TIE
LOCOMOTIVE ENJiNE:-E
INCLUbING
A DESCRIPTION OF ITS STRUCTURE,
RULES FOR ESTIMATING ITS CAPABILITIES.
AND
PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON ITS CONSTRUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT.
BY ZERAH COLBURN.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
(sUCCESsoR To E. L. CAREY,)
HART'S BUILDINGS, SIXTH ST. ABOVE CHESTNUT.
1854.




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by
REDDING AND COMPANY,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts.
STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON & CO.
PHILADELPHIA.
PFnted by T. Ki. & P. G. Collins.




INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.
THE absence of any purely practical work
on American locomotives has induced the
preparation of the following pages devoted
to that subject. It is believed the book will
afford to the student a clear idea of the
nature and mode of application of steam
power, while to those engaged in the manufacture and operation of engines it will
afford much useful matter connected with
their construction and management.
Much care has been bestowed to render
plain and distinct those parts of the book
which are devoted to the principles of
8




4         INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.
locomotive science; and  the rules and
illustrations have been adapted to the
wants of those who have but little time
or taste for the pursuit of abstract investigations. While this feature will constitute a chief merit of the work in the
hands of such persons, it will make it
none the less definite and exact for the
purposes of the designer and engineer.
The particulars of many recent engines,
and improvements connected therewith, have
been presented, embracing the patterns of
a majority of all the builders in the United
States. For many of these we are indebted
to the manufacturers of engines, while
others have been procured for the purpose
from  the engines themselves-those machines being selected which presented some
new or favourable feature in the proportions
of their parts or in the arrangement of their
machinery.
It is therefore hoped that the book may




INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.
impart some benefit to those who read it,
and that it may serve to this purpose until
the appearance of a better one from those
whose opportunities for information would
enable them to treat the subject in a manner more suited to the various requirements
of its nature.








CONTENTS.
SECTION I.
The Properties of Steam and the Phenomena connected with its Generation....................... Page   9
SECTION II.
A general Description of the Construction of the Locomotive Engine..............................................   22
SECTION III.
Details of the Locomotive Engine.-The Boiler and
its Appendages................................................ 39
SECTION IV.
Details of the Locomotive Engine continued.-Of the
Cylinders, Steam Chests, Valves, and Steam Pipes. 62
SECTION V.
Details of the Locomotive Engine continued.-Of the
Framing, Jaws, Wheels, Springs, &c................... 68
SECTION VI.
Details of the Locomotive Engine continued.-Of the
Pistons, Slides, Connecting Rods, Valve Motion,
and  Pumps.....................................................   78
7




8                     CONTENTS.
SECTION VII.
Remarks on the Management of Engines........... Page  97
SECTION VIII.
Various Patterns of Locomotives........................... 108
SECTION IX.
Tables and Calculations relative to the Locomotive... 127
SECTION X.
Miscellaneous Notes and Observations..................... 155
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS applied to the Machinery, and
to the Operation of the Locomotive Engine............ 171
INDEX..................................;.....................~......  181




LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
SECTION I.
THE PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND THE PHENOMENA
CONNECTED WITH ITS GENERATION.
THE most prominent of the properties possessed by steam  are its high expansive force,
its property of condensation by an abstraction
of its temperature, its concealed or undeveloped
heat, and the inverted ratio of its pressure to
the space which it occupies.
Steam is the result of a combination of water
with a certain amount of heat; and the expansive force of steam arises from the absence of
cohesion between and among the particles of
water. Heat universally expands all matter
9




10        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
within its influence, whether solid or fluid; but
in a solid body it has the cohesion of the particles to overcome, and this so circumscribes its
effects that in cast-iron, for instance, a rate of
temperature above the freezing point sufficient
to melt it, causes an extension of only about
one-eighth of an inch in a foot. With water,
however, a temperature of 2120, or 180~ above
the freezing point, (and which is far from a redheat,) converts it into steam of 1700 times its
original bulk or volume.
All bodies may exist in either one or all of
three different states, viz. the solid state, the
liquid state, and the aoriform state, or state of
vapour. Water, for example, may exist as ice,
liquid, and steam; and the condition which it
assumes depends on its pervading temperature.
Steam cannot mix with air while its pressure
exceeds that of the atmosphere, and it is this
property, with that which makes the condition
of a body dependent on its temperature, that
explains the condensing property of steam. In
a cylinder once filled with steam of a pressure
of 15 lbs. or more to the square inch, all air is
excluded. Now as the existence of the steam




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.-       11
depends on its temperature, by abstracting that
temperature (which may be done by immersing
the cylinder in cold water or in cold air) the
contained steam assumes the state due to the
reduced temperature, and this state will be
water. And, as the water cannot occupy the
volume which it did under its former temperature, it follows that its reduction in volume
must remain a vacuum. A cylinder, therefore,
filled with hot steam, may be condensed by an
abstraction of its heat, and a vacuum will be
produced in the cylinder with a few drops of
water at the bottom, which may be pumped out
by an air-tight pump, leaving the vacuum perfect.
When this principle is employed in removing
the atmospheric pressure opposed to the back
of the piston in a steam engine, such an engine
is termed a condensing engine: and in such
engines more work may be done with the same
pressure of steam than by a non-condensing
engine, as the absence of the weight of the air,
or the negative pressure on the back of the
piston is equivalent to a positive pressure on the
other side, and contributes by so much to the




12        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINI.
useful effect of the engine. Locomotive engines,
however, and most American stationary engines,
discharge their steam without condensing, and to
overcome the atmospheric resistance they carry
higher steam; they are therefore called highpressure engines.
The next property of steam  which we have
mentioned is that of its latent or concealed
heat. An unknown amount of latent heat exists
in every element in nature: thus, iron becomes
hot by merely hammering it on an anvil; air
gives off heat enough to light fire by being compressed into a syringe, and so on. The beating
of the iron does not create the heat which it
excites, neither does the compressing of the air;
they both merely develop the heat, which must
have a previous existence. In these examples,
the heat which is excited is freed by the motion
communicated,-and we have no means of knowing its amount; but the latent heat of steam,
though showing no effects on the thermometer,
may be as easily known as the sensible or perceivable heat. To show this property of steam
by experiment, place an indefinite amount of
water in a closed vessel, and let a pipe, proceed



THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          13
ing from its upper part, communicate with
another vessel, which should be open, and, for
convenience of illustration, shall contain just
5~ lbs. of water at 32~, or just freezing. The
pipe from the closed vessel must reach nearly to
the bottom of the open one. By boiling the
water contained in the first vessel until steam
enough has passed through the pipe to raise the
water in the open vessel to the boiling point,
(2120,) we shall find the weight of the water
contained by the latter to be 6} lbs. Now this
addition of one pound to its weight has resulted
solely from the admission of steam to it; and
this pound of steam, therefore, retaining its own
temperature of 212~, has raised 51 lbs. of water
1800~, or an equivalent to 9900; and including
its own temperature, we have 12020, which it
must have possessed at first.
The sum of the latent and sensible heat of
steam is in all cases nearly constant, and does
not vary much from 12000. It is from this
property of steam that it becomes of such essential service in heating buildings; one square
foot of superficial surface of cast-iron steam
pipe will keep 200 cubic feet of air at a con2




14        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
genial summer heat; but a square foot of the
surface of a bar of iron, of the same perceivable
temperature, would scarcely start the frost on
the windows in a cold morning.
If a known volume of steam of a certain
pressure be made to occupy but one-half that
volume, its elastic force will be doubled; or, in
other words, the same pressure is exerted within
one-half the original capacity. By pressure we
mean the initial elastic force of the steam, which
is always the same in equal weights of steam,
and which can only act with greater intensity
of pressure by restricting the area exposed to its
action. In fact, it is an established law of steam,
and of all elastic fluids generally, that the pressure which they exert is inversely as the space
occupied; or, to be more precise, it is very
nearly so. At the end of the present section we
shall give a table of the temperature and elastic
force of steam, which will show the exact increase of pressure corresponding with any diminution in bulk.
The elasticity of steam increases with an increase in the temperature applied, but not in the
same ratio. If steam is generating from water




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          15
at a temperature which gives it the same pressure
as the atmosphere, an additional temperature of
880 will give it the pressure of two atmospheres;
a still further addition of 420 gives it the tension
of four atmospheres; and with each successive
addition of temperature, of between 40~ and 500,
the pressure becomes doubled. It is well for the
student of the steam engine to know the reason
of this effect, and we will endeavour to explain it.
We have already said that there is no cohesion
among the particles of fluids, but there is, however, an attraction between all matter in nature.
The action of heat in generating steam has to
overcome this attraction among the particles of
the water, and likewise the gravity of the water
itself. As the water becomes rarefied by heat,
and, either in its natural state or as steam, occupies a greater volume, this attraction is diminished, and also the weight or gravity. of the
water; hence an additional rate of temperature
does not have to contend with the same resistance
as the temperature which preceded it, and is,
therefore, enabled to produce greater effects in
the generation of steam.
Among a variety of facts and notes relative




1.6   -    THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
to the nature of steam, we select the following:- -
If water be boiled in an open vessel, no temperature greater than that for the boiling point
(which forfresh water is 2120) can be produced
in it. All the surplus heat which may be applied
passes off in the steam.
If the vessel be closed, and the steam as it is
formed be retained within it, the temperature
may be raised, and retained in the steam.
If the steam, as it is formed, is allowed to
accumulate in the boiler, its pressure on the
water-level makes an increased temperature necessary to continue its production.
Steam, in itself, is invisible, and becomes
visible only upon condensation, as when a jet is
discharged into the open air; its loss of temperature causes it to condense, and we see it in
the form of a vapory cloud.
In treating of steam, the term heat is understood as expressing its sensible heat, while
the term caloric provides for the expression of
every conceivable existence of temperature.
To explainthe theory of ebullition, or boiling
liquids, we will observe that in metals, heat is




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         17
communicated by the conducting property they
possess; but in liquids it is communicated by a
circulation of particles. If heat be applied to
the bottom and sides of a vessel containing
water, that portion of the water in contact with
the heated metal becomes heated and rarefied,
and consequently lighter than the rest, whereby
it ascends to the surface, gives off its vapour,
becomes cooled, and in consequence becoming
heavier, descends, again to become -heated, rise,
and descend as before, and to maintain these
operations in a constant succession so long as
the heat is applied. This action is performed in
vertical planes, and if the heat be applied above
the bottom of the vessel, the water below that. point will receive but little heat, and can never
be made to boil.
An established relation must exist between the
temperature and elasticity of steam; in other
words, water at 2120 must be under the pressure
of the steam naturally resulting from that temperature, and so at any other temperature.
If this natural pressure on the surface of the
water be removed without a corresponding reduction in the temperature, a violent ebullition at
2*




18        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the water-level is the immediate result. Thus,
suppose the entire steam-room in a boiler to be
six cubic feet, and the contents of the cylinder
which it supplies to be two cubic feet; at each
stroke of the piston one-third of all the steam in
the boiler is discharged, and the surface of the
water is consequently relieved from one-third of
the pressure upon it before that stroke. The
temperature remains the same, but as it does not
bear the natural relation to this diminished pressure, it causes the water to boil violently, and
produces foaming. Foaming is a cause of which
priming (or working water along with the steam
into the cylinders) is the effect. Provision must
therefore be made in all boilers, that they may
have a large extent of steam-room  compared
with the cylinders which they supply.
Another result attending the formation of steam
is, that when an engine is in operation and working off a proper supply of steam, the water-level
in the boiler artificially rises, and shows by the
gauge-cocks a supply greater than that which
really exists. This is owing to the steam forming
in the water and rising in bubbles to the surface,
and displacing by its bulk the amount of water




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         19
indicated by the rise at the gauge-cocks. As the
production of steam under the same temperature
cannot continue under an increased pressure, it
follows that when the discharge of steam is stopped, and its entire pressure is thrown on the surface of the water, steam is no longer generated,
and the water takes its natural level.
At whatever point in a boiler steam be taken,
there is a determination of water to that point,
which is occasioned by the sudden reduction in
the pressure, owing to the withdrawal of the steam.
This is the case with all boilers having steamdomes with throttles in the same; and it was for
this reason that, on a new engine lately constructed
at the Eastern Railroad Shop, at East Boston, the
steam-dome was omitted, and in its stead a steampipe, perforated on its upper side, was extended
the whole length of the boiler, occupying the position usually given to the steam-pipe in ordinary
locomotives. The object of this was to take the
steam alike from all parts of the steam-room of
the boiler, so that no rise of water should result
at any one point.




20           THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
Notes.-One cubic foot of atmospheric air weighs 527.04
Troy grains, while an equal bulk of steam at 2120 weighs
258.3 grains, the specific gravity, therefore, of steam at the
pressure of the atmosphere, and taking that of the atmosphere at 1, is.490.
The force of steam is the same at the boiling point of every
fluid.
27.104 cubic feet of steam at the pressure of the atmosphere, equal 1 lb. avoirdupois.
TABLE OF THE TEMPERATURE AND ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM;
ALSO THE VOLUME OF STEAM GENERATED, COMPARED WITH
THE QUANTITY OF WATER FROM WHICH IT IS RAISED AT
DIFFERENT PRESSURES.
[Note.-Steam, raised from water at 2120, has no pressure
above that of the atmosphere, and can produce no useful
effect except in obtaining a vacuum in a condensing engine.
If admitted to one end of a cylinder, it would expel the air,
and would there remain without producing any motion, unless the pressure of the atmosphere on the back of the piston
was removed. In this table we have therefore given the
temperature corresponding with the steam at pressures above
that of the atmosphere. We would also here remark that
the pressure in a locomotive or other boiler, as indicated by
the safety-valve, is the real pressure above the atmosphere,
as the air presses upon the top of the valve with the same
force as a corresponding pressure of steam within. In a
boiler showing 50 lbs. pressure per square inch, by the safetyvalve, there is a pressure of 65 lbs., —15 lbs. of which are
expended in overcoming the pressure of the air on the top of
the valve. Therefore, the remaining 50 lbs., indicated by




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.                              21
the valve, is the effective pressure for a non-condensing engine, although a condensing engine would realize nearly thee
full effect of 65 lbs.]
Pressure in lbs. above         Temperature    Volume of steam compare 
the atmosphere, and al-           in deg.        with that of the wats
so including the same.          Fahrenheit.    from  which it is raise
30 lbs. 45 lbs............ 276'4.......... 610
40   "   55  "-........... 289'3............... 508
50  "   65  "............... 301-3................. 437
60   "   75  ".-............. 311'2................. 383
70   "   85"............... 3201.................. 342
80  "   95"............... 3282.................. 310
90     105.............. 335-5.................. 282
100  " 115"............... 342'5............. 260
110  " 125 ".............. 349'0.................241
120   " 135  ".............. 355'1............... 225
130   " 145  "............... 360'7........... 211
140   " 155  "............... 366'2................. 198




SECTION II.
A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTRUCTION
OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
HAVING illustrated the prominent properties of
steam, it remains to show in what manner its useful effect may be realized in the production of
power for locomotive purposes. Any reader
would be aware that a locomotive, must combine
within itself the means for the generation of
steam, its application to produce motion within
the machine itself, and also the propulsion of the
whole upon the road. A complete locomotive
steam engine, therefore, combines three distinct
arrangements for realizing these conditions. The
source of power lies in the boiler and fire-box;
the cylinders, valves, piston, and the connections
are the means by which it is applied to produce
motion within the machine; and the wheels, by
their tractive force or adhesion to the rails, secure
the locomotion of the machinery which impels
them, and also, from their surplus power above
22








Fig. 1.
1
-- --                                                                                       M -




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         25
what is necessary to move the engine alone, the
draught of a great load upon the rails. It is
therefore necessary to understand the construction of each of these parts, and also the general
arrangement by which they are combined in the
production of power.
A reference to the figure on the opposite page
will serve to show the construction of an ordinary
eight-wheeled engine, as divided in the direction
of the length of the boiler, so as to show the entire machinery for generating and applying the
power.
The boiler A in which the steam is first produced, is of a cylindrical form, having a furnace
or fire-box B at one end, surrounded by a water
casing a a communicating with the boiler, and
which is to prevent the destruction of the plates
of which the fire-box is formed by the intense
heat of the fire.  The plates which form the outside of this water casing are united to the cylindrical part of the boiler, and form what is called
the outside fire-box. This outside fire-box supports the furnace or fire-box proper by a number
of stay bolts, seen at b, b; these bolts being
screwed at their ends into the sides of both fire3




26        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
boxes. C is the grate, the bottom of the fire-box
being open to admit the air necessary for the
combustion of the fuel, and D is the door through
which the fuel is admitted. At e c are shown a
number of small copper tubes, their purpose being
to convey the heated air through the boiler, from
the fire-box to the smoke-box E. The arrangement of these tubes may be better understood by
an inspection of fig. 2, which shows the fire-box
and boiler divided transversely across its diameter. They are very small, and are placed so as
to be but A of an inch apart in any direction.
They are also very thin, so as to communicate
the heat passing through them to the water which
surrounds them, and which generally stands four
or five inches above their upper or top row. It
is the surface of the fire-box and the exterior surfaces of these tubes that constitute the heating
surface of the boiler, That portion of the boiler
above the water-level (which is shown by the
dotted line) is the steam-room of the boiler, and
is occupied by the steam generated from the
water above and among the tubes and in the
water space around the fire-box. The forward
compartment of the boiler, or smoke-box, at E,




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          27
receives the surplus of heated air not communicated to the water, and the gaseous products
of the combustion of the fuel in the fire-box;
and the chimney F provides for their escape
into the open air.  The draught of the fire
Fig. 2.
through the tubes is excited artificially by the
escape of the steam from the cylinders of the en'
gine, the arrangement and operation of which we
shall explain hereafter. This, then, is the arrangement by which the power applied to produce locomotion is first generated. The peculiar




28        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
form given to the b6iler, the contact of water
with the sides and top of the fire-box, and the
great extent of heating surface afforded by the
disposition of the tubes, secure the rapid production of a vast volume of steam within very restricted limits. In future pages we shall explain
numerous details and appendages belonging to
the boiler, and shall give its best proportions, as,
likewise, of every other part connected with the
engine.
The second division of the entire arrangement
of the engine is that in which the power already
generated is applied to produce Rotion within
the machine. Upon the top of the boiler a
cylindrical chamber or dome G is formed, and
the pipe which conveys the steam  from  the
boiler penetrates it as seen at H. The object
of elevating the mouth of the steam feed-pipe is
to prevent the motion of the engine from throwing particles of water into it, to be carried into
the cylinders and to oppose a load to the motion
of the engine. The mouth of this pipe is covered
by a valve, provided with ports or openings to
admit steam within it, and the admission of
steam is governed by the motion communicated




THiE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         29
to the valve through its lever g, rod h, and
starting lever i, without the boiler and accessible
from the footboard, where the engineer or driver
stands. In the figure this valve is represented
open, and the steam is descending: through the
pipe, in which it passes along through the partition between the boiler and smoke-box and down
through the branch-pipe I into the steam-chest J.
This steam-chest communicates with each end of
the cylinder M, by the passages seen in the
figure, and steam is admitted through these passages* alternately to each end of the cylinder
by a sliding valve, seen at K.  Within the cylinder is a piston L, against which the pressure of
the steam is exerted to produce motion. In the
position given to the valve K in the figure, the
left-hand passage is open and is admitting steam
to that end of the cylinder, to press the piston
in the direction of the arrow. There is also a
quantity of steam on the right hand of the
piston, which was employed in the preceding
stroke to force the piston to the left hand of the
cylinder; and its work being now done, it is
* Described as induction ports.
3 -*




80        TRHE LOCOMOTIVfE ENGINE.
escaping through the right-hand passage, and
turning in a cavity in the under side of the
valve into a third passage on the face of the
cylinder, and which is situated between the two
induction passages already mentioned. The exhaust steam is carried in this last passage a short
distance around the cylinder, and passes through
an opening on the side of the same, into the bottom of a vertical pipe, part of which is seen at N.
The mouth of this pipe is considerably contracted,
as seen in the figure, and the resistance given by
this contraction to the exit of the steam makes it
discharge in a very forcible blast. This powerful
draught at the mouth of the tubes excites the
passage of the heated air through them, and
causes a great intensity in the fire. Without
this artificial draught the boiler could not, from
its proportions of fire surface, generate sufficient
steam to supply the cylinders.
We have seen the steam entering by the lefthand passage within the cylinder, and impelling
the piston toward the opposite end of the same.
As the piston approaches the right-hand termination of its stroke, the valve K is made to
shift its position in the steam-chest, and to close




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.  8[
the left-hand passage, and likewise, by the same
motion, to open the opposite or right-hand one.
The left-hand passage is fully closed when the
piston is within three or four inches of the end
of the cylinder, and the  right-hand passage
almost at the same instant begins to open, so that
the full pressure of steam is exerted against the
right-hand side of the piston before it actually
has completed its stroke in that direction. This
advance of the valve on the piston is termed the
lead of the valve, and when confined within certain limits is found to increase the speed of the
engine, as it allows the steam to act with a concussive force, like that of a spring, at the ends
of the strokes, so as to lose no time in changing
the motion of the piston. When the piston has
commenced on its return stroke, and while it is in
its motion, the valve moves likewise in the same
direction, - uncovering the right-hand passage
more and more, until, when the piston has
returned to the position shown in the figure, or to
the middle of the stroke, this passage is fully
open; the same as the left-hand passage shown
in the figure to admit steam for the preceding
stroke.




32        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
The motion of the valve has transferred the
cavity on its under side to the left-hand passage, and the steam, which during the preceding
stroke was admitted through that passage, will
now discharge through it, and pass into the exhaust port and up the exhaust pipe N, as already
described. By the time the piston has reached
the middle of its stroke the valve will have
reached the end of its motion on the face of the
cylinder, and will begin to move the contrary
way, so that during the last half of the stroke
of the piston, the piston and valve move in opposite directions.
The cavity on the under side of the valve, in
which the steam turns from the induction into the
eduction port, must receive such a width of opening as to allow the exhaust steam to commence its
escape from one end of the cylinder before steam
is admitted to the opposite end; so that if, for
instance, the lead of the valve on the induction
side be 1 of an inch, the exhaust must have a
lead of about 4 inch. In other words, when one
steam port is taking steam through 8 of an inch
the other port must be discharging steam through
i of an inch. This is necessary for the free




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        33
escape of the steam, that it may oppose no load
to the progress of the engines.
We are now to show how the motion of the
piston is communicated to the wheels, and in
what manner the sliding valve K is moved within
the steam-chest, so as to regulate the admission
of steam to the cylinder; and to guard against
any misconception on the part of the reader, we
will say here that there are two steam-chests and
two valves and cylinders, together with two entire
but similar arrangements for communicating the
power exerted against the pistons to the wheels.
The figure will admit of the representation of
but one engine, (the cylinder and its valve and
piston being the engine,) the other being behind
the one we have shown. The steam-pipe H, after
passing through the partition between the boiler
and smoke-box, is divided into two smaller pipes,
one of which conveys the steam to each cylinder.
Within the centre of the body of the piston is
keyed the rod P, which passes through a stuffing
box in the cover of the cylinder, and is attached
at its other end to a cross-head having a pin or
bearing for a connecting rod.' This cross-head is
also attached to guides, to insure the motion of




34        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the piston-rod in the line of the axis of the cylinder. The connecting rod r takes hold of this pin
at one end, and at the other to a wrist or bearing
of the crank axle s, upon the extremities of which
axle are keyed the driving wheels of the engine.
As there are two cylinders and connecting rods,
there are necessarily two cranks in this axle, and
they are placed at right angles one with the other,
so that one piston may be exerting its entire force
against it, while the other is changing the direction of its motion, and is exerting but comparatively little power.
The alternate motion of the pistons is thus converted into a continuous circular motion, and it is
from this motion that the movement for operating
the valves is derived in the following manner:Four eccentric pulleys, the action of which is the
same as that of short cranks, are affixed to the
axle between the two cranks. There are two
eccentrics for each cylinder, one being set at
such an angle with the crantl for that cylinder as
to give the proper motion to the valve for a forward motion of the engine, and the other to produce a backward or retrograde motion. These
eccentrics are encircled each with a brass strap,




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         85
to which is attached a rod t, having a hook at its
remote end. At u is a rocker shaft provided with
arms on its upper and lower sides. If the hook
of the forward eccentric rod be dropped on a pin
in the lower arm, the motion of the forward eccentric will be communicated to the valve through
the rocker shaft uq and its upper arm, and the
valve stem v. And so of the hook in the backward eccentric rod. Another shaft mounted with
arms or cams, and governed by a lever within
reach of the engineer, is made to throw out either
the forward or backward or all the hooks in the
eccentric rods. This shaft is laid immediately
beneath the hooks, and traverses in the same
direction as the rocker shaft u.
It will now be easy to trace the operation of
the steam, and of the machinery put in motion by
its action on the piston. The throttle valve at
the mouth of the steam-pipe H being open by the
lever i, the steam will be admitted to within the
pipe, and will descend through it and through the
branch-pipe I into the steam-chest J. From here
it will find its way into the cylinder through
whichever passage that may be open; and as that
is here the left-hand one it will be admitted to




86        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
press against the left-hand side of the piston,
and to move it toward the opposite end of the
cylinder, by which time the right-hand passage
will have been open to admit steam to force
the piston back again. The motion of the piston
will be communicated to the axle of the driving
wheels, through the piston rod p, connecting
rod r, and crank s; and the motion so transmitted will cause the eccentrics to turn, and
by their motion to operate the valve through
the eccentric rod t, rocker shaft and arms u,
and valve stem v, so as to maintain the admission of steam to the cylinder in the manner
described.  The driving wheels as they are
turned will, by their adhesion to the rails, move
along the engine and its load; and the constant
recurrence of these motions in the piston, valve,
and their subordinate connections, will maintain
the action necessary to produce this required
progressive motion of the machine.
Of the remaining parts of the engine, 0 shows
an additional pair of driving-wheels, connected
with those fixed to the crank axle, and turning
with them. The object of this second pair of
wheels is to obtain a greater adhesion to the rails




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          37
than with only one pair, and also to relieve the
principal pair of drivers from the great weight
of the engine, which would otherwise come upon
them-at least, all that portion not supported by
the truck wheels, T. The drivers on the crank
axle generally have plain rims, while those on
the hind axle have flanges on their inner sides, as
likewise the forward or truck wheels, in order to
keep the engine on the rails. The four forward
wheels are combined in a separate frame which
turns around a pintal secured to the body of the
engine, and is to facilitate the passage of the
engine around curves. There are springs over
the bearings of the wheels to relieve the engine
from shocks arising from inequalities passed over
on the rails. There are pumps, which are not
shown in the figure, for supplying the boiler with
water, as it is evaporated in the production of
steam. These are of the forcing kind and are
attached tb the cross-head or to a pin on the
outside of the driving-wheels.
The boiler is provided with a pair of safety
valves to provide for the escape of steam when it
attains an unnecessary pressure, and the engine
has also a whistle and bell for alarms and signals.
4




38        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
Many recent engines have expansion or cut-off
valves, the use of which we shall hereafter explain.
From what we have said we believe any one
may acquaint himself with the general arrangement and operation of the locomotive engine.
Our remarks on future pages will explain various
details which would embarrass the reader on a
first introduction to the machine, but which will
serve to extend his acquaintance after he has
mastered the leading principles of its action.
The principal features of the engine, including
the construction of the boiler and the operation
of the steam in the cylinders, are universally the
same, but there are various modifications in the
arrangement of the subsidiary machinery, which
distinguish the engines of different builders, without affecting, however, the purposes for which
they are employed.




SECTION III.
DETAILS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. —'THE
BOILER AND ITS APPENDAGES.
THERE are several essential requisites which
locomotive boilers must possess, among which are
strength, lightness, and efficient qualities for the
production of steam; and these requisites can
only be obtained by giving very particular attention to the material of which a boiler is made,
and of the manner in which it is manufactured,
Owing to the diminished strength of large boilers compared with small ones, the diameter is
very rarely made greater than 4 feet outside of
the iron. The plates of which the cylindrical
part of the boiler and the fire-box are formed, are
from -5 inch to ] inch thick. Lowmoor iron is
generally preferred; and the quality of the iron
is determined by its general appearance and its
established reputation among builders and others.
We have, however, much American iron of a very
excellent quality, which comes to the boiler-maker
39




40         TIHE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
entirely warranted by responsible dealers. Angle
iron is often used to connect the cylindrical part
of the boiler to the outside fire-box, and to the
smoke-box. The selection of this iron requires
some skill and experience, as much of it is liable
to be reedy in its structure; and for this reason
some builders obtain the proper flanges for joining
the boiler to the fire and smoke-boxes by turning
over the edge of the boiler plate of which the
shell is formed.  The rivets about locomotive
boilers are from 5 inch to 3 inch in diameter, and
have a pitch of 1T inches, more or less.  The
stay-bolts to secure the inside fire-box are for the
most part i inch in diameter, and 4~ inches apart.
These stay-bolts are tapped into the inside and
outside fire-boxes and are then riveted at each
end. Their diameter and number should depend
somewhat on the width of the water space around
the fire-box; for if this be pretty wide, they must
necessarily be long in proportion to their diameter. The usual number of stay-rods in a boiler is
6 or 7 for a 40-inch boiler, and a greater number
as the diameter of the boiler is increased. These
rods are 8 inch to an inch in diameter, and are
tapped through the back sheet or sheet next to




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         41
the foot-board of the fire-box, and through the
back sheet also of the smoke-box, and then have
a large nut screwed tightly up at the smoke-box
end, (there being a head at the fire-box end,)
and having a little red-lead putty interposed between the nut and the boiler-plate to insure a
tight joint. Some makers employ right and left
nuts in these rods, to draw them up to a proper
strain, but these are hardly necessary. The bars
to stay the crown of the fire-box are generally 5
or 6 in number, and are 2 inches thick, and from
21 to 3 inches deep. These bars must rest upon
the top of the fire-box only at their ends, a space
of ~ to 8 inch being left all along their under
edges, to prevent the crown sheet of the fire-box
from becoming burnt through, owing to an absence of water at those points. At the points,
however, where they are riveted to the crown
sheet, washers or thimbles must be placed in this
space for the rivets to pass through, in order that
they may have a bearing and not spring up the
crown sheet.
In all ordinary boilers where wood is used as
fuel, all parts of the boiler, with the exception of
the tube plate at the fire-box end, are formed of
4*




42        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
iron. These tube plates, by many makers, are
made of copper. Hinkley's tube plates are R incn
thick. In Winans' Coal Engines, however, the
fire-box is made of 2 inch copper, and the tube
sheet of ~ inch iron. The tubes4 are also of
wrought iron.
The tubes in wood engines are made mostly of
No. 14 copper, their outside diameter being usually
1 inch. Wrought iron thimbles for tubes are
used by most builders, generally at the fire-box
end, but in some cases at both ends of the tubes.
We could point to some engines having no thimbles
at either end of the tubes, and.which show as
tight joints as many engines having thimbles.
Much, indeed, depends upon the management of
a boiler. If an engineman is in the habit of putting out his fire by throwing two or three buckets
of water into the fire-box on every slight emergency, or running with the door open to regulate
the fire, the contraction produced in such cases
by the sudden cooling of the flue sheets often
works nearly every tube loose.
A method of tightening tubes has been used
by the Lowell Machine Shop, which has given
good results. It is to take a short piece, say 2




TIE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         43
inches in length, of No. 14 copper tube, and of
such diameter as to allow of its just sliding into
the mouth of the boiler tube; it is firmly united
to the -latter by a brazed joint an inch long.
What remains- of the short tube projecting out is
passed through the tube sheet, which is drilled to
receive it, and the portion projecting beyond the
tube sheet is then turned over and headed in the
usual manner. This brings the end of the boiler
tube up to a tight bearing with the inside of the
tube sheet.
With long copper tubes it is sometimes deemed
advisable to give them  a middle bearing, for
which purpose a sheet is placed midway of their
length and passing up high enough to support the
top row. Our opinion, however, is, that these
intermediate flue-sheets intercept the circulation
of the water, and in some cases occasion priming.
We have observed this to be the case in some
of Norris's engines, which, having tubes 10 ft.
8 in. long, were provided with these extra supports.
The braces which support the boiler and serve
to- connect it to the frame are made either round
or flat. When made round, they are made about




44        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
24 inches in diameter, and are turned, which adds
much to their appearance.
The angle-iron which secures the fire-box to
the frame should extend the whole length of the
fire-box, if there is nothing in the way to prevent
it. It should be screwed tightly to the frame,
and the screws to fasten it to the fire-box should
pass through the water space, being tapped
through both sheets. The heads of these screws
should project outward considerably, as they are
difficult to unscrew when it becomes necessary to
remove them.  There should be two rows of
screws passing into the fire-box, one above the
other; and the distance between the screws should
be just sufficient to enable a wrench to be readily
introduced to turn them.
The grates are always of cast iron, and are
generally 4 inches deep at the centre. Their
thickness is about X of an inch on their upper
edge, and - inch at the bottom. The space between them is T inch. We know of one or two
engines which were found to make steam much
better by placing a piece of plate iron, six or
eight inches wide, across the fire-box at that end
of the grates next the tube sheet. By admitting




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          45
air through the whole extent of grate surface, a
large quantity of cold air naturally passes up
close to the side of the fire-box, below the tubes,
the draft being strongest there, and, from not
passing directly through the fire, escapes into the
tubes before it is properly heated. As this cools
the tubes, it consequently checks the formation
of steam; therefore, by not admitting the air beneath the ends of the tubes, but causing all the
air to pass directly through the fire, it was found
that more steam could be produced with the same
fuel.
The grate should be, a very few inches above
the bottom of the water space around the fire-box,
in order that the water below it may remain quiescent and collect any sediment that may deposit
itself there.
The junction of the inner and outer fire-box at
the bottom of the water space is made with a bar
of wrought iron 1~ inches thick, having rivets
passed through it and headed on the outside of
the fire-box sheets. Some, however, bend the
sheet of the inner fire-box outward, until it meets
that of the outer fire-box, and then rivet them
together. This method, though cheaper, does not




46        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
allow the water spaces to be so readily cleared of
mud and deposite.
Norris and some other southern builders construct their boilers with the top of the fire-box
worked into a hemispherical form, and having a
small cast iron dome placed upon the top. This
makes a very high dome, and gives a large amount
of steam room; but this form of fire-box has several disadvantages, among which is the extra expense of a boiler constructed in this way, there
being work about the fire-box which can be done
only by very skilful workmen, and requiring much
more riveting. Again; the height of the dome
is liable to make the engine top-heavy, which, in
engines having large wheels, and having the boiler
set pretty well up, is quite a serious objection.
The dome, also, from exposing so large an extent
of heated surface, makes the interior of the
" cab," over the footboard, insufferably hot, which
is by no means a trifling matter to a man who
has to stand in its heat for several hours together.
With all this the size of the dome obstructs the
lookout of the engineman, and the diagonal brace
necessary to steady it lies directly in his way.
With all these objections against it, this form of




'THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE..47
dome can hardly be said to possess any advantages over the old-fashioned wagon-top fire-box,
having a low cylindrical dome; although it is
generally considered that drier steam can be
worked from a "dome boiler," as these boilers
are termed.
Hinkley forms a cylindrical dome, about 22
inches in diameter and 18 inches in height, about
midway on the boiler between the fire-box and
smoke-box. This dome has a cast iron cover of
sufficient thickness to withstand the -pressure of
the steam, and of such size that the aperture
which it closes may admit a man to the interior
of the boiler.  The steam-pipe and throttle are
placed on one side of the dome, so as not to
obstruct the passage. The dome is made of the
same iron as the shell of the boiler, is lagged, and
covered with sheet iron in the same manner, and
has a thin cast iron base and cap.
It is believed by many that a point near the
smoke-box end of the boiler is the most favourable
place from which to take the steam, as it is considered that the water is not in so violent a state
of ebullition at that point as at the fire-box end.
Locomotives generally have two safety-valves;




48         THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
one of 2~ inches in diameter, next the footboard,
and one of 3~ inches diameter, at the forward end
of the boiler. We see no reason for this difference of size, unless the safety-valve next the footboard cannot have a lever long enough for a
larger valve without it projects out in the way of
the engineman.  The lever could be turned to
one side, and thus admit the use of a larger
valve.  Large valves of 3~- inches or 4 inches in
diameter are less liable to stick, as their bearing
surfaces increase only directly as their diameters,
while the pressures upon them increase directly
as their squares. Thus a four-inch valve has but
twice the bearing surface or circumference of a
two-inch valve, while the pressure on it would be
four times greater. A mitre bevel, which is the
bevel usually given to the safety-valves, seems
too sharp. Were the bevel an angle of about
30~, that is to say having l inch depth to I inch
width of valve seat, there would be no difficulty
with the valves as to sticking.
The whistles used on many locomotives are of
very heavy tone, and are 6 inches in diameter.
These whistles have a valve stem passing down
through the centre and operated by a bent lever




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         49
outside. The exitspassage of the steam from the
lower cup should be about 31' inch in width, while
the bottom of the upper cup should be chamfered
on the inside so as to bring it nearly to a sharp
edge. This sharp edge of the upper cup should
be placed directly over the annular opening in the
lower cup, that the steam from the latter may impinge directly upon it. A whistle 4~ inches in
diameter, and of the composition of which clockbells are made, gives a very clear and sonorous
sound. The upper cup, however, is most commonly made of sheet brass or copper.
The spark arresters in general use on New
England locomotives are the common bonnet
sparker; the patent sparker of French and Baird
of Philadelphia, and Cutting's sparker. The
bonnet sparker is the most common. A chimney
of sheet iron, about 4 feet in height, is placed
over the opening in the smoke-box, and a curved
cast iron disc is placed immediately over this
chimney. The cinders and sparks projected by
the blast pipes against this disc receive from the
form given to it a change in their motion, which
throws them down between the bottom of the
chimney and the outer casing surrounding it,
5




50        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
The smoke and steam also receive this motion,
but readily rise, and, passing around the disc,
come out through a wire netting at the top.
This wire netting is to throw down such sparks as
might have been carried with the steam and
would otherwise have been thrown out upon the
track, becoming a source of danger to bridges
and buildings along the line. A pipe sometimes
leads from the bottom of the outer casing of the
sparker to a spark-box on the front or sides of
the smoke-box. This box, we believe, is termed
the " Sub-Treasury."
French and Baird's sparker and Cutting's
sparker are not in so general use as the bonnet
sparker, and could not be readily understood
without the aid of engravings showing their
structure.
The opening made for the chimney in the top
of the smoke-box is about the same size as the
diameter of the cylinder of the engine. The
following rule, however, will be found to apply
in all wood engines: —Divide the number of
square inches in the grate by 7.5, and the quotient expresses the area of the chimney in square
inches.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        51
Example.-What should be the diameter of a
chimney for a boiler having a grate 34 inches by
35 inches?
34
35
7.5)1190(158.6, Area of chimney.
And by calculation we find the nearest corresponding diameter to this area to be 141
inches.
The ash pan of a boiler is a plate iron tray,
suspended by hooks or latches to the bottom of
the fire-box, and should have a clear depth of 9
inches-the front side being left open to admit
the air to the grates. The mouth or open side
of the ash pan should be provided with a wire
netting, and a damper of plate iron turning on a
hinge should be fixed to draw up at pleasure by a
small chain passing up to the footboard.
The gauge-cocks are three in number, and are
on the hind sheet of the fire-box, within reach of
the engineman. They must communicate with
the boiler at such a point that should the water
chance to fall a trifle below the lower cock the
upper row of tubes shall not be uncovered. In




52        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
ascending a grade of 80 feet per mile, the water
at the fire-box end would stand two inches higher
above the tubes than at the smoke-box end; the
gauge-cocks should therefore communicate with
the boiler at so high a point that neither end of
the tubes could become uncovered under any
ordinary circumstanceswithout their giving warning of it.
The English have always used glass gaugetubes in addition to the three gauge-cocks, but
one tried on an engine on the Maine road broke
in the first trial. To statid the action of the
steam, the interior of the tube should be round,
not formed like a thermometer tube, and the bore
of the tube should not exceed y3u inch; the glass
should be thick and well annealed, and there
should be an expansion joint at the upper end
of it. If these conditions are observed, glass
gauge-tubes can be used here as well as in
England.
The blow-off cocks of locomotives should be
on the back side of the fire-box, to prevent
the steam and water escaping by them from
blowing up sand into the bearings of the engine.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        53
The mud-hole plugs are of brass, and are
about 11 inches in diameter, and are tapped into
the outer fire-box at the bottom of the water
space. They should have stout square heads,
as it is very difficult to turn them out when they
have been a short time in use.
Having thus explained the details and uses
of the boiler and its appendages, we will proceed to give the proportions adopted by.different
makers.
The table of dimensions given on the next
page includes two of Hinkley's patterns, two
of the Lowell Machine Shop engines, and also
of Souther's 15 in. cylinder pattern.




PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF FIVE DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.
Boston Loc. Wks.  ley& Drury. Lowell Machine Lowell Machine  JohnSouther.
BuildersB                         Hiuk                Shop.         Shop.
for 6 feet guage.                Shop.         Shop.      John Souther.
Diameter of Cylinder.............  15 inches    131 inches   15~ inches    14 inches    15 inches.   W
Stroke of Piston...................  20   "     20     "      18    "        18    "       20   "
Diameter of Drivers...............    5 feet     41 feet       5~ feet        5 feet        5~ feet.      4
Diameter inside of Boiler........  44 inches    37 in.        43 in.         40 in.        42 in.       c
Length of Tubes...................  11 feet      91 feet      11 feet.       10 feet       10o feet.
Number of Tubes.................    141             88           140           119             135      o
Outside diameter of Tubes......   13 in.         2 in.'2 in.          2  in.        13 in.       3
Length of Grate....................  36  "      30 "          31  "          34  "         37  "'
Width of Grate.....................  40  "      39"           36  "          35 " 37" 
Depth of Fire-box.................  50  "       36 "          53  "          485  "        53           M
Tube Surface, square feet........   710.9       437-5           806.3            623          649.42
Fire-box, square feet..............  56.74       39.33           56.4          52'67           60.8
Area of Grate, square feet......     9'74    8512            8             8'25            9-63
Water Room, cubic feet...........   69.6   40'6                 69.0          56.6.............
Steam Room, cubic feet..........    41          32.1            41.5          33-2.......
Size of Steam Ports............... x 1in.............   10 x   in.   10 x.......  in..9 x1
Size of Exhaust Ports.............O                          10x- x 1-"     l...........    10 x 21 "  10 x 2  "  9- x 1~
Position of Cylinders.............   inside.    outside.       inside.        inside.       inside.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          55
The 15-inch cylinder machines built at Taunton
have 726 sq. ft. of tube surface, 11.23 sq. ft. of
grate, and steam ports 14 by 1 in. The performance of these engines (with blast pipes 2- in.
at the mouth) is very superior. The Taunton
Company give the largest proportion of heating
surface to a given capacity of cylinder of any
of the engine builders in New England.
In giving the fire-box surface, we have reckoned every inch of surface above the grate,
deducting only for the tubes and the door. It
is of course plain that all this surface is in contact with the water in the boiler, although it is
customary among engineers not to include any
portion of that side of the fire-box next the
tubes as heating surface.
It will be seen from the table that Hinkley's15-inch cylinder engine has the greatest extent
of heating surface, compared with its capacity
of cylinder, of the five engines given; and as
the proportions adopted appear to answer very
well, we will give the multipliers which will
give the same proportions for any other size of
cylinder.
Multiply the square of the diameter of the




56        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
cylinder by 83159, to get the heating surface
of the tubes; by.252, to get the heating surface
in the fire-box; by.0433, to get the area of
grate; by.309, to get the cubic feet of water
room in the boiler; by.182, to get the cubic
feet of steam room in the boiler.
All the engines of which proportions are
given in the preceding table, have four driving
wheels and truck, with the exception of the
engine by Hinkley & Drury, having 131-inch
cylinders; this engine has four driving wheels,
upon which the whole weight of the engine
rests.
An engine lately constructed by Robert Stephenson & Co., Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England,
may be taken in comparison with the foregoing.
This engine had two pair of 5-feet drivers
and one pair of leading wheels:
14-inch cylinder:
21-inch stroke:
50 square feet fire surface in fire-box:
9.91,,,  c,, on grate:
640      c    cc  cc  in tubes:
76.86 cubic feet water in boiler and around firebox.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          57
43 cubic feet steam in boiler and dome:
7.5 "c,"  steam used at one rev. of drivers.
As a further illustration of English locomotives, we will give the dimensions of an engine
built by Bury, Curtis and Kennedy, of Liverpool, for the Birmingham and Shrewsbury (narrow gauge) railway.
15-inch cylinder; 20-inch stroke; one pair
of 5 ft. 7 in. driving wheels; one pair 4 ft. 1 in.
leading, and one pair 3 ft. 7 in. trailing wheels.
Boiler shell 47 inches, smallest inside diameter,
and containing 172 13-inch tubes, 11 ft. 6 in.
long. Grate, 501 in. long, by 42 in. wide, and
55 inches from crown sheet.
Induction ports, 12 by 1-5 in. Exhaust port,
3} in. wide. Single blast pipe, 4I in. at mouth.
Cylinders, 23t in. between centres. Bearings of
driving axle, 8 in. long and 7 in. in diameter.
The heating surface of locomotive boilers has
of late years been considerably increased, not
only having been extended with the enlargement
of the cylinders but in a much higher ratio. In
some recent 17-inch cylinder engines, constructed
at Taunton for the New York and Erie railroad,
the fire-box surface included about 90 square feet,




58        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
while the tube surface fell but little short of 1000
superficial feet.
We will add a few particulars of an engine for
burning bituminous coal, which was constructed
for the Baltimore and Ohio railroad by Thacher
Perkins, master of machinery on that road. The
performance of this engine during the year 1849
was upward of 23,000 miles, and was higher than
that' of any other first-class engine on that road
for the same time.
The diameter of the cylinder was 17 inches;
stroke of piston 22 inches; four pairs of drivingwheels having chilled tires 43 inches in diameter.
The diameter of the boiler was 44 inches, and
there were 125 wrought iron tubes, 12 feet 6
inches long, and 21 diameter at the fire-box end,
and 23 diameter at the smoke-box ends of same.
The grate was 371 inches long, by 41~ inches
wide, and the inside depth from crown sheet to
grate was 50 inches. Attached to the boiler of
this engine was the patent apparatus for heating
the feed water by the surplus exhaust steam of
the engine, which was invented by Mr. Perkins.
The exhaust steam from both cylinders enters a
square box in the centre of the smoke-box. In




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          59
this box is a movable valve by which the steam
can be discharged through the ordinary blastpipes, or turned into a pipe leading to a steam
casing surrounding the smoke-box. This pipe
also continues along beneath the boiler, and is
united to a steam belt surrounding the same at
the fire-box end, and from which the steam finally
escapes through a pipe for that purpose. The
feed water can be admitted directly to the boiler,
near the fire-box end of this pipe, or, which is
intended in running, it can be pumped into a
casing surrounding this pipe, from whence it
passes into a water casing surrounding the smokebox, and within the steam casing already mentioned. From here it passes into the boiler a
little below the water level, at the smoke-box end.
In this arrangement the movable valve in the
steam-box can be regulated to discharge steam
enough through the blast-pipes for all ordinary
purposes of draught, and also to maintain a flow
of steam through the pipe beneath the boiler.
The feed water receives a large portion of the
heat of this steam, from its contact with it in the
casing surrounding the pipe, and, retaining the
heat so obtained, it passes into the water casing




60        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
in the smoke-box, where it is exposed to the heat
of the waste steam on the outside, and to the
temperature of the smoke-box within. It thus;
when finally admitted to the boiler, has become
heated quite to the boiling point, as the heat
within the smoke-box of a coal engine is very
great, even with long tubes. This arrangement
operates as a variable exhaust by allowing any
portion of the waste steam to be turned off from
the blast-pipes; it effects a considerable economy in fuel by giving the water to the boiler
already heated very hot; and the water casing
surrounding the smoke-box prevents the destruction of the latter by the heat emitted from. the
tubes.
In the details of this engine the expansion valve
was worked from the backing eccentric, and one
lever sufficed for reversing the engine and throwing on the cut-off. This was effected by making
the cut-off rocker arm work as a shell on the
main valve rocker shaft, the cams for throwing
out all the hooks being on the same cam shaft,
and that for the forward hook being only a quarter cam, so as to allow that hook to be on its
pin in the rocker arm in two positions of the re



THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.                61
versing lever; that is to say, going forward with
the cut-off on, and forward with it off.
The patent for the heating apparatus described is owned
by L. B. Tyng, of Lowell, who has drawings and models
showing the application of the same to coal and to wood engines. For coal engines some arrangement of this nature
seems obviously necessary, while for wood engines having a
large extent of tube surface, with moderate length of tubes,
the application of this invention appears to promise a considerable economy in fuel. The apparatus may be simplified
in wood engines by pumping the water directly into a single
casing about the smoke-box, and withdrawing the contact
of the exhaust steam by suffering it to pass entirely up the
chimney.




SECTION IV.
DETAILS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE CONTINUED.
OF THE CYLINDERS, STEAM CHESTS, VALVES,
AND STEAM PIPES.
THE casting for a cylinder must be perfectly
sound; and this, indeed, is requisite for all the
castings of a locomotive. The thickness of a
cylinder, after boring, is from 4 to 8 inch, and
about -3 inch are taken off all around by the cutter of the boring bar. No cylinder can be truly
and accurately bored in a boring lathe, unless the
latter be strong and steady. The thickness of
the flange of the cylinder is 14 inch or more.
The flange by which it is secured to the frame is
14 inches thick, and as long as the distance between the flanges to which the cylinder heads are
bolted. Four or five one-inch bolts are sufficient
to secure this flange to the frame. The cylinders
are generally cast separately, and are united by
a bar of iron 4 by 14 inches, bolted to a projecting flange on each. In one or two instances we




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          63
have seen them cast together, but this method
makes rather an awkward casting to mould, to
bore, and to fit, yet it removes the artificial connection which is otherwise necessary.
The faces of the cylinder and valve require to
be ground perfectly smooth and fiat, which is
done by closing the ports with blocks of wood, as
also the cavity in the valve; they are then ground
together with fine sharp sand and water, finishing
off with emery and oil. The stuffing boxes for
the piston rods and valve stems require a brass
lining filled with Babbitt metal. The valves are
generally of cast iron, but sometimes of brass.
The valve stem in Hinkley's engines is laid in
a deep recess in the upper side of the valve, and
has nuts and check nuts screwed against each
side of same. The valve is sometimes encircled
by a wrought iron hoop or spectacle 1 inch in
thickness, but increased to 11 inches on one side,
and has the valve stem tapped into it.
The expansion valve is often worked directly
on the top of the port valve. When no expansion
is sought, the cut-off valve rod is placed in connection with the port valve rod, and, acquiring
the motion of the latter, is relatively at rest with




64        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
it. Other makers have the cut-off valve over the
port valve, and in the same chest with it, but
interpose a plate with valve ports between the
two valves. It is, however, difficult to get at the
valves where they are so placed, unless the engine
has outside cylinders, or has its steam chest
covers taken off from the outside. Hinkley's
latest engines have covers on the side of the valve
chest, which are removed from the outside of the
smoke-box. But the opening on the side of the
chest is no larger than to allow of taking out the
valve, not being large enough to allow of setting
the valves when it becomes necessary to do so,
except by taking off the entire chest. In Hinkley's engines, the cut-off valve, when not required
to be used, is thrown entirely off- the ports, to
prevent any obstruction to the passage of the
steam. This is effected by an arm on the reversing cam shaft, which, when the cut-off hooks are
thrown out, throws the lower rocker arm, which
works the cut-off valve, entirely over, and carries
the valve off its ports.
The valve seat requires to be slightly raised
above the face of the casting on which it is
formed, that any foreign substance received by




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         65
the steam pipe may be pushed off by the valve
without scratching the valve face.
Steam chests are generally of a square or oblong form, and in inside cylinder engines are
enclosed within the smoke-box. In Souther's engines, however, the steam chest is round, and
projects outward, so that the valve face is inclined
at:an angle of about 450,-the smoke-box being
made round, as a continuation of the boiler. By
this.arrangement he secures the advantage of a
ground joint for the steam chest cover, and ready
access to the valves of the engine. A ground
joint is cheaper than a filed joint, and better than
a putty joint. The cylinders and chests, however,
from not being enclosed in the smoke-box, are
exposed to the cold air, which not unfrequently,
especially in winter, operates to condense the
steam to an inconvenient degree. The steam
chests, however, have a jacket or casing over
them, and the cylinders might be lagged so as to
make this a trifling objection.
The steam pipe is made of thick copper, united
at one end to the vertical cast iron pipe entering
the dome, and at the other end to a pipe casting
formed to make a tight joint with the smoke-box
6*




66        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
sheet. The steam passes through this tee piece,
and then branches off to each cylinder. All the
joints about the steam  pipe should be ground
turning joints. Hangers of wrought iron must be
made to support the steam pipe in its place.
The area of the steam pipe should equal the area
of two of the induction ports to the cylinder, and
each branch pipe should have half this area. The
exhaust pipes should have nearly the same area
as the exhaust ports, until we come to the copper
pipe attached as a mouth or blast pipe. This
pipe at its largest place should be considerably
smaller than the eduction port, and at its mouth
requires to be reduced to about two inches in
diameter. Most of Hinkley's 15-inch cylinder
engines are running with their exhaust pipes contracted to l~-inch diameter at the mouth. For
16-inch cylinders, the blast pipe is 2 in. to 2'u in.
English engineers are of opinion that the fire surface of an engine should be very much increased,*
in order that a proper natural draft mayexist
without requiring so great a reduction in the blast
* Dimensions of engine, by Bury, Curtis, and Kennedy, on
page 57.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         67
pipe. The resistance offered to the progress of
the piston at high speeds, arising from the contraction of the blast pipes, has been stated by
Stephenson, of Newcastle, to absorb one-half the
power of an engine. It appears to us that a large
extent of heating surface, with the use of some
simple expedient for regulating the draft, would
produce very favourable results in the performances of locomotives.  It has been proposed,
instead of varying the mouth of the blast pipe, to
establish a communication between the exhaust
steam and the feed water of the boiler, by which
means the draft could be regulated by turning off
any part of the exhaust to heat the water. This
plan, however, involves considerable complication,
and cannot be regarded as eminently practical.
We have no doubt, however, that some simple expedient will be devised for accomplishing so desirable an object.




SECTION V.
DETAILS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE CONTINUED.
— OF THE FRAMING, JAWS, WHEELS, SPRINGS,
&C.
THE framing of all the engines now built in
this country is between the wheels, and rests on
the bearings of the axles of the same, through
the intervention of steel springs. The frames
of the most recent descriptions of locomotives
are solid, and have the jaws for the bearings
either forged with them, or forged separately
and secured to the frame by bolts. Many of
these solid frames are extremely light. The
most usual kind of frame, however, is the riveted
frame. Two plates of flat iron, say 5 by 5 inch,
with a bar 2 inches square riveted between them
so that one of its sides is flush with the upper
edges of the plates. In Hinkley's engines, and
in most others, the frame passes over the bearings, and is dropped down immediately in front
of the forward driving axle, to the level of the.
68




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         69
centres of the cylinders, and continues at that
level to the forward end of the engine. This
mode of reducing the height of the frame at the
forward end, gives a ready access to the work
of the machine. The jaws to this frame are
of cast iron, and are secured by bolts passing
up through a stout rib on the upper side of the
jaw, and the 2-inch bar which is riveted in the
frame.  Cast-iron jaws, to stand, require to be
very heavy.  On the " Baldwin" and "4 Whistler," (engines on the Lowell road, built at
Lowell,) the want of strength in their jawse
which were of cast iron, and were continually
breaking, made it necessary to replace them
with a set of wrought iron jaws. A stout cast
iron thimble is placed between the back and
foward jaws; also short thimbles between the
two cheeks of each jaw, and a 11-inch bolt is
then passed through the whole, and has stout
nuts at each end to secure it. Diagonal braces
also pass from the ends of this bolt up' to the
frame, thus forming a complete truss.
Engine wheels with rims cast in sand have
solid hubs. Winans's wheels with chilled rims
have the hubs cast with core prints, leaving




70        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
three open slots throughout their thickness.
After the rim has cooled, these are filled tight
with blocks of wrought iron, and the whole
hub is then encircled with a strong wrought
iron band. In the rims of his chilled wheels
he casts a ring of wrought iron, to assist the
strength of the rim; both to keep it from
breaking, and to hold the rim from flying apart
in case it should crack. Wrought iron tires
have been exclusively used for drivers until
the introduction of Winans's'chilled rims, and
the later method of using, chilled cast iron tires,
which were first used, we believe, by Thacher
Perkins, now master of machinery on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. To put on a wrought
tire, it is first evenly heated to a moderate heat,
then dropped *on the rim of the wheel and
quickly  cooled by  throwing  on  cold water.
Seven or eight bolts with riveted heads are
then passed through the tire and rim, to secure
the tire from working off. To remove a tire, the
bolts through the rim must be taken out, or, if
rivets are used, they must be drilled out: the
wheel is then laid on a circular mound of earth,:a few inches high:and nearly as large as the




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          71
wheel; a steady but moderate heat is applied
directly to the tire, the body of the wheel being
covered with earth, and in a few minutes the
wheel may be lifted out of the tire, by means
of a crane.  In this manner the tires are taken
from a pair of wheels without removing them
from the axle, by turning the axle up on one
end so as to bring one wheel on its side.
The chilled tires, when properly cast, are
better for some reasons than chilled rims; but
it has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained
whether either can take the place of wrought
iron tires. The main difficulty anticipated in
their use is an insufficient adhesion to the rails,
especially in winter, when the rails are friosty or
damp. The milder climate of the Southern
States has prevented this from becoming so
serious an objection to their adoption there.
The chilled tires are three inches thick, and are
bolted to the rim of the wheel. The merits of
these tires above those of chilled rims or chilled
wheels are, that if a tire breaks it can be replaced without throwing away the wheel, and
they are also readily renewed when worn out;
whereas, with a chilled wheel, it is useless when




72        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the rim becomes much worn, though the rest of
the wheel is perfectly sound and whole.
Chilled wheels are used almost entirely for
trucks, tenders, and cars.- Engine trucks are
generally 30 inches in diameter, and car wheels
33 inches. Some of the roads running out of
Boston  have  imported  sets of wrought iron
wheels from England, and placed them under
their cars for trial.  On the Boston and Providence road we have seen a pattern of cast
wheel with wrought tire, and having a ring of
hard wood, two inches thick, between the tire
and rim of the wheel. On the above road they
are placing these wheels generally under their
passenger cars.
Engine trucks and car wheels are usually
secured to their axles by one stout spline, and
the driving wheels by two one-inch square keys.
-The cranked axle is forged from a bar which
is kinked or upset by doubling or bending, so as
to form the blocks for the cranks on one side of
the axle.  The axle is then twisted between the
cranks till they are at right angles with each
other. The crank wrist is formed by drilling
out a sufficient portion of the block, left in




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         783
the manufacture of the axle, and then finished
by turning.
The cases for the bearings of Hinkley's engines have dowels of a composition of equal
parts of copper and tin, inserted in the case in
the direction of the length of the bearing. The
space between these dowels is filled with Babbitt
metal. The dripper or cup has flanges to hold
it in the case, and is kept in position by a screw
pressing against its under side.
There is a stout spring over each driver, having one end attached by a loop to the frame,'and
the other to a bar between the drivers, which
turns on a pin beneath the frame. -The object
of this bar is to equalize any effects arising
from inequalities on the rail, by transmitting a
portion of the shock to the wheel which is removed from this inequality. The lower end of
the loop-ended rod attached to the spring should
be secured in the end of the equalizing bar by a
pin, as the rod is apt to break off close to the
nuts where these are used. The equalizing bar
is of wrought iron, and for strength must be
made deeper in the centre than at the ends.
The springs are generally from 27 to 34
7




74        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
inches in length, and are formed of plates of A,.-, or - inch steel, and sometimes plates of each
size. A spring of the proper form, 30 inches
long, and having 14 plates of 5-, and two plates
at the back of 3 inch steel, and 3 inches wide,
makes a good spring for a driver. A tit or projection is made in the end of each leaf, to fit in
a punched opening in the leaf below. This is to
prevent any side motion or displacement among
the leaves of the spring. The end of the upper
leaf is turned up to prevent the loop which
passes -over the end of the spring from slipping
off.
Rogers, Ketchum  and Grosvenor have used
4-inch iron plates, six or eight inches long, interposed between the leaves at the middle of the
spring. The leaves of the spring, when not
under pressure, are in contact only at their ends;
but on the application of any weight acting upon
them, are brought into contact for several inches
of their length. This spring, adapted to any
load, is an English idea.
India-rubber springs have been applied to
the driving wheels of light engines, and in many
cases to the truck and tender wheels. They




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          75
make, at least, a very cheap spring, and have
proved well.
The iron truck frames in general use have inside bearings.  They are formed of -5-inch plates,
with wrought-iron bars or thimbles riveted between them. The side bars are made to clasp
the brass boxes enclosing the bearing of the axle.
A large inverted spring at each side has one end
resting over the bearing of each axle, and supports the frame on its upper side. The under
side of the frame is faced with a plate of steel,
where it rests upon the spring. The construction
of this truck does not admit of any one of the
wheels rising without raising the whole frame.
Norris, and some other makers, however, make
the action of the truck wheels independent of
each other, by making what is called a live truck
frame. In this frame the spring, instead of resting directly on the frame, rests on the bearing by
a pintal passing through the frame. Any shock
of the forward wheel is thus divided, and partly
transmitted through the spring to the hind wheel.
The Lowell Machine Shop use a truck frame, with
outside bearings, on one of their patterns.
The bearings of the truck axles are from 83 to




76        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
38 inches in diameter, and 51 inches long. The
bearings of the driving axle are from 6 to 7 inches
in diameter and 6 inches long. The crank wrists
are of the same diameter as the bearings, and
are 3~ to 4 inches wide. The cheeks of the
cranks are 5 inches thick.
The pintal bushing for the truck is of cast
iron, and is riveted between the plates forming
the truck frame. The pintal is secured to the
boiler behind the cylinders, or is made fast to
the cylinders themselves, by being passed through
the flanges connecting them together, and secured by a shoulder below and a nut above. The
pintal is about 5 inches in diameter.
There should be a slide and wedge between the
footboard and tender, to prevent jarring and jolting. This wedge is drawn up in the slide by a
screw and nut.
There is generally a rail, or outside frame, as
it is sometimes termed, outside of the wheels.
This outside frame.makes a convenient support
for the pump, and serves to make a walk or balcony by which to go to the forward end of the
engine when it is running. This outside frame,
if mounted with jaws and springs, might give




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         77
additional support for the driving axle, and would
assist the strength of the inside frame. The
eccentrics could be placed outside the wheels,
and wrought iron cranks would be keyed to the
axle outside of the frame, to connect the drivers.
There is no great practical difficulty, in our
opinion, in keeping four bearings in line on the
same axle.
It appears to us that a very light and strong
tender frame could be made of fiat bars 31 by 1}
inches, and which would cost no more than our
present heavily timbered wooden ones.
7T




SECTION  VI.
DETAILS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE CONTINUED.
-— OF THE PISTONS, SLIDES, CONNECTING RODS,
VALVE MOTION, AND PUMPS.
THE pistons generally have two outside rings,
while some makers, as Norris and others, use
three. These rings are sometimes of cast iron,
and sometimes of composition. The piston rings
used on the Boston and Maine road are made
from a composition of 80 parts copper and 20
parts tin. The outside rings are sometimes cut
in four pieces, and are sometimes cut open only
on one side.  Cast iron rings, if not set out too
tight against the'nside of the cylinder, may be
regarded as not only cheaper, but better than
composition rings. And rings simply cut open,
are better, for most reasons, than those which
are cut in three or four pieces. The cover is
usually secured to the body of the piston by four
screws. The following are the dimensions of
Hinkley's 15-inch pistons on the Maine road, and
q8




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.            79
having the kind of packing-rings described as
used by that road. Diam. of follower or cover,
14-  in.; diam. of outside rings, before cutting
open, 153 in.; thickness of piston, 4% in.; thickness of follower, 3 in.; thickness of outside rings,
8 in.; depth of do., 1 9 in.; inside ring of cast
iron, 3 thick. -Four screws to secure cover, each
one inch in diameter, 3 in. under head, and
having heads 1+ in. square. Each screw is 5% in.
from centre of piston. Four springs to set out
packing, each 6 in. long, 3 in. wide, -16I in. thick
at thickest part, and having a bend or deflection
of 8 in. Screws to set out packing, 8 in. diam.
Key to secure piston rod, 13 by {-1.  Thickness
of iron around rod, 1% in.; diam. of body of iron
penetrated by screws to secure cover, is 2 in., and
is connected to the hub of the piston head by a
bridge of iron % in, thick.
Winans's 17-inch piston has six screws to secure
the cover, and each spring which is set out by the
packing screws, presses at each end against the~
centre of a smaller spring, thus making 24 bearings against the packing rings.
All this is unnecessary, and makes the springs
liable to derangement. Norris's springs are 9




80        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
inches long, there being three in his 14-inch
piston.
The best slides are undoubtedly the flat slides
first used in the old Locks and Canals Co.'s engines. These are now used by Rogers and others.
The simplest and cheapest form of slide is the
round slide used by Norris, and until recently by
Hinkley. The length of cross-head bearing on
the slides is generally 10 or 12 inches. The
diameter of the round slides is 21 inches. One
end of the slides is attached to lugs on the cylinder cover, the other to a wrought iron loop supported by a cross girt under the boiler.
The connecting rods have oval or octagonal
boxes on the outward sides of the bearings, and
square boxes on the inner sides, or where they
abut against the end of the rod. The straps are
generally 1 in. to 14 in. thick, and in width 21 in.
at the crank end, and 21 in. at the cross-head
end. The straps are secured by two 4 in. bolts
to each, and the boxes are set up by a key generally 11 and 4 inch wide and i thick at the crank
end, and by a somewhat smaller key at the crosshead end. The most recent method of securing
the key in its place is to have its smaller end




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          81
pass through a piece of iron, on the outside of
the strap, and an inch thick; this piece being
secured to the strap by one of the bolts already
noticed. A set screw in this piece pinches the
end of the key, while another screw at the centre
of the flat face of the rod is turned against the
key at that point. The rod is generally not far
from six feet between the centres, and is nearly
or quite 3 inches in diameter at the centre. The
cross-head bearing, when of cast iron, is 23 inches
in diameter.
As the boxes in the connecting rod become
worn, the setting them up by the keys tends to
lengthen the rod, as the outside boxes retain
their places, while the inside boxes are moved
outward. In the main connecting rod this is no
great evil, as there is generally sufficient allowance at the end of the cylinder for the piston to
work up a little without hitting the head; and for
this purpose there should be more clearance given
at the forward end of the cylinder than at the
hind end; say, on a new engine, i in. allowance
at the hind end, and nearly ~ inch on the forward
end.  On the rods, however, to connect the
drivers together, it is essential that the original




82        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
length of the rod be constantly preserved; and
to do this, the key at one end of the rod presses
the inner box outward, while the other key, being
outside the box at that end of the rod, presses the
outer box inward. On Winans's and on Perkins's
engines, having four pairs of wheels to connect,
the bearing is bored out of the end of the rod, a
tight bushing inserted, and no keys used.
The valve motion generally used is the indirect
attachment of the eccentric, through the rocker
shaft. In ordinary inside cylinder engines, a
shaft 14 inches in diameter is secured by stands
to the cross girt supporting the slides. On this
shaft there are two wrought iron tubes or shells,
one for receiving and communicating the motion
for each valve. The thickness of these tubes is
8 inch.  The rocker arms which support the
hooks are 6~ inches between the centres, their
hubs ] to i inch thick, and the arms are 4 inch
thick. The pins or bolts which support the hooks
have thimbles 1t in. diameter, and y- in. thick.
The rocker shaft, tubes, arms, and thimbles, are
all of wrought iron. (In some instances cast iron
tubes, with the arms cast therewith, have been
used, and when working on a wrought iron shaft,




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         83
have less friction than the wrought iron tubes.
The Taunton Co. have used cast iron rocker tubes
on upwards of sixty engines, without breakage.)
The pin for the valve stem is turned with a shoulder, and is passed through the end of the upper
arm, and secured by a nut on the back side of
same. The thickness of the upper arm is 1- to
to 11 inches, and is of the same length as the
lower arm. The arms on the rocker shaft, which
receive the motion of the hand hooks, are 10
inches between the centres. The object of the
hand hooks is to catch the eccentric hooks when
the engine is reversed, and also to assist in starting in difficult situations, as in a drift of snow.
The inside of the eccentric hooks, where they
wear on the thimbles of the rocker arms, are
faced with a wedge or dowel of hardened steel.
The eccentric rods are 1 to 11 inches in diameter, and have right and left nuts to adjust their
length. The end of the rod is secured to the
brass hoop or eccentric band by bolts, or by being passed through a hub formed on same, with
nuts and check nuts on each side. The eccentric
band is 1I inches thick, and is lined with Babbitt
metal. The eccentrics generally have three inches




84        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
throw, and, in inside cylinder engines, must be
cast in twvo pieces to allow of their being placed
between the cranks. The eccentrics are secured
to the axle by set screws turned at their ends to
a blunt point, and entering the axle. This is to
give a chance for altering the lead of the valve
when required, which could not be so readily done
were the eccentrics keyed to the axle. It is for
this reason, also, that the eccentrics are generally cast separately, although some engines have
the four eccentrics for forward and backward
motion for each valve cast in one piece, or at
least in two pieces, to put together around the
axle. The strap under the hook is 2 to i thick,
and long enough that the hook may traverse,
when thrown out, in either direction, without
striking the thimble in the rocker arms. The
cams for raising the hooks are of cast iron, and
have a throw of two inches or more. These cams
are secured to a wrought iron shaft 1~ to 1I
inches in diameter, having a pinion of 12 or 14
teeth on one end and turned by a segment, which
is worked by the reversing lever on the footboard.
The expansion valve is worked through the
medium of a separate rocker shaft, having also a




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         85
cam shaft, with reversing rod to work the same.
As this cam shaft requires to be turned but one
quarter around, a simple arm attached to it is all
that is necessary.
The hooks are sometimes formed with V-shaped
openings, in order that they may readily catch
the pins when reversed.
This general arrangement of operating the
valve has been recently superseded in a measure
by the introduction of Stephenson's link motion,
although the old establishments still adhere to
the use of the rocker shaft. An open curved
link is attached at one extremity to the forward
rod, and at the. other to the backing rod from the
eccentrics. A block attached to the valve stem
is made to fit this link, while the link can be
raised or lowered so as to bring this block within
the action of either rod. By this method, whenever the engine is reversed, the ports are ready
to take steam, as the act of raising or lowering
the link moves the valve to its proper position on
the face of the cylinder. As this method of
working the valve admits of giving it a variable
throw, advantage is sometimes taken of this circumstance to work expansively. Indeed, it was
8




86        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
for this purpose that Stephenson first secured a
patent (in England) for its use. The valve, however, should generally have a determinate throw,
depending on the size of the ports which it covers; and any increase or diminution of this
throw is attended with a choking of the induction
and eduction of the steam. This result may be
made evident by making a section of the steam
ports on the side of a small piece of board having
its edges straight, and making a section of the
valve on another straight piece of wood. If the
edges of these boards are applied to each other,
it will be seen that any other travel than between
21 and 3~ inches, would not readily allow of the
proper passage of the steam. The travel of the
valve, for this reason, is generally fixed at 3
inches.
A modification of the link motion, without altering, however, its essential features, was devised
by Sharp, Brothers & Co., of Manchester, England, and applied to the goods engines constructed
by them for the Great Western Line.  The link
was curved the opposite way to Stephenson's, his
link being described from the centre of the axle,
and was suspended by a straight link to the boiler




THE,LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         87
or frame. The eccentric rods thus retaining one
position, the block was attached to the valve stem
by a jointed arm, and was raised or lowered by a
lever for that purpose. There are more joints
about this arrangement than in Stephenson's, and
its only merit above Stephenson's is, that the
jointed valve stem may be raised with less power
than the whole weight of the eccentric rods and
links. The use of this motion for obtaining a
variable expansion is of course liable to the same
objections as Stephenson's.
A form of variable cut-off, introduced by Horace
Gray, Esq., of Boston, upon the Fitchburg, New
York and Erie, and other roads, consists in an
open curved link formed as an arm on the upper
side of the cut-off rocker shaft. The cut-off valve
rod being jointed near the stuffing-box, and attached to a block in this link, can be raised or
lowered to acquire any throw within the limits
of motion of the block. By this method a variable expansion is obtained without affecting the
induction or eduction of steam in the cylinder.
To set the valves of a locomotive, the piston is
brought to the end of its stroke, the valve is
placed over the ports so as to have the desired




88        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
lead or advance on the piston; the eccentric rods
are then adjusted to such a length as to allow
the hooks to catch the pins, the valve retaining
the position previously given. The engine is
now moved either forward or backward, as may
be convenient, until the piston is brought to the
other extreme of its stroke; and if the valve has
the same advance on the second port as on the
first, it is properly set. If, however, the lead is
more or less than that given to the first port to
which the valve was set, the eccentrics require to
be turned in the proper direction on the axle,
and to such an extent as to give the desired lead.
Before turning the eccentrics, the eccentric rod
must be lengthened or shortened, as the case may
require, so as to divide the difference of lead on
the two ports, in order that it may be equal on
each. A proper adjustment of the length of the
rods makes the lead equal on each extreme of the
stroke, while the position given to the eccentrics
determines the amount of lead.
The eccentrics may be properly fixed to the
crank axle, when it is detached from the wheels
and from the engine.
Find the point a on the side of the axle, and in




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          89
Fig. 3.
the horizontal line A B, connecting the centres
of the crank.  Then take a piece of tin or sheet
iron and describe on it the circle a m n p, of the
size of the axle; from the same centre describe
a circle equal to the throw of the valve.  Then,
if the valve has an indirect attachment, as in
case of the rocker shaft, lay off on the cylinder
side of the axle, the crank being turned that way,
a distance k 1 equal to the sum of the lap and
lead at one end of the valve; draw c d through
8*




90        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGIN1.k
the point k, and perpendicular to the line A B.
Through the points e andf, where this line intersects the circle described by the throw of the
eccentric, draw the diagonal lines 1 t and I as
passing through the points e and f and the centre
of the axle. The points e' and f', at which these
diagonals intersect the circumference of the axle,
may be transferred by the compasses to the axle
from the point a, already found on its side. The
extremity of the line dividing the forward eccentric in two equal parts, will fall on e', and the
line dividing the backward eccentric will fall on
f, as will be seen by the diagram.
In setting valves with direct attachment, the
distance kc 1 is applied to the other side of the
centre of the axle, and the diagonal lines tend
the other way.
We have already explained the nature of lead,
and we should perhaps have explained the term
lap before entering upon the foregoing instructions for setting valves. When the valve is in
the middle of its travel or motion on the face of
the cylinder, the distance which it laps at each
end over the induction ports, is called the lap of
the valve.  The effect of this lap is to shut off




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          91
the steam  before the piston has completed its
stroke, and the lap valve thus acts as an expansion valve, to a greater or less extent as the lap
is more or less considerable. Indeed, the main
difficulty in the use of a lap valve for a cut-off is
that of starting, especially with a heavy load or
on a bad grade. Engines having no separate
cut-off valves usually have as much lap to the
valves as will admit the steam to the cylinders
without serious difficulty in starting.  The effect
of combined lead and lap, when restricted within
proper limits, is to augment the speed of the
engine; the lead, by assisting the change in the
motion of the piston so as to lose no time, and
the lap to act as a cut-off valve, to derive the
benefits resulting from an expansion of the steam.
These benefits, as we shall hereafter demonstrate,
consist in being able to do more work with the
same steam, from which result a considerable
economy in fuel, and a diminution in the water
carried in the boiler.
The pumps of an engine are either attached
directly to the cross-head, and have the same
stroke as the piston, or they are worked by the
same through a lever proportioned so as to give




92        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the pump plunger one-half or one-third the stroke
of the piston. Many recent engines, however,
including Hinkley's patterns, have an arm attached to the outside crank pin, which communicates motion to the hind pair of drivers, the end
of this arm being brought up to within 3~ inches
from the centre of the wheel, and working the
pump plunger, giving it a stroke of 7T inches.
The pumps, when this connection is used, are
placed at the hind end of the outside framing,
and beneath the footboard. The feed water enters the boiler on the side of the fire-box at a
point about as high as the lower row of tubes.
Some contend that the feed water should be
injected at the bottom of the water space about
the fire-box, or at the smoke-box end of the
boiler, in order that the cooling effects of the
water may not act directly upon the tube sheets,
and, by alternately contracting and expanding
them, cause the tubes to leak.
Pumps having one-half or one-third stroke are
generally better for engines running quick, than
full stroke pumps, as the barrel of the pump is
more sure to fill, while the wear of the valves is
not so perceptible.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         93
The pumps on all recent engines are provided
with air vessels of iron or brass. The form of
cup valve working in a brass cage, used by
Souther, appears to us the simplest form of
valve which can be devised. It requires much
less fitting than any other form of valve which
we remember to have seen.
The joints between the pump and the suction
and air chambers, and the joint in the check
valve chamber, are usually ground joints of cast
iron. These, however, when long in use, frequently become leaky, as a cast iron joint about
a pump, or in any place where the water has
access to it, is found not to hold its face well.
If a composition ring be placed inside the valve
chamber, to make a joint upon, the iron with
which it is in contact becomes subject to a peculiar oxidation, arising from a kind of galvanic
action with the composition ring. The iron about
this ring often becomes eat full of small holes.
To remedy this evil, the pumps of Souther's engines have rings of a composition cast inside the
valve chambers, and in every situation about the
pump where a ground joint is required. These
rings are first cast by themselves, and their com



94        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
position is so proportioned that when placed in
the mould of the valve chambers, and having the
melted iron poured around them, the iron just
melts the surface of the ring, and thereby becomes firmly cast with it, so that water, which is
necessary for the galvanic action described, cannot enter between them. We regard this as a
very excellent plan, as it saves much expense in
keeping the pumps in order, and makes no material difference in the first cost of the pump.
The keys to tighten the bearings about an engine should not have too much taper, as there is
danger of their becoming set so tight as to cause
the melting of the Babbitt lining of the boxes.
When much tapered, they are also liable to work
out, but this does not prevent them from  being
set so tight as to create the mischief referred to.
All the bolts should be turned and fitted, and for
such as pass through the straps of the connecting
rods, and other parts in motion, check nuts are
required. The thread of the screws should not
be too coarse, as in that case the. nuts are apt to
work off; while if too fine, the thread is liable to
strip. A thread of eleven to the inch appears to
answer very well for the medium-sized bolts.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        95
Such rubbing surfaces about an engine as are
liable to become rapidly worn, require a lining
of the composition usually named Babbitt metal,
from the inventor, Mr. Isaac Babbitt, of Boston.
A space is left around the inside of the shell of
the bearing, which is filled with this composition,
there being ledges around the sides of the shell
to keep the soft metal from coming out. A common proportion for the ingredients of this composition is twenty parts tin, two of antimony, and
one of copper.
There should always be oil cups on the crossheads, and means must be found to oil every rubbing surface about the engine.
There should be a little chance for end play on
the pins for the connecting rod to connect the
drivers, and also on the pins for the pump rod.
This play on the connecting rod may amount to ~
inch, and is necessary to allow the wheels to ride
freely around a curve.
We shall have occasion to mention two or three
particular patterns of engines, and in so doing
shall notice some peculiar arrangements in the




96        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
various parts of their moving machinery, differing
from what we have described. A disposition is
constantly shown among makers for improvements, and new applications possessing their
peculiar advantages and disadvantages are constantly appearing. Our most recent engines possess many decided improvements over those constructed but a very few years ago.




SECTION VII.
REMARKS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF ENGINES.
A WELL-BUILT engine, having its parts easily
accessible, and possessing good qualities for the
production of steam, may, with careful management, be made to run for a long time with but
little expense for repairs. The points to which
the careful engineman directs his attention are
the manner of firing, the supply of feed water,
the proper adaptation of the production of steam
to the features of the road, and various other
particulars of a like nature, which are necessary
for the proper performance of a locomotive. It
is, of course, necessary to fire up oftener when
the engine is performing hard work than when
the load is light. The fire should be maintained
at a proper point to make sufficient steam, and
should not be suffered to get so low as to affect
the pressure in the boiler. It is an object, hold
ever, in approaching a terminal stationih..jhi.fe
9              97




98        THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
barely sufficient fire to reach the engine house.
The supply of feed water to the boiler is regulated very much by local circumstances on the
road. In ascending grades, the injection of cold
water would check the formation of steam, and it
is therefore necessary to have a good supply of
water in the boiler before reaching the foot of an
unfavourable grade. On long levels and on descending grades, one pump may be kept working
to nearly its full extent. It is seldom that both
pumps require to be at work at the same time.
There should also be plenty of water in the boiler
before reaching either roadside or terminal stations. The fire door should be kept open as
little as possible, as the entrance of the cold air
through it contracts the tube sheets, and is sometimes the cause of their leaking.
If an engine has a variable exhaust, it is a
good plan to open it to nearly its full extent,
when firing, and to immediately contract it very
much, so as to recover the fire quickly. The
cylinders and valves require to be oiled at every
fifteen or twenty miles of the journey. Melted
tallow is used for this purpose. If the ports of
the throttle valve are of the same area as the




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         99
steam pipe, it is found best to keep the throttle
partly closed, as when the pressure in the steam
is rather less than in the boilers the engine is not
so liable to prime. The proper opening for the
throttle of any engine can soon be determined
from observation.
In going through covered bridges and station
houses, enginemen are generally cautioned to
shut their dampers, and to otherwise check the
draft of their engines, so as to guard against
fire.
The boiler requires to be blown off at intervals
of a week or more.- The times at which this
operation should be performed will depend very
much on -the purity of the water used. When a
scale deposits on the tubes, and on the internal
shell of the boiler, a double handful of mahogany
sawdust thrown in at the safety valve will tend
to remove it.
There should be as few putty joints about an
engine as possible; but where there are any
joints requiring packing, putty seems to answer
better than India-rubber. It should be mixed to
have a very firm and even consistency, which end
is best attained by mixing the red and white




100       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
lead of which it is composed by beating with a
heavy hand-hammer.
The hemp for packing the piston rods, valve
stems, and pump plungers, should be soaked in
warm water before using. Some engineers soak
it in melted tallow, but this appears to rot it.
Hemp simply soaked in warm water will be found
strong after two months' use. Good hemp is to
be preferred to India-rubber for stuffing boxes.
The frequent use of the sand-box on freight
engines has the effect of rapidly wearing out the
tires of the wheels. Its use should therefore
be restricted to cases where it cannot be dispensed with.
In repainting the wood work about an engine,
the best way of cleaning the work from grease
and dirt is to wet it with spirits of turpentine on
a handful of waste. The steam chimneys are
best polished with rotten-stone, used with oil on
a woollen cloth.
Every engineman should know whether the
spring balances of his safety valves are correctly
marked. To test the balances themselves, they
can be attached to a balance known to be correct,
and if the weight indicated on each balance is the




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        101
same, the spring of your engine balance is correct. If you wish to find whether the spring
balance is correctly marked,-say, for instance,
to a pressure of 90 lbs. to the inch, —find in the
first place the diameter of the valve seat, or
smallest diameter of the valve, and find its corresponding area in square inches. Multiply this
area by 90, and you have the entire pressure
against the whole valve. Now from this pressure
deduct the weight of the safety-valve lever, with
the spring balance attached and disconnected
from the boiler, the lever being weighed at a
point directly over the centre of the safety valve.
What remains is the pressure against the valve,
which is to be overcome by the tension of the
spring balance, unaided by its weight. Multiply
this pressure by the distance in inches from the
centre of the joint pin or fulcrum to the centre
of the valve pin, and divide the product by the
distance from the joint pin to the centre of the
spring balance. This quotient shows the tension
of the spring balance requisite to overcome a
pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch against the
valve. Suppose this quotient to be 81, for instance; then, in re-marking the spring balance,
9*




102       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the point showing 90 lbs. per' inch should be at
81, as originally marked by the maker of the
spring balance on his scale. If the original
marks of the spring balance have been covered
or destroyed, then attach a weight equal to the
quotient found in the above calculation, and the
point to which it draws down the gauge or pointer
may be marked, and calculated from as though it
were the original mark.
If the balance be screwed down to any point
supposed to show a certain pressure in the boiler,
a pair of steelyards can be applied to the end of
the safety-valve lever, when the spring balance is
screwed to that pressure and is attached to the
boiler, and the resistance or tension of the balance, or the weight sufficient to just raise it,
may be noted. This weight may be multiplied
by the distance from the joint pin to the balance,
and the product divided by the distance from the
joint pin to the centre of the valve; the quotient
will be the pressure against the valve, which if
divided by the number of square inches in the
area of the valve, will show the pressure per
inch. This method, it will be seen, gives the
true result also without deducting the weight of




THEE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.       103
the lever in the calculation, as its weight is included in getting the tension of the spring
balance.
No careful engineman puts out his fires by
throwing water in the fire.box, except in cases
demanding the immediate withdrawal of the fire.
It is even then better to pull out the grate bars
by a dart, which can be done if the fire-box be
not full of wood, as the injury caused by contracting the tube sheets is irreparable. To reverse
the steam also when the engine is in motion
brings a very powerful strain upon its bearings.
It should never be done, except to prevent collision or running off the track. When, to prevent a collision, it sometimes becomes necessary,
however, to reverse full steam ahead to full steam
back, a difficulty is sometimes found in catching
the hooks. The hand hooks, too, when dropped
on the pins, do not immediately catch, until they
will suddenly become engaged and put the hand
levers in rapid motion, so as to become a source
of danger to the engineman. It is best, therefore, in reversing in such cases, to place the reversing lever first midway, with all the eccentric
hooks out, when the hand hooks may be at once




104       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
caught and t'he back hooks immediately thrown
in. We know old engineers who say they always
do this in cases of the most imminent danger;
and on the whole it generally takes less time.
Where an engine has V-hooks, or links, there is
never any difficulty in reversing at once.
In removing and replacing the steam-chest and
cylinder covers, care should be taken that no one
screw which secures them shall be up to a tight
bearing when the others are loose. In putting
them on, the nuts should be turned loosely up all
around, and then gradually tightened. Unless
these precautions are observed there is danger
of cracking the covers.
There are very few roads where any account is
kept of the work performed by their locomotives,
so as' to show the comparative power of each
engine on the road. Every new engine is, to a
certain extent, an experiment, and its performance will very much depend on some of the
details observed in its construction. An engineman knowing the features of the road over which
he runs —as the radii of the curves, length and
height of grades, &c.-may keep a very useful
and- interesting abstract of the load drawn, or




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.                  105
speed attained, together with the consumption
of fuel, oil, &c., on some of the trips performed
by the machine in his charge. These particulars
are practically useful, inasmuch as they show
what may be expected of a locomotive under
ordinary circumstances; and they also facilitate
comparisons of the different patterns of engines.
Some of the roads running out of Boston keep a
monthly list posted in their engine houses, of the
number of miles run by each of their engines,
together with the amount of oil and waste used
for the same time.
The following is an estimate which has been
furnished us of the expenses for running a firstclass passenger engine, 100 miles a day for one
year:
Wages of Engineman.......................................  $720.00
" "Fireman.........................................    360.00
Wood; 4 cords per day, 280 days, }.5,040.00
1120 cords @  $4.50 per cord.........
Oil; 280 gallons, (.80..................................    224.00
Waste; 840 lbs.  ".02...................................  16.80
Repairs; 28,000 miles, @.06...........................  1,680.00
Water in Boston............................................    100.00
Water and pumping on road...........................    150.00
Interest on first cost of engine.........................  480.00
Total....................................... $8.770.80




106       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
This, though but an approximation, serves to
show pretty nearly the general expense of locomotive power.
In our railroad reports generally, no mention
is made of the details of the expenditures on
account of the locomotive department; and while
the entire success of the road depends upon the
condition of this branch of its fixture, the subject is passed without the least notice. Those
interested in railroad matters may regard the
locomotive of the present day as practically
perfect; this, however, would be a serious error,
and would very much retard the introduction
of beneficial improvements. On some of the
Southern roads-the Baltimore and Ohio, for
instance-a detailed account is appended to the
superintendent's yearly report, containing the
number, names, rank, classes, and builders of
all the engines on the road; their performances
for the preceding year in miles run, expense
for repairs on each engine, together with
details of the charges for fuel, wages, oil,
waste, and incidental expenses connected therewith.




110       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
remarked on a preceding page. The frame of
the engine is below the axle of the driving
wheels, and above that of the 4-feet bearing
wheels, the jaws for the bearings of the driving
axle being formed on the upper side of the
frame. There is also an outside frame having
a floating bearing for the end of the driving
axle, the crank and eccentrics being between this
bearing and the wheel.
The performance of this engine is represented
as being remarkably good.
The coal-burning engine built by Ross Winans,
of Baltimore, and placed by him for trial on the
Boston and Maine Railroad, had 17-inch outside
cylinders laid horizontally, 22-inch stroke, and
eight drivers, having chilled rims 43 inches in
diameter, all the drivers being placed between
the fire and' smoke boxes. The connecting rod
is applied to the third pair of wheels from the
smoke-box. The distance between the centres
of the extreme axle is 11 ft. 3 in.; between the
centres of the cylinders, 6 ft. 5 in. The boiler
shell is made of 5- iron, and measures, in its
smallest inside diameter, 41 inches. There are
101 two-and-one-half-inch, and 2 two-inch wrought




THIE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.       111
iron tubes, 13 feet in length. The upper row of
tubes is nearly up to the top of the cylinder part
of the boiler, the water-level being in the dome
above the waist of the boiler. The dome is
formed a little forward of the middle point of
the boiler, having the same diameter, and rising
51 inches above it. There is a step on the back
side of the fire-box, making the length of the
grate 14 inches more than the length of the
crown sheet. The fire box is of 2-inch copper,
with the exception of the tube sheet, which is of
2-inch iron. Length of grate, 56~1 in.; at crown
sheet, 42~ in.; mean breadth of grate, 42l in.;
at centre of boiler or middle row of tubes, 392
in.; all inside measures. The whole depth from
the crown sheet to grate is 511 inches. The
grate bars are very heavy, and are cast but two
together.  Their ends come through the bottom
of the fire-box, on the back side, and have round
holes through which to put a bar to stir them
occasionally, in order to loosen the cinders and
melted coal. The exhaust from both cylinders
comes through a cast iron box or blast pipe
having movable sides, so that the aperture at its
mouth may be varied from  31 to 10 square




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        109
Within a year or two there have been constructed several engines in various parts of the
country, of novel and peculiar design.  The
chief feature, however, in these engines has been
an increase in the size of the driving wheels.
Among these engines was one built by Edward S.
Norris, of Schenectady, N. Y., for the Utica
and Schenectady Railroad, of the following dimensions:
Sixteen-inch cylinder, 22-inch stroke; boiler
42 inches in diameter; 116 two-inch tubes, 10 ft.
3 in. long; grate about 14 square feet; one pair
of wrought iron driving wheels behind the firebox, and 7 feet in diameter; one pair of wrought
iron bearing wheels just forward of the fire-box,
and 4 feet in diameter, and a truck frame beneath the smoke-box of four 32-feet wrought iron
wheels. The cylinders are outside, and are
placed in a horizontal position midway between
the fire and smoke boxes. A large dome, at a
corresponding point ori the top of the boiler,
supplies steam to the cylinders through pipes
running down outside the boiler to the steam
chests. The valve motion is the modified form
of Stephenson's link motion, on which we have
10




110       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
remarked on a preceding page. The frame of
the engine is below the axle of the driving
wheels, and above that of the 4-feet bearing
wheels, the jaws for the bearings of the driving
axle being formed on the upper side of the
frame. There is also an outside frame having
a floating bearing for the end of the driving
axle, the crank and eccentrics being between this
bearing and the wheel.
The performance of this engine is represented
as being remarkably good.
The coal-burning engine built by Ross Winans,
of Baltimore, and placed by him for trial on the
Boston and Maine Railroad, had 17-inch outside
cylinders laid horizontally, 22-inch stroke, and
eight drivers, having chilled rims 43 inches in
diameter, all the drivers being placed between
the fire and' smoke boxes. The connecting rod
is applied to the third pair of wheels from the
smoke-box. The distance between the centres
of the extreme axle is 11 ft. 3 in.; between the
centres of the cylinders, 6 ft. 5 in. The boiler
shell is made of 5- iron, and measures, in its
smallest inside diameter, 41 inches. There are
101 two-and-one-half-inch, and 2 two-inch wrought




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        111
iron tubes, 13 feet in length. The upper row of
tubes is nearly up to the top of the cylinder part
of the boiler, the water-level being in the dome
above the waist of the boiler. The dome is
formed a little forward of the middle point of
the boiler, having the same diameter, and rising
51 inches above it. There is a step on the back
side of the fire-box, making the length of the
grate 14 inches more than the length of the
crown sheet. The fire box is of 2-inch copper,
with the exception of the tube sheet, which is of'-inch iron. Length of grate, 56~ in.; at crown
sheet, 42~ in.; mean breadth of grate, 421 in.;
at centre of boiler or middle row of tubes, 392
in.; all inside measures. The whole depth from
the crown sheet to grate is 511 inches. The
grate bars are very heavy, and are cast but two
together. Their ends come through the bottom
of the fire-box, on the back side, and have round
holes through which to put a bar to stir them
occasionally, in order to loosen the cinders and
melted coal. The exhaust from both cylinders
comes through a cast iron box or blast pipe
having movable sides, so that the aperture at its
mouth may be varied from 3~ to 10 square




112       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
inches.  There is a pipe about 9 inches in diameter, passing up through the smoke-box, from
the bottom to the top, and entering the chimney,
leaving a few inches all around it for the smoke
to rise through. The exhaust enters this pipe at
its bottom, and the partial vacuum created by its
action supplies the blast, as in ordinary locomotives. The tube surface of this engine is 860
square feet; of heating surface in fire-box, 66
square feet; and the area of grate is 16- square
feet.
Messrs. Slade and  Currier, civil engineers,
were commissioned to make experiments with
this engine, in order to institute a comparison
between it and a first-class wood engine, but
more particularly to test its actual value as a
coal-burning engine. The results of their experiments have been published, but they neglect
to state that the c New Hampshire" (the wood
engine) was of a materially different pattern
from  the  c coaler," inasmuch - as it had six
driving wheels and a truck frame, thereby
losing a considerable per cent. of the adhesion
due to its weight, as compared with the,c coaler."
The dimensions of the, New Hampshire" were




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        113
as follows:-16-inch cylinder, 20-inch stroke;
diameter of drivers, 46 inches; length of tubes,
10 ft. 6 in.; diameter of boiler, 45 inches. This
engine was built by Hinkley & Drury.
The experimental trips were made in the
latter part of January and in the beginning
of February, 1850. The entire distance from
Boston to Great Falls is given as 74 miles.
There was more or less snow on the track
during the time in which the experiments were
made. The highest grades were about 47 feet
per mile.  One point unfavourable  for the
"4coaler" was the fact that from there being
but about 26 miles of double track, the freight
trains were subject to frequent and protracted
delays, in waiting for passenger trains to pass.
In waiting, the fire in the wood engine could, be
suffered to go nearly down, the fire-box being
filled with wood when the train came in sight.
In the coal engine, however, it was necessary
to keep the furnace filled with coal, as, if suffered
to get down, it would take considerable time to
recover the fire.
With the " coaler," the average of ten trips
showed a consumption of 4786 lbs. anthracite
1o 0




114       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
coal to evaporate 3512 gallons in going 74
miles; this being 10.31 lbs. coal required to
evaporate one cubic foot of water.
With the wood engine, 3 cords and -4 of a
foot of wood of various qualities and prices
were used to evaporate 3734 gallons of water.
The cost of carrying 15000 tons one mile with
wood was found to be.               $14.04
With coal.12.70
Favour of coal.$1.34
The wood engine had a sand-box, and wrought
iron tires; the c coaler" had a sand-box also,
but had chilled wheels.
The "4coaler" took 76 cars, weighing, with
freight, 433 tons, up Ward Hill, in Bradford,
where there is a grade of 47 feet per mile, and
also a very bad reversed curve. In going up the
hill no sand was used, nor did the wheels slip,
except, as the report states, some three or four
turns where some track repairers had taken off
a hand car and left a little snow on the rails.
The wood engine took 61 cars up the same
hill, weighing, with freight, 391 tons.  Sand was
constantly running from the sand-box, except




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE,        11.5
when, to ascertain whether the engine was working up to its full power, the sand was turned off,
when the wheels were found to slip very much.
The average cost of wood used on the through
trips was $3.63 per cord.
The cost of anthracite coal, per ton of 2240
pounds, was $5.25; 8 of a ton of coal was found
to be equal in effect for evaporation to one cord
of wood, or $3.28 worth of coal equal to $3.63
worth of wood.
The average speed of the "c coaler," although
having a smaller wheel and a longer stroke, was
found to be.2 of a mile per hour greater than
that of the wood engine; their average speeds
being 14i  and 14fvl miles per hour, respectively.
This was probably owing to a loss on the wood
engine by slipping the wheels.
In conclusion, the commissioners express their
opinion that, for running heavy trains, which are
not obliged to wait for any considerable length of
time along the line for other trains to pass, they
believe coal to be every way more economical
than wood. They also say that in their remarks they would not wish to be considered as
in any way disparaging the ",New Hamp



116       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
shire," as they consider that a first-class wood
engine.
Winans has an express engine on the Worcester road, having 7-feet drivers. In this engine,
however, the proportions of the boiler, &c. are
very much the same as in the freight engine we
have noticed. These seven-feet drivers were
cast with chilled rims, and were of an extremely
light pattern; in fact, they became broken before
they had been used two months. There were two
small steam cylinders placed on the sides of the
boiler over the bearings of the driving axle, by
which the weight on the drivers could be varied
from three to twelve and a half tons. But when
under their utmost adhesion, the drivers were
found to slip very much.
Many attempts have been made to burn anthracite coal effectually and economically. Winans's engines appear the best adapted for the
use of this kind of fuel of any yet constructed.
We regard, however, a very large extent of grate
with a moderate depth of coal as still more likely
to attain to superior results.  For a 17-inch
cylinder, let the grate be 6 feet by 3~ feet, the
depth of fire-box being 3 feet, and having two or




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        117
three water bridges 4 inches in thickness traversing its entire length. We are of opinion
that anthracite might be burned in such a firebox with increased effect in the production of
steam, and with a diminished waste in the metal
of the fire-box and grate bars. With such a
furnace, a pair of small wheels would be necessary to support the hind end of it.
The difficulties encountered in the use of hard
coal arise chiefly from the intense and concentrated heat involved in its combustion, thereby
destroying the grate bars and scaling the inside
of the fire-box. This rapid burning out of the
grate has led to leaving off the ash pan on the
coal engines on some of the Pennsylvania roads,
which appears to remove to some extent the
destructive results attending the use of the coal.
The ashes and cinders falling upon the track,
if they do not immediately cause a fire,-which
must be guarded against,-soon form an impenetrable crust along the entire line, which
removes all further danger from that source.
This, though it may appear somewhat improbable
at the first view, accords with the experience of
the roads where it has been tried. Much diffi



118       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
culty has been met in the use of copper tubes,
as the action of the coal, from being projected in
small pieces by the blast, was found to cut them
away near their mouths. This difficulty suggested the use of wrought iron tubes, which,
however, require much caution in setting them,
as the increased force necessary to head up
their ends is apt to spring or bend the tube
sheet. A method has been practised with much
success on the Pennsylvania roads, which is to
turn off an inch or more of the end of the
wrought iron tube in the form of the frustum
of a cone, thereby reducing its thickness one
half at its extreme end.  The tube is then placed
through the tube sheet, and a thin thimble of
copper, an inch in length, and previously turned
off in the same manner as the tubes, is driven
into the mouth of the tube, with its sharpest
edge foremost. After being driven as far as it
will go, the thick edge projecting outward is
turned over and headed in the usual manner.
The creation of sufficient blast by the action
of the exhaust steam has also been attended
with some difficulty.  Anthracite requires for
its proper combustion a very steady and quite




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        119
powerful blast, which the intermittent and fitful
action of the blast pipe of a locomotive fails of
producing. It has been attempted by many arrangements, however, to render this kind of blast
regular, and capable of giving the required intensity to the fire.
The pipe described as passing up through the
smoke-box of Winans's engine, has this result
for its object. Although the steam enters the
bottom of this pipe by sudden and violent impulses, the pipe must be filled with steam, which
will issue in a very regular manner from the top
of it, where its action is first employed in causing
a draft through the tubes. It has also been tried
to obtain a regular blast by letting the exhaust
steam into a receiver or box a foot in diameter
and a foot high, this box being in the middle of
the smoke-box. Eighteen one-inch tubes in the
top of this box afforded exit for the steam. This
plan, however, from the resistance caused by the
steam on the reverse side of the piston (being
solicited to escape through so difficult a passage)
has rendered its operation inefficient.
If future experience determines the exhaust
steam to be insufficient to give a proper blast




120       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
for burning anthracite, it will become necessary
to adopt some of the varieties of bituminous
coals, or a mixture of anthracite and bituminous
coal. We think, however, the exhaust steam will
be found sufficient for burning the former, under
ordinary circumstances, with a large extent of
fire-box surface.
We will now notice a few other patterns of engines from which our remarks on burning coal
have arrested our attention.
The ", John Stevens," by Norris, Brothers, of
Philadelphia, had 13-inch cylinders, 34-inch
stroke, and one pair of eight-feet drivers. This
engine was intended to burn coal. Its operation,
however, was not attended with the anticipated
results.
O. W. Bayley, of the Amoskeag Machine Shop,
at Manchester,.N. H., has lately built an engine
with 15-inch cylinders, 24-inch stroke, and two
pairs of seven-feet drivers. There were two stout
shafts, resting in bearings beneath the frame, and
between the cylinders and driving axle. Each
of these shafts had two stout arms keyed to it,
the one in a line with the piston rod, to which its
upper extremity was attached by a link; the




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.       121
other outside the frame, and which, by the connecting rod attached to it, communicated motion
to the driving wheels. The use of this arrangement was to obtain the supposed advantages of
inside cylinders with an outside connection. If
the proposed object was to reduce the height of
the boiler from the rails by avoiding the use of
the crank axle, we think it might have been
better attained through the use of outside
cylinders, placed midway on the boiler, and
connected to the hind pair'of drivers. It could
not be supposed that the use of inside cylinders
would contribute to give the engine a steady
motion on the road, so long as the power was
applied outside the wheels.  Had the cylinders
been placed as near as they could set to the
forward pair of wheels and clear them, it would
have been merely necessary tQ let the valve
stems enter the steam chests on the front side.
G. S. Griggs has lately finished an engine for
the Providence road, of the following general
particulars:-14j-inch cylinders; 18-inch stroke;
about a 44-inch boiler; 9 —feet tubes; six driving
wheels, supporting the entire weight of the engine, and being 48 inches in diameter. These
1




122       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
wheels had chilled rims, and were all cast with
flanges. One pair of wheels was behind the
fire-box, and the connecting rod was applied
to the middle pair of wheels. From the centre
of the hind pair of wheels to the centre of the
middle pair, was 5 feet 3 inches; from the
centre of the middle pair to the centre of the
front pair, was 6 feet 9 inches; making the
entire distance between the extreme axles 12
feet. There was perhaps ~ inch end play on
the axle of the back pair of wheels, none to
the middle, or crank axle, and about I- inch
in  the  front axle.  The engine had  inside
cylinders, inclined so as to allow the crossheads to clear the forward. axle.  There was
an equalizing bar between the middle and hind
pairs of wheels, and an independent spring over
the forward pair.
The performance of this engine in the transportation of freight is mentioned as extremely
good; and it is stated that the engine travels
through a curve with all the facility of an engine
of the usual pattern.
One of iEinkley's ten wheelers on the Northern
road was altered by taking out the truck frame




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        123
and putting in another pair of drivers. This
could be done only by setting the new drivers
very far forward, and by springing up the
smoke-box end of the engine, as the cylinders.
in this pattern, though somewhat inclined, were
not intended to admit another pair of driving
wheels. The distance between the extreme axles
of this engine is 15 ft. 6 in.; the two middle
pairs of wheels have no flanges, and no end
play was allowed in any of the, boxes. The:
engine is said to draw a much greater load than
when running with the truck frame, and is also
said to ride as freely around a curve as before
the alteration was made.
We have never believed the use of extra large
wheels on our narrow gauge roads would afford
proper grounds for their general introduction.
The high point at which the power of the steam
must be applied to work a seven or eight feet
wheel, gives the engine greater leverage in its
action on the rails, and consequently involves an
increased expenditure for repairs, both on the
road.and on the machine. The use of large
wheels presents a choice of two bad arrangements: the boiler, to get an inside connection,




124       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
must set very high, so as to clear the cranks;
while the onlymeans of reducing the height of
the boiler is to carry the cylinders outside, and
to subject the whole engine to an injurious and
sometimes dangerous oscillating motion, owing
to the comparatively wide distance between the
points at which the power is applied. Whichever plan may be adopted is found to possess
its disadvantages. True, a pair of large drivers
may be placed behind the fire-box, but one pair
of wheels, and at that point also, does not give
the engine sufficient adhesion to the rails.
On the whole, we do not believe the proposed
advantages supposed to result from the use of a
3-feet stroke will ever compensate for the injurious effects of outside cylinders, with large
wheels. The present speed of railroad travelling
is as great as can be economically maintained,
and any attempt to increase it increases in a
higher ratio the expense of repairs and renewals.
In support of our opinion, we can confidently
assert that no instance can be adduced of a
narrow-gauge engine, in this country, having
a wheel larger than six feet, where it has been
thoroughly tested and its use approved of. The




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        125&
high speeds attained by 5T-feet wheels, with the
express trains on the Worcester road, prove
that a very rapid rate of travelling may be
reached with an ordinary-sized wheel.
Although we regard the only sure means of
running quick to be found in perfecting and
smoothing our roads, reducing the grades,
easing the curves, and laying the road with
more care for smoothness and stability, still
we do not deny that a large wheel would be
better for light express trains, running chiefly
to transmit important despatches; we do not,
however, think the use of such engines would
be advisable in running our regular and heavy
trains.
There are -many roads where trains of two
or three cars are run by twenty-two-ton engines.
The injury sustained by the permanent way,
from the continued passage of such unnecessarily heavy machines, has drawn a considerable
degree of attention to the subject by practical
railroad men, both in this country and in Europe.
On the Eastern Counties line, in England, a
steam carriage, having engine, tank, and car
on one frame,-the engine having 8 inch cylin11*



126       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
der, 12 inch stroke, 5 feet wheel, and 255
feet heating surface, and the car capable of
seating  84 passengers,-was placed  upon a
branch road, and was found to require but
11 lbs. of coke per mile, against 811 lbs., the
average amount consumed by the heavy engines
before used. The whole carriage, in working
trim, weighed 15 tons 7 cwt.; and with an
additional car,-making accommodation in all
for 150 passengers, —ran at an average rate
of 37 miles per hour. The use of this mode
of traffic, where admissible, is attended with a
great diminution in the working expenses, and
in the repairs of the line where it is employed.
To carry 120 passengers on the present system, the weight of engine, 22 tons, tender, wood
and water, 15 tons, baggage car, 8 tons, and 2
passenger cars, 20 tons, must be included. This
gives upward of 1200 lbs. dead weight to each
passenger carried, or a train of 75 tons, at an
average speed of 30 miles per hour.




SECTION IX.
TABLES AND CALCULATIONS RELATIVE TO THE
LOCOMOTIVE.
IT is a very useful and interesting mental
exercise to calculate the power, capacity, and
other particulars of a locomotive. By an acquaintance with the expressed values of engines,
deduced from natural principles, or being perhaps the results of experimental research, our
minds become habituated to a better conception
of their properties. At the same time, we require to have the means of knowing the capabilities of any machine in order to direct or
suggest any improvements in its arrangement;
and likewise to know that we are in possession
of all the capabilities in the engine which science
can point out.
We therefore commence this section with a
table which we have computed for the lengths of
stroke and diameters of wheels of our American
engines, and which is intended to express the
12Z




128           THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
speed of the piston compared with that of the
circumference of the driving wheel, the speed
of the latter being taken as 1. The use of this
table we shall immediately proceed to show.
Diameter of Drivers.
in. 42 in. 43 in. 46 in. 48 in. 54 in. 60 in. 66 in. 72 in. 78 in. 84 in.
16.2425.2369.2214 *2122 *1886 11697 *1543 *1415.1306 11213
18.2728 *2665 12491 *2387 *2122 -1910 -17361.1591 *1469 *1364
20 ~3031 *2961'2768 -2652 12358 12122 *1929 *1768 *1632'1516
22 ~3335 *3257 3045 ~2918 *2594 *2334 *2122 1945 1795 *1668
24 *3639 -3554 3321 3183 2829'2546'2315 *2122 11959 1819
Now to calculate the tractive force of a locomotive, multiply the sum  of the areas of the two
pistons by the effective pressure per square inch,
the effective pressure being understood as the
pressure  in  the  boiler  minus  the  pressure  of
steam barely sufficient to keep the engine and
tender by  themselves just in  motion;-having
the product so obtained, multiply it still further
by the decimal coefficient corresponding to its
length   of  stroke  and  diameter  of  wheel, as
found in the preceding table: this last product
expresses  the  tractive  force  of the  engine, in
pounds.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        129
To illustrate the meaning of traction, we will
suppose a deep pit to be sunk in the middle of a
level track; let a weight in the bottom of the
pit have a rope attached to it, the rope passing
over a pulley at the mouth of the pit, and being
secured at its other end to the draw iron of a
locomotive. The weight which the engine could
raise in this manner, entirely through the adhesion of its drivers, is equal to the tractive
force of the engine.
Example.-What is the tractive power of a
locomotive having  17-inch cylinders, 22-inch
stroke, 43-inch wheels, and effective pressure
80 lbs. per square inch?
The area of a 17-inch piston is 226.98 square
inches.
The area of two cylinders, therefore, 453.96
square inches.
And 453.96
80
36316.80.3257 the coefficient of the given wheel
and stroke.
11828.38 lbs., the product, which is the




130       THE LOCOMOTIVE. ENGINE.
traction of the engine. The traction varies,
however, according to the weight of the engine,,
for which this calculation does not provide.
The resistance offered by the friction of one
ton on a level railroad is the same as that of
drawing up through the pit a weight of 10
pounds.* That is, 10 lbs. weight attached to
a load of one ton, and passing over a pulley
so as to act with it full weight on the load,
would keep it in motion. Hence, to find how
many tons the above engine would draw on a
level, divide the traction already found by 10,
the amount of traction necessary to overcome
the friction of one ton on a level, and the
quotient is the desired answer.
Thus:      10)11828(11824 tons drawn by the
17-inch cylinder engine on a level.
Another rule for obtaining the traction of an
engine, and deduced from the above, is to
multiply the effective pressure per square inch
by the square of the diameter of the cylinder,
that product by the length of stroke, and divide
* On a smooth road, with cars in good condition, the friction is 8, and sometimes as low as 7 pounds per ton.




TrE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.       131
the whole by the diameter of the wheel in inches.
Thus, the above example would become289 square of 17-inch cylinder.
80 lbs. pressure of steam.
23120
22 length of stroke.
43)508640(11828 lbs., as before.
The application of this rule, it will be seen,
does not require the use of the table of decimal
coefficients.
In going up a grade there is a certain tendency to roll down the hill, occasioned by the
force of gravity.  A  portion of the tractive
power of the engine is to be expended in overcoming this tendency of gravity, as well as the
friction of the load.
To obtain the gravity, in pounds, of one ton
on any grade, multiply 2240, the number of
pounds in a ton, by the height of the grade,
and divide the product by the length of the
grade. To obtain the gravity of one ton on
a 47-feet grade, (the grade of Ward Hill, in
Bradford, Mass.,) we multiply 2240 by 47, the




132       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
height of the grade, and divide the product by
5280, the number of feet in one mile, or the
length of the grade; the quotient is 19.9 lbs.,
which is the gravity of one ton on a grade of
that pitch. To this must be added thefriction
of one ton, already given as 10 lbs., and the
whole tractive power of the engine is to be
divided by their amount, thus:
29.9)11832(395.7 tons, answer.
A simpler rule, deduced from the above, is to
multiply the height of the grade per mile in
feet, by the decimal.4242, which gives precisely
the same answer. Thus:
47 x 4242 = 19.9 + lbs
N. B. —The weight of the engine and tender
is not included in the above answers.
The friction of the engine and tender absorbs
from 4 to 6 lbs. per square inch on the piston,
and if the engine is not in good order it will take
more.
To find the quantity of water evaporated by an
engine in going a certain distance, we can multiply the area of the piston by the length of the
stroke, or by that part of the stroke into which




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        133
dense steam is admitted, where a cut-off is used;
this gives the capacity of one cylinder, which,
multiplied by four, gives the amount of steam
used at one revolution.  Then divide the distance of your journey by the circumference of
the wheel, and make a discretionary allowance
for slipping; this gives the number of revolutions made by the drivers in going the given
distance, which, multiplied by the amount of
steam  used at one revolution, gives the entire
quantity of steam used in going the entire distance. The question now arises, what part of
this steam is water; or rather, what amount
of water was required to generate this amount
or volume of steam at the given pressure? We
can ascertain this by reference to the table on
page 21. Suppose the given pressure of steam
was 110 lbs. per square inch; opposite this
pressure in the table is 241, the number of
cubic inches of steam generated under a pressure of 110 lbs. per inch from one cubic inch
of water. Divide, therefore, the whole amount
of steam of 110 lbs. used in the journey by 241,
and you have the amount of water evaporated to
generate that steam.
12




134       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE..Example. —How many gallons of water would
an engine evaporate in running the distance
from Boston to Lowell, 26 miles, the engine
being of the following dimensions:-15-inch
cylinder, 18-inch stroke, 5-feet wheel, pressure
100 lbs. per inch, and cutting off at half stroke?
176.71 area of 15-inch piston in square inches.
9 -= inches of stroke into which dense
-   steam is admitted.
1590.39 amount of steam used by one cyl. at one
4    stroke.
6361.56 amount of steam used at one revolution.
Now get the distance in 26 miles by multiplying by 5280, the number of feet in a mile,
thus:
5280
26
15.708)137280(8739 revolutions in going 26 miles, the divisor, 15.708, being the
circumference of the driver in feet and decimals.
The number of revolutions, 8739, being multiplied by the quantity of steam  used at one




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        135
revolution, 6361.5 cubic inches, the product is
55593148 cubic inches of steam used in going
26 miles. Now the pressure is 100 lbs.; and by
the table on page 21, one cubic inch of water
makes 260 cubic inches of steam of that pressure. Now the whole quantity of steam used,
divided by -260, gives the quantity of water
evaporated to generate that steam, which is, we
find by dividing, 213819 cubic inches; and this
amount, divided by 231, the number of cubic
inches in a wine gallon, gives 925.6 gallons used,
which corresponds very nearly with the actual
quantity. used by an engine of the given dimensions, and running on the Lowell road.
It will be seen we have made no allowances
for slipping, nor for any loss of steam by blowing off.
We sometimes wish to know the amount of
advantage gained by using steam expansively;
that is, the advantage gained by cutting off
steam at any fraction of the stroke. Suppose
the induction port to a cylinder to remain open
during one stroke of the piston, thereby admitting steam enough to fill the entire capacity
of the cylinder, and of the same pressure as




136       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
within the boiler. We will then suppose the
amount of work done or load raised by that
engine to be represented by the number 3.
Take then the same cylinder, place the piston at
the end of the stroke, and admit steam by the
valve until the piston has gone through one-third
the distance of the stroke. Now the load raised
by the engine is either the same load as when
full steam was used, but to only one-third the
distance, or one-third of the former load to the
same distance. In either case, the work done is
represented by one-third the number used to
represent the former load; and that number
being 3, the work done when the piston has gone
through one-third of its stroke is 1. But when
the piston is at that point of its stroke, one-third
of the length of the cylinder is filled with steam
of the same pressure as in the boiler; this steam
therefore acts upon the piston, at first with its
full pressure, but as the piston moves along,
thereby increasing the capacity of that end of
the cylinder, the steam expands and presses
with a diminished force, until the piston has
arrived at the extreme of its stroke; when the
steam which was admitted until the piston was at




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        137
one-third stroke has now become expanded into
three times its original volume, and thereby has
only one-third of its original pressure remaining.
But it has pressed upon the piston with a constantly diminishing force during the last twothirds of the stroke, and has thereby contributed.
to the useful effect of the engine. The steam
originally admitted, after performing an amount
of work represented by the number 1, has performed during the last two-thirds of the stroke a
still further amount of work, which in reality
should be represented by a number a trifle over
1, making the entire useful effect derived from
one-third of a cylinder full of steam, a trifle
more than two-thirds of what it was when a full
cylinder of steam was used. It is evident that
none of this additional useful effect, derived
from the expansive property of steam, could
have been obtained had steam of full pressure
been constantly admitted upon the piston
throughout its whole stroke. Were there sufficient steam in a boiler to fill a given cylinder
12 times full, the pressure in the cylinder
being the same as in the boiler, and the work
performed by using this steam through the whole
12*




138       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
stroke of the piston to be represented by 12, it
follows that by filling only one-third of the
length of the cylinder at each stroke, there
would be sufficient steam  for 36 strokes, the
the effect of each being represented by i, and
of the whole, 24, or twice the effect obtained by
using the steam at full stroke. And thus it
appears that although you can never obtain the
full effect of the engine except with full steam,
still, more work can be done by expansion,
when compared with the amount of steam
used. Hence, there is a very great economy
in employing full steam through but a portion
of the stroke, letting the stroke be completed
by the expansion of the steam already in the
cylinder.
Again, this principle of expanding the steam
in the cylinder, while it reduces the quantity
of steam used, has no effect on the production
of steam in the boiler, other than what results
from throwing a surplus pressure, as it accumulates, upon the water-level. By tracing the
practical applications of this advantage, we find
a given boiler may supply a larger cylinder, or a
given cylinder may be supplied by a smaller




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.       139
boiler, and do more work than with the original
proportions before expansion. With expansion,
therefore, the same work may be performed with
a reduction in the weight of the engine, which
is a very important advantage. The less the
resistance of the load, the greater may be the
extent to which expansion is carried in the
cylinder, and for this reason expedients are
sometimes resorted to for adapting the expansion
to the resistance of the train.
Having thus explained the philosophy which
dictates the use of expansion or cut.off valves,
we will give a table by which the effect of the
engine may be estimated for any amount of
expansion. This table is called a table of hyperbolic logarithms; and as an explanation of the
manner in which the table is prepared would
encroach upon our limits, and at the same time
be foreign to the character of our work, we will
confine ourselves to the manner of employing
this table for the purpose of calculating the
effect due to the expansion of steam. We will
first present the table.




140           THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE.
TABLE OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS.
No.  11y1    No.   iYP    No.  Hyp             No.   g.
Log:          Log.          Log.          Log.
1 05   *049   2 05'718   3'05  1.115  4-05  1'399
1.1    *095   2'1'742   3'1   1-131  4'1   1'411
1'15'140   2'15   *765  3'15  1'147  4'15  1'423
1'2'*182   2'2'788   3 2   1'163  4'2   1'435
1'25'223   2-25'811   3'25  1'179  4'25  1'447
1'3    *262   2'3      8383  383   1'194  4-3   1'459
1'35'300   2'35   *854   3'35  1'209. 4'35  1'470
1'4'336   2-4'875   3'4   1 224  4'4   1'482
1'45'372   2'45'896   3'45  1'238  4'45  1'493
1'5'405   2-5'916   3'5   1'253  4'5   1'504
1-55.438   2-55   *936  3855  1.267  4.55  1 515
1'6.470   2 6    *956  3'6   1'281   406   1 526
1'65.500   265.975  3'65  1'295  4 65  1'537
1'7'531   2'7'993  3-7   1-308  4'7   1'548
1-75    5660   2-75  1'012  3-75  1.322  4.75  1.558
1'8'588   2-8   1030   3'8   1.335  4-8   1.569
1 85'615   2-85  1'047  3-85  1'348  4'85  1'579
1 9'642   2-9   1'065  39   1 *361   4l9   1 589
1 95'668   2'95  1 082  3-95 -1'374  4.95  1.599
2'693   3     1 009  4       1 386   5      1.609
To use this table in estimating the gain by expansive force: —Divide the whole length of the
stroke by the distance through which the piston
travels before the closing of the cut-off valve;
find in the table the hyperbolic logarithm of the
quotient, add I to it, and the amount is the ratio
of uniform and expansive force.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        141
Example.-Let the stroke of a locomotive be
18 inches, and the steam cut off at 12 inches;
what is the ratio of the gain? 18 divided by 12
gives for the quotient 1!.  The hyperbolic logarithm corresponding to this number in the table
is.405, (which we must remember is decimal;)
and adding unity to it, it becomes 1.405, the
effect by cutting off at i stroke as compared with
1.5 the effect when using full steam, or.937 of
the effect of full steam by using but i steam.
In getting the heating surface and capacity
of a boiler, we require every extent of surface
in the parts which determine the shape and size
of the boiler, in order to arrive at a correct
result. To get the contents of the water room
in a boiler, we must first find the diameter of the
boiler in inches, and find, by calculation, its
corresponding sectional area. To obtain the
area of water section, deduct the sectional area
of all the tubes from one-half the sectional area
of the boiler; then find the average between the
width of the centre of the boiler, that is, its
diameter, and the width of the water-level, and
multiply this average by the depth of water
above the centre of the boiler. This, added to




142       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the water section in the lower half of the boiler,
gives the entire water section. Now, multiply
this by the length of the cylindrical part of the
boiler; multiply the width, depth, and thickness
of the water spaces together; make the proper
deduction in the contents of the back' water
space for the door, and in the front water space
for the tubes, which pass through it; multiply
the area of the crown sheet by the depth of
water on its surface, and make the proper deduction for the stay bars; and the entire contents in
cubic inches, divided by 1728 for cubic feet, or
by 231 for wine gallons, will give a pretty accurate result for the capacity of the boiler.
The steam  room of the boiler is calculated
very much in the same way. The steam section
in the cylindrical part of the boiler is obtained
by deducting the water section and tube section
from the boiler's sectional area, this being multiplied by the length of the cylindrical part of
the boiler, as for the water content. As the
circle of the outside fire-box is generally a little
larger than that of the boiler, a- separate calculation should be made for this part. The content
of the dome must also be found, and a deduction




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        143
made for the steam pipe. In getting the extent
of heating surface on the tubes, we must calculate it from  the outer circumference of the
tubes; for, although the fire is only in contact
with their inner circumferences, the whole thickness of the tube becomes heated, so that the
outer circumference has the same temperature to
heat the water as the inner circumference receives from the fire. The English engineers
reckon the tube surface of a locomotive as but
one-third as effective as the fire-box surface; so
that an engine with 54 square feet of fire-box
surface, and 660 square feet -of tube surface,
would be reckoned as having only 54 plus 220,
or 274 square feet of heating surface.
In getting the fire-box surface, we should
reckon every square inch of heated surface in
contact with the water, which would of course
be the four sides and the crown sheet, deducting
only the areas of the outsides of the tubes, and
the space occupied by the door, and the bar
riveted around it. The heating surface of the
fire-box could not be considered as extending
below the grate. We have already said that
the practice is sometimes to reckon only the




144       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
back, sides, and top of the fire-box as heating
surface, but we should suppose that a man having
woodland, pasturage, and mowing land, might
with as much jpropriety give the size of his
mowing fields for the size of his farm.
The surface of the grate is of course simply
the length and breadth multiplied together.
We have already given the manner of calculating the ratios of the safety-valve levers,
on page 101.
There can properly be no such expression as
the horse power of a locomotive. The difference
between a stationary and a locomotive engine is
such that while the former raises a load, or overcomes any directly opposing resistance, with an
effect due to its capacity of cylinder, the load
of the locomotive is drawn, and its resistance
must be adapted to the simple adhesion of the
engine, and which may be varied even as the
rims of the wheels are of wrought or cast iron,
as the rails are in good or bad order, as the
grades of the track, the speed of the engine,
and various unsettled circumstances which cannot
well be resolved so as to give an expression of the
power of the locomotive in the term horses' power.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         145
Stationary steam engines are applied to a vast
variety of purposes, but locomotives are only
required for one kind of work. A cotton manufacturer negotiating for a steam engine, would
not care to know how many feet of lumber were
sawed, nor how many bushels of grain were
ground by a certain sized engine; nor would a
miller wish to know the power of an engine for
spinning cotton or weaving cloth. The standard
of a horse power serves as a standard of comparison, and its utility as a unit of reference is
not impaired whether it represent the actual
power of one horse or three, so long as the
standard is universal. But as the work of a
locomotive' is all of one character, it becomes
an object to know the actual power of an engine
in drawing freight or passengers, in preference to
referring it to any doubtful standard, not expressing its capabilities.  This we have illustrated at the commencement of this section; but
for the assistance of such as may have occasion
to estimate the horses' power of a stationary, or
even a locomotive engine, we will give the usual
rule. It is as follows: —Multiply the area of
the piston, the pressure of steam per square
13




146       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
inch, the number of revolutions per minute, and
the length of stroke together, divide the product
by 33,000, and take 7 of the quotient for the
effective horses' power of the engine.
It is a received law in mechanical science, that
the effect of a machine is to be estimated from its
weight or elemental power multiplied into the
space through which the power acts. Our readers will detect that in the above rule we have
directions to employ but one-half the speed of
the piston to get the power of the engine. For
instance, a 16-inch cylinder engine is usually
rated as a 50-horse engine;, but if in calculating
its power we employ the actual speed of the
piston in feet per minute, we shall find our
engine to have 100 horses' power.
If a horse raise 150 lbs. through 220 feet in a
minute, or, through the application of wheels and
axles, levers, &c., he raises 33,000 lbs. one foot
high in a minute, then what is usually termed a
one-horse engine will raise 66,000 lbs. through
the same distance and in the same time. We
have always supposed that the reason for taking
but one-half of the speed of the piston in estimating the power of an engine, arose from the




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        147
fact that the steam engine was employed on its
first introduction in pumping water from mines,
and for raising water for towns, where only one
stroke of the engine was effectual. A horse
may raise -a constant load of 33,000 lbs. one foot
per minute, but in pumping he could raise but
half that sum, for one-half of his time would be
expended in driving the piston of the pump
downward. Hence, though our present allowance for a horse's power answers every purpose
for a standard of reference to determine merely
the comparative power of engines, still we shall
contend that our usual manner of getting the
power of an engine gives us but one-half the
proper amount of its capabilities.
We will give an example illustrating the rule
we have given for estimating the horses' power of
a steam engine.
What is the horses' power of an engine having
a 14-inch cylinder, 42-inch stroke, the pressure
of steam being 71 lbs. per square inch, and the
fly-wheel making 37 revolutions per minute?
N. B.-The speed of the piston to be obtained in
the usual manner, by multiplying the number of
revolutions into the length of stroke.




148       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
153.94 sq. in. area of a 14-inch piston.
71 lbs. per square inch.
10929.74 lbs. entire pressure on the piston.
Now we wish to ascertain the number of feet
the piston travels per minute, or rather, half the
actual number:
37 number of rev. per min.
31 length of stroke in feet.
129.5 speed of piston in feet per min.
10929.74 pressure on piston.
129.5 speed of piston.
33000)1415401 (42.9 horse power.
And - of this quotient is 30 horses' power, the
power of the engine.
To get the capacity of a tender tank, we must
first obtain the extent of surface on the bottom
of the tank, which, multiplied by its height or
depth, and reduced to gallons, gives its capacity.
To illustrate this calculation, we will give a
diagram of Hinkley's tank for a six-wheeled
tender.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.          149
Fig. 4.
Radius of corners a, a, and a', a', 6 inches.
Depth of tank, 35 inches.
The part A may be considered as an exact
parallelogram, since the surface cut off by the
corners a, a, is again made up by those at a', a'.
The sum  of the two semicircular terminations
b, b, of the wings B, B, has of course the area
of one entire circle two feet in diameter; and
these semicircles reduce the length of the
straight part of the  wings  B, B, one foot.
Hence, the area of the surface of the tank is
as follows e




150       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
85 x 66        5610 area of part A.
66 x 24 x 2   3168,,.I wings B, B.
452  c,,c terminations b, b.
9230 sq. in. surface of tank.
35 depth of tank.
323050 cub. inches in tank.
This last product, expressing the contents of
the tank in cubic inches, may be divided by 231,
and we shall have the capacity of the tank in
gallons. This we find to be 1398k1 gallons.
The young machinist will readily perceive
there is no difficulty in making any of these
calculations, as they involve only the simplest
rules of arithmetic, while their solution forms a
very useful and interesting mental exercise. It
is an excellent idea for any one wishing to get
thoroughly acquainted with the steam engine,
to measure and preserve the proportions of every
engine that may come in his way; these dimensions, sooner or later, assume a high value to the
possessor, inasmuch as he finds them convenient
for reference in comparison, estimation, or'in
designing new work. They also serve to bring




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.       151
him in closer acquaintance with the principles
of the mechanical science involved in the theory
and the practical construction of the steam
engine.
To get the area of a circle.-Square its diameter; that is to say, multiply the diameter
into itself, and multiply this product by the decimal number.7854; the last product will be the
area of the circle.
Example I.-What is the area of a 17-inch
piston?
17
17
289.7854
226.98 square inches area, answer.
Example 2.-What is the sectional area of a
steam pipe 4~ inches inside diameter?
4.5
4.5
20.25.7854
15.904 square inches area, answer.




152       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
N. B.-In multiplying with decimal numbers,
we must recollect to point off as many places
from the right hand of the product for decimals as there are places of decimals in the
multiplier and multiplicand taken together.
To get the circumference of a circle, multiply
the diameter by 3.1416; the product is the
circumference.
Another method is to multiply the diameter by
355, and to divide the product by 113. To those
accustomed to proportion, this rule might be
presented thus:113: 355:: diameter: circumference.
These two numbers may be readily carried
in the mind from a slight peculiarity in the
order of their arrangement. By setting the
two numbers down in the following manner, it
will be seen there. are two ones, two threes, and
two fives, thus: 113355.
lExamples.-What is the circumference of a
copper tube 2 inches in diameter?
3.1416
2
6.2832 inches answer.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        153
What is the circumference of a driving wheel
66~ inches in diameter?
66.5
355
113)23607.5(208.9 in., answer.
N.B.-In dividing with decimal numbers, we
must point off as many places for decimals in the
quotient as, taken with those in the divisor, if
any, will equal the number of decimal places in
the dividend. Division is the reverse of multiplication, and the divisor and quotient are
factors, of which the dividend is the product.
What is the circumference of a 5-feet driving
wheel? Five feet reduced to inches becomes 60
inches.
355
60
113)21300(188.496 inches, answer.




154           THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE;
TABLE OF THE AREAS OF PISTONS.
Diam.         Area.         Diam.         Area.
10 in.        78.540        141 in.    165.130
10o           86-590       *143        170-873
11            95.033        15         176-715
il~-         103'869        15         188'692
12           113'097        16         201.062
121          122-718        16~        213-825
13           132.732        17         226.980
13i          143-139        17j        240.528
14           153-938        18         254.469
TABLE OF THE CIRCUMFERENCES OF DRIVERS.
Diam.       Circum.        Diam.        Circum.
42 in.     131 94 in.       60 in.     188550 in.
43 "       135.08,        66 "       207.34 "
46 "       144-51 "         72 "       22619 "
48,'  150-80"              78 "       245-04 "
54 4"      169-64 "         84 "       26389 "
* Size of Grigg's cylinders on the Providence road.




SECTION X.,MISCELLANEOUS NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.
THE principal locomotive concerns in this country at the present time, are the following:Portland Locomotive Works, Portland, MaineHorace Felton Superintendent.
Amoskeag Manufacturing Co., Manchester, N. H.
-Oliver W. Bayley, Superintendent.
Essex Company, at Lawrence, Mass.-Caleb M.
Marvell, Superintendent.
Lowell Machine Shop, at Lowell, Mass.-William
A. Burke, Superintendent.
Boston Locomotive Works, Boston-Hinkley,
Drury, and others, Proprietors; D. T. Child,
Treasurer.
Union Works, South Boston-Seth Wilmarth,
Proprietor.
Globe Works, South Boston-John Souther, Proprietor.
155




156       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
Taunton Locomotive Manufacturing Company,
Taunton, Mass.-W. W. Fairbanks, Agent.
Mattewan Machine Works, Fishkill Landing, New
York —W. B. Leonard, Agent.
Norris Locomotive Works, Schenectady, N. Y.Edward S. Norris, Proprietor.
Rogers, Ketchum & Grosvenor, Paterson, N. J.
Swinburn and Smith, Paterson, N. J.
Ross Winans, Baltimore, Md.
Baldwin and Whitney, Philadelphia, Pa.
Norris, Brothers, Philadelphia, Pa.
Denmead, at Baltimore, a shop at Richmond,
Va., and an establishment at Cleveland, Ohio,
also advertise to build locomotives.
In Boston, the Maine, the Providence, and the
Worcester railroads have built many engines for
themselves.
The Springfield Car and Engine Co., and the
Ballardvale Machine Shop at Andover, Mass.,
have been nearly closed; and the manufacture of
locomotives at those places has been entirely suspended.
Jabez Coney, of South Boston, built at his
shop, in 1847, two locomotives for the Old
Colony road.




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.                       157
The price of a first class 21-ton passenger
engine, varies, according to the style, from 6800
to 8000 dollars. Freight engines, from being
built from  heavier patterns, generally cost more.
Below we give estimates of the weights of
some  of the principal parts  about a locomotive,
and about the average prices usually charged for
such items.
42-inch boiler, 7500 lbs., @ 14c........................  $1050.00
135 1a-inch copper flues, 10~ feet long, 2500 lbs.,
@  30c........................................................   750.00
Turning and driving thimbles, setting do., &c.......       30.00
Solid engine frame, 2500 lbs.,     6c.c....................    150.00
Jaws of wrought iron, 1000 lbs., (  10c..............    100.00
Finishing frame........................................    150.00
4 driving wheels, for 51 ft. di., 6000 lbs., @  3c.....   180.00
1 crank axle, 6- in. finish, 1500 lbs., @  18c..........    270.00
1 straight axle, 650 lbs., @ 10c..........................  65.00
2 truck axles, 31 in. journals, 480 lbs., (  6c.........   28.80
4 truck wheels, 30 in. diameter........................    70.00
4 Lowmoor tires, 51 ft., 2850 lbs.,             ( 13c............  370.50
Finishing wheels, cranks, and axles.....................    200.00
2 cylinder castings, 15 inches in diameter, 1600 lbs.,
@    3c.........................................................  48.00
Boring cylinders..............................................  50.00
2 rough connecting rods, 360 lbs., ( 8c...............     28.80
The prices given are perhaps a fair average,
and the whole table may serve to show about
14




158       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
the usual weight of the heavier and more important parts of a locomotive.
In regard to explosions, we do not believe any
well made boiler ever gave way to do any serious
damage, except through a want of water in it.
If the water is suffered to get below the upper
row of tubes, the fire generally burns them out,
the water rushes into the fire-box and extinguishes the fire, thus preventing all danger;
but enginemen have sometimes found their water
entirely run down, and the flues entirely spoilt
by the fire, but not burnt out. We recollectand perhaps others who may read this will recollect also-of an instance on the Lowell and Lawrence road where an officer of the road undertook
the management of an engine, and succeeded in
boiling every drop of water away, burning the
wooden lagging off the boiler, and burning the
tubes so as to make it necessary to replace every
one of them, though they were not burnt through.
When the water is boiled entirely away, and the
internal shell of the boiler becomes heated red
hot, the admission of cold water generally produces an explosion.  Some attribute this to the
immediate decomposition of the nitrogen, one of




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        159
the principal gases which enter into the composition of water, and leaving the hydrogen to explode by the intense heat. But the presence of
oxygen is necessary for the explosion of hydrogen
gas; and a very distinguished chemist has averred
that there can be no oxygen in a boiler filled with
steam. A  recent theory is that of the spheroidal state of water when thrown upon a red hot
plate. The water, it is stated, when thrown upon
a plate heated to a very high rate of temperature,
assumes the spheroidal state, rolling over the
plate in smooth globules, like a mass of melted
lead; while in this state, no steam can be produced from the water; but when the temperature
of the plate falls to a certain extent, the water
becomes almost instantaneously converted into
steam  of intense and overwhelming elasticity,
and the consequence is, the boiler gives way in
the weakest part.
We would not wish to revive in this place the
question of the explosion on the Providence road,
about which there was so much diversity of
opinion; but we must say, that in that instance,
the report of the commission, notwithstanding its high authority, hardly succeeded in




160       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
satisfying the minds of a large portion of the
public.
A recent act of the Massachusetts Legislature
requires that the boiler of every stationary,
locomotive, or marine engine, running within the
State, shall have a fusible plug in the crown
sheet of the furnace. To answer this requirement, a lead plug 2 inch in diameter is tapped
into the crown sheet of a locomotive furnace, so
that when the top of the fire-box becomes uncovered with water, this plug may melt, and by
letting the steam escape into the fire-box, give
notice of the danger.
At the introduction of railroads, engines were
built with cylinders no larger than 8 inches in
diameter. In 1840, we think there were no engines with cylinders larger than 12 inches. In
1844, we had 138-inch cylinders; by 1847, 15
inches; and now, Perkins, on the Baltimore and
Ohio road, is building an engine with a 20-inch
cylinder.  The gauge of our roads remains the
same now as it was a dozen or fifteen years agofour feet eight and one-half inches inside the
rails. In those days, two trains per day, drawn
by the light engines, were all which the business




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.         161
of a road would warrant. Now, we have twenty
to thirty trains drawn over our principal roads
daily, by engines averaging from twenty to
twenty-five tons in weight. These facts are
sufficient to show  a vast increase of business
wherever railroads are extended. This constantly
growing traffic must, at no distant period, demand
the adoption of a wider gauge for our tracks.
Railroad men prefer'engines with inside cylinders
to those having the cylinders outside. Every
engine requires apparatus for reversing and for
working expansively; and no better means, we
think, have yet been found to effect these objects
than the use of six eccentrics.  Here the insufficiency of the width of the track becomes
evident; it is only by economizing every inch of
room that sufficient space can be found to arrange
the work of an inside cylinder engine. It would
be a matter of very great convenience were the
track wider than at present; and we believe that
the experience of a dozen years, at most, will determine it to be a matter of absolute necessity.
The gauge of the Atlantic and St. Lawrence,
and the Androscoggin and Kennebec roads, in
Maine, is five feet six inches inside the rails, and
14*




162         THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGIVNE.
that of the New  York and Erie railroad is six
feet.  Wherever a break of gauge is made, it
would seem of importance that the addition in
width should be uniform on all roads, as a
difference in tracks disturbs the traffic, inasmuch as no means exist of forwarding goods
by such roads, except by changing cars.
Every railroad doing any considerable amount
of business, should have sufficient and capacious
repair shops of its own. The increased facility
and convenience with which they can do their
own repairs, and the saving in the profits which
outside shops charge them, make it a matter of
economy to repair their own work. For a railroad having fifteen to twenty locomotives, a shop
120 by 60 feet, and one story high, if properly
laid out, makes a very convenient repair shop.
For such a shop there would probably be required
for tools, &c.,
One stationary steam engine, (25 horse,) say............ $1500
locomotive boiler with wrought iron flues............  1800
"large engine lathe to swing six feet................... 1500
14 feet planing machine......................  800
" 12 feet engine lathe, with screw feed.................  350
"  12  "    "    i"  without screw feed.............  300
Carried forward................................................ $6250




THtE LOCOMOTIVE    1 ENGINE.              163
Brought forward.........................................  6250
One 10 feet engine lathe, without screw feed............   250
"  hand lathe for iron.......i.................................   175
"    "     "      "wood..................................  125
bolt-cutting machine..............................   250
"  wall drill............................................   125
"  suspended drill for tires................................   125
"  machine for drawing on wheels...............    50' blower for blacksmith's shop...........................    50
"  forge hammer................................., 400
Total.....................................................  7800
We merely give the above estimate to show
with how few tools and at how little expense the
repairing department of a railroad may be conducted. In arranging such a shop, however, the
fancy or belief of many would lead them to have
many additional tools, such as one 16-feet engine
lathe, a compound planer, (the expense of these
two  being  about $1000;)  and for an  increased
business, some would think a spliner ($500) and
some other tools necessary. We know, however,
of some roads having twenty locomotives, and
doing all their repairs with a list of tools such as
is comprised in our original estimate.
We give below the particulars of the weight
and performance of some of the heaviest engines
on the Fitchburg road, from the Director's Report




164          THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
for 1849. The whole number of engines on the
road on the 31st of December, 1849, was twentyfive.
N. B.-The  following  engines were  built by
Hinkley, with the exception of the "4Boston,"
which was built by Lyman and Souther, of
South Boston.
a 
Names.                  A
Athol.......... 15 in. 20 in. four 41 ft. Truck outside cylind'r.
Concord...... 15    20    "  4        "        
Shirley........ 14    18  "  5        "  inside "
Lincoln...... 16    20     "  41            i       " 
Cambridge... 15    18      "  5        "    "       "
Littleton.;..... 15    18  A"  5       d"    "      " i
Boston........ 16    20   "  5 A      "    "       "it
Fitchburg.... 16    20    A"  5        "    "       "
Ontario.......    16    20    six 46 in.    ",     "




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.                 165
0    -
Names.                         Capacity of.'~ot   ~           Tender.
Galls. Cords
lbs.  lbs.   lbs. water. wood.
Athol........ 40,000 30,000 27,000 1,400 1   6  10,419
Concord.... 40,000 30,.000 27,000 1,400 1   6  19,348
Shirley...... 34,000 24,000 23,7001,200 1   6 23,222
Lincoln..... 46,600 30,900 29,00011,600 11   8  19,050
Cambridge. 40,000 28,000 27,752 1,400 1   6  25,182
Littleton... 40,000 28,000 27,700 1,400 1   6  25,474
Boston...... 46,000 30,000 30,000 1,500 1~  8  29,000
Fitchburg.. 46,600 30,900 29,000 1,600 1k  8  12,792
Ontario.....47,000 36,000 28,058 1,600 1*  8   9,515
The  "cChamplain,"  an  engine  of  the  same
dimensions as the  " Ontario," ran  24,628 miles
in the same time.
In  regard to the strength  of boiler iron  and
the effects of high temperatures upon it, it was
ascertained from experiments made by a committee of the Franklin Institute, that at a temperature of 320, the freezing point, the cohesive
strength of boiler iron was < below its maximum,
and that its strength increased as an additional
temperature was applied, until it had reached 570




166       THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
degrees Fahrenheit, when the iron was found to
have attained its maximum strength. Above this
point, the strength of the iron was diminished;
at 720~ it had the same cohesive strength as at
320, or a below its maximum; at 10500, one-half
its greatest strength; at 12400, one-third; and
at 1317~, nearly one-seventh. Copper follows a
different law, as every addition of temperature
above the freezing point appears to weaken it.
At 529~, it has but three-fourths its greatest
strength; at 812~, but one-half; while a temperature of 1300~ entirely destroys its cohesive
force.
The adhesion of the wheels of an engine is
about one-fifth the weight when the rails are
clean, and either perfectly wet or perfectly dry,
but only from one-tenth to one-twelfth the weight
when the rails are damp or greasy. Thus, for a
rough calculation, a 25-ton engine will have 5
tons adhesion; and as the resistance of a train
on a level is about, such an engine should
draw, including its own weight and that of its
tender, 1000 tons on a level. This would be its
maximum load at a slow speed.
We recollect the published report of the per



THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.'        167
formance of one of Baldwin's six-driver engines
-the ", Ontario" —in 1845, on the Philadelphia
and Reading road. The train consisted of 150
cars fully loaded with coal, the weight of the coal
being 759 tons, and of the coal and cars 1180
tons. The engine, it was stated, moved along
alone with this extraordinary train at a rapid
rate.  A  four-wheel engine, having its entire
weight on the drivers, drew from Lowell to
Boston, in July, 1849, a train of one hundred
and twenty-nine cars, mostly loaded.  This engine had 1321-inch cylinders.
f   HAVING completed the original design of
our little work, we here give some particulars of
the present state of the railway system, which
must prove interesting to all.
According to the Railroad Journal, there
were, at the commencement of 1849, 18,656
miles of finished railroad in the world, costing
~368,567,000, or about 1800 millions of dollars;
also 7829 miles of unfinished road, which at the
estimate of ~146,750,000, would give, in all,




168     " THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
26,485 miles of railroad, costing 2400 millions of
dollars; all of which has been invested since
1830!
In July, 1850, there were 7742 miles of railroad in the United States, 2423 miles of which
are in New England. Whole amount expended
on roads in operation since 1834, $300,000,000.
At the end of 1848, there were in Great
Britain and Ireland 5127 miles opened, 2111
miles in progress, and 4795 miles authorized,
but not commenced. On 4253 miles opened, in
the United -Kingdom, on May 1, 1848, there
were 52,688 operatives.  On 7388 miles of unopened road, there were 188,177 operatives.
The total amount of money and securities paid
into railroad treasuries on these lines to the
commencement of 1849, was one thousand millions of dollars, while the companies retained
power to raise by existing shares, new shares,
and loans, the further sum of ~143,717,773.
In 1850, there were 24 roads in France, of
1722 miles, and including portions constructing,
but not finished, 2996 miles. Average cost per
mile, $128,240.
In  1849  there were 2294 miles of road




THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.        169
opened in Austria, Prussia, and the German
States.
In Belgium, 347 miles, owned by government.
In Holland, about 110 miles.
In the north of Italy, there is a line, partly
finished, from Venice to Turin and Alexandria.
When the proposed tunnel beneath the Alps shall
be completed, this road will form a main link in
the great direct railroad line from London to the
Adriatic.
There are short roads in nearly all the States
of continental Europe, except in the States of the
Church, where the Pope has opposed their introduction. And Russia, aided by American energy
and skills is opening a vast road between her two
great capitals, Moscow and St. Petersburg.
15








A GLOSSARY
OF TERMS APPLIED TO THE MACHINERY, A-ND TO
THE OPERATION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
[N. B.-Many of the names and terms here used are explained at greater length in the body of the book.]
Adhesion.-The measure of the fiiction between the tires
of the driving wheels and the surfaces of the rails. The
adhesion varies with the weight on the drivers and the
state of the rails, but with a good rail is generally from
one-fifth to one-seventh of the weight on the drivers.
The load drawn is no measure of the adhesion, except
the resistance of friction and gravity of the load be
given.
Air Chamber. —A tight vessel attached to the pump.
The feed water, entering it at the bottom, is subjected
to the pressure of air within it, which forces out the water
in a steady stream. Recent engines have two air chambers to each pump-one on the suction, and one on the
forcing side of the same. The capacity of air chamber
should equal that of the barrel of the pump.
Angle of Friction.-That pitch of grade at which a
loaded car would just stand without descending, being
kept at rest by the friction of its bearings. Allowing the
171




172                 GLOSSARY.
friction to be 7 lbs. per ton, this grade would be 16~ feet
per mile; for 10 lbs. friction per ton, 23- feet per mile.
Ash Pan.-A box or tray beneath the furnace, to catch
the falling ashes and cinders.
Axle.-The revolving shaft to which the wheels are
secured.
Blast Pipes.-Two pipes, contracted at their mouths,
to discharge the waste steam from the cylinders. Their
action excites an artificial draft or blast in the furnace.
Blow-off Cock.-A cock at the bottom of the fire-box,
through which to empty the boiler.
Boiler.-The source of power; the vessel in which the
steam is generated.
Bonnet.-A wire cap or netting, surmounting the chimney, to keep down the sparks and cinders.
Box.-A bearing, enclosing the journal of a revolving
shaft. When made in two parts, the lighter is called the
cap. When made as a single piece, and supporting the
end of an upright shaft, a step; and when turned outside
and fitted into a frame, or stand, a bushing. To reduce
friction, boxes are lined with soft metal.
Brake.-A block or strap applied to the rim of a wheel,
to check its motion and bring it to a stop.
Bunters. —Guards projecting from the ends of tenders
and cars, and connected with springs, to prevent shocks
from collisions.
Cam.-A plate or pulley, turning on a shaft out of its
centre. When made round and encircled by a strap, and
employed to work the valves of a steam engine, and for
similar purposes, it is called an eccentric.




GLOSSARY.                  173
Case.-A casting sliding in the jaw, and to hold the
brass box of an axle. For drivers, the case is lined with
Babbitt metal, and forms the bearing for the axle.
Check Vealve.-See Valve.
Counterbalance.-A large block secured between two
arms of each driving wheel, to balance the momentum
of the moving machinery connected with the axle.
Connecting Rod. —Rod to communicate the pressure on
the piston to the crank.
ran7k.-In inside cylinder engines is forged in the axle,
and for outside cylinders is supplied by a pin in the wheel.
The crank converts the rectilineal motion of the piston to
the rotary motion of the wheels.
Cross Head.-A block moving in guides; having the
end of the piston rod secured within it at one side, and a
pin to attach the connecting rod at the other.
Cut-off Valve. —An additional valve, not indispensable,
to shut off the admission of steam to the cylinder, when
the piston has only completed a part of its stroke.
Cylinder.-A cylindrical vessel, closed at its ends by
covers. Steam is admitted alternately at each end, to
press upon a block called the piston. The piston is made
to fit, steam tight, to the inner circumference of the cylinder, and the action of the steam keeps it in motion, from
one end of the cylinder to the other.
Damper.-A door, to exclude the air from the furnace.
Dome.-An elevated chamber on the top of the boiler,
from which the steam is taken to the cylinders.
Draw Iron.-A rigid bar, connecting the engine and
tender, and secured to each by a pin.
Drivers, or Driving Wheels.-Those wheels turned di15*




174                  GLO$SARY.
rectly by the moving machinery of the engine, and
which, by their adhesion to the rails, propel the engine
along.
Eccentrics. —See Cam.
Eduction Port. —A passage on side of cylinder to lead
away the waste steam from same, to the blast pipes.
Equalizing Lever.-A bar suspended by its centre, beneath the frame, and connected at each end to the springs
of the drivers, to distribute any shock or jolt between both
pairs of wheels.
Expansion Valve.-See Cut-off.
Fire-box. -The furnace of the boiler.
Foaming.-An artificial excitement, or too great ebullition on the water-level, observed when the boiler has
become greasy, or otherwisefoul.  Generally productive
of priming.
Footboard. —A plate iron floor, behind the boiler, for the
engineman and fireman to stand upon.:Frame.-Made to attach to the boiler, cylinders, axles,
and all cross shafts, and binds the whole fabric together.
Friction, of Trains. —The friction of the bearings of the
carriages, and4 for every ton drawn, offers a direct resistance of from, seven to ten pounds.
Frost Cocks.-Cocks to admit steam to the feed pipes
leading from  the tender to the pump; used when the
water becomes frozen.
Gauge Cocks. —Cocks at different levels on the side of
the fire-box, and to ascertain the height of water in the
boiler. When opened, water or steam will escape, according as the level of the water is above or below them.




GLOSSARY.                175
Gland.-A bushing to secure the packing in a stuffingbox.
Grade.-The inclination of a road; expressed either by
the number of feet rise per mile, or by naming the distance passed in rising one foot; thus, a grade of I in 330,
which is 16 feet per mile.
CGravity.-The tendency which all bodies have to find
the lowest level. The resistance in pounds, occasioned by
the gravity of one ton on any grade, may be found by multiplying the grade, in feet per mile, by the decimal number
*4212.
Grate.-The parallel bars supporting the fuel in the
fire-box.
Guides. —Rods, or bars, lying in the direction of the
axis of the cylinder, and guiding the cross head, to insure
a perfectly parallel motion in the piston rod.
Hand Levers.-Levers to work the main valves by
hand.
Housing.-See Jaw.
Induction Ports.-Two passages on side of cylinder, to
admit steam within it,-one port communicating with
each end.
Jaw.-A stand secured to the frame, to hold the box of
an axle. The jaw must allow the box to slide up and
down within it.
Journal.-The part of a shaft or axle resting in the
box.
Lagging.-A wooden sheathing around a boiler or
cylinder.
Lap.-The distance which the valve overlaps on each




176                 G LOSSARY.
end over the induction ports, when in the middle of its
travel.
Lead.-Distance to which the induction port is opened,
when the piston commences its stroke.
Link Motion.-An arrangement for working the valves,
described in the body of the book.
Manometer.-An instrument for determining accurately
the pressure on a given surface-as a square inch-within
the boiler.
Man Hole.-A hole to admit a man within the boiler.
Mud HEole.-A small opening at bottom of water space
around fire-box, to clear out deposites of dirt, and other
matter introduced with the water.
Packing. —Any substance used to make ajoint steam or
water tight.
Pet Cock.-A small cock between the check valve and
pump, to see if the latter is working.
Pintal. —An upright pin. There is a pintal secured
beneath the forward end of the engine, to connect it with
the truck frame, and to allow of the turning of the truck,
independent of the engine.
Piston.-See Cylinder,
Piston Rod. —Rod secured at one end within the body
of the piston, and at the other to the cross head. This rod
passes through the cylinder cover, and is made steam tight
by packing secured in a necking, or recess, outside of
cover, and called a stuffing-box.
Plug, Fusible.-A lead plug tapped in top sheet of
furnace, to melt and give warning when the water falls
below it.




GLOSSARY.                  177
Plunger.-The solid piston of a pump, and pressing only
by one end against the water.
Ports.-Openings, or passages.
Priming.-The passage of water, along with the steam,
into the cylinders, when the engine is working.
Roc7cer Shaft.-A shaft rocking in its bearings.
Reversing Lever. —A lever in reach of the engineman,
acting upon the valve motion, and to change the direction
of the progress of the engine.
Safety Valve.-A valve on the boiler, to discharge the
surplus steam generated, above what is required for the
engine, and which by accumulating would endanger the
safety of the machine.
Slide.-See Guide.
Smoke-box.-A chamber at forward end of boiler, where
the smoke and sparks fiom the tubes are received and discharged through the sparker.
Sparker, or Chimney.-A pipe to discharge the smoke
and waste steam, and surrounded by a casing to retain the
sparks.
Sprinzgs.-These are required over each wheel to reduce
shocks and jolts.
Steam Chest.-Box on top, or side of cylinder, and containing the valve to admit steam on the piston.
Steam Pipe.-Pipe entering the dome, and communicating with the steam chests through two branch steam
pipes in the smoke-box.
Stut ng-box.-See Piston Rod.-Used in all situations
where a rod or spindle, having any end motion, requires
to be made steam or water tight around same.
Sub-Treasury.-A receptacle for sparks. Slightly. dif



178                  GLOSSARY.
ferent from those at the custom-house, but quite as beneficial.
Stroke.-The distance travelled by the piston at each
period of its motion.
Tender. —A separate carriage, to carry wood and water.
Thimble.-A tube of iron or steel.
Throttle Valve.-A valve in the dome, and closing the
mouth of the steam pipe.
Trailing Wheels. —A pair of small wheels, placed behind
the drivers, when but one pair of the latter is used.
Traction.-IDiffering from adhesion in this: The adhesion is the power of the engine derived from the weight on
its driving wheels and their friction on the rails; while
the traction is also the power of the engine, but derived
from the pressure of the piston applied through the crank
and radius of the wheel. These two elements may not
always be the same.
Trtuck Frame.-A separate frame, supporting four or six
wheels, and turning on a pintal, independent of the body
of the engine or car.
Tubes.-These are used to conduct the heat from the
fire-box, through the waste of the boiler, to the smoke-box.
When a tube is so large as to require to be made of plates,
riveted together, it is called a flue.
Valve.-Any gate or fixture, other than a cock, to close a
steam or water passage about an engine. The main, or
port valve, which admits steam directly to the cylinders,
is a block with a recess or cavity on its under side. The
steam passes by the ends of the valve into the ports, and
the motion of the valve, derived from the eccentrics, admits
the steam at the proper time.




GLOSSARY.                   179
The uses of the cut-off and safety valves have been described.
The pump, valves are either what are called ball valves,
spindle valves, or cup valves. The check valve is an additional valve on the forcing side of the pump, and is to prevent all danger of forcing back the water from the boiler
into the pump by the action of the steam.
Variable Cut-off.-An arrangement to alter the travel of
either the main, or cut-off valve, to use full steam through
a greater or less distance of the stroke.
Variable Exhaust.-An arrangement to enlarge or contract the blast pipes.
V-Hooks. —So called from their form of opening;-much
better than the common kind, as they are sure to catch the
pins, and for this reason (though an old idea) are coming
into general use.
Whistle.-A hollow cup made to allow the steam to
strike its lower edge, by which a shrill sound is obtained
for signals.








INDEX.
PAGE
ADIHESION of Drivers..............................     166
Alteration of a, Ten-wheel Engine on the Northern Road 122
Anthracite,  cost of........................................  114
Fire-box for burning............................ 116
difficulties met in the use of.................. 117
Angle Iron..........................................................40
Areas  of Cylinders............................................... 154
of Chimney...............................................   50
Ash  Pan............................................................   51
Axles.  Crank, and mode of manufacture................  72
Truck.................................................   75
Babbitt's  Metal..................................................   95
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad......................... 107
Bayley, O. W., Engine  by......................................  120
Blast Pipe, contraction  of..................................    66
for  Coal Engine...........................;......  119
Blow-off  Cocks....................................................   52
Boilers,  details  of...............................................   40
Iron  for........................   39
Bolts............................................................                                   94
16                                       181




182                                    INDEX.
Cam   Shaft...................................8..............   85
Calculations, &c. relative  to  the  Locomotive............. 127
Capacity  of Boilers.................................   54, 141
of Tender Tank.................................. 149
Chilled  Wheels.................................                70
Chilled  Tires.................................................                        71
Chimney, (see  Sparker.)..............................        49
Chests, Steam..................................................... 65
Circumferences  of Drivers..................................... 154
Cleansing greasy wood-work.10......................... 100
Coal Engine  by  Ross WVinans.................................    110
"John  Stevens,"............................   120
Experiments  on...................... 113
Connecting  Rods........................................                             80
Composition  for Packing  Rings.............................    78
Copper Tube  Sheet..............................................   43
Cross Head........................................................  80
Crank  Axle.......................................................  72
Cylinders...........................................................                    62
Outside.............................................. 124
Cut-off, principle  of.......................................  135
to estimate amount of advantage of.......... 140
manner of working...................................   85
Damper.......................................................    51
Description  of the  Locomotive  Engine....................   24
Dome................                                           46
Draft, shutting off in going through bridges............. 99
Driving  Wheels.....................................  70, 173
Eccentrics.......................................................... 174
Engines, details  of........................   39,   95
on Baltimore and Ohio Road............... 107




INDEX.                                              183
Engines on Fitchburg Road................................... 163
by Bury, Curtis & Kennedy......................  57
by  Thacher  Perkins.................................   58
by Taunton Loc. Mfg. Co..........................  55
Equalizing  bar....................................................                                  73
Estimate  for  Repair  Shop...................................... 163
of cost of Locomotive Power................ 105
Experiments on Coal Engine................................ 112
Explosi on s,~...........................................    158
Evaporation of Water........................................... 133
Fire-box.................2...................,,,                    25
Flues,  (see  Tubes)...............................................                                  42
Frame..........................................................   68
Outside...................................................                              76
Freight Engines.................................................  108
Friction  of Trains................................................ 130
Fusible   Plug................................ 160
Gauge  Cocks......................................................                                    51
Glass  Tubes........................................   52
of Tracks.................................................. 160
Glossary............................................................  171
Giate........................................................                             44
Covering  up................................................   44
Area  of..............................                                                   54
Griggs, G. S., Engine  by.......................................  121
Gray's  Variable  Cut-Off.......................................   87
Gravity  of Trains................................................ 131
Hinkley's  Engines.........................................   48
Heating  Surface...........................................   54, 143
Hooks.............................................    85




184                                    INDEX.
Iron, for boilers.....................................   39
strength  of.............1..................................                    64
Introduction.......................................................                        3
India  Rubber Springs.......................................                           74
Iron  Tender Frame..........................  77
Jaws..........................................................  69, 175
"John  Stevens"  Passenger Engine........................ 120
Joints, about pump.......................................   95
Putty  and  ground..............................  65,   99
Steam   Chest.................................   65
Steam   Pipe..............................................        65
Keys.................................................................                   94
Lap  of Valve......................................            90
Latent  Heat..................,.........................   12
Large  Drivers................................................... 123
Level of Water...................................................  26
Lead  of Valve.....................................................   31
Link  Motion....................,,....,,,....,   85
Locomotive, details  of...................................   39,   96
performance  of.........,................... 164
cost of...............,,,,........... 157
cost of power.....................................                105
Shops in this country.................... 155
Load  drawn  by  Engines...................................., 166
Lowell Machine  Shop, Engines by........................   54
Mahogany  Dust to  prevent scales..............,.........  99
Middle  Tube  Sheet..........,.......................,...........   43
Mud-hole  Plugs.......................................         53




INDEX.                                                       185
Norris, E. S., Engine by.............................. 109
Oil used  on Engines............................................. 105
Open   Spring......................................................    75
Outside   Fram e..........................................    76
Cylinders................................................                                          124
Passenger Engines..............................................  108
Packing...................................................... 99, 176
Composition for Rings..............................  79
Pipes...............................................................    65
Pistons..............................................................    78
Pintal......................................................... 76, 176
Priming......................................................  18, 177
Properties of Steam...9.........................   9
Proportions of Boilers............................               54
Power of Engines.......................................... 128, 144
Pumps..............................................................                                                   91
Reversing Apparatus..........................................  84
at full speed........................... 103
Repair  Shops.............................................. 162
Rocker Shafts..............................................  82
Running  Engines..........................................  97
Safety   Valves..............................................    47
Sand-box, use of wears out the wheels...................O.. 00
Sand-box on Coal Engine...................................... 114
Setting Valves on Locomotives..........................  87
Sharp, Brothers & Co.'s Link Motion.......................  86
Slade and Currier's experiments and report.............. 112
Slides...............................................................                                               80
Slipping the Wheels................................. 114
16*'




186                                INDEX.
Souther, John, Engine by.....................................  54
Engine on Fitchburg Road................164
Solid  Frame.........................  68
Spheroidal State of Water..................................... 159
Spring..............................................................   73
Sparker..........................................................            49
Steam, properties of......................................                     9
Steam Carriage on the Eastern Counties Line........... 125
Stephenson's Link Motion.................................                    85
Engine by.......................................  56
Estimate of power expended in blast pipe 66
Strength  of Boiler Iron..................................   164
Stuffing Boxes, packing for.................................... 100
"' Sub-Treasury"...........................................  50, 177
Tables and Calculations...............         127
Circumference of Drivers....................... 153
Hyperbolic Logarithms......................... 140
Co-efficients of Speed of Piston............... 127
Temperature  and Elasticity  of Steam.......  20
Proportions and Dimensions of Engines... 54
Performance of Engines........................ 165
Testing Safety Valves................................... 100
Ten-wheel Engine on the Northern Road.................. 122
Throttle, opening for............................................            98
Tractive Force of Engines..................................... 129
Truck Frame.............................                                     75
Tubes, setting  do.................................................         42
on Coal Engines..................................... 118
Tires, setting  and removing do...............................  70
Chilled...................................  71
Tyng's Heating Apparatus.................................   61
Valves........................................................   68, 178




INDEX.                                    187
Valve Motion.................,,,........                     82
Stem.......................................  63
Variable Exhaust........................................,   98, 179
Throw  of Valve.......................................   85
V-Hooks................................................    85, 179
Water Room  in Boilers................................  54
to calculate................................. 141
Water evaporated..................................            133
Bridges........................................ 117
Waste used........,......................... 105
Wheels..................                             69
Wrought iron..................................     71
Chilled..................,...............................   70
Whistle............................................................   48
Winans, Ross, Engine by....................................  110
Coal Engine on Worcester Road......... 116
THE END.








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intelligible manner, the rudiments of this beautiful art.-Savannah Republican.
There is no description of turning or lathe-work that this elegant little treatise
does not describe and illustrate.- Westernz Lit. e.Mssensoar.




THE PAINTER, GILDER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S
COMPANION:
Containing Rules and Regulations for every thing relating to
the arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining:
numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the detection
of Adulterations in Oils, Colours, &c., and a Statement of the
Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers are particularly liable; with the simplest methods of
Prevention and Remedy. In one vol. small 12mo., cloth. 75cts.
Rejecting all that appeared foreign to the subject, the compiler has omitted
nothing of real practical worth.-Hunt's dMerchant's Miagazine.
An excellent practical work, and one which the practical man cannot afford
to be without.-Farmer and MAechanic.
It contains every thing that is of interest to persons engaged in this trade.
-Bulletin.
This book will prove valuable to all whose business is in any way connected
with painting.-Scott's Weekly.
Cannot fail to be useful.-N. Y. Commercial.
THE BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION:
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with
the subject.  By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, &c.  In one
volume, 12mo. $1.
CONTENTS:-The Builder, Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Plasterer, Plumber, Painter, Smith, Practical Geometry, Surveyor,
Cohesive Strength of Bodies, Architect.
It gives, in a small space, the most thorough directions to the builder, from
the laying of a brick, or the felling of a tree, up to the most elaborate production of ornamental architecture. It is scientific, without being obscure and
unintelligible, and every house-carpenter, master, journeyman, or apprentice,
should have a copy at hand always. —Eening Bulletin.
Complete on the subjects of which it treats, A most useful practical work.
-Balt. American.
It must be of great practical utility.-Savannah Republican.
To whatever branch of the art of building the reader may belong, he will
find in this something valuable and calculated to assist his progress.-Farmer
and Miechanic.
This is a valuable little volume, designed to assist the student in the acquisition of elementary knowledge, and will be found highly advantageous to every
young man who has devoted himself to the interesting pursuits Df which it
treats.-Va. Herald.
1*




THLE DYER AND COLOUR-iMAX-ER'S COMPANION:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co
lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles
and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the
Goods. In one volume, small 12mo., cloth. 75 cts.
This is another of that most excellent class of practical books, which the
publisher is giving to the public. Indeed we believe there is not, for manufacturers, a more valuable work, having been prepared for, and expressly
adapted to their business.-Farmer and Mechanic.
It is a valuable book.-Otsego Republican.
We have shown it to some practical men, who all pronounced it the completest
thing of the kind they had seen —N. Y. Nation.
THE CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER'S
COMPANION:
Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet Making
and Upholstery, with familiar instructions, illustrated by Examples, for attaining a proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as
applicable to Cabinet Work; the processes of Veneering, Inlay
ing, and Buhl Work; the art of Dyeing and Staining Wood
Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish'; to prepare
the best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of
Receipts particularly useful for Workmen generally, with Explanatory and Illustrative Engravings. By J. STOKES. In one
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In which the Practical Operations of the Trade are system
atically laid down; with copious Directions Preparatory to Pa
bsering; Preventions against the effect of Damp in Walls; the
various Cements and Pastes adapted to the several purposes of
the Trade; Observations and Directions for the Panelling and
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One Volume, 12mo. 75 cts.




THE ANALYTICAL CHEMIST'S ASSISTANT:
A Manual of Chemical Analysis, both Qualitative and Quantitative, of Natural and Artificial Inorganic Compounds; te
which are appended the Rules for Detecting Arsenic in a Case
of Poisoning. By FREDERIK W(EHLER, Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Gittingen. Translated from the German,
with an Introduction, Illustrations, and copious Additions, by
OSCAR M. LIEBER, Author of the "Assayer's Guide."  In one
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RURAL CHEMISTRY:
An Elementary Introduction to the Study of the Science, in
its relation to Agriculture and the Arts of Life. By EDWARD
SOLLEY, Professor of Chemistry in the Horticultural Society
of London. From the Third Improved London Edition. 12mo.
$1.25.
THE FRUIT, FLIOWER, AND KITCHEN GARDEN.
By PATRICK NEILL, L.L. D.
Thoroughly revised, and adapted to the climate and seasons
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HOUSEHOLD MEDICINE.
In one volume, 12mo. Uniform with, and a companion to,
the above. (In immediate preparation.)




8
THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWElR;
Or, Plain, Concise, and Accurate Instructions in the Art of
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, &c. &c., and the Process of Making
all the Small Beers. By M. LAFAYETTE BYRN, M. D. With
Illustrations, 12mo. $1.
THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER;
By M. LAFAYETTE BYItN, M. D. With Illustrations, 12mo. $1.
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Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy,
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy.  By JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter
and Refiner in the United States Mint; Professor of Applied
Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc.; assisted by CAMPBELL
MORFIT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc.  Complete
in one volume, royal octavo, 978 pages, with numerous wood
cuts and other illustrations. $5.
It covers the whole field of Chemistry as applied to Arts and Sciences. * * *
As no library is complete without a common dictionary, it is also our opinion
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A work of time and labour, and a treasury of chemical information.-N-orth
American.
By far the best manual of the kind which has been presented to the American public.-Boston Coubrier.
PERFUMERY; ITS MANUFACTURE AND USE;
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for all the Fashionable Preparations; the whole forming a valuable aid to the Perfumer, Druggist, and Soap Manufacturer.
Illustrated by numerous Wood-cuts. From the French of Celnart, and other late authorities.  With Additions and Improvemlents by CAMPBELL MORFIT, one of the Editors of the " Encyolopedi, of Chemistry."  In one volume, 12mo., cloth.  $1.50




9
A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS,
And the SLIDE RULE, with the Theory of Trigonometry and
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By THOMAs KENTISH. In One Volume, 12mo. $1.
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Revised by the Author of " Chemical Manipulations." In one
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THE BOOKBINDER'S MANUAL.
Complete in one Volume, 12mo. (in press.)




10
ELECTROTYPE MANIPULATION:
Being the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of Working
in Metals, by Precipitating them from their Solutions, through
the agency of Galvanic or Voltaic Electricity. By CHARLES V
WAIKER, Hon. Secretary to the London Electrical Society, etc
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Only let men awake, and fix their eyes, one while on the nature of things
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-Lord Bacon
EXAMINATIONS OF DRUGS, MEDICINES, CHE.
MICALS, &c.
As to their Purity and Adulterations. By C. H. PEIRCE, M.D.,
Translator of " Stiickhardt's Chemistry," Examiner of Medicines
for the Port of Boston, &c. &c. 12mo, cloth................. $1.25




11
SHEEP-HUSDtANDRY IN THh SOUTH:
Comprising a Treatise on the Acclimation of Sheep in the
Southern States, and an Account of the different Breeds. Also,
a Complete Manual of Breeding, Summer and Winter Management, and of the Treatment of Diseases. With Portraits and
other Illustrations.  By HENRY S. RANDALL.  In One Volume,
octavo.................................................................... $1.25
ELWOOD'S GRAIN TABLES:
Showing the value of Bushels and Pounds of different kinds
of Grain, calculated in Federal Money, so arranged as to exhibit
upon a single page the value at a given price from ten cents to two
dollars per bushel, of any quantity from one pound to ten thousand
bushels. By J. L. ELWOOD. A new Edition.' In One Volume,
12mo.................................................................. $1
To Millers and Produce Dealers this work is pronounced by all who have it
in use, to be superior in arrangement to any work of the kind published-and
unerring accuracy in every calculation may be relied uspon in every instance.
A reward of Twenty-five Dollars is offered for an error of one cent found
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PMISS LESLIE'S COMPLETE COOKERY.
Directions for Cookery, in its Various Branches.  By Miss
LESLIE.  Forty-seventh Edition.  Thoroughly Revised, with the
Addition of New Receipts.  In One Volume, 12mo, half bound,
or in sheep.............................................................$1
In preparing a new and carefully revised edition of this my first work on
cookery, I have introduced improvements, corrected errors, and added new
receipts, that I trust will on trial be found satisfactory. The success of the
book (proved by its immense and increasing circulation) affords conclusive evidence that it has obtained the approbation of a large number of my countrywomen; many of whom have informed me that it has made practical housewives of young ladies who have entered into married life with no other acquirements than a few showy accomplishments. Gentlemen, also, have told me of
great improvements in the family table, after presenting their wives with this
manual of domestic cookery, and that, after a morning devoted to the fatigues
of business, they no longer find themselves subjected to the annoyance of an
ill-dressed dinner.-Preface.
MISS LESLIE'S TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN
FRENCH COOKERY.
A new Edition, in cloth................................... 26 cta.




12
THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR,
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk,
Cotton, Wool and Worsted and Woollen Goods, &c., containing
nearly 800 Receipts, to which is added the Art of Padding and
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the
various Mordants and Colours for the different styles of such
work.  By DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer, 1 vol. 12mo, (just
published)............................................................. $1.50
TWO HUNDRED DESIGNS FOR COTTAGES AND
VILLAS, &c. &c.
Original and Selected. By THOMAS U. WALTER, Architect of
Girard College, and JOHN JAY SMITH, Librarian of the Philadelphia Library. In Four Parts, quarto......................... $10
GUIDE FOR WORKERS IN METALS AND STONE.
Consisting of Designs and Patterns for Gates, Piers, Balcony
and Cemetery Railing, Window Guards, Balustrades, Staircases, Verandas, Fanlights, Lamps and Lamp Posts, Palisades,
Monuments, Mantles, Gas Fittings, Stoves, Stands, Candlesticks,
Silver and Plated Ware, Chandeliers, Candelabras, Potters'
Ware, &c. &c. By T. U. WALTER, Architect, and JOHN JAY
SMITH, 4 vols. 4to, plates..............................................$10
FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA
Of Useful Knowledge and General Literature; containing
about Four Thousand Articles upon Scientific and Popular Subjects. With Plates. By JOHN L. BLAKE, D. D. In One, Volume, 8vo, cloth extra..................................... $3.50
THE PYROTECHNIST'S COMPANION;
Or, A Familiar System of Recreative Fire-Works. By G. W.
NMORTIXMER. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 12mo. 75cts




13
STANDARD ILLUSTRATED POETRY.
THE TALES AND POEMS OF LORD BYRON:
Illustrated by HENRY WARREN.  In One Volume, royal 8vo
with 10 Plates, scarlet cloth, gilt edges.............................. $
Morocco  extra...............................................................$7
It is illustrated by several elegant engravings, from original designs by
WARREN, and is a most splendid work for the parlour or study.-Boston Evezning
Gazette.
CHILDE HAROLD; A ROMAUNT BY LORD BYRON:
Illustrated by 12 Splendid Plates, by WARREN and others. In
One Volume, royal 8vo., cloth extra, gilt edges..........5........
MIorocco extra....................................7.........................
Printed in elegant style, with splendid pictures, far superior to any thing of
the sort usually found in books of this kind.-N. Y. Courier.
THE FEMALE POETS OF AMERICA.
By RUFUS W. GRISWOLD. A new Edition. In One Volume,
royal 8vo.  Cloth, gilt................................... $2.50
Cloth extra, gilt edges....................................................3
Morocco super extra..............................................$4.50
The best production which has yet come from the pen of Dr. GRISWOLD, and
the most valuable contribution which he has ever made to the literary celebrity
of the country.-N-..  i.' ibune.
THE LADY OF THE LAKE:
By SIR WALTER SCOTT.  Illustrated with 10 Plates, by CORBOULD and MEADOWS. In One Volume, royal 8vo. Bound in
cloth extra, gilt edges.................................................... $5
Turkey morocco super extra...........................................$7
This is one of the most truly beautiful books which has ever issued from the
American press.
LALLA ROOKH; A ROMANCE BY THOMAS MOORE:
Illustrated by 13 Plates, from Designs by CORBOULD, MEAnows, and STEPHANOFF.  In One Volume, royal 8vo.  Bound in
cloth extra, gilt edges...................................................$5
Turkey morocco super extra...........................................
This is published in a style uniform with the "Lady of the Lake."
2




14
THE POETICAL WORKS OF THOMAS GRAY:
With Illustrations by C. W. RADCLIFF. Edited with a Memoir,
by HENRY REED, Professor of English Literature in the University of Pennsylvania. In One Volume, 8vo. Bound in cloth
extra, gilt edges..................................3......................50
Turkey morocco super extra.......................................$5.50
In One Volume, 12mo, without plates, cloth................... 1.25
Do.          do.           do.        cloth, gilt edges....$1.50
We have not seen a specimen of typographical luxury from the American
press which can surpass this volume in choice elegance.-Boston Courier.
It is eminently calculated to consecrate among American readers, (if they
have not been consecrated already in their hearts,) the pure, the elegant, the
refined, and, in many respects, the sublime imaginings of THOMAS GIRAY.Richmond Whig.
THE POETICAL WORKS OF HENRY WADSWORTH
LONGFELLOW:
Illustrated by 10 Plates, after Designs by D. HUNTINGDON,
with a Portrait. Ninth Edition. In One Volume, royal 8vo.
Bound in cloth extra, gilt edges.......................................$5
Morocco super extra.....................................................$7
This is the very luxury of literature-LoNGFELLOW'S charming poems pre.
sented in a form of unsurpassed beauty.-Neal's Gazette.
POETS AND POETRY OF ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
By RUFUS W. GRISWOLD. Illustrated. In One Volume, royal
8vo. Bound in cloth......................................................$3
Cloth extra, gilt edges................................................$3.50
Morocco super extra......................................................$5
Such is the critical acumen discovered in these selections, that scarcely a page
Is to be found but is redolent with beauties, and the volume itself may be regarded as a galaxy of literary pearls.-Democratic Review.
THE TASK, AND OTHER POEMS.
By WILLIAM  COWPER.  Illustrated by 10 Steel Engravings.
In One Volume, 12mo.  Cloth extra, gilt edges...................2
Morocco ex:ra..............................................................3
" The illustrations in this edition of Cowper are most exquisitely designed and
engraved."




THE FEMALE POETS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
With Copious Selections and Critical Remarks. By FREDFnRIO
ROWTON.  With Additions.  Illustrations.  8vo, cloth...... $2.50
Cloth extra, gilt edges.......................... $3.00
Turkey morocco, super.......................................... $4.50
Mr. ROWTON has presented us with admirably selected specimens of nearly
one hundred of the most celebrated female poets of Great Britain, from the
time of Lady Juliana Bernes, the first of whom there is any record, to the
Mitfords, the Hewitts, the Cooks the Barretts, and others of the present day.Hunt's Merchants' Ma.qazine,
SPECIMENS OF THE BRITISH POETS.
From the time of Chaucer to the end of the Eighteenth Cenl
tury.   By THOMAS CAMPBELL.  In One Volume, royal 8vo.
(In press.)
THE POETS AND POETRY OF THE ANCIENTS:
By WILLIAM  PETER, A. M.  Comprising  Translations and
Specimens of the Poets of Greece and Rome, with an elegant
engraved View of the Coliseum at Rome. Bound in cloth......$3
Cloth extra, gilt edges............................................3.50
Turkey morocco super extra.......................................$5
It is without fear that we say that no such excellent or complete collection
has ever been made. It is made with skill, taste, and judgment.-Charlestosn
Patriot.
THE POETICAL WORKS OF N. PARKER WILLIS.
Illustrated by 16 Plates, after designs by E. LEUTZE. In One
Volume, royal 8vo.  A new Edition.  Bound in cloth extras
gilt edges.....................................................................$5
Turkey morocco super extra..........................................$7
This is one of the most beautiful works ever published in this country. —
Courier and Inquirer.
Pure and perfect in sentiment, often in expression, and many a heart has
been won from sorrow or roused from apathy by his earlier melodies. The
illustrations are by LEUTZE,-a sufficient guarantee for their beauty and grace.
As for the typographical execution of the volume, it will bear comparison with
any English book, and quite surpasses most issues in America.-Neal's Gazette.
The admirers of the poet could not have his gems in a better form for hol,
4ay presents.-W. Continent.




16
MISCELLANEOUS.
JOURNAL OF ARNOLD'S EXPEDITION TO
QUEBEC, IN 1775.
By ISAAC SENTER, M. D.  8vo, boards............. 62 cts.
ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN SIMON SUGGS;
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GHOST STORIES.
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Cloth or sheep....................$1.00




17
COMPLETE WORKS OF LORD BOLINGBROKE
With a Life, prepared expressly for this Edition, containing
Additional Information relative to his Personal and Public Character, selected from the best authorities. In Four Volumes,
8vo.  Bound in cloth................................................. $7.00
In sheep.................................................................8.00
CHRONICLES OF PINEVILLE.
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GILBERT GURNEY.
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MEMOIRS OF THE GENERALS, COMMODORES,
AND OTHER COMMANDERS,
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that with Tripoli, and the War of 1812, and who were presented
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GEMS OF THE BRITISH POETS.
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Cloth, gilt..............................................................$1.26
VISITS TO REMARKABLE PLACES:
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In Two Volumes, 8vo, cloth......................... $4.0
2*




t8
NARRATIVE OF THE ARCTIC LAND EXPEDITION,
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THE MISCELLANEOUS WORKS OF WILLIAMI
HAZLITT,
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19
NOTES OF A TRAVELLER
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HISTORY OF THE CAPTIVITY OF NAPOLEON AT
ST. HELENA.
By GENERAL COUNT MONTHOLON, the Emperor's Companion in
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NARRATIVE OF THE LATE EXPEDITION TO THE
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MY DREAMS:
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AMERICAN COMEDIES.
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20
RAMBLES IN YUCATAN;
Or, Notes of Travel through the Peninsula: including a Visit
to the Remarkable Ruins of Chi-chen, Kabah, Zayi, and Uxmal.
With numerous Illustrations. By B. M. NORMAN. Seventh Edition. In One Volume, octavo, cloth.................................$2
THE AMERICAN IN PARIS.
By JOHN SANDERSON. A New Edition. In Two Volumes,
12mo, cloth........................................................ $1.50
This is the most animated, graceful, and intelligent sketch of French manners, or any other, that we have had for these twenty years.-London Mconthly
Mlagzine.
ROBINSON CRUSOE.
A Complete Edition, with Six Illustrations. One Volume,
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SCENES IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS,
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