Oscoda, and East Tawas, which draw their supply from Lake Huron. At Standish is a waterworks plant used chiefly for fire protection, whiclh draws from wells and a small creek. FLOWING WELLS. LOCATION. In the belt of lowland bordering Saginaw Bay from Pinconning to East Tawas flowing wells are numerous. Some of these are from the drift, but the larger number are from the rock. There are also deep wells drilled for brine some years ago when the sawmills had plenty of fuel for the manufacture of salt. These are located at East Tawas, Tawas, Harmon, Augres, Standish, and Pinconning. At East Tawas one of the brine wells flowed. At Tawas after plugging the wells and drawing the upper part of the casing, thus allowing water from higher levels to enter, flows have been obtained in wells in which the brine rose only to 30 feet below the surface. There is another flowing-well belt running nearly parallel with the one just mentioned, from Mount Pleasant, Isabella County, to Rose City, Ogemaw County. The district lying between the two belts has occasional flowing wells, usually along stream valleys, but generally no flows can be expected, and in places water is difficult to obtain. The western flowing-well belt is discussed on pages 92-115, the present discussion being confined to the belt bordering Saginaw Bay and the district with few flows lying back of it. ï~~270 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The flowing wells are most numerous at three villages in the belt bordering Saginaw Bay, namely, Pinconning, Twining, and Tawas, the remainder being scattered or in small groups. Data concerning them are assembled in the table on the next page. LIII IZLIEEI IE 0 200 400 FEET...o, I0 FIG. 54.-Map of Pinconning, Bay County, showing distribution of flowing wells. PINCONNING. General conditions in the vicinity of Pinconning are described under the discussion of Bay County, by W. F. Cooper. The detailed data in the table were collected by the writer in connection with other flowing-well districts bordering Saginaw Bay. ï~~WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 183 PL. IV U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Numbers and letters refer to we//s discussed in the text.Special f/owing well areas LOokout. 0 Â~ F4 h t Au Gres 0 A S Scale Z O 4 6 smites TOPOGRAPHIC AND ARTESIAN-WELL MAP OF THE NORTH SHORE OF SAGINAW BAY. ï~~NORTHWEST BORDER OF SAGINAW BAY. Wells at Pinconning. 271 b cc n 0 6 Owner. I Feet. 1 D. Markwart...... 596 2 Henry Shook... 596 3 S ch ool.......:: 597 4 F. W. Klump..... 596 5 W. A. McDonald.. 596 6 F. W. Klump...... 595 7 Louis Pelky..... 591 8 Catholic Church... 594 9 W. A. McDonald.. 596 10 Stave mill....._ 596 11 A. Grimshaw...... 596 12 Win. Davis........ 598 13 Ed. La Penie...... 597 c'c3. K Quality. Remarks. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. o F. 56 540 597 0.1... Hard.......... Weak flow. 52 544 601.3 "51 Salty; hard..... Decreased. 58 539 605.9 511 Salty.......... _ _ Drinking. 72 524........... Salty; hard..... Stpre well; drinking. 60 536........... Hard........... Store. 53 542.......9.........do.......... House use. 50 544 604 2.................Just to rock. 52 542.......3... Brackish, hard. Flow decreasing. 48 548.._..l.9..... Salty......House use. 65 531 607 1 49....do.........Rock at 45 feet. 60 536 606 1.5........do.........Flow decreasing; rock at 50 feet. 28 570 596.........................Stopped flowing. 42 555..... 1 " Salty......... Sand, 20 feet; clay, 22 feet; water from gravel. 46 551.. 2 48....................House use. 64 531 607 1 I 49 Salty; hard..... Good flow at60 feet; I coal at 140 feet; salt water. 65 531......9.... IHard.......... House use. 59 538......6.................... Do. 65.......I........_............. j Rock at 55 feet. 14 Emery La Marsh.. 597 15 M. Stevens........ 595 16 0. Sullivan....... 596 17 Geo. Hartingh..... 597 18 Ed. Jennings.......... i V I I I The diameter of each of these wells is 2 inches. There are six other flowing wells concerning which no data could be obtained owned by Doctor Grosjean, Peter Collie, M. Doan, A. W. Fisk, J. Morris, and John Francis, respectfully. TWINING. The water supply of the village of Twining in Arenac County is from rock wells, and the neighboring villages of Standish, Omer, Augres, and Turner (P1. V, A) have a like source of supply. In Twining the largest number of village wells have been developed, but there are many more wells scattered over Arenac, losco, and Bay counties. In Twining the rock is covered by 12 to 20 feet of drift, which is largely clay with bowlders of limestone and gypsum from the Michigan formation, which is the bed rock of the region, outcropping at Alabaster and Harmon on the shore of Lake Huron. Water is never obtained from the gypsum beds in the Michigan formation except in a few cases where crevices allow a small amount of percolating water. Where the gypsum beds are near the surface sink holes are frequently found in places where the water has dissolved a considerable passageway, a few being found southwest of Alabaster. Beneath the larger gypsum beds are the sandstone and limestone beds in which the smaller seams of gypsum are frequently entirely dissolved, and when these beds are opened by drilling through the gypsum plenty of water is found. In the village limits the water supply is from thirty rock wells which have been drilled within the last twelve years and have been flowing ï~~272 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MVIICHIGAN. uninterruptedly since they were made. A slight decrease in volume during the summer months has been observed by some of the well owners. The supply derived from these wells is valuable, and all wells should be carefully piped and properly controlled so that no unnecessary waste of the water would result, as it might cause permanent loss of head and volume. It is necessary to case each well down to the rock to shut out the bitter water which collects above the rock. The presence of this bit LEE ST. I28 FIG. 55.-Map of Twining, Arenac County, showing distribution of flowing wells. ter water in the drift often renders the supply from this source useless for stock and unfit for domestic purposes. The rock wells afford an abundant and suitable supply for all purposes, and failures to obtain a flow have seldom occurred when the drilling was properly done. The presence of sulphates in the water gives rise to deposits of calcium sulphate which tend to choke the pipe and decrease the flowage, but this is not general enough to seriously interfere with the supply. The cost ï~~U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 183 PL, V A. LARGE FLOWING WELL FROM ROCK, TURNER, ARENAC COUNTY. B. FIRE-SERVICE TEST, ARCADIA, MANISTEE COUNTY. Showing five streams from a single well under natural pressure. ï~~ ï~~NORTHWEST BORDER. OF SAGINAW BAY. 273 of drilling averages about $0.75 a foot, which is cheap for wells in the rock, but higher than the price usually paid for obtaining flows from the drift. The largest flow is 25 gallons a minute from a well (No. 6 of table) on the mill property of T. MacCrady. The flow of some of the wells varies at different times of the year. For instance, Mr. T. Reade's well (No. 14) ceased to flow during a drought in July and August, 1904, while at the time of the writer's visit, which was four days after the close of a week of heavy rainfall, there was a flow of 0.8 gallon a minute. Mr. F. L. Twining has had the same experience with a well (No. 5) which flows much stronger in the spring and late in the fall and shows a noticeable increase several days after a period of prolonged rain. In July, 1903, Mr. Twining's well at the store (No. 5) flowed 10 gallons a minute, while in July, 1904, its flow was very small and a pump was required. A number of other wells have shown a tendency to decrease. At the Hotel Normal in July, 19.03, the well had a flow of 3 gallons a minute, while in July, 1904, the water level was 2 feet below the surface. That several of the wells have a common supply is shown by the decrease in the flow of wells Nos. 2, 3, and 5, when in May, 1903, well No. 6 was allowed to flow for three days. In July, 1903, Mr. George Dillon's well (No. 16) flowed nearly 10 gallons a minute, but in July, 1904, the flow was very small and varied from day to day, its variations depending on the rainfall, according to those who had observed it carefully. The flow differs somewhat with the character of the rock in which the well is drilled. If it is largely sandstone, the supply is more uniform than where the beds contain considerable gypsum. In the latter case the water follows dissolved passages from the surface and frequently brings to the well silt and plant remains after heavy rains. The shallow wells which are deep enough to meet ordinary domestic needs furnish water high in sulphates and carbonates and are often quite bitter when from near the top of the rock. Of the wells which flow from the rock, the water highest in sulphates and carbonates comes from wells Nos. 1 and 9. In the latter the water was mixed with surface water for use in steaming, but has been discarded because of trouble with boiler scale. In Mr. J. W. Jaynes's well (No. 15) the water is so soft that it is used for laundry purposes without addition of the softening compounds that are necessary with much of the water in this region. ImB 183--06---19 ï~~274 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Twining. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Hotel Normal a..... J. March b.......... E. F. White c.......F. L. Twiningd......do.e............ T. McCrady (sawmill) f. B. W. Bodine 9..... J. A. Patterson h.. Stave mill i......... Chas. Hinckley..... Geo. Hollister iJ..... E. Brush........... Chas. Bartlett k.... T. Readel.......... J. W. Jaynes m..... George Dillon n..... Win. Monroe o...... Twining elevator... F. L. Twining...... School p.............. Stevens restaurant. Mr. Hewett........ L. Brooks.......... Hub Mill........... L. White........... J. E. Esler......... J. Reade............ T. Stall............. George Chubb...... Fred Arno.......... 639 639 639 639 639 632 632 635 633 635 636 636 636 642 639 640 639 638 639 642 639 638 638 638 636 633 633 639 637 639 Feet. 76 57 43 33 64 32 28 21 52 25 32 26 28 26 42 46 21 20 22 60 78 22 37 27 32 51 60 23 20 0. + 0 Feet. Feet. 563 642 582.... 596. - 606. 575. 600 641 604 649 614. 581 635 610. 604.. 610 636.5 608.._ 616. - 597. 594 641 618.... 618... 617 582 643 561.618... 601...... 611 648 604... 582... 572. 614. 619.. 0 Galls. 1-12 25 10 2 5.5 1.3 1.5 1.2 2 1.8 1.5.9 3 3 1.5.6 1.5.4 Ia Eof. 48 47 47 48 49 47 462 47 51 49 47 48 49 47 48 47 48 48 48 47 48 462 462 Hard..........do.........do.... Hard..... Soft...... Hard.........do.... Hard..........do........do.... Soft.... Medium.. Hard.... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------ Hotel use. Domestic use. Do. Store and house. Used in boilers. Used for steaming. House use. Drinking. House use. Do. Do. Do. Creamery. House use. Do. Do. Drinking. Stock. Drinking. Well not used. House use. No flow; 19 feet to rock. Pumped. a Well not flowing in July, 1904; flow in July, 1903, 3 gallons a minute; water high in sulphates. b Flow about 2 gallons a minute in July, 1903; no flow in July, 1904. c Discharge of wells 2 and 3 decreased by well 7. Rock (bluish shale and gypsum) at 11 feet. d Blue shale at 14 to 16 feet; then thin bed of gypsum; at bottom thin bed of sandstone. When this flow was made, the flow of wells Nos. 1, 5, 21, and 17 increased. e Water used in a large butter room for cooling purposes. Mr. Twining says the large percentage of mineral salts in the water improves the quality of the butter. This well flowed 10 gallons a minute in 1903; in 1904 only 1 quart a minute. Much stronger in spring and late in fall; some increase after several days of heavy rain. f 16 feet to rock. Well controlled by check valves. In May, 1903, was opened and allowed to flow for three days, lowering the head of Nos. 2, 3, and 5. gRock at 23 feet; water from beneath a shale. h In 1903 good flow; decreased by well No. 11; drift 10 feet. i Too hard for boiler use. High temperature of water caused by boilers located near well. 14 feet to gypsum; head lowered by No. 11. SFlow decreased soon after No. 7 was drilled. Allowed to flow freely for a few hours. k Drift, 12 feet; blue shale, 5 feet; gypsum, 5 feet; shale, 5 feet; gypsum, 3 feet; sandstone and shale, 6 feet. l Rock at 13 feet (gypsum and shale); water in sandstone. m Flow decreased by well No. 16 on George Dillon's lot. n The flow of this well ceased during the drought in June and July, 1904. At the time of the writer's visit, four days after a week of heavy rainfall, the well was flowing about 8 gallons a minute. o Rock at 17 feet (sandy shale rock). Water from sand veins at 19, 24, 30, and 42 feet. p Flow decreased since 1903; it was then nearly 10 gallons a minute; rock at 21 feet. TAWAS. This area of flowing wells occupies nearly 1 square mile on the shore of Saginaw Bay in Tawas, the county seat of Iosco County (fig. 56). Two miles west of Tawas there is a low moraine which is the catchment slope of some of the wells. At East Tawas, 1 mile to the east, flows can not be obtained, although water rises just to the surface in some wells near the lake shore. To the north and west of Tawas flows are obtained on the plain between the town and the moraine. ï~~NORTHWEST BORDER OF SAGINAW BAY. 275 In this area rock outcrops are entirely absent, lut the first or upper rock formation is known, from the records of the deep brine wells, to be near the base of the Michigan formation and top of the Marshall sandstone. The sandstone yields abundant water when penetrated in regions to the southwest, and possibly part of the supply for the wells here may be derived from the same source. The Marshall sand L-'' @X38 I 1J FIG. 56.--Map of Tawas flowing-well district, losco County. stone dips to the southwest from Tawas, and 5 miles south, at a test shaft in the quarry at Alabaster, it was reached at 90 feet and water found in the sandstone with sufficient head to fill the shaft. The drift at East Tawas and Tawas is 80 to 120 feet in thickness. Rock is reached at 84 feet in Frank Black's well in East Tawas, and ï~~276 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. in the same place on the property of the Michigan Brine Works rock is 100 feet from the surface. In Tawas the Wenona Salt and Lumber Company struck rock at 100 feet, and at the Bayside Hotel rock was found at 120 feet. In a cut on Dead Creek, in the western part of this village, is a hard compact clay containing minute shells, such as inhabit the lake, and some driftwood, overlain with 15 feet of lake sand and gravel. In several wells driftwood has been encountered at 50 to 75 feet. The drift material is not generally water bearing except at bottom where sand and gravel are found in thin layers. The wells are usually drilled by contract for a flow, the price averaging from $40 to $70, while some of the test wells which penetrate the rock some distance are made for $1 a foot without the pipe. The total flow of 43 wells at Tawas is 137.3 gallons a minute. The Strongest flow is from a well on the Blust estate (No. 34), which yields 19.3 gallons a minute. The flow is decreased in some cases by the escape of the water at a lower level, owing to corrosion of the pipes, while in other cases wells on lower ground have checked flows on higher ground. It is thought that the former is the cause of the decrease in flow of Joseph Minor's well, though possibly it may be drained by well No. 22 on the property of Mr. Davidson. The wells require frequent sand pumping and removal of the deposits inside the pipes. The Phelan well (No. 26) and German Lutheran Church well (No. 41) ceased to flow in the fall of 1903; after being sand pumped and cleaned, the flow returned to about the amount when the well was drilled. The wells which do not yield water readily are increased by a small blast of dynamite at the bottom. A greater flow in these wells following a prolonged season of rain is reported by some well owners, but not verified. The quality of the water varies considerably with the depth of the well. It is common to find a soft water at a greater depth and evidently near the rock surface. The water in most wells over 90 feet in depth is soft, but in those less than 90 feet is usually hard and in some cases is so high in sulphates that it is unfit for domestic purposes, as at Grice's blacksmith shop (No. 11) and on the Blust estate. Following are analyses of water from some of the wells: Analyses of water from wells in Tawas. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. 4. Sulphates................................................... 273 273 88 522 Hardness............................................. 616 536 321.6 600 Magnesia..................................................... Much.................. Much. Carbonates................................................... 180 140 190 95 Chlorides.................................................... 173.4 120 81.6 204 1. Bayside Hotel. 2. Blust estate. 3. German Lutheran Church. 4. Grice's blacksmith shop. ï~~NORTHWEST BORDER OF SAGINAW BAY. 277 The wells have been drilled rather uniformly throughout the village, going a little deeper in the eastern than in the western part, where water is reached at a higher altitude. The wells in the western part are from 70 to 80 feet in depth, and supply a harder water than that of the deeper bed, indicating a different source of supply. An examination of the above analyses and tests of several waters for hardness show a water bed supplying a hard water, beneath which is a bed supplying a softer water. The well owners are acquainted with these facts from the use of the water for laundry purposes. The lower bed is believed to be supplied by water forced upward into the gravel and sand from the underlying bed rock of the Michigan formation, which in other localities supplies a soft water. Mr. Van Way, owner of Bayside Hotel, gives the following record of well No. 10: Record of Bayside Hotel well, Tawas. Thickness. Total. Clay.......................................................... Sand and gravel................................................................ Hard blue clay................................................................. Sand and gravel, some water, flow............................................. Clay...................................................... Sand rock with streaks of shale...................................... Feet. Feet. 35 35 15 50 30 80 15 95 5 100 25 125 Record of Davidson flowing well, Tawas. Sand................................................................................. Clay.............................................................................. Hardpan...................................................................... Sand and gravel................................................................. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. 10 10 50 60 10 70 10 80 Mr. Gilbirth, a well driller, gives the following record for a flowing well (No. 29) on the property of G. A. Prescott: Record of Prescott well, Tawas. Thickness. ITotal.! 1 Clay......................................................... Sand.......................................................... H ardpan....................................................................... Sand and gravel................................................................. Feet. 40 5 30 15 Feet. 40 45 75 90 ï~~278 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Towas. cd Lo Owner. 0 0 z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 N. C. Hartingh... John Bagley...... Chas. Dixon...... G. A. Prescott.... Court-house...... John Swartz... HI. Woizeschke... Nelson Bradon.. - E. D. Schlecter... Bayside Hotel.... Grice's b 1 ac ksmith shop. M. E. Friedman. Wenona Salt and Lumber Co. A. Grenney....... F. Marzinski, sr.. G. L. Cornville... M. Patterson..... Henry Funk...... Mike McGarry.... F. Marzinski, jr.. Lutheran Church (Rev. Emmel). T. Davidson..... J. Hamilton..... Heuston House... 0. Grice......... Win. Phelan..... Dr. Maolntosh... E. B. Van Horn.. G. A. Prescott.... J. Nesbit (farm).. City well........ Dr. Conant...... F. Gauthier...... Blust estate...... W. D. Graham... J. M. Walker..... Rev. J. Pierson... O 0 Feet. 590 592 589 592 589 593 590 589 592 584 583 585 585 588 589 590 590 590 592 595 596 585 587 590 590 590 590 594 598 600 590 589 590 588 589 590 588 Feet. 104 86 80 106 146 101 93 114 90 125 75 98 870 87 85 100 100 90 90 104 90 80 84 85 95 105 90 104 90 114 85 95 70 60 84 59 85 85 78 76 90 112 In. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 $-4 0 4-J 48 Feet. Feet. Gals IF. 486..1.2 50 506 602.4 49 509.......49 486 572-.--49 443.....1.5 50 492 - -.4 49 497.--1.2 49 475..-2 49 502..6 48 459 594 2 49 Quality. Remarks. Soft.... Flow has decreased...... do.... Flow from under clay bed; decreased...... do.... Crock well, drilled in bottom......do... Rock at 98 feet; flow at 86 feet; pump well...... do.... Sandstone at 120 feet; blue shale at 140 feet....do... Domestic use; excellent water. 508 496 285 501 504 490 490 500 502 491 506 505 503 505 495 485 500 490 508 486 505 494 520 528 505 531 503 593 589 594 595 604 610 598 4.4 1.5.9.5 1 0.5 1.5 1 6 0 6 8 3 4 8 5 1 4 3.5 19.3 0 8 7 47 49 49 49 49 50 49 49 50 49 49 48 48 48 48 48 49 47 48 47 48 49 48 48 47 48...........do... Hard.......do.........do.........do.... Soft...---.....do.... Hard.__Soft.... Hard..H.-r....Hard sulphates. Hard.__ Soft.... Hr.--------- Hard.... -----do.... Domestic use. Do. Said to reach rock at 100 feet; cased, 40 feet; decreased; sulphates present. No change in flow; sulphates present. Made in 1897; cost $50; decreased. Much H2S; chlorides, medium; salt well; flows from upper beds; rock at 100 feet. Some CO2 present. Trace of sulphates. Some chlorides; trace of sulphates; domestic use. Domestic use. Drinking. Sand, 10 feet; clay, 50 feet; hardpan, 10 feet; gravel, 10 feet; water from gravel. Muddy before storms. Water just at surface. Made in 1890; slight decrease; hard water at 70-foot vein. No rock; clay, 40 feet; hardpan, 50 feet; gravel, 6 feet; 96 feet to flow. See section (p. 277). Weak flow; supplies 4 houses. Water considered slightly cathartic; some chlorides present; sulphates strong. Supplies 2 families; trace of sulphates. Sulphates present. Sand, 12 feet; clay, 50 feet; sand and gravel, 20 feet. Sulphates strong. Affected by No. 13; when casing was pulled well stopped flowing. Sulphates present. Flow checked; much iron carbonate; not good for laundry purposes; sulphates strong. Drinking; flow decreased; trace of sulphates. See analysis above. Sand, 25 feet; gravel clay, 50 feet; sand and gravel, little water, 10 feet; hard clay, 20 feet; coarse gravel, 7 feet. Domestic use for 2 families. Decreased; no flow at present. Made in 1897; no decrease. Domestic use. 2 3 2 2 2....do........do.......do........do.... 38 W. D. Wingrove.. 587 39 G.H. Redhead... 591 2 502... 4 2 5131606 8 47 Hard.... 48....do.... 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 City public school. 594 Lutheran school 592 (Rev.Wuggazer). F. Ballotman.... 589 518 502 477 498 512 511 500 484 602 596 597 9 9 3 1.5 3 3 2 48 48 49 48 47 48 48 Soft.--.----do.....----do.....do.... Hard._ Soft..........do.-- Chas. Zurek...... 588 90 F. W. Schlecht.. 585 73 Joseph Minor..... 586 75 Steve Klish....... 587 87 Mr. Bolt......... 588 104 ï~~NORTHWEST BORDER OF SAGINAW BAY. Wells at Tawas-Continued. 279 C6 z 48 Owner. 0 W A Feet. Feet. 590 68 588 101..... 65 m a o.0.:,o Quality. Remarks. In. Feet. Feet. Gals Â~F 2 522.....1 47 Hard....Sand,14feet; clay, 40 feet; hardpan, 5 feet; gravel and sand, 9 feet. 2 487... 3 49 Soft...... Saloon..2 2 47 Hard.... High in sulphates. Wells in region north of Tawas. Mr. Malone (east of town). 49 M. Murphy...... 50 Mr. Halleck (west of town).:; ualOwner.. ~0 it y. a _ _ _ _ _A_ w_ _ _ _ Feet. ins. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. A Andrew Arnold... 660 2 111 449 670 0.8 Hard.. B Milo Stevens..... 663 2 157 505 667.5...do.. C C. Kruger........648 11 40 608......._........ D George Bennett.. 650 2 39 611 640.............. E August ILetze..... 660 2 50 610...... -.......... F Chas. Green...... 653 2 59 594.................. G August Colger.... 648 2 40 608.................... H E. T. Dowell.... 63 3 58 575 644 1.8 Hard.. I John McMullin... 665 21 60 605 685 2.5....... J George Simms.... 670 2 83 587.... 2....... K J. Miller........ 630 2 60 570................ L John Schrieber.... 665 2 82 583 675 3........ M Andrew Franks... 655 2 35 620.................. N Philip Land Co... 615 2 90 525.................... O Henry Goodale... 650 2 79 571...... a2........ P Mr. Sullivan.... 670 2 291 379. 1.5 Salt... Q Mr. Pierson...... 690 2 78 612. a 1.9...... R School house..... 702 2 110 692 712 1..... S W. Ames......... 703 2 115 588..... 1.2....... T Mr. Gray........700 2 68 632. 1....... U Mr. Robinson... 695 2 69 626..... 1.3...... V John Grant...... 658 2 160 498.................. W Mr. Black (Tawas 583 2 145 438............... beach). X Salt well........................................... Y Chas. Conklin.... 615 2 104 501................. a Flow estimated by driller. Remarks. Feet. 108 Stock well; made in 1900....... Water bed at 155 feet.... Pump well... Do. Do.. "5." Do..__.. Do. 57 62 All clay; made in 1903. 78 Water at 50 and 60 feet...... Pump well. 82 Made in 1903. S.... Pump well....Pump well; mostly sand. 70 Water at 45 and 60 feet....... Clay 52 feet; cased 70 feet. 40 91 96..... Pump well; domestic use. 59... Through clay; no water. 83 Water just to surface. 84 No flow. MISCELLANEOUS WELLS. Scattered wells (mainly flowing) on the northwest border of Saginaw Bay.a r W a Owner. o o 40 0 Feet. Feet. Feet. E. Sack............ 615.......... Bradley farm....... 590 105 485 E. Butler.......... 592 60 532 Primary school, 626 50 576 Standish. High school, Stand- 626 230 396 ish. Court-house, Stand- 1626 258 368 ish.. Quality. Feet. Gals. Â~F. 605.........Hard... 608 1.9 49........... _....9 48J{ Hard............9. r......... 632 1 48..................... 48......... I Remarks. Pump well. Rock at 30 feet. Domestic and stock. Just flows; high in sulphates. Not flowing now. Flowed in 1893; not flowing now. a The diameter of all the wells is 2 inches except the following: Omer village, 1 inches; August Badour, 3 inches; James Daley, 1 inches; N. Knight, 1 inch. ï~~280 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Scattered wells (mainly flowing) on the northwest border of Saginaw Bay.-Continued. z 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Owner. A. Forsythe-....... M. M. Milling Co.... James Norn's mill... J. Larch............ F. Menzer........... Omer village........ H. Ullman.......... W. Mackin....... J. Ryland....... Mr. Bradley....... August Badour.... E. C. Cole's store.. F. D. Noggle..... Geo. Grimore....... E. C. Cole........ Win. French........ Harmon salt well... Mrs. Peggel...... Ed Mosher.......... J, Pollock.......... J. McCready....... J. Pollock (barn).... -Mr. Swartz......... Mr. Reade......... Mr. Campbell...... 0 Q) Feet. 628 625 626 591 610 611 604 608 601 586 586 587 587 590 595 600 587 608 622 624 622 625 650 630 631 638 650 640 638 642 638 625 635 630 640 640 640 670 630 650 629 640 677 770 730 738 32 J. Barr............. 33 W. Aigens.......... 34 H. Newman..... 35 Mr. Eymer.......... 36 Public school,Turner 37 S. Churchill........ 38 J. Clukey........ 39 Village well, Turner. 40 Young Bros.... 41 Philip Rosenthall... 42 Sam. Rosenthall.... 43' M. Siebeck......... 44 S. B. Dryer.._..... 45 T. Applin......... 46 J. Henry.......... 47 H. McGrady........ 48 N. Johnson......... 49 Emery Junction Hotel. 50 J. Curtiss......... 51 George Koyl........ 52 James Daley...... Feet. 85 78,900 101 148 350 342 16 200 65 301 126 29 108 322 315 146 83 57 83 65 240 39 17 28 25 140 105 130 10 300 300 53 105 104 40 19 250 115 350 139 40 180 40 100 60 149 165 78 106 0.. Quality....a Feet. Feet. Gals. F. 543.......1 48....547 631 1.1 48.......... 1,276......12 50.... 490........9 48 Salt.... 462 609............. 261 618 1.9 49 Hard... 262 624110 _. --___... 592..................... 401 631 3 49 Hard... 521 566......do.... 285 611 3.5 48...do.... 461......... 558 587............ 482. 2.5 48. 273 11 8.2 48 Hard... 285.....3.2........... 57...........Bitter... 462..2.1.".Hard... 539.... 8.... do.... 567 629 2.1 48...do.... 539...8....do.... 560... 1.2 48...do.... 410 665 12 49 Medium. 591 625.... Hard.. 614...... Bitter; hard. 610 631................... 625............... Hard... 500 655 2.5 49..do.... 533. 1.... do.... 512 652 1.8 49...do.... 628..............Bitter.. 325.. 3 50 Hard... 335 640 12 50.. 577. Hard... 535 653 2.3 48...do.... 536 658 2.5 49...do.... Barn use; rock at 40 feet. Near boilers. Water has salt and H2S. Rock at 8 feet. Rock at 29 feet; no flow. Rock at 21 feet; supplies 2 hotels. Rock at 22 feet. Dug well in rock. Rock at 12 to 18 feet. Pump well; rock at 30 feet. Formerly bath house. Rock at 30 feet; supplies store and house. Just flows; decreased. Rock at 28 feet. Rock at 60 feet; piped to house. Rock at 20 feet. Just flows. Rock at 44 feet. Rock at 8 feet. Rock at 7 feet. Rock at 10 feet. Do. Rock at 27 feet; stopped flowing in 1904. Rock at 5 feet; pump well. Rock at 14 feet; pump well. Unfit for use; rock at 8 feet. Pump well; rock at 14 feet. Rock at 40 feet. Rock at bottom; pump well. Rock at 30 feet. See cut; rock at 40 feet. Pump well; stock and domestic. Rock at 26 feet; stock and domestic. Rock at 21 feet; stock and domestic. Remarks. i 53 Chas. Jones........ 810 54 N. Knight.......... 740 55 Jas. Thompson..... 795 56 Robert Garner...... /618 57 Old coal shaft...... i760 i 600....................... Pump well; drift, gypsum in clay. 651 660..... Hard..Pump well; dug. 280 645 15 50 Medium. Rock at 20 feet; salty. 435............... Salt.... Just to rock. 279.... 2.5.... Hard... Rock at 115 feet. 501.......... Rock at 115 feet; no flow. 637 647..................No rock; little water. 590................. Rock at 40 feet; 2-inch casing; no flow; little water. 690 642 2.8 48 Medium. All clay. 658........... Hard... Brown clay 20 feet; blue clay 40 feet; sand 10 feet; hardpan 30 feet. Pump well. 750.......... Hard clay 14 feet; sand with water 10 feet; clay 35 feet; sand and gravel 1 foot. Pump well. 591............... Clay 14 feet; remainder sand. Pump well. 630.................. Clay 40 feet; sand and gravel 20 feet; clay 30 feet; sand and gravel 75 feet. Pump well. 540.......... Soft.... Rock at 14 feet; no flow. 654................. Flow from top of sandstone; Sand 20 feet; clay 10 feet; rock at 30 feet. 460....................... Rock at 57 feet; no flow. i 58 Black's test well.... 595 135 ï~~OGEMAW COUNTY. 281 MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The tabulated data on wells and villages and near country postoffices, presented below, were obtained chiefly by correspondence: Village supplies on northwest border of Saginaw Bay. Town. C O Depth of wells. Source. ti Â~. C o Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Alger............. Driven wells........................... 15 100 20 Arenac................do................................. 8 50 14 Augres............ Dug and drilled wells............ 16 12 220 16 Maple Ridge..... Open and driven wells................ 12 45 35 Melita.... Driven wells........................... 18 50 14 Moores Junction........do................................. 15 50 35 Omer...................do........................... 20 15 104 40 Pine River..........do........................... 28 12 138 30 Saganing..............do................................ 70 6 70 20 Standish.........! Driven wells, and creek.......... 40 12 350. Sterling........... Driven wells............................ 14 48 24 Au Sable.......... Lake Huron by waterworks................. East Tawas.........do............................................. Hale.............. Dug and driven wells.................10 80 40 Oscoda............ Lake Huron bn waterworks........................ Siloam........... Dug and (driven wells"................12 33 33 Whittemore....... Driven wells..................... 60 20 60 40 a S Springs. Feet. Feet. 80...... Small. 14 -5 Do. 180 +15 None. 35...... Small. 14 - 5 45 -15 Do. 40 + 2 Do. 138 +10 Do. 20 - 8 Do. 50 + 8 None....... -14 Small. 40 -35 Do. 33 -25 Do. 60 -20 Do. WATER SUPPLIES OF OGEMAW COUNTY. By W. M. GREGORY. GENERAL STATEMENT.a Ogemaw County, of which West Branch is the county seat, lies east of Roscommon County. The elevated moraine which crosses the southeast part of Roscommon County continues northeastward, passing a little east of the center of Ogemaw County, leaving the county at its northeast corner. There is an elevated gravel plain on the northwestern face of this moraine, which at one time was occupied by settlers, but has been abandoned because of the failure of crops in dry seasons. The distance to water on this gravel plain ranges from 10 to 15 feet near the Roscommon County line to about 100 feet in the vicinity of the moraine from Beaver Lake northeastward. On the moraine there are very few residents, and the water table appears to lie at great depth, for the drift is very loose textured. Southeast of this large moraine are the flowing-well districts of Rose City and West Branch, which stand in recesses in the moraine. There is a broad gravel plain leading from near Rose City and Lupton southward along Rifle River, where the water table lies only a few feet below the surface, but in which there are few settlers. a By Frank Leverett. ï~~282 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. In the eastern range of townships is a fertile till tract with gently undulating surface which has as yet but few settlers. Wells are obtained at depths from 20 to 75 feet. There are exposures of rock along Rifle River in the southern part of the county, but the wells, both flowing and non-flowing, usually obtain their supplies from the drift. One well at Rose City entered the rock and got only a weak flow. Others at West Branch may have reached the rock, and two deep borings near Edwards Lake entered rock. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. At Prescott there are wells ranging in depth from 18 to 75 feet, in which the water stands 12. to 20 feet below the surface, coming from sand beds in the clay. Both open and bored wells are in use. At Lupton, which stands in the valley of Rifle River, the wells are 20 to 50 feet in depth, and are largely through gravel and sand. At South Branch, in the eastern part of the county, on the inner border of the large moraine, wells are driven to depths of 20 to 30 feet and obtain abundance of water. At Edwards post-office, in the southwestern part of the county, the wells are from 6 to 50 feet in depth, the largest supplies being from 35 to 50 feet. Dr. A. C. Lane reports several test borings for coal. One at the south side of Edwards Lake in sec. 29 struck sandstone at 205 feet, and penetrated rock of various kinds for 33 feet. Another near Chapman Lake struck sandstone at 190 feet and continued to a depth of 400 feet. A fresh, soft water was struck at 202 feet, which had a head of 8 feet. A third well, 214 feet in depth, on the east side of George Lake, did not reach rock, but found a flow of fresh, soft water yielding a barrel a minute. Plans have been made to install a waterworks plant at West Branch in 1906, the supply being taken from flowing wells northwest of the village. These wells discharge into a reservoir from which water will flow by gravity to the village, a distance of about 2 miles. FLOWING WELLS. WEST BRANCH AREA. Location.-The flowing-well area of which West Branch is the center (fig. 57) embraces 21 square miles on the headwaters of the West Branch of Rifle River. This district is located in a recess along the eastern side of one of the stronger moraines of the Saginaw ice lobe. The actual extent of the area, outside of the above city limits, has not been determined, but it has been traced north and south along the eastern slope of the moraine, and may connect with the welldeveloped area at Rose City. An almost continuous belt of springs occurs at the edge of the high hills between West Branch and Ogemaw ï~~OGEMAW COUNTY. 283 Springs station, at which place the principal spring flows about 13 gallons a minute. Part of this water comes from loose drift on top of the clay, while the larger share is from beneath a clay bed which has been opened by small creeks working back into the hills. This condition of abundant springs is present about the western edge of the entire area and the flow of water is in proportion to the extent that the creeks have worked back their heads. Wells.-At present (August, 1904) the number of wells in the general district is 119, of which 106 have fair flows. Of these, 102 flows are within the village limits of West Branch. The wells are all 2 inches in diameter except Nos. 12, 17, and 27, which are 11 inches. Few wells are pumped and the flowing wells are utilized very generally for stock farms, creamery, domestic use, laundry purposes, a few for steaming, and one in a brewery. ---l3- 79 6 76 **74 "* 82 8i" "6 06,3: 22 85 3 ", /" 9 I. 32 2 r 15 9 o 5oo o00 oo feet oo 5 FIG. 57.-Map of West Branch, Ogemaw County, showing flowing wells. The pioneer well was made by E. V. Goodell in 1880 by driving a 2-inch pipe to the first water bed at 30 feet and.later to the 80-foot bed; the supply has decreased since drilling. The number of wells has increased rapidly, and with the increase some of the shallow wells have ceased flowing entirely. The pressure of the water is sufficient in a few cases to warrant piping to the second floor of a dwelling, and hydraulic rams are used in several cases to force water into kitchens. The cost of the wells is somewhat less than in other regions, ranging from $40 to $80, the low price being due to the slight depth of the water bed and to the use of casing in the deeper, wells only. That the supply is valued the large number of wells show, but only in a few instances are check valves used, the large majority of the wells being allowed to flow full capacity throughout the entire year. ï~~284 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. This wasteful practise is believed to be the cause of the decrease of the flow shown in the past two years. Flow.-The total flow from 106 wells is about 610 gallons a minute, of which 540 gallons are from wells within the limits of West Branch. The strongest flow is 60 gallons a minute, on the property of C. J. Blakeley (No. 22), and another large flow is at the West Branch brewery of Mr. A. M. Schieke (No. 40), where the combined flow of three connected wells is 156 gallons a minute. Many of the flows from the upper water beds have been decreasing for the last three years, this decrease being noted in many wells that the writer saw in 1903 and 1904. In some cases the decrease has been due to sand filling the pipe, in some to deposits of iron carbonates or other incrustations, and in some to the overdrawing of the supply by the drilling of recent wells. If wells were checked and controlled the supply might be available longer. Water beds.-The water beds in this locality have been thoroughly exploited, especially the upper ones. The well drillers find that they are not as uniform as at Rose City. Their thickness is often 20 to 30 feet, consisting of gravel or coarse sand interbedded with clay. The coarser material is generally at the bottom, while at the center quicksand has been so abundant as to cause some delay in drilling and to prevent the use of the common form of jetting drill which is usually employed in drift wells. The thickness and extent of the first water bed is shown by well No. 22, at the livery barn of C. J. Blakeley, which was 65 feet at first, when it drew the water level down on all wells in the upper bed, some of these especially affected being Nos. 23, 32, 31, 30, 100, 33, 101, and 102. Doctor Newman's well, No. 23, did not flow after No. 22 reached 65 feet, but when the latter was cased to 108 feet and drilled to 165 feet the former regained a small flow. Later it was drilled to 130 feet, the level of the third water bed. The first water bed in West Branch is about 40 feet from the general surface and some 25 feet thick. Its elevation above tide is about 920 to 945 feet. In the eastern part of the village the upper bed is somewhat lower and supplies the brewery well (No. 40), which has partly drained wells Nos. 47, 92, and 93. The group of wells directly south of the depot seems to reach a second water bed at a lower elevation, the drillers there finding a hard clay, varying from 20 to 30 feet in thickness, beneath which is obtained the supplies for wells Nos. 7, 91, 97, and 105. At the present time the second water bed is the source of a better supply than is obtained in the upper beds. The third bed, with a general elevation of 430 feet, is the source of the strongest supply of the area. From it comes the supply for the wells of Stephen Weigers (No. 14), Ogemaw Bank (No. 85), C. J. Blakeley (No. 22), and Gale Lumber Company (No. ï~~OGEMAW COUNTY. 285 24). In several of the wells in this bed drift coal is found, coming from the coal series of the Michigan formation, which outcrops to the south and east. The greater supply and pressure of the water from the lower bed is due to the presence of the Michigan formation to the east. At the West Branch Bridge over Rifle River, due southeast of this area, outcrops of the early Carboniferous limestone and sandstone occur at an altitude of 785 feet above tide, and as the lower water beds are 790 feet above tide this seems a case where the rock cuts off an escape of the water at lower levels. Catchment area.-The catchment area for the West Branch wells is in the loose drift material which constitutes the land to the north and west, having an elevation of 1,2Q0 to 1,300 feet above tide. The presence of springs and lakes on the drift plains where the clay comes to the surface is due to the large amount of ground water in the porous material and the small run-off. A part of the supply at Ogemaw Springs can readily be traced to the water following clay through the drift down to lower elevation, while the larger supply is from between clay beds at greater depths. Temperature.-The temperature of the wells averages nearly 48Â~, or 5.5Â~ higher than the mean annual temperature of West Branch. The temperature of the Gale Lumber Company's wells (Nos. 24 and 25) is the same, although there is a difference of 89 feet in their depths. The shallow well has 25 feet of pipe exposed, while the deeper one has none. The exposure of 15 feet of pipe may account for a temperature higher than normal in the wells of Joseph Merrik (No. 1) and at the village park (No. 3), while representative temperatures for that depth are in adjacent wells of Frank Smith (No. 2) and the Episcopal Church (No. 105). The difference between the air and soil temperatures (5.5Â~) is larger than in some experiments and observations elsewhere, but may be due to the blanketing effect of the heavy winter snow. The-temperature of the springs at Ogemaw Springs station, on the Michigan Central Railroad, north of West Branch, in July, 1904, was 470, which agrees with similar springs at Rose City. Data.-The table on the next page gives data of wells at and near West Branch. ï~~286 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in West Branch area. WELLS AT WEST BRANCH. z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Owner. Joseph Merrik.... Frank Smith..... Village park b..... A. C. Irons C...... A.C. Irons........ A. L. Shirgley..... James Barker..... Mrs. McKenna..... 0 Ft. 950 948 950 952 955 955 940 952 O Ft. Ft. 34 916 34 914 34 916 35 917 52 903 90 865 90 850 80 872 50? 906 81 869 S Quality... 4 Ft. Gals. 'F........... 49 --------- Remarks. 0 $22 2 3 3 7 18 15 1 2.3 474 49r 49 47 472.......... 25 -- - -.5. Soft...........---d o - ---... --- do -------...do 72 Soft.... 60 e n....... Mr. Banasso....... 956 F. Smith.......... 950 Mr. Birdsall....... 953 E. V. Goodell...... 953 Chas. Raymour.... 952 Steven Weigersd.. 953 Mrs. T. L. Low- 965 enzo. C. E.Camp....... C. W. Longwell.... L. Walters......... Geo. Alexander.... Alex. Brigham..... 965 960 958 958 964 82 871... 1.7 1._____......__60 80 873..................... 92 860......................... 160 793-.-25.7 492........375 45 920 _- 1.2 481....... 40 75 890. 7 48........... 85 875. 1.2 49.............. 86 872. _ 10.5.... Soft.... 70 85 873. 12 47....do....... 90 874.. 1 472....do....... 151 802.3.............150 165 898 963 60 47 Soft.... 180 130 828...__ 3.7 48 Salt._. -. 165 888 978 12.7 461 Soft.....100 76 889 977 6 46..........50 125 835 - 1.5 47 Sof-t...... 100 863 _ 1 49....do. 82 170 795..... 2 48....do. 105 45 921.....4 47........ 45 921 3 45.922 45 92.................... 45 923...-1. - 40 80 887. 1.2 49........ 30 960.... 1.8....I. Hard...- 100 Flowed 6 gallons a minute in 1903; drained by No. 105 in 1904. Store and blacksmith. Water trough. At store. Domestic use. Barn and house. Water has small amount of iron carbonate. Domestic use. Do. Water has CO2;: corrodes pipe and tin dishes. Made in 1888; 1.5-inch; weak flow. Not flowing. Carefully piped and controlled. Not flowing in 1903, but after sand pumping in 1904 good flow. Reduced to 1 inch. Well 1.5-inch; much algae in water. Fountain and fish pond. Domestic use. Decreased by No. 16; much iron carbonate on pipe. Fountain and livery barn. Drift coal in well. Original flow at 60 feet; lowered by No. 22. Drinking. Drinking and steaming. Livery. Domestic use; well 1.5-inch. Domestic and stock. Flow decreased since 1903. Weak flow in 1903; no flow in 1904. Weak flow. Decreased since 1903. Not suitable for laundry. McCannond Wood. 953 C.J. Blakeley e.... 953 Doctor Newman.. 958 Gale Lumber Co.f!. 953 Gale Lumber Co.... 955 D.McCannon...... 960 H. Buckle......... 963 I. Unger........ 965 John Gauf......... 966 Chas. Ross-....... 966 Chas. Wilson..... 967 Ira Mitchell....... 968 U. V. Guilford_.... 967 Catholic Church e. 9930 a All wells flow unless otherwise indicated, but the head can not be measured in those with goosenecks. b This well was made in eight hours by hand with a clay auger and driving pipe in 1899. The following is the record: Thickness (feet). Sand and gravel................................................................................ 4 Solid blue clay...........................................................................47 Water gravel............................................................................ 1 c Wells No.1 and No. 3 have 15 feet of pipe exposed above the surface. This accounts for high temperature. a Supplies butcher shop and grocery store with a large butter room in basement; also piped to living room on second floor; made in 1899. e Made in 1900 and is cased 108 feet. Is said to flow 2,000 barrels in twenty-four hours (probably an overestimate). First water at 65 feet; for a time supply was drawn from a 95-foot vein; later well drilled to 165 feet. This well is No. 164 in Water-Supply Paper No. 102, United States Geological Survey. I The following is the record of this well: Thickness (feet). Clay.....................................................................................10 Sand....................................................................................15 Clay....................................................................................50 Sand and gravel..........................................................................5 Clay...20..........................................................................20 Sand, small pieces of coal...................................................................... 5 Hard blue clay............................................................................50 Gravel, coal fragments..................................................................10 Water at 80 and 160 feet. 9 Drilled to 130 feet; no flow; pipe pulled back to vein at 30 feet. ï~~OGEMAW COUNTY. Wells in West Branch area---Continued. WELLS AT WEST BRANCH-Continued. Owner. a Quality. 0m Â~ C, Q d 5 c3 287 Remarks. Ft. 35 Catholic Cemetery. 940 36 Peter Lambert.... 958 37 A.B.Dembar...... 955 38 Mike Cullen-........ 961 39 A.M.Schieke...... 1960 40 A.M.Schieke a.... 950 41 May Brow........ 960 42 Silva Kenney..... 955 43 Albert Schugley... 954 44 Wm.Colligan.... 955 45 Joseph Neffier..... 955 46 James Hutton..... 953 47 A. Clark........... 960 48 John Hook....... 956 49 Geo. Reminderb... 953 50 Lawrence Sams.... 937 51 A.M. Guilford..... 938 52 G. French....... 953 53 James Trigis..._. 957 54 J.L.Jones...... 952 55 T. Pillsbury...... 958 56 W. Kennedy....... 962 57 Mdilton Whitman... 959 58 T.McGregor....... 958 59 Joseph Penard..... 955 60 J.B. Howe......... 963 61 James Horton..... 962 62 W. W. English..... 961 63 Robert Miller.... 962 64 Mr. Dutchler.....963 65 Wm.Prey.....___" 964 66 J.Grengagor c.......... 67 John Tolfry............ 68 Angus Bowen..... 953 69 Mr.Talse(?)....... 952 70 Cedus Hakes...... 953 71 A. Perrin.......... 953 72 Mr. Palmer........ 953 73 Mr. Hyslop........ 952 74 E.J. Goodell....... 953 75 Mr. Gauf.......... 952 76 Frank Smith...... 952 77 T.S.Haig....... 949 78 W.H. Gard........ 950 79 K. Weeks.......... 953 80 C. Graves.......... 943 81 Chas. Woods....... 951 82 Doctor Witter..... 948 83 Judge Sharp....... 946 84 W.R. Turner...... 949 85 Ogemaw Bank..... 954 Ft. Ft. Ft. Gals. oF. 110 830..... 3 14 944.............. 42 913.... 2.5 471 15 946 961.5... 53 907.... 8 471 44 906....156 47, 45 915..... 9.... 45 910..... 3 47 45 909..... 1.8 47 30 925.............. 35 920.............. 50 903............ 50 910..... 8.5 49 50 906...........48 48 905 ---- 12.2 474 40 917.....1 48 50 888..... 3 60 893..... 12.. 90 867..... 12 48 95 857. 35...3.5 - - -- -- -- - 92...............$92 10...........................190............ 100 35...... 35 Soft..... 35............... i S............... SSoft-.................. 4 Soft.......i-7.... 42 ---------- 70 Small fountain. Weak. Decreased by No. 42. Weak flow; much CO2. House; piped to barn. 3 wells connected and fountain. Decreased since 1903. Domestic use. Do. Flowed in 1903; not in 1904. Do. Ceased to flow. Domestic use. Weak flow. Domestic and stock. Large stock farm. Stock. Do. 50.8 1.5 47 Soft. 40 Domestic use. 50 908.... 1.5 47 Soft.......... 40 House and fountain.se. 90 869....................... 40 House and fountain. 9') 869... 3 _ _ _ _. _ _ _ ___ _ _._._ Dom estic use. 100 858........... 48 Soft.......... Pumped.... --.--.-.. ----... Do. 50 913.. 1. 5.................. Domestic use. 30 932...7.5 48 Hard.. 22 Good drinking water; unfit i I for laundry purposes. 60 901!..... 3 474..........80 House and fountain; flow deScreasing. 60 902 1.6 47.............Domestic use. 45 928 --- 3 47-.............. 45 919 60. 185..... 30 923 50 902 45 908 90 863 75 878 80 872 75 878 45 917 90 862 60 889 60 890 90 863 80 863 75 876 40 908 58 88 60 889 175 779........................... Pumped.................................. 1 mile south of village postoffice; pumped...... 39 47...... 75 Stock farm south of village...... 8.... Hard...... Water has much iron carbonate. -- -- 48...........Domestic use; weak flow. S.31 i. Soft....... Do. 943..................Pump well............ 48 Soft.......... Weak flow............................... W ell clogged with sand.......5 49 Soft........ Weak flow...... 1.5 47.... do........ Flow decreased since 1903...... 1.2 48.............. House and barn...... 1.5 48 IHard........ Domestic; not suitable for laundry use.. 1 474....do..... Decreased by No. 77............................. No flow; pump well..."1.8 48 Soft.-... Domestic use...... 1.5 48....do... Supplies house and barn...... 3 47....do. Supplies barn; much CO2...... 1.8 48....do..... Ram used to raise water to house. 2.................. Weak flow; medium soft..................... Strong flow; piped to second floor.................. i 5..... 5................. Butter room and for steaming. 2 1-._. -ag._._2 wells same depth; meS dium hard. 86 County jail........ 992 182 810 87 Cheese factory..... 950 40 910 88 Mrs. Fenton....... 962 30 932 a Water used in brewery satisfactorily. There are three wells 20 feet apart, which lowered head in wells 47, 91, and 93. The owner, A. W. Schieke, states that water contains magnesia and plenty of CO;. The latter corrodes iron pipes and tinware rapidly. No decrease in supply has been noted. b Sunk 50 feet to first water and continued through water-bearing sand to 108 feet without increase in amount. c One mile south of court-house; penetrates following beds: Thickness (feet). Clay..................................................................................... 30 -Sand....................................................................................8 Clay hardpan..............................................-................. 22 ï~~288 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells in West Branch area-Continued. WELLS AT WEST BRANCH-Continued. ti b z Owner. 89 G.Day........... 90 E. Evans.......... 91 J.Bitters.......... 92 Mr. Tartman...... 93 E.Clark........... 94 E. Shrively....... 95 Lumber Co........ 96 T. Wilder..._..... 97 Mr. MacKinson.... 98 E.Blundell........ 99 Joe Reminder...... 100 E.Hutton......... 101 Mrs. Gray........ 102 D.E.Marsbh....... 103 Jas. Lambert..... 104 Joe W alters... - 105 Episcopal Church. 0 Ft. 962 958 961 962 961 955 951 961? 963 955 968 966 958 958 958 969 950 Â~ O0 0.0 Ft. 30 51 50 52 60 60 72 90 45 80 72 73 116 70 65 40 Ft. Ft. Gals. 928 6.5? 910..... 1.5 912..... 1.5 909..... 1.1 895.. 1 891....5 889........ 903 951..................... 888..... 8 894 -..... 2 - - - - - - - - - - - 842 2 888.......5 894..... 4 910!..... 3 ad o S Quality. Remarks. a o H U _ Hard._._..Much sediment in water. 48............... Decreased since 1903. 48.............. Supplies house and barn. 48 - Soft......... Domestic use..----.--Decreased since 1903. 48.............. Stock.........Pumped................... Pump well............ _ ' _Flowed in 1903; pumped in 1904. 48.._............Made in 1904; domestic use......... Decreased by No. 22.."'.. Decreased by No. 22; no flow..... Soft........Not good for drinking; muddy.........do -..... Decreased since 1903. 48....do...... Made in 1904. 47- Medium. Drained by well No. 1. WELLS NORTH OF WEST BRANCH. HE 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 Owner. W. Tallman..............do............... Wm. Moss........... A. Ford.............. Jas. Moss............ D. Webster.......... L. Carr............... School............. o~ s3 Qual-,~.~ ~ ity. Feet. Feet. Gals. 'F. 1,043 45 1 481 Soft.. 1,045 50 10 48...do.. 1,030 62 1.5 48...do.. 953 34 3 47...do.. 1,040 80 4 47........ 1,042 60 3 4..... 1,090 60 1 48 Soft... 1,100 50 3 49...do.. Remarks. Stock and domestic use. Domestic use. All clay. Quicksand and clay on top. Stock and house use. Dairy and house use. Drinking fountain. WELLS SOUTH OF WEST BRANCH. 2 20 }10 47' Soft JTwo flows; water rises 2 feet 22 2 31 0.B.aStevenson............j 30 47f ot... 1 ww above surface. 22 2 31 Mrs. Place..................75 5 48...do.. Sand 28 feet; remainder clay; water rises 1 foot above surface. 22 2 32 Chas. Perry................ 55 6 48........ Sand 30 feet; clay to water bed. 22 2 30 P.Mark...................38 8 471 Hard.. Water rises 12 feet above surface. 22 2 32 Mr. Cook..................... 26 5.............. All clay. 22 2 31 Mr.Rice......_ 48 7.............. 48 7 ROSE CITY AREA. Location.-The flowing wells of the Rose City region are distributed over an area of 3 square miles (fig. 58), which lies to the east of a Saginaw Bay moraine, here 1,200 to 1,500 feet above sea level. The eastern slope of this moraine forms the catchment basin for the ï~~OGEMAW COUNTY. 289 headwaters of Rifle River, and the sand plains north and west belong to the catchment basin of Au Sable River. The flowing-well district, of which that at Rose City is a part, extends west of north, following the trend of the neighboring portion of the moraine, and good flows have been obtained for 3 miles in that direction. Three miles north of the town the morainal ridges turn to the northeast, and along this southern slope a few wells have been found, and there is a strong probability that 2 miles north of the villages of Lupton and Maltby flows could be obtained near the base of these ridges. South of Rose City, on the eastern slope of the morainal country, many strong springs occur, but.no flowing wells as yet. Unsuccessful attempts have been made at Campbells Corners on a prominent point, which not only seems too high for a flow, but is liable to have its water table lowered by creek-valley drainage on either side. 24 a-. SL a io n MAI k ST. 20 the village of Rose City and 8 outside of the village. The first ofond these in Rose City was drilled in 1894, on the property of H. Hodge, in the western part of town. The 25 wells furnish an abundant supply Scalethe privilege. 0 s505 1000tt. Location of wThe shallow wells are made by driving 2-inch galvanized iron pipe,rs refer to accompanying table FIG. 58-Map of Rose City, showing location of flowing wells. without point or screen, down to thewing waterbed. These wellmts areof madthe villby thage of Rose Cityb, and $30 t 8 outside of the average price for the firstwell complete inRscluding pipe and the labor. The strogerty flows, which are from the western part of town. The 25 wells furnish an abundant supply of good water for domestic purposes to the 300 inhabitants. Some of the strondeeper flows, asf the thawo belongds discussed below, are made by price per foot, which is usueveralfamilily 50 cents, exclusive of pipntal being, makingd to the owaverfageor the privilege.--20 The shallow wells are made by driving a 2-inch galvanized iron pipe, without point or screen, down to the waterbed. These wells are made by the job, and $30 to $40 is the average price for the well complete, including pipe and the labor. The stronger flows, which are from the deeper of the two beds discussed below, are made by price per foot, which is usually 50 cents, exclusive of piping, making the average ï~~290 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. cost of each well from $70 to $80. The wells require very little repairing, but must be sand pumped as often as once in three years. This costs about $10. The average cost of these wells is so low and the quality of the water so good that such a supply is one of the valuable resources of the town and ought to be carefully guarded from unnecessary depletion or waste. Flow.-The total flow of the Rose City wells amounts Sto about 2,290 gallons a minute from 20 of the 25 wells which could be measSured, which gives over 10,000 gallons daily per capita, or far above the maximum amount used in any city in the State. SThe individual flow of the wells appears in the table on page 293. With a few exceptions the wells are allowed to flow freely, a practise which, as already suggested, Stends to decrease the head. As yet no failure to obtain a flow has resulted where the trial has been made on ground which stands below 990 feet above sea level, and none of the wells have shown a marked decrease in flow since they were first made, except in cases where they have become sand clogged; but in such cases sand pumping restores the original flow. A case in point is that of Doctor Kiehle's well, which had a flow in 1902 of 108 gallons a -minute, and some ï~~OGEMAW COUNTY. 291 time later was stopped with sand and ceased to flow for several months, but on being sand-pumped early in 1904 resumed the same flow as at the time of the first measurement. Water beds.-Two water horizons are usually found in driving these wells. One from a bed of sand quite near the surface, and the other from a gravel bed somewhat irregular in its dip, yet always containing an abundant supply of water under considerable head. The first or upper bed has been found in nearly all of the wells that have reached the lower stronger flow. The relations are set forth in the accompanying diagram (fig. 59), where it will be seen that the thickness of the upper bed is from 8 to 10 feet. The supply of water in this upper bed may come, to some extent, from the upward rise of water from the lower bed, since its outcrop or intake is but a narrow strip not large enough to supply the amount of water yielded by some of the wells that terminate in this upper bed. Where the upper bed is cut into by Houghton Creek, above the mill pond, many large boiling springs occur, and at the time the writer was in this region in 1904 the pond and the creek had a gray color from the breaking out of several new springs that the creek had opened by its recent active cutting on its southern bank. The lower water bed, which supplies the stronger flows, contains coarse gravel. Some san(d occurs in the western part of the town and forms the larger part of.the bed in the eastern part. The fact that several of the wells of the eastern part, although of lower altitude than those of the western, have less velocity of flowage may be due to the finer texture of the material. This stronger bed appears at an altitude of 960 feet in the well of Mr. IHodge (No. 6) in the western part of the town and dips only slightly to the east until the public-school well is reached. This well apparently passed the main bed, as Mrs. Slater has a well only a few feet below it giving a good flow and rising nearly 14 feet above the surface, suggesting that the schoolhouse well may have been carelessly drilled. From the Slater well the deeper water bed dips rapidly to the east, being found at 940 feet above sea level in the Cooley well, 870 feet in Professor Karcher's well, and 780 feet in the Houghton House well. The porosity of this lower water bed in the western part of the village is well shown when the W. Rose well is shut off, for in twenty minutes afterward there is an increase in the flow of the Cooley well 200 feet to the southwest. This continues to increase for several hours, until the well has regained its original flow. The lower water bed is the principal source of supply for the larger wells of the village, and the limit of flow apparently has not been approached, as none of the wells show any indications of decrease. Quality ofwater.-Examination of the quality of the water by field methods shows an entire absence of sulphates and chlorides. The ï~~292 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. shallow wells contain a larger amount of carbonates than the deeper ones. The degree of hardness in some of the deeper ones is so low that no softening preparation is used for washing or for laundry purposes. None of the wells have notable deposits of the iron precipitate and the pipes do not corrode rapidly. Temperature.-The temperature of the wells averages a little below 490 F., which is very suitable for water used for codling and drinking. The mean annual temperature of Rose City is 6Â~ lower than the average well temperature; but the soil in northern latitudes, where snow prevents radiation for several months of the year, has a greater mean temperature than the air. This probably accounts for much of the difference here between the mean temperature of the air and of the soil. (See pp. 15-20.) The well on the property-of the Rose City stave mill shows how the well temperatures are affected by outside heat. This well ought to haye a temperature of about 50Â~, and its temperature of 560 was first noted by Dr. A. C. Lane, and the boilers of the engines given as the cause of the increase.a Catchment area.-Attention was called above to the high morainal ridges west and north of Rose City, which form the boundary of the flowing-well district in those directions. These in all probability constitute a catchment area for much of the water within the flowing-well district. In the portion of the district from which the village obtains its supply a catchment area appears to be found close at hand. The contour map (fig. 58) shows a culminating point in the western part of the town, standing 150 feet above Houghton Creek, a stream which rises in the heavy springs along the eastern slope of the morainal country to the west and which in the eastern part of the town is a small stream of about 50 second-feet volume. West of this high tract in the west part of the village and outside the town is a lower belt of loose-textured material one-eighth mile wide, which lies between the high point in the village and the high land to the west, and which rises in morainal ridges until the crest is reached at an elevation of about 1,500 feet on Cooks Knob, 3 miles west of Rose City. This belt of loose-textured material runs parallel with the large ridges to the west, having the same general north - south trend, and seems a probable catchment area intimately related to the Rose City wells. The loose-textured material apparently dips beneath the ridge in the west part of town and is covered by several layers of clay, which are impervious enough to retain the water and give it considerable head in places of lower elevation. This catchment area is probably itself fed by the high ridges to the west of it, just as Houghton Creek is fed from a portion of the ridges farther north. aWater-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 30, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, p. 57. ï~~c0 0 0 z MANISTEE COUNTY. Wells at Rose City. Quality. { oJ& KT, 293 Owner. a Remarks. 1 Mrs. Slater.... 2 Dr. Kiehle.... 3 W. Rose........ 4 J. Cooley-........ 5 H.Rose........ 6 H. Hodge-...... 7 0. Morrison.... 8 E. Atherton.... 9 Wm. Tulloch.... 10 A.S. Rose...... 11 Prof. Karcher... 12 M. Lansbury... 13 E. Rennier...... 14 Public school.. 15 C. Clearmont... 16 D. Warner..... 17 H. Beach....... 18 A. Rose....... 19 J.Machny...... 20 Stave mill...... 21 Houghtoniotel. 22 Wm. Tulloch.... 23.....do.......... 24 A. Rose (mill). 25 A.Cary......... Feet. In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls.'Â~ F.' 0 998 2 43 9;0 1,012 109 48 Medium. 990 2 46 944....... 108 48 Soft... 978 2 60 918 996 221.7 49....do... 990 2 45 945....... 30+ 48....do.... $30 67 50 958 1,000 994 976 958 957 957 953 1,006 1,007 965 958 964 950 954 910 940 952 962 930 1,040 76 { 988 28 48....do... 35 40 962.. 110 48....do... 50 41 953....... 42 48....do.. 38 100..... 150 49....do.. 78 90 868 987 223 49....do.. 75 100 860 969 272 49.... do... 80 95 865 969 270 48....do... 75 100 K 35 972 1,007 5.... Medium. 100................. 12 60 - 1... 120 10-... 49. 80 100........... 120 oft......... 120.... 60 49...do.. 84 107 -.... 135........... 241 677 915 1 56 Hard.-... 160 780 980+ 150 50 Soft... 90 42 910....... 100 48............. 138.....-. 140 49 Soft.... 110 50............ 28 48t....do... 28 120 { 2 990 00................... House use. Do. House well; interferes with No. 4. Supplies 5 families; total flowage not measured. House use. Pioneer well, made in 1894. House use. Supplies 4 families. Supplies 5 families. Supplies 10 families Supplies 15 families. House use. No flow. Clogged with sand. House use. Do. Do. Soft sandstone at 233 feet. Used in hotel laundry. House use. Supplies 8 families. Used in boiler. On brow of hill. WATER SUPPLIES OF MANISTEE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Manistee County fronts on Lake Michigan in the western part of the Southern Peninsula, the city of Manistee being the county seat. Manistee River traverses the southern part of the county, and with its tributaries drains all of the county except a narrow strip on the northern and western borders. The district south of Manistee River is largely a sandy plain, and has few settlers except at the village of Dublin, outside the city of Manistee and its suburbs. North and west of Manistee River in the east is a prominent morainic system, a large part of which has become settled. The wells on it range in depth from 50 feet or less up to fully 200 feet. West-of this morainic system there is a broad, sandy plain traversed by Bear Creek, a tributary of the Manistee, in which a strong flowing well has been obtained. The northwestern part of the county west of Bear Creek and north of Manistee River is largely morainic, but has recesses extending in from Lake Michigan in which flowing wells have been obtained. One important district on the borders of Portage Lake, in and near the ï~~294 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. village of Onekama, is discussed by Mr. Gregory (pp. 297-301). There is a smaller district near Arcadia, concerning which a few data are presented below. The wells on the moraines in the northwestern portion of the county are often driven to depths of 75 to 100 feet, though as a rule the hills are avoided and wells are sunk in depressions, where water is found at convenient depths. The salt wells at Manistee penetrate about to sea level before striking rock, but at Onekama rock is reached at a level 100 feet or more above tide. It is not known whether the altitude of the rock surface continues low to the eastward across this county, for no other borings have been driven to the rock. The highest points in the eastern part of the county have an altitude of more than 1,000 feet above sea level. If, therefore, the rock surface does not rise in that part of the county, there would be about 1,000 feet of drift. Borings at Manistee and Onekama, as well as the shallower ones elsewhere in the county, show the drift to be largely gravel and sand, which is filled with water below the level of the streams, but which is liable to be dry at points much higher than the drainage lines. WATERWORKS. MANISTEE CITY. The city of Manistee, with a population of about 14,000, stands on the shore of Lake Michigan at the mouth of Manistee River. It is supplied from a system of wells sunk on a terrace a short distance from the lake, on the south bank of Manistee River. There is a large excavated well, 30 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep, with which are connected three 8-inch wells which extend 60 feet below the level of the bottom of the large well and about 75 feet below the river and Lake Michigan level. The large well was excavated in sand, though there was a bowldery bed at 23 feet and an occasional streak of gravel. The tubular wells are through sand, except for 10 feet of brick clay near the bottom. The water stands 23 feet below the surface, or at about Lake Michigan level. The following analysis of water was made by Ricketts & Banks, of New York City, July 25, 1899, just before the purchase of the waterworks by the city: Analysis of waterworks water, Manistee. Parts per million. Chlorine (Cl).......................-------------------------------------------------------- 5.33 Sodium (Na)...................--------------------------------------------------------. 3.47 Nitrogen in nitrites..................................... 02 Nitrogen in nitrates.........................---------------------------------------------------. 5 Free ammonia.......................--------------------------------------------------------.08 Albuminoid ammonia-...................................... 07 Calcium (Ca).........................-------------------------------------------------------. 74.84 Carbonic acid (CO3)............................................... 112.06 Loss on ignition.................................................... 35 ï~~MANISTEE COUNTY. 295 Analysis of waterworks water, Manistee--Continued. Parts per million. Mineral matter, nonvolatile-.................................. 157 Total solids (by evaporation)..........-........................ 192 Iron (Fe)...........----------------------------------------------------------............ None. Lime-----.............-----------------------............---------------------------------. 72 Magnesium (Mg).................--------------------------..--------------------------............ 14. 50 Appearance, clear; color, none; odor, none. The works were acquired by the city October 1, 1899, from a private water company, the price paid being $125,155.81. The extensions made since purchasing the works have brought the. cost up to $160,394.10, as shown by the annual report for the year ending February 28, 1905. The length of mains is now 21.33 miles. There are 137 fire hydrants, 1,540 service taps, and 98 meters. The ordinary pressure carried is 63 pounds, and fire pressure 100 to 120 pounds. The water is pumped direct to the mains. The average daily consumption of water is 819,344 gallons. This is a lower rate than prevailed when the works were acquired by the city, although the number of consumers has increased 25 per cent. A tendency to guard against waste is therefore developing in the community. Superintendent Stephen Cahill, who furnished the data concerning this waterworks system, estimates that about 60 per cent of the population, or 8,500 people, are now using the city supply. The remainder depend on private wells, which range in depth from 15 to 90 feet. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. At Arcadia the supply is from driven wells 20 to 25 feet deep, which strike water at about the level of Lake Michigan. At Chief the wells are commonly about 50 feet, but wells in the country around reach depths of 150 feet, and when on high points have only 10 to 20 feet of water. At Onekama the flowing wells, ranging in depth from 40 to 300 feet, are in general use and have a pressure equal to a head of about 70 feet and a discharge as high as 168 gallons a minute from a 2-inch pipe. These wells are discussed in some detail by Mr. Gregory (pp. 297-301). There are a few pump wells on the hill back of the village ranging from 10 to 100 feet in depth. Springs in the vicinity of the village are strong and yield as high as 50 gallons a minute. At Pierport, on the shore of Lake Michigan, wells are from 10 to 125 feet in depth, though they are commonly less than 60 feet. At Tanner, in the valley of Bear Creek, wells are commonly about 18 feet deep, though tubular wells reach a depth of 80 feet. At Brethren, on the plain east of Bear Creek, and also at Kaleva, wells are driven to depths of 20 to 30 feet and find abundance of water. ï~~296 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. At Copemish the wells are but 15 to 30 feet in depth, though in the higher country immediately east they are much deeper. At Harlan, in the northeastern part of the county, there are a few shallow open wells, but the driven wells in that vicinity are usually 100 feet or more in depth. At Dublin, in the southeastern part of the county, the wells are 70 to 75 feet in depth and have very little head, but at Wellston siding, 3 miles north, an abundance of water is found at 16 feet. FLOWING WELLS. ARCADIA. There are two flowing wells east of the village of Arcadia, in northern Manistee County, on a low plain bordering Lake Michigan-one on the farm of Luther Finch, the other at a German cemetery. The Finch well, in sec. 11 T. 24 N., R. 16 W., is about 1 mile from the lake and 40 feet above it. It was made in April, 1903. The cemetery well is a mile farther east, on somewhat higher ground, and has been running for about four years. (See P1. V, B.) The Finch well is 187 feet deep and flows a half-inch stream from a 3-inch pipe. It has the following section, as reported by the owner: Record of Finch well, east of Arcadia. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Red sand, lake deposit----------------------------------------------------........................................................... 4 4 Red glacial clay (till)-----------------------------------------------------............................................................ 80 84 Water vein with head of -2 feet............-----------------------------.----------------- White sand------------------------------------------------------------....................................................................... 80 164 Light-colored clay-------------------------------------------------------............................................................... 10 174 Clay and gravel------------------------------------------------------.................................................................. 3 177 Water gravel with head of 14 feet-------------------------------------------................................................ 10 187 The cemetery well is 143 feet deep and flows a 1-inch stream, which has shown no perceptible diminution in the four years it has been flowing. The catchment area for these wells is likely to be in the bordering morainic hills which sweep around the plain on which they occur on the north, east, and south. It is probable that other wells may be obtained on this plain if sunk to levels as low as those already obtained. In most cases wells are shallow and afford sufficient supplies by pumping. There are numerous springs along the base of the morainic tracts bordering this plain, which are utilized by the residents. VICINITY OF KALEVA. Andrew Kullgren has a flowing well on the bank of Bear Creek, about 4 miles northwest of Kaleva, with a depth of 130 feet. At about 30 feet he reached the bottom of the surface deposit of gravel and sand and penetrated clay to the water-bearing gravel at bottom. ï~~MANISTEE COUNTY. 297 Joseph Gilson has a flowing well in a recess of a moraine about 4 miles east of Kaleva, in sec. 20, Marilla Township, with a depth of 75 feet and a head of 2 feet. Water was struck at 65 feet, with a temperature of 450 F. Joel Gilson has a well in the same region, made in March, 1903; depth 75 feet, diameter 2 inches, with a head of 2 feet. Water was struck at 70 feet and is soft. The well is located in a stream bed.a BEAR LAKE. A newspaper report concerning a flowing well at Bear Lake appeared in the Jackson (Mich.) Press October 26, 1904, as follows: Manistee, Mich., October 26.-A farmer living near Bear Lake has an artesian well on his farm which spouts both water and gas. The well in 419 feet deep and the pipe is forked at the surface and one part, which is considerably higher than the other, emits gas, while water flows from the lower one. The farmer intends storing the gas in a tank and will use it to light his home this winter. R.16 W. Sec. 21 Sec.2 Sec. 23 SGeneral extent of I. oglnn rOnekmtma rta ae Pointrnn t i p POR TA GE LAKE z 58P ft. A. T. ":/, Sec,Sec *ark Sec 34 -Sec 35 Sec. 36 Fie. 60.-Flowing wells in and near Onekama, Manistee County. ONEKAMA. b The Onekama district is a narrow strip of land about Portage Lake, in Manistee County, having an elevation of 582 to 620 feet above tide.' The lake is surrounded by high hills of porous drift deposited in part by a small local ice lobe. At the west end of Portage Lake currents in Lake Michigan have built a bar and piled the sand in dunes, so that the once wide mouth of this basin is nearly closed. The Lake Michigan shore north of this region has a 40-foot cliff of clay capped with varying depths of sand and gravel. a Data by A. L. Gleason, driller. b By W. M. Gregory. ï~~298 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The high hills of 200 to 300 feet above the lake average a mile back from the shore of Portage Lake." The Onekama district has at present 40 wells, 36 of which are good flows and the remainder either failures or very weak (fig. 60). The wells are all drilled, nine being driven, as the clay is compact and the sand is often consolidated. The tubular-well machine with a water jet is generally used for sinking wells in this region. In the shallow wells and in drift which is less compact and tenacious an outfit of similar construction is utilized. The wells are generally made by contract, varying from 75 cents to $1 a foot in the deeper wells, and by the job for a flow in shallow wells. Some few of the wells require a screen, but generally the supply is from a rather coarse gravel water bed. The wells are in general use throughout the district for domestic purposes, dairy and stock use, and water has been occasionally shipped from Mr. Canfield's well to outside markets. The waters are soft enough for all domestic purposes and are preferred by some to the lake water for laundry purposes. The field analyses show that the hardness is above the average of the drift water, while the carbonates are low, and the chlorides are above the normal water. The combined flow of the 36 wells is 2,197 gallons a minute, or 61 gallons a well, which is a high rate. Changes in flowage of several wells occurred when Mr. C. J. Canfield's well (No. 23) was made. This well has an estimated flowage of 250 gallons a minute. The deposits of this region consist of alternate clay and sand layers, and the latter form many water beds which give flows of varying strength, depending on the coarseness of the material. The alternating character of these beds is shown in the record of John Neitzke's well (No. 3), where a small flow was found under each clay bed. At the western end of the lake no flows are obtained, a few trials showing this to be a sand bar built across the mouth of the.lake. At the fish hatchery the most productive bed is the third one, at 43 feet, though porous gravel beds have been found at 19 feet and at 25 to 35 feet, while a small flow comes from the Antrim shale, which is reached at 425 feet. At Mr. Canfield's, one-half mile east of the fish hatchery, there is a coarse gravel water bed, at 160 to 170 feet, which yields a heavy flow. This bed apparently rises to the east. In Mr. W. W. Davis's well (No. 14) it is found at 160 feet; at A. E. Solomon's (No. 12), at 157 feet; and at the cheese factory (No. 5), at 138 feet. Below this bed there are several others ranging from 224 feet in the well of W. W. Davis (No. 14) to 300 feet in A. L. Showalter's (No. 6). The deposits on the south side of the lake are more sandy than those to the north, and the wells have not been so successfully developed. A fairly good supply is obtained at less than 100 feet by ï~~MANISTEE COUNTY. 299 P. Noud (No. 34), Joe Frisbe (No. 35), and H. Hanson (No. 36). Several of the wells which have been drilled to the Antrim shale at 472 feet yield no water. Mr. August Lipkowski (No. 33) obtains gas enough for two burners from a well in this shale. The catchment area of wells about Portage Lake is in the highlands of Glacial drift which reach an elevation of over 900 feet above tide about the border of the lake. Well drillers find it difficult to obtain water on the high hills, for wells have much loose, porous material and few seams of clay. The general absence of creeks north and south of this area is the result of the porous character of the drift. When the clay comes to the surface at lower elevations lakes or springs are the result. The upper limit of strong springs along Portage Lake is at 650 feet above tide, and some are well developed at 620 feet. Some springs in the western part of Onekama village have recently burst out in new places. The supply for the fish hatchery well (No. 27) is evidently drawn from the water bed that supplies the small creek which heads in several springs at an altitude of 625 feet above tide. The area affords some good data concerning the well pressure which it has not been possible to obtain from other regions. Mr. W. W. Davis, a competent well driller, has taken much interest in the pressure of the different wells, and has arranged to measure it in each by means of a small steam boiler fitted with a gage. The pressures have all been carefully recorded in the accompanying table. The greatest pressure is 35 pounds to the square inch, which is reported by Mr. Davis from wells No. 21, 22, and 23, and seems rather large. The writer saw Mr. Davis test well No. 25 with the apparatus which has been used on the other wells of the region. The pressure gage registered 20 pounds to the square inch, or 5 pounds less than when the well was first made. Mr. Davis asserts that this decrease is due to sand in the pipe. ï~~300 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Onekama. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Owner. J. E. Carletonb... J. E. Carleton.... John Neitzke bc.. Henry Smith..... Cheese factory.... A. T. Showalter.. H. Hanson...... 0. Peterson... J. J. Kenny... R. F. Wendellb... A. F. Richmond.. A. E. Solomon d.. J. E. Erickson.... W. W Davis e... Wm. Hoglin b.... Fred Brown...... Chas. Tomlin..... F. Hall.......... Mr. Miniter b..... Ramsell & Marsh. C. J. Canfield..........do............ C. J. Canfield I... 0 a Ft. 607 602 610 02 597 597 597 597 594 592 594 602 607 607 607 612 597 597 607 604 607 607 607 In. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 32 2 SI a.. " Quality. Remarks. +P~ ',- ay0!0 Ft. Ft. Ft. Gals. Â~F Lbs. 185 422 656 75 492 Soft.... $75 30 Domestic use 132 471 647 75.............. 20 Barn and pasture. 290 320 667 150.... Medium.... 25 Domestic use. 129 473 659 102 49 Soft........ 25 House and barn. 138 359... 50................. 10 Cooling room. 300 297 642 150... Medium 208 20 Domestic use. 101 496 633 125 49 Soft........ 15 Do. 85 512 633 125 49............. 15 Do. 291 303..... 100 49 Soft..I....... 10 83 509... 100............. 83 10 126 468 649 140 49 Soft......... 20 157 445..... 100 49......... 150 8 Hotel. 159 448..... 100..............8.....8 244 363..... 150 492............. 25 First flow at 160 feet. 40 567 622 40...................6 Domestic use. 134 778..... 160 49 Soft....... 32 House and barn. 157 420..... 125 49.... do........15 Piped to second story. 40 557. 75 492....o.do...[... 8 All clay; flow in gravel. 85 522..... 125................... 20 Piped to second story. 67 547..... 75 482 Soft..........11 162 445..... 168 49.......... 160 35 Water from gravel. 168 439.....168.................... 35 162 435..... 250.... Soft.... -..... 35 Occasionally sold for drinking. 126 481..... 74.............. 120 43 559.. 75 48............. 425 177... 10.... Hard........... Rock at 300 feet. 19 583..... 30................... 25 577..... 30................... 35 567..... 35................... 304 298.............................No water. 304 288......100.... Hard.. '25 Water from gravel. C. J. Canfield.... 607 Fish hatchery.... 602 Fish hatchery g.. 602 Fish hatchery.... 602..... do............ 602..... do............ 602..... do............ 602 E. L. Reeves h... 592 a W. W. Davis, a well driller of Onekama, is authority for the pressures, which were obtained by connecting well to boiler with steam gage attached. b Screen used only in Nos. 1, 3, 10, 15, 19, and 38. c The following is the record of this well: Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand............................................................................ 18 18 Clay............................................................................. 99 117 Sand............................................................................ 12 129 Clay............................................................................. 24 153 Sand........................................................................... 32 185 Clay....................................................................... 24 209 Sand................................. 23 232 Clay............. "..................................................... 45 277 Gravel and sand; water be................................................. 23 300 dA field analysis of the hotel well is as follows: Parts per million. H ardness......................................................................................... 187.6 Carbonates....................................................................................... 24 Chlorides....................................................................................... 15 Iron............................................................................................. 0 eA field analysis of water from the Davis well is as follows: Parts per million. H ardness......................................................................................... 175.5 Carbonates....................................................................................... 29 Chlorides........................................................................................ 15 Wood was found in this well at 110 feet. I When well No. 23 was drilled, 100 feet west of No. 21, the pressure in the latter was decreased from 35 to 28 pounds. Wells Nos. 22 and 23 are connected, and the total flow is used to operate a water turbine which gives power for a small electric-light plant. g Strong pressure of gas, which rapidly decreased. A Beneath 96 feet of surface sand and 16 feet of marl and clay are alternating beds of clay and sandy gravel, the clay predominating. ï~~WEXFORD COUNTY. 301 Wells at Onekama---Continued. Owner. Quality. Remarks. O.cd 4 j a a Ft. In Ft. Ft. Ft. Gals. O F. Lbs. 32 Wm. Nuttalla.... 592 225 367..100.............17515 33 Aug. Lipkowskib. 642 2 418 224 646......ard......... 34 Pat. Noud................... +11 20.... Soft............. Stock and domestic 3 use. 35 Joe Faske............. 2 65....+17 75.......... 50.... Passed 6 water beds. 36 Hans Hanson.... 612 2 63 549 20...................10 37 A. Clark estate c. 592 2 472 120 ".......Hard........... No water. 38 Ed. Kinney d.... 594 11 43 551.. 25.... i"..... 5 Some gas at intervals. 39 Mr. Klein............. 2 225..+32 5... Soft.-.. 160-_ Sand 13 feet; remainder tough clay. 40 Public school..... 624 2 40. 616........................ a Sand 103 feet; remainder soft clay, with some sand and gravel. b Gas enough to supply two burners in one house for the past year. c Record of well, with 100 feet unaccounted for: Total Thickness. depth. Feet. Feet. Sand........................................................................... 128 128 Clay..............................................................................14 142 Sand............................................................................ 20 162 Clay.................................................................... 30 192 Reddish shale (?)............................................................... 123 315 Black shale..................................................................... 57 372 d Screen used only in Nos. 1, 3, 10, 15, 19, and 38. WATER SUPPLIES OF WEXFORD COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. Wexford County, of which Cadillac is the county seat, is immediately east of Manistee County, in the western part of the southern peninsula. Its southeast corner is between the Lake Michigan and Saginaw lobes, on a prominent interlobate moraine, the highest point of which rises to a little above 1,500 feet and the greater part of which is above 1,300 feet. In this moraine wells have in several cases reached depths of over 200 feet before striking water, though the high hills are generally avoided and water is reached at 100 feet or less. This moraine extends but little north of Cadillac. Along its northwest border is a sandy plain several miles wide in which the Clam lakes are situated, from one of which the waterworks supply of Cadillac is drawn. North and west of this plain is a prominent moraine, with a crest 1,400 to 1,500 feet above tide. The village of Boone is near its eastern border, and Harrietta is in a recess on its western border, while Sherman and Manton are also near the inner border. It is a tract in which the few wells made are ordinarily deep, but much of it is still unsettled. West and north of this moraine is a broad plain through which Manistee River flows. It is largely covered with sand, but portions of it between Manton and Sherman have ï~~302 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. till at surface. The part north of the river is an outwash from a moraine that runs through eastern Manistee and southern Grand Traverse County. On this plain water is usually found at depths of 20 to 50 feet, or in harmony with the streams flowing into Manistee River. The county is tributary to Manistee River except a few square miles in the southeastern part that drain eastward through Clam River to the Muskegon. Throughout the county the drift is so loose textured that water is nearly all absorbed, and there seems to be a general water table in harmony with the streams. Wells on high points and elevated plains generally go about to the level of the neighboring streams to strike water, and this in the highest ridges is about 200 feet. So far as known there are no flowing wells in this county. The only places where they seem likely to be found are in recesses in the moraine south of Manistee River, or along the low bottoms of the river or its tributaries. No borings have been carried to sufficient depth in this county to reach rock, and it is probable that the rock lies several hundred feet below the surface. The city of Cadillac and the village of Manton have waterworks plants using surface water. That of Cadillac is from Little Clam Lake which lies west of the city. The Manton supply is from a small stream running through the village. Wells are in common use for drinking at both towns. In Cadillac wells which the public utilize have been drilled along some of the streets in the business section. Analyses of water from the lake and from private wells at Cadillac were made by Mr. Lewis, who found that some carelessness is displayed in selecting the sites for wells. The porous character of the soil in this region is such that it will readily receive whatever surface contamination there may be. In the accompanying table are given the results of a number of partial analyses made by S. J. Lewis in the vicinity of Cadillac. The lake water is soft and satisfactory. The Platt and Leeson wells are both supplied from sand beds in the drift. The Leeson water shows the normal composition, but the high percentage of chlorine in the Platt water indicates that it may be polluted by seepage from the near-by barns of the owner. The data are furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. ï~~MISSAUKEE COUNTY. 303 Partial analyses of well and lake waters at Cadillac. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. Color-------------------------------------------------------.................................................................... 46 65 37 Iron (Fe).....--------------------------------------------------......................................................... Strong.5 1 trace. Chlorine (Cl). ----------------------------------------------------21.7 51 24.25 Carbon dioxide (CO2) ------------------------------------------20.05 78.09 80.14 Sulphur trioxide (SOs)....-.......................................... 0 36 0 Hardness (as CaCO3).................................................-------------------------------------------. 90.6 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Lake. 2. J. IL Platt; depth, 36 feet. 3. Dr. J. Leeson; depth, 113 feet. The data on village supplies given below were largely obtained by correspondence: Village supplies in Wexford County. -_ Depth of wells. Depth -,, leva- '-- - - -- --- to Town. Eva Source.;- -- wtor Ihead. Springs. tion. mon.- water. mon. bed. IFeet. Feet. Feet. Benson post-office. 1,300 Springs and driven wells.! 16 200 Boone........... 1,387 Driven wells.............. 104 246 Cadillac.......... 1,280 Driven wells, and water- 30 150 11,400 works supply from lake. Gilbert............ 1,250+ Driven wells..------............ - 15 135 Harrietta......... 1,115.....do.................... 35 Manton.......... 1,132 Spring brook for water- 12 30 works and wells. Sherman.......... 920 Open and driven wells... 10 90 Wexford.......... 1,000+ Driven wells............. 35 185 Yuma.............. 982.....do................... 15 150 ------ Feet. Feet. Feet. 40 150 -20 104 104...... 50 50.... 50 50 35. 50...... (.. 30 -12 25 25...... 50 60 -40 20 20 -15 Small. Do. None. Large. Small. Large. Small. WATER SUPPLIES OF MISSAUKEE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. TOPOGRAPHY. Missaukee County is situated east of Wexford County, and is crossed by the same morainic systems as the latter, the interlobate moraine being in the southwest corner and the strong moraine north of it running through the center in a course south of east. There is a large amount of till plain between the two moraines in the south and also a till plain in the east. On these till plains the water table is generally near the surface, portions of them being swampy; but the moraines are of gravelly constitution and the water table is near the level of their bases or but little higher than in the till plains. The moraines have reliefs of 50 to 100 feet or more and the wells along them are of corresponding depths. In the northeast there is considerable swamp underlain with sand; this is unsettled, but there are settlements on its northwestern border at Stratford and Moorestown. North of this swamp, along the border of Kalkaska County, is a morainic belt which crosses to the north side of Manistee River near ï~~304 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the northwest corner of the county. This morainic belt also is largely unsettled. The greater part of the county drains southeastward into Muskegon River, but the northwestern part is tributary to Manistee River. In the western part, near Jennings and Lake City, there is a group of lakes, one of which is drawn on for the water supplies of those towns. FLOWING WELLS. In this district are three flowing wells, one at and two near Dolph post-office, in the Muskegon Valley, in the eastern part of the county. DOLPH DISTRICT. The well at Dolph is owned by F. L. Witherell, and has a depth of 62 feet. It stands on ground about 8 feet above Muskegon River, and has a head of 8 feet - and a flow of about 9 gallons a minute. It penetrated blue clay and "putty sand" to the flow at 36 feet. The well was continued to greater depth in order to strike gravel, but found only fine sand in the lower portion. A short distance north of Dolph, in sec. 34, Butterfield Township, also in the Muskegon Valley, is the flowing well of Elisha Clifford, about 40 feet in depth. Another flowing well was made by a Mr. Bowman on a tributary of Muskegon River northeast of Dolph, in the edge of Roscommon County, but this was not visited. McBAIN DISTRICT. East of McBain, in sec. 21, Riverside Township, is the flowing well of John Gates, 34 feet in depth, with a head of at least 2 feet. It struck water at 4 feet and found it all the way down. The well cost $12. There is a flowing well at D. G. Spreksell's, 1 miles east and 1 mile south of McBain, about 25 feet in depth. William De Zwaan has a flowing well about 40 feet deep located 3 miles east and one-half mile north of McBain. There is also reported to be a flow, made by some hunters or campers, in an unsettled tract near the edge of Osceola County, southeast of McBain. The extent of this district and the number of flows can probably be greatly increased, for the high moraine to the west forms a good catchment area. The flows near Dolph also lie east of a strong moraine, and it is probable that this district may be extended along Muskegon River and its tributaries. Much of that country is unsettled, so there has been no demand for wells. ï~~ROSCOMMON COUNTY. 305 WATERWORKS. LAKE CITY. The waterworks plant at Lake City is owned by a private company, and water is pumped from Lake Missaukee. It is largely used for drinking as well as for fire and sprinkling. It is soft enough for laundry use and in boilers. Some residents consider this supply less satisfactory for drinking than wells. JENNINGS. The waterworks at Jennings are operated by a private company, and the supply is drawn from Lake Missaukee. The water is soft enough for boiler and laundry use. Wells are in common use for drinking, as there is some distrust of the safety of the lake waters. The wells are usually 60 to 80 feet deep. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. Village Supplies in Missaukee County. I)epthl of wells. Depth Town. Popu- Elev- Source. Co- water ead. Springs. lation, tion. Fromt- To-- mn ae mon. bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Butterfield.................. Driven wells........... 14 116 14-35 27 -22 Large. Jennings.... 9(00+) 1,275 Â~ l)rtven wells, lake..... 20 8 ) 60 60...... Small. Lake City... 816 1,260_ l)riven wells, Missau- 15 60 30 60....... Do. kee I.ake. Lucas....... 200 1,2991 Driven wells........... 25 40 40 40 -30 None. MeBain...... 709 1,232....o................. 43 185 80 80 -20 Small. Pioneer..................... Open and driven wells. 20 190 50 50 - Do. Stittsville.... -.do................ 16 100 25 100.... Do. Stratford.......... Driven wells......... 25....... 25........ -18 Do. WATER SUPPLIES OF ROSCOMMON COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. General statement.-Roscommon County is situated east of Missaukee County, and embraces a high table-land in which Muskegon River and south branch of Au Sable River have their sources. The head of the Muskegon is in Higgins Lake, which lies at an altitude of about 1,150 feet and embraces an area of several square miles, bordered on the north by a moraine which rises above 1,200 feet. The outlet leads into Houghton Lake, a body of water about 10 miles long and 4 miles wide, whose altitude is about 1,125 feet. In the southeastern part of the county is a prominent moraine of the Saginaw lobe whose highest points are fully 1,400 feet above tide. On the borders of Houghton Lake and eastward across the county to Lake St. Helen are extensive swamps, underlain in large part by clay. Between this swampy tract and the high moraine in the southeast are extensive Iuu 183---0-----21 ï~~306 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. sand plains, parts of which are being developed as a forest reserve. On these sand plains the distance to water is but a few feet, and basins in them are occupied by swamps and small lakes. There are several small groups of hills scattered over the county, which, being composed largely of gravel and sand, probably have a water table at considerable depths. The water table also is at considerable depth in the high moraine in the southeast. The county is very sparsely settled, the population in 1900 being but 1,787, of whom 465 were in Roscommon village. Most of the farming is done in Richfield and Markey townships. Flowing wells.-At the west end of Houghton Lake there is a well about 30 feet deep, which flows at a level 8 feet above Muskegon River, on the bank of which it stands. It is largely through blue till. Another flowing well, noted in the Missaukee County discussion (p. 304), is a few miles southwest of Houghton Lake, on the farm of Mr. Bowman. So far as known these are the only flowing wells in the county, but it is probable that others might be had from Houghton Lake southwestward into Missaukee County in the swamp traversed by Muskegon River. Whether flowing wells could be obtained on Au Sable River has not been determined. The stream, however, follows the base of a prominent ridge near Roscommon, which may furnish head for flows. In the vicinity of Houghton Lake, on the Hall farm and at King's store, wells on ground 25 feet above the lake have been sunk to depths of 50 to 75 feet. At Prudenville, a little farther east, the wells are only 12 to 24 feet in depth, and at St. Helen, on the border of Lake St. Helen, they are only 8 to 10 feet. At Nolan lumber camp, on the south side of the prominent moraine in the southeastern part of the county, wells are 8 to 30 feet in depth, and in the vicinity there are large springs. The wells in the neighborhood of Herbert post-office are 14 to 40 feet in depth. Waterworks.-The village of Roscommon has a small waterworks system in which a windmill pumps water from a spring brook to an elevated tank about 16 by 22 feet, from which water is distributed through about 2 miles of mains to all parts of the village. WATER SUPPLIES OF ALCONA COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. General statement.-Alcona County fronts on Lake Huron north of Saginaw Bay, Harrisville being the county seat. It is more elevated than counties to the north and south, there being a belt of high country fronting on the lake above Harrisville, which extends westward across the northern part. The highest points in the northwestern part reach about 1,200 feet above tide, and there are probably 40 ï~~ALCONA COUNTY. 307 square miles in the western part that stand above 1,000 feet. About three-fourths of the county stands between 700 and 900 feet above the sea. The lowland bordering the lake is limited to a strip about 5 miles wide at the south border and 3 miles at the north border, which is narrowed to less than 1 mile in the middle part of the county. The drainage is nearly equally divided between the Thunder Bay River and Au Sable River systems, the north half being drained northward to Thunder Bay River and the south half southward and eastward to Au Sable River. A narrow strip on the border of Lake Huron is drained by Black River and other small direct tributaries to the lake. Au Sable River crosses the southwest corner of the county in a deep and broad valley, but receives no important tributaries in that part of its course. Pine River, with its numerous tributaries, drains six townships in the southeast and enters the Au Sable in Iosco County. The principal tributaries of Thunder Bay River in Alcona County are Hubbard Lake, with its main affluents, Sucker Creek, and Hubbard Creek in the northeastern part, and Wolf, McGinn, Silver, and Wildcat creeks in the northwestern part. Hubbard Lake is a body of water 7 miles in length and nearly 2 miles in average width, bordered on all sides by ranges of hills. There are numerous other lakes scattered over the county. It is only in the eastern portion of the county that wells are sufficiently numerous to test the supply of underground water, and even there only to slight depths. In the thinly settled central and western portions springs and surface water are generally adequate to the needs of the residents, and the few wells made are usually between 15 and 30 feet in depth. In the eastern portion wells that are sunk beyond the surface water veins vary greatly in depth and in strength, because of the differences in texture of the drift. They indicate that a widespread bed of sand occurs under the surface clay in the eastern part of the county, which is often dry for a few feet but is charged with water farther down. In such wells there is litt e rise of the water above the level at which it is struck. Flowing wells.-It is probable that flowing wells may be obtained in several localities within the county by sinking to a depth of 100 to 150 feet or less, for the situation is very similar to that in the flowingwell districts to the southwest at Rose City and West Branch, in Ogemaw County. One favorable belt is on the eastern slope of a moraine leading from Lott northward across tps. 25, 26, and 27 N., R. 6 E. Flows may perhaps be obtained in the southeastern part of T. 27 N., R. 5 E., and northwestward past McCollum Lake. If the ice sheet pushed up into that region from the northeast, as seems probable, the waters that soak in along the elevated moraine that constitutes the divide between Au Sable and Thunder Bay rivers are likely to be working down the slopes in the direction of surface drainage, and ï~~308 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. may have sufficient head to overflow in the comparatively low tracts near the head of Wolf, Silver, and McGinn creeks, and possibly for some distance down these streams. In the eastern part of the county flowing-well prospects seem good along the lake shore, and flows may also be struck in low ground at the headwaters of tributaries of Hubbard Lake and of the east and west branches of Pine River. One flowing well has already been obtained near a branch of Pine River in sec. 11, T. 26 N., R. 8 E., at the moderate depth of 65 feet, which is at least an encouragement to prospect for others in similar situations along each side of this divide. The well referred to is on the land of Frank Blong, 2 miles southwest of Lincoln. It penetrated clay 18 feet, gravel (with weak water vein) 8 inches, clay with hard crust at about 30 to 35 feet from the surface and softer clay below at 44 feet, and terminated in gravel which yielded a flow of water. The altitude is about 120 feet above Lake Huron, or 700 feet above tide. Springs.-Large springs abound along the lake front from near Greenbush northward past Springport and Harrisville, which supply the needs of residents to such an extent that but few wells have been made. Springs also abound along the headwaters of the several branches of Pine River and on nearly every stream. tributary to Thunder Bay River. The water seeps out in such abundance that most of the streams are bordered by marshy tracts. Miscellaneous village supplies.-At Harrisville springs issuing along the border of the lake have furnished most of the residents with water. In the winter of 1903 and 1904 a boring was made to test for oil and gas and flowing water. It was, however, located on the court-house grounds at an altitude 60 feet above the lake and a flow was not obtained. Before reaching a depth of 40 feet the well struck two strong veins of water, estimated to supply 150,000 gallons a day from an 8-inch pipe. Another supply was found at 100 to 130 feet in sand below hardpan, and still another was found in the Berea sandstone at 230 to 260 feet. The boring was carried to a depth of 506 feet and has the following section, furnished by J. H. Killmaster, of Harrisville: Record of Harrisville uwell. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Yellow loamy soil.............................................................. 12.5 12.5 Quicksand, full of fresh water.................................................... 14 26.5 R ed clay........................................................................ 6.5 33 Coarse gravel, full of fresh water................................................. 6 39 Bow ldery till.................................................................... 60 99 Sand with signs of oil and fair yield of water-----------.....................-.......... 30 129 Red clayey hardpan, with some sand and gravel................................ 59 188 R ed clay....................................................................... 4 192 Blue hardpan, with fragments of B3erea sandstone............................... 38 230 Berea sandstone, of light color, fine grained...................................... 30 260 Light-gray shale............................................................... 149 409 Brown and black shale.......................................................... 97 506 ï~~ALCONA COUNTY. 309 At Black River village water'is hauled from the lake and delivered in b)arrels to the residents, the lake water being of better quality than that obtained in shallow wells. At Greenbush wells 25 to 30 feet deep furnish a good quality of water and are largely through sand and gravel. At Lincoln lakes are used to a great extent for watering stock, but the houses are supplied b)y wells 30 to 40 feet in depth. In and near Mikado wells are about 30 feet in depth, largely through clay. Farm wells in the vicinity of the village have been sunk to depths of 60 or 70 feet. At Killmaster there is abundance of water at various depths, as shown by three deep borings made in prospecting for oil. Fresh water overflows from the base of the drift at depths of about 240 feet, and salt water, accomp)anied by inflammable gas, is struck in the Berea sandstone at 570 to 610 feet. In one of the borings gas had worked up into the base of tie drift. No water was found below the Berea sandstone, although one of the borings was carried to a depth of 1,530 feet. These wells are discussed by 1)octor Lane in the Annual Report of the State geologist for 1901. At Vaughn wells ordinarily obtain a good supply of water at about 30 feet, and they are of similar depth in the vicinity of Lott. At Spruce, in the north part of the county, wells are obtained at depths of 20 to 25 feet or less, but several farm wells in that vicinity have been sunk to (lepths of 80 to 100 feet. Village supplies in Alcona County. Town. lovaFeetion. Feet. I - 1 - Aleona. 090 Bamfield.... 870 Black River. 590 Bryant...... 850 Greenbush... 640 Gustin....... 693 1{ (1 Iarrisville." -; 640 Killmaster... 7() S1 77(O Lincoln. 81 Mikado...... 634 Springport... I 640 Spruce-------....... 750 Vaughn-. { 1,0... 1,02: Source. Lake HIuron, springs, shallow wells. Au Sable River, springs, shallow wells. Lake Huron, shallow wells Shallow wells...--..-...........do----------.................. -....do..----------------- }Springs, shallow wells... Wells------------------.....................Lake, shallow wells....... Wells..------------------ Mainly springs-........... Shallow wells............. Lakes, wells............. l)epth of wells. ComFrom- Tom- oneon. Feet. Feet. Feet. 10 30 20 40 40 40 8 40 8 20 30 25 25 30 25 30 50 35 10 40 30 20 240 30 30 40 35 30 70 30 30 40 30 15 30 25 20 80 30 Depth wateo Iead. Springs. bed. Feet Fact. 2.... L. arge. 40 -35 Strong. 8 - Do. 25.- Weak. 25 -20 Strong. 35 -30 Weak................. Large. 30 +20 Weak. 35 -30 Do. 30 -20 l)o................ Large. 20 -10 Weak. 30 - 25 Do. ï~~310 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF- OSCODA COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. Oscoda County is situated west of Alcona County, with Mio as its county seat. About half its surface is occupied by sandy plains unsuited for settlement, and much of the remainder is in sharp morainic ridges of gravelly or sandy constitution not calculated for successful farming. There are, however, fertile tracts to the northeast near Fairview, to the northwest toward Redoak, and.to the southwest between Mio and Luzerne. The entire population of the county in 1900 was only 1,468; Mentor Township, including the village of Mio, is credited with a population of 119. Au Sable River runs through the county nearly centrally from west to east in a valley 50 to 100 feet below the bordering sand plains, draining, with its tributaries, all of the county except a narrow strip on the north edge, which discharges northward to Thunder Bay River. The drift is probably several hundred feet in thickness, but no wells have yet reached rock. Several in the vicinity of Fairview are over 200 feet in depth, and are largely through sand. At Mio the dug wells are 50 feet, and bored wells in that vicinity are 100 to 150 feet. There are few places in the county where wells can be obtained at less than 50 feet, except in the valleys. The village of Mio has a public water supply, built in 1889, in which water is pumped from a spring brook to an elevated tank. It is credited by the Manual of American Waterworks with 0.6 mile of mains, four hydrants, and 18 taps, all of which are reported to have cost $2,844. This yields an annual income of $1,000 paid by the village for fire protection and about $100 from other sources. Village supplies of Oscoda County. Depth of wells. Town orpost- Popu- Eleva- Source. office. lation. tion. C-From- To- Cor- Spngs. mon. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Comins...... 7 1,150 Springs and driven wells............28 100 40 Large. Fairview............ 1,250Â~ Lakes, springs, wells--..------------ 20 220 65 Do. Mio.---------- 100Â~ 1,000+ Waterworks, wells................. 50 102 95 Small. Luzerne..... 50Â~ 1,100Â~ Wells---------------------------............................... - 50 70 50 Do. McKinley.... 900 o......................... 12 15-....... Large. Redoak.....--..----...... Driven wells...................... 16 30 20 Do. WATER SUPPLIES OF CRAWFORD COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. Crawford County is situated on the high table-land in the northern end of the Southern Peninsula about midway between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, Grayling being the county seat. Its western side drains westward to Lake Michigan throtigh Manistee River, but ï~~CRAWFORD COUNTY. 311 the major part of the county drains eastward through Au Sable River. Its glacial drainage, however, was westward past Portage Lake to Manistee River. This county, like Oscoda, is very largely occupied by sandy plains or by moraines of loose-textured drift. The principal part of the farming is in Maple Forest Township, in the northern part of the county, and three towns in that part of the county, Judge, Frederick, and Deward, are largely devoted to lumbering. There are several good farms in the southern end of the county a few miles northeast of Higgins Lake. The township in which Grayling is situated had a population of 1,716 in 1900, a large part of which are within the village limits. The wells throughout the county appear to be to a water table in harmony with the inland lakes and streams, and the drift so far as penetrated by them is mainly sand and gravel. In Grayling, which is on a plain but little above Au Sable River, the wells are 20 feet in depth, and water stands within 13 feet of the surface. At Judge the conditions are very similar to those at Grayling, wells being commonly from 16 to 20 feet deep, or about to the level of the north fork of Au Sable River. On moraines near Judge a depth of 135 feet is reached by the deepest wells. At Frederick, wells are about 40 feet in depth with the water level perhaps 25 feet below the surface. On the moraine east of Frederick, in Maple Forest Township, wells are usually nearly 100 feet and in some cases about 200 feet in depth, with but a few feet of water in the bottom. At Deward, in the valley of Manistee River, wells need to be driven only 10 to 20 feet. In the southern part of the county near Wellington the wells range from 30 to 200 feet in depth, the deepest being on morainic ridges, and the shallowest in valleys. On most farms, however, wells are obtained at 50 to 100 feet. The distance to rock, as determined by a boring at Grayling, is 365 feet, making the rock surface 775 feet above tide at that point. The drift here is largely sand and filled with water. This boring, which reached a depth of 2,750 feet, is discussed by Doctor Lane in the report of the State geologist for 1901. The highest points in the county are nearly 1,400 feet and the drift beneath them is liable to be over 600 feet, if we may judge by the altitude of the rock at the Grayling well. At Roscommon, just south of the county line, a boring was made many years ago which is thought to have reached rock at about the same level as that at Grayling, but no accurate record is now to be obtained. ï~~312 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF KALKASKA COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. General statement.-Kalkaska County lies west of Crawford County, on the western slope of the high tract in the northern part of the peninsula. Its eastern and southern parts are drained by Manistee River and its northwestern parts by Boardman and Rapid rivers. The part south of Manistee River has a small settlement around Fletcher, in the southeastern township, where there are a few square miles of good farming land, but the remainder has scarcely any settlers. The eastern townships north of the river have only lumber camps. The principal farming district in the county is on a morainic belt lying east of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway and running entirely across the county from its north border to its southwest corner. The railway runs through a sandy plain several miles wide that is largely unsettled. In the northwestern part of the county is another morainic belt which is nearly all settled. The northwest corner is on a low sandy plain bordering Torch and Round lakes. Wells.-The only flowing wells noted in this county are in the southwestern part near Fife Lake. Walton Blue has a well in a valley near the center of sec. 7, Springfield Township, 22 feet in depth, which flows a weak stream. About a mile southeast, at an old sawmill site, in the western part of sec. 17, is a flowing well 63 feet deep, which discharges a 1-inch stream. It is probable that flowing wells may be obtained in the vicinity of Rapid City and Barker Creek at the foot of the moraine in the northwest part of the county, for they have been obtained in similar situations a few miles to the west at Williamsburg and Traverse City. (See pp. 315-324.) The wells in the Fletcher settlement go down 60 to 70 feet to water and have very little head. In the moraine east of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway wells run from 40 to over 100 feet, the ground-water table being generally about on a level with the inland lakes and streams. The moraine is loose textured and largely gravel and sand below a few feet of surface till. In the sand plain along the railway wells are also sunk to a general water-table in harmony with the streams and lakes, and range in depth from 10 feet near Kalkaska to about 80 feet in the northern part of the county. The moraine in the northwestern part has wells of various depths from 25 to 200 feet, there being no general water table. The deep wells, however, go to a level about as low as the sandy plain in the northwest corner. On that plain water is only a ï~~KALKASKA COUNTY. 313 few feet below the surface, or in harmony with Torch and Round lakes. So far as ascertained no wells have reached rock, and it is probable that the rock surface lies at a depth of several hundred feet throughout the county. Miscellaneous village supplies.-Barker Creek is on the slope of the moraine south of Round Lake, in the southwestern part, at a level about 40 feet above the lake, or 630 feet above tide. Wells obtain water at 16 feet, and there are large springs in the vicinity which supply part of the residents. Rapid City is on the sand plain near Torch Lake, and has wells 16 to 20 feet deep. Kalkaska, the county seat, is on Boardman River, and wells are obtained at 10 to 24 feet. There is a waterworks plant, which pumps its supply from the river, and is mainly used for fire protection and street sprinkling. The water, both in wells and river, is soft enough for laundry and boiler use. In wells 10 to 16 feet deep it is softer than in the deeper ones, probably because of more thorough leaching of the upper part of the sand. Below are given two partial analyses, one of a shallow-well water and one of a river water at Kalkaska. There has been much typhoid in the town, and the shallow waters must be regarded as unsafe. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well and river water at Kallcaslca. [Parts per million.] 1.2. Color - - - - --..............................................................107 10 Iron (Fe).......................................................................... 2.5 (a) Chlorine (Cl)........-.......................................................... 9 9 Carbon dioxide (CO.,)........................................................... 17 60.55 Sulphur trioxide (SO3).......................................................... 0 0 Hardness (as Ca CO:)........-................................................. 139+ 132.1 a Very slight trace. S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Pere Marquette Railroad; depth, 28 feet. 2. Boardman River. Leetsville, though in the same sand plain as Kalkaska, is 50 feet higher, and has wells correspondingly deeper, the usual depth being 65 feet. At Westwood, which is north of Leetsville on the sand plain, wells are 50 to 60 feet deep. At South Boardman wells are 18 to 40 feet, the town being on the uneven slope of the moraine that lies east of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway. At Spencer and Sharon wells are only 12 to 20 feet deep, for they are on low tracts bordering Manistee River. ï~~314 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF GRAND TRAVERSE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Grand Traverse County is situated at the south end of Grand Traverse Bay, with Traverse City as the county seat. The south end of the county is occupied by an elevated moraine, with a southern outwash apron extending into Wexford CQunty. North of this is a broad gravel plain traversed by Boardman River to the meridian of Traverse City, and continued westward, past a group of lakes near Interlochen, into Benzie County. This gravel plain is an outwash apron from a morainic belt that sweeps around the head of Grand Traverse Bay in the northern part of the county. Traverse City stands in a recess on the inner border of this moraine, and its numerous flowing wells are fed from the water absorbed by the moraine. The peninsula which runs northward between the arms of Grand Traverse Bay is occupied by a rather porous drift beneath the surface coating of till, so that underground drainage is very efficient. Throughout much of the county the. water table appears to be nearly as low beneath the moraines and elevated gravel plains as the surface of the neighboring streams and lakes, and wells ordinarily go to depths corresponding to the relief of the well mouths above the nearest stream or lake. On the gravel plain in the south part of the county, and the moraine of which it is the outwash, wells are ordinarily from 75 to 190 feet in depth, those near the crest of the moraine being deeper than on the plain to the south. Several wells around Summit City are over 100 feet in depth, but the common depth is 35 to 50 feet. At Fife Lake and Walton, which stand but little above the drainage lines, wells are obtained at about 30 feet. West of Traverse City is a prominent moraine in which the depth to water is in some places very great. Henry Sochleben has a well near the center of sec. 6, T. 27 N., R. 11 W., which is 293 feet in depth and was entirely through sand after penetrating about 5 feet of surface clay; water rises in it only 15 feet from the bottom. R. Wiedoft, on the west side of the same section, at a level perhaps 75 feet lower, has a well 220 feet deep, with but a few feet of water in the bottom. L. Ruthart, in the northwest part of sec. 5, has a well 230 feet deep which penetrated considerable blue clay and has 20 feet of water. On the peninsula records of wells near the highest points show that water is struck at about the level of Grand Traverse Bay. Joseph Eiman has one 180 feet and William Ayers one 197 feet in depth in the northwestern part of sec. 10, T. 29 N., R. 10 W., both of which strike water in gravel practically at the level of Grand Traverse Bay. There are, however, wells on this peninsula which obtain a fair amount ï~~GRAND TRAVERSE COUNTY. 315 of water at moderate depths, this probably being due to the presence of a nucleus of clay beneath the looser textured drift, which prevents the water from sinking down to the level of the bay. The flowing wells of Traverse City and of Williamsburg, a village 12 miles east, are discussed below by Mr. Gregory. These, so far as known, are the only flowing wells in the county. It is probable, however, that flowing wells may be obtained along the north shore of the high moraine in the south, for the situation is similar to that at Traverse City and Williamsburg, and it is a region of strong springs. They may also be obtained some distance up Boardman River from Traverse City, and around Fife Lake, as they have already been found in the neighboring part of Kalkaska County. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. At Interlochen wells are driven to depths of 12 to 22 feet to a water table in harmony with neighboring lakes. At Karlin the wells are about 40 feet and have very little head. At Mayfield the depth ranges from 12 to 30 feet. At Old Mission the wells are 20 to 50 feet deep. At Summit City the common depth is 35 to 50, but the range in depth is from 14 to 112 feet. At Monroe Center the wells are from 25 to 30 feet in depth. At Cedar Run, in the northwest corner of the county, is a very strong spring, which supplies most of the inhabitants. The wells in that vicinity range from 8 feet to 150 feet, the deep ones being on the elevated land. FLOWING WELLS.a WILLIAMSBURO AREA. The Williamsburg area, less than three-fourths of a square mile in extent (see fig. 61), is located on the banks of a small creek of eastern Grand Traverse County. With a general elevation of 690 feet this area is bordered by moraines and outwash plains having an elevation of 800 feet. The precise limits of the districthave not been outlined, as few trials for flows have been made along the border of the area, which appears to be confined almost to the village itself. Out of 23 wells in this region 20 flow, furnishing an abundant supply of water for domestic and stock purposes. The first well was drilled in 1892, on the property of Mr. J. H. Bissell (No. 4), and is still flowing, with no perceptible decrease. The temperature, quality, and abundance of the water are such that it has been utilized by Mr. Bissell for a State fish hatchery. It is valuable for keeping in equable and natural condition the young fry. This use a By W. M. Gregory. ï~~316 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. of water could be profitably extended to some of the other flowingwell districts in the northern part of the State. The wells ore All driven; a few have screens and points, but the large number have simply galvanized pipes driven to the water beds. The average cost of the wells, with 2-inch pipe, is $1 a foot, though some cost less when made by the owners. The average cost here is somewhat higher than in other c res, owing to the fact that wells drive harder here and some trouble his been experienced with bowlders. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 FEET FIG. 61.-Contour map of Williamsburg flowing-well dstrict. The combined flow of the 20 wells is 448.5 gallons a minute, the largest flow (130 gallons a minute) being at the fish-hatchery well (No. 6). Several cases have been observed of decrease in head, due to drainage of one well by a near neighbor tapping the same water bed, but no general change in flow has occurred. The water beds which supply the wells at Williamsburg are two, the upper supplying the majority of the wells, for the lower has not been ï~~GRAND TRAVERSE COUNTY. 317 exploited enough to reveal its extent. The upper water bed is of gravel and sand, covered by a few C feet of hardpan, 35 feet of clay with small sandy seams, and 10 feet of sandy soil at surface. The general relations of a water bed along an east-west section are shown in fig. 62. The wells, with the exception of the fish-hatchery well (No. 6), are dependent for their supply on this bed of coarse gravel and sand. A section (fig. 63) north fromi Mr. B. Johnson' s well (No. 12) brings out clearly the distinct dip which the water bed has to the i north, but the 30-foot wells at the Williamsburg creamery indicate that this dip is not continued to the north as regularly as the profile indicates.0 An attempt was made at the creamery to secure a. stronger flow b)y drilling deeper than 50 feet, but, the drillers rep)o rted mostly hard clay from 50 to t 310 feet with no water. Several attempts about the edge of this b)asin have been made to penetrate the water b)eds. At Mr. Lidell's farm a well I (No. 20) 400 feet deep failed to secure water, which seems to b)e due to the fact that the water beds are "Ia Â~ near the surface and: are easily overlooked in drill- I - ilg, as has happeiiel in other locations., I The location of Williamsburg is on the northern lakeward side of highi plains of morainal outwash, o which reach an elevation of 800 feet just outside athe limits of the village. The small creek of the village is the p:.duct of the numerous springs o which are so abundant along the edge of the drift" - at an elevation of 740 to 760 feet above sea level. II To the south there is ab)undant chance for a catch- a D I ment area in the loose porous drift, which has clay 01 at bottom, as is indicated by some of the small ' i lakes which exist there.iÂ~S The water is ise:d throughout the village for oo laundry and (lowest ic l)urpiposes, and is not consideed( hard, lathering freely with ordinary soap. " Analysis shows its hlardness to be near that of the a1 average (Ldrift water. Sulphates and iron seem to be absent, and the two field analyses of samples from wells No. 16 and 2 show how water from \--- the same!bed is apt to (liffer in carbonates. The" water is very free f:om surface contamination, and is an excellent potable water. Its temperature, purity, and freedom from silt are of special value in this region for the fish-hatchery business. ï~~318 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Analysis of water from well at Williarnsburq.a Parts per million. Silica (SiO 2)-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8.40 Sulphate radicle (SO4)--------------------------------------------------- 7.32 Carbonate radicle (C03)-------------------------90. 44 Chlorine (Cl)---------------------------------------------------------- 2.67 Sodium (Na)---------------------------------------------------------- 1.80 Potassium (K)---------------------------------------------------------.31 Calcium (Ca)--------------------------------------------------------- 46. 85 Iron (Fe)------------------------------------------------------------- 5.95 Aluminum (Al)------------------------------------------------------- 2.86 Magnesium (Mg) ------------------------------------------------------ 9.93 Lithium------------------------------------------------------------- Trace. Organic matter------------------------------------------------------- Trace. 176.53 Analyst, John E. Clark, M. D., Detroit College of Medicine. 6 2 7 18 1 1 l-I__eght to which water rises640 FEET AT. Ma'r.Y-clay) ti/I FIG. 63.-North-south section through Williamsburg district. Analysis of Weesh-Ko-Wontg flowing well water, lWilliantsbura.b Parts per million. Silica (5i02)-------------------- -. ---.------------.- ---.-----------.....8. 40 Aluminum (Al)--. -. -------------- ----------------.-- --.-----------.....2.78 Iron (F e) -. ------------------- --------------------- -------------------.6.00 Calcium (Ca).......................................................----46.77 Magnesium (Mg).....................................................---9. 96 Sodium (Na)........................................................---1.78 Potassium (K)........................................................---.34 Sulphate radicle acid (SO4).............................7. 42 Chlorine (Cl)........................................................---2. 67 Carbonate radicle acid (C03)......................90. 33 176.45 Analyst, John E. Clark, M. D., Detroit College of Medicine, March 6, 1893. Field anal yses of water from wells at Williamsburg. [Parts per million.] 1. 2 Hardness.............................................................------ 148 178 Carbonates............................................................------- 110 )60 Chlorides...............................................................------ 5 10 Sulphates..............................................................------- 0 0 1. Charles Wills (No. 16). 2. Dr. Prentice (No. 2). ï~~GRAND TRAVERSE COUNTY. Wells at Williamsburg. 319 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 D. E. Rolf a........... Dr. Prentice-.......... Dr. C. A. Clark-..._. J. H. Bissell.......... Fish hatchery b....... Fish hatchery c....... J. Abbott............. Ralph White......... Ft. In. Ft. Ft. Ft. Gls. F 673 11 40 633..... 30 481 673. 1 60 613..... 28 48 700 1i 96 604 701 25 49 673 1i 82 591 683 10 48 655 2j 45 610..... 12.... 655 4 87 568 680 13048 672 1i 42 630. 10... 675 1 60 615 680 13 48 Soft... $12 *.;..... 60 Sof t... 90... 82........ 45.. 200.. 130 Soft... 60 Made in 12 hours. See analysis (p. 318). Flow decreased by No.6. See analysis of WeeshKo-Wong well (p.318). Water flowed around pipe. James Ernest.......... 600 9. 1......... F. E. White.......... 669 2 55 614 673 10 48........ S. J. Seeley........... 673 2 60 613..... 12.......... B. Johnson........... 672 2 35 637 676 6.... Soft... Methodist Episcopal 675 I 43 632.... 25 49...do.. parsonage. Williamsburg cream- 658.... 45 613.............. ery.d A. Devries............650 2 60 590..... 6............ Chas. Wills e......... 660 2 64 596 674 30 48........ W. Herald f........... 664?I 2 55 609..... 46 148..... H. Hobbse...........665.... 50 615 674 15,50...... Dr. Van Stickle....... 672.... 60 612.... 121 48...... Lidell farm.......... 705 2 400? 305...... Bissell farm.......... 703.... 100 603..................... J. Lidell............. 705.... 11) 89...................... T. J. Conklinh........ 660 2 62 598.... 15 49........ 55 35 40..... Head said to be decreased by No. 6. Sand 10 feet at top; remainder sand and clay. Flow not estimated. 30 Head, 14 feet; see analysis. 25 25 30 Decreased by Nos. 5 and 6..... No water; said to be mostly clay from near surface...... No flow... Do. 50 Made in 1903. aWater rose 18 feet at time of drilling; has decreased to 3 feet now. Beds penetrated as follows: Dark loam and sand, 10 feet; sand and clay, 30, and water in gravel bed, 40 feet. Well driven in 15 hours; throws sand. b Two wells at fish hatchery have some sand at top, and the remainder is clay, with sheets of sand, which contain no water, but are a hindrance in drilling. Water from bed of gravel with some sand; Below water bed is a compact clay bed 20 to 30 feet thick. c Water broke out about pipes, and has required many cubic yards of filling, making the cost high. Temperature said to be 430 November 1, 1903. d Three wells, 45, 49, and 50 feet deep. Attempt was made here for deep water supply; went 310 feet, all clay, no water. e Head 14 feet; affects other wells in near vicinity. I Lowered by No. 16. g Actual depth not known. h Sand 10 feet; clay, with sandy sea ns, 49 feet; hard, compact clay 8 feet; gravel water bed. TRAVERSE CITY. The flowing wells of Traverse City are confined to a small area of 4 square miles in Farfield Township at the head of West Grand Traverse Bay. This region is a depression in the drift which was filled by an ice tongue of the Michigan lobe and was later covered by Glacial lake deposits of considerable thickness, as revealed by deep wells in Traverse City. Flows are obtained at from 50 to 400 feet in depth, and at present are 19 in number, yielding abundant and excellent water. These wells are in drift material, and casing is necessary, as much sand is encountered and causes considerable annoyance. The wells vary from 3 to 8 inches in diameter and ï~~320 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. cost on the average about $1 p foot, the work being done by contract for a flow. The total flow from these wells is 1,092 gallons a minute, the figures being based on measurements made by well drillers at the time of completion of the various wells and by the writer where the wells were freely flowing. In a special report of the watersupply committee of the Traverse City council, Mr. G. W. Rafter, the consulting engineer, expressed doubt as to. the ability of flowing wells to furnish a sufficient quantity for a city supply, but a flow of 1,092 gallons a minute would be ample., A few of the wells have decreased considerably. The Park Place Hotel well, for instance, now yields only half its former flow, according to Mfr. Fairbanks, a well driller of Traverse City. The first well in this city was made on the grounds of the Northern Michigan Asylum in August, 1897, and flowed 600,000 gallons a day from a depth of 93 feet. In April, 1890, this flowage suddenly ceased; investigation showed that the pipe was filled with clay; by driving to 190 feet a good supply was reached. This well, with another recently made, 100 feet deep, now supplies the institution with 400,000 gallons a day, much more than is needed. In the well on the asylum ground the pressure is 8.75 pounds at the well head, which is 70.25 feet above the engine room of the institution, where the pressure is said to be 40 pounds to the square inch. The total cost of the well and pipe line was $1,500 and was made by contract. The wells are 135 feet above Lake Michigan, on the slope west of the asylum buildings, and were discovered by workmen in making an excavation for a standpipe. The well on the Lion saloon property is carefully piped, and supplies a bottling factory, several stores, a saloon, and a large fountain. Water rises 8 feet from the end of a 1-inch nozzle on 20 feet of hose attached to the main pipe at the saloon, and at time of drilling the well spouted a 2-inch stream 32 feet above its mouth. More use would be made of the artesian water in Traverse City if it were not for a city ordinance prohibiting pipes from crossing alleys and streets. Several analyses and a number of careful field tests have been made of the waters. Mr. George Rafter considered the water rather hard for boiler use, and the amount of iron rendered it rather undesirable for laundry purposes. The water from the Park Place Hotel has the following composition: ï~~GRAND TRAVERSE COUNTY. 321 Analysis of water from Park Place Hotel well, Trarerse City.a Parts per million. Silica (SiO2)-- ----------------------- - ----------- -6 Calcium (Ca)..........................------------------------------ 48.55 Magnesium (Mg).............----------------------------------------------------........... -9. 88 Iron (Fe)-----------...------------------------------------------------........... 1.53 Sodium (Na).................----------------------......-----.----....................----------------------------.... 2.25 Chlorine (Cl)---....-----------------------------------------------------........... 3.45 Sulphate radicle (SO4)--------...............-----------------------------------------........... 1.20 Carbonate radicle (C03)--.----..............--------------------.... -106. 54 179.40 Free ammonia-...............-----------------------------------------------.------..........15 Albuminoid ammonia- --------- --...-......................... 08 Hardened by soap test, 12; permanent hardness, 6; temporary hardness, 6. Doctor Kedzie, analyst. The analysis shows nitrites entirely absent and nitrates present only as a trace. The field tests on samples from the Park Place Hotel well show carbonates to be 170 parts per million, no reaction for sulphates, 170.8 parts of hardness, and chlorides 5.2 parts per million. An analysis by the Northern Michigan Insane Asylum of the water when it came from the 93-foot well is as follows: Analysis of water from well of Northern Michigan Insane Asylum, Traverse City.b Parts per million. Silica....................................................... 34 Oxide of iron and aluminunim.....-.--.-------................... 5.10 Carbonate of lime.............----.........-------------------------- -.... - 168.75 Carbonate of magnesia.................................................. 68.47 Sulphate of lime------------............. -------------------------------------------............ 27.04 Sodium and potassium chlorides.........--.--..................... Trace. Sodium and potassium carbonates.......................................10.27 313.63 The Lion saloon well had a total hardness of 178.8; carbonates 200, chlorides 25.4, and iron 2 parts per million. For the comparison the analysis of water from a spring on the land of Hannah Lay & Co., south of the asylum, is given: Analysis of spring water near Traverse City. Parts per million. Sulphate radicle (SO4)-------........................----------------------------------------------. 2. 12 Carbonate radicle (CO3)--......-............------------------............. 82. 14 Magnesium (Mg)--...........----------------------------........-------------------------..17 Sodium (Na)-------------..............----------------------------------------------.............39 a Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. b Expressed by analyst in grains per gallofi; recomputed to parts per million at United States Geological Survey. Ian 183---06-----22 ï~~322 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Parts per million. Chlorine (C1)..........................----------------------------------------------------------. 61 Calcium (Ca)...........------------------------------------------------. -------... 56. 17 Silica (SiO2).......................---------------------------------------------------------. 3 Free ammonia.........................-------------------------------------------------------. 2 Albuminoid ammonia........................------------------------------------------------- 1.5 The two water beds which have been utilized to supply the present wells are at depths of 450 to 350 feet and at 200 feet, respectively, above tide. The upper of the two beds furnishes the greater supply and the best pressure. The following wells are supplied from this bed: Traverse City high school, Jackson's fish house, William Brothers, P. Hannah, Park Place Hotel, Lion saloon, and the old well at the Grand Rapids and Indiana depot. At the high school the following order of drift material was found: Record of high school well, Traverse City.a Thickness (feet). Sand..........................---------------------------------------------------------------- 30 Clay ------------..................-........ 40 Sand and gravel........................----------------------------------------------------.. --60 Marl...........................-----------------------------------------------------------------. 5 Gravel and first flow at..................................... 238 Stronger flow at.......................------------------------------------------------------. 270 In drilling wells down to this first bed the usual order is 100 feet of sand with small streaks of clay, succeeded by 200 feet of gravel, sand, and clay, which becomes hard and compact 250 feet below the surface. In drilling the new well at the depot the drillers found a good flow at 316 feet and a fair one at 417 feet, both beds being utilized for the flow in this well. The two wells of E. S. Pratt, which are situated on hills west of the city, are believed to tap heavy springs such as were found in the early exploration for water on the State asylum ground. A number of wells have been made on a lower level to a depth of 75 feet, east of E. S. Pratt's place, but the water stands 20 to 30 feet below the surface. The wells which have been drilled below the 300-foot bed do not furnish a very satisfactory supply. The well at the county jail is 400 feet deep, but never rose more than to the surface; in drilling it the following drift was found: Record of well at county jail, Traverse City. Depth (feet.) Sand and some marl..........................------------------------------------------------------- 200 Clay..................---------------------------..--------------------.............------------------. 200-232 Sand and clay alternately......-..................-.......-. 252-340 Gravel--................................----------------------------------------------------------------- 340 Sand and water-------------------------------------------------------........................................................-- 390-400 a For analysis see Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, p. 30. ï~~GRAND TRAVERSE COUNTY. 323 The well at the Boardman Avenue school is said to be nearly all sand, with a little clay at the bottom. The well recently made for the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway is 417 feet deep and has a good flow, but the larger part of it is evidently from the upper bed. Many attempts have been made to get water at the Oak Park school, in the eastern part of the city, one well being drilled to 400 feet, and at present having a very small flow. In this well the following material was penetrated: Record of Oak Park school well. Depth (feet.) Sand (thickness)..................................... 30 Clay (thickness)...................................... 60 Water in sand (depth)........................-------------------------------------------------- 220 Red clay (depth).......................-------------------------------------------------- 363-383 Gravel and small flow (depth)........................-----------------------------------------.. 383-400 The well on the property of Ellis Ramsell was drilled through the following material: Record of Ellis Ramsell well. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand-----------------------------------------------------------------.......................................................................60 60 Gravel----------------------------------------------------------------............................................................................ 60 120 Clay...----------------------------------------------------------------------- 40 160 Sand and gravel....--------------------------------------------------------- 20 180 Hardpan--.-.. ----------------------------------------------------------- 50 230 Clay, water under clay----------------------------------------------------........................................................... 60 290 At the State asylum Mr. Fairbanks helped to drill the 93-foot well and found nearly 35 feet of sand and gravel, the remainder being hard clay, under which was the water. At 75 feet a log 3 feet in diameter was encountered. In seeking for flows in this area the wells should not be deeper than 350 feet, and the lower the elevation of the well mouth the greater will be the pressure. No rock has been reached in any of the Traverse City wells, but in the Provement well at Fountain Point, some 12 miles northwest of Traverse City, it is nearly 312 feet to rock, and at Elk Rapids some 15 miles northeast it is 450 feet. The catchment area for the Traverse City wells is found on the surrounding moraines and associated plains of porous overwash material, which reaches an elevation of 800 to 1,000 feet in the region west and south. In the immediate vicinity the material exposed on some of the hills is porous enough to absorb the necessary water to supply the strong flows. ï~~324 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Traverse City. O a. a. Owner. Remarks. Feet. In. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. o F. Lion saloon.............605 6 307 248 670 210 491 Flow from gravel. Grand Rapids and Indi- 605.....417 187 640 54 51 Steaming and drinking. ana depot (new). Park Place Hotel........605 3 357 248 630 25 50 Drinking fountain. P. Hannah................... 4 350............ 63...... Domestic use. County jail............. 605.. 400 205 605...........Small flow. E. S. Pratt..............659 8 50 609 665 80.. Domestic use. Williams Bros.......... 625....367 258 645 112.. Flow from gravel. State Insane Asylum.._ 715_..290 527 735 277.. Drinking. Oak Park school...... 615 4 400 215 615 2... Do. Jackson fish house.......605 4 300 305 635 50 49 Fishing, packing. E. R. Ransom.....................486.. Boardman school...6... 620. 235 390 628 5... 12 feet in block shale. Grand Rapids and Indi- 605 6 311 284.630 45 491 ana (old well). Carter's mill............ 585.... 180 405 585 1... SmalI fl )-. Mr. Broadhagen.........635 3 330 305 655 90..... At house n Washington street. High school.............612 4 271 341 656........... Pressure cf 17 pounds. Wilhelm Bartok Co.... 592. 280... 603 15...... Ellis Ramsell...................... 2.. 280........... a The only satisfactory temperature observation was at the Grand Rapids and Indiana depot well (new). The others are affected by buildings, etc. WATER SUPPLIES OF BENZIE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Benzie County, of which Frankfort is the county seat, fronts on Lake Michigan in the northwestern part of the peninsula. The lake shore presents a succession of headlands 200 to 300 feet high, between which are low embayments extending back several miles inland and terminating in a stirong morainic belt of which the headlands are small interlobate spurs. The interior and eastern part of the county is a somewhat elevated plain with numerous lakes and basins interrupted by groups of knolls. The altitude of the plain is between 200 and 300 feet above Lake Michigan, and the lakes on it usually stand 30 to 50 feet below its general surface. The water table on the plain and also on the knolls appears to be in harmony with the neighboring lakes and drainage lines, for there is but little clay in them above the level of the lakes. The water table also is at a low level throughout much of the morainic region of the western part of the county. This is well shown at Benzonia, which stands on a moraine south of Crystal Lake at a level 200 feet above the lake, and has a water level at least 125 feet below the surface. There are, however, a few places in the morainic tracts where there is enough clay present to prevent the downward passage of the water, and thus permit wells to be obtained at shallow depths. ï~~TENZIE COUNTY. 325 The principal streams are Betsy and Platte rivers, the former draining the southern and the latter much of the northern part of the county. Between their mouths and near the shore of Lake Michigan stands Crystal Lake, a body of water 9 miles long and 2 miles wide, connecting with Betsy River through a narrow gap in the morainic hills that encircle the lake. Platte River discharges through Platte Lake, a body of water covering several square miles, just before entering Lake Michigan. These lakes apparently occupy basins of considerable depth which were left by the ice sheet. The lakes of the interior of the county are all small and are usually in basins in the gravel plains. The drift in this county is shown by borings at Frankfort to extend down nearly to sea level, being 570 feet in one boring and 527 in another. The rock surface seems to be about as low to the east at Traverse City, and may hold a low level beneath the high tracts which lie between Frankfort and Traverse City, in which case the drift would have a thickness of about 1,000 feet on the highest points. FLOWING WELLS. The embayments along the shore in the recesses of the moraine furnish favorable places for obtaining flowing wells, and such wells have already been made at Frankfort on Betsie River, at Beulah on Crystal Lake, aind at Honor on Platte River, while others may be found near the Herring lakes in a recess a few miles south of Frankfort. There is also a single flowing well at Thompsonville in the southeastern part of the county, in the valley of a small stream. The wells at Frankfort and Beulah were examined by Mr. Gregory and are discussed on pages 327-330. The well at Thompsonville was reported by Mr. W. F. Cooper; those at Honor were examined by the writer. THOMPSONVILLE. The Thompsonville flowing well was made by John Irwin and has a depth of 150 feet, with a head of 5 feet. HONOR. The village of Honor stands at the foot of the north bluff of Platte River in northern Benzie county. Several flowing wells have been made in the eastern part of the village, all very near the bluff on ground a few feet above the broad valley bottom. It is probable that flows could be obtained on this lower ground. George Weaver has a well 70 feet deep on ground about 9 feet above the railroad station, or 620 feet above tide. It has a head of more than 4 feet. It now escapes around the pipe, and this has reduced the flow through the pipe to a very weak stream-about 10 quarts ï~~326 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. an hour. It did flow a half-inch stream. The water is hard and has considerable iron. The temperature is 47.3Â~ F. South of this well about 50 yards is the flowing well of Ira Gordon, 38 feet deep. It flows a very weak stream-about 15 quarts an hour at a level 3 feet above the surface or 622 feet above tide. The water is said to be rather soft. The well struck a hard clay under the surface gravel at about 20 feet and obtained the water from a seep in the clay. The well has never been much stronger. The temperature is 48Â~ F. At a dwelling occupied by W. M. O'Brien on the south side of Main street is a flowing well only 21 feet deep which yields about 30 quarts an hour through a small escape pipe one-third of ar inch in diameter. The altitude of the well is 618 feet above tide. The temperature was 48.50 F. in October, 1904. Possibly the effect of the summer heat would be felt in a well so shallow as this and give it a temperature higher than that of deeper wells or higher than it presents at the cold part of the year. At another dwelling on the south side of Main street, occupied by Frank Weaver, is a flowing well that yields about 3 quarts a minute, and has a temperature of 47.8Â~ F. This is the oldest flow in the village and has been in operation about eight years. The water contains iron in notable amount and is so hard that it needs softening for laundry use. The well is at an altitude of 617 feet. On the north side of Main street, about 100 yards east of the well just noted, is a weak flow at the dwelling of Joseph DeWitt now yielding about 30 quarts an hour-about as much as it ever did. It is very shallow-15 feet-and had a higher temperature than the deeper wells, it being 49Â~ F. The water carries iron, but is not very hard. The well has been in operation about 7 years. The altitude is 618 feet. Across the street from the DeWitt well and on ground 3 feet lower, at a dwelling occupied.by V. Pierce but owned by P. Reynolds, is a flowing well 21 feet deep. A pump is now attached because the head is very slight. The well was made in 1903. A similar well, only 13 feet deep, with water rising barely to the surface, was made by J. C. Van Blaricom about 200 feet west of the Pierce well. It passed through a bed of clay at 6 to 13 feet and entered gravel at bottom. The water is rather hard. Mr. Van Blaricom has another well at the post-office, with pump attached, but with a head of about 2 feet. This well is 23 feet deep. Its temperature, when pumped vigorously, could not be carried below 48Â~ F. The altitude is 622 feet at the post-office. West from the post-office the dwellings are mainly on ground a little too high to admit of a flow. ï~~BENZIE COUNTY. 327 BEULAH AND BENZONIA.a In Beulah, Benzie County, in a narrow belt along the eastern shore of Crystal Lake, is a small area with seven flowing wells (fig. 64). The wells have a total flow of 56 gallons a minute and no indications of any decrease in head have been observed. The best head of water is obtained in wells nearest the lake. The irregular flow of a well at Small's livery barn is due to the presence of gas which, at the time of the writer's visit in July, 1904, was forcing small quantities of water out of the well at frequent intervals. The water supplied by these wells is hard and unsatisfactory for laundry use, but excellent for R. 15 W. FIG. 64.-Map of southeast end of Crystal Lake, Benzie County. drinking. The best supply in Beulah comes from the beds 100 to 150 feet below the level of Crystal Lake, the depth varying in different wells. The field analyses of samples collected show that the waters are high in carbonates, reaching 300 parts a million in one case (the well of H. A. Bailey, No. 5), but this is higher than the average. Sulphates are absent from all the water tested, and chlorides are present in varying quantity, 34 parts per million from a well belonging to a By W.M. Gregory. ï~~328 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Mr. Gibbs being the highest found. In several of the wells much CO2 was present, especially in the Gibbs well. The water is somewhat harder than water at Oden, Indian River, and Williamsburg, varying from 136 parts per million in H. A. Bailey's well to 361 parts in J. Gibbs's well. It is easily sofened for laundry purposes by any of the various washing compounds, otherwise much soap is required. Water from the well of H. S. Bozy (No. 6) requires one-half more soap for laundry purposes than water from Crystal Lake. The flowing well water is excellent for drinking and in the well of Mr. H. Smith (No. 4) the water has mild cathartic properties. Field analyses of water from wells at Beulah. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. Hardness-----------------------------------------------------................................................................ 136 361.8 227.8 Carbonates.............................................................. 300 240 120 Chlorides-------------------------------------------------------................................................................ 4 34 8.9 Sulphates.............................................................------------------------------------------------------... 0 0 0 Iron...................................................................---------------------------------------------------------. --------0......... 0 1. H. A. Bailey (No. 5). 2. J. Gibbs (No. 1). 3. H. Smith (No. 4). In the houses where the water is used small tanks have been constructed so that full advantage may be taken of its temperature for cooling purposes. The temperatures vary slightly in the wells because of the difference in the length of pipe exposed, but the average is 490Â~. Two beds seem to be present in Beulah which yield flows. The extent and thickness are unknown, for the well records are few and lack detail. According to Mr. N. Benson, a well driller of Beulah, the first bed of sand and gravel is 90 to 100 feet below the surface; the second bed ranges between 150 and 200 feet. The well of Mr. H. Smith (No. 4) is 97 feet deep, 94 feet to water, and has the following drift layers: Record of H. Smith well, Beulah. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand.......................................................................... 3 3 Gravel........................................................................... 6 9 Yellow clay...................................................................... 20 29 Gravelly hardpan.............................................................. 25 54 Blue clay....................................................................... 40 94 Black clay and gravel..-..................................................... 2 96 Gravel........................................................................... 1 97 In the well on the property of Mr. Small (No. 7) small flows are found at 150 and 200 feet. The well was drilled to 250 feet and was believed to be nearly to rock. The present flow of this well comes from 200 feet, but enough gas is present to cause an irregular flow. ï~~BENZIE COUNTY. 320 The shallow pump wells of the town have never yielded a good supply of water, being deficient in quantity, and having a "swampy" taste. In drilling a well on the property of Fred Bailey (No. 3) the following drift was penetrated: Record of Fred Bailey well, Beulah. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Gravel and sand................................................................ 27 27 Muck shells and cedar wood.................................................... 5 32 Yellow clay.................................................................... 20 52 Blue clay....................................................................... 50 102 Gravel.......................................................................... 8 110 Mr. Benson, a well driller, thinks that good flows can be obtained along a large part of Crystal Lake at points less than 20 feet above the lake. In the town of Benzonia, which is half a mile south and 180 feet higher than Beulah, the water bed is from 100 to 150 feet below the porous surface material, Water being obtained at considerable expense. Mr. T. B. Pettit's well, in Benzonia, 176 feet above Beulah, is driven 190 feet, and the water stands 175 feet below the surface; the entire cost was $230. Mr. Pettit has another well in sec. 27, near Benzonia, which is 85 feet deep and in which the water stands 75 feet below the surface. The soil here is largely sand and gravel with one clay bed of 19 feet near the surface. The village well of Benzonia is 213 feet deep, the lower 150 feet of which is fine clay and yields a scant supply of water. The hills about Crystal Lake consist of loosely consolidated drift with irregular beds of clay. In a cut 100 feet above the Ann Arbor Railroad depot, on the steep hill road from Beulah to Benzonia the clay layers are thin, small, and irregular, but at lower elevations the clay is present in thicker layers, and seems to have been plastered upon the overwash material at places. A section on the hill road has the following layers exposed: Section in road near Benzonia. Thickness (feet). Sand---------..................................-------------------------------------------------------- 3 Pebbles----------------.......................... 1 Clay and sand..............-----------------------------.............----------------------------. 10 Sand--------------------..................--.........................------------------------------------------- 5 Smooth clay, large, rough, rounded pebbles.............................. 8 ï~~330 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Beulah and Benzo'nia. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Owner. J. Gibbs.......... J. Thompson..... Fred Bailey...... H. Smith......... H. A. Bailey..... H. S. Bozy...... F. S. Small...... E. J. C. Ellis..... T. B. Pettit..... Benzonia village.. 0 Feet. 609 607 608 609 607 600 605.......; a In. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2,q.4 Feet. 150 100 110 97 166 180 222 213 190 213 0. Feet. 459 507 498 512 441 420 383 a Feet. 613 628 627 619 Gals. oÂ~F 8 47J 5... 2 49 12 49 10 50 19 50.--...-...---- m 0 Remarks. Drilled in 1900; screen; see analysis (p. 328). Flow varies. See analysis. Drilled in 1901; water at 160 feet. Water hard. Flowage irregular. 91 feet to water; pump. 175 feet to water; pump and windmill. Lower 150 feet solid clay; weak well. FRANKFORT AREA.a The city of Frankfort, in Benzonia County, is. situated at the mouth of Betsie River, on Lake Michigan. Only a few flows are found here in the drift, which is about 550 feet deep, the best water beds being 150 to 200 feet below the surface. There are only four of these drift wells, two at the Frankfort City waterworks, each 150 feet deep, one at the Ann Arbor Railroad grain elevator, 100 feet deep, and one at the Ann Arbor Railroad depot, 200 feet deep; the combined flowage is 7.5 gallons a minute. A sample of the water from the elevator showed 278 parts per million of hardness, no sulphates, 260 parts of carbonates, and 15.5 parts of chlorides. Frankfort has two deep wells from the rock, both belonging to D. B. Butler. The deeper one is 2,200 feet, with a temperature of 58Â~, and flows 480 gallons a minute from a 6-inch pipe. It contains H2 S gas. Wells at Frankfort. Diame-D Flow per Tempera- Remarks. Owner. ter. Depth. m ute. ture.Remarks. Inches. Feet. Gallons. o F. D. B. Butler................ 4 1,800..... Mineral water. Ann Arbor Railroad depot.. 2 200 1.5 50 5 Drinking fountain. D. B. Butlera............... 2,200 480.0 58.0 Mineral water. Ann Arbor Railroad elevator 2 100 1.0 48 Drinking and boiler use. a For analysis of water see Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 31, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, p. 72. WATERWORKS. FRANKFORT. The waterworks supply is from driven wells about 90 feet deep which only lack a few feet of flowing. The water is pumped to a tank on a hill north of the town. a By W. M. Gregory. ï~~LEE1LANAW COUNTY. 331 THOMPSONVILLE. The village of Thompsonville has a public supply reported to be from driven wells, about 60 feet deep, in which water rises to 10 feet below the surface. Water is pumped direct to mains. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. Village supplies of Benzie County. Depth of wells. O Town. Â~ Source. +-Springs. From- To- Coin-. mon. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Benzonia........ 500 800 Driven wells.... -. 125 250 200 225 { }}Large. 600 Driven wells, some10 Beulah.................. 615 flowing. 2 150 150 1 100 Flow. Do. Frankfort....... 1,465 595 Driven wells.......... 45 2,200 {1 0 } { }Small. Homestead............. 805.....do................ 8 100 50........... Honor........... 550 611 Driven wells, stream. 12 40 30 30 + 8 Do. Lake Ann........ 241 816 Lake wells, springs... 20 90 30 30 -15 Large. Nessen City...... + 100 885 Driven wells........... 10 30 18 30.....Small. Platte................ 700.....do................ 10 +200 75...... -10 Do. South Frankfort. 639 600.....do................ 30 90 30 30 -10 Do. Thompsonville... 893 791.....do................ 16 150 40..... Do. ii WATER SUPPLIES OF LEELANAU COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. General statement.-Leelanau County comprises the point of land that extends northward between Grand Traverse Bay and Lake Michigan and also the Manitou Islands which lie a few miles off shore. Like Benzie County, it presents bold headlands along the shore, between which are low tracts extending back several miles and heading in a moraine of which the headlands are considered spurs. This moraine comes up from the southwest and curves around in the southern part of Leelanau County and then passes southeast to thle head of Grand Traverse Bay. An elevated gravel plain about 300 feet above Lake Michigan lies on the south border of the moraine. The highest points on the moraine are about 400 feet above Lake Michigan, and at Sleeping Bear Point there is a bold bluff of nearly that height. In the recesses between the headlands are lakes, conspicuous among which are Glen Lake, which lies east of Sleeping Bear Point and has an area of about 6 square miles, and Carp Lake, which leads south from Leland and is about 15 miles long. Between these is a chain of lakes extending back nearly to Maple City. On the east side are small projections of Grand Traverse Bay, known as Northport Bay and Sutton Bay. The latter is similar to the recesses on the Lake Michigan shore in having headlands on each side. ï~~332 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The county has no rivers nor creeks but simply small runs leading down to the lakes from the moraines. On the elevated morainic tracts and also on the gravel plain in the southern part of the county wells are usually deep, ranging from 80 feet on the gravel plain to 240 feet on the crest of the moraine. They reach about to the level of the neighboring lakes, and have little or no rise of water. There are wells 80 to 150 feet deep along the ridges that run from the moraine out toward the lake and bay. These ridges, however, contain clayey drift, and in places shallow wells are obtained on them. In the lowlands or recesses water in wells generally rises nearly to the surface, and in places will flow. It is probable that flows might be obtained at many points if borings were made in the lowest lands near the high ridges. In one boring in the county, made in 1853 near Provement in sec. 36, T. 30 N., R. 12 W., rock was found at a depth of 312 feet, or 292 feet below the level of Lake Michigan and 288 feet above sea level. It is reported that limestone rock outcrops at the northeast end of the county in the bed of Grand Traverse Bay at 20 to 25 feet below the water surface, and shale rises to considerable height in the east bluff of the bay opposite this point. Flowing wells.-The well near Provement, noted above, which is now the property of Mrs. Florence Whitfield, of Ann Arbor, is about 780 feet deep, and flows with a reported head of 40 feet, or about 60 feet above Lake Michigan. It discharges with such force as to form an umbrella-shaped sheet, and to run a small brook, estimated at several barrels a minute. It is strong in sulphates with a considerable amount of HS gas and also CO,. It is reported that the flow of water was struck in the upper part of the rock, but no definite data in addition to those published by Winchell could be obtained. There was a deposit of sand, gravel, and bowlders for 146 feet from the surface, beneath which was laminated clay for 135 feet, and beds of sand and clay for 25 feet. The water here came in and kept increasing until the rock was entered at about 312 feet. Whether flowing wells could be obtained in this valley along Carp Lake at less depths has not been determined. The topographic situation in a valley between prominent drift ridges seems favorable for obtaining flows. The Empire Lumber Company has a flowing well 54 feet in depth at its mill on the shore of Lake Michigan in Empire. The water comes from gravel under sand and possibly under clay. The water rises only about 8 feet above the lake. Miscellaneous village supplies.-The villages are all situated on low ground and consequently have shallow wells. No town has a coma Record by A. Winchell, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Si., 1875, p. 3. ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 333 plete waterworks system, but at Suttons Bay N. S. Johnson has provided for a partial supply by damming a spring brook. A larger dam and complete waterworks are contemplated. Village supplies in Leelanau County. Depth of well. I Depth ' --- ______- to Town. Pop- Eleva- Source. Com- water sead. Springs. From- To- mon. bed. SFeet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Empire 6.9. { 586 Driven wells, Lake Mich- 25 75 35.. + 4 Large....... igan. 'z o....,+ 4.L re Leland...... +300 600...do................... 18 18 18 18 -20 Do. Maple City.. Â~200 Â~=700 Wells and springs....... 16 90...... 80 -28 Do. Northport... 545 610 Wells, springs, bay...... 12 100 25 100 a- 5 Do. Omena...... 1 610 Wells and bay........... 20 200 100 100 -25 Small. Solon............... 625 Driven wells, springs...) 15 235 15....... -10 Do Suttons Bay. 398 600 Pond by waterworks, 17 70 30 ~.... -20 wells, and springs.j a The postmaster at Northport has a well 90 feet deep that flows at 5 feet below cellar floor. WATER SUPPLIES OF ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. These two counties, which stand east of Grand Traverse Bay, are treated together, since they are so much alike. The part of Emmet County south of Little Traverse Bay is also included ih the same description. This district between Grand Traverse and Little Traverse bays contains a radiating system of finger lakes separated by prominent ridges, upon which drumlins have been developed. The lakes apparently lie, in part at least, in deep pre-Glacial valleys whose bottoms are 200 feet or more below the level of Lake Michigan. The ridges between have limestone exposed along the borders of Lake Michigan and Little Traverse Bay in Charlevoix and southern Emmet counties. Upon passing back to the southeast, Devonian shale sets in, which, in places, reaches an altitude of 120 feet or more above Lake Michigan, or fully 700 feet above sea level. The shale formation has a very uneven surface, and the ridges have been padded out with clay deposits. These were derived from the shale in large part, probably through the abrasion by the ice sheet, and yet they are often laminated as if deposited in water and are nearly free from stones such as appear in till. They are therefore considered lacustral rather than glacial deposits. They are overlain by till, and thus shown to be inter-Glacial. The lake clays are built up on some ridges to a height of nearly 300 feet abdve Lake Michigan, or much higher than the top of the shale ridges. The lake clays when not too thickly covered by ï~~334 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. till deposits have been shaped into drumlin form. Throughout much of the district, however, the drumlins are composed wholly of till. This drumlin district and the finger lakes associated with it finds'its southeastern border in a prominent moraine running from northeast to southwest across the southeastern part of Charlevoix and central part of Antrim counties. On the outer or southeastern border of this moraine is a gravel plain forming a well-defined line of glacial drainage utilized because of its smoothness by the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway from Elmira southwestward to Kalkaska. East of this gravel plain is an abrupt rise of about 150 feet to another moraine and this has a gravel plain on its outer or southeastern face that covers the southeast part of Antrim County and embraces the source of Manistee River. Striking differences in water supplies are found which are determined by the texture of the deposits and the topographic relations just outlined. In the gravel plains and also to a great extent in the moraines that lie southeast of the drumlin district the water table is found at a level as low as the neighboring lakes and streams, for there appears to be little or no clay above this level to prevent the water passing down. On the high moraine east of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway, wells are accordingly sunk to a depth of about 200 feet, or to the level of lakes in the gravel plain along the railway. Wells are 50 to 75 feet or more in this gravel plain. In the moraine west of the railway some wells have been found at depths of 30 to 50 feet, but the best supply is generally found by sinking to depths of 150 feet or more to a level in accord with streams on the inner face of the moraine. Upon entering the drumlin area the conditions become more complex, for there no general water table is struck either near the surface or at great depths. The lake clay as well as the till carries water only along certain favored courses where theire are sandy partings or veins, and the position of these can not be predetermined. Neighboring wells may, therefore, differ very greatly in depth, one obtaining water at 20 feet or less and its neighbor going to depths of 100 or even 200 feet. Instances were found where wells on the crest of drumlins, standing nearly 100 feet above the bordering sags, have struck water at only 30 to 50 feet, while neighboring wells nearer the level of the sags have gone far below the level of the lowest ground in the vicinity before obtaining a good supply. Along the borders of the system of finger lakes several small flowing-well districts have been developed as indicated below, but the wells seldom have such head as the great reliefs would lead one to expect, and the districts in which flows are obtainable seems to be restricted, like the supplies in the drumlin areas to favored localities. ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 335 The valleys in which these lakes lie seem to be underlain by a looser textured material than the lake clay. This is commonly termed quicksand, but in the absence of samples it can not well be compared with the lake clay exposed in the ridges. There is generally a coarse sand covering the valley bottoms, derived in part from hillside wash, whose full extent and relations are undetermined. Many wells in the valleys are very shallow and obtain their supply from the coarse sand. The rock formations furnish but a limited part of this district with water, the only points noted being a narrow strip along the border of Lake Michigan from near Norwood to Petoskey and thence eastward along the south side of Crooked Lake to Burt Lake. FLOWING WELLS. Flowing wells have been obtained from the rock near Norwood, and at Charlevoix, Petoskey, and Bay View, and possibly farther east in southern Emmet County, as indicated in the report by Mr. Gregory (pp. 365-378). The flowing-well districts of Charlevoix and Antrim counties have received only a hasty inspection by the writer in connection with other lines of investigation. ALDEN. Alden, a village on the east shore of Torch Lake, in Antrim County, has shallow wells on the shore of the lake with sufficient head to flow, but pumps are attached. One well, made by L. Armstrong at a feed mill, is only 12 feet deep, and another, owned by Mr. Terrell, is of similar depth. Benjamin Armstrong has a well about 100 feet deep on higher ground in the eastern part of the village, the water in which stands just at the surface. A deep boring was made north of the station in Alden by E. F. Foster, which struck water veins at 57, 68, and 86 feet depth. The water from the 68-foot vein rose to the surface at an altitude 10 feet above Torch Lake, but from the other veins it fell short a few feet. The boring was carried to a depth of 278 feet without reaching rock. It was largely through sand, with thin beds of hard clayey material, to a depth of 86 feet. The remainder of the section was nearly all clay, though some beds of fine quicksand 2 to 8 feet thick were passed through. The lower 27 feet was a hard blue clay, and the boring stopped in this deposit. INTERMEDIATE LAKE DISTRICT. GENERAL RELATIONS. Along the border of Intermediate Lake, from Central Lake village southward past Bellaire, the county seat of Antrim County, flowing wells are obtained at several points. Some are very shallow and pen ï~~336 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. etrate little but muck and marl. Others go to considerable depth through clay before striking a flow. The wells are all on low ground bordering the lake or its outlet. Those at Central Lake are at an altitude of 609 feet above tide, or 2 to 7 feet above the lake, and those between Central Lake and Bellaire are at similar altitudes, with the exception of a well at a schoolhouse in the northeast corner of sec. 7, T. 30 N., R. 7 W., which is on ground about 640 feet above tide, or 33 feet above the lake. The waterworks wells in Bellaire are along the outlet of Intermediate Lake below the dam at an altitude of only 600 feet, and a well south of Bellaire, on the border of Goose Lake, is at similar altitude. On each side of Intermediate Lake a rapid rise is made to uplands standing 200 feet or more above the lake. The head in the wells is only a few feet above the surface, or less than might be expected from the height of the bordering uplands.. The uplands have a large amount of inter-Glacial lake clay capped by only a few feet of glacial deposits. This clay is very slowly pervious to water and may not therefore contribute much water to increase the head in the wells along the lake. BELLAIRE. An examination of the several flowing wells of Bellaire was made by Hon. Roswell Leavitt, of that city, prior to the writer's visit, and the data here presented were mostly collected by him. There are two flowing wells at the Bellaire waterworks, one being a large excavated well 60 feet in depth, the other a tubular well 6 inches in diameter and 55 feet in depth. The temperature of water from the tubular well is 47.80 F. The large well furnishes the main supply for the village, and water is pumped from it to a reservoir, which gives 72 pounds pressure at the level of the railroad station, 614 feet above tide. When the flowing wells prove inadequate, water is pumped from the mill race. This is at times very unsatisfactory, and many citizens depend upon private wells, in which water is obtained at depths of 14 to 35 feet. It is thought that a supply from Cedar River, which comes into the village from an elevated district on the east, would be preferable to the water from the mill race, now turned into the public supply, which carries much refuse from a mill that stands above the intake. A flowing well was obtained on the property of G. J. Noteware on the site of an old sawmill, about 1 miles south of Bellaire, at the east edge of Goose Lake, in the central part of sec. 31, T. 30 N., R. 7 W. The well had ceased flowing in 1904. The depth is about 28 feet, and it was made about 1890. The schoolhouse well, in the northeast corner of sec. 7, T. 30 N., R. 7 W., was not flowing in October, 1904, but is reported to discharge a ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 337 small stream from the pump spout in wet seasons. The depth-is 47 feet, and it was made about 1901. On an island in Intermediate Lake in the southwestern part of sec. 7, T. 30 N., R. 7 W. is a flowing well 28 feet deep made by S. Brodeway, which is used by summer visitors. No record was obtained, but it is reported to have passed through marl. Fisk Brothers have a camp and flowing well in sec. 1, T. 30 N., R. 8 W. near the bank of Intermediate Lake and about 4 feet above water level. It was driven to a depth of 67 feet through sand and gravel and a bed of clay. Water barely comes to the surface. It was made about 1902. CENTRAL LAKE. The strongest flow in the group in and near the village of Central Lake is from the well of the Cameron Lumber Company, made in 1902, which discharges 4 gallons a minute from an escape pipe threefourths of an inch in diameter, at an altitude of 10 feet above Intermediate Lake. The temperature was found to be 480 F., at a time when the air was 600 F. and the lake 640 F. The temperature is said to be very uniform throughout the year and the flow steady. The well penetrated the following deposits: Sand, 2 feet; marl, 20 feet; yellow clay, 200 feet; sand and gravel, 7 feet. Another flowing well one-half mile south of the Cameron well at a camp of Fisk Brothers is only 21 feet deep. The well passed through a few feet of marl and then clay before striking water. Analyses of these two wells and of one other follow, the data being furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of waters near Central Lake. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. Color.................................................................... --------------------------------------------------------5 29 24 Iron (Fe)-------------------------------------------------................................................................ Strong 3 Strong trace, trace. Chlorine (C1)........................................................ 11.5 4 9.1 Carbon dioxide (COs)------------------------------------------.................................................... 67.14 76.77 86.97 Sulphur trioxide (S03) --------------------------------------..................................................---- 5 5 8 Hardness (as CaCOa)................................................... ----------------------------------139+ 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. Public supply (spring). 2. Cameron mill; depth 222 feet. 3. F. M. Fisk; depth, 36 feet. Just north of Bridge street in Central Lake, on the west bank of the lake, are four shallow flowing wells, which have been in operation for several years. Charles Briggs's well, made in 1897, is 27 feet deep, has 14-inch pipe, and flows 3 quarts a minute at a level 31 feet above ground, or 614 feet above tide. The water will rise to 616 feet. The temperature is 500 F., or somewhat above that usual in this latitude. IRR 183--06---23 ï~~338 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The well passed through considerable bog line but started and ended in sand. About 50 yards north of the Briggs well is the well of S. Frost, 37 feet in depth with 1 -inch pipe and 1-inch escape. It flows 6 quarts a minute from a pipe 18 inches above the ground, or 610 feet above tide. The well has been running ten years. Across the road from the Briggs well, on south side of Maple street, is the flowing well of Will Acker on ground 613 feet above tide. The well is 25 feet deep, and flows 5 quarts a minute from a pipe 15 inches above the surface. It flowed more rapidly when first made in 1896, and flows a little faster for two months in the spring. The well is 11 inches, but the escape pipe is three-fourths inch. The water will rise 3 feet above the top of the pipe or to 617 feet. Considerable yellow sand was penetrated, but there is some clay and some marl or bog lime. The temperature is 480 F. The water is hard, but does not show much iron. South of the Acker well near Bridge street is Mrs. Hastings's flowing well, 20 feet in depth, on ground 611 feet above tide. The water issues from the pipe 3 feet above the surface at the rate of 4.5 quarts a minute and has a temperature of 500 F. The water is hard. This well was driven in 1902. There was one a few feet west of this from which the pipe has been drawn because the screen was worn out. At the old stave-mill site in the north part of Central Lake was a flowing well 66 feet deep that used to flow from a vein 33 feet below surface. This was not visited as no use is now made of the water. SUMMARY. Wells qf Intermediate Lakce district. Owner and location. Quality. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Gals. OF. Bellaire waterworks (2 wells)............... 600 545..... -47.8 G.J.Noteware, sec. 31, T.30 N.,R.7 W. 1890 600 28 572............. Schoolhouse, sec. 7, T. 30 N., R. 7 W.. 1901 640 47 593 643........ Fisk camp, sec. 7, T. 30 N., R. 8 W... 1902 611 67 534 612.......... S. Brodeway,sec.7, T. 30N., R.7 W......... 609 28 581 612.......... Cameron Lumber Co., Central Lake. 1902 612 223 389 +617 16 48 Seeanalysis(p.337). Fisk camp, south of Central Lake........... 612 21 591 615........... Do. C. Briggs, Central Lake............. 1897 611 21 584 616 3 50 Hard. 8. Forest, Central Lake............. 1894 608 37 572 (?) 6 48 Do. Will Acker, Central Lake...........1896 613 25 588 616 5 48 Do. Mrs. Hastings, Central Lake....... 1902 611 20 591 616 4.5 50 Do. ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 339 NORWOOD. A flowing well 33 feet deep was made in 1866 at a mill in Norwood, at the edge of Lake Michigan, which is still flowing 13 feet above Lake Michigan. The water is from gravel. Another flowing well was obtained in rock in 1904, in a test boring 1 miles south of Norwood. It struck the flow under shale at a depth of 150 feet and it is reported to discharge a full 4-inch stream. a The conditions seem favorable for obtaining flows at other points along the shore, if on ground less than 15 feet above the lake. There are numerous springs in the vicinity of Norwood, but they appear to seep from the hillside rather than boil up from the bed of gravel that yields a flow. EAST JORDAN-SOUTH ARM DISTRICT. East Jordan stands at the head of the south arm of Pine Lake in southern Charlevoix County. The valley in which the lake lies is about a mile wide. On each side is a rapid rise to uplands standing 200 feet or more above the lake. The wells are on low ground bordering the lake, some of them being in a marsh underlain by marl that is probably a filled portion of the lake. There are nine flowing wells at the East Jordan waterworks, ranging in depth from 75 to 105 feet and having a diameter of 3 inches. They are all at an altitude of 585 feet and are confined to a space of 3 or 4 square rods, or not more than one-fortieth of an acre. They have a slight head and a total discharge of 56,000 gallons a day. (See p. 346.) At a shingle mill of the East Jordan Lumber Company, one-fourth mile south from the waterworks, is a flowing well 50 feet deep, and there are two others at dwellings near by on the mill property. The altitude is about 585 feet. The well at the mill flows 15 quarts a minute through a 1-inch escape pipe, and has a temperature of 460 F. A well at one of the residences has a flow of 7 quarts a minute, and a temperature of 460 F. The rate of flow of the third well could not be ascertained, as it escaped from a box. The mill well has been running about thirteen years, but those at the dwellings are more recent, one being made in 1902. On the north side of State street, at the drug store of L. C. Mattison, there was a flowing well which became clogged and was abandoned. Another well was then sunk to a depth of 70 feet that has a head of 1 foot, but the pipe was not brought to a level low enough to allow it to flow. This well passed through 30 feet of bog lime or marl and then through fine sand, no clay being present. A boring near the corner of State and Second streets, made by W. L. French, was carried to a depth of 280 feet entirely through fine sand a Data by William Harris, of Norwood. ï~~340 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN.with only an occasional fine pebble. The boring was abandoned without getting water, because of some difficulty in preventing sand from rising in the pipe. This boring serves to demonstrate the presence of a deep pre-Glacial valley under the lake, for it was driven to about 300 feet above tide without reaching rock. George Japson has a well at the east end of the bridge that crosses the south end of the lake, which has a head 4 feet above the surface, but which is prevented from flowing by having the pump pipe carried up to a level above the head of the water. The well is about 45 feet in depth, with 1 -inch pipe, and was made in 1897. J. H. Lamway, in the village of South Arm, across the lake from East Jordan, has a flowing well 48 feet deep and 11 inches in diameter. It stands at the edge of the lake and has a head 18 inches above lake level. The rate of flow is 10 quarts a minute. It seems to be very largely through muck and bog lime, but as the pipe was driven with a sledge there is very little knowledge of the material penetrated. The well was made in 1890 to a depth of 44 feet. It became clogged in 1898 and was then driven to 48 feet. The temperature is 48Â~ F., or 2Â~ higher than the East Jordan flows. An analysis of the water was made by Mr. Lewis. Mr. Lamway has two other wells, one at his barn and one at his store; each about 46 feet deep, that have a similar head to the flowing well by the lake, but being on higher ground they lack a few inches of reaching the surface. Other wells in the village when carried to depths of 40 feet or more show a rise nearly to the surface. In the following table are given a number of partial analyses of water from Bellaire, South Arm, and East Jordan, including one from mill race leading from the river. The public supply at Bellaire is from a 60-foot flowing well; that of East Jordan from nine connected wells. The data were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of waters from Bellaire, South Arm, and East Jordan. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Color....................... 24 19 19 5 5 Iron (Fe)................. Strong trace. Very slight Very slight 0 Very minute trace. trace. trace. Chlorine (Cl)...................19.2 4 11.6 19.2 19.2 Carbon dioxide (CO,)... 72.99 65.96 66.2 66.18 71.23 Sulphur trioxide (S03)..... 0 5 5 0 0 Hardness (as CaCO,)....... 139+ 139+ 139+ 139+ 139+ S. J. Lewis, analyst. 1. H. Richards, Bellaire; depth, 100 feet. 2. River (mill race), Bellaire. 3. Public supply (well), Bellaire; depth, 60 feet. 4. J. H. Lamway, South Arm; depth, 47 feet. 5. Public supply, East Jordan; depth, 75 feet. IRONTON. This village stands on the west shore of the south arm of Pine Lake, about 6 miles southeast of Charlevoix. The land rises rapidly westward from the lake to a drumlin area whose highest points are about ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 341 200 feet above lake level. On the slope wells have strong head when sunk to depths of 50 feet or more, but the shallow wells, 14 to 16 feet in depth, have but little head. There is a flowing well at Sequetata, a resort about a mile north of Ironton, at an altitude of 634 feet, or 54 feet above Pine Lake. It is 120 feet deep and passed through considerable red clay, probably inter-Glacial lake clay, before striking water. The water discharges at the rate of 2.4 quarts a minute at a level 2.5 feet above the surface. The temperature is 48.50 F. and the diameter of pipe 2 inches. The well was made in August, 1903. About one-eighth mile west of this resort, on ground 31 feet higher, or 665 feet above tide, is a well at the residence of H. Coblentz, 50 feet in depth, in which water stands 1 foot below the surface. The diameter of the well is 31 inches. The water is very hard and has a temperature of 48.50 F. There was a flowing well at Ironton, on the grounds of the Pine Lake Iron Company, which flowed a 1-inch stream for several years. It was made about twenty years ago, and is at an altitude of 605 feet above tide. The water now stands in the pipe about 1 foot above the level of the ground, but flowed over the top of the pipe 2 feet above the ground until 1903. When first made it would discharge from a pipe 4 feet above the surface. The depth is 130 feet, and water was found in sand below clay. BOYNE. This town stands at the east end of Pine Lake, an arm of Lake Michigan, which opens into the main lake at Charlevoix. Several flowing wells have been obtained at the shore of the lake about 5 feet above water level, and others up the valley of Boyne Creek. They are not from a single water bed, but strike water at various depths. The shallowest ones only pass through marl or bog lime that fills marshes along Boyne Creek valley, but the majority go through clay and find water in sand. The strongest flow is one recently made (September, 1904) at the Elm Cooperage Company mill, in the eastern edge of town, nearly onehalf mile from Pine Lake, but on the bank of Boyne Creek. The depth is,1 feet and the level of the discharge pipe 16 feet above Pine Lake, or 596 feet above sea level. It discharges a gallon in seven seconds from a 3-inch nozzle, or at the rate of 7.5 gallons a minute. The discharge from the 2-inch pipe was much greater. The water will rise to 605 feet, or 25 feet above the lake level. The well passed through marl and sand for 40 feet, then through a stiff clay to the water-bearing gravel at about 90 feet. The temperature of the water is 46.5Â~, somewhat lower than that in wells of shallower depth and weaker flow tested on the same day. The water shows less iron than is commonly found in flowing wells, but is rather hard for boiler use. ï~~342 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. The cost of drilling this well was 45 cents a foot (driller, Willis Wilson). There are several flowing wells at Van Platen's mill, on the shore of Pine Lake, with a depth of 63 to 65 feet. Only one is permitted to flow at present, and this discharges nearly 4 gallons a minute from a 1-inch pipe at 4 feet above the surface, or about 8 feet above the lake. The wells are 11 inches in diameter. These wells are near the engine, and the water seems to be affected by the heat, for it showed a temperature of 500 F. Across the street the engineer of this mill, James Smith, has a flowing well 78 feet in depth, with a temperature of 480 F. It flows only half a gallon a minute, and the water carries considerable iron as well as lime. White's machine shop has a weak flowing well near the bank cf Pine Lake, now clogged and out of use. It flows 3 quarts a minute and has a temperature of 49.50 F. John Sudman has a flowing well on north side of Boyne Creek, about one-fourth mile from the lake, made in 1904, which obtained a flow from 47 feet depth. The water will rise 12 feet above the surface, or to 597 feet above tide, and discharges 1.5 gallons a minute from a 1 -inch pipe; temperature of water, 47.50 F. There are two shallow wells across the creek from the cooperage mill, which strike flows sunder a bog-lime deposit at about 12 to 16 feet. Wm. Ormsley's well is 12 feet, has a head of 4 feet, and flows a gallon a minute. Its altitude is about 590 feet; temperature of water, 50.50 F. It has a slight taste of sulphur. Mr. Curtis has one 16 feet deep that brought up "snail shells" from the bottom. Wells driven in the business part of Boyne to depths of 30 to 35 feet have a head very nearly level with the surface, which is 5 to 10 feet above the lake. The two partial analyses from drift wells at Boyne are given below. The determinations, which were made by S. J. Lewis, were furnished by M. O. Leighton, of the United States Geological Survey. Partial analyses of well waters at Boyne. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Color..................................................................... 19 19 Iron (Fe) -----------------------------------------------------Strong trace. 0 Chlorine (Cl)-...-------------------------------------------------------- 14 4 Carbon dioxide (COs)--------------------------------------------------........................................................ 81.43 71.67 Sulphur trioxide (SO)--------------------------------------------------....................................................... 5 10 Hardness (as CaCOs)........................................................ --------------------------------------------------139+ 139+ 1. Cooperage mill; depth, 91 feet. 2. City; depth, 26 feet. ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 343 SPRINGWATER SIDING.; A single flowing well at Springwater siding on the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad just south of the Charlevoix and Antrim county line gives the name "Springwater" to the siding. The well was dug many years ago by L. Meaker, of Boyne Falls, who reports that for 24 feet there was loose gravelly material, beneath which he found a blue clay, and after penetrating it a few feet struck the flow. It pours out over the top of the well and runs away as a small brook. The temperature is 46.50 F. The well is in.a deep valley with bordering hills fully 200 feet higher near by on the east, which may easily serve as a catchment area and give the head The valley leading from this siding down to Boyne Falls has springs along its borders and bottom, which are probably fed from the water absorbed by the bordering hills. On the Robbins's farm, about midway between Springwater siding and Boyne Falls, two wells 36 and 48 feet in depth have water only 10 to 15 feet below the surface. They penetrated no clay, but are in sand and gravel from top to bottom. BOYNE FALLS. The village of Boyne Falls is in a valley bordered closely on the east by high land, the situation being similar to that at Springwater siding, but no flows have been obtained. A test boring was made about 1900 to a depth of nearly 300 feet on the McMahon property, one block north of the railroad station. There was some water at about 30 feet and at various lower depths, but the greatest head obtained was 30 feet below the surface. There is a large amount of inter-Glacial lake clay in the highlands near this village which will not absorb water readily, and this may account for the failure to get flowing wells. Other tests, however, may result more successfully. About 2 miles northeast of Boyne Falls, on the farm of John Harmon, is a well which when first made did not flow. But after the pump was attached the water burst in with greater head, causing the well to discharge through the pump spout a stream about one-half inch in diameter. This well was not visited, but was reported by L. Meaker to be in a depression among hills. WALLOON LAKE DISTRICT. A well is reported to flow on the Rokopf farm on the west arm of Walloon Lake, but was not visited. At the outlet of Walloon Lake a well 175 feet deep is reported to have flowed until it became clogged because of imperfect casing. This well is thought to have entered a gray shale at about 100 feet. There was a flowing well at the tie mill by Bear Creek at Clarion, but it has been out of use for some years, and appears to have stopped ï~~344 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. flowing, though the writer did not visit the spot to ascertain the present condition. These wells are all located in valleys bordered by prominent drift ridges and are of value in showing the promising prospects for development of a flowing-well district in the valleys. WATERWORKS. ANTRIM COUNTY. Waterworks plants are in operation at Bellaire, Central Lake, Elk Rapids, and Mancelona, all of which use surface water except Mancelona, though Bellaire is.supplied in part by flowing wells (see pp. 336, 345). CENTRAL LAKE. The public supply for Central Lake village is obtained from springs that issue on the slope west of the village at an altitude about 100 feet above the main part of town, as estimated by the reservoir pressure of 45 pounds. The springs yield 2,000 gallons an hour. The water runs from the reservoir through a pipe only 3 inches in diameter, but this is adequate to carry the water needed by the village for domestic use. The character of the water is shown by the analysis made by S. J. Lewis (p. 337). The waterworks plant is owned by private individuals, but the village is arranging for its purchase at an early date. The springs do not boil up from deep strata like the flowing wells, but issue at the outcrop of nearly horizontal beds of sand which occur between beds of inter-Glacial lake clay. ELK RAPIDS. The waterworks are in the hands of a private company. The supply is derived from Elk Lake, being pumped direct to mains with an ordinary pressure of 45 pounds and a fire pressure of 100 pounds. Water power is used to run the pumps. The plant was installed in 1892.a Private wells, which are in common use, are driven to the bottom of the sand at 20 to 25 feet. A boring 526-feet deep made by William H. Davis obtained a flow of water which is not utilized. The drift here is 475 feet, largely of blue clay said to be free from grit or pebbles. MANCELONA. The wells at Mancelona are sunk in the bottom of a natural basin about 40 feet below the general level of the town, and thus save the pipe necessary to reach water. The deposits penetrated are gravelly and the wells are cased to the water bed. Water is pumped direct to the mains. a Manual of American Waterworks, ï~~ANTRIM AND CHARLEVOIX COUNTIES. 345 MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES. The principal data on village supplies of all sorts are embraced in the following table: Village supplies in Antrim County. o Depth of wells. Town. Source. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Alba......... 600Â~ 1,171 Driven wells....... 75 125 100 Alden........ 500Â~ 603 Dr wr Lake. s, 10 278 15 1 { Trch ake. I } Antrim............. 1,115 Tubular N ells.. 70 300 70 Atwood.............. 825.....do............ 65 150 Varia-. ble. B1Driven wells, and Bellaire..... 1,157 1 stream by water- 16 115 16-35 64 works. 610 Springs by waterCentral Lake. 1,301 Sworks, flowing 12 230. wells, lake. Chestonia............. 650 Driven wells...... 10 20 20 Eastport...............0. Driven w e 11 s, 15 25 20 Torch Lake. Echo...... 620 Stream and lake,............ flowing wells. Ellsworth.... 350Â~4 610 Driven wegsa 1, 15 60 45 Elk Lake by water- a526 Elk Rapids.. 2,200 595 works, driven 8 a16 20 wells. Elmira..... 300 1,233 Driven wells....... 75 75 75 Finkton...750....do............. 50 100 50 Tubular wells by Mancelona...' 1,226 1,117 waterworks, 40 125 65 driven wells. Simons....... 300 1,197 D1 riven wells....... 100 100 10 0C Torch Lake.......... 600 Driven wells, 15 30 20 Torch Lake. a Test well..0 ca Feet. Feet. 100 - 15 8 + 70 -65 Varia- - 60 ble. -135 100 + 3 - 6 - 10 - 10 Springs. Strong west } of Alba. Small. Weak. SDo. Strong. Very strong, supplying waterworks. Strong. Weak. Strong. Small. None. Weak. Do. None. Small. Do. 20 20 45........ 20 - 16 75 - 50 50 -30 32 65 50 100{ 4 20 - 10 CHARLEVOIX COUNTY. Waterworks have been installed in Bay Shore, Boyne, Charlevoix, and East Jordan. BAY SHORE. The supply at Bay Shore is pumped from Lake Michigan to an elevated tank. It serves mainly for fire protection, private wells being the main domestic supply. BOYNE. The public supply is from springs that issue at the base of prominent hills on the south border of the town. The springs are in a marl bed under a foot or two of peat. The water, as may be expected, is hard and contains iron. It is collected under a shed which protects it from leaves and floating refuse matter, and flows by gravity to a reservoir 67 feet above the level of Pine Lake, giving it all the pressure available at present. ï~~346 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. CHARLEVOIX. At Charlevoix water is obtained from Lake Michigan, a filtration gallery being used. This village sunk three deep wells some years ago for the purpose of obtaining a supply, but this proved unsatisfactory and the present supply was recently adopted. Water is pumped direct to the mains, with an ordinary pressure of 50 pounds and fire pressure of 100 pounds or more. EAST JORDAN. The supply at East Jordan is from nine flowing wells, as indicated on pages 339-340. The flow of these wells, amounting to 56,000 gallons a day, is not enough to meet the demands of the town, and pumps have been installed which draw about 300,000 gallons a day in the dry portion of the summer. The water is pumped to an elevated tank 20 by 20 by 24 feet, standing on a tower at sufficient height to give 80 pounds pressure at lake level. It has a temperature of 46Â~ as it flows from the wells. The first wells were made in 1897, but some are as recent as 1901. An analysis is given in the table on page 340. MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES. The principal data on village supplies are embraced in the following table: Village supplies in Charlevoix County. I I I I Town. O 100Â~ 350Â~ Advance............... Bay Shore............ Boyne................ 4a2, 453 Boyne Falls........... Charlevoix............ Clarion............... East Jordan........... Horton Bay........... Ironton........... Norwood.............. Phelps................ St. James (on Beaver Island). Springvale............. Thumb Lake.......... 431 2, 079 200Â~ 1,205 150Â~ 500Â~ C Feet. 600' 625 590 711 f 590 620 685 J590 600 600 600 700Â~ 600 950 1,100Â~ Source. F Feet.4 D 0 Ft. Wells, lake and 40 6 springs. Lake Michigan by 15 20 waterworks, open and driven wells. Springs by water-... 10 works, driven wells, some flowing. Driven wells...........14 Lake Michigan by 15 waterworks, 230 125 Sdriven wells. Wells and springs..... 10 Flowing wells by waterworks, 280+ 25 Swells and springs. Wells and springs..... 17 Wells and Pine Lake.....14 Wells and Lake 20 } Michigan. 2 Open wells.............8 Driven wells, Lake..... 12 Michigan. Driven wells........ _.... 65 Driven wells, lake -- _...37 epth of wells. Â~a oA Ft. Ft. Ft. 40 10 30 100 40 40 90 20 20 +5 ca Feet. -5 Springs. Large. Small. Large. 120 482 30 280 17 60 175 30 35 100 70 25 50 25 25 60 10 25 65 65 25 50 25 75 60 10 25 65 -20 Small. {-30 } Do.... Do. + 5 Large. -15 Do. +1 Do. 3 5 Do. - 4 Small. -30 None. -40 Large. aIn 1904. ï~~WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. 347 WATER SUPPLIES OF OTSEGO COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. General statement.-Otsego County, of which Gaylord is the county seat, is one of the most elevated counties in the north end of the Southern Peninsula and contains the headwaters of Au Sable, Manistee, and Cheboygan rivers. Its western edge was covered by the Lake Michigan lobe, but the remainder of the county by ice pushing southwestward from the north end of Lake Huron. There is an interlobate moraine in the southern part of the county, with Otsego Lake lying in the midst. The portion of the moraine west of the lake is the product of the Lake Michigan ice lobe, while that on the east was formed by ice from the Lake Huron basin. To the north and west of this interlobate tract is an extensive gravel plain standing in the reentrant angle between the two ice lobes. Its altitude at the northern edge is 1,350 to 1,400 feet above the sea, or nearly as high as the crest of the moraines which sweep around it on the east, north, and west. The city of Gaylord stands on this gravel plain. The portion of the county northeast of Gaylord is all morainic, but among the moraines there are numerous channels apparently formed by glacial waters as the ice was shrinking down the slope toward Lake Huron. This part of the county is drained northward to Cheboygan River through Pigeon and Sturgeon rivers. The southern part is drained to the Au Sable, which flows eastward to Lake Huron, while the western edge is drained by the Manistee, which leads westward into Lake Michigan. The drift is probably several hundred feet in thickness except, perhaps, in the northeastern part. Rock in this part of the State is not known to occur at an altitude greater than 900 feet, and the surface of this county would average about 1,200 feet. Wells.-Wells on the elevated tracts 1,350 to 1,450 feet above tide are 100 to 325 feet in depth, the deepest well reported being in Dover Township, a few miles northeastof Gaylord. Twowells on the moraine southeast of Otsego Lake, at an altitude of 1,375 to 1,400 feet, are each 175 feet deep and have only a few feet of water in the bottom. Wells on the high moraine east and south of Elmira are from 130 to 250 feet in depth. On the high moraine west of Vanderbilt, John Warner has a well 275 feet in depth, on ground about 1,350 feet above tide, in which there is only 30 feet of water; after penetrating 20 feet of surface till, this well was mainly in dry gravel and sand to the water bed at about 270 feet. On the gravel plain in the reentrant angle between the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron moraines, northwest of Gaylord, several wells are 160 to 175 feet in depth, the altitude being about 1,380 feet. South from these wells, on ground about 1,325 feet above tide, are wells 100 to 120 feet in depth which have scarcely 20 feet of ï~~348 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. water. At Gaylord, at an altitude of about 1,340 feet, the usual depth of wells is 80 feet, and wells are 80 to 120 feet from Gaylord eastward past Johannesburg. Around Otsego Lake the wells are much shallower, the range being from 18 to 45 feet, but the altitude there is a little less than 1,300 feet. Wells are also obtained at depths of 40 to 50 feet in a belt running northwest from Otsego Lake to the edge of Elmira Township. Around Vanderbilt the wells are only 40 feet and strike water at 30 feet; but this town is on a gravel plain much lower than that at Gaylord, the railroad station being 1,090 feet. On the moraine north of Vanderbilt, near the line of Otsego and Cheboygan counties, at an altitude of 1,175 feet, several wells are about 180 feet in depth. The following communication from Mr. J. B. F. Gocha, an experienced well driller at Gaylord, gives the results of a season's drilling in 1901 in that region, and notes concerning the deepest well yet reported.All are tubular wells except one in Livingston Township, which was driven. Wells in Otsego County and vicinity. Township. County. Dim Depth. Inches. Feet Hayes----------------------------------..................................... Otsego----------------------------------................................... 2 112 Star ------------------------------------...................................... Antrim--------------------------................................... 2 159 Bagley-------------------------.................................... Otsego--------------..............-----------------.................... ---2 82 Do........................................do---------------------------.................................... 2 59 Gaylord---------------------------...................................-.....do..................................------------------------------------ 2 100 Do----------------------------....................................-.....do----------------------------------.................................... -2 98 Bagley....----------------------------................................-.....do----------------------------------.................................... 2 91 Corwith---------------------------.........................................do------------------------------------2 92 Hayes------------------------------------..................................... ---.....do----------------------------------.................................... 2 75 Livingston-------------------------................................. -.....do---------------------------.................................... 11 30 Do ----------------------------do ---------------------------2 117 W il on.......................................... do.................................... 2 137 Charlod..................................... Og................................... 2 902 Hudson----------------------------------- Charlevoix------------------------------ 2 73 Wilson----------------------------.........................................do------------------------.................................... 2 132 Charlton...........------------------------Otsego.......--------------------------- 2 92 Dover..............----------------------------do........--------------------------- 2 325 Bagley----------------------------..........................................do---------------------------.................................... 2 89 Do----------------------------..................................... -.....do---------------------------....................................2 70 Hayes..........----------------------------do---------------------------.................................... 2 211 Do...........----------------------------do.................................... 2 110 Mr. Gocha says: The soil in these wells is mostly plaster sand, with some gravel and cobblestone and hardhead stone and some clay, but not much. These wells were all made with No. 60 gauze points or screens, with Eureka brass cylinders and Maud S. pumps. The water does not rise at all and you have to case every foot of it [the well]. In my 325-foot well in Dover Township I had to dig down 223 feet and put in a 4-inch casing 7 feet long to keep the sand and water from holding my 2-inch casing in about 7 feet of clay. There was 3 feet of water on the clay. The well is now in good running order, and I am going to put in a 10-foot Fairbanks windmill to pump the water. The water is hard. It is for farm use. Springs.-Springs of considerable strength are found along the borders of the streams, but hillside springs are exceedingly rare, since the water table under the hills is nearly as low as in the surface of the streams. ï~~MONTMORENCY COUNTY. 349 Waterworks.-The public supply of Gaylord is from a well 80 feet deep, from which water is pumped to a standpipe. The well penetrated gravel for its entire depth and came into water near the bottom, the general level of the water table being nearly 80 feet below the surface. Many of the residents depend on private wells, though the public water supply is considered of good quality. WATER SUPPLIES OF MONTMORENCY COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. Montmorency County lies east of Otsego County. The large morainic belt of northeastern Otsego runs southeastward across it, covering much of the central and southwestern parts. The southwest corner is on an elevated gravel plain. The northern and eastern parts of the county are largely sandy plains, in which there are small lakes and swampy areas, some being of considerable extent. These plains extend southwestward into the high moraine in recesses comparable to the finger-lake tracts of the Lake Michigan slope in Antrim and Charlevoix counties (pp. 333-334), but have only a small part covered with lakes. The prominences between them are morainic and not shaped into drumlin form, as they are in Antrim and Charlevoix counties. The entire drainage is tributary to Lake Huron, but drains in various directions. The northwestern part of the county is drained northward by Black River to the Cheboygan; the southwestern corner southward to the Au Sable, and the remainder and greater part eastward by various tributaries of Thunder Bay River to the lake at Alpena. Each stream is bordered by broad sandy tracts along much of its course. Most of the streams originate in springs, and there is a large amount of seepage into them from the bordering plains. A spring a few miles northeast of Atlanta is reported to discharge a large amount of inflammable gas, but it was not visited by the writer. There are few settlers except in or near Vienna and Lewiston in the southwestern part, Atlanta (the county seat) in the central part, and Hillman in the eastern part of the county; the entire pouplation in 1900 was only 3,234. The main farming settlements are within a few miles north and south of Hillman, where the soil carries a considerable amount of clay both on the moraines and plains. There are also a number of good farms in the southwestern fourth of the county, chiefly on the elevated moraine and the gravel plain outside of it. In this county, as in Otsego, wells generally need to penetrate to about the level of the base of the morainic ridges to find adequate supplies. At Lewiston, which is built on the borders of Twin Lakes, the wells are shallow, although the altitude is high. At Vienna, and east from there in the moraine, the wells usually reach depths of 100 ï~~350 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. feet or more. Atlanta is in a plain near Thunder Bay River and has shallow wells, and Hillman (also on this plain) has wells of moderate depth. The neighboring farming districts, also being largely on ground but little above the river, have shallow wells. Lewiston has waterworks used chiefly for fire protection and supplied from Twin Lakes. Hillman has a plant for fire protection supplied from Thunder Bay River. Atlanta is planning for a plant for fire protection supplied by Thunder Bay River. The principal data on wells in and near the villages are included in the following table: Village supplies in Montmorency County. Depth of wells. Depth Tw. Eleva- Source.tow Town. ion. From- To-Source. Com- t o wa- Head. Springs. t From- To- mon.ter bed. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Atlanta....... 900 Driven wells............. 14 24 22 22 -15 Large. Big Rock...... 950 Driven wells, lakes.... 10 65 30 50 -30 Do. Hillman....... 800 Thunder Bay River, by 25 150 50 75 -30 Small. waterworks, open and - driven wells. Lewiston...... 1,200 Lakes, by waterworks, 22 36 30 25 -22 driven wells. Valentine Lake 950 Driven wells............. 30 217 45 45.. Large. Vienna........ 1.300.....do.................... 50 140 110 110 -50 Small. WATER SUPPLIES OF ALPENA COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. Alpena County fronts on Lake Huron in the northeastern part of the Southern Peninsula, the county seat being the city of Alpena. It is all within the drainage basin of Thunder Bay River except a narrow strip next to Lake Huron. The southwestern part is elevated like the adjoining parts of Montmorency and Alcona counties, with ridges rising to nearly 1,200 feet, and has very few settlers. The remainder of the county is comparatively low, most of it being between 700 and 900 feet above tide. There are a few square miles of barren sand along the shore of Lake Huron west and south of Alpena and a swamp in the northwestern part of the county occupying several square miles. With these exceptions and counting out the elevated tracts in the southwest, the county is well adapted for farming and is already largely under cultivation. In the northern half, rock is near the surface, and in a limestone district which runs from Alpena northwestward the bed rock is often exposed in roadside ditches and forms a low cliff south of Long Lake. Sink holes abound from near Flanders, northward past Long Rapids, into Presque Isle County. The north branch of Thunder Bay River, when the country was first settled, had its entire low-water flow absorbed by a sink hole at the ï~~ALPENA COUNTY. 351 side of its valley near the line of Presque Isle and Alpena counties, but a dam has now been constructed which prevents it from entering. In the limestone district in the northern part of the county the depth of wells varies greatly because of the different levels at which water is found in the rock. This seems to be completely filled with water only to a level a little above Lake Huron; but there are in places higher shale beds that prevent the water from going directly down to this low-water table, and in such places wells can usually be had at moderate depth, though even in these places they often reach depths of 50 to 100 feet. The water is usually of good quality for drinking, though very hard. In the southern half of the county, where the wells draw their supply from the drift, the depth ranges from 20 feet to about 120 feet, the deepest wells being on the ridges. At Alpena there are several deep wells which obtain a large supply of flowing water from 600 to 650 feet, some of the wells being carried to much greater depths. The water is reported to rise to about 40 feet above Lake Huron. It is sulphated and sulphureted, but is not very salt and can be drunk without much discomfort. The temperature of a well at the office of the Fletcher Paper Company was 53.50 on August 8, 1905. Analyses appear in Water-Supply Paper No. 31, pages 72 and 73. Springs are not so conspicuous in this county as in the higher counties to the south and west, but there are weak ones along the water courses at numerous points. The city of Alpena purchased in 1905 the old plant of a private water company installed in 1879, which, it is reported, has a considerable extent of wooden mains and is generally run down. It is proposed to use this only until a new plant can be installed. The supply is drawn from Thunder Bay and pumped direct to the mains. The principal data concerning the supplies at the several villages and in vicinity of country post-offices are presented in the following table: Village supplies in Alpena County. Dept th _ Depth of wells. Depth to rock.main Eleva- Source. Pt ock.T...om Town. tion. to rocFrom- To- Common. supply. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Alpena... 1585-610 Thunder Bay, deep and 0-80 i 20 1,278 640 620 shallow wells. Bolton......... 730 Open and drilled wells... 0-20 10 100 50 50-100 Cathro......... 725.....do.................. 5-20 8 100 75 50-100 Flanders.......760-800. do................7.d50-80 20 80 Variable.. Variable. Hubbard Lake. 725.. do......................... 20 120.....do.... Do. Long Rapids.. 725-825.. o.................. 0-20f 20 60 60 60 Ossineke..... 604 Devil River, springs, no................................ wells. ï~~352 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF PRESQUE ISLE COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. General statement.-Presque Isle County has an extensive frontage on Lake Huron above Alpena County, and its county seat, Rogers, stands on the lake shore. The greater part of the county has limestone at slight depth. The southwest corner, a morainic tract in Moltke Township west of Rogers, and another in the northwest part of the county, are the only districts in the county where the drift deposits are so thick as to supply wells and leave the distance to rock uncertain. A chain of sink holes in the southwest corner is thought to indicate that limestone immediately underlies the drift there, and if so the entire county has a limestone platform beneath the drift, except at the outcrops of the narrow strips of shale that occur between the limestones. Low escarpments face northeast near Ocqueoc and south of Rogers, continuing southeastward into Alpena County. Grand Lake and Long Lake in the eastern part of the county lie at the base of such limestone cliffs. Part of the southern side of the county drains into the north fork of Thunder Bay River and thence, southward. The southwest part drains northwestward, through Rainy and Black rivers, to Cheboygan River. A narrow belt along the lake front drains more directly to Lake Huron through several small streams. Wells.-The best supplies of water in the limestone are found at levels nearly as low as the surface of Lake Huron. This is well shown at Onaway, where the largest supplies are from 250 feet, and also at numerous farm wells in the central and eastern parts of the county. In the villages the wells are usually of less depth, drawing on weak surface veins. No deep wells have been made in the region of heavy drift in the southwestern part of the county, where there are very few settlers. The belt of heavy drift in Moltke Township is thickly settled and has some deep wells, several being over 100 feet, and one, that of F. Sargenfrei, in sec. 23, being 260 feet. The Sargenfrei well is about 270 feet above the surface of Lake Huron, and is thought to have struck rock at bottom. The other wells are at about the same altitude and have not reached rock. At Rogers there is a gap in the limestone bluff filled in by drift to a level 50 to 80 feet below Lake Huron, and in this flowing wells may be obtained, as indicated below. Flowing wells can probably be obtained only on low ground near the shore of Lake Huron. A flowing well has been obtained at a gristmill at Rogers by penetrating to a depth of about 100 feet. It struck water in gravel and has a head 15 feet above the surface and about 30 feet above Lake Huron. The well is 6 inches in diameter and flows 2 barrels a minute.a a Reported by W. F. Cooper. ï~~PRESQUE ISLE AND CHEBOYGAN COUNTIES 353 Waterworks.-The waterworks plant at Onaway in the western part of the county is supplied by two wells 190 and 235 feet deep, which enter rock near the surface and are largely through limestone. The water is pumped to a reservoir on a hill in the south part of town, standing nearly 100 feet above the railway station. The waterworks supply is in general use for domestic and manufacturing purposes, as well as for fire protection and sprinkling. The average daily consumption is about 60,000 gallons.a Miscellaneous village supplies.-The principal data on supplies at villages and in the vicinity of country post-offices are presented in the following table: Village supplies of Presque Isle County. Depth of wells. 8 Ton Eleva- Sure Depth Town. a-tion. Source. to rock. Springs. lo 1 4 w E-4 v SFeet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Grace.......... 600 Lake Huron, wells.......................... 10 8............ Small. Hagensville... 775 Wells...................... 50 30 60 35 35 -25 Strong. Hawks or Le 815 Open and driven wells..... 15 8 38 20...... - 5 Small. Rocque. 12 40 2 8i Do RocMillersb urg... 785 Wells and stream...............12 40 20 20 - 8 Do. Metz.......... 800 Open wells.................._............... Onaway....... 830 Drilled wells.. 5 30 600 200 250.... Do. Posen........ 788 Drilled and open wells3.... 38 15 38 38..... -11 None. Rogers....... 600 Open and driven wells, lake 1 17 165 22.... +15 - WATER SUPPLIES OF CHEBOYGAN COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Cheboygan County fronts on Lake Huron immediately east of the Straits of Mackinac. It is comparatively low along the lake shore, and its northern half has only a few square miles higher than 200 feet above lake level. Except for a few islands this part was once covered by Lake Algonquin. It contains four inland lakes-Douglas, Burt, Mullet, and Black-each with an area of several square miles, and several smalhr lakes. Its southern half is largely morainic and reaches altitudes of 1,000 to 1,200 feet on the south border. Each of the streams running northward through the southern half of the county flows through valleys or plains 1 to 3 miles wide, above which the moraines rise to heights of 200 feet or more. The eastern half of the county is largely unsettled except in a strip running southeastward from Cheboygan past Black Lake to Onaway, and much of the southeast quarter is still covered by hard-wood forests. The western half is largely cleared and much of it is settled. a Data by W. Barker, superintendent of waterworks. Jns 183---06------24 ï~~354 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Limestone, with altitudes ranging from 350 feet below to 250 feet or more above Lake Huron, immediately underlies the drift of Cheboygan County and extends nearly to the southern end of the county. It is, however, covered thickly with drift in the southern townships and also from Mullet and Burt lakes southward, and is seldom reached by shallow wells in the north. At Cheboygan, the bed of a pre-Glacial valley 350 feet below the level of Lake Huron is reached by borings, and it is probable that this valley underlies Mullet Lake and comes in from the south past Wolverine along or near Sturgeon River Valley, for a boring at Wolverine about 300 feet deep did not reach rock. In the settlements made on the moraines in the southwestern part of the county and in a rolling tract north and east of Douglas and Burt lakes, wells are generally sunk to the level of neighboring valleys or plains or to depths ranging from 50 to 250 feet or more In the valleys of the south, and in the bed of Lake Algonquin in the north part, wells are usually obtained at shallow depths unless flowing wells are desired. These are usually 100 feet or more in depth even when on ground but little above the inland lakes. The conditions are favorable for obtaining flowing wells around the south end of Burt Lake, and along the western border of Mullets Lake, and to some distance southward along valleys that drain into these lakes. It is probable also that flowing wells could be obtained at moderate depths along Black River as far up as Black Lake, and perhaps along the part of the stream above the lake, as far as settlements have reached. But this valley has not as yet been tested sufficiently to determine the artesian prospects. There are also swampy tracts along the northern side of uplands southwest and west of Cheboygan, in which flows may be expected if borings are carried to moderate depths, for the wells on these uplands have a head somewhat above the swamps, beneath which the underground drainage is likely to pass on its way to Lake Huron. The principal development of flowing wells has been at Indian River and other points at the south end of Burt Lake, and along the west side of Mullet Lake. SPRINGS. At the south edge of a narrow ridge that lies between Douglas and Burt lakes is a spring that is thought to be the largest in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. It emerges from the ridge as a torrent about 36 feet wide and 6 to 18 inches deep, which rushes down to Burt Lake with a fall of about 25 feet in a distance of perhaps one-half mile. The spring at its point of emergence is about 75 feet lower than Douglas Lake, and only one-half mile distant, and is thought to be fed by the waters of that lake. After leaving the field the writer learned that there is a whirlpool near an island in Douglas Lake which marks ï~~CHEBOYGAN COUNTY. 355 the probable intake of the lake water. The temperature of the spring on October 29, 1904, was found to be 500 F., which is about 40 higher than the temperature of flowing wells in that region, and in harmony with shallow wells supplied with surface water, and whose temperature at that time of the year is about at its maximum. Possibly a more careful investigation would fully settle the question of the relation of this spring to Douglas Lake. Easily recognized objects or substances if thrown into the whirlpool in the lake might be detected in the spring and perhaps the rate of flow from the lake to the spring determined. WATERWORKS. CHEBOYGAN. The waterworks plant is supplied from drilled wells 408 feet in depth which would flow if permitted, but is provided with an air lift in order to increase the yield. The temperature is 51.8Â~ F., or about 5Â~ higher than from the shallow flowing wells of that region.a The wells penetrated about 360 feet of drift of which the upper part to a depth of 150 feet is largely clay, but the remainder is nearly all sand. The wells terminate in dolomitic limestone, of the Monroe group. The record of a deep boring at Cheboygan (2,750 feet), made to test prospects for oil and gas, appears in the report of the State geologist for 1901, pages 230-231. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. At Freedom, on the shore of Lake Huron, wells are driven to depths of 30 to 50 feet, or about to the level of Lake Huron. At Mullet Lake and Indian River the main supplies are from flowing wells, which are discussed below. At Rondo, Wolverine, and Trowbridge, in the valley of Sturgeon River, water is usually found at depths of 25 to 75 feet and on the low bottom lands at less than 25 feet. An oil boring at Wolverine on ground 62 feet above the railway station, or 835 feet above tide, was abandoned at about 300 feet without reaching rock. It found a large amount of water, but the pressure was not sufficient for a flow. FLOWING WELLS.b MULLET LAKE. c A flowing well some 2 or 3 miles back from Mullet Lake on the farm of George Long, sec. 1, T. 36 N., R. 2 W., suggests the possibility of a large extension of the flowing-well district to the west from the northern part of Mullet Lake, but this is at present the only well back from the immediate lake border. The Long well was visited a Data from A. C. Lane. b By W. M. Gregory. c By Frank Leverett. ï~~356 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. by the writer in October, 1904, and found to have an altitude about 60 feet above Mullet Lake, or 650 feet above tide, and to be bordered on the southwest by a range of hills 100 feet higher. Its depth is 97 feet, its head 26 feet, and its flow 2 gallons a minute through a 1-inch pipe. The temperature October 26, 1904, was 46Â~ F. The well passed through 30 feet of hard clay just before striking the waterbearing gravel at bottom of well. HAAKWOOD.a At Haakwood station on the Michigan Central Railroad about 7 miles south of Indian River in the Sturgeon River Valley is a strong flowing well made by the Haak Lumber Company. The depth is 205 feet, -diameter 3.5 inches, and flow about 9 gallons a minute. The well penetrated surface sand for 100 feet, then clay for 100 feet, and obtained water from gravel at bottom. The water will run from the top of a pipe extending 18 to 20 feet above the surface of the ground, but how much higher it will rise it has not been ascertained. The water is distributed as follows: One main about 300 feet long to barn; another about 1,200 feet long to the sawmill, and also 1,200 feet to some tenement houses. There are nine taps with nozzles that reduce the flow at each tap to a small stream that runs constantly. The following analysis of this flowing-well water was made at Saginaw by H. and W. Heim, analytical chemists, September 11, 1900: Analysis of water of Haacwood well.b Parts per million. Total residue.............----------------.............-------------------------------------- 297.5 Total mineral residue.................................. 227.5 Hardness..........................---------------------------------------------------------. 185.72 Permanent hardness-....-................................ 42.86 Silica (SiO2)------------------------------------------------..--------. 5.50 Iron and alumina (Fe205, A1205)-....-.....-................. 37 Calcium (Ca)..........................-------------------------------------------------------. 60.01 Magnesium (Mg)........................----------------------------------------------------. 10.03 Sulphate radicle (SO4)....................................... 12.35 Carbonate radicle (CO03)_---------....................... 86.91 Chlorine (C1)............----------------------------------.......---------------------.... Trace. Nitrates and nitrites---------............................ None. 211.80 No other wells have been drilled at this point to sufficient depth to reach this water bed. The valley is bordered by high morainic a Data by Haak Lumber Company. b Expressed by analyst in hypothetical combinations; recomputed to ionic form at United States Geological Survey. ï~~CHEBOYGAN COUNTY. 357 hills on either side, which probably serve as a catchment area, and flows should be obtained in it wherever the water beds are confined by clay, as in this well. CHEBOYGAN. In the city of Cheboygan good flows were formerly obtained at depths of 20 to 100 feet in a strip of land bordering Cheboygan River. Mr. Spiller, a retired well driller, says that a number of wells drilled by him twenty to twenty-five years ago gave strong flows at that time, although at present the water in them stands at nearly the same level as in the river. Messrs. Robert Patterson, Harris Embry, Withnow, and Brenton, all neighbors of Mr. Spiller, have wells at 60, 30, 19, and 25 feet deep, respectively. These all formerly flowed, but now the water level is 15 to 20 feet below the surface. The cause of the decrease in head is thought to be due to dredging a 10-foot channel in the river. Mr. Spiller observed that during the blasting for the removal of some of the large bowlders all the wells of his neighborhood ceased to flow. At the tannery of the Northern Extract Company several flowing wells were used for a few years, but at the present time a flowing well 6 inches in diameter and 629 feet deep furnishes an abundant supply of a hard alkaline water. There are several other deep wells in Cheboygan. Three are owned by the Fletcher Paper Company and one by C. Moench Sons Company. The city waterworks are supplied by a flowing well 408 feet deep, which, according to Dr. A. C. Lane,has a temperature of 51.8Â~ F.a INDIAN RIVER AREA. The artesian wells of Indian River are within an area of 2 square miles at the outlet of Burt Lake. The wells are on a low sand plain between higher tracts to the north and south of the village. The elevation of the well district varies from 600 to 640 feet above tide (see fig. 65, next page), while the catchment area to the south attains, within 8 or 10 miles, an altitude of more than 1,000 feet. The wells of Indian River belong to a general-belt which extends from Harbor Springs to Cheboygan, as outlined in the Harbor Springs discussion (pp. 366-370), and it is probable that flows may be obtained from Indian River all along the south and east shore of Burt Lake and the marsh that connects Crooked Lake with Burt Lake. In the limits of the Indian River area 43 flowing wells have been made, and at the date of observation (August, 1904) 40 were in operation. In this village the first well was made in 1889 by George Patterson, and has been flowing with no apparent decrease in volume since drilling. The wells in the village are used entirely for domestic and laundry purposes, while at the summer resort of Columbus Beach a Geol. Survey of Michigan, Ann. Rept. for 1901, pp. 230, 248, 249. ï~~358 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. the purity and abundance of the water are attractions for summer homes. The summer population at Columbus Beach is supplied from 17 wells, the abundance and pressure of the water being such that some places have bathrooms on the second floor. C)A NC.r w) E O G O) U. The wells are drilled by contract, the price varying from $60 to $125, according to the depth. The toughness of the clay beds and the presence of bowlders in a few of the wells renders drilling rather slow north of the river, and four days is the usual time for complet ï~~CHEBOYGAN COUNTY. 359 ing a well, though some of the wells with plenty of sand have been completed in two days. No rock has been reached and casing has not been found necessary except in wells where the sand was troublesome. In this area it is fortunate that the overlying beds are so impervious, otherwise much of the pressure would be lost and trouble would be experienced in leakage about the pipe, as is occasionally found in wells at Onekama and West Branch. In this region the wells are greatly appreciated, as is shown by the presence of a number of carefully piped wells with check valves, as the wells of Mr. Martin, W. H. Morgan, and others. At the summer resort of Columbus Beach the wells are carefully shut off for the winter. Flow.-The total flow of wells in this district was determined by measuring wells flowing freely, and making estimates of those with check valves and of those piped to several houses. Such estimates have been starred in the tabulation of well data from this area. Mr. Morgan, a practical well driller, is the authority for the flow of a number of wells, which were measured at time of drilling. The total flow is 5,448 gallons a minute, which includes estimates on wells which are reduced or have check valves. This is an average of 136.2 gallons a minute for each well and is the highest average of any well area examined in this region. The well having the largest flow is that belonging to Mr. Mihan Green (No. 24 on table), which out of several tests has given 224 gallons a minute as the average. No trouble has been experienced with a decrease in the head and no records are at hand to indicate any failure to obtain a supply. In drilling for water in this area only one bed has been found which yields a usable flow. This bed is irregular in depth in various parts of town and appears to dip slightly west to Burt Lake. It ranges in depth from 86 feet below the surface, as in the well of Mr. B. Field's (No. 21) in the eastern part of town, to 175 feet at the Columbus Beach Club house (No. 38). The bed is about 10 feet thick and is of rather coarse gravel, with a slight admixture of sand, which flows out in a few days after the well is completed. The water bed may not be far above the rock, as at the Colonial Hotel, 4 miles northwest, rock is found at 140 feet, and 2 miles to the south rock ledges are present in hills which are 100 feet higher than the village. The wells south of the river have sand beds at the surface from 30 to 50 feet thick, and the remainder is hard clay. The latter is varied in a few of the wells by having many sand and gravel layers which yield some water, but not enough for a flow. North of the river hardpan clay is on the surface and forms the larger part of the wells for about 40 feet, as at Mr. T. Dagwell's well (No. 17), which has a small ï~~360 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. surface layer of sand and the remainder clay, the upper part of which contains bowlders. The wells at Columbus Beach have the finest beds of sand midway of the depth and small beds of light-colored clay below. No failure to reach the water bed was reported, but there are wells which do not flow. The well at the public school (No. 41) did not flow, the water being about 10 feet below the surface. By cutting off the pipe and carrying the water down the hill some 10 feet a weak flow was made. Well drillers will not try for a flow when the surface is over 30 feet above the water level of the river, and on the map (fig. 65) it will be seen that flowing wells are below the 640-foot contour. In all parts of the village south of the river flows may be found, but to the north the area is limited. The wells have the strongest force near the river, and some of the homes are fitted up with flush closets and bathrooms, using the water in the same manner as a city supply. Mr. W. H. Morgan (No. 7) has sinks, closets, and bathroom; none of the water is wasted, as it is controlled by check valves. Mr. F. E. Martin (No. 2) has coupled both his wells to a small hand fire engine, which gives plenty of water, and a good pressure in case of fire. A small plant for village fire protection could be installed at small expense by use of a gas engine and small distributing pipes, or a portable hand engine fitted for quick connection with several wells scattered about the village. The Alcove Hotel has sinks for kitchen use, flush closets in second story, and 4 stationary stands in a wash room, all supplied from one well. The water from this well rose 23 feet in a hose attached to it, and with the nozzle at the mouth of the well the water went vertically 12 feet into the air. Several ornamental fountains are operated by wells. Medbury's well (No. 34) supplies several families and a fountain; in the latter water rises 15 feet through a quarter-inch aperture. The Indian River area is in a valley or lowland plain at the outlet of Burt Lake. To the south, about 685 feet above tide, is a sand plain, which is several miles wide and ends some 3 miles south of Indian River in morainal hills, which show rock outcrops up to 720 feet above tide, the drift surface being about 100 feet higher there and of much greater altitude farther south. There beds of loose-textured drift material, dipping to the north and covered by the later deposits of lake sand and clay, form the probable catchment area of the wells. Clay, with a few bowlders, is present north of the village, but the highest hills in that direction scarcely reach an elevation of 850 feet. On the eastern side of Burt Lake the sand-capped clay is 40 feet above ake level, as shown by the abundance of springs. The porous overwash to the north may contribute somewhat to the flows of Indian ï~~CITEBOYGAN COUNTY. 361 River, but the larger supply is believed to come from the beds to the south. Quality ofwater.-Examination of water from several wells of Indian River shows that its hardness averages a little higher than that from Oden, Harbor Springs, or Conway. Complaints are frequent that the water is hard, requiring the use of softening compounds for laundry purposes, though it is excellent for drinking. Sulphates were absent from the waters examined, and chlorides were present in small amount. The hardness is easily remedied, and this is fortunate, for the chief use of the water in this district is for domestic purposes. The presence of iron was not indicated by tests or deposits of the carbonate about any of the wells. The results of testing wells by the field method are shown in the following analyses: Field analyses of water from wells at Indian River. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Hardness......................................................................... 227 178 Carbonates....................................................................... 195 192 Chlorides........-.............................................................. 60 15 Sulphates................................................................... 0 0 Iron......------------------------------------------------------------------ 0 0 1. Alcove Hotel (No. 5). 2. T. C. Herrick (No 26.) The temperature of the wells averages slightly above 480 F., which is 60 higher than the mean annual temperature of Indian River. The large flowage of water of this temperature into Indian River may acccount for its open condition in winter, while Sturgeon River without such a supply, is frozen The temperature of the water makes it especially useful in domestic needs, doing away with the use of ice. In the general store of Mr. F. E. Martin an excellent butter room has been constructed in the basement by using the flowing water, which gives a satisfactory temperature for keeping dairy and farm products for the market. The average temperature of these wells is exactly what sanitary officials of the larger cities demand for the storage of butter and milk during the summer months. This not only makes a well of especial value, but is an attraction to the summer residents. The growth of algae in the water is seldom sufficient to be an objection to its use. Indeed the wells generally are remarkably free from organic growths such as are due to water standing too long in tanks exposed to the sun's rays. ï~~362 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Indian River. a 4 5 6S 70 8 9 10 11z 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Owner. Town property........do.......... F. E. Martin b.........do........... Alcove Hotel d.. Commercial Hotel W. IH. Morgan.... E. Walkins...... A. Clements..... J. Berry........ B. Clements..... 12 D. Corwin....... 13 Dr. J. W. Bell.... 14 A. Bradley...... 15 Geo. Patterson... 16 J. J. Donnely.... 17 T. Dagwell....... 18 H.B. Lauterman. 19 Jos. Frye........ 20 J. Vermilya...... 21 G. Fields....... 22 J. W. Peck...... 23 F. E. Martin...... 24 Mahan Green.... 25 IH. P. Gordon..... 26 T.C. Herrick..... 27 W. R. Kinnear... 28 Mrs. Hover...... 29 II. Burgess....... 30 H. Barcus........ 31 J.C. Brown..... 32 T. L. McFee...... 33 T.H. Dunn...... 34 Dr. Medbury..... 35 Mrs. J. B. Brown. 36 J. McFee......... 37 W. F. Brums..... 38 Columbus Beach Club House. 39.....do............ 40 J. Fieser.......... 41 Public school..... 42 Joe Miller......... 43 Crawley & Newman. 6 + Feet. Feet. 611 118 605 112 603 108 603 108 605 107 611 115 612 124 613 107 612 106 610 122 605 110 606,125 614 135 611 108 600 102 610 120 609 137 612 142 620 126 610 108 610 86 615 93 616 107 598 130 610 155 610 165 600...... 604 150 600... 600 175 610 150 604 170 612 130 604 160 O0.0 5+.' cg5 Feet. 493 493 495 495 498 496 488 506 506 488 495 481 479 503 498 490 472 470 494 502 524 522 509 468 455 445 454 425 460 434 482 444 456 440 447 430 471 447 455 500 492 Quality. PE 0 Feet. Galls. F 651 100 48.......... 100 48...... Xc190.................190....... 628 c200 48 Hard....... 115 48. 647 205 48 Medium.. 150... ----- c1900 48. - 627 150 481......... c 160 48A Hard... $100 125 70 50 65 60 Remarks. Supplies large fountain and 2 drinking founts. Made in 1895. Only a little softening compound needed. Supplies 2 families. Supplies 4 families. Supplies 3 families; cased 100 feet; made in 1899. Throws much sand; pressure, 22 pounds. 654 641 631.... 155 150 150 128 130 48j:....do... 49.....do... 49.... do..............do... 49.............. 637 100 49 Hard... 645 125 48J....do......... 120 49 Medium.....65....... 625 175...... Hard... -----. 60.... b...... 224 48.......... 90 48'.. 650 130 47.. _... 130 47............ 125 47... 100 -48 55 50 Made in 1898.......Made in 1889. 70 Not flowing sand clogge 115 Made in 1897. 60 Made in 1900;c feet...... Cased 40 feet sand. 65......Some water al 85 80......Pressure, 22 in 1904; d. cased 120 through t 33 feet. pounds. 611 610 615 605 611 603 630 613 608 155 170 168 175 140 156 175 113 116......... 48..............Stopped by sand. ----- 100......._... 108............ c 180................85 Supplies 4 families. 619 c 190 48.80 Supplies 5 families and fountains. c 105................... Supplies 2 families... 150................... Supplies 3 families....... c100.............. 125 640 c 150 48............. Supplies 2 families and club house....... 100................... Pressure, 14 pounds....... 100 48 Soft... 624....... No flow. 647 110 48 'Hard... 35 Cased 96 feet....... 128 49....do... 70 Pressure, 20 pounds. a So far as ascertained, the wells are 2 inches in diameter. b In basement of F. E. Martin's store. The wells are connected and furnish water for 2 stores and a butter room and for 2 families over the store. One well is connected to a hand fire engine for fire protection. c Wells controlled by faucets; flow estimated. d By measurement at date of observation the water rises 23 feet, and when allowed to flow into the air rises 12 feet from the surface. It supplies the hotel and has sufficient pressure to operate the closets and wash basins on second floor. ï~~CHEBOYGAN COUNTY. MULLET AND BURT LAKES. Wells at Burt Lake. 363 '0. Owner or location. 0 z 1 Harry Sweet...... 2 Warren farm.... 3 W. B. Thomas.... 4 Mr. Humphrey... 5 Mr. Brown....... 6 Mr. Parks........ 7 J.M. Sager....... 8....do............ 9 Mrs. Williamson.. 10 T. A. Parker..... 11 Pittsburg Landing. 12 Colonial Hotel.... 13 J.M.Sager....... a Quality. WA;W w Remarks. Feet. 599 601 603 601 605 608 599 599 601 601 626 605 599 Feet. 105 70 108 66 55 107 88 97 112 110 180 464 99 Feet. Feet. 494...... 531...... 495...... 535. 450 625 501...... 511.... 502 609 489. 491 615 446...... 141...... 500...... tl Galls. 38 7 20 40 50 8 12 12 30 15 4 36 of.. Soft..... $50 48................. 8 40 -----.__.I 40 46................ 48 Soft.....I... 48....do... 100 46........................ - - 130 46 -. -- - -.-- - 51 Hard......... 48 Soft........... House use. Said to flow from rock. Flow has decreased. Domestic use. Weak flows at 46 and 70 feet. Hotel, laundry, and domestic use. House use. Do. Club-house use. Hotel, kitchen, laundry. Do. Wells at Mullet Lake. Owner or location. z -a - a Quality. Remarks. Fe.. Feet. Feet. Feet. Galls. OF. H. H.Pike's Sons, Topina-:04 119 485 40 48 Soft...... Shipl bee. a8.ate A. W. Starks............586 55 531 592 7 474...do.... )om J. C. Rittenhouse......... 585 28 557 '--{ 5 47..do.... Geo. J. Dodge............ 589 121 468 590 2 48.....do.... Ilous Do.................. 589 100 489.... 3...........do.... Itou Abbott & Levington..... 590 (0 530....................do.... F. Bennett, Topinabee.... 06 119 487 616 20..........do.... Dom 189 Michigan Central station...... 118................................ Mad Topinabee. Schoolhouse. Topinabee......... 125.................................... a Water shipped by I. II. Pike's Sons as "Sanitas Spring" water. Analysis of Sanitas Spring water, a ped and carbond; well, 3-inch. estic use. )o. se supply; some S. se supply. )o. estic use: made in 3. e in 1903. )o. Parts per million. Chlorine...............----............................................. 14.5 Free ammonia............................................................ None. Nitrogen in nitrates........................................................ 23 Total hardness......................................... 20.2 Permanent hardness................................................ 17.1 Organic and volatile matter (by loss).............----------------............ 18.2 Color, none; odor, none; taste, perfect; reaction, neutral. I. V. S. Stanislaus, analyst. Field analysis of Sanitas Spring water. Parts per million. Hardness.......................................................... 153.2 Carbonates.......................................................... 180 Iron..................................................................5 Chlorides-.................................... 214 W. M. Gregory, analyst. a See Wells of Lower Michigan: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 102, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 500. ï~~364 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. WATER SUPPLIES OF EMMET COUNTY. By FRANK LEVERETT. GENERAL STATEMENT. Emmet County fronts on Lake Michigan at the west end of the Straits of Mackinac and extends south to include Little Traverse Bay. The part south of this bay was described in connection with the discussion of Charlevoix and Antrim counties, it being in the region of drumlins and finger lakes. From Little Traverse Bay eastward is a lowland strip, which runs through to Lake Huron past Burt and Mullet lakes in Cheboygan County. North of this and north of Little Traverse Bay are very prominent uplands rising in places to an altitude of 400 to 500 feet above Lake Michigan. These high tracts are composed of loose-textured drift, into which the water table sinks to a great depth. A well dug by a farmer, C. Cobleman, on one of the highest points in the northeast part of T. 36 N, R. 5 W., found the water table 400 feet below the surface. The well is 404 feet and water is drawn from the bottom. It was at first drawn by horsepower, the horse being driven around a drum, on which the rope was wound, but is now fitted with a 12-foot windmill wheel. Its bottom is probably 100 feet above Lake Michigan. Near the west side of the highlands are blowing wells, also of great depth. One in sec. 29, T. 37 N., R. 6 W., on the farm of J. Bradley, was dug 300 feet and cemented all the way down. Then a boring 65 feet deep was made in the bottom to reach water. The well under certain barometric conditions has a strong down draft and under other conditions a strong upward rush of air. A whistle has been attached to the well, and this, it is said, is blown with sufficient force at certain times to be heard a mile away. Notwithstanding the great depth to the water table this upland carried a heavy forest growth, and orchards planted on it are not affected by drought. A large part of the rainfall seems to be kept within reach of the roots. The lowland leading east of Little Traverse Bay and also the north border of the bay furnish strong flowing wells, which have been studied by Mr. Gregory, and are discussed below. It is probable that flowing wells can be obtained at moderate depth at the north border of the highland tracts just mentioned and in recesses along the shore of Lake Michigan, but none have as yet been reported. In the map accompanying Mr. Gregory's report the prospective, as well as present, flowing-well districts are represented. The portion of the county south of Little Traverse Bay and of the lowland running east of the bay has limestone up to a height of 100 to 150 feet above the level of the bay and extends about to the middle part of the lowland, though at an altitude but little above the bay. ï~~EMMET COUNTY. 365 North of the lowland the rock surface, as indicated by the deep borings on the uplands and by the deep flowing wells in the lowlands, is at a comparatively low altitude, and it may be largely below the level of Lake Michigan. At the north end of the county, however, it outcrops at heights of 75 to 100 feet above lake level and is penetrated at slight depth by nearly all the wells in Mackinaw City. MISCELLANEOUS VILLAGE SUPPLIES. The villages of Alanson, Oden, Conway, Wequetonsing, and Harbor Springs are supplied with flowing wells and but few others are in use (see pp. 365-378). Data on the supplies of other villages and of the regions around country post-offices are presented in the following table: Village supplies in Emmet County.a Town. Ay............... Bliss............. Brutus............ Carp Lake....... Cecil.............. Ely............... Epsilon......... Goodhart........ Levering......... Littlefield postoffice. Mackinaw........ Pellston.......... Pleasant View.... Eleva- Source. tion. Feet. 850Â~ Wells and creek........ 800 Driven wells............ 680 Open and drivern wells.. 724 Driven wells................... Driven wells, stream... 725 Wells and streams............ Open wells and streams.........Open wells and lake.... 760 Open and driven wells.......... Driven wells........... 590 Open wells, lake........ 690 Driven wells........... 750-.....do................. Depth of wells. CoinFrom- To-- mon. Feet. Feet. Feet. 6 12 12.............. 35 15 105 18 16 30 16 35 60 40 20 40 30 6 30 20 25............... 25 200 25 10 230 50 25 65 25 16 24 24 22 25 25 Depth to - water Head. Springs. bed. Feet. Feet. 12... Small........... Do. 105 -2 Do. 16... Do. 40 -3 Do. 40.... Large. 20._ Do.... Do. 120 -20 Small. 50.... Do.......... Do. 24 -12 Large. 25 -5 Do. I I I FLOWING WELLS. PETOSKEY AND BAY VIEW. b A well near the mouth of Bear Creek in the west part of Petoskey, about 10 feet above Lake Michigan, was sunk to a depth of 489 feet and struck a strong flow of sulphur water at 295 feet beneath a thin bed of blue shale. Another well at Bay View, near the east end of Little Traverse Bay, at an altitude about 5 feet above the bay, found under a very hard stratum of limestone, a flow estimated at 200 barrels an hour. In both wells limestone is near the surface, and the wells seem to belong in a different class from those across the bay at Harbor Springs (see pp. 366-370), being unlike them in quality as well as in geologic relations. a Not including those with flowing wells. b Data by A. W. Grabau. ï~~366 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. HARBOR SPRINGS AND WEQUETONSING AREAS. General relations.-This area is a narrow strip of land not more than one-half mile in width and 5 miles in length, along the north shore of Little Traverse Bay (fig. 66). It is at the west end of an almost continuous belt of flowing wells extending from Harbor Springs on the Lake Michigan shore to Cheboygan on the Lake Huron shore. In fact, the Harbor Springs area is separated only by a strip of sand dunes from the remainder of the belt. To the north of this narrow artesian belt is higher land with loose-textured drift which in places reaches an altitude of 400 feet or more above the flowing-well district, while to the south an even higher altitude is attained within a few miles. This entire artesian district embraces the flowing wells of Cheboygan, Mullet Lake, Topinabee, Indian River, Burt Lake, Alanson, Oden, and Conway, as well as those of Harbor Springs and Wequetonsing. It lies along what is known as the "inland lake route" between the resorts on Little Traverse Bay and the city of Cheboygan on Lake Huron. Records from different sections show the drift to be loosely consolidated at the surface, and succeeded by alternate layers of clay and somewhat consolidated gravel and sand, porous enough to take in water. The amount of underground water that the drift absorbs must be great, as may be inferred by the relative scarcity of small creeks or lines of surface drainage. The scarcity is greater in the highlands north of this flowing-well district than south, and it is probable that the main catchment area is on the north. Within the limits of the Harbor Springs and Wequetonsing area there were 72 flowing wells in August, 1904, of which 41 were at Harbor Springs and 31 at Wequetonsing. The first well was drilled in 1887 by Charles Ross, being discovered accidentally while driving piles for a dock. When a pipe was driven through the clay into the underlying bed of gravel and sand the water rose 10 feet above the lake level and is still flowing. It is well No. 48 on accompanying table. Flowing wells of this class supply a large number of homes with abundant water, while the waterworks, owned by E. Shay & Co., derive their supply for public consumption from nine flowing wells, ranging in depth from 64 to 320 feet, and flowing 3,000,000 gallons a day. The shallow wells are made by driving a 2-inch pipe with a strong point and screen to the water bed. Such wells cost from $50 to $70, including pipe and labor. The deeper wells are drilled and some are cased to shut off water from the upper bed, and cost from 75 cents to $1.30 a foot. Flows from the upper water bed require frequent sand pumping to maintain a good flow. At present only a few are checked. No decrease in head has resulted from this practice, although some of the citizens ï~~H z H LIT TLEF TI? A V.E B S E 580' A T BAY Scale of feet 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 FIG. 66.-Contour moap of Harbor Springs flowing-wcll district. ï~~368 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. have agitated the question of having all the wells controlled. Some of the numerous fountains at Wequetonsing might be cut down with no inconvenience. Flow.-The total flow of the Harbor Springs and Wequetonsing wells amounts to 430.9 gallons a minute, not including about 275 gallons a minute from the nine wells at the city waterworks. Aside from these the greatest flow is 33 gallons a minute from the well of Homer Clark (No. 55), which draws from the upper water bed. The well of Doctor Barr (No. 7) and Hughston (No. 6) have large flows, and are also from a shallow water bed. Mr. E. Shay, of Harbor Springs, has observed the wells since they were drilled, and states that the nine wells at the city waterworks have their flow increased as much as 10 per cent after a rainy season. Some of the well drillers claim that the flow from wells is greater during the spring than in the late autumn, but none of these statements are as yet supported by precise'data. At the Wequetonsing resort three water beds are developed. The upper is the stronger; it varies in depth from 30 to 40 feet in the eastern to 50 feet in the central part of the resort; on the western edge only a few wells draw their supply from it. The second bed is quite uniform in depth, being 60 to 70 feet down in the eastern and central and reappearing in a few wells in the western section. The third bed is the only one between wells Nos. 19 and 22 which gives a sufficient flow for water supply, although well drillers have found water at other depths. The wells are restricted to the bay shore below the terrace that passes through the north edge of Wequetonsing. The various beds at Harbor Springs have been penetrated at the city waterworks wells (No. 39), of which five are from 66 to 88 feet, three are 100 feet, and one (a 6-inch well) 320 feet deep. The following record of the material penetrated in the waterworks wells was obtained from Mr. E. Shay: Record of waterworks wells, Harbor Springs. Thickness. Total. Feet. Feet. Sand........................................................................... 10...... Clay and sand................................................................. 22.. - Clay,some bowlders.......................................................... 30........ Hardpan......................................................................... 4 66 Gravel and sand (first water bed)......................................................... 12.......... Hard clay, no water............................................................ 10 88 Sand and gravel (second water bed)........................................... 5..... Clay, no water, some bowlders.................................................. 7 100 Sand and gravel (third water bed)........................................... 15........ Clay, blue and tough...............................................50 165 Some gravel and sand in alternate layers (fourth water bed)............................ 260 Clay from 260 to 320 feet, which is near limestone rock................................ 320 Flow (fifth water bed). The records of wells nearer the snore than those of the city waterworks indicate that the beds dip toward the lake. At Harbor Poirt, at the light-house (No. 61), a depth of 291 feet, and at Harbor Spri gs ï~~EMMET COUNTY. 369 Park (No. 70), one of 300 feet, was reached without striking rock, the wells being entirely in sand. At the higher elevations in the town the water bed is penetrated at lesser depths than in the wells along the shore, as the wells of M. Losinger (No. 57), B. Barbour (No. 49), and George Wheeler (No. 67). Quality of water.-The field analyses indicate that the sulphates are absent, while the carbonates are medium, the hardness about 160 parts per million, and the chlorides from 50 to 100 parts per million. The following analyses are representative of the water from this region: Field analyses of water from wells at Harbor Springs. [Parts per million.] 1. 2. Hardness......................................................................... 141 160.8 Chlorides............................................................................. 95.9 51 Carbonates........................................................................ 165 140 Sulphates................................................................................ 0 1. Atkinson & Abbott (No. 46). 2. P. Pfister (No. 56). Well data.-The following table gives the data of the wells of the region: Wells at Harbor Springs and Wequetonsing. 0 z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23; 24 25 Owner. Feet. Doctor Barr........588 H. R. Pattengill..... 587 T. West.............. 584.....do............... 584 Mrs. Scott............ 586 Mr. IHughston....... 587 Doctor Barr a........ 588 D. B. Little..........587 Mr. Ferguson........ 586 S. C. Edgar....... 587 Mrs. Maxwell......... 585 F. Eaton............. 588 Mr. Garrett........... 587 Mr. Clark.............588 R. M. Bishop.......... 588 Mr. Smith.......... 588 Mr. McClure.......... 584.....do................ 584 Mr. Brubaker (hotel). 587 Mr. Pratt............. 589 Mr. Brown........... 589 A. C. Clifford......... 589 C. Conklin............ 587 Mr. Roland........... 590 Mr. Reber............586 o l a.... c A' w3 w H _____ _ Remarks. In..5 1.5 1.25 2 1.5 1.25 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3 1.5 1.5.75 Feet. Feet. Galls. o F. 151 437 5.3 461 154 433 5.2 46 74 510.7 46] 26 558 7.5 461 44 542 15 451 40 547 30 461 53 535 30 461 73 514 4.5 46 80 506 12.5 461 78 509 7.9 461 73 512 4.6 46 79 508 6 461 80 507 5.7 45 64 524 4.8 461 80 508 2 46k 120 468 7.9 46 74 510 6.8 47 73 511 3.3 46 144 433 3.3 46 191 398 1.7 46 157 432 7.9 45 172 417 2.1 47 178 509........... 122 468 1.4 46 5 131 455 1.5 46 $125 50 50 50 50 10 Domestic use. Do. Fountain. Domestic use. Fountain and domestic use. Fountain and fish pond. Fountain and domestic use. Domestic use. Head lowered by No. 8. Fountain and house use. Fountain. Fountain and house use. Piped into house. Domestic use. Small fountain and house use. Fountain and house use. Hotel lavatory, flush closets, and kitchen. Small flow at 50 feet. House use. Do. Small flows at 30 and 75 feet. Domestic use. Do. a The following is the record of Doctor Barr's well: Thickness (feet). Sand................................................................................................ 11 H ard clay........................................................................................ 90 W hite sand and first water........................................................................ 10 Clay................................................................................................ 30 Gravel and flow................................................................................... 10 Inm 183--06----25 ï~~370 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells at Harbor Springs and Wequetonsing-Continued. yii z 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 Owner. F. Wyman........... Mr. Eaton............. Doctor Breed......... Mr. Ferguson........ Mr. Kennedy......... Mr. Strutta........... Mr. Johnson (sawmill). Village electric- light plant........... Mr. McIntosh...... Mr. Tanner......... E. Parameter......... Mr. Rockwell..... Eight water w o r k s wells.............. Deep waterworks well. J. L. Thompson..... N. Moore.......... F. R. Ferguson....... Mr. O'Conner.............do................ Thos. Lay............ Atkinson & Abbott... Northwestern Steamship Co. Rose Dock b.......... B. Barber............. M. Juilleret........... F. R. Ferguson....... R. R. Ransom........ H. Gillette........... W. Loundy-.......... Romer Clark......... J. Pfister c............ S Feet. 583 590 586 586 584 588 620 S603 595 605 601 599 595 595 601 603 604 605 605 592 592 589 589 609 619 619 608 612 619 619 619 In. 15 17 1.5 1. 1..75 1.5 1 1.25 1.25 1.75 1 2 1. 1..75 2 2 1.75 1.25 1.25 1.5 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Feet. 132 144 52 63 54 185 41 40 144 63 141 100 1 66 1150 330 144 164 112 112 112 102 48 63 92 55 38 35 56 49 31 48 42 39 100 153 120 281 112 113 160 80 80 164 47 85 145 300 56 80 Feet. 451 446 534 523 530 403 579 } 533 451 542 460 499 58 265 457 439 492 493 493 490 546 526 509 454 581 574 542 563 588 571 577 580 489 437 470 300 } 508 595 424 578 527 456 295 Galls. oÂ~F. 2.7 46 -- 3 46.... 8.3 464. 4.5 464.3.5 46 ---_ 1.4 464 --- - - $25 1.9 47 ------ 2.1 47 ------ 8.3 46 140 7.8 46 70 I..................... 12 47 ------ 3.6 462 ------ 10 4616. 3.7......... 1.86......-...... 6 462 10 46 48 10 472 ------ 10 461.... 14 45.2...... 6.2 46 ------ 1.3 46.... 1.2 45 ------.5 48 - 1.9 46 ------ 33.3 46 10 45.5.----- 10.5 461 20 ------ ------ 10 - - - -- - 18 46._ }....... 4 20..............-.-.--..-..--......------ ------ ------ Remarks. Fountain and house use. Domestic use. Piped to house. Domestic use. Do. Do. Used for steaming, softenea by boiler compound. JDeeper well drained shallow Sone. Garden and house use. House use. Head b07 feet; used for large gardens. House use. City supply; head 605 feet. City supply. Domestic use. Water hard; supplies house and several stores. Used at livery stable. Public fountain. House use. Fountain and house use. Public drinking fountain on dock. Head 599 feet; pioneer well; fountain on dock. Domestic use. Do. Water hard; flow has decreased somewhat. Flow decreased by sand in pipe. House use. Water soft; well reduced to 1.5-inch. Drinking, laundry, and cooking. Domestic use. Do. No flow; mostly sand, little clay. West of Harbor Springs; not shown on city plat. Do. Two wells. Well on bluff; no flow. Domestic use. Drilled in 1903; water soft. Domestic use; water soft. Pump well; water soft. Small flow; all sand. No flow; pumped in tanks; water soft. No flow; all clay; some gas. M. Losinger.......... 619 J. L. Thompson d... 589 L. B. Densmore....... 590 Mrs. Crystler......... 590 Light-house, Harbor 591 Point. Emmet Beach......... S. Olds................... Grain elevator....... 588 Schoolhouse.........675 Mr. Housler.......... 588 Geo. Wheeler e........625 M. J. Barnes I........ 612 Catholic school....... 601 Harbor Springs Park. 595 Catholic school....... 601 J. S. Sharpstein....... 683 1 a Small flows in gravel under clay at 40 and 60 feet. b Pioneer well, made in 1887. Water at 45 and 92 feet. Water bed discovered while driving piles for dock. Present well cased to lower water bed. c Water excellent for laundry purposes. Water bed under hardpan. Weak flow at 36 feet. d Ram is used for forcing water into upper floor of house. The ram cost $13, and the complete outfit and labor, including well, pipe, cooling room, bathroom, flush closet, and plumbing, $250. The ram will pump about 420 gallons in ten hours. e Weak flow at 15 and 35 feet from small gravel beds between clay. Made in two days. I Does not overflow, but flows into underground cistern. ï~~EMMET COUNTY. 371 CROOKED LAKE AREA. General relations.-The Crooked Lake area is part of the flowingwell district east of Harbor Springs and around Crooked Lake. (See fig. 67.) The flowing wells of the region are located in the depression discussed under Harbor Springs (pp. 366-368), and range in altitude from 600 to 630 feet, which is their general elevation throughout the Harbor Springs-Cheboygan region. The wells in the Crooked Lake area are located below a sandy terrace underlain with clay, which stands between the lake and the high morainic hills, and is well devel [ ) 3mites'\ FIG. 67.-Sketch map of flowing-well region between Conway and Indian River. oped from Harbor Springs to Alanson (altitude 640 to 650 feet). The edge of this terrace is 500 feet north of the Grand Rapids and Indiana depot at Oden (see fig. 68); it is just west of the depot at Alanson, and one-half mile north of the depot at Conway. The higher hills of loose-textured drift reach an altitude of 940 feet above tide within three-fourths mile north of Oden. This higher tract is an eastward continuation of that north of. Harbor Springs, and reaches in places an elevation of about 1,000 feet (Leverett). On the south side of Crooked Lake limestone appears near the surface in the low country, but there is a rapid rise southward into a district with drum ï~~372 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. linoidal hills. Elevations of 300 feet above Crooked Lake are reached within 2 miles to the south. The wells are best developed and strongest on the north side of the lake, chiefly at Oden, a few at Conway, Alanson, and Ponshewaing, while on the south side of the lake they are difficult to obtain and only a few exist. The part of the flowing-well area extending from Conway to Alanson is some 4 miles in length and varies from threefourths to 1 mile in width. South of Crooked Lake its extent is not clearly defined, but it appears to be only a very narrow irregular strip not extending over a mile back from the edge of the lake. The wells about Crooked Lake number 100, 65 of which are at Oden, 14 at Conway, 8 at Alanson, and several on the south side of the lake. The first effort to get a flowing well was made in 1884 at Oden in.a search for suitable water for boiler use in the engines of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway. An excellent flow resulted, though the water was found to be too hard for use in boilers. The rapid increase of summer residents his made many demands for a water supply of o Schoo oofet FIG. 68--Contour map of Oden and vicinity. this character and the number of wells has increased rapidly. The wells are drilled by contract, averaging from $40 to $60 complete. The depth of the water bed is so well known to the drillers that the time and labor as well as the cost of the material can be estimated S20I '053 6,very accurately.Church Flow.-The total flow in this area is about 2,000 gallons a minute, of which the wells at Oden yield 1,362 gallons, at Conway 353, Alanson 147, Ponshewaing 145, Burt Lake 279, and Mullet Lake 77 gallons a minute. The strongest flow is that of the Grand Rapids and Indiana 63 Railway well (No. 17) at Oden, which yields 80 gallons a minute. The wells on the south side of the lake have the smallest flow, and all attempts to secure better wells there have been failures. The water at Oden is allowed to flow freely and poor drainage of this surplus water is the cause of many swampy spots. In this growing summer resort such a supply of water is one of the valuable features, and where so many wells are being drilled it would be well to consider the 147 5oshwin5451ur-ak 79 ndMllt6ae77glln a~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~5 miue0h5tonetfo6stato h rn apd n nin Raiwaywel (N. 1) a Odn, hic yilds802allns9 miute The wells n4t" eGouthAsd Rteak hae hesmllst5lo,"ndal atemtstoscue eterwll ter hv4ben0alue.0hewae 424a0t9 T O0e is lloedto lowfrely2n 1oor drai aofthissurlu waeri9t8'as o anyr wapy pos. n hisgrwigsurÂ~. rethschaerpplyofewumer isonelofshsvlucbeesed aidly. The Therdeptofany well rebendiollknw ouldedllerosidertthe ï~~EMMET COUNTY. 373 future conditions. There is some objection to using check valves, for when the water is checked the sand settles and fills the pipe, often completely choking the flow. The amount of sand that some of the wells bring to the surface renders the water unfit for domestic use and a settling tank on the roof or second floor of the dwelling has to be used. A large well screen with a small mesh would be a means of checking the sand. Small screens are used in a few wells, but have been discarded by owners because of a tendency to decrease the head. In Oden three or more water beds are present, the lowest bed being the one in which the strongest flows are found. The majority of the wells are not drilled but are driven, and but little accurate data are available concerning the character of the beds. The writer's information has been furnished by the Pope brothers, who have had considerable experience in well drilling in this region. The Oden beds dip gently to the shore of Crooked Lake, with an additional dip from west to east, the stronger flows being found at 130 to 140 feet in the railG.R.and/.wel/ s53 1re 4 l5 7 20 49 -5 55 600 Sooked I 16 5 N sso - 550 oo 9 -- so - --water bed o rl w o loo 2oo 30o +oo feet FIG. 69.-North-south section at Oden, showing water beds. road well (No. 17), Mayer's well (No. 7), P. Smith's well (No. 2), and H. Rosenthal's (No. 28). In the western part of the village the stronger flows are from 100 to 110 feet, as in the wells of Mrs. Weil (No. 31), Doctor Shank (No. 42), and E. Mayer (No. 34). In the western part the beds are largely fine sand with smaller beds of marl and hardpan clay. The general relations in Oden are shown in fig. 69, which is a profile of water beds on a line drawn north and south from the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway depot. The two beds which have been exploited for the majority of flows are under clay layers 5 to 6 feet in thickness. The water beds are usually fine sand with only a small amount of gravel. The depth of the upper bed averages from 75 to 95 feet, while that of the strongest flow averages 120 to 140 feet. Below this water i3 not abundant. For this reason the pipe in the railroad well (No. 17) after being put down to 180 feet was drawn back to the 140-foot flow. In the western part of Oden the upper bed is used for flows, as it is stronger there than to the east, and it is in this ï~~374 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. part of the village that sand in the water causes considerable trouble, requiring settling tanks to get rid of it. Bed rock is not reached in any of the Oden wells, but is penetrated 150 feet in the wells of the Dart & Dart Company on Oden Isle, in Crooked Lake, three-fourths of a mile southeast of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway station in Oden. This continuous belt of the Traverse limestone to the south, as shown in the outcrops of Bay View, may aid in preventing the escape of the water and thus keep the head up in the region around Crooked Lake. The contour map of Oden (fig. 68) will serve as a local guide in selecting well sites. By locating the prospective well ou the map and referring to the accompanying table of data for the records of the surrounding wells a fair estimate of the cost and character of the flow can be obtained. The 630-foot contour lines limit the field to the north. Below this contour from Oden west to Conway and east to Ponshewaing flows are to be obtained. On the large map of the region (fig. 67) the area in which flows are possible is indicated between the dotted line and the lakes. The water beds at Conway have not been explored by drillers as fully as those at Oden. There are two distinct water.beds present and possibly more. The well of F. Stallman (No. 10), 88 feet deep, is from the upper bed, which ranges from 88 to 115 feet from the surface. The sand bed supplies the strong flows of C. Lyon (No. 12), W. Van Avery (No. 6), and the depot (No. 4). The well of E. E. Blackmar (No. 14) penetrated the following materials: Sand, 35 feet; clay, 47 feet; gravel, 12 feet; clay, 13 feet. The wells on the south side of Crooked Lake are nearly all in rock, and very few flows have been obtained. Mr. Jewell's well on the beach west of Hastings Point is a small flow from the rock. The Cincinnati Club at Hastings Point has a well 140 feet into rock, which yields a small flow. On Hastings Heights at the hotel, which is 628 feet above tide, several attempts for flows have been made. Limestone is reached at 18 feet below the surface and water at 252, but no flow, and the water is so scarce that the well has been abandoned. Several other attempts have been made along the beach to obtain flows, and, while some have been successful, at present they all require pumping to raise the water. There are two flows farther east on the south side of the lake which were not visited. One is at an old lumber camp. In the region to the southeast of Crooked Lake few deep wells have been made. Mr. George Benham drilled 150 feet, largely through bed rock, and found a small flow. At Ponshewaing two water-bearing beds are present, the upper one being the stronger, as at Conway. The "Resort" well (No. 58) is from a bed of rather coarse gravel under 8 feet of sand, 15 feet of marl, and 48 feet of clay. The drillers find water from 100 to 150 ï~~EMMET COTN TY. 375 feet. Near the surface the beds are sandy and below are thin beds of clay and gravel, no rock being found in the 200-foot well at the Ponshewaing Hotel (No. 60) nor in Mr. L. Schwab's well (No. 63), which is 225 feet deep. The high morainic region, a short distance north of the Crooked Lake flowing-well belt, contains unconsolidated drift material well suited as a catchment area for the flowing wells along its south border. Springs are very frequent along the edge of the higher land. The wells of Alanson, Pohshewaing, Oden, Conway, and Harbor Springs are all believed to be supplied from this catchment area. Quality of water.-The water in the district north of the lake is reported soft, as it requires no special softening compound, and is in general use for laundry and domestic purposes. At the Hotel Rawdon, in Oden, a glycerine soap for use with this water has given best satisfaction. The Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad have found the water unsuitable for boiler use, the deposit of scale being too great. DI)r. A. B. Prescott, Ann Arbor, Mich., said of the water taken from the railroad well (No. 17): This water contains a moderate amount of lime, a good part of which is held in solution as a carbonate. Sulphates are present in very small proportions and chlorides are not present in any proportions that would affect uses. Iron salts are not present in more than traces. The harduess by Clark's scal3 is 110, corresponding in effect to the presence of 11 grains of carbonate of lime in a United States gallon of water. In respect to the presence of organic matter the tests show a good degree of purity in this water. The hardness in waters tested varies from 201 parts per million in E. Mayer's well (No. 34) to 186 parts in the Rawdon Hotel well (No. 1). Carbonates average 156 parts per million. The rock well of the Cincinnati Club at Hastings Point has a hardness of 314, carbonates 320, and some sulphates. Field analyses of water from wells at Oden and Conway. IParts per million.] 1. 2. 3. 4. Hardness.................................................... 201 120.6 186.9 314 Carbonates.................................................. 160 160 166 320 Chlorides.................................................... 1 5 5 150 Sulphates.................................................... None. None. None. 33 Iron................................................None. None.............. None. N 1. E. Mayer (No. 34), Oden. 2. Rawdon Hotel (No. 1), Oden. 3. Depot (No. 17), Oden. 4. Cincinnati Club (No. 71), Conway. ï~~376 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Well data.-The following tables give the data of the wells of the region: Wells of Crooked Lake area. WELLS AT ODEN. 'I, 0 6 z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Owner. O a Feet 604 604 604 603 605 603 Hotel Rawdon a. P. W Smith.... E. Morrow....... Grand Rapids and Indiana Rwy. park......do............ J. A. Andrews.... t. Feet. 140 138 114 102 105 130 100 93 96 96 96 106 127 114 113 140 Feet. Feet. 464 618 462... 490.......... 498 - 473 613 506 513 618 509 617 510. 510 500..480... 485 614 485 471 629 Gals 32 60 10 a Quality. OF. 46......... 46.-----. 46. Cost.. $140 Fee. Fe. R. Remarks. - -56-1-46-1.......... I Mr. Mayers b..... 603 Club house-........ 606 A. Saunders...... 606 65 46 60 46 63 46 "Hard -. I. 4 -.... H. Gordon...... H. Tugar....... J. Havlin. R. B. Allison..... Oden House..... R. L. Marvin..... H. Pope.......... Grand Rapids and Indiana Rwy. depot.c V. Powell....... J. C. Carpenter... 605 606 606 606 607 609 608 611 2 2 1)2 2 1-2 2 2 8 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 Soft.... Soft.... Soft.... 60 --59 150 30 15 614 2 130 484......... 613 12 140 473 I.. 50 30... Domestic use. First clay at 90 feet. First flow, made in 1884, still flowing. Park and bathhouse. 2 wells connected; fountain, fish pond. Domestic use. Domestic and laundry use. Sand 80 feet, clay 12 feet, gravel and sand 4 feet. Domestic use. House and barn. Domestic use. 4 wells connected. Domestic and store use. Domestic use. Drinking water. Said to be nearly all quicksand. Hardpan at 95-100 feet and at 120 feet. Butter cooler and domestic use. Well driven in 10 hours. Domestic use. House use. Domestic use. Supplies 2 families. Domestic use. No flow, sand clogged. Supplies 2 families. Domestic use. 3 wells connected,110 to 115 feet deep. Settling tank used. Domestic use. Settling tank; see analysis of water. House use. Domestic use. Do. Supplies 2 families. P. Tile...........612 C. Rush......... 613 G. Woodruff..... W. L. Murphy... Mrs. Ruggles.... J. Carpenter...... Mrs. W. Smith... E. Stricher....... H. Rosenthall d.. G. Engle....... G. Williamson... Mrs. Weil e....... 615 615 611 611 611 610 616 614 609 609 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 100 512 114 499 113 502 112 503 140 471 123 488 81 530 78 532 140 476 90 524 65 544 110 501 78 531 90 418 118 489 73 532 78 527 77 527 80 523 70 533 629 630 7 29 32 30 20 25 5 25 50 8 35 60 42 40 10 15 10 12 15 46 46 46 46 46 454 46 46 46.......................do........do.......... Soft -.__..._.---- ----.d o - - ---- ----.. Soft............... ---.... 75. - Soft.............--do.................. 105.-- 46 Soft.... 15.... 46................. M. Market........609 S. Johnson!...... 608 E. Mayer......... 607 A. Fisher......... P. Soldern....... I. Carus.......... C. Daley.......... Mr. Forrester.... 605 605 604 603 603 46.................... 46................. 451 Soft.....................do........... a Used in hotel for kitchen, laundry, drinking, and washing. A glycerine soap is found to be best for the wash room. A small water ram forces the water to the second floor. The first clay is at 80 feet, the second at 120 feet. The rest is sand. b Three wells, 127, 133, and 130 feet, respectively. The two deeper ones are connected and feed a large fountain. c Drilled for water supply for engines, but is not suitable. It is used for drinking on the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway. At the time of drilling the water rose 18 feet above the surface. It was drilled 180 feet, but the supply being poor the pipe was drawn back to 140 feet. See analysis (p. 375). d Flows were found at 60, 80, and 140 feet; the lowest is the strongest. Said to be decreasing. SSupplies 3 families and a fountain. f The water is carried to a large tank on the roof of the dwelling, where the finer sand settles; without this the water is not suitable for use. This form of settling tank has to be used with several of the wells. ï~~EMMET COUNTY. 377 Welts of Crooked Lake area-Continued. WELLS AT ODEN-Continued. 0 Q S Owner. 40 o00 zA A Ft. In. Ft. 40 E. Thorpe-..604.. 116t 41 P. Baumgarten. 604 2 55 42 Doctor Shank_ 604... 101 43 J. Hendrick _.604 2 75 44 J. Stenbeck.....603.... 85 45 Mr. Bell........ 602 2 70 46 A. Hewey.. 610,...- 65 47 J. Holmes....611, 2 55 48 G. Hughes-....616K.- 96 49 Mrs. Beard_. [616 2 99 50 W. Pope _.-------- 624....{ 75 51 N. Fordman..... 625 2 7.3 52 Mr. Duncan.....j 628 2 86 5,3 James Hart -...631.... 8.3 54 Mrs. Shaw...615 2 110 55 G. Wrens.....618 2 85 56 M. Haey......618 2 76 57{ Chas. E ng l e........82 Ft. Ft. '~544 _. 5)49.-- a Gals.OF. 15 46........... $75 12 451........... 0 Remarks. Ft. J2 wells, 175 and 60.1 feet.... Hardecompact sand; 10 451no clay. 529 8 45J.... _............Domestic use. 518 '.. 546........._....... 532............25. Trouble with sand. 545 __. 10 45. Medium. 35. Well hand driven..5.._._ _____Not flowing in 1904. 520 _. 5 46 Soft _...........Made in 8 hours; hard clay at bottorn. 517 6 46'............ 549 1(0 46 Soft. __...........Sand 10 feet, white clay 15 feet, hard clay 50 feet, small flow at 60 feet. 542._ 10 46................... House use. 532 2..........___.........Small flow at 33feet. 548..-......................No flow. 515 it. 1146. Soft.._. 60 _.. 1)omestic use. 5.33} 620 11._.. Hard-.-----.. C Throws sand at in.. tervals.:542 71 46.. _.. _........House use..-....... Soft............ WELLS AT PONSIIEW~rAING. a '0 0 z Owner. A. o aL 01 Ft. [In. 600 2 610 2 615 2 619 2 610 2 612 2 600 2 P4 Ft. 70 180 200 175 225 225 82 v-, o,, Ft. 530 130 415 444 385 387 518 a w Ft. Gals. 620 50.. _ 25 621 20 15 615 10 8 17 46 451 Quality. Cost. 0 J Remarks. Ft. Soft.... $20 70 Fountain. 100 140 Hotel and laundry. Medium. 100 140 Log found at 50feet ----100 140 Medium. 125 20 Domestic use..... do... 125 200............... Steam ing. 58 N. M. Kellam h... 59 N. M. Kellam.... 60 N. IM. Kellam. 61 R. L. Myers.. 62 F. M Cap poe. 63 Louis Schwab... 64 Sawmill..__. WELLS ON SOUTHt SIDE OF CROOKED) LAKE. 66 Warren Keelers _.... 67 Gleo. Benham d... [ 610 681 Dart &Dart Co..! 600 69 1.do..........603 70 John Hastings.. 615 71 Cincinnati Club.. 628 72 Hotel Hastings... 728 73 J. Jewell......... 605 1j 100......2............. 11 150..-.......2............... 2 84...........3--......... 2 152..... _......_................ 2 63.......[ 47....... 1i 140'._...{1 48............ 22' 40......3............... Flows pipe quarter full........................All clay. Said to reach rock........................On Oden isle; small flow........................Said to stop in rock........................30 feet to rock........................See analysis (p. 375); 14 feet to rock........................Mostly in rock........................Flow from top of rock. as The pipes in all the Ponshewaing wells, except No. 58, are without screens. bThe following is the record of Kellam well, No. 58: Thickness (feet). Sand...................................................................................... 8 Marl................................................................................. 15 Blue and yellowish clay.................................................................... 48 Gravel and sand with water................................................................ 1 cWhen well No. 59 is checked, well No. 60 flows one-third more. d Mr. Benham is reported to have another flowing well at an old lumber camp in the NW. j sec. 32 T. 35 N., R. 4 W., which flows about 10 gallons a minute. This was not visited. ï~~378 WELLS AND WATER SUPPLIES IN SOUTHERN MICHIGAN. Wells of Crooked Lake area -Continued. WELLS AT CONWAY. Owner. W. Day............ N. Blackmar........ N. McFarlane cottage (2 wells)..... Grand Rapids and Indiana Rw y. (depot). Mr. Mathews...... W. Van Avery...... V. Powell......... J. McFarlane mill... W. Rice............ F. Stallman......... A. Blackmar........ C. Lyon............. J. Cook............. E. E. Blackmar..... 0 a: c E Ft. In. 606 2 }606 12 605 2 ---- 2 603 2 604 2 604 2 604 2 601 2... 2 605 2 604 11 603 1 0. Ft. Ft. Ft. 172........... 165 441.160 }446. 115 490 625 116......... 100 503... 103 501... 120 484.100...... 88 513 616 100......... 110 585... 100 504.107 505 638 O il Gals. 10 15 30 30 15 50 18 19 35 15 64 20 32 OF. 46 Quality. Cost. I Ft. Remarks. Domestic use. Clay 125 feet; rest sand. Soft...:...:. 46 Soft 46 46 46 46..do..... Soft. Soft... Soft... House use. House and store use. Carefully piped. Drinking. Not flowing.. House use Small hotel..ouse use.... Do. Made in 1885. WELLS AT ALANSON. E. R. White.. 609 2 82 527.. 10 45...................Domestic use. G. W. Rotten....... 607.... 72 535 _ 8..............$60 Do. Colby Hinckly Co... 608 2 80 528 618 18.........................Do. F. Keiger.......... 614 2 96 518 634 50 45 _.......... 100IHouse and barn. 11. McPhee.........610 2 122 488... 16 451...........100.Drilled in 1898. J. McPhee.......... 608 1 90 518.. 15............65. Store. W. McDonald....... 605.. 65 540...20......................House use. H. Fairbanks....... 603 2 70 533.....10 46...........75.....Drinking. WELLS NEAR BRUTUS (SEC. 34, T. 36 N., R. 4 W.). Joseph Morrisa.. 625 2 65 570 647 20Â~-.... Soft.............. Fish pond and stock. Do........... 625 2 55 570 647 20+.......do.............. Do. a Two wells in a valley near the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway, about 30feet below the bordering plain, flow a full 2-inch pipe. Reported by owner; not visited. ï~~INDEX. A. Page. Advance, wells at.......................... 346 Akron, wells at....................... 141,146-147 Akron Township (Tuscola County), wells in............................. 139,140 Alanson, wells at......... 365,366,371-372,375,378 Alba, wells at............................... 345 Albee Township (Saginaw County), wells in......................... 197,199-200 Alcona, water supply at................... 309 Alcona County, flowing wells in............ 307 rainfall in.............................. 10 springs in............................ 308 topography of....................... 306-307 village supplies in.................... 308-309 wells in.............................. 307-309 record of........................... 308 water of, temperature of............ 16 Alden, wells at............................. 335 Alger, wells at............................. 281 Algonquin, Lake, location of............... 6 Algonquin Beach, location of............... 6 Allegan County, rainfall in................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Allen Creek, water supply of................ 62 Alma, waterworks at..................... 204 wells at and near................ 203,204-212 wells in, location of, map showing...... 205 records of.......................... 206 Alma Sanitarium, well at, record of........ 206 Alpena, rainfall at and near............... 11 waterworks at......................... 351 wells at................................ 351 Alpena County, rainfall in.................. 10 topography of......................... 350 village supplies and waterworks in..... 351 wells in................................ 351 water of, temperature of............ 16 Altona, wells at............................ 79 Amadore, wells at........................ 249 Amber, wells at and near.................. 80,82 Amelith, well at........................... 118 Ann Arbor, springs at..................... 16 springs at, temperature of.......... 17-20 temperatures at, variations in, chart showing..................... 19 waterworks at.......................... 22 wells at and near....................... 130 water in, temperature of......... 15,17-20 variation in, chart showing..... 20 Antrim, wells at........................... 345 Antrim County, flowing wells in.......... 335-339 lakes in.............................. 333-335 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of....................... 333-335 Page. Antrim County, village supplies in......... 345 waterworks in........................ 336,344 wellsin............................... 348 water of, temperature of........... 16,337 Appin, wells at............................ 260 Applegate, wells at........................ 249 Arbela Township (Tuseola County), wells in.................... 137,139,143-144 wells in, record of...................... 144 Arcada Township (Gratiot County), wells 272 in............................ 204-212 Arcadia, wells near....................... 296 record of............................... 296 water from, force of, plate showing..... 272 Arenac, wells at........................... 281 Arenac County, flowing wells in.......... 269-274 maps of parts of..................... 270,272 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of......................... 269 village supplies in...................... 281 waterworks in......................... 269 wells in...................... 269-274,279-280 water of, temperature of............ 16 Argentine, wells at........................ 171 Argyle, wells at............................ 249 Argyle Township (Sanilac County), wells in 257 Arkona Beach, location of.................. 6 Artesian areas, map showing............... 6 Ashland, wells at................... _........... 75 Ashley, wells in and near............ 204,225-229 wells in and near, location of, map showing............................. 227 water of, analysis of................ 226 Ashmore, wells at......................... 260 Ashton, wells at........................... 90 Ashton Township (Newaygo County), wells in........................... 68,69,70 Atlanta, spring near........................ 349 wells at................................ 350 Atlas area, wells in........................ 172 Atlas-Hadley area, wells in.............. 173-175 wells in, location of, map showing...... 174 Atlas Township (Genesee County), wells in............................ 172-175 wells in, location of, map showing..... 174 Atwood, wells at...........................345 Auburn, well at............................. 116 well at, record of........................ 116 Augres, wells at................ 269,271,281 Au Sable, waterworks at................ 269,281 Au Sable River, source and drainage of.... 305, 307,310,311,347,349 wells on................................ 306 Avondale, wells at......................... 90 Ayr, water supply at...................... 365 379 ï~~38 InDEX. B. Page. Bachelor, wells at.......................... 80,82 Bad Axe, waterworks at................. 259-260 wells at---------------------........................... 258,260,264 Bagley, wells at............................. 348 Bailey, water supply of------------------..................... 26 Baldwin, lakes near---------------------......................... 82 wells at----------------------------................................. 83 Bamfield, water supply at.................. 309 Bangor Township (Bay County), wells in. 119,120 Bannister, wells at and near-.......... 214,224-225 wells in and near, location of, map showing---------------------............................ 224,227 Barker Creek, wells at----------------.................... 312,313 Barry County, rainfall in-----------------................... 10 wells in, water in, temperature of-...... 16 Barryton, wells at and near-.......... 76-77,79,91 wells at and near, location of, map showing -------------------------.............................. 76 Bass Lake district, wells in................. 80-81 wells in, location of, map showing-...... 80 Bay City, waterworks at................. 120-121 Bay County, artesian map of............... 116 flowing wells in------------............... 115-118,269-271 map of part of---------------------.......................... 270 rainfall in--------------------------............................... 10 topography of-------------------........................ 117-118 waterworks in-------------------........................ 120-121 wells in............................... 115-120 water of, character of------------............. 120 temperature of............... 16.120 Bayport, wells at-------------------......................... 259,260 Bayport Township (Huron County), wells in............................... 266 Bay Shore, waterworks at---------------.................. 345 wells at..............................--------------------------- 346 Bay View, wells at---------------------.......................... 365 Beaches, Glacial lake, location of........... 6 underground water on-----------------.................. 7 Bear Creek, drainage of------------------..................... 293 wells on and near................. 293,295,343 Bear Lake (Manistee County), wells at..... 297 Bear Lake (Muskegon County), location of. 32 water from............................. 26 Beaver Island, wells on..................... 346 Beaver Township (Bay County), wells in... - - 116, 118,119 Beebe, wells at---------------------............................ 229-230 Bellaire, waterworks at..................... 344 wells at..................... 8,336-337,338,345 water of, analysis of--------------................ 340 Belmont Beach, location of----------------................. 6 Benson, water supply at.................-----------------. 303 Bentley, wells at............................ 119 Benzie County, flowing wells in---...----.. 325-330 map of part of.......................... 327 rainfall in--------------------------............................... 10 section in............................... 329 topography of........................ 324-325 village supplies in...................... 331 waterworks inm........................ 330-331 wells in............................... 325-331 records of......................... 328,329 water of, analyses of--------------................ 328 temperature of----------------................. 16 Benzonia, section near..................... 329 wells at....................... 324,327-330,331 Page. Berea sandstone, water in.................. 308 Berne, wells at------------------------............................. 260 Berrien County, rainfall in----------------................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of-....... 16 Bethany Township (Gratiot County), wells in--------------------.......................... 93,219-223 wells in, location of, map showing--....... 221 Betsy River, drainage of-----------------.................... 324 wells on---------------------------................................. 325 Beulah, wells at--------------.................. 325,327-330,331 wells at, records of---------------................... 328-329 water of, analyses of------------.............--:. 328 Big Prairie, wells at-----------------......................... Big Rapids, waterworks at-------------................. 78-79 Big Rock, wells at----------------------.......................... 350 Bingham Township (Huron County), wells in----------------------............................. 259,263 Birch Run Township (Saginaw County), wells in------------------....................... 197,200 Biteley, wells at-----------------------............................ 75 Black Creek, wells on------------------....................... 37-38 wells on, record of...................... 38 Black River, drainage of-----------............. 307,349, 352 topography on------------------........................ 246-247 water from------------------------............................. 247 wells on---------------------------................................. 354 Black River (post-office), water supply at.. 309 Blanchard, well near--------------------....................... 109 Bliss, wells at-------------------------.............................. 365 Bloomfield Township (Huron County), wells in---------------------......................... 267 Boardman River, drainage of------------............. 314 water from------------------------............................. 313 analysis of----------------------.......................... 313 Bog lime, water from-------------------....................... 7-8 Bolton, wells at------------------------............................ 351 Boone, wells at------------------------............................. 303 Bored wells, description of---------------.................. 13 use of-----------------------------................................... 124 Borland, wells at-----------------------........................... 79 Bowman, Isaiah, on Ensley district--........ 73-74 work of----------------------------................................. 2 Boyden, well near----------------------.......................... 108 well near, record of------------------..................... 109 water of, analysis of--------------................ 109 Boyne waterworks at------------------...................... 345 wells at and near............... 8, 341-342,346 water of, analysis of---------...........-----.... 342 Boyne Creek, wells on...................... 341 Boyne Falls, wells at and near---------............ 343,346 Branch, wells at----------------------............................ 80,82 Branch County, rainfall in----------------.................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of....... 16 Brant Township (Saginaw County), wells in---------------------------................................... 197,198-199 Breckenridge, wells at and near-.......... 220-223 Brent Creek, wells near------------------..................... 158 Brethren, wells at---------------------.......................... 295 Brice, wells at-------------------------.............................. 231 Bridgeton, wells at---------------------......................... 75 Bridgeton Township (Newaygo County), wells in...................... 68, 69,70 Brookfield Township (Huron County), wells in---------------------......................... 262 wells in, record of-------------------....................... 262 Brown City, waterworks at--------------................ 247 ï~~INDEX. 381 Page. I Page. Brown City, wells at...................... 249 Chapman Lake, well on.................... 282 Brunswick, wells at....................... 75 Charlevoix, waterworks at................. 346 Brutus, wells at......................... 365,378 wells at.............................. 346 Bryant, wells at................................. 309 Charlevoix County, flowing wells in... 335,339-344 Bull Township (Sanilac County), wells in. 252-253 lakes in.............................. 333-335 Burns Township (Shiawassee County), rainfall in...............:............ 10 wells in...................... 191-192 topography of....................... 333-335 wells in, location of, map showing...... 191 village supplies in.................... 346 Burt Lake, spring near.............................. 355 waterworks in....................... 345-346 wells near.................... 354,357,363,366 wells in.............................. 348 Burton Township (Genessee County), wells water in, temperature of............. 16 in........................ 161,166-168 Charlton, wells at.......................... 348 wells in, location of, map showing...... 162 Chase, wells at.............................. 83 Butterfield, wells at....................... 305 Cheboygan, waterworks at..................... 335 Butterfield Township (Missaukee County), wells at........................ 355,357,366 well in......................... 304 Cheboygan County, flowing wells in.. 354,355-363 Buttersville, wells at...................... 82 lakes in................................ 353 Byron, wells near............"..........191 map of part of.........._............. 358 rainfall in.............................. 10 C.springs in............................ 354-355 Cabmoosa, water supply of............... 62 topography of.......................... 353 Cadillac, elevations near.................... 5,301 village supplies and waterworks in..... 355 waterworks at....................... 301,302 wells in.............................. 354-363 wells at................................... 303 water in, analyses of......... 356,361,363 water of, analyses of............. 303 temperature of.............. 16,355,361 Calhoun County, rainfall in................ 10 Cheboygan River, drainage of............. 347,352 wells in, water of, temperature of....... 16 Chesaning Township (Saginaw County), Canada Corners, water supply of........... 26,45 wells in...........................197,200 Canboro, wells at............................ 260 Chestonia, wells at......................... 345 Canfield, wells at......................... 83 Chicago Lake, location of................... 6 Caro, wells at...................... 146,151-152 Chief, wells at.............................. 295 wells at, record of........................ 152 Chippewa Lake, wells at.................... 79 Carp Lake, wells at.................... 332,365 Chippewa River, drainage of............ 75,92,243 Carrs, wells at...................... 82 Chippewa Township (Isabella County) Carsonville, waterworks at................ 248 wells in............................ 93,100 wells at................................ 249 Chippewa station, wells at.................. 90 Caseville, wells at.......................... 260 Churn drill, use of.......................... 13 Caseville Township (Huron County), wells Chute Creek, wells on...................... 117 in.........................266 Clam lakes, water from.................. 301,302 Cash, water supply at......................... 249 Clare, waterworks at........................ 112 Casing, leaks in, causes and results of...... 127 well near, record of.................... 105 Casnovia, waterworks at.....................25,26 Clare County, flowing wells in............... 113 Casnovia district, topography of......... 27,41-42 map of part of........................ 107 wells of................................ 42 rainfall in.............................. 10 Casnovia Township (Muskegon County), topography of....................... 111 wells of...................... 41-42,45 village supplies and waterworks in..... 112 Cass City, wells at......................... 151 wells in................... 93,106,108,111-113 Cass County, rainfall in........................ 10 water of, temperature of............. 16 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Clarence, wells at............................ 112 Cass River, drainage of.................. 246,256 Clarion, wells at........................... 344,346 wells on................... 134,141,143,145-146 Clinton County, rainfall in................. 10 Catchment areas, distribution of............ 5 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Cathro, wells at............................ 351 Clio district, wells in..................... 156 Caving, loss of head due to................. 128 Clogging, instances of.................. 31,35-36 Cecil, water supply at-................... 365 loss of head due to................... 128-130 Cedar River, drainage of................... 175 Coal, occurrence of........................ 140 Cedar Run, wells at........................ 315 Coal measures, water from................. 7 Center Harbor, wells at................... 260 Coe basin, wells in............ 93,94-95,97-100,244 Center Township (Emmniet County), wells in. 364 wells in, location of, map showing...... 95 Central Lake, waterworks at............. 344 record of.................................96 wells at....................... 336,337-338,345 Coe Township (Isabella County), wells in.. 93, water of, analyses of-.............. 337 95-96,98-99 Chamberlin, T. C., water-supply data col- wells in, details of.............................. 94 lected by-...................... 1 wells of, records of.................. 96 Chandler Township (Huron County), wells Cohoctah area, wells in.................... 180 in............................ 266-267 wells in, location of, map showing...... 180 ï~~882 INDEX. Page Coleman, wells at and near................. 102 Coltax Township (Huron County), wells in. 264 Columbia Township (Tuscola County), wells in........................ 137,139,140 Columbus Beach, wells at................ 357-360 Comins, water supply at................... 310 Contours, map showing.................... 8 Conway, wells at and near................. 365. 366,371-372,374-375,378 wells at and near, location of, map showing............................. 371 water of, analysis of................ 375 Cooper, W. F., on Bay County........... 115-121 work of................................ 3,193 Copemish, wells at......................... 296 Corunna, waterworks at................... 193 wells at................................ 193 Corwith, wells at.......................... 348 Crawford County, description of.......... 310-311 rainfall in.............................. 10 wells in................................ 311 water of, temperature of............ 16 Crooked Lake, wells at.................... 112 Crooked Lake area, wells in............. 371-378 Croswell, waterworks at................... 247 water supply at........................ 249 Croton, wells at............................ 75 Crown, wells at............................ 260 Crump, well at............................. 119 Crystal Lake, wells on................... 325,327 wells on, location of, map showing...... 327 Crystal Valley, water supply of............. 62 Crystal Valley district, wells of............ 53-54 wells in, location of, map showing...... 54 water of, analysis of............... 91 Culver Creek, wells on...................... 115 Custer. wells at......................... 82 Custer Township (Sanilac County), well in.. 256 D. Davis, C. A., on Saginaw Bay drainage basin.................... 121-246 work of................................. 2 Davison, wells at and near............... 161-166 wells in, location of, map showing....... 163 Davison Township (Genessee County), wells in............ 128,155,161-166,167-168 wells in, location of, map showing....... 162 Dayton Township (Tuscola County), wells in.............................. 143 Deckerville, wells at........................ 249 Deerfield Township (Isabella County). wells in.............................. 108 wells in, record of...................... 109 water of, analysis of.............. 109 Deerfield Township (Livingston County), wells in....................... 180-181 Deford, wells at............................. 154 Denmark Township (Tuscola County), wells in......................... 139 Denver Township (Isabella County), wells in............................... 93 wells in, record of.................... 101-102 Depth, influence of, on temperature......... 14-15 Detroit, population of..................... 24 water supply of........................ 24 Detroit River, wells on...................... 7 Page. Deward, wells at........................... 311 Dewings, wells at.......................... 90 Diamondlock, wells at...................... 75 Dighton, wells at.......................... 90 Ditching, drainage by............. 202-203,228-229 loss of head due to-................... 131 Dolph, wells at and near................... 304 Douglas Lake, spring near............... 354-355 wells near.............................. 354 Dover, well at............................. 348 well near, record of..................... 106 Dover Township (Otsego County), wells in. 347 Drainage, character of..................... v-10 See also Topography. Drainage, subsoil, loss of head due to........ 131 Drift, character of -....................... 8 distribution of......................... 5 structure of.......................... 8-9 water from, character of............... 7, 132,136-137,141-142,197 See also Topography. Drilling, use of........................... 13 Driving, imperfect, loss of head due to...... 127 Drought, loss of head due to............... 130-131 Drumlins, distribution of.................. 6 Dublin, wells at.......................... 296 Dug wells, dangers of........................ 12 description of........................... 12 utilization of........................... 124 Durand, wells in........................... 192 Dwight Township (Huron County), wells in............................. 268 E. Eagle Bay, wells at........................ 260 East Jordan, waterworks at..:............. 346 wells at............................ 8, 339,346 water of, analysis of............... 340 East Jordan-South Arm district, wells in............................ 339-340 Eastport, wells at.................................. 345 East Tawas, waterworks at..."..... 269,274, 275 wells at.............................. 269,281 Eaton County, rainfall in................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of....... 16 Echo, wells at............................. 345 Edenville Township (Midland County), wells in........................ 102 Edgewood, wells at........................ 230 Edwards, wells at and near............... 115.282 Edwards district, wells in.................. 115 Edwards Lake, well on..................... 282 Elba Township (Gratiot County), wells in.. 204, 224-229 Elbridge, water supply of................. 62 Elbridge district, wells of................ 54-55 wells in, location of, map showing. 55 water of, analysis of................ 91 Elevations, height of..................... 4-5 Elk Rapids, waterworks at.............344, 345 Elkton, wells at-- -- ---.....................260,265 Elkton beach, location of.................. 6 Elk Township (Sanilac County), wells in.. 253-254 Ellsworth, wells at...................... 345 Elmer, wells at............................. 249 Elm Hall, wells at........................... 230 ï~~INDEX. 383 Page Elmira,wells at and near.................. 345, 347 Elwell, springs near.-..................... 214 wells at and near -----------------.................... 214-215 Ely, water supply at....................... 365 Emerald, wells Ait....................... 79 Emmet County, blowing wells in...........364 flowing wellsin................... 335, 364-378 maps of parts of............... 367, 371,372 rainfall in............................. 10, 364 section of, figure showing..............373 topography of............... 333-335, 364 village supplies in.................... 365 waterworks in......................... 368 wells in............................. 364-378 record of......................... 368,369 water of, analyses of.......... 369, 375 temperature of................ 16 Empire,wells at....................... 333 Ensley Township (Newaygo County), wells in......................... 63,73-74 wells in, location of, map showing..... 73 record of........................ 73 Epsilon, water supply at.................. 365 Evart, waterworks at.................... 84 wells at and near.................... 84,85-87 water of, analysis of................ 91 Evart district, wells of................. 85-87 wells of, location of, map showing... 85 water of, analysis of............... 91 F. Fairgrove, wells at....................... 147-148 wells at, record of...................... 147 Fairgrove Township (Tuscola County), wells in... --................. 139,140 Fairhaven Township (Huron County), wells in..-- --....................... 259,266 Fairfield Township (Grand Traverse County), wells in-................. 319 Fairview, water supply of -................ 310 Farwell, waterworks at................... 112 Fenton, waterworks at-.................. 171 wells at --........................... 171-172 Fenton Township (Genessee County), wells in-.......................... 171-172 Fern, wells at -------...........----------............... 82 Ferry, water at, analysis of................ 91 water supply of_.......................62 Ferry district, wells of.....................57-58 wells in, location of, map showing..... 57 Fife Lake, wells near.................. 312,314 Finkton, wells at -----......-----................. 345 Fisher, Davenport, on Muskegon well w ater......---.................. 37 Fish ponds, use of well water for......... 125-126 Flanders, wells at..........--............... 351 Fletcher, wells at-........................ 312 Flint, wells in and near............... 131,158-160 wells in and near, record of............. 159 water of, analyses of............. 158-159 Flint River, drainage of -................. 183 wells on.................... 158,160 Flint Township (Genesee County), wells in................... 158,160 Flower Creek, water of................... 49 Flower Creek district, wells in............. 46-49 Page. Flower Creek district, wells in, location of, map showing -.................46 wells in, water of, analysis of.......... 91 Flushing, wells near..................... 158 Forest beaches (Upper and Lower), location of........................ 6 Forest Hill, wells at..................... 218 Forest Home Township (Antrim County), wells in...................... 337, 338 Forests, distribution of-................... 5 Forest Township (Genesee County), wells in 156 Forestville, water supply at--------------................ 249 Fork Township (Mecosta County), wells in. 76-77 Forman, wells at.......................... 83 Fostoria, wells near....................... 151 Fountain, water supply of................. 82 Fountain Point, wells at................. 323 Frankenlust Township (Bay County), wells in----------------------............................. 119,120 Frankfort, waterworks at................... 330 wells at..---------------------.................... 325, 330, 331 Fraser Township (Bay County), wells in... 117, 118,119 Frederick, wells at........................ 311 Freedom, wells at........................ 355 Freesoil, wells at and near............... 80,82 Freiburger, wells at...................... 249 Fremont, waterworks at-................. 66 wells at....................... 65-67, 69,70,75 location of, map showing........... 65 water of, analysis of-............... 91 Fremont district, wells in........... 63, 65-70 wells in, location of, map showing...... 69 water of, analysis of-............... 91 Fremont Lake, well at, arrangements at, figure showing-................. 67 wells at........................... 67-68,70 water of, analysis of-............... 91 Fremont Township (Saginaw County), wells in ------......---.................. 197,199 Fremont Township (Sanilac County), wells in............................ 252 Fremont Township (Tuscola County), wells in.......................... 143,144 Frost, well at...................... 197,200-201 well at, water of, analysis of............ 201 Fruitland district, topography of........... 27,41 wells of- - - - - - --..........................41,42 Fruitport, well at, record of................ 39 well at, water of, analysis of-............ 39 Fruit Township (Muskegon County), wells in......................... 39-40,45 wells in, water of, analysis of........... 40 Fuller, M. L., analyses collected by......... 90-91 on Mason County.................... 80-82 on Mecosta Qounty.................. 75-79 on Newaygo County................. 62-75 on Oceana County................... 46-62 on Osceola County................... 84-90 work of............................ 3 G. Gagetown, wells at........................ 149 Gaines, wells at........................... 170 wells in and near, location of, map showing........................... 169 Gaines Township (Genesee County), wells in..................... 169-170 ï~~384 INDEX. Page. Gaines Township (Genesee County), wells in, location of, map showing.... 169 Gale, water supply of........................ 62 Garfield Township (Bay County), wells in- 119 Garfield Township (Grand Traverse County), wells in.................... 314 Garmer, wells at.......................... 90 Gaylord, wells at and near............... 347-348 Genesee County, flowing wells in..... 125,155-175 maps of parts of...... 157,160,162,163,169,174 rainfall in.............................. 10 springs in............................. 171 topography of......................... 155 waterworks in....................... 156-158,164,171 wells in.......................... 131,155-175 record of........................... 159 water of, analysis of............ 158,159 temperature of.................. 16 Genesee Township (Genesee County), wells 1 in........................... 160-161 wells in, location of, map showing...... 160 Geneva Township (Midland County), wells in......................... 93,102,245 Geography, description of........................ 4-6 Geology, description of......................4-9 map showing-........................ 8 Geologic history, outline of _............... 4-6 George Lake, well on..................... 282 Geyser Spring, description of.............. 89-90 Gibson Township (Bay County), wells in_. 119 Gifford Township (Tuscola County), wells in............................ 139 Gilbert, wells at.......................... 303 Gilmore Township (Isabella County), wells in.................... 92-93,106,108 Glacial epoch, history of -................. 4-6 Glacial lakes, description of............... 6 Glaciers, distribution and character of..... 4-6 Gladwin, waterworks at................... 114 Gladwin County, flowing wells in..... 113-115,269 rainfall in............................ 10 topography of......................... 113 waterworks in........................ 114 wells in.............................. 113-115 water of, temperature of............ 16 Gladwin district, wells in-................ 114 Goocha, J. B. F., on Otsego County wells.. 348 Goodell, wells at......................... 75 Goodhart, water supply at-............... 365 Goodrich, wells at....................... 172-173 Goose Lake, well on..................... 336 Gordon, C. H., work of................... 248 Gotts, wells at........_................... 260 Gove Township (Huron County), wells in.. 268 Grabau, A. W., on Petoskey and Bay View. 365 Grace, wells at........................... 353 Grand Blanc, water supply of.............. 171 Grand Haven, rainfall at and near.......... 11 Grand Rapids, wells at and near........... 7 Grand River, drainage of -................ 183 Grand Traverse Bay, wells near............ 16 Grand Traverse County, flowing wells in. 315-326 map of part of....................... 316 sections of............................ 317,318 rainfall in............................ 10 springs in, analysis of................ 321-322 Page. Grand Traverse County, topography of.... 314 village supplies in...................... 315 wells in...........-................. 314-324 records of........................ 322,323 water of, analyses of............. 318,321 temperature of-................ 16 Grant, wells at.......................... 75 Grant Township (Clare County), wells in......................... 93,106,108 Grant Township (Huron County), wells in. 262 wells in, record of.................... 262 Grant Township (Newaygo County), wells in 63,73 Grasmere beach, location of............... 6 Grassmere, wells at........................ 260 Gratiot County, flowing wells in...... 125,204-229 map of part of........ 205,215,216,221,224,227 rainfall in............................ 10 springs in.......................... 214,219 topography of...................... 202-203 village supplies in................. 229-231 waterworks in................. 204,219,229 wells in......................... 93,203-231 records of.................. 206,213,220 water of, analysis of................. 226 temperature in............... 16,213 Grayling, wells at....................... 311 Great Sable River, drainage by............ 80 Greenbush, springs near-................. 308 Swells at.............................. 309 Greendale Township (Midland County), wells in...................... 243 wells in, location of, map showing...... 243 Greene Creek, well on-.................... 34 Greenleaf, wells at.-...................... 249 Greenwood district, wells of................ 58-59 wells in, location of, map showing...... 58 Greenwood Township, wells in........... 111-112 Gregory, W. M., on Beulah and Benzonia wells....................... 327-330 on Cheboygan County...-_...._...... 355-363 on Frankfort area-................... 330 on Geneva and Warren townships, Midland County.............. 245-246 on Isabella County................. 92-111 on northwest border of Saginaw Bay. 269-271 on Ogemnaw County................. 281-293 on Onekamsna wells.-................ 297-301 work of............................ 3,231-232 Grindstone, wells at..................... 260 Ground-water table, depth of............. 11-12 Grout Township (Gladwin County), wells in 114 Grove, wells near.-....................... 63 Groveland Township (Genesee County),wells in, location of, map showing.... 174 Gustin, wells at......................... 309 Gypsum, influence of, on water-............ 14 H. Haakwood, wells at....................... 356-351 water of, analysis of................. 365 Hadley Township (Genesee County), wells in.......................... 173-175 wells in, location of, map showing...... 174 Hagensville, wells at....................... 353 Hale, wells at............................ 281 Hampton Township (Bay County), wells in............................ 119-120 ï~~INDEX. 385 Page. Page. Harbor Beach, waterworks at........ 259,260,263 Huber, wells at............................. 75 Harbor Springs, wells at and near---------.......... 365, Hudson, wells at........................... 348 366-370,375 fume Township (Huron County), wells in. 268 wells at and near, location of, map show- Hungerford, wells at....................... 75 ing-....-----------------------.......................... 367 Huron, wells at.......----------...................... ---------260 record of.......................... 368,369 Huron, Lake, water of and from...... 257-258,259 water of, analyses of............... 369 Harlan, wells at............................ 296 Harmon, wells at........................... 269 Ilarrietta, wells at......................... 303 Harrison, waterworks at................... 112 Ilarrisville, springs near.................... 308 well at, record of....................... 308 wells at................................. 309 Hart, waterworks at....................... 59.62 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... 91 Hart district, wells in...................... 52-53 wells in, location of, map showing...... 51 Hartland area, spring in................. 181-182 wells inm............................... 181-182 location of, map showing........... 182 water of, analysis of................ 182 Hartley Creek, wells on..................... 172 Hartwick, wells at.......................... 90 Hastings Heights, wells at................. 374 Hastings Point, wells at................. 374,375 Hawkins, wells at.......................... 75 Hawks, wells at........................... 353 Hayes, wells at........................... 260,348 Head, loss of....................... 22-23,140-141 loss of, causes of.................. 126-132,208 See also individual places. Headlands, distribution of................. 5 Helena, wells at............................ 260 Herbert, wells at........................ 306 Herring lakes, wells on....................... 325 Hersey, wells at............................ 90 Hersey River, springs on................... 88 Hesperia, wells in and near................. 62-65 wells in, location of, map showing..-.... 63 water of, analysis of................ 91 Higgins Lake, location of................... 305 Hillman, waterworks at.................... 350 wells at..................:.............. 350 Hillsdale County, rainfall in-------... --------10 wells in, water of, temperature of -..... 16 Hobart, wells at............................ 303 Holly, wells at.............................. 130 Holton, water supply of.................... 26 Homer Township (Midland County), wells in......................... 237,240-242 Homestead, wells at........................ 331 Honor,-wells at....................... 325-326,331 Horton, R. E., work of...................... 3 Horton Bay, wells at....................... 346 Houghton Lake, location of................ 305 wells on................................. 306 Houseman, water supply of................ 62 Howell, waterworks at..-................ 176 wells at and near..................... 176-179 location of, map showing.......-.... 177 records of........................... 178 water of, analysis of................ 179 Hubbard Lake, location and drainage of.. 307 wells at.............................. 308,351 -RR 183--06 26 Huron County, flowing wells in............ 259, 261,264-265,268 map of part of.......................... 258 rainfall in............................... 10 section across, figure showing.......... 259 topography in........................ 257-259 village supplies in...................... 260 waterworks in........................ 259-260 wells in............................... 257-268 records of................. 261,262,264,265 water of, temperature of....... 16,264,265 IHuron Township (Huron County), wells in.. 268 hydraulic ram, use of...................... 126 1. Ice ponds, use of well water for........... 125-126 Illinoian stage, drift of..................... 8 Ina, wells at................................ 90 Incrustation, chemical, description of and remedies for.................. 128-130 Indian River, wells at and near...._....... 354, 355,357-362,366 wells at and near, location of, map showing............................ 358,371 water of, analyses of............... 361 Ingersoll district, wells of................ 240-242 wells of, contamination of.............. 240 Ingersoll Township (Midland County), wells in......................... 237,240-242 wells in, location of, map showing...... 236 Ingham County, rainfall in................. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Interlochen, wells at........................ 315 Intermediate Lake district, wells in...... 335-s38 Institutions, water supplies of............. 23-24 Intermediate Lake, wells on................ 8,16 lonia County, rainfall in................... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of....... 16 Tosco County, flowing wells in. 269-270,271,274-279 maps of parts of...................... 270,275 rainfall in............................... 10 topography in.......................... 269 waterworks in.......................... 269 wells in-........... 269-270,271,274-281 records of........................... 277 water of, analysis of................ 276 temperature of................. 16 Iron, presence of............................ ------------------------14 Iroquois, location of........................ 6 Ironton, wells at and near............ 340-341,346 Irrigation, use of well water for............ 125 Isabella basin, wells in............. 93-94,101-105 wells in, location of, map showing...... 107 Isabella County, flowing wells in...... 92-109,269 maps of parts of....................... 95,107 rainfall in............................... 10 sections of, figures showing........ 92,101,106 topography of-----------------------.......................... 92 waterworks in........................ 109-110 ï~~386 INDEX. Page. Isabella County, wells in.................. 92-111 wells in, record of,......... 96,101-102,106,109 relations of, figure showing.-...... 106 water of, analysis of--------------................ 109 temperature of----------------.................. 16 Iabella Township (Isabella County), wells in---------------------........................... 93-94,101 Ithaca, wells at------------------------............................. 229 Ivanhoe, wells at-----------------------........................... 260 Jackson, water supply of........... Jackson County, rainfall in.......... wells in, water of, temperature of..... rasper Township (Midland County), wells in-------------................. 95,96,97-98,243 Jennings, waterworks at.....;............. w ells at.................. Jewell, wells at............................. Johannesburg, wells near................ Johnston, wells at.......................... Judge, wells at............................. Juniata Township (Tuscola County),wells in-.......................... 24 10 16 -245 305 305 75 348 260 311 139 K. Kalam.zoo County, rainfall in............. 10 wells in, water of, temperature of....... 16 Kaleva, wells at and near- ----------295,296-297 Kalkaska, waterworks at----------------313 wells at and near----------------..................... 312-313 Kalkaska County, description of......... 312-313 rainfall in--------------------------............................... 10 wells in------------------------............................... 312-313 water of, analysis of -------------- 313 temperature of----------------...16 Karlin, wells at...------------------------ 15 Kawkawlin River, valley of, wells in--...115,116 Kawkawlin Township (Bay County), wells in -------------------........................ 116,118,119 Kearney Township (Antrim County), wells in......................... 336-337,338 Kent County, rainfall in.................... 210 wells of-------------------------.............................. 7 water of, temperature of---...-..-...- 16 Killmaster, wells at--------------------.................. 309 Kilmanagh, wells at........................ 260 Kinde, wells at..................------------------------.. 260 Kingston, wells at-------------------........................ 149-150 Kirk, wells at------------------------------74,75 Klondike, water supply of----------------- 62 L. Lafayette Township (Gratiot County), wells in---------------------...................... -203 Laing, wells at--------------------------249,257 Lake, wells at....-------------------------- 75 Lake Ann, wells at------------------------ 331 Lake City, waterworks at----------------305 wells at----------------------------- --305 Lake County, rainfall in------------------- 10 topography of.......-------------------- 82-83 village supplies in--------------------- 83 wells in--------------------------................................. 82-83 water of, temperature of -.---..-...... 16 Pag. Lakefield Township (Saginaw County), wells in---------------------......................... 197 Lake Harbor, water supply of------------............. 26 Lake Harbor district, topography of-....... 27,37 wells of-----------------------.............................. 37-38,42 Lakes, occurrence of-----------------........................ 5 water supply from-------------------...................... 24 Lakes,Glacial, description of-------------............... 6,8 Laketon Township (Muskegon County), wells in...-------------------- 43, 45 Lake Township (Huron County), wells in-.. 267 La Motte Township (Sanilac County), wells in----------------------............................. 256-257 Lane, A. C., on Huron County---------........... 257-268 on Saginaw water supply...-----......... --201-202 work of-------------------......................... 13,14,133,193 Lansing, water supply of-----------------................... 24 Lapeer County, flowing wells in...-..-..... 125,143 rainfall in--------------------------............................... 10 wells in."--------------------------- 143 water of, temperature of----------........... -16 Larkin Township (Midland County), wells in----------------------............................. 232-234 wells in, location cf, map showing-...... 233 Latitude, influence of, on temperature of underground water-------------............. 15 Lattin, water supply of-....... 62 Lattin district, wells of-------------------- 56 Leaks, loss of head due to----------------.................. 127 Leelanau County, flowing wells in-----. ----3.2 rainfall in.....-------------------------- 10 topography of----------------------.......................... 331 village supplies in----------------..................... 332-333 wells in------------------------............................... 332-333 water of, temperature of----------........... 16 Leeland Township (Leelanau County), wells in------------------------332 Leetsville, wells at------------------------- 313 Legislation, character and text of.--.......-21-22 Leighton, M. 0., analyses furnished by.--...179, 182,185,186, 226, 237,248, 303, 313, 337,342 Leland, wells at--------------------------- 333 Lenawee County, rainfall in--------------................ 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Le Rocque, wells at---------------------........................ 353 Leroy, wells at-------------------------............................. 90 Leverett, Frank, introduction by-----......... 1-25 on Alcona County----------------.................... 306-309 on Alpena County----------------.................... 350-351 on Antrim and Charlevoix counties-.. 333-246 on Benzie County----------------..................... 324-331 on Cheboygan County-------------................ 353-363 on Clare County------------------....................... 111-113 on Crawford County--------------.................. 310-311 on Emmet County----------------.................... 364-378 on Gladwin County---------------................... 113-115 on Grand Traverse County----.. ---........ -314-324 on Isabella County-------------------..................... 92 on Kalkaska County--------------................. 312-313 on Lake County-------------------........................ 82-83 on Leelanau County--------------.................. 331-333 on Manistee County--------------.................. 293-301 on Mason County--------------------...................... 80 on Midland County---------------................... 231-232 on Missaukee County-------------................. 303-305 on Montmorency County--------------............... 349 ï~~INDEX. 387 Page. Page. Leverett, Frank, on Muskegon County to- Manistee, waterworks at............. 294-295 pography--------------------....................... 25 wells at--.....------------------------.......................... 294 on Osceola County-----------------...................... 83-84 water of, analysis of.............. 294-295 on Oscoda County...................... 310 Manistee County, flowing wells in........ 296-301 on Otsego County.................... 347-349 map of part of.......................... 297 on Presque Isle County............... 352-353 rainfall in.......----....................... 10 on Roscommon County............... 305-306 topography of.......................... 294 on Sanilac County--...................24-257 village supplies in--..----------------295-296 on Wexford County.............301-303 waterworks in- - - - 294-295 work of---------------------------------3 wesin------------------------ 29-30 Levering, wells at----------------------.......................... 365 wells in............................... 293-301 Lewis, S. J., work of........................ 3,14 record of...................... 296,300,301 Lewiston, waterworks at................... 350 water of, analyses of......... 294-295,300 wells at............................... 349,350 temperature of-.................. 16 Lexington, springs at-------------------251 Manistee River, drainage of................ 83, Lexington, springs at...................... 251 ----- waterworks at........................ 247-248 293,301-302,303-304,311,312,334 water of, analysis of................ 248 wells on.......---....---................... 293,313 water of, analysis of--------------...248 Ma wells at------------------------............................... 249-252 Manton, waterworks at.................. 302,303 location of, map showing...---..- 250 wells at................................ 303 Lilley, wells at-----------------------------.............................. 75 Map, showing area discussed............... 2 Limestone, water from---------------------..................... 7 showing artesian areas................. 6 Lincoln, wells at.......................... 308,309 showing contours...................... 8 Lincoln River, drainage of---------------................. -80 showing flowing-well temperatures..... 17 Lincoln Township (Huron County), wells showing geology-------------------....................... -- 8 in...-------------------------267 Maple City, wells at........................ 333 Lincoln Township (Newaygo County), wells Maple Forest Township (Crawford County), in...-------------------------------74 wells in---....--------------------................ 311 Linden, wells at............................171 Maple Ridge, wells at-------------------....................... 281 Linkville, wells at-.--.--------.-----------.260 Maple Ridge Park, wells in and near.-.... 183-184 Littlefield, wells at...---------------------365 wells in and near, location of, maps Little Muskegon River, drainage of.-....... -- 75 showing--------------------........................ 184 Livingston, wells at- ----... ----------.... 348 Maple River, drainage of-.................... ------ 202 well on.......................... 224 Livingston County, flowing wells in.. 125,176-182 wells on---- -- 224 maps of parts of--------------.................. 177,180,182 Maple River Tewnship (Emmet County), rainfall in............................... 10 wells in.... ---..................... 364 spring in.............................. 181-182 Marion, wells at......................... 84,88,90 topography of------------------........................ 175-176 Marion Township (Saginaw County), wells waterworks in.......................... 176 in............................. 197,198 wells in............................... 175-182 Marlette, waterworks at................... 247 records of......................... 178,181 wells at-----------------------------249 water of, analysis of.............. 179,182 Marlette moraine, location of-----............... 246 temperature of................. 16 Marls, water from- -....-----..................... 7-8 Long Rapids, wells at...................... 351 Marshall sandstone, water from........... 7, Lott, wells near............................ 307 121,138,232,257,258,264,266 Lucas, wells at............................. 305 See also Upper Marshall sandstone. Luce, wells near.......................... 197,199 Mason County, flowing wells in--------............. 80-81 Ludington, waterworks at.................. 81 map of part of.......................... 80 wells at and near....................... 80,82 rainfall in.----------------------.---.. 10 Lupton, wells at and near................ 282,289 topography of........ -.............. 80 Luther, wells at............................ 83 village supplies in_-...--...------............ 82 Luzerne, wells at----------------------........................... 310 waterworks in...---------------------....................... 81 M. McBain, wells at and near................ 304,305 McClure district, wells in................. 114-115 McKinley, wells at.......................... 310 McLeans, wells at.......................... 75 McLouth, C. D., on Muskegon County...... 25-45 work of.............--------------------------................ 3 Mackinaw, water supply at................ 365 Macomb County, rainfall in1................ 10 wells of, water of, temperature of...... 16 Magnetic Mineral Spring, character of...... 219 Maltby, wells near.......................... 289 Mancelona, waterworks at................. 344 wells at................................. 345 wells in................................. 80-82 water of, temperature of------........... 16 Maumee, Lake, location and history of..... 6 Mayfield, wells at........................... 315 Mayville, wells near...................... 144,150 Meade Township (Huron County), wells in- 267 Mears, water supply of..................... 62 Mecosta, well at............................ 78,79 well at, water of, analysis of........... 91 Mecosta County, flowing wells in........... 76-78 maps of parts of........................ 76,80 rainfall in............................... 10 topography of.......................... 75-76 village supplies in....................... 79 waterworks in.......................... 78-79 wells in................................. 76-79 ï~~388 INDEX. Page: Mecosta County, wells in, record of........ 78 water of, analyses of---------------................ 90 temperature of--------------.................. 16,78 Melita, wells at------------------------............................. 281 Melvin, wells at------------------------............................. 249 Merrill, wells at and near----------------................... 197 Merritt Township (Bay County), wells in. 118,120 Metz, wells at-------------------------.............................. 353 Michigan, Lake, water supply near......... 12,26 Michigan formation, occurrence of.......... 261, 265, 266,285 water in................................ 271 Middleton, wells on---------------------......................... 230 Midland, waterworks at----------------.................... 235 wells in and near...................... 235-239 location of, map showing----------........... 236 record of............................ 238 water of, analysts of-------------................ 237 Midland County, flowing wells in. 125, 232-246, 269 map of part of-------------................. 95,233,236,243 rainfall in............................... 10 topography of........................ 232,234 waterworks in----------------------.......................... 235 wells in.............. 93,96-98,102,131,232-246 record of............................ 238 water of, analysis of--------------................ 237 character of------------------..................... 132 temperature of----------------.................. 16 Midland Township (Midland County), wells in----------------------............................. 234-239 wells in, location of, map showing-... 236 record of............................ 238 water of, analysis of-------... -------237 Mikado, wells at............................ 309 Millbrook, wells at--------------------.......................... 78,79 Millersburg, water supply at............... 353 Millerton, wells at--------------------.......................... 80,82 Millington, wells near..................... 150-151 Minden, wells at and near................ 249,257 Mio, waterworks at---------------------......................... 310 wells at---------------------------................................. 310 Missaukee County, flowing wells in---------......... 304 rainfall in............................... 10 topography of----------------------.......................... 303 village supplies in....................... 305 waterworks in----------------------.......................... 305 wells in............................... 303-305 water of, temperature of----------............ -16 Mitchie Creek, wells on------------------..................... 117 Moltke Township (Presque Isle County), wells in---------------------......................... 352 Monitor Township (Bay County), wells in......................... 115-116,119 Monroe Center, wells at-----------------.................... 315 Monroe County, rainfall in................ wells of, water of, temperature of-------........ -16 Montague, waterworks at--------------.................. 25,26 wells at-----------------------.............................. 28-31,44 record of------------------------............................ 28 water of, analysis of---------------................ 37 Montague Township (Muskegon County), wells in--------------------......................... 43-45 Montcalm County, rainfall in............... 10 wells in, water of, temperature of...... 16 Montmorency County, description of..... 349-350 wells in.............-.............. 349-350 Page. Montrose, wells in and near................ 157 wells in ahd near, location of, map showing------------------------.............................. 157 Montrose Township (Genesee County), wells in....................... 157-158 Moores Junction, wells at................. 281 Moore Township (Sanilac County), wells in----------------------............................. 256-257 Moorland district, topography of---------........... 27,40 wells of---------------------........................... 40-41,42,45 gas in............................... 40 Moorland Township (Muskegon County), well of.......................... 40-41 Moraines, character and distribution of..... 4-6 See also Topography. Morley, wells at............................ 79 Mount Forest Township (Bay County), wells in....................... 117,119 Mount Haley Township (Midland County), wells in................... 237,240-242 Mount Pleasant, waterworks at.......... 109-110 wells at-------------------........................ 92, 109-111,269 records of......................... 110,111 Mullet Lake, wells near... 354,355-356,363,366,372 Mundy Township (Genesee County), wells in----------------------............................. 169-170 wells in, location of, map showing...... 169 Municipalities, water supplies of........... 23-24 Muskegon, waterworks at.................. 25 wells at and near.................... 32-37,43 records of........................ 32,33, 34 water of, analyses of................ 36, 37 Muskegon County, flowing wells in......... 26-45 lakes of................................. 27 rainfall in............................... 10 topography of-----------------------.......................... 25 village supplies in...................... 26 waterworks in.......................... 25-26 wells in................................. 25-45 records of............... 28,32,33,34,39, 40 water of, analyses of............. 36,37, 39 temperature of................. 16 Muskegon Lake district, topography of. 27,31-32 wells of.............................. 32-37, 42 head of............................. 34-36 water of............................ 36-37 Muskegon River, source, course, and drainage of............... 5,25,62,75,83,305 wells on---------------------------................................. 304 Muskegon Township, Muskegon County, wells in......................... 43 N. Napoleon sandstone. See Upper Marshall sandstone. Nellist, J. F., work of...................... 3 Newark, wells at........................... 230 Newaygo, waterworks at................... 72 waterworks at, location of, figure showing -------------------------.............................. 70 wells in and near.................. 62,70-72,75 location of, map showing........... 70 water of, analysis of---------------................ 91 Newaygo County, flowing wells in-.......... 62-74 maps of parts of............... 63, 65, 69,70,73 ï~~INDEX. 389 Page. Newaygo County, rainfall in................ 10 topography of......................... 62 village supplies in..................... 75 waterworks in......................... 66,72 wells in................................ 62-75 records of.......................... 73 water of, analysis of................ 91 temperature of................ 16 Nessen City, wells at...................... 331 New Era, water supply of.................. 62 New Haven, wells at...................... 230 Nipissing, Lake, location of................ 6 Nipissing beach, location of................ 6 Nirvana, wells at.......................... 83 No-che-mo Springs, location and description of......................... 88-90 water of, analysis of................... 89 North Burns, wells at..................... 260 North Muskegon, waterworks at........... 25,26 well at, record of...................... 33 Northport, wells at........................ 333 North Shade Township (Gratiot County), wells in........................ 231 North Star, wells at....................... 230 Norton Township (Muskegon County),wells in.............................. 45 Norwood, wells at and near............. 339,346 Nottawa basin, wells in............ 93,95,105-108 wells in, record of...................... 105 Nottawa Township (Isabella County), wells in.......................... 92-93,108 0. Oak Grove, wells near................... 180-181 wells near, record of................... 181 Oak Grove Sanitarium, well at............. 159 well at, record of...................... 159 water of, analysis of............... 159 Oakland County, flowing wells in.......... 125 rainfall in.............................. 10 wells of, water of, temperature of...... 16 Obstructions, loss of head due to:.......... 128 Oceana County, flowing wells of............ 46-59 maps of parts of..... 46,49,51,54,55,56,57,58 rainfall in.............................. 10 topography of......................... 46 village supplies in...................... 62 waterworks in......................... 59-61 wells in................................ 46-62 water of, analyses of............... 91 temperature of................ 16 Oden, section at, figure showing............ 373 wells at and near............ 365,366,371-377 location of, map showing.......... 372 water of, analysis of............... 375 Ogemaw County, flowing wells in..... 269, 281-293 maps of parts of.................... 283, 289 section of, figure showing............... 290 rainfall in.............................. 10 springs in............................ 282-283 topography of......................... 281 village supplies and waterworks in..... 282 wells in.............................. 281-293 records of........................ 286,287 water of, temperature of....... 16,2856,292 Page. Ola, wells at............................... 230 Old Mission, wells at...................... 315 Oliver Township (Huron County), wells in............................ 264-265 Omena, wells at........................... 333 Omer, wells at........................... 271,281 Onaway, waterworks at........................... 353 wells at................................ 353 Onekama, wells at.............. 294,295,297-301 wells in, location of, map showing...... 297 records of........................ 300,301 water of, analyses of................ 300 Orient, wells at............................... 90 Orono, wells at............................ 90 Ortonville area, wells of......................128 wells in, location of, map showing...... 174 Osceola County, elevations in.............. 5,83 flowing wells in........................ 85-88 map of part of......................... 85 rainfall in............................... 10 springs in..............................88-90 water of, analysis of...................89 village supplies in.................... 90 waterworks in......................... 84-85 wells in............................. 83-88,90 water of, analyses of...............90 temperature of.............. 10 Osceola Spring, character of............... 90 Oscoda, waterworks at................ 269,281 Oscoda County, description of............. 310 rainfall in............................... 10 waterworks in...................... 310 wells in................................. 310 water of, temperature of........... 16 Ossineke, water supplies at-............... 351 Otia, wells at............................... 75 Otisville district, wells of.................. 156 Otsego County, rainfall in...--..---........... 10 springs in.............................. 348 topography of....................... 347 waterworks in....................... 349 wells in.............................. 347-348 water of, temperature of............ 16 Otsego Lake, wells on.................... 348 Ottawa County, rainfall in................. 10 wells of................................ 7 water of, temperature of........... 16 Otterburn, wells at......................... 160 Overdevelopment, loss of head from..... 126127 Owendale, wells at........................ 260 Owosso, springs at....................... 185-186 waterworks at......................... 186 wells at.......................... 130,183-185 location of, maps showing........ 184,186 records of........................ 186-190 water of, analysis of............. 185 PPalms, wells at............................. 24 Palmris, wells at............................24 78,9 Paris, wells at.......................... 78,79 Paris Township (Huron County), wells in. 259, 288 Parisville, wells at......................... 260 Park Lake, wells at....................... 90 Parks, wells at............................ 75 Pawlowski, wells at....................... 260 ï~~390 INDEX. Page Peachville, water supply of................. 62 Peck district, wells in.................... 253-254 Pellston, wells at........................... 365 Peninsula Township (Grand Taverse County), wells in............... 314 Pentwater, waterworks at........... 60-61,62 waterworks at, water of, analysis of.... 91 Pntwsater River_ draina e by___________ 46 Page. Presque Isle County, topography of....-.. 352 village supplies and waterworks in-...... 353 wells in............................... 352-353 water of, temperature of........... - 16 Provement, wells at--------------------........................ 332 Prudenville, wells at........................ 306 R................,................ Rainfall, records of--------------------......................... 10-11 Pentwater Township, wells of.............. 80-81 Rainy itiver, drainage of................... 352 wells of, location of, map showing....... 80 Rams, hydraulic, use of-----------------.................... 126 water of, analysis of................ ---- 91 Rapid City,wellsat...................... 312,313 Pere Marquette River, drainage by-......... 46,80 Rapson, wells at............................ 260 231 Rapson, wells at----------................-260 Perrinton, wells at. ---------------------231 Rathbone, wells at......................... 231 Petoskey, wells at..................-----------365 Ravenna, water supply of--------------.................. 26,45 Phelps, wells at-..........-............... 346 Reed City, springs near.................... 88,90 Pierport, wells at---------------------------- spig eawtr9f5nlyi f9 Pigeon, wells at and near------------ 258, 260, 26.5 spiger watcrworksaat----------------------85 Pigeon River, drainage of-----------------------welatwrs-----------------------8-89 Pigon ive, daingeof............. 37 wells at........................... 84,87-88,90 Pinckney, wells near--------------------179 water of, analysis of................ 91 Pinconning, wells at--------------............. 269,270-271 Redman, wells at........................... 260 wells at, location of, map showing-...... 270 Redoak, wells at------------------. ---310 Pinconning Township (Bay County), wells Reeman, wells at........................... 75 in-------------................. 117,119,269,270-271 Reese, wells at-------.........-----..---------............. 148-149 Pine Creek, wells on--------------------........................ 231 wells at, records of................... 148,149 Pine Lake, wells on----------------..................... 8,340,341 Remus, wells at............................ 79 Pine River, drainage of..------------............. 92,202,307 Rescue, wells at------------------------............................ -260 spring on-------------.--------109 Rice Lake, wells on........................---------------------- 73 water from........................------------------------.. 204 Richfield Township (Genessee County), wells on and near.. 212,215,221-223,229,230,308 wells in....................... 160-161 Pine River (post-office), wells at-----........... - 281 wells in, location of, map showing....... 160 Pine River Township (Gratiot County), Rifle River, wells on-........................ 282 wells in...................------------------215-216 Riverdale, waterworks at.................. 213 wells in, location of, maps showing.... 215,216 wells in and near....................... 213 Pine Run, wells on---------------.................------........ 156 record of-----------------------............................ 213 Pinnibog, wells at----------------------.......................... 260 Rivers, course of........................... 5 Pioneer, wells at-----------------------............................ 305 supply of---------------------------............................... 9 Platte, wells at------------------------............................. 331 water supply from...................... 24 Platte River, drainage of---------------................... 324 Riverside Township (Missaukee County), wells on---------------------------................................. 325 wells in---------------------......................... 303 Pleasant View, wells at..................... 365 Rock, water from, character of.......... 132-133, Pogy, wells at.....................------... 79 137-138,196-197 Pointe aux Barques, wells at-------------............... 260 Rodney, wells at........................... 79 Points, well, clogging of--------------.................. 128-130 Rogers, wells at.......................... 352,353 description of----------------------........................... 128 Rondo, wells at------------------------............................. 55 use of..................-----------------------------................ 13 Roscommon, population of---------------................. 306 Pompeii, wells at----------------------........................... 231 waterworks at.......................... ---306 Ponshewaing, wells at............ 372,374-375,377 wells at....---------------------------............................. 311 wells at, record of-----------------------....................... 377 Roscommon County, flowing wells in....... 306 Pbpple, wells at-----------------------............................ 260 rainfall in--------------.................------------............ 10 Population, estimates of................. 4,23-24 topography of.......................... 305 Portage Lake, character of................. 297 waterworks in----------------------.......................... 306 well on...--------------------...................... 293-294,299 wells in------------------------............................... 305-306 Port Austin, water supply at------... -------260 water of, temperature of-----------........... 16 Port Austin Township (Huron County), Rose City, wells at and near...... 269,281,288-293 wells in---------------------......................... 268 Rose Lake, wells at-----------------...................... 84,88,90 Port Crescent, wells at..................... 260 Rothbury, water supply of.....------.---..-...... 62 Port Hope, water supply at--------------................ 260 Rubicon Township (Huron County), wells Port Huron, rainfall at and near........... 11 in--------............................... 267 Port Sanilac, wells at and near-....... 249,255-256 Russell, T., on Michigan weather-..--.-........ 11 Portsmouth Township (Bay County), wells Ruth, wells at----------------------.............................. -- 260 in----------------------............................. 118,120 Posen, wells at ------------------------............................. 353 S. Precipitation, records of---------------.................... 10-11 Saganing, wells at...----------------------281 Prescott, wells at.......----------------------................... 282 Saganing Creek, wells on................-----------------. 117 Presque Isle County, rainfall in............. 10 Sage Township (Gladwin County), wells in. 114 ï~~INDEX. 391 Page. Page. Saginaw, waterworks at-................. 201 Sears, wells at............................. 90 wells at............................ 195,202 Sebewaing, coal mines at, subdrainage by.. 140 Saginaw, Lake, location of................. 6 wells at................................ 260 Saginaw Bay, drainage basin of, counties in 121 Sebewaing Township (Huron County), wells drainage basin of, physiography of.. 121-124 in........................... 260-261 water supplies of............... 121-246 wells in, record of................... 261 quality of...................... 132-133 Seville Township (Gratiot County), wells head of, loss of loss........... 126-131 in........................... 213-215 wells of, types of................ 124-125 Sharon, wells at......................... 313 utilization of................ 125-126 Shaw, wells at............................. 75 north shore of, map of................. 270 Shelby, waterworks at..................... 60, 62 northwest border of, wells on....... 269-281 waterworks at, water of, analysis of... p1 temperature of...................... 120 Shelby district, section across, figure showwater from...-..................... 120-121 ing........................... 51 wells at and near, lead in.............. 23 wells of.............................. 49-n1 Saginaw County, flowing wells in..... 12.5,196-201 location of, map showing........... 49 rainfall in........................... 10 water of, analysis of............... 91 topography of....................... 194 Sheridan Township (Clare County), wells waterworks in--------- -- - 201in............................... 113 wells in....-........................ 194-202 Sheridan Township (Huron County), wells water of, analysis of................ 201 in........................ 259,262-263 character of -.................. 195 Sheridan Township (Mecosta County), wells temperature of................ 16 in.............................. 77-78 Saginaw lobe, description and location of.. 4-5 water of, analysis of.................. 91 Saginaw River, character of................ 202 Sheridan Township (Newaygo County), source and drainage of................. 194 wells in........................ 74 St. Clair, Lake, wells on-................... 7 Sherman, wells at......................... 303 St. Clair County, rainfall in............... 10 Sherman Township (Huron County), wells wells of, water of, temperature of..... 16 in............................. 263 St. Clair River, wells on-................... 7 Sherman Township (Newaygo County), St. Helen, wells at......................... 306 wells in........................ 74 St. James, wells at........................ 346 Sherman Township (Osceola County), wells St. Joseph County, rainfall in........ 10 in.............................. 83-84 wells in, water of, temperature of... 16 Sherzer, W. H., work of................... 3 St. Louis, waterworks at..................219 Shiawassee County, flowing wells in........ 125, wells at.................. 127,130,203,219-220 183-186,191-192 record of......................... 220 maps of parts of................. 184,186,191 Salt River, drainage of................... 92 rainfall in............................... 10 Salts, presence of........................ 14 springs in............................ 185-186 Salt wells, occurrence of.................. 196,294 topography of......................... 183 Sand, texture of, relation of water supply waterworks in......................... 186,193 and............................. 9 wells of, records of............... 186-190 Sand and silt, clogging by, loss of head due to 128 wells in.-........................... 183-193 Sand Beach Township (Huron County), water of, analysis of............. 185 wells in.................... 263 temperature of................. 16,193 Sand plain, occurrence of................... 5 Shiawassee River, drainage of............ 175, Sandstone, water from...................... 7 181,183,191-192,202 Sandy, wells at............................ 79 wells on................................ 171 Sanilac Center, waterworks at............. 248 Sigel, wells at............................. 260 wells at.......................... 249, 256 Sigel Township (Huron County), wells in... 264 Sanilac County, flowing wells in.......... 249-257 Siloam, wells at......................... 281 map of part of.......................... 250 Silt and sand, clogging by, loss of head due rainfall in...............................- 10 to............................... 128 springs in............................ 251,252 Silverwood, wells at................... 154-155 topography of........................ 246-247 Simmons, wells at.......................... 345 village supplies in................ 248-249 Slocum, water supply of.................. 26 waterworks in..................247-248 Snoover field, wells in.................... 256-257 wells in.............................. 247-257 Soils, buried, occurrence of................ 8 water of, analyses of.............. 248 Solon, wells at............................. 333 temperature of........ 16,250,251,252 South Arm, wells at....................... 8,340 Sanilac Township (Sanilac County), wells water of, analysis of.................. 340 in.............................. 255-256 South Boardman, wells at........_....... 313 Sanitas spring water, analyses of.......... 363 South Branch, wells at.................... 282 Scottville, waterworks at................. 81 South Frankfort, wells at................ 331 wells at................................ 82 South Pere Marquette River, drainage-of.. 62 ï~~392 INDEX. Pag& Speaker Township (Sanilac County), wells in-------------------------............................... 253 Spencer, wells at-----------------------............................ 313 Springfield Township (Kalkaska County), wells in......................... 312 Spring Lake district, topography of........ 27,39 wells of.............................. 39-40,42 records of---------------------........................... 39,40 water of, analysis of................ 39 Springport, springs near................... 308 wells near............................... 309 Springvale, wells at-------------------........................ --346 Springwater Siding, springs near........... 343 wells at and near--------------------....................... 343 Spruce, wells at............................. 309 Standish, waterworks at----------------................... 269 wells at........................... 269,271,281 Stanwood, wells at----------------------.......................... 79 Star, wells at................................ 348 Stimson, wells at............................ 79 Stittsville, wells at........................... 305 Strainer, clogging of, loss of head due to.. 128-130 Stratford, wells at.......................... 305 Streams. See Rivers. Sturgeon River, drainage of-----------................ --347 Sullivan, water supply of---------------................... --26 Sulphates, presence of-----------------...................... ---14 Summit City, wells at-------------------...................... 315 Summit Townsh p (Mason County), wells of 80-81 wells in, location of, map showing...... 80 water of, analysis of--..-------------91 Suttons Bay, wells at----...---------------333 Swan Creek area, wells in--------------................. 197,199 Swartz Creek, wells in-------------------...................... 168 Sylvania sandstone, water from-----------............ 7 T. Tallman, wells at........................... 80,82 Tanks, use of--------------------------............................... 196 Tanner, wells at............................ 295 Tawas, wells at---------------................... 269,270,274-279 wells at, location of, map showing..... 275 records of----------------------........................... 277 water of, analyses of................ 276 Temperatures of water, map showing...... 17 of water and air, records of............. 14-20 Temple, wells at-----------------------............................ 112 Thompsonville, waterworks at............. 331 wells at------------------------............................... 325,331 Thumb Lake, wells at--------------...............-----...... 346 Thunder Bay River, drainage of.. 307, 349, 350, 352 water from------------------------............................. 350 Tigris, water supply of..................... 62 Tigris district, wells of-----------------...................... 55-56 wells in, location of, map showing...... 56 Tittabawassee River, water from.......... 121 wells on........................... 113,115, 232 Titus, wells at----------------.......................--------.. --79 Topinabee, wells at......................... 366 Topography, outline of------------------..................... 4-6 See also individual counties. Torch Lake, wells near---------------................... 313, 345 Traverse City, wells at and near............ 16 312, 315, 319-324 wells at and near, records of-.......... 322, 323 water of, analyses of-----------,............ 321-322 Page. Trowbridge, wells at....................... 355 Troy district, flowing wells in--------------............. 15 Tubular wells, description of----------............... ---13 utilization of........................... 124 Turner, flowing well at, view of............. 272 wells at---------------------------................................. 271 Tuscola, wells at--------------------......................... 146,154 Tuscola County, drift waters in..- 136-137,141-142 flowing wells in........... 125,139-142,143-145 rock waters in........................ 137-139 rainfall in............................... 10 springs in-------------------------............................... 134 surface waters in..................... 135-136 topography of........ 133-135,142-143,145-146 village supplies in.................... 146-155 wells in........................... 134,136-155 records of............. 144,147,148,149,152 water of, analysis of................ 153 character of.................. 135-139 temperature of---------------................. 16 Tustin, wells at............................. 90 Twining, wells at-----------------..................... 270,271-274 wells at, location of, map showing..... 272 Twin Lakes, wells on--------------------....................... 349 Typhoid fever, occurrence of------------............... -24 U. Ubly, wells at.............................. 260 Udden, J. A., work of...................... 2,3 Unionville, wells at and near-......... 141-142,146 Upper Marshall sandstone, map showing elevation cf-----------------...................- 258 salt in........-------------------------138,232 water in...................... 258,261,263, 267 V. Valentine Lake, wells at----------------.................... 350 Valley Center, wells near................... 254 Van Buren County, rainfall in.............. 10 wells of, water of, temperature of...... 16 Vanderbilt, wells near.................... 347,348 Vassar, wells at and near......... 134,146,152-153 wells at and near, water of, analysis of. 153 Vaughn, wells at........................... 309 Vaughan, V. C., work of------------------.................... 3 Vernon, wells in and near................ 192-193 Vernon Township (Isabella County), wells in.................. 93,102,105,106,108 well in, record of--------------------........................ 106 Verona Township (Shiawassee County), wells in------------------....................... 192-193 Verona Township (Huron County), wells in.....-----------------------....................... 259,264 wells in, record of..................... 264 Vienna, wells at--------------------.......................... 349-350 Volney, wells at............................ 74,75 W. Wadsworth, wells at--------------------....................... 260 Wagar, water supply of----------------.................... --62 Walkerville, water supply of............... 62 Walloon Lake, wells on---------------................... 343-344 Walton, wells at............................ 314 Warren, Lake, location of.................. 6 Warren Township (Isabelle County), wells in-----------------------............................... 93 ï~~INDEX. 393 Page. Warren Township (Midland County), wells in............................ 245-246 Washington Township (Gratiot County), wells in........................ 227 Washtenaw County, rainfall in............. 10 wells of, water of, temperature of...... 16 Waste, loss of head due to........ 126-127,207-208 restriction of............... 13,21-22,127,208 Waste water, disposal of.................. 196 Water, underground, occurrence of......... 7-8 occurrence of, map showing............ 6 quality of.............................. 14 temperatures of....................... 14-20 map showing...................... 17 Water-bearing formations, distribution of.. 7-8 Water motor, use of....................... 126 Watertown Township (Tuscola County), wells of...................... 143,144 Waterworks, statistics of................. 23-24 Wayland, wells at and near................ 7 Wayne County, rainfall in.................. 10 wells of................................ 7 water of, temperature in........... 16 Weare district, wells of.................... 56-37 wells in, location of, map showing...... 57 water of, analysis of................ 91 Weather Bureau, United States, records of. 10-11 Weaver, wells at........................... 79 Weesh-Ko-Wong well, water of, analysis of. 318 Wellington, wells at....................... 311 Well points. See Points, well. Wells, description of....................... 12-13 Wells, head of, loss of, causes of.......... 126-132 types of.............................. 124-125 water of, temperature of.............. 16 temperature of, map showing...... 17 water supply from..................... 24 See also individual counties. Wells, blowing, occurrence of............. 364 character of........................... 9,22 defects in.............................. 23 distribution of, explanation of....... 122-123 districts of............................. 22 head of................................ 22-23 loss of........................... 126-132 occurrence of.......................... 8 temperatures of, map showing......... 17 use of.................................. 22 waste from......................... 13,21-22 water supply from..................... 24 See also individual counties. Wells, salt, occurrence of................ 196,294 Wells Township (Tuscola County), wells in. 143, 144-145 Wequetonsing, wells at.............. 365, 366-370 West Bay City, waterworks of............. 120 Page. West Branch waterworks at............... 282 wells at and near................ 281,282-288 location of, map showing........... 283 records of........................ 286,287 Westwood, wells at........................ 313 Wexford, wells at......................... 303 Wexford County, rainfall in................ 10 topography of......................... 301 village supplies in..................... 303 waterworks in......................... 302 S wells in.............................. 301-303 water of, analyses of.............. 303 temperature of................ 16 Wheeler, wells at and near................. 231 Whitecloud, wells at....................... 75 Whitehall, waterworks at................. 25-26 wells at.......................... 28-31, 43-45 record of........................... 28 White Lake, water from................... 25-26 White Lake district, topography of........ 27 wells of............................. 28-31,42 White River, source and course of.... 25,27, 46,62 wells on................................ 63 White River Township (Muskegon County), wells in........................ 43 Whiterock Township (Huron County), wells in........................ 263 Whittemore, wells at...................... 281 Whittlesey, Lake, location of............... 6 Wickware, wells at........................ 249 Williamsburg district, sections through.. 317,318 wells in....................... 16, 312,315-319 location of, map showing........... 316 water of, analyses of............... 318 Williams Township (Bay County), wells in.. 115 -116,118,119 Wilmot, wells at........................... 154 Wilson, wells at........................... 348 Windmills, use of.......................... 13 Winsor Township (Huron County), wells in. 259, 265-266 wells in, record of...................... 265 Wisconsin stage, drift of................... 8 Wise Township (Isabella County), wells in.. 93, 102,105 Wisner Township (Tuscola County), deer licks in........................ 138 wells in................................ 139 Wolverine, wells at........................ 355 Woodville, wells at........................ 75 Wooster, wells at.......................... 74, 75 Wurzel Saginaw Magnetic Mineral Spring, character of................. 200-201 water of, analysis of................... 201 Y. Yuma, wells at............................ 303 ï~~ ï~~CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. [Water-Supply Paper No. 183.] The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United States-folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of the United Statesfolios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists can be had on applicatiql. Most of the above publications can be obtained or consulted in the following ways: 1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they can be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application. 2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress for distribution. 3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., from whom they can be had at practically cost. 4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public libraries in the large cities thruout the United States, where they can be consulted by those interested. The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, Systematic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water storage; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investigations; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports. This paper is the sixty-third in Series O, the complete list of which follows (PP=Professional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS=Water-Supply Paper): SERIES O, UNDERGROUND WATERS. WS 4. A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. 65 pp., 12 pls, (Out of stock.) WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 1898. 56 pp., 21 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett. 1899. 64 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 30. Water resources of the lower peninsula of Michigan, by A C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 7 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 31. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 34. Geology and water "esources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. 1900. 34 pp., 19 pls. WS 53. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by I. C. Russell. 1901. 86 pp., 10 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 54. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by I. C. Russell. 1901. 87-141 pp. (Out of stock.) ï~~II SERIES LIST. WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County, Wash., by G. O. Smith. 1901. 68 pp., 7 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 57. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. I, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 60 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 59. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 95 pp., 11 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. II, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 96-140 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. II, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 67 pp. (Out of stock.) WS 67. The motions of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pls. (Out of stock.) B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russell. 1902. 192 pp., 25 pls. WS 77. Water resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by Waldemar Lindgren. 1903. 62 pp., 4 pls. WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basin in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon, by I. C. Russell. 1903. 53 pp., 2 pls. PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundred and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pls. WS 90. Geology and water resources of a part of the lower James River Valley, South Dakota, by J. E. Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pls. WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris, with discussions of their uses for water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pls. WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 522 pp. WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 5 pls. WS 106. Water resources of the Philadelphia district, by Florence Bascom. 1904. 75 pp., 4 pls. WS 110. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1904; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1904. 211 pp., 5 pls. PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton. 1904. 433 pp., 72 pls. (Out of stock.) WS 111. Preliminary report on underground waters of Washington, by Henry Landes. 1904. 85 pp., SI pl. WS 112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Hamlin. 1904. 55 pp., 7 pls. WS 114. Underground waters of eastern United States;. M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1904. 285 pp., 18 pls. WS 118. Geology and water resources of east-central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905. 96 pp., 4 pls. B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. Russell. 1905. 138 pp., 24 pls. WS 120. Bibliographic review and index of papers relating to underground waters, published by the United States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller. 1905. 128 pp. WS 122. Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. 1905. 55 pp. WS 123. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, New Mexico, by C. R. Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pls. WS 136. Underground waters of the Salt River Valley, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 194 pp., 24 pls. B 264. Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, and A. C. Veatch. 1905. 106 pp. PP 44. Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch and others. 1905. 394 pp., 34 pls. WS 137. Development of underground waters in the eastern coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 140 pp., 7 pls. WS 138. Developmentof underground watersin the central coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 162 pp., 5 pls. WS 139. Development of underground waters in the western coastal plain region of southern California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 105 pp., 7 pls. WS 140. Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1905. 122 pp., 15 pls. WS 141. Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley, by C. S. Slichter. 1905. 83 pp., 5 pls. WS 142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, Califorhia, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 124 pp., 13 pls. WS 145. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 1905. 220 pp., 6 pls. WS 148. Geology and water resources of Oklahoma, by C. N. Gould. 1905. 178 pp., 22 pls. WS 149. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, second edition, with additions, by N. H. Darton. 1905. 175 pp. PP 46. Geology and underground water resources of northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by A. C. Veatch. 1906. 422 pp., 51 pls. ï~~SERIES LIST. III WS 153. The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas, by C. S. Slichter. 1906. 90 pp., 3 plse. WS 154. The geology and water resources of the eastern portionof the Panhandle of Texas, by C. N. Gould. 1906. 64 pp., 15 pls. WS 155. Fluctuations of the water level in wells, with special reference to Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch. 1906. 83 pp., 9 pls. WS 157. Underground water in the valleys of Utah Lake and Jordan River, Utah, by G. B. Richardson. 1906. 81 pp., 9 pls. WS 158. Preliminary report on the geology and underground waters of the Roswell artesian area New Mexico, by C. A. Fisher. 1906. 29 pp., 9 pls. PP 52. Geology and underground waters of the Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado, by N. H. Darton. 1906. 90 pp., 28 pls. WS 159. Summary of underground-water resources of Mississippi, by A. F. Crider and L. C. Johnson, 1906. 86 pp., 6 pls. PP 53. Geology ani water resources of the Bighorn basin, Wyoming, by C. A. Fisher. 1906. 72 pp., 16 pls. WS 160. Underground-water papers, 1906, by M. L. Fuller. 1906. 104 pp., 1 pl. WS 163. Bibliographic review and index of underground-water literature published in the United States in 1905, by M. L. Fuller, F. G. Clapp, and B. L. Johnson. 1906. 130 pp. WS 164. Underground.waters of Tennessee and Kentucky west of Tennessee River and of an adjacent area in Illinois, by L. C. Glenn. 1906. 173 pp., 7 pis. WS 181. Geology and water resources of Owens Valley, California, by Willis T. Lee. 1906. 28 pp., 6 pls. WS 182. Flowing wells and municipal water supplies in the southern portion of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan, by Frank Leverett and others. 1906. 292 pp., 5 pls. WS 183. Flowing wells and municipal water supplies in the middle and northern portions of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan, by Frank Leverett and others. 1906. 393 pp., 5 pls. The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Arkansas Valley in eastern Colorado, by G. K. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Preliminary report on artesian waters of a portion of the Dakotas, by N. H. Darton, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Illinois, by Frank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank Leverett, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and irrigation in eastern South Dakota, by N. H. Darton, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock waters of Ohio, by Edward Orton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian-well prospects in the Atlanticcoastal plain region, by N. H. Darton, Bulletin No. 138. Correspondence should be addrest to THE DIRECTOR, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WASHINGTON, D. C. NOVEMBER, 1906. O ï~~