~M-MIGRATION.                            I
C,0313IiSSl0 ES oF EK H3G1{AT0IOL
OF THE
BY
FR IEDRICII KAPP,
ONE OF THE SAID COMINTSSIONERS.
NEW YORK:
THE NATION PRESS, 27 ROSE STREET.
is870.












It;<j  /          >2                     6             *'.




IIMMI GATI ON-,
AND THE
COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION
OF TIIE
tatt  f -o f
BY
FRIEDRICEH EiKAPP,
ONE OP TH: SAID CO0XISSIONERS.
NEW YORK:
THE NATION PRESS, 27 ROSE STREET.
1870.








TO LEOPOLD BIERWIRTH, ESQ.
1~ public and private life, you have, for more than forty years in this
your adopted country, labored to promote the welfare of this community,
and to benefit humanity at large.
It was your good fortune to assist in suggesting and initiating the
reforms which are treated of in the following pages. It was your privilege
to be instrumental in inaugurating the new era, signalled by the formation
of the Board of the Commissioners of Emigration. Of this body you were
a highly honored member during the first two years of its existence, setting
as such an example worthy of emulation by your successors. Although
you withdrew a long time ago from active participation in their official
duties, you have continued to work with undiminished zeal and energy in
furtherance of the interests of which they are the custodians.
In view of this, and as an expression of my respect and friendship, I
dedicate to you this essay.
FRIEDRICH KAPP.
NEW YORK, February, 1870.








PREFACE.
HAvING resided for the past twenty years at the greatest immigrant port in the world, and having been led by my official
duties during a portion of this time to pay particular attention
to the subject of emigration, I have been induced to enter into
a somewhat extended study of this important question.  The
result of my researches is now laid before the public.
A great deal has been written about emigration, its causes,
aims, and results, but, with a very few exceptions, the writers on
this subject have dwelt more upon their own theories and conjectures than upon facts and events. In the physical world, it is
manifestly impossible to build a house without having laid a
foundation; yet, in the intellectual world, people too often reason
and philosophize upon political and social questions without having made that careful investigation of facts which is the only
sure foundation of accurate reasoning.
The present essay on immigration is chiefly confined to the
narration of facts, and it is only here and there that I have given
the conclusions which have seemed to me to be their natural
result. Parts of it have already been laid before the public in a
paper read in this city, on the 27th of October, 1869, before the
American Social Science Association.
The emigration of European masses to this country is still in
its infancy, and yet it is very difficult, if not impossible, to collect
and preserve the materials relating to it. If I have succeeded in




ii                        PREFACE.
saving any which without my researches might, perhaps, have
perished, I have accomplished my purpose.  I trust that they
may facilitate for the future historian the study and appreciation
of this interesting subject.
Strange as it may seem, the youngest nation that has made
its appearance on the historical stage is singularly deficient in
that historical spirit which characterizes true civilization. Germany, France, England, and Italy are laboring more earnestly
for the preservation of the records of their barbarism than the
United States for the illustration of its unbroken record of civilization.  How can this lack of interest be explained? Is it that
the task of the hour makes Americans blind to all things else?
Is it that so much is still to be done that no time is left for the
consideration of what has been done?  Be it as it may, it is a
melancholy fact and seriously detrimental to the most vital interests of the nation. People look with indifference at this colossal immigration of the European masses, whose presence alone
will exercise a powerful influence on the destinies of the Western
World; National and State legislators care little or nothing for
the direction which is given to this foreign element, and forget
that their own welfare and the welfare of their children is indissolubly interwoven with the condition of the new-comers. In
short, they are not yet aroused to the great importance of
emigration, of its laws and its development, but consider it
rather with an incredulous curiosity than with an earnest desire
to fathom its resources and foresee its results.
My principal sources of information have been the minutes
and the annual reports of the Commissioners of Emigration,
which, wherever it was possible, I have quoted in their own lan



PREFACE.                       iii
guage; the proceedings of the Common Council of New York
City, the reports of the Comptrollers of this city, and the papers
and official acts of the United States Senate and of the State
Legislature at Albany. I have not given my authorities, as I
cannot suppose that they are accessible to any of my readers, but
the correctness of the statements is susceptible of verification,
and may be implicitly relied upon.
I gratefully acknowledge the important services rendered me
by Mr. Bernard Casserly, the efficient General Agent of the Commissioners of Emigration, who is familiar with all the minutiae
of the service, and the history of the Board for which he has
labored ever since its creation with intelligence and zeal. I am
also under special obligations to M1r. Andrew Carrigan and I14r.
Thurlow Weed for the very interesting information contained in
Chapter V. Mr. Weed, although confined to his chamber by illness, assisted me with his valuable advice, and gave me important
information concerning the origin of the Commission.
I am likewise indebted to my friends, Mr. Henry Villard, of
Boston, the able Secretary of the American Social Science Association, and Mr. Thomas Burke, of this city, for the revision of
my manuscript; to Mr. Charles Goepp for the greater part of
Chapter IX., and to several officers of the Commissioners of Emigration, among whom I would name Mr. George WV. Wheeler,
Col. L. Cantador, Mr. A. H. Hicks, and Dr. A. Reimer, for the
readiness with which they have supplied me with copies of
important tables and other necessary documents.
FRIEDRICH KAPP.
6 MANSFIELD PLACE, NEW YoRE,
February 24, 1870.








CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
Historical Introduction-Law of Emigration-The United States the Favorite Land of
the Emigrant,.5
CHAPTER II.
The Sea Voyage,.19
CHAPTER III.
Bonding and Commuting-Private Hospitals for Immigrants,                         41
CHAPTER IV.
Arrival in New York-Runners-Boarding-Houses-Inland Voyage,.61
CHAPTER V.
The Board of Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York,.85
CHAPTER VI.
Castle Garden,.105
CHAPTER VII.
Ward's Island,.                                                               125
CHAPTER VIII.
Capital Value of Immigration to this Country-Its Influence on the Population and the
Nation's Wealth-Is Immigration a Matter of State or National Concern?... 142
CHAPTER IX.
Immigration as Affected by the Constitution of the United States,.          162
APPENDIX.
I. Sufferings of Emigrants while at Sea,.....  183
HI. Protection of Immigrants and care taken of them,......        196
III. The Inland Voyage, and Booking of Passengers in Europe,...      200
IV. Rules and Regulations,....211
V. An Act for the More Effectual Protection of Emigrants arriving at the Port of New
York.............. 223
VI. Members of the Commission,. 224
VII. Statistical Tables,.....227








IMMIGRATION TO NEW YORK.
CHAPTER  I.
HIISTORICAL INTRODUCTION - LAW OF EMIGRATION -THE UNITED
STATES THE FAVORITE LAND OF THE EMIGRANT.
FROM the remotest ages down to the present day, from the cagset of Emi.
gration.
first Phoenician and Greek colonies down to the settlement of
the North Pacific coast, two principal causes have always induced
emigration and led to the establishment of new states and empires, viz., political or religious oppression and persecution, and
social evils, such as want of prosperity or insecurity, lack of employment, famine, and high prices of living in general. In modern times, either of these causes has proved powerful enough to
produce emigration on a large scale from certain countries. People who are happy and comfortable at home do not emigrate; the
poor and oppressed only, who cannot find a fair reward for their
labor in the land of their birth, or who feel themselves obstructed
and thwarted in their religious or political aspirations, seek to
better their condition by a change of country.
The territory which constitutes the present United States owes Development of
the  United
its wonderful development mainly to the conflux of the poor and states due to
outcast of Europe within it. The adventurers who discovered
and first settled it belonged to the feudal aristocracy of Europe.
Being neither able nor willing to work, they failed and perished,
and gave way to the so-called lower classes of society-to the
sturdy farmner and the industrious mechanic. Feeble as their efforts
were in the beginning, the toils and sufferings, the patience and




6                HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
perseverance of these voluntary and involuntary exiles have, in
a comparatively short time, built up a powerful commonwealth,
the proud structure of this Republic, which in itself is the glorification, the epopee of free and intelligent labor.
scanty immigra-   The immigration of Europeans in large masses into America,
to 19thcentury however, is of a more recent date, an outgrowth of the nineteenth
century. It is true, in earlier periods, immigrants also found
their way to the European possessions in the New World, but
their number at any given time was comparatively small.'There
arrived during the whole year, in all the American colonies,
hardly as many as land now on one summer day in the city of
New York alone. During the first century of the settlement of
the country by the English and the Dutch, a few hundred new
immigrants attracted the public attention of the whole colony,
and towards the end of the last century the arrival of two ships
laden with Germans, on one day, created quite a sensation in
New York.
Reasons there   The reasons for this numerical difference are obvious. Comfor.    munication between Europe and America was in its infancy.
During the favorable season of the year, a vessel now and then
sailed from an English, Dutch, or French port for America. No
Continental country had any intercourse with the then English colonies except by way of England. The trips required seldom less
than eight weeks. Their regular time was from three to four
months, but very often the passage occupied six months and more.
On the other hand, the horizon of the European masses did not
extend beyond their native village and its immediate neighborhood. The great majority of the people were too poor, too degraded even to conceive the idea of throwing off their shackles,
of trying, at least, to run away from their misery to the New
World. The two countries, which were then, as they are now,
the principal sources of emigration, viz., Germany and Ireland,
furnished a small number only. In South-western Germany, emigration on a large scale commenced in the beginning of the
eighteenth century, in consequence of wars, famine, and religious
persecutions; but, during the whole century, only from 80,000 to
100,000 Germans settled in America. Ireland did not send forth
as many tens as it does now thousands.




iISTORICAL INTRODIUCTION.              7
This essay will be confined to the port of New York, and,
when the contrary is not expressly stated, it treats of immigration
in connection with New York only.
The present metropolis of American commerce, although one Commnerciapreof the oldest cities built by European emigrants, had become  nd it ori
more than two hundred years old before she assumed the leading
part in the trade of the country. According to the first census,
taken in 1790, the State of New York was the fifth in population,
and ranked even after Massachusetts and North Carolina. In
1800, it rose to the third; 1810, to the second, and only in 1820
to the first position, which it has since maintained. The city of
New York kept even pace with the State. During the first ten
years of the present century, she was inferior to Philadelphia, the
then largest city in the United States, in population and commerce. In 1820, she numbered, for the first time, a few thousand
inhabitants more than the Quaker City; but, in the decade of 1820
to 1830, she established her superiority beyond any doubt. The The Erie CanaL
noble work of her great statesman, De Witt Clinton, viz., the
connection of the Atlantic with the great lakes by a canal, carried out between 1817 and 1825, proved the firm basis on which
New York City built her all-controlling influence and power, always steadily advancing and never receding, and to-day mightier
than ever before. Had there been no De Witt Clinton, had there
been no Erie Canal, in vain would have been the central position
and commercial advantages of this city. She was not the first
city of America until her great men gave artificial extension and
development to those advantages, and thereby fixed on her, for
centuries, the honored advantage of being the emporium of the
Western World. If she is to maintain this position, she will do
it because she will have great men continually able to keep her
in advance. As she has seized the canal, telegraph, and railroad
and pressed them into her services, so she must be ready, as new
inventions are presented, to seize them and turn them to her
advantage. Prior to the completion of the Erie Canal, New York
had but a small number, if any, of staple articles which she could
export. Even ten years expired after that event before she could
compete with the other harbors of the Eastern coast. Charleston
had her cotton, rice, and indigo, for which European vessels prefer



8                HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
red her port; Baltimore was the centre of the tobacco trade for
Maryland, Virginia, and Ohio; Philadelphia monopolized the
greater portion of the coasting business; but New York had first to
build up her export trade. The interior was not sufficiently developed to offer commodities for European markets; even wheat,
which forms in our days one of the most important export staples, was imported from the Baltic and Portugal as late as the
Exports. years 1836 to 1838. About 1830, New York commenced with
the export of whale oil, which the whalers brought to New Bedford, Sag Harbor, and smaller ports, where it was purchased by
New York merchants for shipment to Europe. Tobacco soon followed, which was sent to New York from the interior, and, in
consequence of the Tobacco Inspection established in 1834, could
be assorted and purchased here just as well as in Baltimore and
Richmond. Every subsequent year added a new article of export. Philadelphia, once paramount to New York, did not follow
the latter in the path of progress, and European merchants became every year more satisfied that they would find at all times
ready return freights from New York, and for this reason they
preferred it before all other Atlantic ports. Thus, with her daily
growing commerce, with her better facilities for shipping and
freighting, and with her better inland communications, she naturally attracted more emigrants than any other port of the Union,
and entered upon the second third of the present century as the
great receiving depot of European immigration.
finrmigration in   The facts connected with the immigration of the seventeenth
lth and 18th
letuell, nand eighteenth centuries are only imperfectly known to us, and
der Dutch and
Englisuh rule. have almost exclusively an historical interest for the present generation. They can be explained in a few short paragraphs.
Under the Dutch rule (1625-1664) emigrants were attracted
by land grants and other substantial inducements. At times
they obtained a free passage; at other times they had to pay the
small charge of one shilling per day. A ship or two per year
carried all the reinforcements and supplies to the colony.
During that whole period immigration did not exceed a few
thousand.
The English Colonial Government did little or nothing for
the encouragement of European immigration to New York.




HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.               9
The first and only attempt it ever made at settling emigrants was
carried out ill 1709 and 1710, when, out of about 15,000 Prot6stant
Swabians and Palatines, it sent at its own expense about 3,000 to
INew York. These poor people, as stated above, were driven
from their homes by war, famine, and religious persecution, and
now threw themselves in endless numbers upon the sympathies
of England. While others of these exiles were sent to Ireland
and North Carolina, Governor Hunter settled the above 3,000 Col,,ization of
3,000  Palatine
on the Hudson River, where he proposed to employ them in ex""ornHtmaking naval stores. But the experiment failed in consequence
of the narrow-mindedness of the colonial officers, the sharp practices of a Scotch speculator, and of the misapprehension of the
conditions of an emigrant's success-first among which is
freedom of action and of movement. The English Government
wanted subjects and servants; the emigrants wanted to become
free and independent.  Hence first the irrepressible conflict,
and finally the victory of the immigrants.
All who thenceforth emigrated came on their own account. Scotch andla me.
Thus the Scotch, under Captain Campbell, who settled near tgrrNt,,ewlor.k
Lake George (1740); the Baden farmers, who, in the middle of
the eighteenth century, founded New Durlach, the present
Sharon in Schoharie County; thus the Germans, who settled in
the Mohawk Valley, and the immigrants who were imported in
1793 and 1794 by the Genesee Association. During the whole
of the last century, the immigration of from eighty to one
hundred families, in a body, was an event of great and general
interest. The ships, which arrived at intervals, seldom had more
than a hundred or one hundred and fifty passengers on board.
New York had only a secondary importance, and attracted fewer
immigrants than Pennsylvania, because they were better treated
in the Quaker State. For this reason, Philadelphia had regular
communications with Holland and England, and, as an immigrant port, ranked far above New York.
BIut in Philadelphia, as well as in New York, the great majority Sle of5 tni,.
of immigrants were very poor people, so poor that they could not sag, money.
pay their passage, and in order to meet the obligations incurred
by them for passage-money and other advances, they were sold,
after their arrival, into temporary servitude.  During all the




10               HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
last century, the prepayment of the passage was the exception,
and its subsequent discharge by compulsory labor the rule.
The ship owners and ship merchants derived enormous profits
from the sale of the bodies of emigrants, as they charged very
high rates for the passage, to which they added a heavy percentage-often more than a hundred per cent. —for their risks.
But the emigrants suffered bitterly from this traffic in human
flesh. Old people, widows, and cripples would not sell well,
while healthy parents with healthy children, and young people
of both sexes, always found a ready market.  If the parents
were too old to work, their children had to serve so much longer
to make up the difference. When one or both parents died on the
voyage, their children had to serve for them. The expenses for
the whole family were summed up and charged upon the survivor
or survivors.  Adults had to serve from  three to six years,
children from ten to fifteen years, till they became of age;
smaller children were, without charge, surrendered to masters,
who had to raise and board them. As all servants signed innanited ser-dentures, they were called "'indented servants."  Whenever a
vessel arrived at Philadelphia or New York, its passengers were
offered at public sale.  The ship was the market-place, and the
servants were struck off to the highest bidder.  The country
people either came themselves or sent agents or friends to procure what they wanted, be it a girl or a "likely" boy, or an old
housekeeper, or a whole family. Among the records of this
traffic there is a characteristic anecdote about the wife of Sir
Sir Wlliam
o lGsom ana William Johnson, the Indian agent, and most prominent man of
wife. G  Western New York, in the middle of the eighteenth century.
Catharine Weisenberg had arrived in New York a poor German
orphan girl, and had been sold as an indented servant to two
brothers, Alexander and Herman Philipps, farmers in the
Mohawk Valley.  Catharine soon became the belle of the
settlement, and was courted by a great many swains; but none
of them was rich enough to buy her. Johnson, when passing
by, saw her, and at once resolved to make her his wife. He
offered one of the Philippses five pounds, threatening at the same
time to give him a sound thrashing if he did not voluntarily part
with the girl. Philipps knew that Johnson was the man to




HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.                11
make good his word, took the five pounds, and sold Catharine to
Johnson, who married her at once.  The match turned out
excellent.
"Robust farmers and sturdy mechanics," says D. von Buelow, D. von Buelow
the celebrated military writer, who first visited the United States grant Market.
in 17M91, "find a very easy market. At times, however, an unsalable article creeps in which remains for a long time on the
shelf.  The worst of these articles are military officers and
scholars.  The captain who imports that kind of goods does not
know the market. I have seen a Russian captain for more than
a week on board of a vessel, heavy as ballast, without being able
to obtain a purchaser. He was, in fact, unsalable. The captainThe unsalable
of the vessel entreated him to try, at least, to find a purchaser,
and, in order to get rid of him, he offered to sell him at a discount of fifty per cent. He sent the captain on shore to make
the people take a fancy to him; but it was of no avail, nobody
had a mind to buy him. The Russian always spoke of stabbing
with bayonets, which, he said, he had often practised against the
Turks and Poles. Strictly speaking, the use of the bayonet was
the only art he had mastered. Finally, the captain and consignee released him upon his promise to pay his passage after six
months, and flattered him with the hope of obtaining a schoolmastership in the country. He really obtained it. What he
will teach the boys and girls I do not know, unless it be the
bayonet exercise."
Peasants and mechanics generally got along tolerably well. HardshIps  o
Much, of course, depended on the character of the master. grants.
There are instances of immigrants having been treated worse
than cattle, and driven to work with blows and kicks, so that
the colonial authorities had to interfere. The better educated
a man was, the more he had learned at home, the worse it was
for him. Itard drinking and suicide were often the fate of the
unfortunates of this class. Parents sold their children, in order
to remain free themselves. When a young man or a girl had
an opportunity to get married, they had to pay their master
five or six pounds for each year they had still to serve. Yet a
steerage passage never cost more than ten pounds. Run-away
servants had to serve one week for each day, one month for each




12               HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
week, and six months for each month of absence. If the master
did not want to keep his servant, he could sell him for the unexpired time of his term of servitude. It was a daily occurrence
that whole families were separated for ever. In short, the whole
system was utterly vicious and little better than slavery. It was
only slavery for a term of years, but in all other respects just as
cruel and iniquitous as that form of bondage.
immigrantlisla-  This mode of making the immigrant pay his passage died out
in 81,9.   in the beginning of the nineteenth century. The last sales of
passengers are reported in 1818 and 1819 in Philadelphia. We
do not hear of indented servants after 1819, when immigration
began to consist of a much better and well-to-do class of people,
and the United States first intervened in behalf of this important
economic interest.
Estimatediofmi-  From  1775 till 1815 immigration had been very slim, partly
75 to 1815. on account of the American Revolution, and partly on account
of the wars ending with the overthrow of Napoleon I. In 1818,
Dr. Adam Seybert, member of the House of Representatives
from  Pennsylvania; in his valuable "Statistical Annals of the
United States" (pp. 28 and 29), wrote to the following effect:
" Though we admit that ten thousand foreigners may have arrived
in the United States in 1794, we cannot allow that an equal
number arrived in any preceding or subsequent year, until 1817."
Samuel Blodget, a very accurate statistician, wrote, in 1806, that,
from the best records and estimates then attainable, the immigrants arriving between 1784 and 1794 did not average more
than 4,000 per annum. Seybert assumes that 6,000 persons
arrived in the United States from foreign countries in each year
from  1790 to 1810.  tBoth averages, however, seem  to be too
large; 3,000 for the first, 4,000 for the second period named is a
very liberal estimate.
Immigration af-   The difficulty experienced in disposing of property at satister Napoleonic
wars.    factory prices prevented many from leaving the Old World immediately after the close of the Napoleonic wars. But the great famine
of 1816 and 1817 drove several thousands over the ocean. Here it
may be stated that, from that time forward, the material and
moral causes of immigration, above alluded to, regularly governed
the numerical proportions of the influx of Europeans into the




HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.               13
United States in successive years.  To prove the controlling
influence exercised over immigration by material misery, on the
one hand, and political oppression, on the other, a few statistical
data will suffice.
While, in 1826, of 10,837 immigrants 7,709 came from the Sotica and psll
United Kingdom, in 1827 their number increased to 11,952 out ancd,' tem
of 18,875, and in 1828 to 17,840 of a total of 27,283; but in 1829 immigration.
their number fell to 10,594 of 22,530, and in 1830 to 3,874 of
23,322 souls. These fluctuations were due to the great commercial panic of 1826, and the distress in the manufacturing districts
of England, as well as the famine in Ireland, which drove thousands from their homes who, under ordinary circumstances,
would never have thought of emigration.
Again, in Germany, where the abortive revolutionary movement of 1830-1833, the brutal political persecutions by the
several state governments, and the reactionary policy of the
federal diet, as well as a general distrust of the future, produced
an unusually large emigration: In 1831, only 2,395 Germans
had arrived in the United States; in 1832, 10,168; in 1833,
6,823; and in 1834 to 1837, the years of the greatest political
depression, 17,654, 8,245, 20,139, and 23,036 respectively.
The emigration from  Ireland, which from 1844 rose muchGreatest Irish
beyond its former proportions, reached its culminating point
after the great famine of 1846.  During the decade of 1845 to
1854, inclusive, in which period the highest figures ever known
in the history of emigration to the United States were reached,
1,512,100 Irish left the United Kingdom. In the first half of
that decade, viz., from January 1, 1845, to Deceinber 31,
1849, 607,241 went to the United  States, and in the last
half; viz., from  January 1, 1850, to December 31, 1854,
as many as 904,859 arrived in this country.  With  this
unprecedentedly large emigration Ireland had exhausted herself.
Since 1855 her quota has fallen off to less than one-half of the
average of the preceding ten years.
Almost coincident, in point of time, with this mighty exodus
from Ireland was the colossal emigration from Germany which
followed the failure of the political revolutions attempted in
1848 and 1849. Already in 1845 and the following years the




14                HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
German contingent of emigrants to the United States showed an
average twice as large as in the same space of time previous to
the year named. But a voluntary expatriation on a much larger
scale resulted from the final triumph of political reaction.  The
CoZ  cd'eta of Louis Napoleon closed for all Europe the revolutionary era opened in 1848.  In the three years preceding that
event, the issue of the struggle of the people against political
oppression had remained doubtful.  But the 2d of December,
1851, having decided the success of the oppressors for a long
time to come, the majority of those who felt dissatisfied with the
Greatest Oer- reactionary regime left their homes. The fact that the largest
man immigra- n                                                  largest
tioll.   number of Germans ever landed in one year in the United
States came in 1854 showed the complete darkening of the
political horizon at that time. The apprehension of a new Continental war, which actually broke out a year later in  the
Crimea, also hastened the steps of those who sought refuge in
this country. People of the well-to-do classes, who had months
and years to wait before they could sell their property, helped to
swell the tide to its extraordinary proportions. From January
1, 1845, till December 31, 1854, there arrived 1,226,392 Germans in the United States, 452,943 of whom came in the first
five years of this period, and 773,449 in the last five.
nDomesticngauses   But the numerical strength of immigration to this country is
~migation.  not governed by material and moral disturbances in Europe
only. While bad crops, commercial and industrial crises, and
unfavorable turns in political affairs in the Old World tend to
increase immigration, the appearance of the same phenomena in
the United States as certainly tends to decrease it.  Thus, in
1838 the total of immigration- decreased to 38,914, while in the
previous year it had amounted to 79,340, and in 1839 and 1840
it increased again to  68,069 and 84,066 respectively.  The
reason of this extraordinary decrease was the great financial
crisis of 1837, which shook the foundation of the whole industrial
and agricultural life of the United States. Again, the influx of
aliens into ZNew York was smaller in 1858 and 1859 than in any
previous year since 1842, for the only reason that the commercial
crisis of 1857 had frightened those who wanted to make a living
by the labor of their hands. Thus, the total emigration from the




HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.               15
United Kingdom, which in 1857 had reached the number of
213,415, in 1858 fell off to 113,972, and in 1859 to 120,431. In
1858 and 1859 only 78,589 and 79,322 emigrants, respectively,
arrived in New York, while in 1856 their number amounted to
142,342, and in 1857 to 186,733. In 1860 it rose to 105,162, but,
in consequence of the breaking out of the civil war, it fell again
in 1861 to 65,539, and in 1862 to 76,306. In 1867 the German
immigration in NeW York increased over that of 1866 by more
than 10,000, in which last-mentioned year it had already reached
the large nuimber of 106,716 souls. Its ranks were swelled in
1867 in consequence of the emigration of men liable to military
service from the new provinces annexed to Prussia in 1866, and
of families dissatisfied with the new order of things. Hanover
contributed the largest share to this kind of emigration. In 1868
and 1869 the tide subsided again as people began to become reconciled to the sudden change.
In short, bad times in Europe regularly increase, and bad
times in America invariably diminish, immigration.
There are many countries which, by the fertility of their soil, Superior attrac
tveness of the
the geniality of their climate, and other natural advantages, are United states.
among the brightest spots on earth, but yet never have attracted
immigration to any considerable extent. Thus, the Crimea, the
lower parts of European Russia, and the Danubian principalities
in Europe, Algiers in Africa, and, on our continent, parts of
Mexico, as well as hundred thousands of square miles in South
America, are, in regard to natural resources, equal, if not
superior, to any part of the United States; and yet the latter
attracts the masses of European immigration, and it is preeminently the country of the immigrant.  Canada lies at the
door of the Union; it offers about the same advantages as the
North-western States, and yet the majority of European immigrants pass through this English colony to become citizens of the
Republic.
Why is this, and how can we explain this apparent anomaly? reasons: high
However equal such inducements to emigrants as fertility of soil,, na' poci
salubrity of climate, security of property, and facility of commu- freedom.
nication may be in different countries, the emigrant prefers the
country where labor is best remunerated, where land is cheap,




16                HIISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
where government does not interfere with him, where no class
privileges exist, and where, from the day of his landing, he stands
on a footing of absolute equality with the natives. Thus we find
that, in this respect also, moral as well as physical causes control
emigration. The first are as powerful, if not more powerful than
the latter.  In the United States, both are at work in attracting
emigrants, and hence why there is a larger European immigration
to this country than to any other on the face of the globe.
the successful  The secret of the unparalleled growth, and of the daily increascolonist.  ing power of the United States, is that the Government, in its
practical working, is confined to the narrowest limits, that it is
the agent, not the master of the people, and that the latter initiate all changes in its political and social life. And similarly, it
is the condition of the success of a colony or a settlement that the
immigrant relies on his own strength, acts on his own responsibility, and seeks by his own efforts the prosperity which he is
sure to find, if undisturbed. All mistakes which he may make,
all errors of judgment which he may commit, are of no consequence, if his self-relying spirit is not interfered with. In spite
of obstacles and disappointments, he will make his way, and ultimately attain his object. After abandoning the laws, the traditions, and the family ties of his old home, he does not wish to be
unduly restrained in his aspirations, or owe responsibility to any
one except himself. He will willingly undergo all the hardships
and danger incidental to settlement in a new country, provided
he finds a free government and no improper interference with his
self-adopted mode of life. A colonist, in brief, must be his own
master, in order fully to develop his mental and physical resources, and to become a useful agent in building up a free
commonwealth.
Self-government   All modern colonies which were inaugurated by governments
principlfc have failed; self-government, in the broadest sense, is the power
resented by
eutonic races which sustains colonies and instils into them  life and independence. In the history of colonization, the Teutonic races represent
the principle of self-government, which leads to the success of the
immigrant, while the Latin nations represent that of state dependence and protection, which inevitably results in failure.
Look at the Spanish republics, from Mexico down to Peru; at




HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.              17
the French colonies, the youngest of which, Algiers, has ever
since its first days been weak, and is almost dying from the effects
of government care; and at the efforts of the Belgian Government
to regulate the work of their colonists in Central America by
military discipline, and compare them with the flourishing,
thriving, and prosperous condition of the English colonies in
America and Australia. The difference in the results of the two
systems is too striking to require any further demonstration. In
this country we had both systems working side by side in New
France and New England. French rule, which, with its great
captains, brave warriors, and indefatigable priests, tried to seize
upon and fetter a continent, is a memory of the past; but New
England, the growth of which-to use the eloquent language of
Francis Parkman —was the result of the aggregate efforts of a
busy multitude, each in his narrow circle toiling for himself, to
gather competence and wealth-New  England influences the
destinies of a whole continent, and is one of the civilizing factors
of the world.
I have shown, in a book on German immigration to this State, Germans on the
the third German edition of which is just published by Mr. E. thels Monhawk
Steiger, of this city, how the above-mentioned Germans, who valleys
were settled on the upper Hudson by the English Government,
were a motley set of shiftless adventurers and vagabonds so long
as they depended on the colonial authorities; but these same
men, when left to themselves as settlers in the Schoharie and
Mohawk valleys, soon became brave and daring pioneers, well-todo farmers, and good citizens, who formed a living barrier
against the inroads of the French and Indians, and conquered the
finest parts of our noble State for civilization.
Again, it was from no whim of the immigrant that he avoided Silvery a ar to
the Southern States while they were cursed with slavery; for a
land can have no civil liberty in which freedom of labor and the
dignity wherewith respectable employment is invested do not
exist. In natural advantages the North-west is much inferior to
the northern States of the South. Middle and South Virginia,
for instance, are gardens of Eden, which cannot be excelled by
any State of the Union, and yet they are partly in a primeval
state. Henceforth the North and Europe will send their peace



iS              HIISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
ably conquering armies of farmers and mechanics to take possession of these rich grounds, and raise them to the importance
which they would have reached fifty years ago, had it not been
for the ban of slavery.  So it will be in Tennessee, in Carolina,
in Kentucky, and Texas. Foreign immigration, which, before the
late war, almost exclusively settled in the free North, will henceforth pour into the South as well. The United States, by the
successful termination of the war against rebellion, have indeed
increased the attraction of this country for the immigrant, and
there is not the least reason to doubt that the great Republic will
in the future become more than ever the favorite land of the immigrant.  Arid New York City is the main gateway through
which the vast tide of emigration enters, and New York State
the great thoroughfare over which it pours to be diffused over
the Union.




CHAPTER II.
THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
DURING the whole of the last and the greater part of the Mode of carrypresent century, the ship-owners chartered the lower decks of P8eng, lrs palt
their vessels to agents, for the payment of a certain sum for each ries. tu
ton or the whole space disposed of. The agents made the needful temporary arrangements for the accommodation of the passengers, and underlet the steerage, either to associations of emigrants, or parcelled it out to sub-agents or to single passengers.
Thus the owner of the vessel had not the least concern orIndifference of
Ship-owners to
interest in the welfare or good treatment of the passengers; all Cofaost of
he looked for was the payment of the stipulated price for that
part of the ship which he had let. The steerage passengers were
simply additional and unwelcome freight; they had to follow
the directions of the owner, and were subordinate to what he
considered his more important interests. They had to wait for
their departure as long as it pleased him, and had no other right
than to occupy the ten or twelve square feet which were allotted
to them. To the owner, they were less than a box, of goods, and
handled with less care, as they did not break, nor, if injured,
require to be paid for. The agents, in order to make the business
lucrative, sent on board as many passengers as they could get
hold of, without the smallest reference to the conveniences of the
steerage, the number of berths, the separation of the sexes, or anything except their own immediate profit. Besides assigning a
space, however small, to the emigrants, they had no responsibility, and ran no risk whatever. There was no check to the overloading of the vessel. Even if it had more than double the number of passengers that it could accommodate, there was no
authority to which the emigrants could apply for protection.
The agents did just as they pleased. A vessel which was not
good and safe enough to be used as a transport for goods and
merchandise was, nevertheless, employed for the conveyance of




20.                 THEa  SEA  VOVAGE.
passengers. Thus, for instance, the destruction of life by shipwrecks has been most appalling among the emigrants who have
been enticed on board the worn-out vessels engaged in the Canadian timber trade; seventeen being shipwrecked in a single season in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and more than seven hundred
lives lost.
Looking at the fine and commodious ships used in our day for
the forwarding of emigrants, it is hardly possible to form a correct idea of the bad construction and awkward proportions of an
old merchantman carrying passengers.
Sea voyaging100 A hundred, and even fifty, years ago, a sea voyage was an
years ago.
enterprise requiring more than ordinary courage. A  person
crossing the Atlantic, regularly made his last will and provided
for his family. A passenger who safely returned was the wonder
of his town; and when he came back from America, his neighbors called him the "American."  The inland people had no
idea of a sea-going vessel; in their eyes a sea voyage was synonymous with severe sickness, terrible suffering, and hardship. In
descriptions of voyages, published as late as 1822, and containing
engravings of the ships in which the authors crossed-usually on
small brigs or barks of a couple of hundred tons-all the petty
occurrences of the day are narrated in the journal of the traveller
with minute details; the most insignificant items of the voyage
are treated as matters of great concern, and the everyday work
of the sailors commands the admiration and respect of the passengers.
Insufcient ac-  In fact, the first cabin of a London packet a hundred years
commodation
on emips,glt ago was not a whit more airy or comfortable than the steerage of
ships, and resulting   mortality.  a large steamer of our days. The lower deck of an emigrant
vessel, as late as 1819, was no better than that of a slaver or a coolie ship; the passengers were just as crowded, and just as little
thought of, as those unfortunate beings from Africa or China.
Five or six feet was an extraordinary height for a steerage deck;
the common height was from four to five feet, and the lower or
orlop deck, which was also used for the so-called accommodation
of passengers, was not much better than a blackhole, too bad to
shelter cattle. The natural consequence was a large mortality.
Ten deaths among one hundred passengers was nothing extra



THE SEA  VOYAGE.                    21
ordinary; twenty per cent. was not unheard of; and there were
cases of 400 out of 1,200 passengers being buried before the ships
left port. Other facts of the same kind are on record. Thus,
of the 3,000 Palatines forwarded in 1710 by the English Government to New York, 470 died on the voyage, and 250 immediately after their arrival, of ship-fever.
John George Jungmann (1702-1802), a MIoravian mission-Narrative of
ary among the Indians, and, like all Moravians, entitled to im-  oaian misplicit confidence, in 1731 came to America via Rotterdam, with
his father, who emigrated from Hockenheim in the Palatinate.
Ile was first obliged to wait three weeks at the port for the departure of the vessel, and finally sailed, the ship having 156 passengers on board, and provisions for twelve weeks. She was
bound for Philadelphia via Falmouth. At the latter port she
again stopped three weeks. WVhen she had been eight weeks at
sea, the passengers were put on short allowances, and during the
last four weeks of their voyage they were never able to obtain
bread. Jungmann could procure no food whatever from the
captain either for himself, father, or sister, and the only drink
allowed them was one pint of water daily. The passengers had
to live on rats and mice, which were considered dainties. The
price on board for a rat was eighteen pence, and for a mouse an
English sixpence. The captain was under the impression that
the passengers had considerable money and valuables with them,
and, believing that he might profit by it, he endeavored to
reduce them to a state of starvation. He succeeded too well,
for out of the 156 passengers only 48 reached America; and not
a single human creature would have been landed off the vessel, if
the passengers had not revolted, arrested the captain, and put in
at Rhode Island port, after a voyage of twenty-five weeks. Jungmann adds that he himself, his father, and one sister were about
starved to death, that they were unable to walk erect, and obliged to creep on the ground; while his mother, and three brothers
and sisters, had died on the voyage. He concluded by saying:
"It was a shocking and heart-rending scene to see all these poor
people, without the ability to succor them, to find them in the
morning stiff and cold on their beds, partly eaten up by rats, and
then to see them thrown into the ocean, an occurrence which took




22                 THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
place two or three times a day."  Indians took care of Jungmann,
and nursed him and his father till May, 1732, when they sailed
for Philadelphia, where they arrived on the 16th day of that
month, having been more than a year on their way there.
Reverend Dr. Kunze, in an oration delivered, in 1788, before
the German Society of Philadelphia, stated that of 900 passengers shipped in one vessel in that year at Amsterdam for Philadelphia, 400 had died on the way. Henry T. Vierhaus, Secretary of the same Society, in a report, dated January 22, 1818,
Voyage of the thus describes the cause of the mortality on board the ship April,
Captain de Groot, just arrived in the Delaware:
"When the passengers came on  board at Amsterdam," he
says, "there were 233 full freights. The ship was ordered a
few miles below Amsterdam to wait for more passengers, but no
more came; whereupon the house of KIress & Rodenbrock, the,ship-brokers, foreseeing a loss if they did not ship more passengers, proceeded to engage passengers from other vessels which
were in the same situation, waiting for freight. These vessels
had lain there for a considerable time, and, owing to bad food
and poor attendance, those on board were, more or less, sick and
full of vermin. These passengers were put on board the ship
April, making the whole number near 1,200 souls. The sickness
brought on board by those shipped in the manner described
spread rapidly through the vessel. When the whole number
was crammed into the ship, there were among them about 120
sick. Captain de Groot was ordered by Kress & Rodenbrock to
put to sea, against which the captain protested, giving as a reason
that he would not undertake the voyage with so many sick; that
115 dead persons had already been sent on shore; and that he
did not think there was a sufficiency of provisions for such a
large number. In consequence of this protest, the Amsterdam
police sent four doctors on board, to examine into the state of the
passengers and of the vessel. They found the ship in such a
shocking condition that it was ordered into Quarantine at the
Island of Wieringen. Here all the sick were put into the hospital, and the healthy separated from them. They remained there
19 weeks, and about 300 died, besides the 115 who were sent on
shore dead."




THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                      23
We shall see hereafter that this shocking mortality is not Mortality onre.
cent voyages,
confined to remote times, and that the living generation has
witnessed thousands of deaths from the same causes. To give an
adequate idea of recent losses of human life on board of illprovided, ill-ventilated vessels, it may be stated here that out of
98,105 poor Irish emigrants shipped to Canada by their landlords
after the great famine of 1846, during the summer of 1847
there died 5,293 at sea, 8,072 at Gross Isle (Quarantine) and
Quebec, and  7,000 in and above Montreal, making 20,365,
besides those who afterwards perished whose number will never
be ascertained.  Thus the -Lark, reported at Quebec on August The Lark
12, 1847, from Sligo, sailed with 440 passengers, of whom 108
died on the passage and 150 were sick, almost all of whom died
a short time after landing.  The Virginzius sailed with 496; 158 The ViWriniks.
died on the passage, 186 were sick, and the remainder landed
feeble and tottering; the captain, mates, and crew  were all
down. At that period, the ratio of the sick per one thousand
was 30 on board British, 9- on American, and 83 on German
vessels. Ship-fever and want of food were almost unheard of
on board of vessels from Northern Europe, and particularly those
from Hamburg and Bremen.
It has been estimated by medical statisticians that not lessEstimated o. of
than 20,000 emigrants perished by ship-fever, and in the various dats lio Em8emigrant hospitals in American ports, during the year 1847.
Compared with these losses, the mortality on board the Hamburg
ship leibrnitz of the notorious Sloman line was quite small, forThe le, nt~.
out of 544 passengers (children and infants included), 108 fell
victims to the bad ventilation and insufficient provisions. The
fever-ship Leibnitz arrived at New York on January 11; 1868.
The first law which prescribed the space to be allotted to First law regieach steerage passenger was that passed by Congress on March latingsteerage
acco m in o d ations-Act of
2, 1819, according to which a ship was forbidden to carry more March 2,1819.
than two passengers for every five tons, Custom  House measure.
This law, however benevolent its purpose, proved insufficient;
for it did not prohibit the orlop-deck, nor provide for proper
ventilation or side-lights, nor deduct the freight-room and
accommodations for the officers and first-class passengers from the
computation of the total amount of tonnage. Thus a ship which




24:                 ThE  SEA  VOYAGE.
measured 1,000 tons and had a steerage of only 500 tons, could
nevertheless take steerage passengers for the whole tonnage, that
is, 400 instead of 200. Nothing was said about the height of the
steerage. It must always be borne in mind that the construction
of ships for the express purpose of carrying passengers only
began about the year 1830; that up to that time all space which
could not be used for shipping merchandise was temporarily
arranged for steerage passengers; that often at the last moment,
a few days before going to sea, the superfluous room was sold to
an agent, and that in those days a steerage five feet high was
considered fully sufficient for making two tiers of beds along
their sides. And the hole beneath this hole was called orlopdeck, and likewise used for the transport of passengers.
Atmosphere of   From this the nature of the atmosphere in the steerage of an
the steerage.
emigrant ship can readily be imagined without a minute description. WVe have only to consider that the room was rarely more
than six feet high, had no other aperture for the admission of
fresh air than the hatches, which, during the night and bad
weather, were generally closed, was crowded with passengers, of
WVhom the greater portion were strangers to the virtue of cleanliness, and many of them down with sea-sickness or other equally
loathsome diseases. What with the miasma of a damp hold, the
excretions and exhalations from the bodies of the individuals
thus confined, and the emanations from other and more offensive
matter, an atmosphere was created which acted like poison on
those who had to breathe it, and engendered ship-fever in a more
or less violent degree.
Evilofrequiring   The health of the passengers was further impaired by another
provide and evil which prevailed on board of all emigrant ships up to a comfood.    paratively recent time-the emigrants were expected to provide
themselves with food, and to cook it as best they could. The
Bremen authorities were the first which, about 1830, required
masters of ships to furnish cooked provisions for their passengers.
It was at the furthest only a few years before the passage of the
PassenerActof so-called Passenger Act of March 3, 1855, by Congress, that the
Havre and Liverpool vessels included the fare and cooking in
the prices of their passage.'The consequences of this vicious arrangement to those poor




THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                    25
and improvident people were self-evident.  Many of them
embarked without any provisions at all, and very few, if any,
with a sufficient supply; many had not the means to buy food,
and others had deceived themselves as to the duration of the
voyage; hence it is doubtless true that not one of all the
emigrant ships from British and Irish ports had a sufficient supply of proper food for all on board. But, supposing there were
some among the cargo of passengers well provisioned for the
voyage, there were no means at their disposal for having their
food properly cooked. For, as the arrangements of which they
could avail themselves for that purpose were insufficient even on
board of the very largest and best of ships engaged in the conveyance of emigrant passengers, it can readily be imagined what
they must have been on board of the fleet of vessels of an
inferior class.
On the upper deck of the ship, there were two small rooms for coaokig apll
cooking, about five feet deep and four feet wide, called the steerage galley. Within was a grate corresponding to the width of
the room, over which grate was fastened an iron bar, and on this
there were two iron hooks, to which the emigrant hung his pot
or kettle (if he had one) when he wanted to cook. These were
all the arrangements for preparing meals for several hundred
passengers. The result was that, except when they had nothing to
cook or were sick, there was constant fighting for room near the
caboose, and not one of the passengers could be sure of getting
his food well cooked. The sufferings which they endured in this
way embittered the emigrants one against another, and their
quarrels ended when in the evening the fires were extinguished,
but only to revive in the morning.
From these causes resulted not'only want of sufficient and
wholesome food, but also the impossibility of properly preparing
what little there was. In view of this, it cannot surprise us that
thousands of emigrants, greatly enfeebled already when going on
board, either died on the passage or arrived with scarcely a spark
of life in them.
An experience of fifty years, comprising an immigration of Three chief die
eases of em"
more than five millions, teaches us that the three diseases by grant ships.
which passenger-ships have been chiefly scourged are typhus or




26                  THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
ship-fever, as it is called when it takes place at sea, cholera, and
Dr. Griscom, M.D., and
Ship-Fever, or         f hs  he            Jh               M      n'Typhus.   former Superintendent of the Commissioners of Emigration of
New York, in a communication addressed on January 14, 1854, to
a special committee of the United States Senate-" that to which
the emigrant is most prone is ship-fever.  The extraordinary
prevalence of this disease at the present time, and for the past
half-century, but especially for the past seven or eight years, is an
astounding phenomenon, particularly when it is remembered that
we live in the midst of all the light necessary for its prevention.
"My first practical cognizance of the horrible condition in
which emigrants are frequently found on shipboard was in 1847,
when, as a member of a committee of the New York Academy of
Medicine, I visited the Quarantine establishment to enquire into
the medical history of the typhus fever then extensively prevailing,
and crowding that institution with patients. On that occasion we
ThieCeylo 1, 4. visited the ship Ceylon, from Liverpool, which had come to anchor
a few hours before, with a large cargo of passengers. A considerable number had died upon the voyage, and one hundred and
fifteen were then ill with the fever, and were preparing for a
removal to the hospital. Before any had yet left the ship, we
passed through the steerage, making a more or less minute examination of the place and its occupants; but the indescribable filth,
the emaciated, half-nude figures, many with the petechial eruption disfiguring their faces, crouching in the bunks, or strewed
over the decks, and cumbering the gangways; broken utensils
and debris of food spread recklessly about, presented a picture
of which neither pen nor pencil can convey a full idea. Some
were just rising from their berths for the first time since leaving
Liverpool, having been suffered to lie there all the voyage, wallowing in their own filth. It was no wonder to us that, with such
total neglect of sanitary supervision, and an entire absence of
ventilation, so many of such wretched beings had perished or
were then ill of fever; it was only surprising that so many had
escaped.
The Eutaw, 1842.   ( Shocking as this case was, it has been frequently surpassed,
at least as far as figures are concerned. In 1842, the ship Etdaw
gave one hundred and twenty to the hospital on arrival; in 1837,




THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                      27
the Ann Ic1al sent in one hundred and fifty-eight; while, as far The Ann Hall
1837.
back as the year 1802, one hundred and eighty-eight were taken
from the -Flora, two hundred and twenty from the Nancy, and The Flora, ancy, and Penetwo hundred and fifty-nine from the Penelope.  In 1851, the lope, lso2.
nuriber of deaths at sea between Liverpool and New York rose
to the astounding number of 1,879, almost wholly the result of
ship-fever.
"In addition to this, the poisonous influence which becomes
infused into those who have escaped death or sickness on shipboard lies dormant for a few days or weeks after debarkation, and
sooner or later develops itself and brings many of them to the hospital, where from fifteen to twenty per cent. more are added to the
list of dead. Thus there were treated in the Marine Hospital, on
Staten Island, in 1852, 3,040 cases of ship-fever, of whom seventeen per cent. died. These were all emigrants; and we must add
to these the cases of the same disease, of the same people, which
were treated in the large hospitals at Flatbush, Ward's Island,
and Bellevue, at the City Hospital, and at other places throughout this State and the States immediately adjoining, nearly all of
whom arrived at the port of New York alone.
"In considering the hygienic aspect of emigration, we start, ate of mortali-.
then, with the remarkable fact that, of those who embark upon
an Atlantic voyage on any of a certain class of ships, out of every
twelve one falls a victim; that is, nearly nine per cent. either
never reach the promised land or die soon after.
" The general causes, as well as the means of prevention, of Its origin.
this disease are so plain as not to require a medical education for
their comprehension, but may be made clear to ordinary intelligence; and the vast importance of the subject will justify an
allusion to both in this essay.
" Ship-fever, as it is termed, from the place of its greatest prevalence, is the product of a miasma as distinct as that of marshes,
which causes intermittent fever. This ship-miasma is itself as inevitable a result of certain conditions, as the other miasma is the
product of marshes. And further, the means for its prevention
are as clear and controllable in the one case as in the other. Thus,
if an offensive marsh be thoroughly drained and dried, its peculiar miasma, and the disease which it causes, will disappear, and




28                   THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
so by preventing the formation of ship-miasma (as easy of accomplishment as the other) ship-fever will in like manner be prevented.
"What, then, are the circumstances which give rise to this
typhus-breeding miasma. There are certain conditions essential
to its creation, which I will enumerate in the order of their importance, beginning with the least:
"I. The confinement of people in apartments disproportioned
in size to the requirements of wholesome respiration.
" II. The retention in the same apartment of the excretions
from the bodies of the individuals thus confined; such as the
matter of perspiration and other more offensive excretions. These,
acted on by the artificial heat of the apartment, or even by the
natural heat of the bodies alone, will become decomposed, and
produce an effluvium which will react poisonously on the persons
exposed to it.
"III. The exclusion of pure air.
"As to the first of these causes, the number of persons and
the size of the apartment necessary to produce the miasma are
merely relative. An apartment may be crowded without danger
from this source, provided that from the first ventilation and
cleanliness be thoroughly and constantly maintained.
Explanatioln of   "With this brief explanation of the general causes of typhus,
in steerage. the reasons for its prevalence in the steerages of passenger-ships
are very apparent. In great numbers of them, all the conditions
enumerated above, as necessary for the creation of this disorder,
are found to exist, and it is reasonable to infer the existence of:Specificcause. some speciGic cause in addition to the general ones which have
been mentioned.
"We find ship-fever, within a few years, to have prevailed
most frequently and extensively in those vessels which ply between several ports of Great Britain and this country, and this
fact, together with an examination of the passengers, points unFamine,    erringly to the famine which desolated a large section of that
kingdom as the additional cause alluded to.




TIE  SEA  VOYAGE.                    29
"This is a direct, and at the same time an indirect cause. The
infection is carried to the ship by the emigrants from a country
where hunger typhus prevails; besides, the previous exhaustion
predisposes to be attacked by miasma.  In connection with
this branch of the subject, another source of the development of
ship-fever demands notice. In the cabins and hovels-the homes
of these famine-stricken people-typhus fever raged a long time,
and doubtless prevails extensively yet, produced by the same general and specific causes as have been described. The emigrants
leave for the seaboard, and straightway enter the ships, unpurified
and unwashed, reeking with the fever miasma of their habitations.
Into the crowded and confined steerage they hasten for rest and
escape from starvation and death. But unconsciously they bring
the enemy with them; the fatal seeds are but sown in a fresh soil,
and, as though from a hot-bed, they sprout even more vigorously.
One such case on board a crowded and badly ventilated ship may
cause the death of numbers.
" The food with which these people are supplied on shipboard, Improper food
even if sufficient in quantity (which it is not always), is very often
so badly cooked as to operate injuriously upon them. So great is
often the difficulty, among from 300 to 1,000 people, of finding a
proper time and opportunity for cooking, that it is a common
occurrence for them to swallow their flour or meal only half
cooked, or even mixed simply with warm water, if indeed wctrez
water can be had. The effect of this kind of diet is but to add
other evils, such as dysentery and diarrhcea, to the typhus miasma
with which the steerage becomes infected, the debility of the inmates rendering them more susceptible to its influence than they
would be if well fed.
" For the prevention as' well as the cure of typhus, it is neces- Prevention and
sary that the physical stamina be well maintained by appropriate cureof Typhus
food, in sufficient quantity. With ordinary strength of body
and elasticity of spirit, few persons can be induced to remain
below deck for many hours together, and, while the pure air of
the ocean directly increases animal vigor, it is also the surest preventive of typhus. Even the half-starved emigrant would find
his energy and spirits revive, if compelled by a rigid sanitary
police to make frequent visits to the ship's deck.




30                 THE SEA  VOYAGE.
" Famine, therefore, though a frequent precedent and a powerful adjunct, is only an indirect cause of the fever as we find it on
shipboard and in our hospitals; but we must continue to be burdened with it so long as poverty-stricken emigrants are admitted
into the transport-ships in such great numbers, with food so
insufficient in quantity and quality, and with such a total absence of sanitary police during the voyage.
vuae fpeir   " From what has been said, it will be readily inferred that in
the prevention of typhus fever pure air possesses great value.
Too much reliance cannot be placed upon it, either for this purpose or for subduing the intensity or arresting the progress of
the disease. Of its efficacy as a remedial agent, a striking instance among many others that might be mentioned occurred at
the New York Quarantine Hospital, under my immediate notice,
during my connection with the State Emigrant Commission. A
new building was erected on the summit of a hill within the
enclosure, into which some forty patients were conveyed from the
other overcrowded buildings. These had been kept in as good
condition as possible as respects both cleanliness and ventilation.
Though there were no specific provisions for the latter, yet the
influence of the fresh atmosphere of the new building upon the
patients was most decided and immediate; a load seemed to be
lifted off them, and several, who, it was feared, would die, began
at once to improve and rapidly recover.
PassengerB o    "In the month of August, 1837, a number of ships with
landedtPetmigrant passengers arrived at Perth Amboy, from Liverpool
and other ports, on board of some of which ship-fever prevailed.
There was no hospital or other accommodations in the town in
which the sick could be placed, and no person would admit them
into private dwellings, fearing infection; at the same time, they
could not be left on board the ships. An arrangement was made
*to land the sick passengers and place them in an open wood,
adjacent to a large spring of water, about a mile and a half from
town. Rough shanties, floored with boards and covered with
sails, were erected, and thirty-six patients were landed in boats, as
near the spring as possible, and carried in wagons to the encampment (as it was called), under the influence of a hot August sun.
Of the thirty-six, twelve were insensible, in the last stage of fever,




THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                    31
and not expected to live twenty-four hours.  The day after
landing there was a heavy rain, and, the shanties affording no
protection with their'sail' roofs, the sick were found the next
morning wet, and' their bedding, such as it was, drenched with
the rain. It was replaced with such articles as could be collected
from the cliarity of the inhabitants. Their number was increased by new patients to eighty-two in all. On board the ship,
which was cleansed after landing the passengers, four of the
crew were taken with ship-fever, and two of them died. Some
of the nurses at the encampment were taken sick, but recovered.
Of the whole number of eighty-two passengers removed from the
ship, not one died.  Pure air, good water, and, perhaps, the
rain (though only the first thirty-six were affected by it) seemed
to have effected the cure.
" The ship was the Phlwbe, with between three and four hundred passengers, a number of whom (twenty-seven) had died on
the passage. The shanties spoken of were two in number, thirty
feet long, twenty feet wide, boarded on three sides four feet up,
with old sails stretched over them.  The twelve who were removed from the ship in a state of insensibility were apparently
in so hopeless a condition that the overseer, who was a carpenter,
observed,'Well, Doctor, I think I shall have some boxes to make
before many hours.''The night after their arrival at the encampment,' says Dr. Smith,'we had a violent thunder-gust,
accompanied by torrents of rain. On visiting them the following
morning, the clothes of all were saturated with water; in other
words, they had had a thorough ablution; this, doubtless, was a
most fortunate circumstance.  The medical treatment was exceedingly simple, consisting, in the main, of an occasional laxative or enema, vegetable a'cids, and bitters; wine was liberally
administered, together with the free use of cold water, buttermilk, and animal broths.' The four sailors who sickened after
the arrival of the vessel were removed to the room of an ordinary
dwelling-house. The medical treatment in their case was precisely
similar, yet two of them died, and the others suffered fiom carbuncles while convalescing.  The doctor adds,'My opinion is,
that had the eighty-two treated at the encampment been placed
in a common hospital, many of them would also have fallen




32                   THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
victims.  I do not attribute their recovery so much to  the
remedies administered as to the circumstances in which they
were placed; in other words, a good washing to begin with, and
n abundance of fresh air.'
Typhus morefa-   "It has puzzled some to understand why it is that typhus
tal in coldwt
weather.  fever and many other infectious disorders are more frequent and
fatal in cold than in warm weather.  This fact is attributed by
some to the low temperature; but the true reason undoubtedly
is, that in winter the external atmosphere is more completely
excluded from our dwellings and hospitals by closing, of doors
and windows, which in warm weather are open and freely permit
Reason.    the ingress and egress of air.  Hence, in winter, the greater
necessity of artificial ventilation. The same reasoning applies to
passenger-ships in cold or stormy weather, when the hatches are
kept closed. Artificial ventilation, necessary at all times, is then
more urgently demanded.
Tenacity of the "( There is another fact connected with ships, as well as with
m"iasma.   hospitals and dwellings, which has a very important bearing on
this subject. The miasma which has been spoken of has the
property of attaching itself to clothing, bedding, furniture, and
to the walls, ceilings, and floors of apartments. It is absorbed by
them, and adheres with considerable tenacity, whence it is ever
ready, unless thoroughly destroyed and removed by cleansing
and the use of disinfectants, to issue forth, and to pregnate the
atmosphere again with its poisonous influence. Into a room in
which a case of typhus fever has once existed, even for a short
time, it is unsafe to enter, unless the room and everything in it
has been first subjected to a thorough airing and purification.
Here, then, is a constant source of danger, which will probably
account for many instances of devastation on shipboard by this
disease. A vessel in which it has once occurred will have the
miasmatic poison clinging to its sides, ceilings, and floors, from
which it cannot possibly be eradicated without the most thorough
airing, cleansing, and disinfecting, such as, I presume, no vessel
engaged in the European passenger trade has ever received. In
hospitals and dwellings, with hard-finished walls and painted
wood-work, this fact is often demonstrated.  In the peculiar
structure of a vessel's inner walls, without plaster, paint, or white



THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                     33
wash, with thousands of crevices and cracks inaccessible to the
scrubbing-brush  or any other purifying implement, without
windows for the free circulation of air, we see the perfection of a
place for the long retention of the poison, and for its propagation
for months afterwards, when the steerage shall be again crowded
with sure victims.
" Moreover, the bunks or berths on these vessels are generally Bunks repositories  of pestis
constructed of the cheapest kind of boards, often in the rough le~e'
state, and put together without any nicety-the whole arrangement being of the flimsiest character. Nothing of the kind could
be better adapted to harboring the fever miasma. At the end of
the voyage, the bunks are sometimes taken down without disinfection or even washing, and, with all the filth and miasma adhering
to them, stowed away, either as dunnage, amid the return cargo,
or ill bulk, to be appropriated to their original purpose on the next
hitherward voyage. Now, it is evident that the next cargo of
emigrants of such a vessel, though it may be composed of ever so
healthy and cleanly people, and though the ship may be well supplied with stores, bedding, and other requisites, is yet liable to
suffer from the latent seeds of disease, night and day, as the passengers are in contact with the fever-charged bunks. There is
more than probability that more or less will be attacked.  The
pestilence once started, there is no telling where it will stop.
" But even supposing this source of danger to be stopped by
the destruction of the old bunks and the substitution of new ones
after each voyage, the permanent timber of the vessel, if not disinfected, will still form a repository for the poison, whence its
ravages may be renewed.
"The second of the diseases by which passenger-ships have Choler on ship.
been infested is cholera. The open air generally puts an end to
typhus or ship fever, whereas cholera is controlled by no such
corrective. Although this fearful disorder confines itself to no
precise localities, there appear to be circumstances under which it
is peculiarly apt to make its appearance. These circumstances
have been ascertained to be in a great degree similar to those
which give rise to typhus fever. The poor and vicious, whose
vital powers are enfeebled by want of wholesome nutritious food
and close confinement or criminal excess, are found to be much




34                  THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
more liable to become the prey of cholera than persons who have
good nourishing food in abundance, take regular exercise, and
abstain from indulgences that weaken the general tone of the
system, whilst they add to the nervous excitability of the body.
Cholera, it is true, often appears and disappears without any apparent cause, a fact the reason of which is still hidden from the
eye of science, and can only be explained by time and experience.
It is sufficient to know that, if the body is kept in a healthy, wellbalanced condition, and its functions are not interrupted by any
disturbing causes, it may, in the generality of cases, bid defiance
to the assaults of the disease. The theory is entertained by some
that cholera on shipboard arises from the virus of the disease
having been imbibed by the persons or clothing of passengers previous to embarkation, or that it is met with in certain zones
through which the ships pass in reaching the Western Continent.
Concerning this it is proper to remark, that all that can be done
by the owners of passenger-ships is to prevent the existence of
any exciting cause of sickness on board of them, and of any state
of things by which it may be nourished and sustained if contracted
elsewhere. If there be anything in the atmosphere of particular
zones or belts, it must be encountered alike by ships sailing probably within a few miles of each other, propelled by the same
winds, and standing on the same courses. Such, however, is not
CorAparison of the case. While passengers on Liverpool vessels died by hundreds
German and
British ships. from the cholera, those from Germany, who had left IIaumburg
and Bremen at the same time, and arrived in [New York about
the same period with those from Liverpool, had no sickness on
board; for the reason that they were not so crowded, that they
were cleaner and healthier when they embarked, and better pro-'vided for during the voyage. The German port regulations,
which compel the ships to distribute cooked provisions among the
emigrants, account for their superiority in respect to health and
cleanliness."
Among twelve vessels, which arrived at Quebec on or about
Th, Amy.   August 10, 1847, there were two German ships, the bark A~my,
Wln Watchful. from Bremen, with 289 passengers, and the brig Tatctfal, from
Tne Trniuty.  Hamburg, with 145 passengers, and one Irish brig, the Trinity,
from Limerick, with 86 passengers, upon which there occurred




TiHE  SEA  VOYAGE.                    35
neither sickness nor death during the voyage. The other vessels,
consisting of two from Limerick, one from Sligo, three from Dublin, two from Liverpool, and one from Greenock, with 2,386 passengers, had together 198 deaths and 286 sick on their passage.
But even ships which leave the same port simultaneously Dierence  in
show a very remarkable difference in the respective health of their selt levein
passengers. This must be ascribed to the better condition of the same tme.
ship and of the passengers in the one case, and to the previous
poverty and insufficient nourishment in the other.  Thus, the
ship zLucy Tlihonpson, after a passage of twenty-nine days, arrived TheZucyThompat New York, from Liverpool, on the 11th of September, 1853,
with a loss of forty out of 835 passengers by cholera.  The Wil- TetsZliam
iam  Stetsorn arrived on the same day, after a passage of thirtyone days, with 355 passengers, having lost none on the passage.
The Great IWestern arrived on the day previous, September 10, Th Gr'eat West.
after a passage of thirty-one days, 832 passengers, no death having occurred on board.  On the 19th of September, 1853, the
Isaac TVebb arrived at New  York, from  Liverpool, with 773 The Isaac Webb.
passengers, after a passage of twenty-nine days, seventy-seven having died of cholera.  On the next day, the Poscius arrived from The RosciUs.
the same port, with 495 passengers, after a passage of thirty-five
days, six days longer than that of the Isaac  Tebb, and yet without a single death.  On the 15th of October, 1853, the i2onte-The MOntezua.
zuma arrived at New York, from Liverpool, in forty-one days,
with 404 passengers, and a loss of two; while the icitrmion Theyi~armion
arrived on the same day, after a passage of twenty-five days, with
295 passengers, and a loss of thirty-six by cholera.  The ITWacsh- The, Washington.
ington arrived at New York on the 23d of October, 1853, after
a passage of forty-one days, with 952 passengers, and a loss of
eighty-one; while the GuSy iannering arrived on the 25th Of Th"eGY  eanthe same month, after a passage of thirty-seven days, with T81
passengers, and without loss.
These examples might be multiplied almost at pleasure, showing, that vessels which left the same port almost at the same time,
and reached the same point of destination about the same time,
and consequently would be supposed to have been in the same
latitudes and subject to the same winds at the same time, suffered
in very different degrees. The cases presented show conclusively




36                  THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
that the disease on board of these vessels must be attributed to
some exciting cause pre-existing within them, which could not be
connected with the condition of the atmosphere or the prevalence
of certain winds on the ocean.
Small-pox.   With regard to small-pox, the third in rank of the diseases which
have affected emigrants, its nature and its means of prevention are
too well known to require anything more than a single remark,
viz., that the rules which apply to the prevention of typhus or
ship fever and cholera are, in the main, also applicable in the case
of small-pox.
Gty on New   The percentage of mortality among the passengers on board of
York bound
vessels. b New York vessels has been considerably greater than those of
vessels trading to Boston, Philadelphia, and other ports. This is
to be accounted for by a variety of reasons. New York being the
great commercial emporium of the Union, passengers from every
country in Europe have been induced to regard it as the point to
which they should direct their courses. Hence the huge structures
furnished by the enterprise of that great metropolis for the transportation of passengers have been crowded to excess, and, as a
necessary consequence, the causes of disease have existed on board
of those vessels to a greater extent than on any other. In general,
the percentage of deaths is in direct proportion to the number
of passengers, that is, it has been found that where passengers have
been distributed in smaller numbers disease and death have been
less prevalent. The smallest percentage of deaths has occurred
on vessels from ports of Europe other than those of Liverpool,
London, Bremen, Hamburg, and Havre, which, being off the great
thoroughfares of commerce, have presented fewer attractions to
the great mass of emigrants. The vessels from these ports, being
less crowded, are more easily ventilated and kept clean, and present greater facilities for the proper preparation of the food of the
passengers, and for their exercise in good weather.
Comparltison of   During the four last months of 1853, 312 vessels arrived at
fernt ports.  New York from European ports, with 96,950 passengers. Of these
vessels, forty-seven were visited by cholera, and 1,933 passengers
died at sea, while 457 were sent to the hospitals on landingthere, in all probability, to terminate in a short time their miserable existence-making nearly two per cent. of deaths among the




THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                    37
whole number of persons who had embarked for the New World,
and nearly two and a half per cent. when including those who
were landed sick. On board of the forty-seven vessels attacked
by cholera, the number of passengers was 21,857, of whom 1,821
(being 8'48 per cent.) died on the passage, and 284 were landed
sick, making 9-68 per cent. of dead and diseased, in an average
passage of thirty-nine days.
Of the arrivals above mentioned, 112 were from Liverpool, with
an average of 435 passengers on each. Twenty-four of these vessels, with an average of 577 passengers, or an average excess of
142 passengers each over the general average of the whole number
of vessels, had cholera on board.
Of twenty vessels which arrived from London, five had cholera
on board. The average number of passengers on board the vessels
attacked by cholera was 411 each, while that of the whole number
was but 326.
Of fifty-two vessels which arrived from Bremen, three had cholera on board. The average of passengers on board of each vessel,
out of the whole number, was 201, while the average on board of
those attacked by cholera was 259.
Of twenty-two vessels that arrived from  HTamburg, six had
cholera. Of forty-two vessels which arrived from Havre, six had
cholera.  The average on board of the whole number of ships
was 409, while on board of the six cholera ships the average was
561.
Of sixty-four vessels which arrived from other ports of Europe,
three had cholera on board. The average of passengers on board
of the whole number of these ships was 148, while that on board
of the ships attacked by cholera was 185.
The average on board of the whole number of -vessels (312)
that arrived friom Europe during the four months was 311, while
the average on board of the forty-seven that had cholera was 465.
The average on board of the vessels which arrived, exclusive of
those with cholera, was 283, showing that the cholera vessels carried an average excess of 182 each over those that were comparatively healthy.
Of the vessels which escaped from cholera, there were thirtythree, carrying on an average 335 passengers each, on board of




38                   THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
which deaths occurred.  On these vessels, the number ol deaths
was 112, out of 11,044: passengers.
It appears from the above statement of facts, that the ships on
board of which cholera broke out were those which were most
crowded with passengers, and that the vessels on board of which
deaths from other diseases occurred were the next most crowded,
whilst the remainder, which were healthy, had the lowest average
of passengers.
Improvement in   Much has been done since to alleviate the hardships connected
Ag.a  on"" with sea voyages.  The liberal legislation of Congress, which, by
shipboard.
the Act of March 3, 1855, first concedes and endeavors to secure
the rights of the emigrants by giving to each of them two tons of
space, and by providing for the proper ventilation of the ship, as
well as for a sufficient amount of substantial and cooked provisions, has contributed much towards preventing the almost daily
occurrence of sickness and privations on board of emigrant ships.
The construction of sailing-vessels is better, but beyond this the
steamers have taken the place of the former, and have begun to
monopolize the transport of emigrants, of whom at present about
eighty-nine per cent. arrive in steamers, while in 1856, for instance, only three per cent. of their number had availed themselves
Comp arative of this faster and healthier mode of conveyance. While in 1859
steamers and
sai.in-g vessels. the average number brought by steamers was 230, against 184 in
sailing-vessels; in 1868, it was 489 to 204; and, in 1869, 517 to
183; showing an average difference in favor of steamers of 285
and 334 respectively. The comparative mortality of passengers on
board sailing-vessels and steamers shows, in 1868, a very large
proportional disparity in favor of the steamers.  Out of 180,449
passengers in 451 steamers, 200 died; while from among 31,953
in 200 sailing-vessels, the deaths were 393. In 1869, out of 229,190
passengers in 504 steamers, 210 died; of 28,333 passengers in 209
sailing-vessels, 138 died; being about one death in 1000 of the forrner, and 200 of the latter.  There is every reason for the realization of the hope that in less than ten years the sailingvessels, as transports of emigrants, will disappear from  the
ocean.  There has seldom, if ever, been a complaint brought
against the steamers, which make the average of their trips in less
than a fortnight, and on account of the short voyage, the plenty




THE  SEA  VOYAGE.                    39
of good water, provisions, and fresh air, prevent their passengers
from falling sick. Humanity has thus succeeded in making the
exception now what was formerly the rule, and a mortality of onefourth of one per cent. of the total number of passengers is nowadays considered a very large loss.
Much, however, as has been done, there is still ample room
for greater improvement.
To remove the most pressing evils, the author of this essay, in Atg of 18s6 of
Legislature of
the winter of 1868, submitted a bill to the Legislature of the State State Of Now
of New York, " For the more effectual protection of emigrants arriving at the port of New York."  By this bill, which on June 5,
1868, became a law, the Commissioners are severally invested
with the power (subject to certain conditions) of examining under
oath any witness respecting complaints made by any person relative to the ship in which any emigrant may have arrived, his
treatment on shipboard, and the quality of the provisions furnished; or to take testimony in reference to any death that may
have occurred during the voyage; and such testimony, if made
in presence of the persons complained of, may be used as evidence
in any subsequent action between any of the passengers and the
owner, master, or charterer of the ship. Thus offending persons
will be deprived to a great extent of the chance of escaping punishment, while the emigrant will be exposed in consequence, to
less risk of unjust treatment, or, if aggrieved, will have a speedier
and more accessible mode of redress than has hitherto existed.
The necessity of such a provision was almost immediately after The James Foter, Jr.
its passage shown in the case of the James Foster, Jr., a Liverpool
emigrant ship, as without it the atrocious misconduct and brutality of her officers could not have been adequately punished.
It is to be hoped, however, that our General Government, as
well as the governments of Europe, will themselves initiate the
necessary reforms, and follow the just example set to them by
the North German Confederation. The draft of a ConventionProposed Convention with
between the United States and the several European govern- r tu rp e a n
ments, for the better protection of steerage passengers while at
sea, prepared by Secretary Hamilton Fish, is a noble proof of the
earnest desire of the United States to do their utmost in behalf of
the emigrants.




40                  THE  SEA  VOYAGE.
It is in the interest of humanity that in future the Emigrant
Courts, proposed by Secretary Fish, shall have exclusive control
and power in all matters connected with the well-being of the
emigrants.




CHAPTER III.
BONDING AND COMMUTING —PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRATS.
A NEW era in emigration began after the great Napoleonic wars.
It may be said to have formally opened with the year 1819,
which witnessed the passage of the first United States law on
the subject.
Up to that time no precise and connected information concerning any phase of immigration was obtainable in this country.
No systematic effort had been made where to gather reliable
facts and figures, and the scanty data anterior to the year named
that have descended to us are obtained from a variety of sources.
With the law of 1819 a regular supply of statistics on the subject was assured.
The history of immigration after 1819 may be divided into Immiration aftwo periods: the first opening in the year named and ending in
1847, the year of the creation of the Board of the Commissioners
of Emigration of the State of New York; the second'beginning
with 1847 and coming down to our days. The former period
will be first considered.
In 1817, no less than 22,240 persons, including Americans Sale of two ship.
loads of emi.
from abroad, arrived at ports of the United States from foreign grants in 1817.
countries. In no previous year had one-half as many foreign
passengers reached this country. In December, 1817, two shiploads, bound for Philadelphia, were sold into the slave State
Delaware.  The transaction was shocking in the extreme, and
created a painful sensation all over the country; but there were
no laws of the United States either limiting the number of
persons which a passenger ship or vessel was allowed to carry, or
providing in any way for the health or comfort of the passengers.
The subject attracted the immediate attention of Congress. On
March 10, 1818, Louis McLane, of Delaware, reported to the
House of Representatives a bill " regulating passenger ships and
vessels," which was read twice and referred. In December of the




42               BONDING AND  COMMUTING.
following session, it was called up by Thomas Newton, of Virginia, who explained the necessity of its passage. It was read a
third time, and passed the House. After receiving amendments
from both the Senate and IHouse, it was finally passed and approved March 2, 1819.
Act of March 2,  This act fixed the space allotted to the emigrants to five tons,
1819.  Custom House measurement, -for every two passengers, and in
case of contravention punished the captain with a fine of $150
for each passenger. It declared the ship to be forfeited to the
United States, if the number of passengers carried exceeded the
said proportion of two to every five tons. It further specified
the amount of water and provisions to be taken on board by
emigrant vessels, and exacted a fine of three dollars for every day
that any passenger was put on short allowance.  Finally, it
required the collectors of customs to report quarterly to the
Secretary of State the number of passengers arriving in their
collection districts, by sea, from foreign countries; also the sex,
age, and occupation of such passengers, and the country in which
they were born.  Annual reports embracing that information
have, in conformity with this act, been made to Congress by the,Secretary of State ever since. Although, in some parts, incorrect
and meagre, they form the only reliable statistical basis of the
history of emigration during the period from 1819 to 1847.
Ileagreness of  In all other respects, our sources of information are rather imst'atisics.  perfect and superficial.  The emigrant is not a subject, but art
object-not an active, but a passive, force in this international
movement. We would probably never have heard of his history,
and of his sufferings, except in legendary tales and indistinct
family traditions, had not the rapacity of agents and ship-owners
compelled the several governments to interfere in his behalf, and
to protect him against the grossest imposition. Even as it is,
emigrants are considered as an aggregate of human beings only,
with no characteristic distinction except that of nationalities.
Emigrants re- They appear simply as a numerical quantity; they seem to have
gard ea as nutieical qual- no individual existence, and the student of contemporary history
does not take the trouble to study their individual motives, misfortunes, and aspirations. He contemplates the emigration of
large bodies only from the stand-point of wholesale changes in the




BONDING AND COlIiMUTING.                43
condition of nations, of social and political short-comings and
disturbances. The poor peasant of the inland village who seeks
to be an independent land-owner across the ocean, and the
noble patriot who valiantly but unsuccessfully fought for human
rights; the mechanic and the scholar; the rich and the destitute;
the reckless swindler and the honest man —all represent but so
many figures. They are looked upon as mere quantities added
to the total wealth and strength of the land. And all this, although, as a whole, they emigrate with an intelligent and firm
purpose to take up anew the battle of life, and to fight it through
valiantly and honorably. Although the most lucrative article
of import, emigrants were treated with the least possible care,
with the utmost disregard of decency and humanity. With rare
exceptions, they were robbed and plundered, from the day of their
departure to the moment of their arrival in their new homes, by
almost every one with whom they came in contact. They received less consideration on the voyage than even trees in course
of transplantation. They were treated worse than beasts, and
less cared for than slaves, who, whatever their condition may be
in other respects, represent more or less capital, and, as valuable
chattels, are sure to receive protection and assistance in -case of
danger or sickness. There seemed to be a secret league, a tacit
conspiracy, on the part of all concerned in dealing with emigrants, to fleece and pluck them without mercy, and pass them
from hand to hand as long as anything could be made out of
them. The poor foreigners were virtually helpless against any
sort of imposition and fraud. The thousands who died, or were
killed, on the voyage, were thrown into the ocean with as little
ceremony as old sacks or broken tools.  If crosses and tombstones could be erected on the water as on the Western deserts,
where they indicate the resting-places of white men killed by
savages or by the elements, the:whole route of the emigrant
vessel from Europe to America would long since have assumed
the appearance of crowded cemeteries. And, what is still worse,
the sufferings of the emigrants seem  destined to last for ever.
The experience of one does not help the other, for the emigrants,
after their arrival in America, disperse into all parts of the great
continent. They seldom bring charges ox make complaints, being




44                BONDING AND  COMMUTING.
satisfied that they will not be heard, or being eager to reach their
new homes.  Only here and there some victims tell of their illtreatment, and it is almost exclusively upon their recitals, and
upon the meagre official' data, that we have to rely for a history
of later emigration.
Immigration to During the ten years after the passage of the Act of 1819, the
1819-29.'  immigration to IN'ew York was very small. In the first five years,
viz., from 1819 to 1824, it amounted to a little more than 4,000
per annum; while from 1825 to 1829, it rose to an average of
12,328 per year.
Poverty of emi-   A large majority were very poor. While their influx contrigrants.           b
buted to the general prosperity of the country, it injured the
domestic poor, as it necessarily imposed heavier expenses on
the city government in providing for those who from any cause
became sick or destitute.
Comptroller   "Prior to 1817," says Comptroller John Ewen, in his report
Ewen relative
to provision for 1846, "when -the foreign poor did not amount to one-fourth
for support of
foreign poor. of the present number, the Corporation (of the city of New York)
received from the State one-third of the auction duties collected
in this city on the sale of foreign goods, as an indemnity for their
support. This provision, amounting annually to upwards of
$70,000, was subsequently withdrawn, and an annual payment
of $10,000 substituted instead; since then the State has received
over six millions of dollars from auctions in this city, and only
$53,000 from  other parts of the State.  This annual payment,
however, proved insufficient, in consequence of the arrival of
foreign paupers, who, in some instances, within a day or two
after landing, where taken from  the wharves in large numbers,
in a state of destitution, and sent to the Almshouse. To protect
the city against such extraordinary expenditures, the Legislature
Pr8.4igner Atof of the State, on February 11, 1824, passed an act'Concerning
passengers in vessels coming to the port of New York.' This
act, commonly called the'Passenger Act,' required every master
or commander of any ship, or other vessel, arriving at the port
of New York, from  any country out of the United States, or
from any other of the United States than the State of New York,
to make, within twenty-four hours after the arrival of such ship
or vessel,'a report in writing, on oath or affirmation, to the




BOINDING AND COMrIUTIG.                 45
Mayor of the city of New York, or, in case of his sickness or
absence, to the Recorder of the said city, of the name, place of
birth, and last legal settlement, age, and occupation, of every
person who shall have been brought as a passenger in such ship
or vessel on her last voyage.' Said act also authorized the Mayor'to require, by a short endorsement on the aforesaid report, every
such master or commander of any ship or vessel to be bound with
two sufficient sureties (to be approved of by the said Mayor or
Recorder) to the Mayor, Aldermen, and Commonalty of the city
of New York, in such sum as the Mayor or Recorder might think
proper, not exceeding three hundred dollars for each passenger,
not being a citizen of the United States, to indemnify and keep
harmless the said Mayor, Aldermen, and Commonalty and the
Overseers of the Poor of the said city, and their successors, from
all and every expense or charge which shall or may be incurred
by them, for the maintenance and support of every such person,
and for the maintenance and support of the child or children of
any such person, which may be born after such importation, in
case such person or any such child or children shall, at any time
within two years from the date of such bond, become chargeable
to the said city.' "
This act worked tolerably well so long as emigration was small, Inshffaciency of
and the bondsmen, and the passengers landed by them, could be
controlled. Consequently, we do not hear of any serious complaints during the first ten years of its operation; but, as soon as
emigration assumed greater proportions, the law became susceptible of the most flagrant abuses, which were actually practised
under it, and it did not afford the slightest indemnity for the
maintenance of those who became chargeable to the city. As the
brokers engaged in the bond business were only expected to pay
for the bonded passengers in case of their sickness or destitution,
a large field for the exorcise of fraud and deception was opened to
these shrewd speculators. The ship-owners preferred the system
of bonding to any other, as by the payment of a trifle it exonerated them from all liability, and as they, of course, received
from each passenger one dollar, which was included in the price
of the passage, while the brokers assumed their liability at prices
varying from one dollar to ten cents for each passenger, or still




46               BONDING AND  COMMUTING.
cheaper, as, for instance, between the years 1828 and 1836, when
the sum paid for bonding was only two dollars per vessel,
whether the number of passengers was great or small. In some
cases, however, it was found to be very convenient to the
passenger-carriers, and advantageous to the city, to commute for
alien passengers instead of requiring bonds, or, in other words, to
accept a specific sum of no less than one and no more than ten
Ameindment to dollars for each, and to waive tile execution of bonds.  For this
Passenger act
by cityl839fNaw reason, the Corporation of the city of Ncw York, in 1839, passed
-atto, c.z*  an amendment to the Passenger Act, which authorized the Mayor
to commute. Consequently, when the agent or master desired to
commute, the Commissioners of the Almshouse directed an examination of the passengers, and reported their condition, when
the Mayor fixed and received the commutation, and the master
was discharged from all liability. While the State law required
that bonds should be given, the Corporation ordinance merely
conferred authority on the Mayor to commute in such cases, and
in such manner, as might be mutually agreed upon, the right of
bonding being reserved specially to the master.
Abusez practis-   Thus the city did not gain much, and the old abuses were
edi.     continued with the same impunity. In fact, the entire business
became a private traffic between a set of low and subordinate city
officials, on the one hand, and a band of greedy and unscrupulous
brokers, on the other.  It was a sort of legalized robbery, the
headquarters of which was at the City Hall.
An ordinance of the city prescribed that the Clerk of the
Common Council should receive all sums paid for commutation
by, alien passengers, account monthly for them, and thereupon
pay over the money received by him to the Chamberlain of the
rrf sponsibilite y ity. IBut there never has been any check upon, or system of
whom commutation money examination of, the accounts of the Clerk of the Common CouInwas pa. cil, and of receipts of such moneys, either to detect dishonest
practices or to correct unintentional error.
It seems that, from the first day of the application of the
Passenger Act of 1824 down to 1842, all the moneys for commuted alien passengers were received by a certain John Ahern, a
defaulter to the city in a very large amount, who first was private
clerk to General Morton, the Clerk of the Common Council, or a




BONDING  AND  COMMUTING.               47
subordinate in his office. Said Ahern kept no regular books of JohnAhern.
account, or vouchers, but made entries, or omitted to make them,
as he saw fit. In 1834, the Common Council created the office
of Clerk to the Mayor, and appointed this man, Ahern, to that
office, General Morton still remaining Clerk to the Common
Council. Ahern continued under him to perform the same services as when a private clerk, or subordinate, in.Morton's office,
and attended to the returns of captains of vessels, the receipt of
commutation moneys, and other fees receivable by the Clerk of the
Common' Council. The moneys were paid by Ahern to the Clerk
of the Common Council, and by that officer, under his own name,
returned to the Comptroller.
Under the successors of General Morton, who died in 1836,
Ahern continued to perform the same duties, made similar returns, which, without being first examined, were made a part of
the County Clerk's returns to the Comptroller. During all these
different clerkships, until December, 1842, the returns of captains
of vessels, and the bonds taken, were sent to the office of the
Commissioners of the Ahlmshouse, to enable them to ascertain,
when persons applied to them at that office for assistance, whether
such persons had been bonded, so that the sureties might be
called upon for their support; or whether they had been commuted for, and were to be supported at the expense of the city.
No account or memorandum has been kept in the office of the
Clerk of the Common Council of the number of passengers conmmuted for, or the amount of moneys received for the commutation
of passengers.
This utter neglect of supervision or control existed for about
eighteen years, without even exciting any suspicion. At last, in
1842, the impropriety of this course became so apparent that
Mr. Underwood, Alderman of the Third Ward, at the meeting
of September 12, offered a resolution appointing a committee of Ivestigatiolnby
three, to examine into and report upon the subjects of reporting, oard ofitt A
dermen, 1842.
bonding, and commuting of passengers, and the course pursued
in relation to aliens and others who had made application to the
Commissioners of the Almshouse for relief.
This committee, consisting of Messrs. John A. Underwood, H.
W. Bonnel, and Hobert Jones, thoroughly performed their ardu



48              BONDING AND COMMUTING.
ous duties, and, after carefully comparing the books and returns
of the shipping merchants, the health officer, and the Custom
House with the statements kept in the City Hall, on March 11,
1843, reported to the Board of Aldermen. It would lead us beyond the limits of this'essay to enter into the particulars of their
investigation, but a few of the facts, corroborated by the fullest
evidence, will show how business was managed in the County
Clerk's Office.
Report of same.   (All the accounts," says the report just mentioned, " from December, 1836, to July, 1842, contain the names of vessels in which
passengers arrived, whether commuted for or bonded; but the
whole business previous to June, 1837, was conducted without
regard to detail, perspicuity, or regularity in the AMayor's Office,
the office of the Clerk of the Common Council, and the Comptroller's Office, and it was impossible to ascertain what amount
of money was or should have been paid previous to the dates
last mentioned. It has, however, been discovered that moneys
were received for commuting and bonding passengers previous to
June, 1837, which were never paid into the city treasury, but it
would be useless to ascertain what amount of such moneys was
withheld, or by whom they were misapplied.
"From  June 1, 1837, to July 2, 1842, the deficiencies for
bonds and commutations, in accounts rendered to the Comptroller, amounted to $8,019 25. The number of passengers who
were reported to the Comptroller as having been commuted for
sums less than were recommended by the agent of the Commissioners of the Almshouse, but in relation to which neither receipts
nor accounts had been obtained, was 8,965; and the passengers
who had arrived from foreign countries, in vessels bringing
ten or more passengers, none of whom had been accounted for,
were 1,846."
Result of inves The investigations of this committee, and the changes protrgptitn andposed by them  in the supervision of the subordinate officers,
effected a reform in the execution of the acts bearing upon immigration, but, nevertheless, the city was not greatly benefited by
the change. With the daily increasing immigration, the profits
growing out of the bonding system to the brokers became larger,
and, with keen attention to pecuniary gain, these unscrupulous




BONDING AND  COMMUTING.               49
men appropriated to themselves what, of right, belonged to the
city. They received, as before stated, from the ship-owners the
sum of one dollar for each bonded passenger.
"These persons," says Comptroller John Ewen, in his report Comptroller
for 1845, "although worth the amount for which they may be- worth.lessness
of bonds.
come liable for passengers in each particular case, afford but little
indemnity to the Corporation for any considerable number of the
bonded passengers, should they from any unforeseen calamity be
thrown upon the city for support, several individuals being
bondsmen for over $1,000,000 each. The aggregate of the bonds
taken for the average number annually bonded during the last
three years amounted to $16,149,600, and for the number bonded
last year to $21,320,400. Some of those bonded are so disguised
in the description rendered as scarcely to be identified six months
after landing, and become inmates of the Almshouse, or are committed by the magistrates as vagrants, and in some shape maintained by the city. A bonded passenger, over fifty years of age,
applied at the Mayor's Office solre time since for relief, whoso
age was set down in the list of passengers at twenty years.
" The Mayor is authorized, by an ordinance of the Corporation,
to receive not less than one nor more than ten dollars for each
passenger as a commutation of such bonds; but, as this is entirely optional with the party, the greater number are bonded. The number
of foreign passengers arriving annually at this port, within the last
three years, has averaged 60,539; the nnmber annually bonded
within the same period, 53,832; and the number annually commuted in the same time, 6,707, or about one-ninth of the whole
number.
"It would be more advantageous to the city to receive the
sum of one dollar for each passenger, now paid to individuals,
than to take the bonds. A large amount would then be annually
received by the Corporation towards the support of foreign poor;
and in case any of the passengers arriving at this port should,
upon examination, prove to be paupers sent here from the parishes of Europe, they could, with the avails of this fund, be sent
back to the places from whence they were brought; which would
have a strong tendency to discourage a repetition of such practices.




50         PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.
" The number of passengers arriving at this port during the
last three years amounted to 181,615, of which 20,119 were commuted.......  $21,452 17
Received on account of passengers bonded the
sum of.                                     19,939 28
Making a total receipt from these passengers of.  $41,391 45
The whole number of passengers which arrived, at
one dollar each, would have amounted to     181,615 00
Whereby the city would have received in addition
the sum of....... $140,223 55
or $46,744 51 per annum paid to individuals, as before stated."
During all that time, those who became chargeable were sent
to the Almshouse, and the bondsmen paid the expenses of their
board to the city authorities.
Private lospi-  Even this arrangement, though pecuniarily advantageous, only
grant sick. excited cupidity, and the bondsmen concluded to support the
sick and indigent at private poor-houses and hospitals, where they
could sustain them at rates lower than those charged by the
Almshouse department. Experience having proved the plan
feasible and profitable, these establishments soon became numerous, some being conducted by the passenger-shippers and others
maintained by individuals, whose profits and business were confined alone to the medical care or temporary maintenance of the
pauper or unfortunate emigrant. To this latter class of establishments, on account of their cheapness, many merchants and passenger agents transferred the destitute; but this system was assoTheir abuses. ciated with many grave and flagrant abuses. These evils gradually
attracted public attention, and the various emigrant societies urged
the necessity of a prompt and radical change.
On February 2, 1846, the Board of Assistanit Aldermen of
the city of New  York appointed a committee, consisting of
Messrs. Purser, Gilbert, and Candee, relative to the treatment of
Investigation ofcertain emigrants in a place designated "Tapscott Poor-IIouse
P oor-ou tueand H{ospital."  This institution was established by the firm of
and Hospital"
by Committee W. & J. T. Tapscott, passenger-brokers in South Street, New
stant Al- York, and situated in North Sixth Street, in the then town of
Williamsburg.




PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.          51
The preamble and resolution read as follows:
" Whereas, The affidavits of William Long and others, relative
to the unwholesome food furnished to destitute and unfortunate
emigrants at a place denominated'Tapscott's Poor-House and
Hospital,' reveal a system of. flagrant outrage and cupidity, and
demand the instant investigation of the Common Council;
"And whereas, The present mode of landing alien passengers
has pastured a class of unprincipled brokers, who, apparently irresponsible to any authority, continue to realize fortunes by inflicting inhuman wrongs upon the alien stranger; therefore,
"-Resolved, That a special committee be appointed to investigate the case of the unfortunate emigrants, and that the committee be requested to report at the next meeting."
The affidavits referred to above of William Long, Thomas
Farrell, Daniel 1Kelleher, John Egan, Thomas Judge, Owny
IHogan, and Henry Mulholland, sworn to on January 30, 1846,
say, that the deponents were induced to emigrate to this country
upon the representations of ship-brokers and their runners; that
upon arriving in this country they found it impossible to obtain
work, and applied to the agents of these ships, and offered to
work for their board; that these agents sent them to Tapscott's
Poor-tIouse and Hospital, where they were obliged to do laboring
work, digging, and wheeling.
" And we further depose and say that the bread furnished us
was totally unfit for use, and that the black biscuit shown the
Mayor is a fair sample of the bread which we were compelled to
eat; that the breakfast furnished us was composed of a species of
meal so black as to be unfit for use, and to that was added molasses
and made into a pottage; that our dinner was at times salt fish
and the before-mentioned bread, and at other times of refuse grease
with other mixtures collected from the ships during their trips
across the Atlantic:'the crumbs that fell from the rich men's
table.'
"And we do further depose and say that tnere are inmates of
the above establishment who are lying sick and in the most pitiful and wretched condition of suffering, quite unable to help




532         PRIVATE HOSPITALS' FOR IMMIGRANTS.
themselves, and compelled to eat the food above described; that
from the effects of eating such food we have been reduced to
such a state of health as to be unable to work, and in consequence
orders were given to stop our spplies, and we have been without
food since yesterday rnorning."
N isitof Commit-  In consequence of these statements, the citizens of Williamstee of citizens
orr witlims- burg, on February 2, 1846, called a public meeting, and appointed
burg to Tap5c0tis H   a committee, consisting of Messrs. H. Fitzgerald, A. P. Moon, and
tal, and  their
report.    Michael McCaffrey, for the purpose of enquiring as to the mode
of treatment carried out in the establishment of Messrs. Tapscott
& Co. On February 3, at the request and solicitation of the same
Messrs. Tapscott, they visited the said establishment, which visit
they describe as follows: " To our utter astonishment, even horror, we found it, if possible, even worse than represented, exhibiting a state of misery and wretchedness not to be borne or countenanced by any civilized community; the situation, fare, etc., of the
occupants being worse, infinitely worse, if we may be allowed
the term, than that of those in similar institutions (by name)
attached to or connected with our common prisons. We have,
therefore, come to the conclusion, and hesitate not to say, that we
firmly believe the statements made in the affidavits of William
Long and others in every particular literally true; and that the
deplorable condition of the unfortunate (women particularly) dupes
of the Messrs. Tapscott in this same establishment demands and
requires the earliest possible attention from the friends of suffering humanity. Since we have visited this'poor house' the committee procured comfortable situations and homes for those of the
female residents of this modern but altogether novel prison-house.
We now boldly —yes, publicly-challenge and defy the Messrs.
Tapscott, or any of their friends, to an investigation, proof, or conviction. Dare they accept?."
Visit of Committee of Board   A few days later, the Committee of the New York Board of
of Assistant
Aldermen.  Assistant Aldermen likewise personally inspected the premises
in question, when every reasonable facility of examination was
afforded by Mr. and Mrs. Miller, the superintendents.  Though
the visit must have been anticipated, the condition of the building
appeared very unsatisfactory, both as regarded cleanliness and
comfort. The number of persons in the institution appeared to




PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.           53
to be from twenty-five to thirty, but it occasionally contained a
larger number. The superintendent spoke favorably of the diet
and treatment, in which opinion some of the inmates concurred,
though in a manner evidently constrained. A female witness, indeed, who was examined at this interview, acknowledged to the
Chairman of the Committee, who had an opportunity of speaking
to her privately, " that, if she had told the truth, she would have
seen the road mighty soon." The Committee of the citizens of
Williamsburg, above referred to, obtained from the inmates a
direct acknowledgment of the facts sworn to in the affidavits of
Long and others. These gentlemen, from personal and prompt
inspection, convinced of the treatment and suffering of the inmates, forwarded them articles of food.
The comprehensive testimony fully confirmed the complaints. QSualty of food
In relation to the food, some twenty witnesses distinctly swore
that the biscuit was generally " blue moulded," and offensive to
" taste and smell;" and the samples, though sworn to be of the
best description distributed, were dark and hard, and unsuited for
the support of the females and children at the " Poor-House and
Hospital."
It appeared, under oath, that the biscuit was frequently given
to the hogs-the inmates preferring to go hungry and supperless
to bed. The fish was represented to have been bad, and to have
fallen to pieces when put into water to boil; and all affirmed, who
were beyond the influence of the establishment, that the food supplied was equally deficient in quantity and quality. The soup
was usually innutritious, and manufactured from grease or mutton
tallow, which was kept in the superintendent's store-room to be
employed for that purpose. The meat used is stated to have
been musty and dark, and the bread " distributed twice a week in
slices (to use the language of a witness) as big as your hand, and
not enough for a child."
These statements were corroborated partly by the admissions
of Tapscott and his employees, as well as by about fifty affidavits,
the most important of which may find place here.
Margaret Bertram, an inmate for nearly twelve months in the Afmidavits of ininstitution, c recollects that two children died there. The mother
of one died at sea; no particular nurse took charge of it; several




54         PRIVATE lHOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.
of us had milk, perhaps four or five, and each took it by turns; it
died of summer complaint. The other infant died five weeks
since; it was brought here by a woman not its mother; it was a
weakly child; we suckled it turn and turn about; no particular
person attended to it; several now in the New York Almshouse
nursed it."
Fannie Mitchell, an intelligent young married woman, now at
Bellevue, stated under oath the following facts: " That the child referred to by Margaret Bertram was sent over from Tapscott's office,
and lived about a fortnight afterwards; that it came on Saturday,
and Mr. Tapscott called on the Sunday following, and, an objection
being made to nurse the infant, declared that any one who refused
should be turned right out of doors. Under such circumstances
the women consented, and took it turn and turn about."
Ann Doyle: " While I was there, some of the women induced
a man who was cutting up some meat to give them a few slices,
one of the women alleging that she wanted it for a sick child.
They obtained about a pound, and Miller (the superintendent)
discovered it in the evening, and went and informed Tapscott, who
came the next morning and turned the women out; one had the
sick child before mentioned."
"Another transaction, sustained under oath, we introduce,"
says the Committee, "as a further illustration of the disregard
manifested for the health of the inmates, and the sanitary usages
observed even by uncivilized communities. It appears that, of
the pigs during the summer, a sow became sick and nearly dead,"
and that' in this condition the superintendent directed it to be
killed by one Lavendel; that the sow was afterwards scalded, cut
up, and on the following day served at table, but it was so " unpleasant to the taste that the witnesses were unable to eat it."
Said Lavendel, an emigrant from Ireland, and for some time
after his arrival an inmate of the house, further states, on oath,
that a quantity of mutton-hams were brought there (to the hospital), and served up for dinner, which stunk and were unfit for
use; oatmeal porridge was also served up for breakfast, which was
bitter to the taste, and smelled bad; also rice for dinner which was
unfit for use, and smelled bad. Deponent was compelled to eat
what was put on the table or go without food. He further states




PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.             55
that the allowance of meat for one week, including bone, was
about one pound; that he was sick, and kept his bed about five
days before he received any medical attendance, although he requested it previously; and that the sleeping apartments were
filthy, uncomfortable, and filled with vermin.
Dr. E. L. Cooke, the attending physician, says: " The cleanliness Testimony of atthere is not remarkable; have observed this, and required them to cin.
keep it cleaner; but the matron has answered that it was difficult
to get the inmates to perform such labor. In other institutions
of a public character, better discipline would prevail; but the inmates do not feel themselves under sufficient restriction. The
general want of cleanliness observable, he presumes, might be attributed to this cause and the laziness of the inmates. Thinks the
inmates are not examined when they enter, or aware that there are
any specific regulations with regard to cleanliness. No wearing
apparel has, to his knowledge, been distributed among the sick.
With reference to diet, what he directed for the patients he believed was supplied. The matron informed him so; have never
enquired of the patients; never observed any peculiar appearance
of disease among those who had been long inmates. The institution, as regards diet, general comfort, and medical treatment, cannot be compared with similar public institutions."
"Your Committee conceive "-we give here again their own RIeIt of Comlicy of permitwords- " that the evidence before them is sufficient to convince tingpiv.at
the Common Council and the Legislature that poor-houses and    houses.
hospitals should not be continued by passenger carriers. The proprietors are certainly not likely to provide liberally for the necessities, much less the comforts, of a household which is a constant
source of individual trouble and expense. The same selfishness that
would induce them to evade relieving the applicants would dictate the reduction of their fare, when admitted to the work-house,
to the lowest standard, both of quality and quantity. Neither
the Common Council nor the Legislature could feel disposed to
permit these irresponsible establishments to multiply, a result
which must occur, however, unless the law is amended. The
unwholesome nature of the food, and the treatment of the helpless infants, is in evidence before you. No wearing apparel appears to have been distributed among the sick or well, with some




56          PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.
trifling unimportant exception; and Margaret 13ertram, an inmate
nearly a year, and very destitute, acknowledged that she never
received, with the exception of an order for a pair of shoes, any
clothing whatever. Even on the confinement of any of the
women, the other women have to provide the requisite articles of
clothing for the infants. No attention is paid to the education of
children who become chargeable to these bro]kers, and the only
boy at Tapscott's work-house, the superintendent, Mr. Miller,
stated, was held back from school for want of clothing, and the
proprietor himself acknowledged that he did not know whether
he went to school or not.
Immorality of   "The accommodation and arrangements of the house preclude
the proper separation of the sexes, and the moral habits of the
unfortunate inmates must deteriorate. The sick and destitute, the
vicious and the innocent, are gathered together promiscuously,
without any of the ordinary restraints to which, perhaps, in a distant country, they have been subjected, while they are denied the
salutary influence of even police regulations.
"These facts, which rest upon sworn testimony, must command attention. It cannot be disputed that the heavy responsibilities connected with a poor-house and hospital should be transferred to the municipal authorities. The health and character of our
city, and humanity to the alien stranger, are involved in this
nmeasure.
Frauds practis-   "The great acknowledged inferiority of such an establishment
ed to gain adHotspcCity to  Bellevue is a strong incentive to the destitute to obtain admission to our Almshouse by deception. Aware that their reception and continuance in the Almshouse depends on suppressing
the fact of being chargeable to any particular passenger broker,'they manufacture facts to secure better fare and treatment. Indeed, it is not improbable, though no direct evidence exists before
the Committee, that they have co-operated with the pauper in the
practice of these frauds. It is unquestionably true that thousands
are annually relieved from the city treasury, which are properly
chargeable to the bondsmen. Intentional inaccuracies frequently
appear on the passenger list regarding the ages, occupations, and
names of the passengers, with the view of transferring legal responsibility from the carriers. In the event of establishing the




PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.           57
system of commutation, the duty of examining the emigrant passengers will require the exercise of vigilance and honesty. To deceive the Quarantine officers, and obtain permission to proceed
immediately to the city, the captains of vessels dress up their sick,
and similar artifice will be employed to evade the provisions of
the proposed law.
" The German and other emigrants not familiar with our
language are liable to even more than ordinary imposition and
suffering. To secure the assistance from the bondsmen, without
which in the winter months they would perish, constantly requires the co-operation of the officers of their national benevolent
institutions; and many remarkable instances of deception and
cruelty have become known to your Committee.
1" Agents are sent to the principal cities and ports of Germany
with the view of securing passengers for some particular line of
vessels, and from three to six IRix dollars is imposed as'head' or
commutation money, though, even if the law we recommend
was adopted, $1 25 (25 cents for hospital fee) would be the actual
outlay.
" It is maintained among some, if not all, of the passengerronds annulled
brokers that they are released from the obligation of sustaining
the persons bonded whenever convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment. Though we must dissent from this
opinion, it appears to have been formerly acquiesced in by the
authorities, or to have escaped their examination. The commission of crime, committals for misdemeanor or vagrancy, serve the
selfish interests of passenger agents, though we are unwilling to
believe that the practice is resorted to ordinarily. Occasionally,
however, the inmates of these private work-houses and hospitals
are unwarrantably consigned to the Penitentiary on ]Blackwell's
Island. Hugh Graham, who was a sick man, was sent with eight
others to be disgraced and contaminated in one of our worst
prisons for insubordination. lIe, with his companions, purchased
bread, and even ate it, without permission of the officials. tIe
was taken before a magistrate, and committed without even being
made acquainted with his crime or called upon for defence.
"Another illustration of the feelings governing some of the O'Connor'scase.
passenger carriers is to be found in the following anecdote, com



58         PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.
municated by the President of the Irish Emigrant Society: A
man named O'Connor, with his wife and three children, arrived
in this country, and, having contracted a fever on board the vessel,
was detained in the city till his money was exhausted, and the
bondsmen were applied to for relief. Recovering sooner than the
other members of the family, he set out for St. Louis, where his
father was comfortably settled, and, securing the necessary funds,
returned with the fond expectation of accompanying his wife and
children to their new home. He found, however, on reaching New
York that his wife was dead and his children shipped to Liverpool, where they had neither friends nor relatives. One of the
children died on the passage, and of the others no tidings have
been obtained, though diligent enquiries have been instituted.
Messrs. Tapscott were the agents and bondsmen in this case.
"With the gradual but certain increase of immigration, these
evils must extend. The cupidity of the proprietors of these private establishments threatens even the health of our city, not only
from uncleanliness, but the introduction of cases of ship-fever.
"With these views, your Committee respectfully submit the
following resolution for adoption:
iesolution.  " Resolved, That the condition of Tapscott's Poor-House and
Hospital, and the evidence relative to the general treatment of the
inmates, strongly demand a change in the present system of bonding and commuting alien passengers."
Second Commit.  During the summer of 1846, another committee of investigation
tee of Investi- 
Board of Assfs-was appointed from the same Board, relative to the management
tantAldermen. of an emigrant hospital on Manhattan Island, which resulted in
confirming the opinion that such irresponsible institutions were
equally disastrous to the morals, health, and happiness of those
compelled to seek a temporary asylum in them.
The report expressed strong disapprobation of the "want of
comfort, cleanliness, and health prevailing," and the necessity of
the employment of some means to remove the evils. After the
interference of the committee, some improvement occurred in the
treatment of patients, and the number of inmates in the twostory building, about 46 feet square, was reduced from 120 to 80.




PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOR IMMIGRANTS.              59
The extreme heat of the summer, and the want of cleanliness, Investigationf b
neglect of ventilation, and poor diet at this hospital, induced the Health.
Mayor to summon the Board of Health. A committee of that
body examined the establishment, and reported strongly in favor
of remedying the evils connected with these private hospitals and
poor-houses, and, by a change in the law, urged the propriety of
confiding in the city authorities the charge of the sick and destitute emigrants.
"The system  now  existing," says the report of AldermanReport of AlderPurser, from which we have quoted the above, "is disgraceful to recommending
the city, and unparalleled in Europe.  The municipal authorities system.
are divested actually of the power of investigating and relieving
cases of severe suffering and destitution. A ship arrives in our
port with five hundred emigrants; a broker, irresponsible in
every point of view, after examination, agrees to assume the
responsibility of supporting those that may become chargeable
within two years, at the rate of forty or fifty cents a head.
Should any apply, as thousands do, annually, to the Almshouse
Commissioners for relief, they are referred, however emergent
and pitiable the case, to this broker, and his personal and pecuniary interest dictates refusal or delay. If compelled to provide
for the unfortunate a temporary shelter, the treatment to which
they are exposed is calculated to break their spirits and smooth
the path of degradation and crime.
"A proper separation of the sexes is wholly neglected, and
the young and innocent female is exposed to temptation,
and her mind, at least, corrupted  by infamous association.
The destitution of the healthy emigrant is usually only temporary, and their future destiny governed, to a great extent,
by the circumstances into which they are thrown at their arrival.  With this view of the subject, your Committee are impressed with the conviction that legislative interference is imperatively demanded in justice to the tax-payer and humanity
to the emigrant."
" Your Committee have before them  a memorial in favor of Memorial  of
Emigrant So.
the proposed alteration of the laws, signed by the acting Presi- cieties infavor
dents of the Irish, German, British, Welsh, and Scotch emigrant
societies, which states that the change would increase the revenue




60          PRIVATE HOSPITALS FOPR IMMIGRANTS.
of the city and secure the emigrants from the frauds now practised upon them.
Paupers, care, of   "Within the last month, nearly five hundred emigrants from
refused by
bondmen.   Germany were sent directly from  the ship to the Almshouse,
where a large proportion now remain, being utterly destitute of
means, and sent out at the expense of the property-owners in
their immediate neighborhood.*  The bondsmen refuse to pay the
expenses in this instance, on some wholly insufficient pretence,
and the city will be most probably compelled to commence suits
for the recovery. It must have been known to the foreign agents
shipping such passengers that they principally  consisted  of
paupers. When compelled to leave the ship, they took refuge on
the pier, where they continued until the city authorities removed
them  to Bellevue.  Utterly destitute, and  strangers to  our
language and country, sick from the effects of a long voyage and
indifferent diet and accommodation, these people became an inmmediate charge upon the city, and yet the bondsmen refuse to
indemnify the Corporation. A lighter was sent by the agents to
take off the whole of these passengers, with the view,of sending
them to Albany; but, many of them being sick, and all being
penniless and without means of supporting themselves for that
journey, they refused.
"In the event of the bondsmen sustaining the decrepit or
aged for the full period of two years required by law, on its expiration they are thrown upon the county for support.  Such a
class of persons for many reasons usually remain in our city; and,
if a proper system of commutation prevailed, a fund would be
raised adequate for their maintenance."
Establish m ent   The change so long desired by all disinterested parties was
of Emigration
Board.    effected a year later by the establishment of the Board of the
Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York.
* The emigrants referred to were poor people from the Odenwald, who, how.
ever, had not been sent out by the property-owners in their immediate neigh.
borhood, but at the expense of the grand ducal government of Baden. F. K.




CHAPTER IV.
ARRIVAL IN NEW YORK —RUNNERS-BOARDIG-HOUSES —INLAND VOYAGE.
ALTHOUGH in point of time anterior to the period of which we
are treating, the facts which constitute the basis of the narrative
of this chapter refer to a state of things which, in a greater or
lesser degree, had existed for the preceding twenty years, but
which was fully exposed, for the first time, only by the careful
official investigation, of which we shall speak in the following.
The kind of fraud and imposition on emigrants which is Attempts of
Commissioners
here described continued until the year 1855, that is, up to the of Emigration
to prevent
time when, by an act of the Legislature, the Commissioners of f.iu,,,:
b                       eriving  emiEmigration secured the compulsory landing of emigrants at. the grants.
Castle Garden depot, which gave them the control over them
necessary for their protection. Not having sufficient means at
their command, the Commissioners for years had tried in vain to
protect the emigrants on their landing. They perceived the real
source of the evil from the time of the creation of the Board, and
did all in their power to do away with it. Complying with their
urgent solicitations, the Legislature, in October 11, 1847, appointed a select committee to investigate the frauds and impositions
alleged to be practised upon emigrant passengers arriving in this
State.  The Committee, consisting of Messrs. Thomas Smith, Comllittee of
Investigation
A. S. Upham, D. S. McNamara, A. E. Chandler, and James C. of Legislature,
Rutherford, cheerfully assumned and most efficiently discharged
their duties. It is due to the indefatigable and energetic efforts
of these gentlemen that we have the documentary evidence of all
sorts of frauds practised upon emigrants. In order to make a
thorough investigation of the subject committed to their charge,
they went to the city of New York, and made themselves acquainted with the various stages through which the emigrants
passed after landing, till they got on board the steamboats to come




62              RUNNERS-BOARDING-HOUSES.
up the river.  It is their official report, with its accompanying
documents, containing the examinations of the different parties
and witnesses, which forms the basis of the following statements:
neport, of same.   "Your Committee must confess," the report says, "that they
-System of defrauding eractis-had no concetion of, nor would they hav believed, the extent to
house keeperi which these frauds and outrages have been practised, until they
and runners.                                                   i
came to investigate them. As soon as a ship, loaded with these
emigrants, reaches our shores, it is boarded by a class of men
called runners, either in the employment of boarding-house keepers
or forwarding establishments, soliciting custom for their employers. In order the more successfully to enable the latter to gain
the confidence of the emigrant, they usually employ those who can
speak the same language with the emigrant.  If they cannot succeed in any other way in getting possession and control over the
object of their prey, they proceed to take charge of their luggage,
and take it to some boarding-house for safe-keeping, generally
under the assurance that they will charge nothing for carriagehire'r storage. In this way they are induced to go to some emigrant boarding-house, of which there are a great many in the city,
and then too often under a pretence that they will charge but a
small sum for meals or board. The keepers of these houses induce these people to stay a few days, and, when they come to leave,
usually charge them three or four times as much as they agreed
or expected to pay, and exorbitant prices for storing their luggage; and, in case of their inability to pay, their luggage is detained as security. Some of these runners are employed by the month,
and some work upon commission. Where theyare in the eiimployment of the forwarding establishments or passenger offices, and
receive a commission for each passenger they bring in, they are, in
many cases, allowed by their employers to charge all they can get
over a certain sum for transporting the passenger to a particular
place. This, it will be seen, stimulates the runners to great exertions, not only to get as many passengers as possible, but to get
them at the highest possible prices. To enable them to carry out
their designs, all sorts of falsehoods are resorted to to mislead and
deceive the emigrant as to the prices of fare and mode of conveyance.




RUIrsNEBS-BOARDING-IHOUSES.              63
"Your Committee have been shocked to find that a large
portion of the frauds committed upon these innocent and, in many
cases, ignorant foreigners, are committed by their own countrymen who have come here before them; for we find the German
preying upon the German, the Irish upon the Irish, the English
upon the English, etc.; but at the same time we cannot hold our
own countrymen entirely guiltless, for many of them, it is to be
regretted, are engaged in this nefarious business."
It was then, and still is, the law of the State of New York State law relat.
ing to power
that a vessel arriving at Quarantine is under the control of the  erHat Quaran:
health dfficer, and that consequently the ship-owners can exercise tine
no control over their own vessels until they pass out of the hands
of that officer.
Until 1844, the practice was for him to license small schooners
or lighters, by which all the passengers discharged at the Quarantine were brought to the city. The suffering to which passengers
were exposed by this mode of conveyance, from being frequently
many hours on deck, exposed to sun and rain, and frequently arriving in the city at night, induced the larger shipping-houses to
cause the emigrants to be brought up by steamboats, thus greatly
increasing their comfort. The practice was for these houses to
give their agents an order on the Custom House to receive permits to take the passengers from their ships,.and thus to secure to
them the exclusive privilege of bringing passengers from their
shlips.  Other vessels, and especially those owned by smaller
houses, proceeded at once directly to their piers in the city. The Devices of radlarger the immigration became, the more profitable it was for the boade vesels
runners to get hold of the ships; they spared no effort and resorted to all kinds of tricks and devices to obtain the exclusive control of the emigrant ships. They frequently went to the Custom
House, and, under false pretences, took out permits without the
knowledge or consent of the owners. Captains of vessels, which
came directly to the city, were often paid several hundred dollars
by the runners for the mere permission to board their ships at
Quarantine, and proceed with them to their piers.
" It is not uncommon," said the health officer, Dr. Henry
Van Hovenburgh, in his examination, "C after the vessel is cleared
from Quarantine, for eight or ten boat-loads of runners to surround




t4f             RUNNERS -BOARDING-HOUSES.
it; they are desperate men, and can be kept off only by an armed
force."
This state of things must be borne in mind in order to properly understand the dangers to which the emigrants were exposed on their arrival in the port of New York.
TPresidet of   The following affidavits will more fully show the mode of
Net herland
Emigrant ao- operations of these runners, and of the establishments in whose
ciety.
interest they worked. Thus, R. Schoyer, being duly sworn, says:
"I am a Director of the Netherland Emigrant Society. The
first fraud practised upon the emigrant is this: the moment a
vessel arrives it is boarded by runners, whose first object appears
to be, to get emigrants to their respective public-houses.  Once
there, they are considered sure prey. These runners represent
the interests of all the various taverns and forwarding lines.
Each party bringing with them their bullies to fight off their opponents, the emigrants become bewildered. As there is frequent
bloodshed upon such occasions, the strongest party carry off the
emigrants. Previously to going to the taverns, they are told that
meals will be furnished for 6d. each, and 6c. for lodging, when, in
fact, they are never charged less than 2s. and often $1, per meal;
and their baggage is held until all is paid. The next ordeal
"Booking.  through which the emigrant is obliged to pass is called'booking,'
by which is meant that the emigrant is taken to the forwarding
office, and then induced to pay his money for the fare to the
West. The emigrant is informed that that is the only office in
which they can pay their money, the proprietors thereof being
sole owners of the steamboats, railroads, and canal-boats throughout the entire route. After having thus gained the confidence of
the emigrant, he unsuspectingly pays his money, upon the assurance that he will have no more to pay. The money received,
the runner gets one dollar for every passenger booked, besides a
salary varying from $30 to $100 per month, which is divided with
the landlord."
P. II. IHodenpyle, being sworn, says: "I am agent of the
Netherland Emigrant Society; have been since April last; I have
been in danger frequently of personal violence from the runners;
they are IHollanders, Germans, English, Irish, etc. There have
gone, this fall, one IIollander and two German runners to Eu



RUNNERS-BOARDING-HIOUSES.                65
rope to establish agencies for forwarding passengers from New
York to the Western States and Territories."
Charles HI. Webb deposes under oath: "I am Superintendent Tept mon  of
of the British Protective Emigrant Society; have occupied the    iP'otrnectvoestation three years. From my own knowledge, I have known   ty
frauds upon emigrants. One of the common frauds practised by
the emigrant boarding-house keepers is that they generally have
five or six persons about their establishments, who, if they cannot
prevail on the emigrant to accompany them  to the boardinghouse they represent, when coming from the Quarantine to the
city, on their arrival at the dock seize their baggage by force,
and have it carried by cartmen, who are privy to their operations,
to the boarding-houses. With the baggage once in the house, the
emigrant, if dissatisfied with the accommodation and wishes his
things removed to another place, is met by the landlord with a
charge for either storage or one day's board, compelling him to
put up with the accommodations offered him, or pay five or six
dollars without an equivalent. These boarding-houses make it a Extortio; of
rule, for instance, if emigrants arrive at 7 o'clock P.M. and leave housekeepers.
the next day at 10 or 2 o'clock, to charge two days' board ar d lodging for what in fact constitutes only one day. The keepers
of emigrant boarding-houses are invariably foreigners, the natives
of each nation preying upon their own countrymen. The runners
represent to the emigrant that his charges are sixpence sterling for
each meal, and the same for lodging, and no charge for cartage of
baggage to their houses or for storage while it remains there.
When the emigrant is ready to leave, he calls for his bill, and is
surprised to find that he is required to pay from $1 to $2 per
day for his board, and often $2 to $3 cartage for his baggage.
The keepers exercise their right of lien on the goods until the
price is paid."
" I was in a boarding-house in Cherry Street," says Hiram
Huested.  "A  man came up to settle his bill, which the
landlord made out at $18.'Why,' says the man,'did you
not agree to board me for 6d. a meal and 3d. for a bed?''Yes,' says the landlord,'and that makes just 75 cents per
day. You have been here just eight days, and that makes
just $18.'"




66             RUNNERS —BOARDING-IOusEs.
restimony of  George W. Daley (the notorious One-eyed Daley), who
ley.    had been engaged in forwarding passengers on the canal,
and left business, as he alleged, from disgust.with the imposition practised by his partners, and by the men in his employment, upon emigrants, said: "Mr. Roach (one of the former
partners of Daley) spent his time in New York, and managed the
business there. When a vessel was reported, he generally sent
down three or four men to engage the passengers. If tile vessel was
a Dutch one (German), he would send down Dutchmen (Germans);
if an English vessel, he would send Englishmen. Ile got the passengers at the best possible rates, sometimes at one price and
sometimes at another. Men in our employ have frequently
brought passengers to me, and stated that they had represented
to the passengers that they were to go by railroad or packet; in
such cases I have invariably told my men that I should not thus
impose upon them, as we had no arrangelment with the railroad
and packets, and would not book them in that way, and that
they must not promise them  in that way. What I mean by
"Booking."'booking' is, making bargains with passengers and giving theml
tickets. Our books are made in the form of a check-book; the
ticket is cut out, like a bank-check, and a memorandum of it is
left; the men who board the vessels carry a book with them and
furnish the tickets.
"Frequently the' night-watch'from the Custom IIlouse, when
they board a vessel, extol some particular transportation line or emligrant forwarding-house; and, when they leave in the morning, manage to get the name of some one or more of the passengers, which
they report to the emigrant forwarding-house.  I do not know
that they receive anything for their services, but I have no doubt
they do; this is what is called' stooling.' There is another way of'stooling.'stooling' frequently practised, which is for the runner to go on
board and employ some one or more of the emigrants of influence to
engage the passengers to go by his line, for which the emigrant is
paid a bonus. The following case camle to my knowledge two years
ago this summer: A runner went on board an English vessel, at
Quarantine, singled out a man of influence, and offered him a gold
watch and chain if he would induce those on board to go by the
line by which he was employed. The man agreed to it, on condi




RUNNERS-BOARDING-HouSES.                67
tion that he could have the watch in advance. The runner took
it from his own pocket, threw the chain over the neck of the
Englishman, and put the watch in his pocket. The man then
went to work and got all the passengers booked according to
agreement. They went up to the city in coimpany. The luggage
was taken to the boat. The runner and his friend went into an
office, where they found a man, who seized the Englishman and
exclaimed,'Then you are the man that robbed the man of his
watch, are you?' The runner made his escape precipitately, and
the Englishman was compelled to give up the watch, and paid
a handsome sum in addition."
Tobias Boudinot, being duly sworn, says: "I am Captain of Testimony of
Police Captain
Police of the Third Ward. lMIany of the steamboats that land Boudinot.
emigrants from Quarantine land at the docks in the Third Ward.
There they are immediately visited by the runners from the emigrant boarding-houses, backed by bullies to assist in soliciting
passengers to go to the different houses. As the emigrant
attempts to take his luggage from on board the boat, the runner
will endeavor to get it from him, and by force, unless there is a
sufficient police to protect him, representing that they will keep
them at sixpence sterling for each meal, and sixpence sterling for
lodging, and no charge made for cartage or storage for luggage.
When the emigrant comes to pay his bill, he is never able to get
off at the contract price, but is compelled to pay from three
shillings to fifty cents for each meal and lodging, one dollar and
fifty cents for cartage, when, if it was paid at the time, it could
not, under the law, be but thirty-one cents and fifty cents per day
for storage for an ordinary-sized chest, and other things in proportion."
The greatest frauds, however, were committed by the forward- Frardin g
ing-houses, to which some allusion has already been made in the Frauds of.
foregoing affidavits. At that time, the only route West was'via
Albany, and thence by the canal, or, since 1846, by railroad to
Buffalo, the Erie and Pennsylvania railroads not having been
completed until 1852 or 1853. The trip from New York to
Albany was made by steamer, and was comparatively the quickest
part of the jouriey West, as it did not take more than ten hours
to reach Albany.  The emigrants generally bought tickets in




68            IRUNNERS-BOARDING-IHOUSES.
New York, with the understanding and assurance that they were
to be forwarded on to their place of destination with their luggage
without further charge; but, when they arrived at Albany, the
person to whom they were consigned denied the authority of the
persons of whom the tickets were bought. If the tickets were
accepted, the emigrants were required to pay exorbitantly for the
transportation of their luggage, and were often cheated in its
weight. " Among the numerous frauds," says the Committee in
their Report to the Assembly, " practised by these runners and
forwarding-houses, there is, perhaps, none greater than that which
exists in the sale of passage-tickets. The emigrant is shown a
neatly printed ticket, with a picture of a steamboat, railroad-cars,
and canal-packet, with three horses attached to its and is given to
understand that such a ticket will take him to a given place beyond Albany in a specified manner, and for a price to be agreed
upon; and after disposing of the ticket for an exorbitant price,
the emigrant is furnished with a steamboat ticket to take him to
Albany, where he is to present this passage-ticket to some person
or company upon which it is drawn, where it is often either protested, or objections taken to the mode of conveyance; and the
passenger, instead of going upon the railroad or packet-boat'as
agreed upon, is thrust into the steerage or hold of a line boat,
where he is often known to complain-when the only evidence
he can furnish of the fraud committed upon him is to exhibit his
ticket with a picture of three horses, while the line boats are only
drawn by two.
",A pretence is also often set up for not honoring these
tickets, that the freight is not paid, or, at least, that enough
has not been paid upon the luggage, and the emigrant is
either detained at Albany or compelled to pay additional
charges
"It will be seen fromn the testimony taken that immense sums
of money are drawn from these emigrants by overcharging, both
for their fare and the freight of their luggage; and, not satisfied
with this, some of the persons engaged in this forwarding business
are in the habit of defrauding them in the weight of their luggage,
by using false scales and giving false statements of the amounts
forwarded."




RIUNNERS-BOARDING-HOUSES.                69
"I have found in most cases (especially when they come in Testimony  of
large bodies)," says David Neligan, an old citizen of Albany, and Aln ageynt ot
the official agent of the Commissioners of Emigration at that Cr mof E8igonplace, " that the emigrants were'booked' in New York, meaning
that they had agreed for their passage, and were consigned to
some one of the forwarding-offices here. In such cases, they are
generally furnished with a'passage-ticket' purporting to be a
receipt in full for the conveyance of themselves and luggage to
their destination; but on their arrival here they find in many instances they must pay steamboat freight for their luggage, cartage
to the office or canal-boat, and canal freight for their luggage
again, which has all to be weighed; and here the poor strangers
begin to discover that they have been imposed upon. In many
cases, too, the emigrant discovers here, for the first time, that there
is a balance due on his passage-money (which balance varies from
one to twenty dollars), and is so endorsed on his ticket, and which
he must pay on pain of detention and forfeiture of all he has previously paid. In other cases, the contract is to pay half the
money in advance, and the other half at the end of the journey;
but I have never known an instance of this kind in which the
balance of the money was not exacted in Albany, although their
destination may be in the far West or Canada. Remonstrance in
such cases is utterly in vain, and the poor emigrant is compelled
to submit, and frequently at a very great sacrifice of convenience,
and even of physical requirements."
We will now enter more closely into an examination of the Tfruede chier
three most flagrant modes of ill-treatment and fraud, namely, 1st,
False weighing; 2d, Overchargiang the emigrant for translportation of himself and tuggage; 3d, Bruttal treatment on the part
of agents and runners.
The ordinary prices from New York and Albany by steamer and False weighing.s
canal were very low. The price paid by the forwarding-houses for
passage on deck of the steamboats from New York to Albany and
Troy was uniformly fifty cents for each passenger, including fifty
pounds of luggage, and all extra luggage fifteen cents per hundred
pounds; from Albany to Buffalo regularly fifty cents, and exceptionally only one dollar for steerage passage, forty pounds of luggage free, and extra luggage thirty-six and a half cents per hundred




70              RINNERs-BOARDING-HosmE6.
pounds. The emigrant, however, was never charged less than
five dollars from New York to Buffalo, and one dollar for every
one hundred pounds extra luggage; and the enormous differences
between the prices paid by the forwarding-houses and charged to
the emigrants were divided among the former and their soliciting
agents or runners.
The prices of conveying passengers from Buffalo to the cities
and villages on the upper and lower lakes varied between $1 and
$5. Thus, for the fore part of the season of 1847, they were on
the upper lakes, for the first two months, $3 each, and from $1 25
to $1 50 on the lower lakes; after that the forwarding-houses
paid $2 on the upper and $1 on the lower lakes, and towards the
close of the season the prices were raised to $5 on the upper and
$2 on the lower lakes. The lowest prices charged to the emigrant were from New York to Cleveland, $5 50; ]Milwaukee and
Chicago, $9 50 and $10; Cincinnati, $12; Louisville, $13; St.
Louis, $14; and Galena, $16.
Testimony of   "From the opening of navigation in 1847 till 31st day of
Charles Cook,
b        ook-keeper Suly," says Charles Cook (a book-keeper in an emigrant fbrhousee.    warding-house), "forwarding companies paid  the transportation lines for steerage passengers by canal, river, and lake, from
New  York to Chicago, $3, including 65 lbs. luggage; they
charged emigrants from $5 to $8; luggage costs from about 75
cents per 100 lbs., and is charged from $1 50 to $2 per 100 lbs.
The actual cost for steerage passengers, in emigrant cars, from
Albany to Buffalo, thence to Chicago, is $6 50, for which the
emigrant pays $12; this includes 100 lbs. of luggage on the
river and an indefinite amount on the railroad; the usual
rate on the railroad is $1 25 per 100 lbs.  A  deduction
of $3 is made to all passengers who stop at Detroit or any
point this side, on the lower lakes; this costs the forwarding
companies about $5 50 by railroad; if on the canal (steerage),
the charge is $5, and it costs about $2. This is up to the 1st
of August; on the lakes the rates have advanced since the
Ist of August, $3, from  Buffalo to Chicago, and $1 on the
lower lakes."
Up to 1850 or 1855, only a very small percentage of emigrants
went West by railroad, but the prices asked and obtained from




RUNNERS-BOARDING-IIOUSES.                      71
them were none the less exorbitant, as will more fully appear
from the following list:
Price from New York.    Cost by Steamboat. Railroad.  By Lake.   Total.   Profit. Rates charged
Western emniTo Buffalo....... $6 00    $0 50    $4 00    $0 00    $4 50    $1 50 grantsfor railTo Cleveland.....   9 00  0 50    4 00       1 00    4 50      3 65
To Detroit....... 9 25    0 50     4 00      1 00     5 50     3 75
To Chicago....... 12 00      0     50  4 00   2 00    6 50      5 50
To Cincinnati..... 12 50   0 50    4 00cCn  3  50     8 00    4 50
To Pittsburg...... 10 50   0 50    4 00       3 00     7 50     3 00
To St. Louis...... 14 50   0 50    4 00      5 00      9 50     5 00
To Louisville..... 13 50  0 50     4 00     4 50      9 00    4 50
In addition to the payment of the above prices to the agents
of the railroad monopoly, the emigrants had to pay freight on
their luggage from  New  York to Albany, and  cartage from
steamboat to railroad depot, and then cartage at Buffalo, from
railroad to steamboat, and their freight on their baggage across
the lakes, collected by one of these same contracting agents,
located at 13uffalo, although the prices charged for tickets include
luggage fees.
All the above charges were, so to speak, legitimate, and,
although yielding a very handsome profit to the forwardinghouses, they were not so exorbitant as to take more than a few
dollars out of the pockets of the emigrants.  The profits realized,
however, by exacting these fares went exclusively into the pockets
of the New  York houses, for the emigrants on landing were
cheated into the belief that it was to their interest to buy at once
their tickets to their respective destinations (by which operation
the runner secured to himself two or three dollars more).  But
the New York houses were not so cruel as to injure the interests
of their Albany and Buffalo friends and correspondents. The
emigrant was their common victim, whom they would despoil so
long as he had anything left. The New York forwarders therefore, after having made their share out of him, handed the
emigrant over to their friends West, with the expectation that he
still had something out of which he could be defrauded.
When the passenger paid his fare in New York, it was the False weighing
general rule to say nothing to him about the extra luggage. Buffalo.




'72             RUNNERS —B  OARDING-1-IOUSES.
Overcharging for and false weighing of the latter formed one of
the chief sources of plunder of the Albany and Buffalo houses,
and, if enough could not be made in this way, the repayment of
the whole or part of the fare was exacted. The sworn testimony
of some of the parties interested and of disinterested witnesses
will more fully prove this.
Testimon  of   1. As to False Weighing. -" I know," says the above-menGeo. W.Daley.
tioned Geo. W. Daley, "that great frauds are practised in weighing luggage; a Mr. Weaver, in this city, did the weighing for
Smethurst & Co.; I have known him to make luggage tally from'25 to 40 per cent. more than it weighed; his scales are generally
wrong; he aimed to increase the weight about 33 per cent.; I
have weighed on his scales 274 lbs., when my actual weight was
about 170 lbs.; while I was with Smethurst as partner, I have
fixed the scales, or had them fixed, four or five times."
HenryBishop.    Henry Bishop sworn, and says: "I reside in the city of
Albany, and am clerk for Malburn & Co.; I have seen at the
emigrant forwarding-offices two separate tallies kept of the
weight of the luggage; one for settling with the emigrant, and
the other for settling with the owner of the boat.  There
was a difference between the tallies; it would vary about onethird; the tally that was kept for the boat was the true weight;
that for the passengers was made to overrun the true weight 300
or 400 lbs. in 800 or 900 lbs. I have seen G. W. Daley do this
at Smethurst's office, at No. 122 Pier, Albany, and also at 104
Pier, another of Smethurst's offices; this was a year ago. I
have seen this done three or four times; have seen no one do it
but Daley; was once in the employment of Smethurst; have
weighed baggage there; have never kept two tallies."
Agent of Ho-    T h           n     h.f 
land Emigra-    I have known men in the employment of Smeturst," says
tionSociety. Jonathan Brooks, Jr., agent of the Holland Emigration Society
in Albany, " to take their scale on board the boat and weigh luggage there. I have seen them, in weighing luggage, put their foot
upon the platform to increase the weight, and have spoken to
them on the subject.  I have lent them my scale, and had it
returned  out of order, invariably weighing  more  than it
should."




RUNNERS -BoADING-O-OUSES.              73
iBenjamin D. Quigg, being duly sworn, says " that he is deputy  s o t. t.
sergeant-at-arms of the House of the Assembly. Some few days bly.
since ]e went, by direction of the Committee, to investigate
frauds npon emigrants, to the office of IH. D. Smethurst, Pier
122, Albany, who is engaged in forwarding emigrants, to serve a
subpoena on said Smethurst and others, and saw a man weighing
luggage. After he left the office, I stepped on the scales, and
weighed myself, and weighed 163~ pounds by them. I then
went to the store of Corning, Horner & Co., and was weighed
upon their scales, and weighed 142- pounds. I weighed a young
man who was with me at the time on both scales, and found the
same relative difference to exist."
" A few days ago," deposes Josiah Clarke, of Albany, in No- Josiah Clarke.
vember, 1847, " I was weighed on H. D. Smethurst's scales, at his
office, 122 Pier, Albany, and weighed more than 200 pounds. I
had been weighed a week before, and weighed 169 pounds."
" I have frequently attended," testifies David Neligan, the David Neliga.
above-named agent of the Commissioners of Emigration, " to the
weighing of luggage at the office of Smethurst, and on his boats;
have detected and prevented frauds in the weight; in one instance,
I saw a lot of luggage weighed and marked at 700 pounds at the
above office; I thought the weight most extraordinary for so
small a lot, and went to Mr. Roach, who, I believe, was a partner of Smethurst, and asked him to come and weigh a lot of baggage, not telling him that I knew the weight at which it had
been set down; he came forward, and weighed it at 500 pounds.
I saw on one occasion an emigrant pay, at that office, $16 for 400
pounds to Detroit, and on another $59 freight on 1,600 pounds
to Milwaukee; have on many occasions known emigrants pay
from $2 50 to $6 for 100 pounds to Milwaukee and Chicago, and
in one instance, when the man objected to the price, he was told
that most of it went to the Government."
"A lot of eighty-six Hiollanders lay here waiting," writes an
anonymous Buffalo philanthropist, on July 18, 1847, to the Mayor
of Albany, "' that had paid in Troy over $1,150 for fare, $680 for
passage, and $433 for luggage. We weighed the luggage, and
the overweight, at a fair price, will not come to $75. Shipped by
P. O'HIern, New York, Emery Mathews, Troy."




74:           RUNNERS-BOARDING-HOUSES.
Oert charging,  2. R1elative to Overcharging, Repayment, and( Extra zLuggage.-The New York runners always required pay in advance,
giving a ticket on some person at Albany, generally on Roach &
Smethurst. When the emigrants arrived at Albany, this ticket
was often found to be a fraud, no one appearing there to pass
them forward.
Testimony of
Josiah Clarke.  Josiah Clarke, who had been most of the time for twenty
years in the passenger and freight business at Albany, being
sworn, said: " I know that the emigrant passenger business has
been carried on fraudulently for three or four years in this city;
frequently persons come on from New York with tickets which
they suppose are to take them through to Buffalo by railroad, and
find that they are to be provided with accommodation in the
steerage of a canal-boat on their arrival at Albany. They frequently pay passage from here to Buffalo, and the man furnishing tickets, instead of entering payment in full, enters on the
ticket $3 or some other sum'on accobunt' of passage, and the
nman is compelled to pay over again as much as would have been
sufficient to carry him through in the first instance. I have known
a great number of instances of this kind."
dGerauded by i George Thomas, on October 13, 1847, agreed with a person
in the city of New York to pay $20 for the passage of himself
and family to Pittsburg, and to pay for freight not over $1 per
100 pounds; and he received a ticket and was directed to. call
upon Henry D. Smethurst, in this city. On arriving in this city,
he went to Smethurst's office, who received the ticket, and then
charged him $29 for extra luggage. Deponent told him of his
contract in New York, and asked Smethurst for his ticket back;
he refused to give it, telling deponent to help himself.
Win.  P. Pfaff,
emigrant run-  William P. Pfafi, one of the German runners of Smethurst at
ner.     Albany, and one of the meanest of the whole gang, said: " I spend
most of my time in transferring passengers from steamboats to
the office and canal boats; Mr. Smethurst has no established
price to charge passengers; most of the contracts are made in
New York, and the passengers are consigned to him; luggage is
not weighed in New York; he has no established price for luggage; sometimes the passengers contract in New York; if not,
Smethurst charges what he pleases; passengers ordinarily think




RuNNims-BOARDMG-HorusEs.                75
that the price paid in New York for passage included all their
luggage; the runners in New York encourage them in that belief;
Smethurst's agents, I presume, do the same; Smethurst employed
runners in New York; I think in almost all cases passengers are
displeased and disappointed when they are called upon to pay for
their luggage; they say that they have already paid it, and insist
upon it that they have done so; Smethurst exacts pay of them,
and in some instances detains their luggage till he is paid; his
charges are such as suit him, without reference to the convenience or will of the passenger; the exaction is arbitrary and must
be paid, if the passenger has the means; when a passenger refuses
to go on to his place of destination, Smethurst never refunds
the money already paid; if a passenger who contracts for a passage
to Chicago pays enough to go to Buffalo, and leaves the rest unpaid,
he is never permitted to go beyond Albany till the balance is
paid."
The most important evidence is that of Mr. Neligan. He says: David neligan
citing various
"I vy attention has been called to many cases of fraud practised cases of extoron American citizens, equally flagrant with those upon foreigners, zens.
some of which have already received the attention of your Committee. I will only mention a few more.
" Amasa Prescott, of Belfast, Me,, paid $40 for two passengers
from Boston to Milwaukee, by railroad to Buffalo, and cabin passage on the lakes. These tickets were refused at Albany, but an.
offer was made to convey him by canal and steerage on the lake,
which would make a difference of $16. This statement was made
by Prescott to Senator Beach. I do not know how he settled it,
as I did not see him afterwards.
" Mrs. M. Frier, of Syracuse, paid $6 50 from New York to
Syracuse by railroad, consigned to Smethurst in this city; but
Smethurst refused to send her by that mode, and I had to procure
a gratuitous pass from E. Corning, Esq., by railroad, Smethurst
refusing to refund.
" I have seen many of the latter class who, upon discovering
the fraud, destroyed their tickets and proceeded on their journey,
rather than encounter the delay or trouble of seeking redress.
"I will mention a few other cases of emigrants.         Same citing
"James Heslop, a Scotchlman, paid Smethurst & Co. thirty grants de.




76            iRuNNERS-BOARDmNG-HOUSES.
sovereigns, or $145 25, for three persons to Port Washington,
Ohio. The ordinary expense of the journey at that time (1st
August) was $8 61. W. Reese, a Welshman, paid for two
persons and two hundred and fifty pounds luggage from New
York to Milwaukee, $27 36; but, on arriving at Buffalo, the
ticket was repudiated by the agent, and Reese, I am informed,
and several others in a like predicament, had to pay their fare
over the lake. Reese returned to Albany to seek redress, but in
vain.
"Mr. Carron and wife paid $21 to Milwaukee from New
York. The steamboat tickets on the river were refused, and
he had to pay one dollar and fifty cents for passage, and seventyfive cents for luggage (although he had less than a hundred
pounds).  He had to go twice to New York to prosecute
Selover (the agent), who was indicted, and afterwards paid his
fare by railroad, losing the whole sum which lie paid originally
for his passage, besides expenses of two trips to New York,
detention, etc.
"' Samuel Collis paid six sovereigns for five passengers from
New York to Toronto. Smethurst demanded thirteen dollars
more. On his stating his inability to pay it, he was told he
could go no further. His Honor the Mayor, and Thurlow Weed,
Esq., gave him twelve dollars, and I procured a passage to his
destination for ten dollars. His affidavit, taken before his Honor
the Recorder, is in my possession.
"James Clark paid nine dollars for three full passengers from
New York to Cayuga Bridge by railroad from Albany. Smethurst refused to send him by railroad, and purchased his ticket
back for one dollar and twenty-five cents.
" James Lind, a Scotchman, with five children, from  New
York to IIamilton, C. W., paid $26 50.  At Rochester, the
captain of the boat told him  he could not send him  to
Canada, as he had received but ten dollars, and he must have
three more for his trouble.  Lind had no ticket or evidence
whatever, as Smethurst said it was not necessary, and the captain
was an honorable man. I was present at the making of this
agreement myself, and supposed all was right, until I received a
letter from ]MIr. Cook, editor of the Rochester.Deznocrat, inform



RUNNERS-BOARDING-HOUSES.                 77
ing me that Lind and his family were in the Rochester Almshouse,
and requested me to get the money back from Smethurst. This
Smethurst refused to do, but he sent an order to his agent at
Rochester to forward Lind immediately. I know nothing further
of this case.
" I deem it unnecessary to increase this list, although I could
do so to a much greater extent."
One of the most impudent frauds which are recorded in the Fraud on two
Report of the Committee is that one perpetrated by two German grats.
runners, by the name of Pfaff and Schmidt, on two of their
countrymen, a certain Christian Duensing and Winm. HIeuer, both
passengers per ship ifinna from Bremen, and natives of HIanover. Each of them had a family, consisting of himself, wife, and
four children, making in all four and one-half full passengers,
and each paid in!Nfew York the sum of forty dollars and fifty cents
for the transportation of himself and family and luggage to Chicago. On arriving at Albany, Pfaff snatched the tickets and receipts from them, saying;" These are papers which you should have
delivered before, for they belong to me;" and Schmidt made Duensing as well as Heuer pay ninety dollars in addition to their fare, and
forty-seven dollars for extra luggage. On this occasion, Schmidt
said: " You must not imagine we can carry you so cheap; great
deal of this money is to go to the government of the canal, which
has laid out icpwards of eiyghteen milions of dollars;" he said, if
lie took a cent more than was due, "may his wife and children
become blind; you must take me for an honest man, for I am
your countryman-I also am German."
3. Relative to t/he Treatment of the -Emigrants  on the Cruel treatment
TFay.-It was extremely cruel and brutal. While they had room  passengers.
enough on the large tHudson River steamers, they were crowded
like beasts in the canal-boats, and were frequently compelled to
pay their passage over again, or to be thrown overboard by the
captain. Says the notorious Smethurst, in his examination on
November 15, 1847:
" The year before last, Captain Jacobs took a lot of Germans Testimony oi
from Roach & Co., of this city, bound to Buffalo, received his Smethurt.




78             RUNNERS-BOADInNG-lOUSES.
Exltyof)andpay, and extorted payment again from them by threatening to
-bot cap- put them ashore at Rome.
" During the present season, Sterling sent a lot of passengers
by canal-boat J. P?. Jacobs — Jacobs, Captain - to Buffalo or
Rochester, and paid Captain Jacobs their passage; but on the
way out the latter compelled them to pay it over again."
Josiallh Clarke. i" Passengers are frequently crowded," says Josiah Clarke,'" into
the steerage of a boat half-full of merchandise and luggage, so that
they have no accommodation, and are sometimes compelled to
pay their passage over again by the captain. I have often thought
something should be done to protect passengers against the outrageous frauds of crowding them into the hold of an old canalboat at a large price, when there are a great many good and convenient boats ready and willing to take them forward at half the
money."
Rev. J. N. Wyc.  Reverend Dr. J. N. Wyckoff writes: " I have seen a canalboat, first so filled with luggage as to reach within four feet of the
deck, and then more people required to be housed upon the luggage than could be laid down in two parallel rows from the stem
to the stern of the boat."
A cc ommo d a- The lake steamers did not offer any better accommodations.
tions on Lake
steamers.  We quote, as an instance, the propeller Phcmzix, which, on
November, 1847, was destroyed by fire while it had two hundred
and seventy emigrants on board, who almost all perished in the
flames. "I went on board the Phoenaix (before she left Buffalo
on her last trip)," testifies Elic Van Valkenburgh, "and found
her almost entirely filled with merchandise; so much so that
passengers could have no accommodations below deck. There
was a stateroom overhead, to which the emigrants had not access;
and their only accommodations were such as could be found on
deck, with a roof or deck overhead, supported by posts, with
no side enclosings. There were plenty of steamers at Buffalo at
the time, and of the first class, on board of which they could have
been shipped at two dollars each. The propeller remained in
port some ten days after the emigrants were put on board."
Testimony of   "I left the emigrant business," deposes James Roach, one of
aruner~ach' the lowest runners, "because I was sick of it; the way business




R'NNERS-BOARDING-IHOUSES.               79
was done dissatisfied me; my partners were not such men as I
like to do business with, particularly Daley; his treatment of
passengers was uncivil and brutal; he has often been known to
personally abuse and assault them, and otherwise impose upon
them. Another reason of my leaving the business was, there was
too much money collected from the emigrants. We were employing too many men at high wages to make the business profitable, unless extortion was resorted to."
As stated above, it was one of the regular tricks of the run- stoom.
ners to promise to one of a large party of emigrants, who had
or was supposed to have influence with them, free passage and
other considerations, if he procured their patronage for a certain
line. The individual who thus made himself a tool of the runners against the interest of his friends, was called a stool. The
following testimony of George W. Daley will explain this more
fully:
"The following," says he, " is a copy of a letter received by Mr Geol wt iDa
Smethurst from Mr. Roach while I was a partner with them in
the emigrant business, in Albany. There have been a number of
similar letters written by different members of the firm; they are
of frequent occurrence. Mr. Smethurst opened the letter and
handed it to me, and I have kept it.
"'NEWw YORK, May 20, 1847.
"'MR. SMETHURST:'SIR: There is three hundred emigrants on the Rochester, tonight. There is three families on her that are booked by Brische;
they? are friends of Mr. Swarts, and their friends in Buffalo are
people of standing, and you must put them on a boat where they
will be comfortable, for Brische has been to see me about them,
and also Mr. Swarts. You must be easy with them about their
luggage, and weigh it straight.  All that have my tickets, put
them  throu7gh; the head man is a "stool;" make him jump.
Send down Van Toble's tickets. I shall not send you any money
till I come up. I think that I shall make some arrangements
with Noyes, so that he will not be opposition here. Run the 0.
P. line strong this week.   Yours,        JAMIEs ROACH.'




80              RUNNERs-BOARDING-tIOUSES.
"' The O. P. line' meant,' Rob the passengers all you can, and
divide the money with me.' The proceeds of the robbery were
not divided among the members of the firm  generally, but simply among those who personally participate in it.
" The' stool' above referred to was an individual who had
influence with the passengers, and had procured their patronage
for Smethurst's line, in consideration of a promise of his own passage and $100.  The passage he had for himself and three members of his family, but the $100 he did not get.'Stooling' of
a similar character is an everyday occurrence, but the'stools'
seldom get off as well as this one. They are generally charged
more than other passengers.  They submit to it rather than be
exposed to their companions as traitors to their interests.
se  de.tau-    " The'stools' are not paid what they are promised one time
in twenty. When they demand their pay, they are threatened
with exposure to their companions, whose interests and rights
they have so grossly violated, which is generally sufficient to
silence them. The case of the watch is in point. The English'stool' in that case thought he was arrested by an officer of justice, and not only gave up the watch, but paid a handsome sum
besides. The ojicer was in fact another runner, in the interest
of the one who gave.him the watch."
Profits  of run- 1
ners shared by   All these nefarious operations were openly committed by the
shipping-housessteamboats, runners, but the shipping-houses, steamboats, and railroads shared
and railroads.  5
the profits with them in a greater or lesser degree. Everybody
was aware for what purpose these runners were kept; every newspaper reported almost daily their villainous transactions, but
neither the public authorities nor the people dared to interfere
with them. Now and then a complaint was made by one of the
victims, but for a person unacquainted with the law and the language of the country it was difficult to obtain redress.  In cases
where it was probable that an exposure would be made, the matter was hushed up, the emigrant received his money back, and
was by the quickest route sent West. Thus these runners for
Power of Tun.
ners.    years infested the lower parts of the city, and by their means,
recklessness, prodigality, and political influence, controlled the
elections, and had a powerful voice in the State capital. Hiad it
not been for their objections, the law creating the Commissioners




RUNNERS-BOARDING-HOUSES.                81
of Emigration would have passed two or three years sooner.
Even the Commissioners were unable to do away with these leeches
so long as they had no landing-place from which the runners
could be excluded. ~When, in 1855, they finally succeeded in
obtaining a lease of Castle Garden, they at once put a stop to the
operations of these creatures. It is said that on one day several
hundreds of them sailed for California, where a large portion fell
into the hands of the vigilance committee just then organized at
San Francisco, while others tried to carry on the old business of
defrauding and swindling, and some perished in the filibuster
expeditions in 3Mexico and Central America. In the days of
which we have been speaking, the runner business had culminated.
These men were masters of the situation, and it was only by
gradual efforts that the Commissioners of Emigration were enabled
to take from them the sources of plunder. Even in their exam- Their boldness.
ination before the Committee of the Assembly, they found it unnecessary to conceal any of their frauds. They even openly and
boldly avowed and testified to their own depravity.
It is a fact," says Henry Vail, a New York runner, " that I Testimony of
Vail and other
and others engaged in the business get all we can from passen- runners.
gers, except that I never shave a lady that is tracvelling alone;
it is bad enough to shave a man; I have all I get over a certain
amount which is paid to the transportation companies."
" I have been in Smethurst's office," continues Charles Cook,
another New York employee in the emigrant passage business,
" when Irish, Dutch (German), and English emigrants were there,
and have heard Roach tell his men to promise them all they
wanted, that is, they should have railroad passage and all of their
luggage free; the same persons I saw afterwards with canal-boat
tickets. Roach said he kept the party called the Sixteen at a great
loss for the purpose of controlling the Dutch emigrants; the
Irish were worth nothing; the English alone would not pay, but
putting the Sixteen men, or fighting men, with them to help
Brische, fromn whom he was obtaining Dutch passengers, he could
make a good stake; that there was no use of talkging of being
honest while in the passage business; all he wanted was to get
hold of the cattle; he did not care how or what they were
promised; they would be compelled to point up in Albany while




82             RUNNERS — BOARDING-HOUSES.
Smethurst and a Dutchman were there. I have been in Albany
and seen the luggage of emigrants weighed, and have seen the
men that took the tally add to the weight called out by the
weigher so as to average about fifty pounds to the passenger over
the true weight; I have seen it done by men in the employ of
Smethurst & Co., and the charge collected by them; I have also
seen the same thing done in Malburn & Co.'s office in the
absence of Malburn; I have seen Smethurst collect lake charges
on luggage, and receipt only upon the canal ticket, compelling the
emigrant to pay lake charges again at Buffalo; I have seen Daley,
Smethurst, and Weaver, on two or three occasions, collect from
passengers their passage, and freight on their luggage, and endorse
on their tickets due upon this a balance in Buffalo.
The Sixteen.    "~ The men called the Sixteen party have their headquarters
at 16 Front Street, headed by Huested, Hlart, and others.  I
have heard several of the party say, after they had been booking
emigrant passengers, that they had made a big thing of it, and at
the same time they had skinned them of their money, and
that they had skinned English and Scotch out of sovereigns.
The English runners generally get the luggage of passengers in
their office, then, if the passenger does not take passage with
them; they make a heavy charge for storage.
" The notorious James Roach says that he considers those
employed by Government more vzauahle as runners in consequence
of their official stcatio  than others of equal capacity, and especially that a mall connected with the Custom  House as
night-watch has an advantage over other men in booking passengers."
Prices paid to  In Albany, the prices paid by the emigrant forwarding companies to runners varied from $40 to $100 per month. "I have
been paid by Smethurst & Co. $150 per week," says George
W. Daley, " from the 3d or 5th of August to the 20th of October
last, for the purpose of keeping me from interfering with their
business by establishing an opposition office. The New York
runners averaged about $70 per month, and in Albany about $55
per month. There are about twenty runners in this city, and in
New York Smethurst & Co., Malburn & Co., and E. Mathews
employ and pay about sixty runners, and indirectly about one hun



RUNNERS-BOARDING-HOUsES.                   83
dred, this includes runners, boarding-house keepers, and boardinghouse runners"
"I have runners employed in New York," testifies Henry D. Sstatent lrs tohs
salaries tO his
Smethurst, on November 15, 1847, "and the following are their runners.
names and salaries:
George Cornell,..    $30 00 per week.
Charles Gallagher,...      25 00 "   "
Richard Cornell,.      25 00 "   "
William F. Hart,...   25 00 "   "
Aaron Piersons,....      20 00 "   "
John O'Donnell,.....          15 00 
-    rady,.                    15 00 "   "
Jesse Olmstead,....        25 00 "   "
Hiram Ketchumn,.....    18  00 "   c
George Burns,.18 0....              "
Henry Shanfroid,....            20 00  
Sullivan,......  12 50 "   "
George McDonald,.. $600 for the season
-    amilton,.. 600 "         c"
Hiram Huested,.....        20 00 per week.
John Leonard,......   18 00 "   "
Chris. Penny,....     10 00 "   "
William Ford,.....  10 00 "   "
Charles Andrews,.....    20 00 "   "
"The following persons reside and transact business for me at
Albany:
James Roach,.... $2,000 00 for three months.
W. F. Sterling,...       750 00 "    c 
George WV. Daley,...  1,500 00 "   "
Adolphus Shoemaker,                    60 00 "    c"     "
Felix McCann,....   100 00 "    "        "
Thomas Sales,....   75 00 "    "
Charles Bartell,...       50 00 "    "      "
Henry Snyder,....   50 00 "   "
Sidney Goodrich,. 50 00 "   "       "




84             RuNNERS -BoARDING-HlOUSES.
Samuel Bryington,....   40 00 for three months.
Peter Finnigan,...           30 00 "           "
iHenry Nichols,....   45 00 "   "   "
William Kerney,....      40 00 "   "       "
Sylvester Trowbridge,..    600 00 for the season.
J. L. Weaver,....    75 00 per month.
William P. Pfaff,.... 50 00 "    "
William Smith,...   50 00 "
" All these men have been in my employment during the present season. They have worked by the season, month, or week,
most of the time; part of this time I paid them a commission."
" I have," continues James Roach, "looked over the list of persons mentioned by Mr. Smethurst as being employed by him, and
it is correct as far it goes; the following names should be added:
O. B. Teal, New York,...  $800 00 for the season.
Samuel Bennett,....  75 00 per month.
Philip Caswell,.                      600 00 " season.
Hiram Johnson,...  75 00 I" month.
Robert Miller,....  600 00 "  season.
Stephen Gordon,.5 00 " month.
George Dunning,...   75 00 
Charles Cook,.                        300 00 "    "
And others to whom we paid small sums at various times during
the season, among whom was Ralph Schoyer at $37 50 per week,
etc."
The list of these frauds, continued, as before stated, until the
year 1855, could be multiplied adinfinitwm, but the in stances which
we have enumerated are sufficient to show the utter helplessness
of the emigrants against the imposition and deception which were
practised upon them. It is a reproach to humanity that these
infamies continued so long.




CHAPTER V.
THE BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION OF THE STATE OF
NEW YORK.
THE extortions and frauds which, in all the forms that rapacity Necessity ot lecould invent or suggest, had been practised for many years, finally, protegton tof
in  8  and 846, assumed such fearful proportions, and beca made appain 1845 and 18467 assumed such fearful proportions, and became rent.
the object of such general abhorrence, that legislation for the
protection of emigrants seemed the only possible remedy. The
community finally began to understand that it had to suffer in
the same if not in a greater proportion than the emigrants themselves, if the latter were not secured from the cupidity of the
runners and mercenary attempts of the agents. Thus humanity
and sound policy equally indicated the necessity for a thorough
change of the old system, and a strong desire manifested itself
among all political parties to reform the existing laws.
The problem to be solved was to protect the new-comer, to
prevent him from being robbed, to facilitate his passage through
the city to the interior, to aid him with good advice, and, in
cases of most urgent necessity, to furnish him with a small amount
of money; in short, not to treat him as a pauper, with the ultimate view of making him an inmate of the Almshouse, but as an
independent citizen, whose future career would become interwoven with the best interests of the country.
There were two adverse interests at work desirous of control-Adverse inter —
ests seeking
ling and regulating all measures relating to the emigrant. The gtrolfemicity authorities, and especially the Almshouse Commissioners,
endeavored to have concentrated in their own hands the right to
provide remedies and suggest reforms. Their sphere of action
did not extend beyond the city limits; all they cared for was an
increase of their power by resuscitating and amending the existing
laws. On the other hand, there were a number of leading and
public-spirited citizens, journalists, merchants, influential members
of the Chamber of Commerce, and philanthropists, who, being




86           THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
impressed with the necessity of a radical change and a more
liberal legislation for the benefit of the emigrant, were opposed to
the action of the city officials. Among the latter, Comptroller
Ewen, Assistant Alderman Purser, and the Almshouse Commissioners were the most active, while, among the citizens at large,
Messrs. Leopold Bierwirth, Robert B. /Miinturn, Thurlow Weed,
Andrew Carrigan, and Archbishop Hughes labored with untiring
zeal and energy.
Creation of   The efforts of both parties finally led to the Act of May 5,
Board of Commigation be 1847, creating the [Board of the Commissioners of Emigration of
Act of May 5,
47, ofnd cayu-  the State of New York. This result, however, was just the rees thereof.
verse of what had been intended at the beginning by the city
authorities. In order to enable the reader to properly understand
the operations of the conflicting interests, it is necessary to give a
short statement of the means by which the Legislature was induced to pass the above act.
The Common Council, at the conclusion of their investigation
of the frauds committed by the Clerk of the Mayor, became fully
convinced of the pecuniary importance of the subject of emigration. Since 1842, not a year passed without some effort on their
part to correct the most flagrant of the abuses practised on the
emigrants, and to extend to them more effectual protection; but,
however well-meaning some members of the Common Council
were, the influence of those who lived by fleecing the poor aliens
was sufficient to, and did, control the majority, and thus repressed
every attempt to effect the much-needed reform.
From 1845 to 1847, all the efforts of the city officials were exclusively directed towards having the ]Mayor vested with the
power of bonding and commuting alien passengers.
Rti e o f  enda-   Thus, in his Report for 1845, the Comptroller, General John
troller Ewen
and Alderman Ewen, recommended application to the Legislature for an amendPurser.
ment of the law, so as to authorize the MlTayor to require the payment of one dollar for each of the alien steerage passengers in lieu
of bonding them, in all cases where he should deem  it for the
public interest to do so. lie prepared the draft of a law to effect
this object, and submitted it to the Common Council, which advocated its adoption during the session of the Legislature in 1846.
On September 29, 1846, AMr. G. II. Purser, then an Alderman,




THE COMMISSIONERS   OF EMIGRATION.          87
who took a lively interest in the subject, reported, as Chairman
of a select Committee of the Common Council, among other
things, as follows:
" To avoid the importation of persons utterly unable to maintain themselves, from infirmity of mind or body, and who must
necessarily become a permanent charge, your Committee believe
that discretionary power should be given to the Mayor to exact
bonds in such cases, but distinctly divesting the bondsmen of any
authority to maintain them at any private irresponsible establishment. Nearly two millions of dollars being now annually expended in the transportation of passengers to this port alone, it
appears unreasonable that the tax-payer should be burdened in
proportion to the benefits conferred on a particular class of the
community. Voluntarily the passenger agents will never permit
the commutation-money which they receive to pass into the city
treasury.
" The unceasing hostility of these men towards any modification of the law was indicated in their unscrupulous exertions last
winter (1846), at Albany, to postpone the action of the Legislature on the subject. The draft of a law submitted by the Comptroller, and approved unanimously by the Common Council, was
permitted to fail without even defence or examination. The Lawgobbied
turegfor bepassenger-brokers even succeeded in getting through the Legisla- netut ofopasse,:
ture a law exclusively for their own benefit, and under circumstances which we hope may be eventually exposed. An amount
of fifty cents per head is levied upon every steerage, and two dollars
upon every cabin passenger, and designated hospital-money; and
for many years, instead of being applied to the support of the
emigrant in sickness or destitution, has been appropriated to the
building of churches and the maintenance of sailor boardinghouses. The law, lobbied through the Legislature, provides that
the Marine Hospital at Staten Island shall receive the alien passengers, when sick, for the period of one year after arrival, though
previously this burden devolved upon the bondsmen, who thus
increase their profits to the extent of five thousand dollars annually. During the next session of our Legislature, we trust this
filnd may command the attention of our delegation, and that it




88          THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
may be applied to uses better calculated to lighten the taxation of
our citizens.
" Your Committee feel convinced that as a financial measure
the subject is important, and that some policy should be adopted
of a permanent character. There is every reason to believe that
emigration to this port will increase rather than diminish, and
that legislation should equally regard the interest of the city and
the emigrant. To repose the duty of alleviating the sufferings of
the alien stranger to a class of men prompted by every selfish consideration to avoid the responsibility, is to legalize a system of
outrage and oppression. The claims of the sick and destitute
should be entertained and relieved by the authorities of our city,
and not be decided by those interested in denial or delay.
"Your Committee have before them a memorial in favor of
the proposed alteration of the law, signed by the acting presidents
of the Irish, German, British, Scotch, and Welsh emigrant societies, which states that' the change would increase the revenues
of the city, and secure the emigrants from the frauds now practised upon them.' Resolutions adopted at a large public meeting
evince that the subject is one of public interest.
" The sympathies of the adopted citizens have been enlisted
especially in this question from the peculiar opportunity they
enjoy of becoming familiar with the workings of the present system, and a natural desire which they entertain not only to secure
the emigrant from the treatment to which he has been for years
exposed, but gradually to establish a fund from  commutation
adequate to the maintenance of the alien poor.
" For these reasons, a law should be passed, authorizing the
Mayor or Recorder to require the payment of a commutation fee
of one dollar for each passenger, or bonds at his election. The
law might be rendered still more advantageous by requiring that
each surety to any bond taken under the act duly make oath at
the time of becoming surety that he is a householder, resident in
the city of New York, intending to reside there permanently, and
worth the sum or sums in which he is bound, over and above all
his debts, and over and above all liabilities, whether by bond or,suretyship, or otherwise.
" The propriety of reserving to the Corporation the power of




THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.           89
requiring passengers to be bonded in certain cases appears obvious
on examining the history of emigration, and the unscrupulous
conduct of European governments and cities in transferring to
our country aged and decrepit paupers, and occasionally even
criminals. Without this provision to arrest abuses so obviously
calculated to demoralize the community and increase the burden
of taxation, any change in the law would be impolitic. The admnission of such persons would bring odium, however unmerited,
upon the industrious and intelligent emigrant, and, as far as your
Committee had the opportunity of consulting the opinions of citizens by adoption, they appeared strongly in favor of the proposed
restriction."'
On January 18, 1847, the Comptroller recommended to the
Common Council that a further application be made to the Legislature for the passage of a law, vesting in the Mayor the power of
commuting or bonding alien passengers. " As the enactment of
this law," says the Comptroller, " will afford partial indemnity to
the city, without drawing a dollar from the treasury of the State
or imposing any additional burden upon the immigrants, it is believed that a very moderate degree of interest on the part of the
City Delegation in the Legislature will serve to secure its
passage."
By this time, public opinion had become aroused to the import- Ptriesfp Oiniotn
ance of the proposed changes. The subject was discussed in the fo.lt'of lesss..
Weed, CarriChamber of Commerce of New York, and the opposition to the  an..anldAarchinsufficient measures suggested by the Common Council took a
definite form early in the session of 1847, in a letter written by
Robert DB. Minturn, a distinguished merchant of New York, to
5MVr. Thurlow Weed, the influential editor of the Albany
Evening Jou'rnal. Mr. Weed for two or three years previously
had been doing what he could individually, and through the
columns of the Journal, for the protection of the immigrants, whose
sufferings he had daily occasion to witness at Albany, where the
canal boat-runners were, if possible, still more hungry and rapacious than the boarding-house scalpers in New York.
In consequence of Mr. MIinturn's letter, which first took a
comprehensive view of the subject, Mr. Weed went to New York




90          THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
to confer with Mr. Minturn, Mr. Andrew Carrigan, and the late
Archbishop Hughes, in regard to the details of a law which should
Alarm of Almis.        eM
aholllerCoalls- fuilly secure the emigrant. These preliminary steps alarmed the
Almshouse Commissioners, to whom the power, both in a pecuniary and political sense, was of too much value to be surrendered.
Those Commissioners induced the Common Council to press the
immediate passage of a law to protect emigrants from fraud and
imposition. That, however, was simply a flank movement. The
provisions of their bill merely kept the word of promise to the ear
of the emigrants. In the meantime, the real friends of reform
prepared a substitute, which, when the Assembly bill came to the
Senate, was offered by Senator F. F. Backus, from Monroe
County. The various influences unfavorably affected by the substitute offered by Dr. Backus united and made desperate efforts
to defeat it. An earnest but unsuccessful party appeal was made
to senators by the late John Van Buren and other distinguished
politicians.
eolutions of   Alarmed at the aspect of the question in the Senate, the
TCommonCouni','ugieng on New York Common Council, on March 15, 1847, took up this
tdoIption of a 
~la to protect important subject and passed a series of resolutions for the purNew Ypork City
and alien pas-pose of submitting them to a public meeting, to be called irrespective of party. The Mayor approved these resolutions on
March 17, 1847:
" WAereas," they say in their proceedings, "The number of
emigrant passengers annually arriving at this port has steadily
advanced from 11,501 in 1829 to 114,000 in 1846; and
I' Wtereas, The Passenger Act adopted in 1824, by imposing
the bonding system exclusively, has gradually enabled mercenary
brokers and agents to assume the charge and custody of the sick
and destitute stranger, and from various causes greatly increased
the burdens of taxation; and
" TWhereas, The annual expenses of the Almshouse Department have now reached the enormous sum of three hundred and
fifty thousand dollars; during the month of January, five thousand three hundred and forty-three persons being sustained at the
expense of the city, and out-door relief extended to nearly three
thousand; and




THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.           91
" Wh/ereas, A bill correcting these important evils, and protecting the interests of the city and the emigrant, has been recently
passed with great unanimity by the Assembly of this State, with
the concurrence of the Common Council, and various emigrant
societies, irrespective of party, but has been arrested in the
Senate, either from misunderstanding the nature and magnitude of the evil, or from the influence of those pecuniarily interested in its defeat, and whose profits are partially derived from
the injustice and inhumanity connected with the present system;
therefore,
"' Resolved, That the Common Council earnestly and confidently urge on the Senate the prompt adoption of a law which may
afford protection to the city and the alien passengers, and which,
by providing a uniform commutation fee of one dollar for every
industrious emigrant, and making it the duty of public authorities
to retain them in the event of sickness and destitution, will effectually prevent the extortions now practised in Europe in relation
to the rates of commutation, and secure them, on their arrival,
from the treatment to which they are now exposed in private almshouses and hospitals.
"' esoloved, That the bonding reserved under the proposed
law is expressly for the' infirm, decrepit, and those likely to become a permanent charge,' and is a distinct, plain, and reasonable
provision, calculated to prevent the kingdoms of Europe indiscriminately introducing into our city persons from their respective
poor-houses, physically and mentally incapacitated for labor, to
become necessarily a permanent charge upon our public or private
charities.
" Resolved, That his Honor the Mayor be requested to call a
public meeting of the citizens, irrespective of party, to take this
subject into consideration, and urge on the Legislature the necessity and justice of prompt action.
"' Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed from both
Boards to make arrangements for such public meeting, and prepare suitable memorials to the Legislature."
The meeting alluded to in the foregoing resolutions was called MTabetrnacg to
sup port views
for March 22, 1847, to be held at the Tabernacle in Broadway. ofSC ommon
Council.




92          THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
Mr. Carrigan, on learning the names of two prominent Demo
crats who had been spoken of to preside at the meeting, called
on themn, and frankly and fairly stated the merits of the whole
question. Those gentlemen declined to serve; and, finally, Mr.
Charles O'Conor was designated.  Mr. O'Conor, before taking
the chair, had made himself acquainted with the merits of the
two bills, and unhesitatingly approved of that submitted by Dr.
Backus. The speakers named for the occasion were Messrs.
Charles O'Conor and John McKeon, each of whom was expected
to sustain the views of the Almshouse Commissioners and the
Common Council. These speakers also, in preparing themselves
for the occasion, possessed themselves of information which entirely changed the programme,
Meeting con.
trolled by in:   The Tabernacle was densely filled at an early hour. The
dzeen.dentcit question to be passed upon having in the meantime been extensively discussed, the independent citizens took the matter
into their own hands, and the majority of those present, instead
of responding to the principles of the bill urged by the Common
Council, were in favor of a law which, while it looked to the protection of the city, had regard also for the welfare of emigrants.
For this reason, the nomination first of Mr. Campbell, then of
Alderman Purser, who were in favor of the Common Council's
bill, for chairman, was rejected, and, on motion of Mr. Carrigan,
Charles O'Conor was called to the chair by acclamation, and, on
the same gentleman's motion, Charles H. Marshall, Moses H. Grinnell, James B. Nicholson, and G. W. Blunt were appointed Secretaries. James T. Brady and Alderman Purser addressed the
meeting for the Common Council, the latter offering resolutions
in support of the bill. John MecKeon took a broader and more
philanthropic view of the question, and submitted the following
resolutions, which, after those offered by Alderman Purser had
been rejected, were adopted by an emphatic majority:
Resolutions of  Wh" Wereas, The law of this State relative to passengers arrivMr. John Mc-Y
Keon.advising In  at the port of New York, as at present administered, has,creation of a'per capita tax failed alike to afford indemnity to the city and protection to the
and appo'int-    d alik to afford     to        and            to Ujie
ment of com-   {  
missioners to emigrant, causing a traffic in their sufferings which is abhorrent
administer the
fund.    to humanity, creating private hospitals and poor-houses, which




TIHE COMIISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.          93
give to the emigrant neither the food nor care proper to their
situation, alnd deny to their dying hours even the consolation of
religion; and, whereas, a bill has passed the I-louse of Assembly,
which tends in some measure to remedy these evils, and is now
before the Senate of the State, awaiting its action;
" Resolved, That, in the opinion of- this meeting, any and all
legislation on this'subject should be directed in that course which,
while it but advances the interests of the emigrant, will have reference to the complete indemnity of the city and State from their
support, and will not, at the same time, by imposing unnecessary
burdens on the honest ship-owner, tend to enhance the price of
passage and retard immigration from lands of starvation to lands
of plenty.
" Resolved, That the enactment of a law requiring, from the
master or consignee of any vessel arriving at this port with foreign
emigrants, the sum. of one dollar for each and every passenger,
with the privilege of exacting instead thereof, in cases of mental
or physical incapacity for self-support, where, from the total
want of relatives and friends, such persons are liable to become
charges to the city or State, bonds which will secure the city or
State for their support, will create a fund which, properly administered, will not only relieve the city and State from a heavy burden, but will greatly benefit the emigrant.
"'Resolved That, in the opinion of this meeting, it would be
advisable to separate the receipt and disbursement of the fund so
to be created from the rest of the city revenue, and place the
same in the hands of commissioners, whose high character and
moral integrity would, apart from all political considerations,
be the guarantee for. the proper administration of their duties.
" Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed to proceed
to Albany, and urge upon the Legislature the passage of a law
conformable to the policy of the preceding resolutions."
On motion of Mr. MeKeon, it was
" Resolved, That the chair proceed to appoint the Committee."
The Chairman then announced the following gentlemen as the
Committee: James Lee, George Montgomery, Miortimer Livingston, Theodore Sedgwick, and Andrew Carrigan.




94          THE COM]IISSIONERS OF EMIIGRATION.
On motion,
" Resolved, That the proceedings of this meeting be authenticated, and transmitted to the Senate and Assembly of the State
of [New York.'
Efforts of Mr.  Of the committee above named, Mr. Carrigan alone went to
Carrigan to seofbill. paageAlbany, and in a great measure it is due to his indefatigable
exertions that the Legislature finally passed the people's bill.
The Common Council likewise appointed a committee to proceed to Albany and oppose the passage of the bill. On that committee were two Whig aldermen, namely, Abraham Wakeman
and Thomas McElrath. These two aldermen were the personal
and political friends of M/r. Weed. The attention of neither had
been previously directed to the enormous frauds to which
emigrants were subjected. But as they were just and fair men,
the facts, when presented to them, had the effect produced upon
all impartial minds. MIessrs. Wakeman and McElrath returned
immediately to New York, and reported themselves in favor of
the measure which they had been sent to Albany to oppose.
The bill introduced by Dr. Backus and drafted by Senator Ira
Harris had the support, with one exception, of all the Whig
senators. That exception was the Hon. George Folsom, of New
Bill passed by York. It required the votes of eight Democratic senators, of which
the casting
tvohte oLinet. number seven only could be obtained, and this occasioned a tie
Gov. Gardincr
vote, so that the bill was finally passed by the casting vote of the
ILieutenant-Governor. That Lieutenant-Governor was the Hon.
Addison Gardiner, of Rochester.  Judge Gardiner, though
greatly and deservedly esteemed by his Democratic friends, was
accused by the excited opponents of the bill with listening too
readily to the representations of Mr. Weed, with whom  the
Lieutenant-Governor had been for many years on terms of warm
personal friendship. The simple truth was that Judge Gardiner
was too enlightened and philanthropic to allow any considerations
but those of justice and duty to influence his action upon suich
a question.  The same motives and feelings prompted Mr.
John E. Develin, of the Assembly, to give his voice and vote for
the bill. The bill was finally saved by the casting vote of Lieu
tenant-Governor Gardiner.  The highest praise, however, foi




THE COAMIssIONERS OF EMIIGRATION.            95
their indefatigable and successful services in the cause of
humanity belongs to Messrs. Thurlow Weed and Andrew Carrigan. Both these gentlemen received, of course, more than their
share of abuse from the politicians of New York for the stand
they had taken.
"For an effort made to reform these great wrongs," said Mir.
Weed on a later occasion, " I encountered the combined hostility
of the'scalpers;' was threatened with personal assault, and
deluged with libel suits. On one occasion, I was required to
appear, on the same day, before seven magistrates in seven different and distant towns."
The said bill became a law on May 5, 1847, and still remains t;otnEcomijg.
sioners.
the law of the State. The first Emigrant Commissioners were
Gulian C. Verplanck, James Boorman, Jacob Harvey, Robert B.
Minturn, William F. HIavemeyer, and David C. Colden. In the
bill as reported by the Committee, a blank was left for the names
of the Commissioners. On the morning of the day that the bill
was to come up as a special order, Mr. Carrigan and Mr. Weed
met at the house of the Hon. Ira HIarris, the Chairman of the
committee that reported the bill, to designate Commissioners.
It was understood between them that gentlemen of high intelligence, stern integrity, and proverbial benevolence only should be
appointed Commissioners; and then, without indicating names,
each privately wrote the number to be appointed on a slip of
paper. On comparing names, all those found on Mr. Carrigan's
slip, with one exception, were found also upon Mr. Weed's, who
had named M[r. Carrigan instead of Mir. Harvey. Mr. Carrigan
a year later succeeded Mr. Havemeyer in the Board, and, after
five years' service, he was elected President of the Irish Emigrant
Society, and thus continued his connection with the Commission
as an ex-offlcio member for about twelve years.
The principal features of the act creating the Board of the
Commissioners of Emigration, which, since its passage on Miay 5,
1847, have been amended several times, in their present shape
read as follows:
"  1. Within twenty-four hours after the landing of any pas- r ligratio act.
senger from  ny  ip or vessel arriving a t    of ew Yo,  be
senger from any ship or vessel arriving at the port of New York, made of all
passengers.




96          THE COMMISSIONERS OF EImIGRATION.
from any of the United States other than this State, or from any
country out of the United States, the master or commander of
the ship or vessel from which such passenger or passengers shall
have been landed shall make a report in writing, on oath or
affirmation, to the Mayor of the city of New York, or, in case of
his absence, or other inability to serve, to the person discharging
the duties of his office, which report shall state the name, place
of birth, last legal residence, age, and occupation of every person
or passenger who shall have landed from such ship or vessel on
her last voyage to said port, not being a citizen of the United
States, and who shall have, within the last twelve months,
arrived from any country out of the United States, at any place
within the United States, and who shall not have paid the commutation money, or been bonded according to the provisions of
this act, or of the act hereby amended, or of the act of February
eleventh, eighteen hundred and twenty-four, concerning passengers in vessels coming to tile port of New York, nor paid commutation money under the provisions of this or any former act.
The same report shall contain a like statement of all such persons
or passengers aforesaid as shall have been landed, or been
suffered to land, from any such ship or vessel at any place during
such last voyage, or who shall have been put on board, or suffered
to go on board, of any other ship, vessel, or boat, with the intention of proceeding to and landing at the said city of New York, or
elsewhere within the limits of this State. The said report shall
further specify whether any of the said passengers so reported
are lunatic, idiot, deaf, dumb, blind, infirm, maimed, or above the
age of sixty years, also designating all such passengers as shall
be under the age of thirteen, or widows having families,
or women without husbands having families, with the names
and ages of their families, and shall further specify particularly the names, last place of residences, and ages of all passengers who may have died during the said last voyage of such
vessel, also the names and residences of the owner or owners of
such vessel. In case any such master or commander shall omit
or neglect to report as aforesaid any such person or passenger,
with the particulars aforesaid, or shall make any false report or
statement in respect to any such person or passenger, or in




THE COiIISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.              97
respect to the owner or owners of any such vessel, or in respect
to any of the particulars hereinbefore specified, such master or
commander shall forfeit the stun of seventy-five dollars for every
such passenger in regard to whom any such omission or neglect
shall have occurred, or any such false report or statement shall be
made, for which the owner or owners, consignee or consignees, of
every such ship or vessel shall also be liable, jointly and severally,
and which may be sued for and recovered as hereinafter provided.
"~ 2. It shall be the duty of the said Mlayor, or other person Owner or con.
signee of ship
discharging the duties of his office aforesaid, by an endorsement or Vessel to
to be made on the said report, to require the owner or consignee bond for each
senger namiedI
of the ship or vessel from which such persons were landed, to in report.
give a several bond to the people of the State, in a penalty of
three hundred dollars for each and every person or passenger
included in such report, such bond being secured as hereinafter
provided, and conditioned to indemnify and save harmless the
Commissioners of Emigration and each and every city, town, or
county in this State from any cost which said Commissioners or
such city, town, or county shall incur for the relief or support of
the person. named in the bond, within five years from the date of
such bond, and also to indemnify and refund to the said Commissioners of Emigration any expense or charge they may necessarily incur for the support or medical care of the persons
named therein, if received into the Marine Hospital or any other
institution under their charge. Each and every bond shall beEnch bond tobe
secured by two
secured by two or more sufficient securities, being residents of or more sure.
the State of New York, each of whom shall prove by oath or
otherwise that he is owner of a freehold in the State of the value
of three hundred dollars over and above all or any claim or lien
thereon, or against him, including therein any contingent claim
which may accrue from  or upon any former bond given under
the provisions of this act; or such bond may, at the option of the
party, be secured by mortgage of real-estate, or by the pledge
and transfer of public stock of the United States or of the State
of New  York, or of the city of New  York, or by deposit
of the amount of penalty in some bank or trust company;
such security, real or personal, having been first approved by




98            TiHE CoivIMISSIONERS  OF EMIGRATION.
the  said  Mayor.  It shall be lawful for any owner or consignee, at any time within twenty-four hours after the landing
of such persons or passengers from  any ship or vessel in the
port  of  New  York, except as in  the  section  hereinafter
Owner or con-provided, to  commute for the bond or bonds so required, by
s ignee mnay
teo    frpayin  g (to the l-ealth Commissioner of the city of [New  York)
c on mm ltatioo the sum of two dollars and fifty cents. for each and every passenger reported by him as by law required; the receipt of such sum
(by said IlIealth Commissioner) shall be deemed a full and sufficient discharge from  the requirements of giving bonds as above
provided.  And fifty cents of the amount commuted for any pas.
senger or passengers shall be set aside as a separatefund for the
benefit of each and every county in this State, except the county
of New York. The Commissioners of Emigration shall deposit
the moneys of said fund, so set apart, in any bank that the said
Commissioners may select, and the same, or as much of it as may
be necessary, shall be distributed to the several counties, except
the county of New York, once in every three months, and the
balance that may be left after such three months' payment shall
be paid over to the Commissioners of Emigration for genera]
purposes.
Condition of t I ~ 3. It shall be the duty of the Commissioners of Emigration,
assenge' s to
into.e:e  hereafter named, to examine into the condition of passengers arriving at the port of New  York in any ship or vessel, and for
that purpose all or any of the said Commissioners, or such other
person or persons as they shall appoint, shall be authorized to go
on board and through any such ship or vessel.; and if on such examination there shall be found among such passengers any lunatic,
idiot, deaf, dumb, blind, maimed, or infirm persons, or persons
The original amount of the commutation money was one dollar (law of
May 5, 1847). By the Act of July 11, i851, ~ 7, it was increased to one dollar and
fifty cents, and to be paid directly to the Chamberlain of the city of New York.
By Act of April 13, 1853, ~ 13, it was further increased to two dollars; by Act of
MUay 14, 1867, it was temporarily raised to two dollars and fifty cents; and by
Act of May 10, 1869, it was unconditionally fixed at two dollars and fifty cents.
As the commutation is paid in currency, while the shipping-merchants receive
it in gold, it is evident that there is in fact no increase, and that the amount of
$2 50 currency is actually less than the sum of $2, which, until the outbreak
of the war, was paid in gold.




THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMiIGRATION.            99
above the age of sixty years, or widow with a child or children,
or any woman without a husband, and with child or children, or
any person unable to take care of himself or herself without becoming a public charge, or who, from any attending circumstances, are likely to become a public charge, or who, from sickness or
disease, existing at the time of departure from the foreign port,
are, or are likely soon to become, a public charge, they shall report
the same to the said Mayor particularly, and thereupon, and unless a bond, as required in the second section of this act, shall
have been given, the said Mayor, or the person discharging the
duties of his office, shall require in the endorsement to be made
as aforesaid, or in any subsequent endorsement or endorsements
thereon, and in addition to the commutation money, that the
owner or consignee of such ship or vessel, with one or more sufficient sureties, shall execute a joint and several bond to the people
of the State in a penalty of five hundred dollars for every such
passenger, conditioned to indemnify and save harmless the Commissioners of Emigration, and each and every city, town, or
county within the State, from any further cost or charge which
said Commissioners, or any such city, town, or county, shall incur
for the maintenance or support of the person or persons named in
such bond, or any of them, within five years from the date of
such bond. The sureties of the said bonds shall be required to
justify before and to the satisfaction of the officer making such
endorsement, and by their oath or affirmation shall satisfy such
officer that they are respectively residents of the State of New
Yorlk, and worth double the amount of the penalty of such bond,
over and above all debts, liabilities, and all property exempt from
execution. The subsequent endorsement authorized in this section may be made at any time within thirty days after such examination, or of the landing of any such person or passenger.
" ~ 4. Gulian C. Verplanck, James DBoorman, Jacob IHarvey, Commissionera
Robert B. Minturn, William F. Havemeyer, and David C. Col- of Emgration.
den are hereby appointed Commissioners, for the purpose of
carrying into effect the intent and provisions of this act; of whom
the said Gulian C. Verplanck and James Boorman shall constitute
the first class, and shall hold their office two years; and the said
Jacob Harvey and Robert B3. Minturn shall constitute the second




100         THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
class, and hold their office four years; and the said William F.
Ilavemeyer and David C. Colden shall constitute the third class,
and hold their office for six years; and upon the expiration of
their several terms of office their places shall be filled by appointments, to be made by the Governor, by and with advice and consent of the Senate, and the persons so appointed shall respectively hold their offices for the term of six years. The M1ayor of the
city of New York, the ~Mayor of the city of Brooklyn, the President of the German Society, and the President of the Irish Emigrant Society of New York, shall also severally, by virtue of their
Their powers. respective offices, be Commissioners as aforesaid. The said Commissioners shall be known as the' Commissioners of Emigration,' and by that title shall be capable of suing and being sued.
The money, so as aforesaid to be paid to the Chamberlain of the
city of Nlew York, shall be paid out on the warrant of the said
Commissioners, or a majority of them. It shall be the duty of
the said Commissioners to provide for the maintenance and support of such of the persons for whom commutation money shall
have been paid as aforesaid, or on whose account bonds shall have
been taken as aforesaid, as would otherwise become a charge upon
any city, town, or county of this State; and the said Commissioners shall appropriate the moneys aforesaid, for that purpose, in
such manner as to indemnify, so far as may be, the several cities,
towns, and counties of the State, for any expense or charge which
may be incurred for the maintenance and support of the persons
aforesaid; such appropriation shall be in proportion to the expenses incurred by said cities, towns, and counties, severally, for
such maintenance and support. And the more fully to effect the
object contemplated by this act, the said Commissioners are
authorized to apply in their discretion any part of the said
money, to aid in removing any of said persons from any part of
this State to another part of this or any other State, or from this
State, or in assisting them to procure employment, and thus prevent them from becoming a public charge. The said Commissioners are also authorized in their discretion to apply any part
of the said moneys to the purchase or lease of any property, or
the erection of any building, which they may deem necessary for
the purposes aforesaid. But any expense so incurred by the




THE COMMISSIONERs OF EMIGRATION.          101
Commissioners in any city, town, or county shall be charged to
the share of such moneys which any such city, town, or county
shall be entitled to receive thereof, for expense incurred in the
support or maintenance of the persons for whom commutation
money shall have been paid as aforesaid, or on whose account
bonds shall have been taken as aforesaid.
"~ 5. In case any of the persons for whom  commutation Provisiol ill
case of persons
money has been paid as aforesaid, or for whom a bond has been b ne c o ~i n~  
given as aforesaid, shall, at any time within five years from the whom bonIids
payment of such money or the execution of such bond, become
chargeable upon any city, town, or county within this State, it
shall be the duty of the said Commissioners to provide for the
payment of any expense incurred by any such city, town, or county
for the maintenance and support of any such person, out of the
commutation money to be paid as aforesaid, and the moneys collected on such bonds, so far as the same will enable them to do
so. The said Commissioners shall prescribe such rules and regulations as they shall deem proper for the purpose of ascertaining
the right and the amount of the claim of any city, town, or
county to indemnity under the provisions of this and the preceding section. The said Commissioners shall have power to
provide for the support and maintenance of any persons for whom
commutation money shall have been paid, or on whose account a
bond shall have been given as hereinbefore provided, and who
shall become chargeable upon any city, town, or county in such
manner as they shall deem proper; and after such provision shall
have been made by such Commissioners, such city, town, or county shall not be entitled to claim any further indemnity for the
support and maintenance of such person.
"~ 6. The said Commissioners are authorized to employ such Appointment ot
agents, clerks, and servants as they shall deem necessary for the ~aegrs b.yl
purposes aforesaid, and to pay a reasonable compensation for their ers.m 
services out of the moneys aforesaid.
"~ 7. It shall be the duty of the said Mayor, or other person $2,0 to be paid
discharging the duties of his office as aforesaid, by an endorse- Y gerh 
ment to be made on the said report, to require the master or
commander of such ship or vessel to pay to the Chamberlain of
the city of New York the sum of two dollars and a half for




102          THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
every person or passenger reported by said master or commander as aforesaid, which sum shall be paid as aforesaid
within twenty-four hours after the landing of such person or passenger from  any ship or vessel arriving at the port of New
York.
c om misinoners   "~ 8. The said Commissioners shall annually, on or before the
Legislature. first day of February in each year, report to the Legislature the
amount of moneys received under the provisions of this act during
the preceding year, and the manner in which the same has been
appropriated particularly.
acancies low, "  9. In case of a vacancy in the said Board of Commissioners,
be supplied.
the same shall be filled by an appointment to be made by the
Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.
The person so appointed shall hold his office for the remainder
of the term of the person in whose place he shall be appointed.
The said Commissioners shall, in all cases, be residents of the city
of New York or city of Brooklyn.
ction may e   "~ 10. If any person for whom a bond shall have been given
brought il a o
bond,    as aforesaid shall, within the time specified in such bond, become
chargeable upon any city, town, or county of this State, or upon
the moneys under the control of the said Commissioners as aforesaid, the said Commissioners may bring an action on such bond
in the name of the people of this State, and shall be entitled to
recover on such bond. from time to time so much money, not in
the whole exceeding the penalty of such bond, exclusive of costs,
as shall be sufficient to defray the expenses incurred by any such
city, town, or county, or the said Commissioners, for the maintenance and support of the person for whom such bond was given as
aforesaid, and shall be authorized to collect and apply such money
from any of the real or other security mortgaged, pledged, or deposited therefor in conformity to this act.
Penalty in cases   "~ 11. Any owner or consignee as aforesaid, who shall neglect
of neglect or
refusal. or refuse to give any such bond or bonds and security therefor, as
hereinbefore required, for each person or passenger landing from
his ship or vessel, within twenty-four hours after the landing of
such persons or passengers, in respect to bonds required by the
second section of this act, or shall not within that time have paid
the moneys authorized by said second section to be received in




TIHE COlMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.         103
cases where such bonds are herein authorized to be commuted
for, every such owner or consignee of such ship or vessel, severally and respectively, shall be subject to a penalty of five hundred
dollars for each and every person or passenger on whose account
such bond may have been required, or for whom such commutation money might have been paid under this act; such penalty to
be sued for as provided for in the twelfth section of the said act
hereby amended.
"~ 12. The penalties and forfeitures prescribed by this act may Row recovered.
be sued for and recovered with costs of suit by, and in the name
of, said Commissioners of Emigration, in any court having cognizance thereof, and, when recovered, shall be applied to the purposes specified in this act. It shall be lawful for the said Commissioners, before or after suit brought, to compound for any of
the said penalties or forfeitures, upon such terms as they shall
think proper.
"~ 13. Any ship or vessel, whose master or commander, Ships or vessels
owner or owners, shall have incurred any penalty or forfeiture ties.
under this act, or under the Act of April 11, 1849, amending the
same, entitled,'An Act to amend certain acts concerning passengers coming to the city of New York,' shall be liable for such
penalties or forfeitures which may be a lien upon such ship or
vessel, and may be enforced and collected by warrant of attachment in the same manner as is provided in title eighth of chapter
eighth of the third part of the Revised Statutes, all the provisions
of which title shall apply to the forfeitures and penalties imposed by this act; and the said Commissioners of Emigration
shall, for the purposes of such attachment, be deemed creditors of
such ship or vessel, and of her master or commander and owner
or owners respectively.
"~ 14. The said Commissioners of Emigration are, and each Poers of Cornof them is, hereby vested with the same powers in regard to the
administering oaths of office to employees, and to the binding out
of children with consent of parents or next of kin, actually
chargeable upon them, and also in regard to persons in the institutions, or any of them, under the charge of said Commissioners,
for the prevention or punishment of an infraction or violation of
the rules or orders and regulation of such Commissioners or their




104          THE  COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION.
officers in regard to such institutions as are possessed by tho
Commissioners of Public Charities and Correction in the city of
New York, or any of them, for the same purposes.
PeoprEtyofalien    1~ 15. Whenever any alien emigrant, whose personal property shall not exceed the value of twenty-five dollars, shall die on
the passage to the port of New York, or in the Marine Hospital, or
in any other establishment under the charge of the Commissioners,
and in all cases in which minor children of alien passengers shall
become orphans by their parents or last surviving parent dying, as
aforesaid, the personal property which' such alien emigrant or
such parent or parents may have had with them, shall be taken in
charge by the Commissioners of Emigration, to be by them appropriated for the sole benefit of the next of kin of such alien emigrant or of said orphan children; and said Commissioners shall
give, in their annual report to the Legislature, a minute description of all cases in which property shall come into their possession by virtue of this section, and the disposition made of the
same, unless it shall appear that there are other persons entitled
by will or otherwise to such property or distributive share thereof. Whenever it shall so appeai, the portion only to which the
next of kin or said minor orphans would be legally entitled shall
be transferred to them or applied to their use, and the remainder
shall be received, held, and distributed to the parties severally
entitled thereto, in the same manner and with the same authority as by law provided in respect to the Public Administrator of
the city of New York, except that the said Commissioners are
hereby authorized to distribute the same after a notice for creditors to appear and put in their claims within one week from the
publication of the said notice. The said notice shall be published
once in one of the daily papers of the city of New York."




CHAPTER VI.
CASTLE GARDEN.
THE Commissioners of Emigration organized on May 8, 1847, Organization of
e Commisat the Mayor's Office in the City Hall, and on June 14 elected igtionfEm
Mr. Wm. F. Havemeyer President, who resigned, however, in
February, 1848, and was succeeded, on March 1, 1848, by Mr.
G. C. Verplanck, who has ever since held that office.
The work of the Board was originally apportioned among
several standing committees, four of which are still existing, tantdting. Corn.
namely, the Ward's Island Committee, consisting of six members, and the Auditing, Finance, and Purchasing Committees,
of which the two former consisted each of three, and the latter of
two members. In the course of years, owing to the increase of
business, four other committees were added to the original four,
namely, the Castle Garden (1855), consisting of six members; the
Racilroad (1867), of three; the Agencies and Counties (1867), of
five; and the labor Exchange (1868), Committees, of five members. The.Xfarine fHospital Committee, the most important of
the original four, consisting of three members, ceased to exist
when, in 1859, the Commissioners gave up the Marine Hospital.
The Commissioners had their first official quarters in the old Qnarters of the
C o m m issionAlmshouse building (where the new  Court-House stands at erg.
present). There they remained until January 19, 1854, when
the building was destroyed by fire. They then found a temporary place in Franklin Street, between Broadway and Elm Street,
for the meetings of the Board, where the offices of the VicePresident and Secretary, the examining physicians, and the
receivers of applications for relief or admission to the hospitals,
were also located. Another office was kept in Canal Street, for
the reception of applications for employment, advice, or similar
aid. But an alarm soon arose from the apprehended introduction
of contagious diseases in the neighborhood of both locations,
which was intensified by the fear of the owners of adjoining realestate of a depreciation in the value of their property. Injunc



106                   CASTLE GARDEN.
tions were applied for and granted as to both offices; but, after
an injurious interruption of more than two weeks, the injunction
against the Canal Street office was dissolved. Before the other
case could be brought to trial, the cholera made its appearance in
the city, and the almost vacant Franklin Street office was taken
possession of by the Board of Health as a cholera hospital.
Towards the close of the year an opportunity occurred of hiring
on lease a large and unoccupied building in Anthony Street —
now Worth-opposite the hospital grounds, a few doors west of
Broadway, erected and formerly used as a church edifice, a lceation where little or no danger could be apprehended to the
neighborhood.  Here the  Commissioners remained till the
spring of 1858, when all their offices were removed to Castle
Garden.
It is not the purpose of this essay to give a detailed account
of all the proceedings of the Board within the last twenty-three
years; but its design is to point out only that part of their history
which has at present a direct bearing on the protection of the
emigrant. To this end we shall first describe Castle Garden and
the offices connected with it, and next the institutions on Ward's
Island. This chapter will be confined to Castle Garden.
c0 o nlPu gory  The Commissioners were not long in discovering that the beneLanding -Act
of 1848.    volent intentions of the law creating their Board could not be
realized as long as they had not the absolute control of the
emigrant, and as long as they were thus prevented from protecting him  against the frauds practised on him  by forwarders,
boarding-house keepers, agents, and runners. They therefore,
in the first year of their existence, applied to the Legislature for
an act authorizing them to lease a dock or pier, where all the
emigrant should be landed; where no outsiders would be allowed
to enter without permission of the Commissioners; and where the
emigrants could be cautioned and admonished against all the
wiles of those who lay waiting for him on his arrival. The law
of April 11, 1848, authorized the Commissioners to purchase or
to lease such a pier or dock, and by virtue of this act, on May 8,
1848, they leased from the Common Council, for a term of five
JaOinf of Hu- years, the large and commodious pier at the foot of Hubert
Piere. S   Street, at an annual rent of $3,000.




CASTLE GARDEN.                     107
It was anticipated that this pier would be in proper order for nj u n u   t i o
use by the middle of July; but, to the surprise of the Commis- against
sioners, they were, immediately after the execution of the lease,
served with an injunction, obtained by some of the residents in
the neighborhood. This injunction was granted and sustained
against the appeal of the Commissioners on the ground that the
landing of emigrants at the foot of Hubert Street, in the vicinity
of St. John's Park, would bring into a quiet part of the city a
noisy population, without cleanliness or sobriety; would endanger the health and good morals of the ward, and seriously affect
the value of real-estate.
The Commissioners now endeavored to get some other land- Difficulty o SO.
ing-place in the lower part of the city, where the nuisance, if   elandingsuch it could be called, already existed, and where the emigrants
for a number of years had been landed. But, though the Common Council, whom they considered bound, in a measure, to
furnish a pier, seemed favorably disposed, yet none could be procured and rendered suitable for the purpose. Consequently the
Commissioners could not reach the emigrant before he fell into
the hands of the plunderers who stood ready to deceive him;
frauds which had formerly excited so much indignation and sympathy were practised with as much boldness and impunity as
ever, and all the exertions of the Commissioners, though beneficial in many cases, were quite insufficient to put an end to these
abuses.
In spite of repeated petitions to the Legislature to provideAct of ls.
efficient remedies by giving to the Commissioners exclusive possession and occupation of a pier for the landing of newly arrived
emigrants, it took just eight years before that body, by the Act
of April 13, 1855, complied with that wish. This act was as
important as the one creating the Board of the Commissioners,
for it first gave the power to afford really efficient protection to
the emigrant. It required the transporting and conveying companies to deliver to the Mayors of New York, Troy, Albany, and
Buffalo, in each and every year, a written or printed statement of
the price or rates of fare and the price for the carriage of the
baggage of the emigrant; it specified the penalty for violating
the provisions of this act, and authorized the Commissioners of




108                  CASTLE GARDEN.
Emigration "to designate some one place in the city of New
York, as they should deem proper, for the landing of emigrant
passengers; providing further that " it should be lawful for such
passengers to be landed at such place so designated; and likewise
(meaning the Commissioners) to purchase, lease, construct, and
occupy such wharves, piers, and other accommodations, in the
city of New York, as may be necessary for the accommodation of
emigrant passengers."
Lease of Castle   This important act finally enabled the Commissioners fully to
Garden.
carry out the benevolent objects of their trust. From that time only
the Bl3oard could be said to be clothed with the necessary powers
and to have become responsible for the well-being and protection
of the emigrant. The Commissioners, on May 5, 1855, leased the
old fort at the foot of Manhattan Island, known as Castle Garden,
and immediately proceeded with the fitting up of the premises
in a manner suitable to the designed purpose.
Obstructions.   Owing, however," says the Commissioners' Report for 1855,
"to the extensive repairs required, and the obstructions thrown
in the way by those who, on different grounds, apprehended injury
to their private interests, the place was not in readiness for use
until the first of August, when it was formally opened as the
Emnigrant ianding -Depot.
"It is not deemed necessary to allude to the efforts made to
obstruct the execution of the law in this instance, further than
to state that, where that effort was resorted to with the design of
rendering nugatory the power conferred, and for the ejectment of
the Commissioners from the occupancy of Castle Garden, the courts
have sustained the law in its beneficent objects, and the Commissioners in the possession of the premises for the purpose of carrying the law into effect; and that, where violence threatened with
a strong hand to lay waste and destroy, the police authority of the
city, by prudent and decisive action, effectually checked the
thoughtless and lawless in their course, and preserved a valuable
property from destruction or damage, and the reputation of the
State from disgrace.
Benefits e the  Two hundred and fifty vessels have landed their passengers
Landing: DePot.     at the Depot in the five months it has been in operation, bringing, in the aggregate, fifty-one thousand one hundred and fourteen




iiFJ"1TT~f,,lii'j'11.,VIl~.        IllI'"il                         _________ I- I
777 —                        7- r-. —_
E S TAI SC Or NE___.-_ OR
State  Emigrant Landing Depot Castle Garden,   NY








CASTLE GARDEN.                     109
persons, during which period no accident of any kind has occurred.
All have been landed safely, without accident to themselves or
property. When landed, proper means have been used to secure
their comfort and protection. They have been screened from the.
intrusion of that class of persons who have heretofore abused the
confidence of the emigrants, and despoiled them of the means they
had provided to convey them to their ultimate destination, and to
sustain them after they had reached it —who have long been in
the practice of taking possession of the person and property of
confiding emigrants, and seldom permitting them to pass out of
their hands without damage; in many cases reducing them from
comparative affluence to destitution, and making them subjects
for relief by the funds of the Commission; but in a larger proportion crippling their means to an extent which has affected their
after life.
" Every facility is provided at the Depot, for those whose destination is to the interior, to proceed without unnecessary delay; and
without need or pretext for intercourse with the class of persons in
the city before mentioned. ZBy this arrangement, much for the
benefit of the emigrant, the shipper, the Commission, and the
community at large, has been accomplished. Among these benefits may be mentioned:
"First. —To the emigrants.  In a more safe and speedyTo Emigrants.
landing of their person and effects: In the greater safety of their
effects after having been put on shore, depredators being limited
to fellow-passengers, and but slight opportunity existing for successful pillage by them. In relief from the importunities and
deceptions of runners and bookers. In being enabled to continue
their journey without delay from the same wharf where they had
just landed. In relief from all charges and exactions for landing,'baggage smashing,' and porterage; and, where they are proceeding to the interior, from cartages. In being enabled to obtain passage tickets at the lowest rates directly from the various transporting companies. In having their baggage accurately weighed;
and in being relieved from excessive charges for that which is
extra. In obtaining reliable information relative to the various
routes of travel throughout the country. In being relieved from




110                   CASTLE GARDEN.
the necessity of transporting their baggage to boarding-houses
when exigencies require a temporary sojourn in the city of KNew
York. And thus in being enabled to depart for their future homes
without having their means impaired, their morals corrupted, and
probably their persons diseased.
To Shippers.  "Second.-To the shipper. In the greater readiness with
which passengers are discharged where freight and merchandise
do not interrupt the process. In the ship being relieved of its
passengers at once, and immediately on arrival. In the consignee
being relieved from the supervision of the landing of the passengers.
To the commis-  "(hird.-To the funds of the Commission. In the increased
sion.
facility afforded for the discovery of cases liable to special bond.
In the opportunity for ascertaining the means of passengers for
support. In the reduction of sickness and distress among Emigrants. In the diminished proportional number that will become
a charge to the Commissioners; and in the means to readily discover paupers and criminals transported hither.
To Statisticians.   " Fourth. —To the statistician. In furnishing reliable data of
the fiscalmeans of emigrants on arrival; in developing the points
of individual destination; thus exhibiting the number of persons
who, at the time of arrival, are destined for each State, and the
money-means with which they are provided.
To the Commou-   "Fifth.-To the community in general. In the diminution
of human suffering. In the reduction of calls on the benevolent
throughout the country; and in the dispersion of a band of outlaws attracted to this port by plunder, from all parts of the earth."
Defeat of the   These predictions were verified by the experience of every subners.   sequent year. The establishment at Castle Garden fully proved
its efficiency and usefulness. The decisions of the courts in 1856
and 1857 upon deliberate argument and advisement having put
an end to all legal obstacles attempted to be interposed to this
establishment on the part of persons who on various grounds




lli~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l~llII ii iilil
iii~~~~r  Illllllllllliriil~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~~~~iii~j~
I~~~ateGre agg oml Rciinan Soin           ugg o ArivingEirns








CASTLE GARDEN.                      111
feared or thought their pecuniary interests affected, the opposition
did not since extend beyond acts of inferior but continued annoyance, originating with those who had formerly profited by taking
advantage of the ignorance of the newly arrived and friendless
strangers. As stated in a preceding chapter, during the first year
of the working of the institution several hundred emigrant runners, unable to follow this business any longer in New  York,
left for California. When those who remained here discovered
that by applying to the law or by threatening and and abusing they
could not undo what the Act of April 13, 1855, had brought
about, they in the end either disappeared or submitted to the new
state of things.
A successful experience. of fifteen years has now confirmed the Superintendents:~'  ---- --- ~ ~' ~-   of the Landing
utility of the establishment at Castle Garden.  The able and effi- Depot.
cient Superintendent, Mr. John A. Kennedy, who first organized
that department, discharged the duties of his station until June,
1860, when he accepted the appointment of Superintendent
of the Metropolitan Police. He was succeeded by the present
Superintendent, Mr. Bernard Casserly, who has most efficiently
performed the duties of his office. It has contributed largely to
the success of Castle Garden that the services of two very
able executive officers were secured, that during the whole time of
its existence only one change has taken place in the highest executive office, and that consequently uniformity and regularity in the
service could be maintained.
A  description of the several departments, among which the Departments of
the Landing
various duties are divided, will give an idea how business has Depot.
been and is now carried on at Castle Garden.
I. Ihe Boardting fDepartmenet.-On arrival at the Quaran- Boartdngt D
tine Station (six miles below the city), every vessel bringing emigrant passengers is boarded by an officer of this department, stationed there for the purpose, who ascertains the number of passengers, the deaths, if any, during the voyage, and the amount and
character of sickness, examines the condition of the vessel in respect
to cleanliness, and receives complaints, of which he makes report
to the General Agent and Superintendent at Castle Garden; he
remains on board the ship during her passage up the Bay, to see




112                   CASTLE GARDEN.
that the law prohibiting communication between ship and shore
before emigrant passengers are landed is enforced. On casting
anchor in the stream, convenient to the Landing Depot, he is
relieved by an officer of the Metropolitan Police force, detailed at
the Castle Garden, and the passengers are transferred to the
care of
LaMingDepart.  II. T'he Landing D)epartent, under the supervision of which
the Landing Agent proceeds with barges and tugs, accompanied
by an Inspector of Customs, to the vessel. After an examination
of the luggage, it is checked, and the passengers, with their luggage, are transferred to the barges and tugs, and landed at the
Castle Garden pier. On landing, the passengers are examined by
a Medical Officer, to discover if any sick have passed the Health
authorities at Quarantine (who are thereupon transferred by steamer to the hospitals on Ward's or Blackwell's Island), and likewise
to select all subject to special bonds under the law as blind
persons, cripples, lunatics, or any others who are likely to become
a future charge. This examination being ended, the emigrants
are directed into the Rotunda, a large-roofed circular space in the
centre of the Depot, containing 50,000 square feet, and with a dome
in the centre for ventilation, about 75 feet high, with separate
compartments for English-speaking and other nationalities, to
Registering De-  III. The Registering Department, where the names, nationpartment.
ality, former place of residence, and intended destination of the
emigrants, with other particulars, are taken down, thus forming
an interesting record for future reference. The passengers are
then directed to
Ra i 1 r o a d   IV. The Agents of the Railroad Compacnies, from whom they
Agents,
can procure tickets to all parts of the United States and Canada,
without the risk of fraud or extortion to which they are subjected
outside of the Depot. In the meanwhile, the baggage and luggage
are stored east of the Rotunda in the baggage-room. The old
accommodations being insufficient, a new baggage-room was built
in 1869. The necessity for this improvement had long been felt,
the old room not having anything like the proper capacity to contain




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CASTLE GARDEN.                    113
the immense quantity of baggage, which numbered at times 7,000 Baggage Room.
pieces.  The new building, which was finished in October,
1869, at a cost of nearly $75,000, is 200 by 350 feet, and is amply
sufficient to accommodate 15,000 pieces of baggage. The very perfect system by which the thousands of trunks and boxes are distinguished and delivered safely to their respective owners is well
worthy of explanation.  A brass ticket, with any letter of the
alphabet from A to F inclusive, and a number from 1 to 600, is
delivered to the emigrant on landing, and a duplicate fastened on
his piece of baggage. The trunk or box is then placed in the
baggage-room.  This room  has six bins, designated by the
letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and each bin has six hundred
numbers. Accordingly, when the emigrant produces his ticket,
a baggageman at once goes to the bin indicated by the letter
and number on the ticket, and delivers the baggage required.
In case of necessity, all the letters of the alphabet can be used in
a similar way.
The emigrants destined inland, on delivery of their check,
take their baggage to the weigher's scales. After having been
weighed and paid for, it is sent free of charge to the depot of the
railroad or dock of the steamboat by which he leaves. Such emigrants as design remaining in this city and vicinity are directed to
V. The City Bagycage.Delivery, which ascertains the address City Baggage
to which the emigrants may desire to have their luggage sent, and Delivery.
takes their orders, exchanging the brass check received from the
Landing Agent, on shipboard, for a printed paper one. The luggage is then promptly delivered in any part of this city and vicinity
at a moderate rate of charges, approved by the Commission. At
the same time, those having gold or silver which they may wish to
have exchanged for United States currency are directed to one of
three
VI. Exchange EBrokers, admitted into the Depot, who changes Exchange Brok.
their specie for a small advance on the market rate, which is set er.e
forth in a conspicuous place under the observation of the emigrant,
the daily fluctuations in rates being duly noted.
These last three departments are conducted by responsible par



114                  CASTLE GARDEN.
ties, who, while not officers, are nevertheless under the close and
constant supervision of the Commission, and are required to keep
a record of all transactions, subject to the inspection of any member of the Board.
foratitenD-   VII. The Information JDepartment. - When the foregoing
operations are completed, the emigrants are assembled in the
Rotunda, and an officer of the Commission calls out the names of
those whose friends attend them in the waiting-room at the entrance
of the Depot, and to whom they are directed. At the same time
are called out the names of those for whom letters or funds are
waiting, which are then delivered to the proper owners through
the Forwarding Department. Emigrants who desire to communicate with friends at a distance are referred to
Lttepartment.ig   YIII. She pLetter- Writing Department, where clerks, understanding the various Continental languages, are in attendance to
write; the emigrant, while waiting a reply, if destitute, finds a
home in the institutions at Ward's Island.
Boarding-House  IX. Boarding-Rlouse ieepers, licensed by the Mayor and proKeepers.
perly certified as to character by responsible parties, are admitted
to the Rotunda after the foregoing business has been completed,
to solicit for their respective houses such emigrants as desire to
remain in the city for any length of time. These boarding-house
keepers are subjected to careful supervision and to certain regulations, which will be found in the Appendix, and every precaution is taken to guard the emigrant against the abuses and imposition to which he was formerly liable.
Fartdig De-   X. l'he Forwarding Department receives, through the Treasurer, all communications and remittances from friends of emigrants, sent either before their arrival or in response to letters
written by the Letter Department, and applies them  to the purchase of tickets. The amount of money and orders for passage
received and disbursed through it will be found under the head
relating to the Treasurer's duties.
Department.    XI. lihe IFard's Island D)epartment receives all applications




CASTLE GARDEN.                     115
for admission to the Institutions, and examines the records, to
ascertain the right of the applicant to admission. It also keeps
the records of all daily admissions to, and discharges from, Ward's
Island, and examines the records in all cases of claims for indemnity from the several counties of the State for emigrants chargeable to the Commission who may have received aid or support in
such counties. Attached to this Department are two physicians,
whose duties are to examine all sick and destitute applicants for
relief, and to visit all such at their residences in this city, and report to the General Agent.
XII. The -labor Exeka nge.-A  Labor Exchange was first Labor Ex
established in 1850. The increasing number of persons demanding the aid and advice of the'Commissioners, and the widely extended knowledge of their arrangements for the disposal of laborers, made it necessary to hire, in December, 1850, a large double
building, Nos. 25 and 27 Canal Street, at which place emigrants
desiring work, and persons desiring laborers, found ample opportunity for meeting their wants; while, prior to that time, useful
employment and means of self-support had been procured to over
8,000 emigrants. Proportionably a far greater amount of service
was rendered to them with the additional facilities afforded by
the Canal Street establishment. Thus, in 1851, not less than
18,204 emigrants were provided with opportunities for self-support in such kind of labor as their previous habits best qualified
them to perform. In 1862, 14,973 persons were provided with
places or employment; but in the course of years this institution
dwindled down to a mere intelligence office for city servants.
During the seven years from 1860 to 1866, the number of females
who found employment as servants through the Castle Garden
agency amounted to 40,222, that of males to only 10,224.
In 1867, at the suggestion of Commissioner Philip Bissinger,
the office was revived and re-established in its original condition.
The present Labor Exchange is a spacious and well-arranged
building, and was erected during the latter part of the year
named. It is a one-story building, 80 by 52 feet, with a large
ventilator in the roof, thus furnishing an ample supply of fresh




116                   CASTLE GARDEN.
air and light, and, being situated on the additional ground added
to these premises in 1867 by permission of the public authorities,
it is easily accessible without disturbing the arrangements of the
landing depot.
In the centre of the floor, a sufficient space has been railed off,
and reserved for officers and for use of employers. On one side
are seated the male emigrants, and on the other side the females,
thus securing a separation of the sexes. These again are subdivided, according to their several occupations and the length of
time they have been here, and also into those with and without
references. Each emigrant on entering is requested to enter
his or her name, ship, date of arrival, and character of employment; while every employer is required to enter his or her name,
residence, recommendations, references, and description of labor
wanted.
This Labor Exchange furnishes an intelligence office, witho't
chcrge, for emigrants desirous of finding employment or service
in the city or at a distance; and undertakes to supply all sorts of
skilled mechanical and agricultural labor to employers in any part
of the United States, who come with a proper guarantee of character and other necessary qualifications.
The Labor Exchange, since its reorganization, has existed for
a period of only two years; but the result obtained in this comparatively short time is sufficient to prove its usefulness. In 1868,
it procured employment for 31,143 emigrants, namely, 18,114
males and 13,029 females; and, in the year 1869, for 34,955 emigrants, namely, 22,844 males and 12,111 females. In these two
years, there were among the males 4,311 and 5,594 mechanics respectively; while the balance of 13,803 and 17,250 respectively
were agricultural and common laborers. Of the females, there
were 474 and 438 respectively skilled laborers (seamstresses,
cooks, laundresses, etc.), but 12,555 and 11,673 respectively were
common house-servants. In 1868, 351 families were engaged,
consisting of 1,551 persons, and, in 1869, 452 families, consisting
of 1,232 persons.
Those who were employed represented, in 1868, fifteen, and,
in 1869, sixteen nationalities. Irish and Germans were predominant. Of the whole number, there were, in 1868, 9,269 male and




CASTLE GARDEN.                    117
11,975 female, Irish, Scotch, or English; and, in 1869, 11,703
males and 11,340 females, of the same nationalities. We find in
the Germans and Swiss. there were, in 1868, 8,034 males and 921
females, and, in 1869, 10,021 and 659 respectively; of Scandinavians, 414 and 78 and 477 and 75 respectively; Dutch, 6 males
in 1868 and 62 males and 11 females in 1869. France, Italy,
and Belgium sent 274 males and 35 females in 1868 and 39 and
7 respectively in 1869. As a curiosity, it may be stated that, in
1868, 6, and, in 1869, 8 Moors were engaged; they entered their
names in Arabic letters.
Of the emigrants employed by the instrumentality of the
Labor Exchange in 1868, 7,397 could not read or write, namely,
3,096 males and 4,301 females; and, in 1869, 7,139, namely, 3,498
males and 3,641 females. Among the 9,269 Irish, Scotch, and
English engaged in 1868, there were 2,714 who could neither
read nor write; and among the 11,703 individuals of the same
nationalities in 1869, there were 3,058 unable to read or write.
Among the 8,034 and 10,020 Germans and Swiss in the two corresponding periods, we find 279 and 321 respectively who could
not read or write. Of the 23,315 Irish, Scotch, and English
female servants engaged in 1868 and 1869, 7,682 could neither
read nor write, and of the 1,825 females of other nationalities 260
were equally ignorant.
The States of New York and New Jersey in both years furnished employment to more emigrants than the rest of the
United States together. As long as no means will be found to
neutralize or avoid the difficulty and risks attending the transportation of laborers to more distant regions, this state of affairs
will remain unchanged. In both years, the demand was much
greater than the supply. Not the tenth part of the large orders
for railroad laborers could be filled; and only a small part of the
orders for farmers (Germans) and common laborers (Irishmen)
could be responded to. Of the immigrant farm-laborers, only a
small number remained in New York, the majority, and especially the well-to-do class, proceeding spontaneously to the Western
and North-western States. Only a few German servant-girls
asked for employment through the Labor Exchange.
It is very difficult, and at present almost impossible, to direct




118                   CASTLE GARDEN.
the European mechanic and laborer to the South, which has thus
far tried in vain to attract immigrants, and this for the reason that
most of the immigrants look out first for the place where they are
sure of employment. It is in vain to tell them that many tracts
of land are to be had cheap or even for nothing. Work is more
attractive for them than land, at least at first. For this reason,
and in consequence of the large settlements of Europeans there,
the immigrant is attracted to the West and especially the Northwest, where the fertile soil enables farmers to give ready employment to all the laborers that may present themselves.
Explanation of   This is the whole explanation of the continual flow of emigrant
I m    i gration
o iest and laborers into those regions. There is work there. It is to be
-not to South.
found everywhere, work which they understand, work which
they can perform, work sufficiently remunerative to warrant
the expectation of a happy future. This advantage they are
sure of finding only in the West and North-west. Once employed, they easily arrive at independence.  By saving their
monthly wages, they secure the means of attaining it, and
when the proper moment comes they have learned by experience where to settle and what they must do to succeed.
The matter is simple, and requires on the part of the WVestern
States no exertion of thought or money. On examining the conditions offered by the South, we can easily detect the causes which
put that section at a disadvantage as regards the supply of labor.
A class of farmers ready to receive the laborers who may offer
themselves is almost everywhere wanting, and nowhere more so
than in the extreme Southern districts, where there are only great
planters, whose modes of cultivation have no attractions for the
immigrants. The European immigrant detests the work in gangs
as much as the negroes like it. His individuality is overlooked,
his self-respect impaired, and he is viewed as a mere unit in the
mass. He seeks not the planter, but the farmer.
The great land-owners who hold large tracts of land wish to
cultivate them as before without loss of time. To attain their
object, they must always keep a sound stock of freed slaves, which
daily becomes more difficult for them, as the number of laboring
hands is continually decreasing.
What will happen under these circumstances may be inferred




CASTLE GARDEN.                    119
from what has been said. The inability of these large planters to
procure the needed labor will cause them to be superseded in the
course of time by small farmers, who will work themselves, and
who will be able and willing to employ the white immigrants like
the Western farmers.
A modest culture is required with two or three hands, living, in
a patriarchal way, with the farmer's family. Whenever that will be
generally introduced, immigrants will come and remain, or, if they
leave again, it will be to settle in the neighborhood. Farms should
be laid out for the reception of European laborers, and it is upon
the formation of these farms and the introduction of Europeans
that the future of the South depends. Results more satisfactory
to both the Southern people and the immigrants would no doubt
be reached, if some such plan were pursued by other districts as that
adopted by the district of Newberry, South Carolina.
Here an Immigration Society has been formed, under the Immigration So.
auspices of Rev. T. S. Boinest, consisting of the most notable farmers berry, S. C.
and planters, who have raised a fund of $5,000 or $6,000 for the
purpose of defraying the necessary travelling and other expenses
of the European laborers they wish to employ. By this means,
the society, though existing but two years, has induced about
400 immigrants to make the district (Newberry) their home,
and according to the latest reports both the employers and
employees are satisfied and content.
The society has appointed as agent, a European, MIr. F. W.
Bruggemann, who is familiar with the character and wants of the
immigrant, and forms the connecting link between the latter and
their native employers, and to this circumstance is due the happy
result of its efforts.
North of the Rotunda and adjoining it are the offices of the O,,,, of the
Commissioners. They consist of three rooms, occupying nearly Cr.mmision
the entire front of the building on the second floor, and include
the offices of the General Agent and Treasurer, the Meeting-Room
of the Board, and the General Agent's private office.
XIII. T7le General Agent's Ofice is a large vaulted room, the General Agent'
central one and largest of the three, in shape a parallelogram,
extending on its longest axis east and west, and containing about




120                   CASTLE GARDENY.
thirteen hundred square feet. Here is transacted all the executive
business of the Commission, complaints are heard and investigated,
grievances remedied, and the general correspondence, except that
relating to the Treasury Department, conducted by a force of
several clerks, under the direct supervision of the Deputy Superintendent.  To this officer the chief clerks of the various departments make their reports, which are by him  laid before the
General Agent, who bases his instructions upon them.   The
General Agent, who unites with these functions the duties of
Superintendent, is the chief executive officer of the Commissionthe centre and focus of all its business. He controls the interior
working machinery of the Commission, transacts its outside -business, and conducts its correspondence. I-Ie receives all communications to be laid before the Board, and acts generally as secretary
at its meetings. He also supervises the inland transportation of
emigrants, and his vigilance is constantly exercised to prevent
the extortions and impositions in the way of overcharges and
delays to which they are subjected. It is his office, moreover,
to regulate advances on the luggage of emigrants, which are made
from time to time out of the funds of the Commission to enable
the owners to proceed to their destination. The business of the
Commission before the Legislature is likewise attended to- by this
officer, in securing such amendments to the emigration laws as the
experience of the Commissioners from time to time may suggest.
Treasurer's De-   XIVY. lie  Treasurer's Department is conducted by the
prtnent.  Treasurer, Mr. George W. Wheeler, who has most creditably
occupied that position since the formation of the Board, and by two
clerks under him. It is divided into various branches, having
severally charge of correspondence, of the money affairs, and of the
business with the various counties and institutions of the State.
Cortrspordence   A. Cog-reson0dence.-One of the. clerks, under the authority
of the Treasurer, receives daily from the New York General PostOffice all letters deposited in the box of the Commissioners of
Emigration, comprising letters addressed to the Commissioners of
Emigration; to the Treasurer, to the General Agent and other.officers of the Commissioners of Emigration in Castle Garden;




CASTLE GARDEN.                    121
to the Castle Garden Railroad  Agency, and its employees;
to the Superintendent of Ward's Island, and physicians, employees, and emigrant inmates of Ward's Island; and to recently
arrived or expected emigrants at Castle Garden.
The total number of letters received during the year 1869,
including express packages containing remittances for emigrants,
was 23,917.
All letters and express packages addressed to the Commnissioners of Emigration, to the Treasurer, or to emigrants not in
the institution on Ward's Island, are opened and read or distributed, as may be necessary. Those containing money or other
remittances for emigrants are retained in the "Forwarding
Office," a branch of the Treasurer's Department. A daily record
is made of all receipts under appropriate heads, as follows: Number of remittance; date; amount; from whom received; for
whom; name of vessel; nature of remittance; destination, etc.
Many remittances are received for emigrants after they have
landed and left Castle Garden. Such remittances in due time are
applied for by the sender, and returned immediately on application. Emigrants very often neglect to apply for remittances on
hand, although duly notified that such are awaiting their call.
Such remittances are also returned on application to the senders,
either by mail or express, or to the parties in person who have
made deposits with this department.
Its correspondence is large. In addition to that incidental
to the return of uncalled-for remittances, replies are made to
impatient senders of remittances for emigrants, who either have
not arrived or have found employment from the Labor Exchange in Castle Garden, or perhaps are in hospital at Ward's
Island.  The parties so employed and for whom  remittances
have been received are duly notified to call at Castle Garden for
the purpose of being forwarded to destination. The sender is
also notified of the whereabouts of his or her relative or friend,
and of the time when it is probable he or she will proceed to destination. From August 27, 1860 (the date on which the business connected with this subject was transferred to the Treasurer's Department), to December 31, 1869, the total number of
remittances received for emigrants was 35,227, of an aggregate




122                   CASTLE GARDEN.
value of $481,955 21. The average value of each remittance
received was $13 68.   The following statement shows the
increase of business in this one branch of the Correspondence Department:
There was received in 1860,....   $6,034 60
"4         cc      1861,....    9,465 09
1862,....   18,990 55
cc "9              1863,...   46,147 91
se         ((    s1864,...          58,583 44
as "C              1865,....   62,288 88
as         so      1866,..   5,359 11
1867,...   66,865 89
1868,....   64,054 70
1869,...   92,165 04
$481,955 21
B. lJioneyAffairs.-The commutation fund, created and deposited according to law with the Chamberlain of the city of New
York, is under the control of the Commissioners of Emigration,
and is drawn upon semi-monthly by the Board, to defray current
and other expenses of the Commission.
Supplies are furnished to the institution at WVard's Island, on
requisition of the steward, countersigned by the Superintendent
of Ward's Island, and approved by the Ward's Island Committee.
The requisitions are filled by the authorized purchasers, who
render original bills of all articles purchased.
Drugs and medicines are supplied on requisition of the
apothecary, countersigned by the Physician-in-Chief, and approved
by the Ward's Island Committee. The requisitions are filled in
the same manner as those of the steward.
The Treasurer receives from the steward and apothecary statements of all articles received by them on their requisitions. The
bills are examined and compared with the statements, and all
charges for articles not included in the statement are deducted.
Many articles and necessary supplies are furnished to the
institution at Ward's Island in addition to those called for on
regular semi-monthly requisitions, such as flour, coal, meat, fish,




CASTLE GARDEN.                    123
etc., etc. All bills for these articles are sent to the Superintendent of Ward's Island, and, if correct, are certified by that officer
and the steward, and approved by the Ward's Island Committee.
These and all other bills for supplies, for work performed, and all
claims on account of Ward's Island and Castle Garden, are, previous to each semi-monthly meeting of the Commissioners of
Emigration, submitted to the Auditing Committee, consisting of
three members of the Board, upon whose approval they are presented to the Board of Commissioners, and ordered to be paid in
the following'mnanner: All bills and claims are numbered and
entered in a book kept for that purpose. A warrant is drawn and
signed by six Commissioners (this number constituting a majority
and quorum of the Board), setting aside to the credit of the VicePresident of the Commissioners of Emigration, from the commutation fund in the hands of the City Chamberlain, a sum equal to
the aggregate amount of these bills and claims. A check is then
drawn to the order of each claimant (for the amount respectively
due to him), signed by the Vice-President, and countersigned by
one of the Commissioners of Emigration. Receipts corresponding with the number of the checks are taken by the treasurer in a
book kept for that purpose.
C. Business with the Counties and Institutions.-Claims County Claims
against the commutation fund for indemnity for expenses of
emigrants who have become chargeable to any of the several
counties of this State are made as follows:
The agents appointed by the Commissioners at Albany,
Rochester, Suspension Bridge, Buffalo, and Dunkirk, or, where
there are no such agents, the superintendent or overseer of the
poor in the locality where a recently arrived emigrant asks relief
or assistance, is required to render, under oath, to the Commissioners of Emigration, monthly bills, accompanied by an affidavit
of the person who has received relief or assistance, in which the
following facts have to be set forth, namely: Name and age of person; name of vessel in which such person arrived at IN-ew York;
the name of the master of such vessel; last place of residence
before coming to New York; and that he or she has no relations
or friends in this country, able, at their own charge, to support




124                  CASTLE GARDEN.
him or her. This statement is compared with the record on ftile
in the office of the Commissioners of Emigration, and, if correct,
and the charge for relief reasonable and proper, the amount is
allowed and paid to the superintendents or overseers in the same
manner as other claims, except that payment for expenses of
emigrants in the several cities, towns, and counties in this State
is made but once during the year, namely, at the last regular
meetings of the Commissioners of Emigration in the year.
Mionthly bills for support and care of emigrants, accompanied
by the necessary affidavits, are received (at present) from thirteen
different charitable institutions and hospitals situated in the
several cities of this State.  These bills undergo the same
examination and scrutiny as the county bills, and are paid quarterly. The total amount paid to the several counties in this
State, including the city and county of New York, for care and
support of emigrants, from the organization of this Commission,
May 5, 1847, to December 31, 1869, was $994,279 92, and to
institutions and hospital, the sum of $168,371 96; making the
total amount reimbursed to counties, cities, towns, and institutions, $1,162,651 98, as will more fully appear from the table in
the Appendix.
Castle Garden is open both day and night. The regular business hours are from  8 o'clock A.M. to 5 o'clock P.oMv.; but, in
cases of necessity, the employees are obliged to remain till ten,
and  even later.  There are seven private watchmen  and
seven policemen, whose duty it is to keep strict guard over the
emigrants, and to preserve order and discipline.
The yearly rent of the Garden is $12,000. The buildings,
furniture, and fixtures are insured at $50,000, and the baggage of
the emigrants at $30,000.
The business of all the offices connected with the Staten
Island Boarding Station and Castle Garden is performed by
seventy-six officers and employees, from the General Agent to the
night-watchmen.  Together their yearly salaries amount to
$82,894.








,\ttR~~~~~~~~~=-w m-ST~~L~~~~
S   areI~_l=L ~ L




CHAPTER VII.
WARD' S ISLAND.
PREvIoUS to the year 1847, the Quarantine law providedProrision for
sick emigrants
for the care of the sick emigrant. A  general tax, levied under under Qaran-                          tine ~~~~~~~~~~~~law.
State authority on all passengers arriving at the port of New
York, was applied to the support of the Marine Hospital at
Quarantine. Aliens as well as others arriving here, suffering under
contagious or infectious diseases, such as yellow-fever, ship-fever,
etc., were there received and gratuitously treated for one year.
But no further provision was made from that period for the relief
of emigrants not afflicted with any contagious disease, and they
had to apply to the Almshouse authorities for admission to their
medical institutions.
The whole government and property of the Quarantine hospi- Insufficiency of
tals was transferred to the Commissioners of Emigration immediately after the constitution of the Board. But, owing to the want
of other buildings, they were at first obliged to send all their
patients to Staten Island. In consequence of this, the hospitals
there were filled to excess, while, in spite of every precaution,
crowds of sick, suffering under milder or non-contagious diseases,
or requiring only surgical aid, were exposed to ship-fever, smallpox, yellow-fever, or cholera. These difficulties continued until
April 11, 1849, when the Marine Hospital was formally restricted
to the reception of contagious diseases. After this step, the Commissioners considered it their first duty to provide for and furnish
hospital accommodations for those who suffered from other than
contagious diseases, and a refuge for those who were destitute.
In 1847, the pressure for increased accommodations became Pressure in 1847.
Temiporary ac.
very great.  Thousands of sick emigrants arrived in the summer e o,.I IIo daa.
of that year, the greater portion of whom were the victims of the tions.
Irish famine, and had to be provided for at once, and as well as
possible. Several hundreds of them were sent to private hospitals, such as Dr. Williams's and Dr. WVilson's, others to the New




126                   WARD'S ISLAND.
York City hospitals, and still others to the Almshouse. The convalescent were nursed at the public-stores on Staten Island, the
use of which had been granted by the United States Government
for a limited period. Others, as, for instance, the passengers of
the cholera-ship, the New York, from Havre, were, by permission
of the Secretary of War, sent to Bedloe's Island, where temporary
hospitals had been erected for their accommodation. These temporary measures, however, were wholly inadequate to the many
wants and necessities of the emigrant; and the Commissioners
speedily came to the conclusion that, in order to save expenses
and provide sufficient accommodation for all their sick, they would
have to build their own hospitals and places of refuge.
Cord'c Islacf   WFard's Island was the spot which they selected for the
for emigrant
institutions. location of these establishments.  A better choice could not
have been made. This island, which consists of about 200 acres,
and has the shape of an irregular square, is situated in the East
River, north of Blackwell's and south of Randall's Islands, and
extends opposite to the city from about One Hundredth Street to
One Hundred and Sixteenth Street. Its proximity to the city, and
its accessibility at all seasons of the year, its exemption from the
inconveniences and annoyances of a thickly settled neighborhood,
together with the facilities it afforded of acquiring land of sufficient extent to meet possible future needs at a much more reasonable rate than could be obtained elsewhere, under equally favorable conditions of location, these several advantages induced that
selection. The Commissioners have not been disappointed in the
result, now that the demands upon the island have reached to a
magnitude much beyond their anticipation. As early asJune 4,
1847, they tried to buy a tract of about 8 acres of land, with
an old stone building originally built for a factory, for the accommodation of the increasing number of their sick, but they could
only obtain a lease of the ground. On July 14, 1847, the Commissioners resolved to erect a two-story shed, 200 feet long
and 22 feet wide, for the accommodation of those who could
not find employment and had not the strength to work. Early
First hospitalin 1848, they determined to build a hospital, within a short
erected 1848.
distance of the building used as a refuge.  On November 1,
1848, it was finished and occupied. The structure was of wood,




WARD'S ISLAND.                    127
filled in with brick, having a frontage of 119 feet, and two wings,
running east and west, of 40 feet long by 25 feet wide. It containled, besides apartments for physicians, apothecary, and nurses,
and the apothecary's shop, eleven large rooms for patients, each of
the dimensions of 40 feet by 25, and affording accommodations for
250 beds.
While this hospital was in the course of construction, the
Board became satisfied that still more ample accommodations would
soon be needed, and. that more especially a proper establishment
for children was imperatively demanded.  They, therefore, de-Ereti~~f Nur.
termined to erect a nursery building, to contain, besides dormi- 1848.
tories and play-room, a school-room and chapel. By the end of
1848 this building was finished and partly occupied.
As it became essential to have more ground than, under the
lease, was in the possession of the Commissioners, and as several
lots or parcels of land on Ward's Island happened to be for sale,
it was resolved to take advantage of the opportunity. Accordingly, in the month of July, 1848, 12 acres and 22 perches were
purchased for $12,289 38. These purchases were continued from
time to time, so that by the end of 1849 the Commissioners
owned 95 acres 3 roods and 6 perches, for which they had altogether paid the comparatively small sum of $63,818 83. In 1858,Purchases of
they held in fee simple 106 acres, with appurtenant water-rights
and marsh. In 1864, they bought a piece of land for $7,200,
containing 2 acres and 22 perches, lying on the eastern side of
WVard's Island, quite separate from their other lands, but very desirable and even indispensable for a landing-place on the eastern
or the Sound side of the island, and well adapted for hospital purposes when required. Finally, in 1868, the Commissioners purchased a tract of about 11 acres of land on the south side of the
island for $50,000, so that they now hold more than one-half of the
island, or about 121 acres, for which they have paid $140,930 62,
including the whole of the water front which faces New York
City. The remaining portion is chiefly owned by the Commissioners of Public Charities and Correction, a local board exercising the functions of the poor officers of the county.
Much, of course, has been done during the last twenty-two Improements.
years for the improvement of the island. Temporary and wooden




128                    WARD'S ISLAND.
buildings have been replaced by substantial brick structures,
sewers have been built, walks laid out, sea-walls erected, and not
a single year has passed in which the Commissioners have not
spent thousands and hundreds of thousands of dollars for the benefit and succor of those who are entrusted to their care. It would
be tedious and tiresome to narrate the history of each improvement suggested and carried out for the amelioration of their
condition. It will be sufficient to give a description of the buildings and institutions at present comprised in the establishment
on Ward's Island. Before doing so, however, it will be necessary
to state, in a few words, the history of the connection of the
Marine Hospital on Staten Island with the other establishments
of the Commissioners, which connection existed for just sixteen
years, that is, from May 5, 1847, to April 29, 1863.
Connetion of Whntewso
Corne ctonspif   When the Commission was organized in 1847, it had no lands,
tal, Staten
Island, withl nor buildings, nor means. Hence it was a wise policy to commit
Ward's Island
establulhment. to its charge the Quarantine grounds and hospitals, even saddled
with the condition that the Commissioners of Emigration had to
receive and gratuitously nurse non-emigrants, such as sailors and
sick citizens. In this way, the indispensable means were at once
provided for receiving and caring for arriving immigrants, who
were affected with various contagious and infectious diseases, among
which cholera, small-pox, and ship-fever were widely prevalent.
The number of sick was appalling. In the first eight years of the
Commission, nearly 50,000 were treated within these hospitals.
Since that time, large hospitals on Ward's Island have been
erected, owing to which the sanitary condition of the immigrants
has greatly improved. Accommodations for all emigrants not
affected with infectious diseases being afforded on Ward's Island,
the reasons for placing the Marine Hospital in the charge of the
Commissioners ceased to exist. There was, in addition, other
strong and positive ground for a change; it was unjust to those
from whom the emigrant fund is collected to make that fund to
contribute towards the support of the Quarantine and the maintenance of the health laws. In years in which the means of the
Commissioners were seriously diminished by a decrease of immigration, it was hardly possible for them to maintain those who paid
the commutation money. INevertheless, the Commissioners were




WARD'S ISLAND.                       129
expected to bear the cost of supporting all who suffered from infectios diseases. This injustice was only repaired by the act of
April 29, 1863, which created a Board of Quarantine Commissioners. Since that time, the cases of contagious fever amongst
emigrants have been sent to Ward's Island, where the former
surgical and isolated wards are devoted to their reception, while
the small-pox patients, chargeable to the Commissioners, by an
arrangement with the Commissioners of Public Charities, have
been received at the Small-pox Hospital on Blackwell's Island, and
regularly paid for at a rate agreed upon between both Commissions.
Another injustice which the State perpetrated against the state Injste
Commissioners of Emigration is the following: On September  oners.
1 and 2, 1858, a furious mob had violently attacked and destroyed
all the buildings and hospitals on the Quarantine grounds.  The
loss of property amounted to several hundred thousands of dollars.
A committee was appointed to assess the damages, which awarded Award to Coto the Commissioners of Emigration, for the destruction of their      t of
personal property at the Marine Hospital, the sum  of fouartee  toother purthousand dollars, payable in bonds, and issued to them, by thepss
Supervisors of the county of IRichmond. Of the sum thus raised,
the whole was expended for strictly Quarantine purposes, except a small balance of about $500.  An additional sum  of
$107,521 was also awarded to the Commissioners of Emigration for- the destruction of their buildings, houses, and hospitals,
but the Supervisors of Richmond County, claiming that the Commissioners of Emigration were merely, trustees for the people
of the State, refused to issue or deliver theni to the Commissioners, and deposited them with the Treasurer of the State.
IApplication was made on the part of the Commissioners for a
mandamus to compel the Supervisors of Richmond County to issue
these bonds to them, in accordance with the award under the
act. It was, however, held by the Court of Appeals that, inasmuch as the Commissioners of Emigration were trustees of the
people of the State, a delivery of the bonds to the people was a
substantial compliance with the law. In other words, the judgment of the Court of Appeals substantially made the State a
present of more than $1.00,000 of the funds of the poor emigrant.




130                  WARD's ISLAD.
An application to the Legislature for the transfer of these bonds to
the Commissioners proved equally futile. "If, however," says the
Report of the Commissioners for 1864, "for any reason these bonds
should be retained by the State, then it is most respectfully submitted that, as they are given as compensation for destruction of
buildings, etc., erected at various periods from funds contributed by
alien emigrants, for whom the Commissioners are the agents and
trustees, or from moneys borrowed on mortgage for and applied
to those buildings and improvements for which these bonds were
given, they should be regarded as the proper fund to pay off the
encumbrances on the property of the Commission, without
demanding payment of any portion of it from the Emigrant Fund."
Since that time these bonds have been applied to the payment of
expenses incurred in the erection of the new Quarantine Station
and buildings on the West Bank, and the Commissioners have in
consequence received no advantage whatever from the award.
Another illustration of the arbitrary way in which the State
of New York disposes of the emigrant funds is the following:
Tnjust debt   As above stated, the act was passed on April 29, 1863,
saddled o n
Comm nissio n-establishing the new Quarantine Board, and directing the Comers  for  payinent of intermenton mort- missioners of Emigration to convey to the State all the right, title,
gmage on,Marine Hospital. and interest which they had in the real estate on Staten Island.
This property was subject to a mortgage of $200,000, covering
the former Marine Hospital lands, with all the Ward's Island property held by the Commissioners. The debt was contracted at
various times, and the mortgage given with the express consent
of the Governor, Attorney-General, and Comptroller, as required
by law, during the administration of Governors Fish, Hunt, and
Morgan. The loan was obtained upon the credit of the estimated
value of the Quarantine property. The Commissioners thought
that, if they contributed $50,000 towards the payment of the mortgage, it would be fully as much as the relative value of the two
pieces of property, the equity of the mode of raising, and the application of the fund from alien emigrants would justify. As this sum
was recommended by the Comptroller in a report to the Legislature, and had been formerly approved in an act passed in 1867,
the Commissioners assented to this division of the debt. In
1868, this property was sold, but the mortgage had not been








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Verplanck State Emigrant Hospital, Ward's Island.




WARD'S ISLAND.                    131
paid off, and the amount realized from the sale was directed to be
applied towards the erection of the new Quapantine structure on
the West Bank. Thus, since 1858, although the Commission has
received no benefit from the lands on Staten Island, and although,
since the appointment of the Quarantine Commission, the Commissioners of Emigration have been relieved of the duties which
formerly devolved upon them, yet they have been called upon
during the past eleven years to pay the interest on the whole
$200,000, of which $150,000 was debt incurred in support oft
the Marine iospital, and acknowledged as such by the Legisiature. All applications to the latter for the refunding of the interest thus paid, amounting to $115,000, by the State to the Corn mis
sioners of Emigration, so that the emigrant money may be applied
to its legitimate purpose, have thus far proved of no avail, and the
Commissioners of Emigration, although desirous of getting rid of
the debt unjustly saddled on them, are magnanimously allowed to
continue to pay the yearly interest on $150,000, with money
diverted from its original object for the benefit of American
citizens.
To return, however, to Ward's Island, where, since 1863, all Buildings o,
the hospitals and refuges of the Commissioners are concentrated.
We shall first give a brief description of the different buildings
erected there in the course of years by the Commissioners for the
use of the emigrants and the several employees. These buildings
are:
ATe New ILospital.-This is the chief building of interest on Verplanck Hos.
the island, it having been constructed upon the most approved pital.
plans for perfect ventilation and all necessary comforts for the sick.
It consists of a long corridor, 450 feet in length and 2 stories in
height, from which project 5 wings, each 130 feet long and 25
feet wide, and 2 stories high, except the centre wing, which has
3 stories. It is used exclusively for non-contagious diseases and
surgical cases. The corridor affords ample room for exercise for
convalescent patients, as well as a connection for the separate
wings. The corners of each wing are flanked with towers, which
have upon their tops tanks for water; below and attached to each
ward are bath-rooms and water-closets. The rooms are heated by




132                   WARD'S ISLAND.
hot air, which is forced through registers by a large fan-wheel.
The same power is used in the summer to secure a current of cool
air through the wards. Projecting from the corridor in an opposite
direction from the wings is a fire-proof building, which contains
the boilers, three in number, the engines, etc. The cook-room,
with 18 steam-kettles and ranges, where the cooking for the entire
island is done, and above this the bakery, with 4 ovens, of a capacity each of 300 loaves of bread; also the washing-room, with
machinery for washing and wringing the clothing, and 63 washtubs. On the upper floor are the drying and ironing rooms.
The building also contains a basement-room  for storing flour,
vaults for coal, and dummies for hoisting purposes. The hospital
proper has accommodation for about 350 patients. The rooms
are ventilated by pipes connected with the main chimney, into
which the steam is exhausted, thus forming a perfect and powerful
draught.  The basement is used for storage, and, in cases of
emergency, as sleeping quarters for inmates of the Refuge.
Nursery.    7The _-~rsery.-The home of the children, to the right of the
new hospital, is a frame building, three stories and basement,
with Mansard roof, 120x190 feet. The basement contains the
dining-room, play-room, and bath-room; the first floor, the
matron's rooms and sleeping-rooms; the second floor, sleepingrooms, also the school-room and recitation-rooms; the third floor
is mostly occupied by the Catholic Chapel and ante-rooms
attached. This building was completed only in 1868, having
been thoroughly renovated and a new roof put on. The school is
conducted by teachers from the city, under the supervision of the
Board of Education, and has every convenience for the comfort
of the scholars. The chapel is a neat and commodious room, and
will seat comfortably about 500 persons.
Refuge.?Refuge Bzilding.-This is a brick building, three stories and
basement, with three wings, total size 100 feet by 98 feet. It is
used as follows: Basement, for wash and bath rooms, and storage
for blankets, bedding, and heavy groceries; first floor, for steward's department, with store for island supplies, matron's rooms,
cutting-rooms, also sleeping-rooms. The second and third floors








GROUND PLAN OF THE " VERPLANCK" STATE EMIGRANT HOSPITAL.
A-WARDS.                                 B-DINING  ROOMS.
C-NURSES' ROOMS.                         D-SCULLERIES.
E-LINEN ROOMS.                           F-HALLS,
G-SANATORIUMS.                           H-BATH AND SINK ROOMS.
I-WATER CLOSET ROOMS.
NOTE. —The lower floor of the right-hand Pavilion is appropriated for Committee Rooms, the Superintendlent's anl Distribution Offics, and'a F'ire-proof
Vault for the Records of the Institutions.
Iiiii       G              iF  G                                                  G               F_
O                                                                                                                3                                       I r  ~
t;  A                           Ai                                                                       A 
WHMa  P11




WARD'S ISLAND.                       133
are used entirely as sleeping-rooms. It is, as its name indicates,
a refuge for destitute immigrants, chiefly women and children,
and will accommodate 450 persons.
New Barracks.-This is a plain brick building, three stories New Barracks.
and basement, size 160x44 feet, with projection in the rear for
boiler-rooms, bath-rooms, etc.  It is devoted entirely to destitute
male emigrants.  The basement is used for exercise and protec
-ion in cold weather; the three upper floors for sleeping-rooms.
L zch floor is supplied with water-closets, bath-rooms, etc., and the
ailding is heated with steam. It will accommodate 450 perons.
-Dispensary B'ildin:' -This building is of the same size and Dispensary.
appearance as the Nursely building, and, like it, was, in 1868,
completely and thoroughly repaired.  The basement is used for
storage, kitchen, etc.; the first floor fox Ghe dispensary, apothecary, and clerks' apartments, dining-rooml for officers, and wash
and bath rooms; the upper floors furnish sle, 2ing-apartments for
officers, also wards for males with chronic diseases.  The capacity
of the building is 250 patients.
New  Di)ning Jtcall. —This was formerly two stories high,Di'ning Hall.
25 x 125 feet. It was enlarged in 1868 by the addition of another
building of the same size, connected with the old room by arches,
thus giving four rooms of a total capacity of 10,000 square feet.
This is used as a dining-room for the inmates of the Refuge, and
will comfortably seat 1,200 people.
Fever - Wards for i/fales.-These are in four brick buildings, WalM  Feverone story and basement, each 25x150 feet, with bath-rooms,
kitchens, etc., attached. They have each a capacity of forty-five
patients.
Surgical Wardcs for.2lales. — This is a three-story brick Me Surgical.
building, 25x125 feet, and is used for male surgical cases.  It
has a capacity of 120 patients.'Protestant ChaProtestant Chapel Building.-Is a two-story brick building, pel.




134                    WARD'S ISLAND.
25 x 125 feet. The first floor is used as medical ward for women;
the upper floor is a Protestant chapel and reading-room. The
chapel, in general design and finish, is like the Catholic chapel.
The reading-room is furnished with a large number of periodicals
and papers.  The first floor will accommodate forty-five patients.
Boys' Barrack..   The Boys' Barrack.-A  two-story building, will accommodate eighty persons; size 25 x 125 feet.
Fern ale Fever   Fever - Wards for Females.-A  three-story brick building,
Wards.
35 x 125 feet; will accommodate 120 patients.
Lunatic Asylum.   lq.unatic, Asyglun.-Is a three-story and basement brick building, 25 x125 feet in size. The basement is divided into close
rooms for men or women, while the upper rooms are sleepingapartments for both sexes; on each side are yards for the exercise
of patients.  This building will accommodate 125 persons.  It
is, however, not adapted to the proper treatment of lunatics, and
will be replaced by one suited to the purpose.
Physicians' resi-   Physicians' JResidences.-Three in number, built together,
decels.
and completed in 1868; are substantial brick houses; total size,
65 x 45 feet; three stories and basement.
S de ts ho ntsen- S~Upe~rintendent's -House.-Three stories and basement, brick,
64 x 75 feet. The two large and spacious parlors on both sides of
the hall serve as reception and dining rooms for the Commissioners and their guests, while the upper part of the building is
occupied by the Superintendent. Just opposite is the
Deputy Superin-   De.
tendeu'es.Deputy  xpervintendent's Hfouse.-Two stories and basement,
house.    frame, 27 x 44 feet; was thoroughly repaired in 1868.
Store-House.  Store-House on Dock.-Frame building, one story, 28x85
feet; used for storage.
Boat-Honuse.  Boat-House on the.Dock.-Frame building, 20 x 30 feet.
Stable,       Stable.-A new stable was built in 1869, large enough to




WARD'S ISLAND.                    135
accommodate all the live stock required for the uses of the institution; also a new building for containing
Worksthops, for the various branches of labor used on the workshops.
island. Both of these buildings are constructed neatly and substantially of brick.
The minor buildings consist of ice-house, dead-house, fowlhouse, lumber-shed, tool-house, and gardener's house.
Ward's Island is reached from the foot of One Hundred and AccesstoWard's
Tenth Street, by taking passage on a row-boat of the Commissioners,
running to and from that point, or by a steamboat chartered by
them, which leaves Castle Garden every day at one o'clock P.M. A
sick or destitute emigrant who desires to go to the island has to
apply at the Ward's Island Department at Castle Garden. After
an examination has established his title to the privileges of the
island, he receives a permit, which contains his name, age,
nativity, date of arrival in this country, the name of the vessel,
and the cause of application, which permit is delivered on landing and kept on record by the proper officer. Upon reaching the
island, all the new-comers are brought to the reception office,
where they have to pass a medical examination, which serves to
determine whether they are to be sent to the Refuge or to the
Hospital. After this examination and a thorough washing and
cleaning, which in most cases is indispensable, they are admitted
in the proper place.
The Ward's Island Institution is divided into the Refuge and Adfministration
of Ward's
Hospital Department, the general care of which is entrusted to a Island,
standing committee of six members of the Board, appointed annu
ally by the President. The charge of the various departments
devolves upon the Superintendent, under the general supervision
of this committee. It is, however, hardly possible to separate
one department from the other. The relations between them are
so intimate, that the institution, although actually divided into
two departments, appears and works as an integral whole.
ThLe NefR ge DZ)epartment, under the immediate direction of Refuge Departthe Superintendent, has charge of all cases of destitution, in



136                   WARD'S ISLAND.
eluding those newly arrived emigrants who, though in a healthy
condition, are prevented from proceeding on their travels from
want of funds or other causes. The inmates of this department
perform a considerable amount of labor for the benefit of the
institution, such as farming, grading, building stone walls, etc.,
etc. This department includes also those persons who from age
or disease are infirm and incapacitated for labor; and, moreover,
affords a refuge for all those persons discharged from the hospital
who have no home or cannot obtain employment. A large
number of persons of these different classes are constantly provided for during the winter season.
The buildings embracing the Refuge Department are plain
but substantial, and well adapted to the purposes for which they
are designed. Every possible provision is made for health and
comfort. One of the buildings shelters the male sex, another
the women and children. For nursing women and children
without parents or protection, there is the nursery, in charge of
a matron. It contains a school-room, where all newly arrived
emigrant children at once have an opportunity to learn the
English language. Boys from  ten to fourteen years of age
occupy their own quarters, and are employed on light, out-of-door
labor.
supe rinten-  In addition to the care of the Refuge Department, the Superintendent has charge of the entire property of the Commissioners
of Emigration, and co-operates with the Medical Board in carrying
out all measures affecting the well-being of the inmates; orders
the supplies for the island, and is the chief executive officer to whom the heads of all the departments are obliged to report.
As his duties are of a weighty responsibility and onerous, it
requires not only talent and ability, but also a considerable experience to perform them.
Medical admin- The medical administration of Ward's Island from the year
ist r a t i on-its
changes.   1847 up to the present time has experienced various changes until
it assumed its present form, which experience has proved the
most efficient. WThen the service was first organized on Ward's
Island, the office of Superintendent and Physician was united in
one person. Dr. John Snowden, who first occupied this position,
a few months after his appointment fell a victim to his untiring




WARD'S ISLAND.                    137
devotion to the sick under his care. On April 19, 1848, Dr. E.
Greene was appointed his successor. The largely increased hospital service, however, soon demanded the exclusive attention of a
physician-in-chief, devoted solely to that duty. The former office
of Superintendent and Physician was therefore divided. Dr.
Theodore A. Tellkamnpf, in May, 1849, was appointed to the chief
medical office, while Dr. Greene remained Superintendent of the
Refuge Department, subordinate to the Physician-in-Chief in all
matters respecting the sanitary and hygienic condition of the
institution, as well as the economical affairs of the Hospital
Department.
The institution was in a very bad condition, when, on June
6, 1849, Dr. Tellkampf took charge of the Hospital Department.
He organized it with the efficient aid of the Ward's Island Committee, within a comparatively short time. Competent physicians,
the majority of whom had been already assistant physicians or
surgeons in other hospitals, were appointed.  The places of
incompetent orderlies and nurses were filled as speedily as possible by others, selected carefully from among the inmates of
the hospital who had recovered. In order to secure an efficient
corps of orderlies and nurses, they received monthly pay, after
having been trained for their various duties. A head orderly and
a matron were appointed.
The so-called contract system was abolished with great diffi- Supplies.
culty, but since its abolition all articles requisite for the Hospital,
for instance, medicines, meat, milk, vegetables, etc., have been of
the best quality. The wards were newly furnished, and iron
bedsteads introduced. A hospital kitchen was arranged; though
deficient in some respects, an experienced cook with two or three
assistants managed to supply all the patients-gradually increasing from 600 to about 1000-with the best diet, in full, half, and
quarter rations, as ordered.
The Croton water was introduced, and a wash-house built and Croton water.
furnished with all the modern improvements.
The various departments of the Hospital, namely, the Medical, Surgical, the Lying-in Department, and the Department for
Diseases of Children, were meanwhile organized, each divided
and subdivided; and all sick immigrants-curable as well as




138                   WARD'S ISLAND.
incurable cases-were admitted, except the insane and those suffering from small-pox.
Besides the more usual divisions, others were arranged, one for
patients suffering from petechial typhus (ship-fever), another for
cholera patients-the Asiatic cholera prevailing at that timeand still another for about 200 children infected with prevalent
ophthalmia. In order to prevent the spreading of this contagious
disease beyond the institution, the children were discharged from
this division only when completely cured. A temporary building
was erected for post-mortem examinations. All persons on their
arrival at the institution were examined first by the Physicianin-Chief, and subsequently by the physician du jotur, and those
found to be sick were sent to their respective wards, after having
complied (if possible) with the regulations made in regard to
cleanliness, dress, etc.
In the spring of 1850, the Physician-in-Chief, who, in organizing the Hospital Department, had the direction of the economical
affairs of that department as well as the direction and supervision
of the treatment of all patients, and who performed, besides, all
surgical and obstetrical operations, except such as he could entrust
to his assistant-surgeons, proposed that his senior assistants should
now be appointed physicians, to have charge of departments or
divisions, subject to certain regulations and restrictions, and that
each should have an assistant. This proposition was approved of
by the Ward's Island Committee, but not formally acted upon by
the Board, owing to the occurrence of some vacancies (two in
the Ward's Island Committee, namely, one by the death of the
Hon. David C. Colden, the other by the resignation of George E.
Kunhardt, President of the German Society, both of whom had
evinced a great interest in the organization and welfare of the institution).
A aoption of   This change in the composition of the Board resulted in a new
Engliish pl an
fcviasitingphy- course of action. While the Physician-in-Chief was convalescent
sicians.
from petechial typhus, from which disease the majority of his
assistants, one after the other, had also suffered, the Board resolved to introduce a so-called new plan-in fact, the old English
plan-according to which visiting physicians and surgeons living
from six to eight miles from the island, and young resident phy



WARD's ISLAND.                     139
sicians, were appointed. The Physician-in-Chief, after having
urged in vain that the hospital service required a permanent medical
staff residing on the island, and that the contemplated change, for
many weighty reasons, was objectionable, and sure to lead to most
deplorable results, declined the position offered to him under the
new system, and resigned.
The new plan, however, was carried into effect by the appointment of eight physicians and surgeons as visiting physicians to the
institution, who formed together the Medical Board of Ward's
Island.
This system soon proved its inefficiency, but was, nevertheless, Inefficiency of
same.w and apkept up until 1855, when the Medical Department proper was again  eosi.denent 
placed under the charge of a resident physician-in-chief, with two'icnsanas.-.,
assistants, and the Surgical Department under the charge of a surgeon-in-chief, with the same number of assistants. This system
has been in operation for the last fifteen years, with the simple
change of one instead of two assistants in each department. The
general supervision is exercised by the Medical Board, consisting
of a Consulting Physician, Physician-in-Chief, and Surgeon-inChief. These offices are now filled by the following gentlemen PretedicB a
Dr. J. Murray Carnochan, Surgeon-in-Chief; Dr. Ernst Schilling,
Consulting Physician; Dr. George Ford, Physician-in-Chief; Dr.
Auguste Reimer, Assistant Physician; and Dr. John Dwyer, Assistant Surgeon; the three latter forming the resident medical
staff. The former have been connected with the institution for a
long series of years.
The regular routine business of the Hospital is about equally
divided among the resident medical staff. A number of wards
constitute the department of one physician or surgeon, to which
his labor and attendance are mainly devoted. The Physician-inChief has the general supervision. The assistants have to report
to and to consult with him, and to carry out his suggestions or
orders. The Medical Board meets regularly every fortnight, to MedicalBoard.
consult upon all matters relating to the Hospital and the welfare
of its inmates; to deliberate upon general questions of health, and
such suggestions as may be received from different quarters; to consider and decide upon changes and improvements, and to discuss
new or difficult cases in practice.  A record is kept of all its




140                    WARD'S ISLAND.
transactions by the Secretary of the Board. The Surgeon-in-Chief)
however, pays regular visits to the island, performs all necessary
operations, which amount to a considerable number annually, and
gives all directions and instructions to his assistant.
~ness.il bus    The Hospital itself is visited regularly every morning by the
resident medical staff; prescriptions are sent to the apothecary,
and all directions regarding the diet or care of patients given to
the attending nurses. Whenever required, two or more daily
visits are of course made to patients by the attending physician or
surgeon. The number of buildings, their isolation and peculiar
structure, allows a perfect classification of all kinds of diseases.
Thus, there are buildings appropriated to contagious diseases,
while others contain exclusively non-contagious maladies; a means
by which the, spreading of an epidemic is not only prevented, but
the chance of an outbreak lessened, because every case, as soon as
detected, is immediately sent to its proper place, and all possible
sanitary precautions, such as fumigation, disinfection, administered.
For the same purpose, the Refuge Department is daily inspected and examined by the Assistant Physician for the detection
of any case of sickness, and its immediate transfer upon discovery
to the proper medical ward.
DiseaeseIstreated   All kinds of diseases are treated on the island, with the exception only of small-pox cases, which, as stated above, are sent to
the Hospital on Blackwell's Island, erected for the purpose by the
Commissioners of Public Charities and Correction.
Lunatic Asylum. The Lunatic Asylum on Ward's Island has been in successful
operation since 1861, but, as the present building does not sufficiently answer the purpose, it is intended to replace it by a new and
appropriate structure, having room for from 250 to 300 inmates.
Number of pa-   To show the importance and magnitude of the institution, it
entyits    is only necessary to state, that, during the twenty-three years of
its existence, 207,862 inmates, or about 9,000 annually, have been
treated and cared for at an average cost of $1 85 each per week.
The labor of the institutions on the island is performed by 88
officers, clerks, nurses, and employees, who together receive a
yearly salary of $32,581.
Croton water.    The island is amply supplied with Croton water, which is carried from the city by a pipe across the river to a large reservoir.




WARD'S ISLAND.                      141
The main sewer, but lately finished, passes from north to south,
and has largely added to the sanitary condition of the island, as
all the effluvia are washed out by it, and immediately carried off
into the river.




CHAPTEIR  VIII.
tCAPITAL  TALUE OF IMnMIGRATION TO THIS COUNTRY-ITS INFLUENCE
ON THE POPULATION AND THE NATION'S WEALTH-IS IMMIGRATION A MATTER OF STATE OR NATIONAL CONCERN?
IT is a common mistake of statisticians and writers on political
economy to limit their enquiries to the amount of means which
immigrants bring with them, to ascertain the aggregate thereof,
and to conclude that the few millions thus obtained are the only
addition to the nation's wealth.
Cash means of  In 1856, the Commissioners of Emigration in New York exthe emigrants. amined every immigrant as to the amount of his means, and the
average cash of each of the 142,342 new-comers of that year
amounted to $68 08. The Commissioners afterward discontinued
this examination, for the reason that, in spite of all their endeavors,
they could not obtain correct answers on the part of the immi
grants, who were suspicious of their motives.
Kennedy's Re-  "d The main object," says Superintendent Kennedy, in his report of January 14, 1858, "for enquiring of passengers the amount
of cash means they possessed, was secured, when it was shown to
the public that on the average they were in possession of a larger
amount of such means than is held by the localized residents of
any known community; and that, although a part of the immigration is among that class of persons who seek refuge on our
shores, and subsistence by labor, with little or no cash means, yet
a large portion bring with them of that kind of property a sufficient quantity to sustain themselves, and to aid in the enrichment
of the country. It was justly apprehended that a continuance of
the investigation might lead to mischievous results, from their
manifest inaccuracy. For, while the table of 1.856 presents the
average amount of cash means at $68 08 per head, subsequent
but reliable information showed that the concealment of large
amounts had been constantly and successfully practised; and
that, had full admission been made of the funds in possession, the
average would have been at least double the amount reported."'




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.           143
I was myself at that time a witness of the unreliability of the Unreliable statestatements of immigrants concerning their means. Being present gralnts.
when, in the summer of 1856, the passengers of a German ship
were examined at Castle Garden, I observed an old farmer and
his three adult sons, who, in answer to the enquiry of the Superintendent, opened their pocket-books, counted the contents of
each, and hesitatingly declared it to be about $25. I interposed,
and explained to these people, who evidently apprehended that
they would be taxed on account of their money, the reason of the
interrogatories, whereupon the old farmer showed me a bill of
exchange of $2,700 on a New York banker, and remarked that
each of his sons had about the same amount with him. These
men had been entered as having about $100 together, while in
fact they ought to have been credited with about $11,000.
" German immigrants alone," says a report of the Commission- Ge rman emiers of Emigration, December 15, 1854, on the subjects in dispute
between the Commissioners of Emigration and the Almshouse
Department of the city of New York, "have for the past three
years, as estimated by the best German authorities, brought into
the country annually an average of about eleven millions of dollars. A large amount of money in proportion to numbers is
estimated to have been brought from Holland and other countries.
The amount of money thus introduced into the country is incalculable."
These estimates are corroborated by statements which I hap- Statistical facts.
pened to find among some German statistical tables. It appears
from the statistical records of the grand duchy of iBaden, that
from 1840 to 1849 the ready cash which each emigrant carried
with him amounted to 245 florins, or $98 gold. Again, of the
Bavarian emigrants between 1845-1851, each was possessed of
233 florins, or $93 20 gold; between 1851-1857, each of 236
florins, or $94 40 gold; while the Brunswickers, who emigrated
in 1853, had 136 thalers, or about $96 gold, each. The Wiirtembergers, in 1855, carried only $76 gold each with them; which
sum in 1856 increased to $134 gold, in 1857 to $145 gold, and
in 1858 even to $318 gold per head. Other official data concerning this I have not been able to obtain, but the instances just
cited throw sufficient light on the subject.




144           CAPITAL' VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
Otfer property   The money, however, is not the only property which imlm igrants bring with them. In addition to it, they have a certain
amount of wearing apparel, tools, watches, books, and jewelry.
Assuming that their cash amounts to only $100- a head, I do not
think I exaggerate in estimating their other property at $50, thus 
making $150 the total of the personal property of each immigrant.
The total arrivals at New York for the year 1869 were 258,989
immigrants, and the amount added to the national wealth, through
this port alone, in one year, did consequently not fall short of
$38,848,350. Large as this sum appears, it is insignificant in
comparison with the hundreds of millions which have been, and
will be, produced yearly by the labor of immigrants. And here
the question suggests itself: What is the economic value of each
immigrant to the country of his adoption?
Economic value
of emigrants.   We are perfectly familiar with the estimates which, during the
existence of slavery, were made of the value of negroes. A good
field hand was considered to be worth $1,200 and over; a good
cook was valued higher; and a seamstress or housekeeper was, in
some cases, held at even $1,500 or $2,000. In order to obtain a
proper idea of the importance of immigration to the United
States, we must endeavor to capitalize, so to speak, the addition
to the natural and intellectual resources of the country represented
by each immigrant.
Dr. Engel's   A prominent German statistician, Dr. Engel, of Berlin, Director of the Prussian Statistical Bureau, in an able treatise on the
price of labor, distinguishes three periods in the economic life of
each man: two unproductive and one productive period. The
first comprises the raising and education of the individual, and
continues until he reaches his fifteenth year. It is, of course, not
only unproductive, but causes considerable outlay. The second,
extending from the fifteenth to the sixty-fifth year, is the productive time of life. The third comprises the unproductive years of
old age after sixty. Dr. Engel calls the first the juvenile, the
second the labor, and the third the aged period.
It is only during this productive period that man is able to
subsist on the results of his own labor. In the juvenile period
he is dependent on the assistance of others, and in the aged period
he has to live upon the accumulated fruits of the productive years.




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.             145
Whether or not the child in its first period lives at the expense
of his parents, there must be means for its maintenance and education, and as nature does not spontaneously furnish these means,
and as they cannot be provided by others without danger of
impoverishment if not replaced, they must be obtained by labor.
This lalSor is performed during the productive period, in which
the following three objects should be attained, viz.: 1. The payment of the expenses incurred for the support and education of
the child in the juvenile period. 2. The satisfaction of the daily
wants, and the maintenance of the productive power of the
individual. 3. The laying up of a surplus fund for his sustenance
during the aged period. Thus, the cost of the bringing up and
education of a man constitutes a specific value, which benefits
that country which the adult individual makes the field of his
physical and intellectual exertions.  This value is represented
by the outlay which is necessary to produce an ordinary laborer.
An immigrant, therefore, is worth just as much to this country
as it costs to produce a native-born laborer of the same average
ability.
It is evident that the capital value which a grown-up, ablebodied immigrant represents is different according to his station in
life and the civilization of the country whence he comes. The
wants of a skilled and unskilled laborer from the same country
differ widely. Those of the Englishman are different from those
of the Irishman. The German must be measured by another
standard than the Mexican or South American. Their mode of
life, their economical habits and practical pursuits, have little in
common; and hence the benefit to the country of their adoption
varies according to their respective previous relations. It is certain, however, that each emigrant brings, independently of his
personal property, a certain increase of wealth to this country,
which increase is paid by the country from which he comes, and
accordingly must be credited to it.
In order to arrive at the most accurate possible estimate of
this addition of wealth, it is necessary to enquire into the cost of
raising and educating, in this country, a man whose means of
living are wholly derived from his physical labor. I shall not
include in the following calculation the professional man, the




146            CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
scholar, the lawyer, the clergyman, the physician, the engineer,
and others, who, in the course of years, have likewise come here
by thousands, and added to the productive wealth of the country
in proportion to the greater cost of their education; but I shall
confine myself to the class named, which forms the great majority of immigrants.
Cost of raiinga   Dr. Engel computes the cost of raising a manual laborer in
Germany at 40 thalers a year for the first five years of his life;
at 50 thalers for the next five years; and at 60 thalers from the
eleventh to the fifteenth year, thus arriving at an average of 50
thalers per year, or 750 thalers in all. From my knowledge of
German life, I consider this estimate as correct as it can be; and,
assuming that in this country subsistence costs about twice as
much as in Germany, I do not think I shall be far from the truth
in doubling Engel's estimates, and in assuming the expense of
bringing up an American farmer or unskilled laborer for the first
fifteen years of his life to average 100 thalers per year, or a total
of 1,500 thalers, equal to about $1,500 currency. Following Dr.
Engel's estimate, an American girl will be found to cost only
about half of that, or $750, for the reason that she becomes useful
to the household from an earlier age. Allowance must be made,
it is true, for the fact that about one-fifth of the emigrants are
less than fifteen years old; but this is fully balanced by the great
preponderance of men over women, and by thousands who represent the highest order of skilled labor. Hence I feel safe in
assuming the capital value of each male and female emigrant to
be $1,500 and $750 respectively for every person of either sex,
making an average for both of $1,125. My friend, Mr. Charles
Reemelin, one of the most prominent American political economists, confirmed these figures in a very able address, made before
the German Pioneer Association of Cincinnati, on May 26, 1869,
in which he estimated the value of each immigrant who had come
to that city to live at $1,500, and the total value of the fifty
thousand emigrants who have taken up their residence there in
the last forty years at seventy-five millions of dollars.
Increase of na-   The number of emigrants who have arrived at the port of
tional wealth
b y immigra- New York from May 5, 1847, to January 1, 1870, is no less than
lion.
4,297,980. Adding to the capital value of $1,125 represented by




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGiRATION.           147
every emigrant, $150 per head for the average value of personal
property brought, as I have shown, by each, we find that immigration increased the national wealth, in the stated period, by
more than five billions of dollars, or more than twice as much as
the present amount of the national debt. The total immigration
into the United States being now at the rate of 300,000 souls per
year, the country gains nearly four hundred millions of dollars
annually, or more than one million per day.
My friend, Mr. Charles L. Brace, in a very able communica- Mr. Brace
tion which, on November 3, 1869, he addressed to the New York
daily 2Tribune, has taken exceptions to these statements and estimates, which were contained in a paper read by me before the
American Social Science Association.
"Mr. Kapp," he says, " deserves high commendation for the
ingenuity and industry he has shown in thus analyzing our emigration statistics, and proving the economical value of this current
of population.
"But, in the light of science, we are compelled to point out
what seem to us omissions in these economical reasonings, which
will somewhat modify the results. The capital value of an object
is not determined merely by the cost of its production, but also
by another element-the demandcfor it. Thus, if a hundred new
sewing-machines are produced, they are worth to the community
not merely what they cost to make, but what the demand for
them will bring. If there has been an overproduction of sewingmachines, or they are of poor quality, their worth sinks, and their
money value to the community may fall below the cost of manufacture. The same is true of all articles which are parts of the
capital of a country. Their money value or price is conditioned
by cost of production and the relation of demand to supply. It
is true also of animals. A cow or a horse is worth not alone
what it costs to produce it, but what the demand will bring.
Some, from adventitious circumstances, will fall below the cost of
production; some will rise above it. Many fine horses, which
cost no more to raise than poor ones, are worth far more to the
country, because the demand for them is greater, while many
poor ones sink below their cost, because the demand is unreasonably small. So with human beings, if we look at them purely as




148          CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
instruments of production.  An idiot costs as much, perhaps
more, to raise as a lad of ordinary intelligence; but he is of no
capital vralue. A farmer's boy, whose brain has worked intensely
as he broke the sod, though costing no more in education than a
dull clodhopper in the next house, finds himself at fifteen worth
double the other in his market value, solely because the demand
for his labor is greater. The wages or salary of men in the professions is not measured solely by the cost of their education,
but by the price which their services will bring in the market;
and this is,determined mainly, though not entirely, by demand
and supply.
"When an emigrant lands in this country, his capital value is
conditioned by these two elements, cost of production and demand. There are, probably, every year among the emigrants, a
few thousand of poor, ignorant, and rather weakly women who
become sewing-women in the great cities. These, on Mr. Kapp's
estimate, should be worth $750 each. But, owing to the crowded
state of the market for such instruments of production, and to
their own ignorance, and the consequent small demand for each
seamstress, those women are probably of scarcely any pecuniary
value to the community, and are often a burden. On the very
property of the Commissioners of Emigration there will be, this
winter, some thousands of able-bodied men, who not only produce nothing, but are supported by the contributions to the Emigration Fund of their more industrious fellows.  These certainly are not worth $1,175 capital to the nation. Then take the
very considerable number of the four million emigrants who have
been entirely non-producers, being either paupers, or criminals, or
diseased, or who have, as neglected children, fallen into the hands of
the public authorities, or whose labor, as destitute women, has not
supported themselves. When these are all subtracted from the
four millions, there will be a very considerable deduction from Mr.
Eiapp's enthusiastic estimates of the value of this golden tide.
"We do not question, however, the general conclusion of the
Commissioner's paper-the immense value of this current of
labor to the production and development of the country. We
would only diminish somewhat his numerical estimate of the
pecuniary worth of each emigrant.




CAPITAL VALIUE OF IMMIGRATION.            149
"Articles which are in universal demand, such as gold and
silver, depend for their value mainly on the cost of production.
So universal is the demand here for ordinary male labor, that its
value will not vary much from the expense of its production in
this country. This cost Mr. KIapp has probably exaggerated in
making it double that of Germany. It would be safe, however,
reckoning from the expense of supporting a labdrer's male child
in Germany, to call the capital value of the most ordinary farmhand at least $1,000 or $1,100 in the United States.' This estimate alone would justify all the Commissioner's enthusiasm as to the pecuniary value of emigration.' It is a little less than was the old market value of the male
slave, for the reason, probably, as Mr. Olmsted has shown, that
the pecuniary value of slaves was somewhat speculative, based
on the expectation of profit from the best cotton lands.
"There is another method of obtaining; the capital value'
of the male emigrant, which we throw out for the consideration
of your readers interested in questions of political economy.
"Each laborer is worth (pecuniarily) to the country the profits
from his production over and above the expense of his support.
HIis average cost to his employer is, say, $20 per month and'keep,' or about $400 per annum. It is believed that an ordinary profit on common labor upon a farm is from 15 to 183 per
cent. This would leave the gain to the country from $60 to $75
annually. This, at seven per cent. interest, would represent just
about the capital value estimated above, or about $1,000 or $1,100
for an average male laborer."
So far lMVr. Brace.'I freely admit that the economical princi- Reply to Mr.
Brace's  argwples set forth by him  are incontrovertible; but, on the other ment.
hand, I claim that actual experience has established the correctness of the position I have assumed. The basis for my statements and estimates is chiefly this:
In a comparatively new country like the United States, with
its immense area and the rapid development of its resources, the
demand for labor-is always greater than the supply. There are,
it is true, some pursuits in which this is not the case. During
the winter, too, in large cities, hundreds and thousands of
emigrants are often unable to find suitable employment or an




150          CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
adequate reward for their labor; but this state does not continue
for any length of time. Seamstresses who cannot find work in
their line turn to other occupations, such as housemaids, nurses,
etc. The character of the European workingwoman in this
respect is just the reverse of that of the American. While the
latter considers labor in a factory to be of a more elevated character, and would never descend to common housework, the former
is content to exert herself in any decent sphere of labor.
But for argument's sake, let me admit that every year there
are a few thousand poor, ignorant, and incapable men or women
who become a burden to the community. What proportion does
their number bear to the total immigration of a whole year? The
New York Commissioners of Emigration have annually to support an average of about 2,000 sick and destitute in their institutions, and, besides, a few hundred criminals, who are confined at
their cost in the city prisons; but all this does not amount to one
per cent. of the entire immigration. It must be borne in mind.that the poorer emigrants remain in New York City, and that,
consequently, it cannot be presumed that any large number of
the others become a burden to the several States.
However, I will even go so far as to admit that the number
of those who not only produce nothing, but are supported by the
contributions of States or counties, reaches 5 per cent. Taking
the number of immigrants in 1869 as a basis, this percentage
would give between 12,000 and 13,000 non-producers. But even
such a percentage would be more than counterbalanced by the
large number of emigrants better educated than the ordinary
laborers who form the basis of my computation.
An emigrant population contains a very small percentage
of helpless and incapable individuals. Apart from the law which
prohibits the landing of cripples, blind, deaf, and aged persons, it
is self-evident that only the strong, the most courageous and
enterprising natives of a country emigrate to a foreign land.
The unequal representation of the several ages and sexes among
emigrants is due to this fact. Out of the whole immigration to
the United States from 1819 to 1860, more than 22 per cent.
were from one to fifteen years old; a little over 50 per cent. were
fiom fifteen to thirty years of age; more than 73 per cent. were




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.             151
less than thirty years old; more than 462 per cent. were from
twenty to thirty-five; more than 60 per cent. were from fifteen
to thirty-five, and nearly 90 per cent. less than forty years old.
Moreover, the sexes approach equality only among children and
youths. - Of individuals under twenty years of age, about 18 per
cent. were males, and 17 per cent. females, while the male immigrants from twenty-five to forty years of age were double the
number of females of the same age.
Of the total immigration to the United States within the
above-mentioned period (1819 to 1860), amounting to 5,459,421,
the occupation of 2,978,599, including 2,074,633 females, is not
stated, while 1,637,154 are put down as farmers and laborers,
leaving 843,688 persons who were either mechanics or professional imen. In the census tables for that period, we find 407,524
mechanics, 4,326 clergymen, 2,676 lawyers, 7,109 physicians,
2,016 engineers, 2,490 artists, 1,528 teachers, 3,120 manufacturers,
3,882 clerks, and 5,246 seamstresses and milliners, enumerated
among the immigrants. This enumeration, incomplete as it is, shows
that about 15 per cent. of the immigration belong to that class of
population which produces more than the common laborer, and
that therefore the 5 per cent., if so many, of helpless and unproductive emigrants are more than balanced by the percentage
of higher mechanical and professional ability.
We will next consider not only the increase of population by Inr   ion m
the immigrants proper, but also that produced by their descend- ah'e p tion I
ants. It is the great merit of Mr. L. Schade, of Washington City, thi country.
to have first applied the proper principle in computing the gain
of population in this country from  immigration.  As he has
shown, if it had been the policy of the Government to exclude all
aliens from our shores, the growth of the population of the United
States would represent simply the excess of births over deaths.
In 1790, the population of the United States, exclusive of slaves,
was 3,231,930. In the census returns for 1850, we find that
among the white and free colored population, the number of
births was 548,835, and the number of deaths 271,890. The excess of the former over the latter-276,945-represented the
increase of population for 1850. The whole population of whites
and free colored persons in 1850 was 19,987,573. This increase,




152            CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
therefore, was at the rate of 1'38 per cent. I cannot find in the
small edition of the Census for 1860 the number of births; but in
1860 the percentage of increase is nearly, if not precisely, the
same as in 1850-the total increase of population from  1840 to
1850 being 35'87, and from 1850 to 1860 35'59 per cent.
That this estimate of 1'38 as the yearly rate of increase of the
population without immigration cannot possibly be an understatement appears evident when we compare it with the percentage
of the yearly increase of the population of other countries. In
England, the rate was only 1'25; in France, 0'44; in Russia,
0'74; in Prussia, 1-17; in Holland, 1'23; in Belgium, 0'61; in
Portugal, 0'72; and in Saxony, 1'08.  This increase of 1-38
added each year to the aggregate of the preceding year, down
to 1865, would give us the population of the United States as it
would have been if the policy of excluding immigration had been
followed.  The whole white and free colored population in the
year 1790 having been 3,231,930, it would have amounted, if increased only by the excess of births over deaths:
In 1800 to 3,706,674, while in fact it was, exclusive of slaves, 4,412,896
"1810 " 4,251,143    "         "         "            6,048,450
"1820 " 4,875,600    "         "         "            8,100,056
" 1830 " 5,591,775   "                               10,796,077
" 1840 " 6,413,161             CC"                  14,582,008' 1850 " 7,355,423   "                               19,987,563
"1860 " 8,435,882."          ".  27,489,662
"1865 " 9,034,245    ".                  "     about 30,000,000
Deducting 9,034,245 from 30,000,000, the remainder, or 20,965,755,
represents the population of foreign extraction gained by the
United States since 1790.  If the influx of aliens had been stopped
in that year, the population in 1865 would have been very nearly
what it was in 1825.; Immigration, therefore, has enabled this
country to anticipate its natural growth some forty years.  The
increase of wealth in every branch of national activity has been,
too, in the exact ratio of the increase of population.  Official
statistics show, indeed, that the augmentation of imports, exports,
tonnage, and revenues has been most rapid during the periods of
the largest immigration.  The following tables give ample proof
of this fact:




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.                     153
VALUE OF
Year.     Imports.       Exports.     Tonnage.     Revenues.
1800    $91,252,768    $70,971,780     972,492   $12,451,184
18X0. 5,400,000        66,757,974    1,424,783    12,144,206
1820     74,450,000     69,691,699    1,280,166    20,881,493
1830     70,876,920     73,819,508    1,191,776    24,844,116
1840    131,571,950    104,805,891    2,180,764    25,032,193
1850    178,136,318    151,898,720    3,535,454    47,649,388
1860    362,168,941    400,122,293    5,353,868    76,752,034
The number of immigrants between 1819-1829 was...  128,502..... "i    10-1-1839....  538,381..... "    1839-1849....  1,427,337
it          cc        "    1849-Dec. 31, 1860. 2,968,194
Total in 414 years............... 6,062,414
We hear it often said that immigration is to the country, not Immigratiou a
to a State; that it has a national bearing; and that in more than  uiot of national
concern.
one respect we stand in absolute need of a national board of
emigration. I do not agree with this. Immigration is undoubtedly a matter of national importance, but it is a matter of State
concern also.  I will endeavor to state the grounds on which this
opinion rests.
Ever since immigration has attained greater proportions, legal questions have grown out of the financial interests connected
with it, which have turned on the point whether a single State
has or has not the right to tax the immigrant on his arrival for
sanitary purposes and for his protection. As this tax, or commutation money, of $2 50, which is levied on each immigrant landing at New York, amounts to between one-half and three-quarters
of a million per year, it will easily be understood that the magnitude of the amount involved induced a reference of the questions
to the highest tribunals of the land.  Lately, this same question
has again been taken up by Western newspapers, and by some
Western members of Congress. - They demand that the commutation money which immigrants pay at the several ports of entry
be distributed, pro rata, among the States where they settle; and
to effect this purpose they insist that the United States Government should take the whole business of immigration in its own
hands; that the Secretary of the Treasury make all needful rules
and regulations, and appoint the proper officers in the same man



154           CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
ner in which the Custom HIouse officers are appointed; thus doing away entirely with all State institutions which have been established in the course of years for the protection of immigrants.
I believe not only that existing laws authorize the single State to
exercise an exclusive control over immigrants, but that the real
interest of the country requires this exclusive State control to be
continued.
It is a well-known fact that New York is the principal port of
entry for immigrants, and that more than five-sevenths of them
are landed there. Whether directly pointed out or not, it is the
port and State of New York against which the attacks of those
who wish to give to the General Government the exclusive power
of dealing with immigration are directed. Now, the State of
New York is, as far as my knowledge extends, the only one which
heretofore has organized a proper system for the protection of immigrants. As has been stated, it took years to effect a wholesome
reform in the former management of immigration, and to create
the Board of the Commissioners of Emigration of the State of
New York.
All that can be admitted in regard to the question of State or
national control is, that the Congress of the United States has not
only the right, but is absolutely bound, in the interests of humanity, to protect the immigrant on the high seas, in his transit from
foreign countries, and to make for that purpose international treaties, which Congress alone can do. But the authority of the federal legislative power extends no further in the premises, and coimpletely ceases after the immigrant has landed and put himself
under the operation and protection of the State laws. For Congress to attempt, then, to collect from him any tax, or to assume
his support, would be not less absurd than if it were to undertake
to license the boarding-house where he puts up, to appoint the policeman who protects him, or to provide him with transportation
to his railway depot. The care of the immigrant, after he lands,
is purely a police regulation, in which the people of the State
where lie lands are so exclusively interested as to have, beyond a
doubt, the best right to provide for him. The harbor of the city
of New York, while of national importance, is still of State concern, and so it is with foreign immigration.




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.           155
But granting, for the sake of argument, that immigration is
a matter of national concern, it is doubtful if anything but evil
would result from abandoning a system which has fully realized
its purpose-which has been tried and perfected by the experience of nearly a quarter of a century; whose operations are
greatly facilitated by being concentrated upon a comparatively
small area, and. the agents under which are few, practised, and
under the immediate supervision of a Board of unsalaried and
non-partisan Commissioners, located and laboring on the spot.
To replace such a system by the clumsy machinery of a central
board, or by a single Commissioner, stationed at an inland city,
remote from the chief objective points of foreign immigration,
with an unwieldy multitude of subordinates scattered over the
land, whose irresponsibility would inevitably increase in the direct ratio of their distance from the seat of authority, would bc
worse than unreasonable. The transfer to the National Government of the control of the immigrant would lead to quarrels,
heart-burnings, and jealousies among the States, as the controlling officers would certainly be required to use their power to influence the current of immigration. The effect would undoubtedly be to so increase the cost of supporting the immigrant, as
either to quadruple the present tax, and then make it virtually a
prohibitory one, or to impose the burden on the national treasury,
and thus make the immigrant the nation's pauper.
It is obvious that the General Government would encounter
a great many more insurmountable obstacles and be called upon
to remedy more evils than are met with under the present
system. In the first instance, the institutions for the protection
of the immigrant would have to be largely extended, and instead
of one place like Castle Garden, a dozen would be required.
Besides the Eastern and Southern and Western ports, the large
inland cities, like Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, Milwaukee, and
St. Paul, would have to be provided with the same proportionate
facilities as New York. Thus the General Government would
be obliged to sustain ten establishments, while the income derived
from the commutation would remain the same. At a very low
estimate, the Government would have to pay at least one million
of dollars per year out of its coffers for this purpose. In itself, this




156          CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIIGRATION.
sum is insignificant when expended for such an object; but every
cent spent from the national treasury for the immigrant can only
injure his condition and the proper appreciation of his value.
Again, we all know the tendency of originally small public
expenditures to grow into large ones. While one million might
suffice at first, many millions would be required in the end. One
of the worst -consequences would be that immigration would
speedily become a political question, and as such the subject of
strife i among demagogues, and that cry against the "importation
of foreign paupers" would doubtless soon be raised by which the
condition of the immigrants would be deeply affected. Again,
it is not clear to me how the United States can establish hospitals
and houses of refuge for the small percentage of sick and destitute among immigrants, unless the fundamental law of the
country is changed.  This difficulty would, in all probability,
lead to a division of the duties for the protection of the immigrant between the General and State governments, so that the
several States would be charged with the duty of nursing the
sick and supporting the destitute. Whether they would or could
do this, is a matter about which I have considerable doubt.
There is another weighty objection to a transfer of the control of immigration to the General Government. The proper
care ofthe immigrant requires a staff of efficient officers, having
well-trained employees acting under them. Experience has shown
that even the best organized minds require months and years to
master this task.
The best and most efficient agents of the Commissioners of
Emigration have served under them from May 5, 1847, that is,
from the birth of the Commission. They have educated themselves and others to -a proper comprehension and discharge of their
duties. They are familiar with all the minutiae of the service,
and are consequently able to perform their work more speedily
and efficiently than inexperienced new-comers. The uniformity
and stability of the system, the undisturbed march of progress and
reform, the absence of sudden changes, form an indisposition to
try new experiments, constitute, indeed, the main reasons of the
success of the New York Commission of Emigration, which would
never have been attained if, with the advent of every na




CAPITAL VALUEf OF IMMIGRATION.            157
tiona.. administration, a change of officers and clerks had taken
place.
It is a well-known fact that the mode in which the General
Government appoints its officers is very far from giving security
for the proper discharge of their duties. We have seen about ten
or twelve different collectors of the New York Custom HIonse
since 1847, and in all probability each new administration would
have paid off part of its political liabilities by appointments to
lffices in connection with immigration.  The place of general
agent or treasurer of the Commission would have been eagerly
sought after, as the salary connected therewith is larger than that
of any one subaltern of the Collector of Customs in New York.
The interest of the ruling party would have been paramount, of
course, to the interest of the immigrant. And how many clerks
and assistants rotated into office would withstand the temptations
held out in the immigration business, which would be greater
than in any other branch of the civil service? When, according
to the statement of a Commissioner of Internal Revenue, it costs
one hundred millions in bribes, theft, and embezzlement to collect
three hundred millions of revenue, I do not think I exaggerate
when I state that the immigrant, if handed over to the mercy ot
the regular office-holder, would not leave Nlew-York without
having been fleeced out of at least one-half of his property.
Certainly, so long as Mr. Jenckes's Civil Service Bill, or some
such measure, has not become the law of the land, it will be a
cruelty and,.n aggravation of the existing evils to make the change
referred to.
While New York has to endure nearly all of its evils, the
other States reap most of the benefits of immigration. New York
protects and shields the immigrant in his health and property,
and the rising communities of the West flourish upon the fruits
of her vigilant care. Our State acts, so to speak, as a filter in
which the stream of immigration is purified: what is good passes
beyond; what is evil, for the most part, remains behind. Experience shows that it is the hardy, self-reliant, industrious, wealthy
immigrant who takes his capital, his intelligence, and his labor
to enrich the Western or Southern States. As near as a calculation can be made, it has been ascertained that out of one hundrecd




158           CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.
continental immigrants, seventy-five go West, arid twenty-five
remain in the great cities of the East, while of the Irish and
English, twenty-five settle in the country, and seventy-five remain
in the cities of the East. Thus, about fifty per cent. of all newcomers go to the country, and of these again about seventy-five
per cent. to what is now called the West. In 1867, of 242,731
immigrants, only 91,610 declared New York State and City to be
the place of their destination; in 1868, out of 213,686, only
65,734 proposed to remain in our city and State; and in 1869,
out of 258,989, the total who stated they would remain in New
York was 85,810.
A large proportion of those who remain here is made up of
the idle, the sickly, the destitute, the worthless, who would
become a burden instead of a help to our people, were it not for
the wise institution of that fund which, at the least possible cost
to the immigrant, yet still at a cost that relieves him from the
degradation of eleemosynary aid, provides him with shelter and
support. It is this feature of our State emigrant laws which is
so admirable, and which, at the same time, for reasons already
indicated, it would be most difficult for the General Government
to imitate.
The same trifling sum which the immigrant pays to secure
himself against the danger of possible sickness or destitution for
five years after his arrival, and which is, as it were, the insignificant premium on a policy of health insurance for that time,
supports the establishment which takes care of him without
burden to the people of the State.  It is this feature which
invalidates the Western claim for'division of the commutation
moneypro rata among the States in which the immigrant settles.
For the commutation fund is the consideration of a contract between the immigrant and the State of New York, by which the
latter binds herself to protect him on his arrival, and for the
period of five years thereafter provide him with shelter if destitute, and with medical and other aid if sick.
Contrary to the arguments of those who favor the distribution of the commutation money among the several States to
which immigrants go to settle, it is susceptible of proof that
such a distribution would eventually result in injury rather than




CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRATION.            159
in benefit to the States in question. For, in that event, the
share of New York would not be sufficient to meet the expense
of caring for the disproportionately large number of sick and
destitute who remain within her limits. Our State could not
then, as she does now, act in the interest of the whole Union, by
efficiently protecting all the immigrants on their arrival, and by
preventing the spread of the diseases imported by them over the
country at large, and this while deriving far less advantage from
immigration than the Western States. Let those who compare
the exaction of the commutation money by the Commissioners
of Emigration of this State to the " Sound dues " formerly levied
by Denmark, consider whether it would not be a far greater disadvantage for the Western States to have ship-fever, cholera, and
other pestilential diseases carried among their people, than it is
for them to do without the share of the commutation money
which they claim. In 1846-47, more than twenty thousand
immigrants died on the sea-voyage and immediately after landing, and thousands of others carried the germs of disease to the
remotest corner of the land. It is the Commissioners of Emigration who have since prevented the spread of contagious diseases
beyond their hospitals, and the East as well as the West ought to
thank them for their disinterested care of the immigrants, and
for the protection of the whole country from pestilential
scourges.
It seems to me that those who wish to put an end to this
beneficent work estimate the value of the immigrant by dollars
and cents instead of by his productive power, and forget entirely
that what the West wants is healthy men, capable of assisting
actively in the development of her resources. This want is
certainly better supplied under the present system than it would
be were a change made. The same persons also seem to overlook
entirely the beneficial influence exercised upon the immigrant by
the protection against fraud and imposition of every kind afforded
to him by the Commissioners. It is in this that benevolence and
sympathy find their true sphere of action. The pecuniary losses
of the immigrant from his own ignorance and inexperience, and
from the rapacity of others, are to be deplored as much, and
even more, on account of the community than on his own




160          CAPITAL VALUE OF IMMIGRAT1ON.
account. For, whenever the poor immigrant is fleeced by rogues,
his judgment is impaired, his energy is diminished, and in general
that moral elasticity lost which he needs more than ever to start
well in a strange land; and thus a heavy injury is inflicted on
his adopted country, which, instead of self-relying, independent
men, receives individuals who are broken in spirit, and, at least
for a time, useless, who are burdensome to themselves and to
others. From this point of view, every one who has the interest
of his fellow-being and of his country at heart, has the strongest
interest in having the immigrant efficiently protected, and in cooperating with those who are officially called upon to provide for
this protection.
If the same people who engage our attention on their landing
here crossed our path in their native country while in their old
accustomed track of life, the task would be comparatively easy,
for in that case they would much more readily understand their
interest and advantage; they would not be confused by a hundred
new impressions; and the majority of them would distinguish the
honest man from the scoundrel. Upon emigrating, however, the
masses enter into entirely new relations, into a new world; twothirds of them do not know the language of the country, and all
receive in one single hour more new notions and ideas than formerly in years. Thus, they find themselves without proper guidance, and fall the easier into the hands of impudent impostors,
perhaps for the very reason that they have been warned against
thelm. This sudden transition from one country into another, this
change of old homelike surroundings, with new conditions of life,
all of which, strange and some offensive to the immigrants, often
stuns them temporarily, and creates a general bewilderment, which
even makes an intelligent man appear awkward and stupid.
Whatever we may do, we cannot absolutely protect the immigrant against the practices of sharpers as long as we cannot obstruct the sources from which credulity and ignorance flow. We
can take some precautionary measures, we can point out the right
way, but it is just as impossible entirely to cure the evil as it is to
put an end to human depravity in general. The Commissioners
cannot be expected to accomplish an impossibility. In New, York,
a special detective would have to be assigned to each immigrant,




CAPITAL VAL]UE OF IMMIGRATION.           161
in order to render him absolutely secure against all attempts
to swindle him. What a board like that of the Commissioners
can do is to give the immigrant the best possible protection,
and this duty they are certainly discharging.




CHAPTER IX.
IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
UNITED STATES.
C on S t itutional IN concluding this essay, it is proposed to examine, in the light
power of States
to legislate on of the decisions of the court of last resort, the constitutional
emigration.
power of the several States to legislate on the subject of emigration, and especially to derive a revenue from immigrants.
Decisions of St-   There are but three cases in which the Supreme Court of the
United States has had the question before them. The first was
that of the City of New York against George Milne, reported in
11 Peters, 102, in which the decision was rendered at January
term, 1837; the second was that of James Norris vs. The City
of Boston; and the third and last, that of George Smith vs.
William Turner, Health Commissioner of the Port of New York.
The two latter were decided at the December term of 1848. The
three cases can be summed up in a few words.
CYty orfs NGew   In the first case, the Corporation of the city of New York
Mine.    had instituted an action of debt, under the Statute of February 11,
1824, against George Milne, as consignee of the ship Emily, for the
recovery of certain penalties imposed by this act. The declaration
alleged that the -Emily arrived in New York in August, 1829,
from a country out of the United States, and that one hundred
passengers were brought in the ship, on the voyage, and that the
master had not made the report required; it therefore claimed
that the amount of $15,000 as penalties had become due in consequence of the breaches of the statute referred to. The defendant
demurred to the declaration, and the question finally presented to
the Supreme Court was, whether or not the act of the Legislature
of the State of New York assumed to regulate trade and commerce between the port of New York and foreign ports, and, if so,
was it unconstitutional and therefore void?
The two other cases are the same in principle, and have consequently been considered together.




IMMIGRATION.                   163
The plaintiff in the case of Norris vs. The City of BostonNolris vs. c ity
was an inhabitant of St. John's, in New Brunswick, an English
colony. He arrived at the port of Boston, in June, 1837, in command of a schooner belonging to St. John's, having on board
nineteen alien passengers. He was compelled to pay to the City
of Boston the sum of two dollars for each passenger before he
could obtain permission to land them. This amount of thirtyeight dollars was paid under protest that the exaction was illegal.
An action was thereupon brought against the City of Boston, in
the Court of Common Pleas, to recover back this money; under
the instructions of the court, the jury found a verdict for the
defendant, on which judgment was entered, and which was
affirmed on a writ of error to the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
The case was then taken to the Supreme Court of the United
States.
The demand was made, and the money received from the
plaintiff in pursuance of the following act of the Legislature of
Massachusetts, passed on April 20, 1837, the third section of
which reads as follows: "No alien passenger shall be permitted
to land until the master, owner, consignee, or agent of such vessel
shall pay the regularly appointed boarding officer the sum of two
dollars for each passenger on landing, and the money so collected
shall be paid into the treasury of the city or town, to be appropriated as the city or town may direct, for the support of foreign
paupers."
In the case of George Smith vs. Turner, the plaintiff in error Oeor;e Smith
was master of the British ship ienry Bliss, which vessel touched. urner.
at the port of New York in the month of June, 1841, and landed
two hundred and ninety steerage passengers. The defendant in
error brought an action of debt against the plaintiff to recover
one dollar for each of the above passengers. A demurrer was
filed on the ground that the statute of New York was a regulation
of commerce, and in conflict with the Constitution of the United
States. The Supreme Court of the State overruled the demurrer,
and the Court of Errors affirmed the judgment. This brought
before the United States Supreme Court the constitutionality of
the New York statute, which, under the general denomination of
health laws in New York, provides that the HIealth Commissioner




164-          -IMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY TIIE
shall demand and be entitled to receive, and in case of neglect or
refusal to pay shall sue for and recover, in his official name, from
the master of every vessel that shall arrive at the port of New
York from foreign ports, one dollar for each steerage passenger,
mate, sailor, or mariner.
Cstiutionf Ci n-:  The subject of this enquiry is complicated with, and depends
volvect in enquiry.   on, the construction of the first, second, fourth, and fifth clauses
of the eighth section, the first and fifth clauses of the ninth
section, and the second clause of the tenth section of the first
article; of the first clause of the second section of the fourth article
of the Federal Constitution, and with the ninth and tenth articles
of the amendments to that instrument.
The first and second clauses of the eighth section of the first
article, so far as in point here, read as follows:
"1. The Congress shall have power,
" 2. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to
pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general
welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises
shall be uniform throughout the United States."
Lonstruction of   Upon the construction of this section, the point is made that
eighth section,
fist artppicle as the collection of taxes is a power substantively vested in Congress,
not applicable
to taxation. and not incident to the power to regulate foreign and interState commerce.  The regulation of commerce vested in Congress was not, therefore, understood by the framers of the Constitution to apply to any species of taxation, and is not to be
resorted to for any argument respecting the continuance in or
ademption from the several States of the power to impose any kind
of taxes.  The Federalist, No. 32, asseverated that the several
States would retain their taxing power absolutely undiminished
except by the express prohibitions on State taxation, which is incompatible with an implied curtailment of those powers by virtue
of the clause vesting Congress with the regulations of commerce.
Ojniton of J.   This point is strongly put by Daniels, J., in his dissenting
opinion in Smith vs. Turner, 7 Howard, U. S. R., p. 429,
who cites Gibbons vs. Ogden, 9 Wheaton, 201, in support
J. McLean.   of it.  The correctness of the citation is admitted by McLean, J.,




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.          165
of the majority in Smith vs. Turner, but the soundness of the
doctrine is disputed on the ground that the uniformity of duties,
imposts, and excises throughout the Union is incompatible with
their imposition by other than the general power. This objection
must be regarded as exploded by the subsequent practice of the
Government in the matter of excises. That practice proceeds on
the assumption that the mandate that excises must be uniform is
addressed to Congress only. C. J. Taney, also of the minority in c. J. Taney.
Smith vs. Turner, is likewise clear (7 Howard, 479) that Congress
takes all its power of indirect taxation from this clause, and none
(except the right to tax slaves imported) from any other, and
says that this view, under which the Constitution was adopted,
has been frequently confirmed by the Supreme Court (Marshall,
C. J., in IBillings vs. Providence, 4 Peters, 561). The same view
is taken by Woodbury, J., also of the minorityin Smith vs. Turner
(7 Howard, 549)
It would appear to be still an open question, unless impliedly Powetr ofx ait
closed by the majority vote in Smith vs. Turner, whether Con- vested in Congress derives its power of indirect taxation from other sources  erived
than the present clause. If this is the sole source, it is clear
that it is not exclusive, because the power of the States to tax indirectly has never been disputed, and has been constantly exercised.
And if this is the sole source of the taxing power of Congress,
that power, as applied to immigrants, is not only not exclusive
in Congress, but it is probably not vested in Congress at all.
The power to levy taxes, duties, imposts, and excises is not general, but is restricted to such as are laid for the payment of the
debts or common defence or general welfare of the United States.
The general welfare of the United States does not include the
protection of the tax-payers of New York from exorbitant poor
taxes. See 9 Wheaton, 199, 206, cited by Woodbury, J., in Smith
vs. Turner, 7 Howard, 550. Now, if Congress is without power
to effect an end necessary for the public safety and comfort, it
cannot be pretended that that power is taken from the States.
The provision that duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform
throughout the United States is invoked by McLean, J., to prove
that the power to impose them must necessarily be exclusively in
Congress. This point has been already referred to. Judge




166          IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE
Woodbury (7 Howard, 546) holds that legislation respecting
foreign paupers is not required to be uniform.
Fourth clause of   The fourth clause of the eighth section of the first article
e(ighth section
f first article
of constitution provides that Congress shall have power " to regulate commerce
interpreted, with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the
Indian tribes."
Is or is not this power vested in Congress to the exclusion of
J. McLean.  the States? The affirmative is held by McLean, J., of the majority in Smith vs. Turner, on the ground that the idea of its being
vested concurrently in Congress and in the States involves a total
repugnancy (Holmes vs. Jennison, 14 Peters, 517), and because
two wills cannot be compatibly exercised respecting the same
subject at the same time (Houston vs. Moore, 5 Wheaton, 23).
He says that in Gibbons vs. Ogden, 9 Wheaton, 196, Johnson, J.,
expressly, and the majority of the court impliedly, held that the
power was exclusive, and that Judge Story drew the same result
from Gibbons vs. Ogden in New York vs. Milne, 11 Peters, 156
(Judge Story there also says that he knew C. J. Marshall [then
deceased] agreed with him). To the same effect, he says, Marshall,
C.J., reviewed the whole ground in Gibbons vs. Ogden. The
Constitution restricts the power of the States to lay duties on
imports, and this was admitted and acknowledged in Gibbons vs.
Ogden to admit the existence of a power to tax in the States.
"But," says Judge McLean, "I do not think it admits the power
of the States to regulate commerce." He refers to Wilson vs. The
Blackbird Creek Marsh Co., 2 Peters, 250, and says " that it does
not decide, as contended, that a State may regulate commerce, but
only that where a creek otherwise navigable falls into the sea, but
is of so limited an extent that it may well be doubted whether the
general regulation of commerce will apply to it, and a State causes
it to be dammed for the sake of the public health, the Supreme
Court of the United States will not overrule such a State law
until Congress expressly exercises federal jurisdiction over the
J Wayne.   subject.  Judge Wayne, of the majority in Smith vs. Turner,
says (7 Howard, 410) that the exclusiveness is unquestionable
since Gibbons vs. Ogden, and (p. 415) that the States have given
away all control of commerce, except the regulation of their
internal trade. Admitting that the opinion delivered by Judge




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.         167
B3arbour as that of the Court, in 1837, in [New York vs. Milne (11
Peters, 130), militates against this view, he says that opinion
never had the majority, but was assented to by three judges
(Barbour, Taney, C.J., Thompson) only out of seven (Baldwin,
McLean, Wayne, Story).  The opinion in that case of JudgeJ. Bldwin.
Baldwin, which was accidentally excluded from the report, but
published the same year in Baldwin's " Views of the Constitution," also declares the power exclusive. At the first consultation of the Judges, Thompson, J., was directed to write the opinion of the Court. When he read his production, it was objected
to on another ground, that is, on the ground that Thompson declared a State might regulate commerce, wherever there was at
the time no conflicting Congressional legislation, whereas the
majority of the Court preferred to leave that point open. He
then said he would read it as his own opinion. Barbour then
undertook to deliver the opinion of the Coubrt. Without a further
consultation, he read it, just before the Court separated.
Baldwin immediately objected, on the ground that Barbour
said persons were not the subjects of commerce, and not imported
goods; privately, but in vain. Wayne says there was no intention in New York vs. Milne to deviate from Gibbons vs. Ogden
or Brown vs. Maryland (12 Wheaton, 438).  I-e admits that, in
Grove vs. Slaughter (15 Peters, 549), Baldwin spoke approvingly
of New York vs. Milne, but that, so far from denying the exclusiveness, he, in that very opinion, asserted it to have been
conclusively settled by Gibbons vs. Ogden and; Brown vs. Maryland. Judge Grier, likewise of the majority in Smith vs. Turner,
evidently regards the question of the exclusiveness of this power
as still open.
Daniels, J., of the minority in Smith vs. Turner, admits that in J. DanieisGibbons vs. Ogden Judge Johnson pronounced for exclusiveness,
but remarks that the majority in that case expressly disclaim an
intention to pass upon the point. He contends that Story, J. (one
of the majority in Gibbons vs. Ogden), held, in Houston vs. Moore,
5 Wheaton, 48, the direct contrary of what in New York vs. Milne,
11 Peters, 158, he pronounces to be the law as settled in Gibbons
vs. Ogden (see 13 Barb., 206; People vs. Huntington, 4 New
York Leg. Obs., 187). Judge Barbour, Judge Thompson, and




168          IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE
Baldwin, of the supposed majority, and Story, J., of the minority,
in New York vs. Milne (1837), died before Smith vs. Turner,
McLean and Wayne of the majority, and Taney, of the minority,
J. Catron.   survived.  Judge Catron, of the majority in Smith vs. Turner,
incidentally declares the power exclusive (7 Howard, 448), but
C. J. Taney.  does not dwell on the point. Taney, C.J., of the minority in
Smith vs. Turner, evades the direct question of exclusiveness, but
says that the passage objected to in Thompson, J.'s opinion in
New York vs. Milne, was that in which he said that a State
might regulate commerce, while the power so to do in Congress,
respecting a particular matter, was dormant, and that the reason
of the objection was that the majority desired to leave that
question open.
J. Nelson    Nelson, J., in Smith vs. Turner, concurs in all points with
J.Woodbury. Taney. Woodbury, J., of the minority in Smith vs. Turner, holds
that the power is not exclusive (7 How., 554), because there is no
express prohibition on the States, and because the power is not in
its nature necessarily exclusive (Federalist, 82; 14 Peters, 575),
and cites many other authorities (p. 555). Where the doctrine
is apparently contravened, he says it is in the application, not in
principle. The regulation of commerce has been expressly held'
not exclusively vested in Congress, so as to prevent the States
from regulating bridges and ferries (cites authorities, p. 556), fisheries (ib.), pilots (p. 557).  He says it has been nowhere decided
that the power to regulate commerce is exclusive (p. 559), that
the contrary has been held in the License Case (5 IHoward, 504).
He contends that much of the regulation of trade is necessarily
local, and the nature of the power does not require it to be
exclusive.
Cases cited to   That the regulation of commerce is not exclusively vested in
show regulation of com- Congress is also laid down in Cooley on Constitutional Limitamerce not cxtniysg,.t-tio, p. 486, citing Cooley vs. Board of Wardens (12 Howard,
299; Sin Ling vs. Washburn, 20 Cal., 534; Crandall vs. Nevada, 6 Wall; State Vs. Delaware, etc., 1 Vroom, 413).
The latter case decides that a State may tax the business of a
railroad, incorporated by a sister State, transporting across the
taxing State, graduating the tax by the number of passengers
and weight of goods carried. The contrary appears, however, to




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.          169
]lave been decided between the same parties (on appeal 2), 30 New
Jersey Reports, 531.
In ex paste Crandall it was decided (1 Nev., 294) that a State
may tax passengers leaving the State.
A State may tax a State steamship company plying to and
from Brazil, on its capital (People ve. Commissioner of Taxes,
48 Barb., 157).
It is almost impossible to say on which side the scale of autho- Authorities con
rity turns.  The question, however, may be evaded, without liting
avoiding to decide the question here involved.
Because it is not disputed that where Congress has regulated
commerce the States cannot interfere by conflicting regulations
(Gibbons vs. Ogden, 9 Wheaton, 195; Grier, J., of the majority
in Smith vs. Turner).
But, has Congress regulated commerce in this particular?
" Aye," say Judge McLean and Judge Grier, of the majority in
Smith vs. Turner, " it has regulated it, by willing that this trade
should be free." " Aye," says Judge Catron, "because they have
exempted the property of emigrants " (Act March, 1799, ~ 46), and
because they expressly allow the emigrant to appear at the Custom House with his goods (17 Howard, 443), and to come into the
federal courts and sue (444).
" No," says Taney, C.J., of the minority, " because the Act of
1799 only presupposes the landing."  It does not repose the decision of who shall be allowed to inhabit the country in a shipmaster (p. 471). Nelson agrees with Taney.
Woodbury, J., says, very forcibly, that it is arguing in a circle
to contend that a power is exclusive if Congress speaks, and,
therefore, if Congress is silent, that silence is a speech, because
the power is exclusive. The power must first be shown to be exclusive before it can be said that the silence of Congress speaks
(p. 559). On the hypothesis of exclusiveness in all mere grants,
what becomes of concurrent power under any circumstances?
Are passengers the subject of regulations of commerce? The Are bpasenfers
majority of the Court (McLean, Grier, Wayne, Catron, McKilin- 9O~111`lC/?of
ley) in Smith vs. Turner, says Yes. McLean says commerce does
not relate exclusively to " commodities," unless they include passengers. Says that has been settled in Gibbons vs. Ogden.




170          IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE
That commerce means commercial intercourse is also held in
People vs. Brooks, 4 Denis, 469.
Colllting Opi-  The word " commerce," says Wayne, J., was used with reference to the fact that taxes are not usually imposed on persons
until they have resided some time in the State (Martens, 69; 7
How., 417). The decision in Milne is not to the contrary (428).
So much of the opinion of J. Barbour as seems to be, is not assented to by the majority, especially that part which declares
that persons are not the subjects of commerce. Judge Baldwin s
decision sustains this assertion. In New York vs. Milne, Wayne,
McLean, Thompson, and Baldwin all objected to the doctrine
that persons are not the subjects of commerce. In Groves vs.
Slaughter, [Baldwin says commerce means intercourse.
The minority in Smith vs. Turner (Daniels, Taney, Woodbury, Nelson) contest this with bitterness (p. 493, p. 541).
Are laws imposing taxes on foreign passengers, to be applied
to the support of foreign paupers, regulations of commerce? The
majority in Smith vs. Turner affirm the proposition. Daniels, J.,
of the minority, says Gibbons vs. Ogden proves that regulations
of commerce do not embrace any tax-es. The opinion given as
the opinion of the Court by Barbour, J., in New York vs. Milne,
agrees in this respect with the minority in Smith vs. Turner.
Taney, C.J., refers to this subject (p. 470).  lie thinks this
imposes no burden on commerce, but only exacts security against
pauperism. Woodbury (p. 578) says the measure is not intended
to regulate trade, and does not, for emigrants are not deterred.
Free passengers are not included in commerce as regulated,
though slaves might be (p. 541). This regulation was made
diverso  intuitu (546).
Does the fact that a State law, made for a legitimate State
purpose, exercises a collateral influence on commerce, make it unconstitutional?
It does, says the majority in Smith vs. Tunler. Grier, J.,
says a State cannot do indirectly what it cannot do directly. The
police power of the State, says McLean, cannot draw within its
jurisdiction objects which lie beyond it. The object, says Catron, J.,
does not sanctify the means. In New York vs. Milne, Story, J.,
dissenting, said, though the States can make poliQe regulations,




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.          171
they cannot make them  by regulating commerce, and that he
knew Marshall, C.J., had been of the same opinion.
But the majority in New York vs. Milne seem to have thought
otherwise, and so do the minority in Smith vs. Turner. Taney,
C.J., says the negative was ruled in the License Cases (5 Howard, 473) and in the -Federalist, No. 32. A State tax, though at
the same time a regulation of commerce, is not forbidden (7 How.,
419; Billings vs. Providence Bank, 4 Peters, 561).  It is no
objection to a quarantine regulation that it is self-supporting
(p. 414). WVoodbury says that to impute sinister designs to a
State is unseemly (552).
A State law may exclude foreign criminals and diseased per- s t ates iiave
power to ex-:sons, and may, to prevent loss by subsequent pauperism, exact cludee llirt
bonds from passengers, and may compel masters, before landing, bonds exact
to report their passengers, and may have them inspected.
The latter part of this proposition was denied by the minority
in New York vs. Milne; and such appears to have been the
opinion of Marshall, C.J., in Grove vs. Slaughter. But the law
is now clearly settled. The exaction of bonds has not the sanction of any decision of the court, for the judgment in New York
vs. Milne carefully avoids the point, and Judge Taney admits
that there was great diversity (7 How., p. 481); he says for himself
that he entertains no doubt of the lawfulness of these bonds.
Can a State first exact bonds, and then provide that they may
be commuted in money. Such is the present law of New York,
and its constitutionality, though unsustained by decision, appears
to be tacitly admitted.
The fourth clause of the eighth section of the first article Fourth clause,
eighth section.
reads thus:
"Congress shall have power to establish a uniform rule of Poweratof nnat
naturalization."                                              elusive.
This power is exclusive (2 Dallas, 372; 2 Wheaton, 269; 5
Howard, 585; 7 Howard, 556; 3 W. C. C., 314). Judge Catron,
of the majority in Smith vs. Turner, says that this provision forbids
the exclusion of foreigners by the States, or the taxation of themn
on entering (I Howard, 448). So does Judge Wayne (p. 426).




172          IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED ]BY THE
But Taney, C.J., says that this clause has nothing to do with the
admission of foreigners (p. 483); it was adopted to prevent one
State from making citizens for another.
First clause,   The first clause of the ninth section of the first article reads:
ninth sectionits interpreta — The migration or importation of such persons as any of the
States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be
prohibited by the Congress prior to the year 1808, but a tax or
duty may be imposed on such importations not exceeding ten
dollars for each person."
"This clause," says 1McLean, J., of the majority in Smith vs.
Turner, "proves that the regulation of commerce covers voluntary as well as involuntary immigration."  McKinley, J., says it
distinguishes between migration and importation, by subjecting
the latter only to taxation, but that it declares them both subjects
of commercial regulations. It impliedly allows Congress to prohibit immigration into all new States even before 1808, and
therefore forbids the States to tax it. Wayne, J., agrees with
him.
Daniels, J., contends this clause applies purely to the slavetrade (Federacdist, No. 42). Taney, C.J., the same (7 Howard, 474;
Madison Papers). The power to prohibit voluntary immigration
could not have been intended to be conferred, because all the
States were in favor of it. All the States then admitted voluntary immigrants. This shows the clause relates to slaves only.
" Migration " was used lest "importation" might not aptly apply
to human beings. At all events, there is no power to compel the
States to admit emigrants. Woodbury, J., says that the power
to tax is conferred only respecting slaves. A special clause was
introduced for that purpose, because it was doubtful whether such
a tax was an impost (1 Blackstone, by Tucker, p. 231). Besides,
this class does not confer a power, but limits it (p. 541).
Fifthclause,   The fifth clause of the ninth section of the first article reads
ninth section.
(as far as in point here):
"No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce
or revenue, to the ports of one State over those of another; nor
shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter,
clear, or pay duties in another."




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.          173
McLean, J., of the majority in Smith vs. Turner, says that,
if foreigners are thus to be taxed, as well might passengers who
come from another State. This is unconstitutional because of
the clause cited; but this does not protect passengers, except by
the same implication as does the clause respecting the regulation
of foreign commerce.
The second clause of the tenth section of the first article secod clause,
tenth sectionreads:                                                       its application
to passengers.
"No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be
absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the
net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on
imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the
United States. No State shall, without the consent of Congress,
lay any duty of tonnage."
In Smith vs. Turner, Grier, J., of the majority, says an
act imposing a tax on passengers from foreign ports before'landing might be called an act to'raise revenue off vessels transporting passengers. It is a duty on the vessel, producing a like
result as a tax on tonnage. That the tax is really paid by the
passenger is no answer. Such is any indirect tax. A State,
says Catron, Jr.," cannot raise duties on imports as a revenue
measure for her own treasury." The passengers had not yet
come under State jurisdiction, because they could not be taxed
without either taxing tonnage or imports. In New York vs.
Milne, Barbour, giving what appears as the opinion of the Court,
says that passengers are not imported goods. But this, says
Wayne, is what made Baldwin say he liked this opinion less
than Thompson's, and which was contrary to the opinion of five
of the judges. But in Smith vs. Turner this opinion is held by
Daniels, Taney, Nelson, and Woodbury. That passengers are
not imports, says Taney, C.J., was decided in New York vs.
Milne. But at all events this tax was necessary for the inspection of these imports (477, 481). Woodbury, that passengers are
not imports, cites Brown vs. Maryland (McCulloch, Dictionary,
article Passengers; 5 How., 594, 614). If they' were, they would




174           IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE
be dutiable as non-enumerated.  Whether a tax is imposed on
shipboard or in a hotel, cannot make a void tax valid or a valid
tax void.
First clause, se-   The first clause of the second section of the fourth article
cond section,
fourth article reads as follows:
-its interpretation.
"The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges
and immunities of citizens in the several States."
Woodbury, J. (7 Howard, 525), says that but for this clause
each State would have the right to exclude the citizens of every
other State, and that, as respects foreigners, the original right of
each State to exclude all except its own citizens is unimpaired.
Taney, C.J. (p. 491), says: " I believe only so much of this
act as taxes passengers coming from foreign ports is constitutional.
The citizens of one State have: free access to Washington, etc.,
and to pursue slaves," etc.
Second section,   The second section of the, sixth article of the Constitution
sixth article.
says:
" This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States,
shall be the supreme law of the land."
"Whenever a right.grows out of or is protected by a treaty,
it is sanctioned against all the laws and judicial decisions of the
States; and whoever may have this right, it is to be protected."
5 Cr., 348; 4 Am. Law Reports, 604; 6 Opin., 291, Walker; Cr.,
129; 1 Doug., 546.
Opinions of     By Art. 14 of Treaty of 1794 with England," says McLean, J.,
in Smith v. Turner (7 Howard, 468), " the people of each country
may freely come into the other." " But," says Daniels, J., of the
minority, " in the first place, treaties are not supreme unless made
within the authority legitimately exercised by the Federal Government. A treaty can't cede away a right of a single State reserved in the Constitution.  In the second place, that article cannot be so construed as to prohibit such taxation."   Taney, C.J.,




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.           175
also of the minority (p. 471), says the treaty admits foreigners7
subject to our la'ws.
The ninth and tenth articles of the Amendment to the Con- Nintland tenth
stitution read as follows:                                     its construc-t;
tion in Smith' 9. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights v@. Turner'
shall not be construed to deny and disparage others retained by
the people.
"10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to
the States respectively, or to the people."
See 1 Story, Constitution, ~ 447; 1 McLean, 234; 5 Harris
(Remd.), 119.
In Smith vs. Turner, Grier, J., of the majority, says: "' This is
not the case of a police regulation to repel paupers, lunatics, or
criminals.  That right was vindicated in New  York vs. Milne,
1837, 11 Peters, 102, but no more. Here the claim is not a fee or
toll for some service rendered, nor a license to become citizens.
It is by no means a fact that most of the foreigners who afterwards become paupers remain in the seaports. This tax is founded on the claim of power in a State to exclude all persons from
passing through her territory. The same power, if existing, might
be exercised by every State through which an emigrant was compelled to travel. This would thwart the cherished policy of the
General Government. It is not a.necessary appurtenant of the
police power. The exclusion of criminals and paupers may be
necessary, like that of putrid or pestilential goods, while that of
emigrants and sound merchandise is perfectly harmless.  The
right to tax and exclude does not follow from the right to punish
crimes.  Else a State might exclude all persons and all vessels."
"This," says McLean, J., same side, " is not a health law. New
York vs. Milne does not sustain this act. The acts there under
consideration simply exacted reports of all passengers, and imposed a penalty for not reporting. It was an internal police regulation.  It did not impose a tax as a prerequisite to the introduction of passengers. Except to guard against diseases and
paupers, a State cannot prohibit the introduction of foreigners.
It may deny them a residence unless they shall give security to




1X6         IMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE
indemnify the public should they become paupers."  (Grove vs.
Slaughter, 15 Pet., 549.)'" The police power of the States cannot
draw within its jurisdiction objects which lie beyond it."
" The police power," says Catron, J., same side, " proves too
much, and does not apply to persons in good health and of good
character. The object cannot sanctify the means. The act is not
in execution of any supposed State right to exclude all aliens, because nothing of the sort is attempted. No such right exists; it
would be incompatible with the exclusive right of Congress to
make war, peace, and treaties, regulate commerce, and naturalize
aliens. The persons and property taxed had not yet come under
State jurisdiction, because they could not be taxed without taxing either tonnage or imports."' The States," says Wayne, J., same side, "have given away
all control of commerce, except that of regulating internal trade.
The motive cannot save a law if it practically operates in a regulation of commerce. M1ilne's case established no more than the
right of each State to be informed of the name and quality of every
foreigner that arrives. The States have retained no more police
power than is necessary to their internal government. No point
was ruled in M1Lilne's case which gives any support to the law now
in question. The fear that the decision (of the majority) will be
held to prevent the slave States from forbidding the introduction
of freedmen from the West Indies is unfounded.  That case
would be an exception to the present rule, because the Constitution must be interpreted according to its subject-matter.  The
fundamental idea was, that slavery should remain undisturbed by
the Federal Government. What had the majority of the judges
in Milne's case was the point that the duty to report was a
police regulation, and, therefore, not unconstitutional. The court
never intended, in Milne's case, to derogate from Gibbons lvs.
sennting opi Ogden or Brown vs. Maryland."  The dissenting opinions, hownions.
ever, assume exactly contrary grounds.  "The fundamental
question," says Taney, C.J. (p. 464), " is: Has the Federal Government power to compel States to receive, and suffer to mingle
with its citizens, any person or class of persons? I had thought
the negative established by Holmes vs. Jennison, 14 Peters, 540;
Grove vs. Slaughter, 15 Peters, 449; Prigg vs. The Common



CONSTITUTIION OF THE UNITEI) STATES.         177
wealth, 16 Peters, 539. These cases decide that the States have
the power to expel and exclude. There can be no concurrent
power respecting such a subject-matter. Such a power is necessarily discretionary.  Massachusetts fears foreign paupers; Mississippi, free negroes.  The rightfulness of taking bonds is incontrovertible-self-defence against European almshouses. The
Constitution does not distinguish between different grades of
aliens. We cannot enquire whether their persons were paupers
or not. The Act of Congress of 1819 keeps carefully within
Federal jurisdiction. It says nothing about the landing of passengers, nor about their health or condition, which it would
have done had it meant to vindicate a right to landing anybody.
This act of Massachusetts only exacts security against pauperism. We cannot admit emancipated slaves. This act of New
York is a quarantine law, and no more. The provisions for
making it self-supporting are legitimate incidents."
Nelson, J., fully concurred with Taney, C.J. " States," says
Woodbury, J., also of the minority, " may keep off foreign paupers,
even paupers from other States." (Revised Statutes of New Hampshire, chapter 67; 5 Howard, 629; Colonial Charter of Massachusetts, 1639, p. 113, and 1692, p. 252). Indemnity from shipmasters has been required in Massachusetts since 1701, and has
assumed its present form  in 1837, after the Milne decision.
The present measure is one of police regulation, and fair. The
money is wholly applied to the support of foreign paupers. That
money is called for as security, and not a bond, is no objection.
Police measures have not been ceded to the Federal Government,
but are open to the States, if honestly administered as such
(License cases, 5 Howard, 624; Baldwin's Views, 184-188; United
States vs. Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood vs. Minn, 423). The principle
was settled in Milne. All governments may exclude foreigners
(Vattel, chapter 19, ~ 201; 5 Howard, 328).  The alien act
(June 17, 1798, 1 St. at L., 571) was considered unconstitutional, because it was believed this right had not been surrendered
(4 Elliott, Debates, 581, Virginia Resolutions of 1798). The
old Congress in 1787, after the adoption of the present Constitution, requested the States to exclude foreign malefactors. As
against foreigners, the States have never surrendered this power.




178          IIMMIGRATION AS AFFECTED BY THE
Power cannot be taken from the States by mere implication. Congress has no power to maintain paupers. Poor-laws belong to tile
States (Vanderbilt Vs. Adams, 7 Wendel, 349; 1 Blackstone's
Com., by Tucker, 249), although not strictly referable to sanitary or
other police. The States have exclusive power to lay taxes for the
support of paupers (9Wheaton, 206). The Constitution of Kentucky,
sanctioned by Congress, says States have power to exclude slaves
as merchandise; the States have not ceded their ports for taxing
or other purposes. The regulation of the number of passengers
by Congress is not inconsistent with the imposition of terms on
their landing by a State to support paupers, replenish her treasury,
or exclude criminals. Though the means may be very similar,
the powers are not identical (Marshall, C. J., 9 Wheaton, 204).
Hides may be imported, and yet destroyed by the State if noisome.
To recapitulate:
Uns e te      t m  d
points.  It must be regarded as still unsettledWhether the power to regulate foreign and inter-State cornmerce is vested in Congress to the exclusion of the States.
Whether a State law passed for a legitimate purpose, or
whether a State tax, not otherwise objectionable, is unconstitutional, if it tends incidentally to regulate foreign or inter-State
commerce.
Whether taxes or imports are intended, by the Constitution,
to be included among regulations of commerce.
Whether passengers from foreign ports are in such a sense the
subjects of commerce that taxes imposed on them, and exacted as
a prerequisite to their landing, are regulations of commerce.
Whether' passengers from foreign ports, after their arrival in
a home port, but before landing, are imports.
Whether Congress has so legislated as impliedly to regulate
commerce in foreign passengers by willing that it shall be free.
Whether single States have the right to exclude aliens from
their boundaries.
Whether States may impose a tax per head on passengers from
foreign ports, payable by the master before his being permitted to
land them.
Whether States may exact bonds from ship-masters or others,




CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.         179
conditioned that passengers from abroad, now in good health,
shall not become chargeable as paupers.
Whether States may circuitously impose a tax, by first exacting such bonds, and then permitting them to be commuted for a
specified sum of money.
On the other hand, the following points may be regarded as
well settled:
A State has the right to deny foreign paupers, or foreigners ettled point.
likely to become paupers, a residence on its borders.
A State has jurisdiction of its own ports for purposes of port
regulations and harbor police, sanitary police, quarantine administration, pilotage, and the support, maintenance, and regulation
of paupers, foreign and domestic.
A State has the right to be informed of the name and quality
of every foreigner coming within its limits, and to impose a penalty
on any ship-master failing to comply with a State law requiring
him to make such report.
A State has the right to maintain paupers, foreign and domestic, and to lay a tax for that purpose on foreigners or others, when
undoubtedly within its jurisdiction, and not imports or subjects
of commerce.
The Federal Government has no power to maintain paupers,
foreign or domestic, or to levy taxes for that purpose.
A law of Congress, regulating commerce, is paramount to
any State law purporting or pretending to do the same.
A State law pretending to subserve a legitimate object of
State legislation, but in fact aiming at and effecting a disturbance
of commercial regulations made by Congress, is unconstitutional
and void.
A State cannot impose a tax on passengers coming into its
ports from the ports of other States.
And it seems to be the better opinion, that a State cannot
legislate for the regulation of foreign or inter-State commerce on
the ground that it does not interfere with any existing act of
Congress.








L I-'E N ID ~ 2.








I. SUFFERINGS OF EMIGRANTS WHILE AT SEA.
REPORT OF ANDREAS GEYER, JR.,
ON THE CONDITION OF GERMAN REDEMPTIONERS ON BOARD OF THE AMERICAN
SHIP GEHNERAL WA YNE, CAPTAIN JOHN CONKLIN, ADDRESSED, ON APRIL 27, 1805,
TO HON. H. MUHLENBERG, PRESIDENT OF THE GERMAN SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA.*
SIR: Having just returned from the errand sent upon by you and the other
officers of the German Society, relative to the German Redemptioners lately
arrived at Perth Amboy, I have thought proper without loss of time to communicate to you in writing, for your and their information, how far I proceeded
with the business entrusted me, respecting the said German redemptioners.
I left the city on Friday last, and in the evening arrived at New Brunswick,
when I waited on Mr. Robert Eastburn, and presented him, the letter you addressed him. Mr. Eastburn appears to be a gentleman of humanity and of feeling.
After lie read the letter, he observed a willingness to accompany me to Amboy;
he did so the next morning, as also did Mr. Kladey. Both of them behaved
with the greatest politeness towards me, and with great liberality towards the
German Redemptioners at Amboy. Immediately on our arrival at Amboy we
went to the river with an intention of going on board the ship General Wayne,
or with an expectation of seeing some of the redemptioners on shore. However, we saw none of them at the time, and the ship was weighing anchor, and
soon after set sail for New York. By enquiry we found the passengers were
deposited in the Jail of Amboy, however not closely confined, having permission granted them by the agent to walk about the place or town. From what
I could learn, the captain began to be uneasy, as some of the inhabitants had
spoken to him with respect to the malconduct exercised by him towards those
unhappy beings, and resolved to leave Amboy and go to New York.
I went to visit those unfortunate people, and in truth they may be called
unfortunate. And I must confess I have seen a number of vessels at Philadelphia with redemptioners, but never did I see such a set of miserable beings in
my life. Death, to make use of the expression, appeared to be staring them in
* Copied by the author from the Records of the German Society in Philadelphia. The English of the original has not been changed.




184                         APPENDIX.
the face. The complaints were numerous which they made against the captain respecting the bad.treatment they received from him on and during the
passage. The complaints which I conceive are of the greatest importance I
shall briefly state. My intention was to have had them confirmed with their
oaths, but as they are made by every one of the passengers I thought it unnecessary. They are that they left Hamburg some time in November last, and
arrived at Tinningen, where lay the ship General Wayne, John Conklin, Master, bound for New York, with whom they entered into a certain agreement, on
condition that he, the said Conklin, would take them to New York, that during
the passage they should be allowed a certain quantity of bread, meat, peas, fish,
vinegar, butter, potatoes, tobacco, etc., as also a dram in the morning, as will
appear by a reference to the agreement itself, each passenger having one.
About fourteen days after they left Tdnningen they put into an English port
near Portsmouth, where they remained about four weeks; that during that
time a British recruiting officer came on board the ship, when the captain in
formed them that they now had an opportunity of enlisting, that those who so
chose to do might, as the recruiting officer was on board the ship. Ten men
consented, and entered their names, giving to the other passengers their rea
sons for so doing, namely, that, having been already put on allowance by the
captain, they were apprehensive that, should they stay on board the ship, they
should be starved before they arrived in America. Amongst those that enlisted
was a man who had a wife and child on board the ship; that eight days after
they had thus entered their names they were taken from the ship by the recruiting officer, although some of them wished to withdraw their names, but to
no effect; go they must. The woman and her child are now at Amboy, lamenting the loss of the husband and father.
On the last day of their remaining in this British port, the same recruiting
officer came the third time on board the ship, when the mate called four or
five of the passengers by name, and told them, in the presence of the captain,
they must be soldiers and go with the officer. They replied they had no intention of being soldiers, they wished to go to America; whereupon the captain
and mate seized one of them by name Samuel Vogel, and threw him into the
boat belonging to the recruiting officer, which was alongside of the ship.
However, Vogel got back again into the ship, went below, and hid himself, but
was again compelled to come forward with his clothes, when the recruiting
officer, observing him weep, declared he would not have him, and left the ship,
mentioning that he should not have again come on board had not the captain,
the day before, pressed him so to do. The captain was highly dissatisfied with
these men for refusing to go, and declared that they should not have anything
to eat on board the ship, that they might starve, and ordered one of them to be
flogged for refusing, which was performed, too, in a cruel manner. That the
whole of the passengers, when at this British port, complained to the captain
that the treatment they received was not such as was agreed to between them
at Tdnningen. He replied they were not then in Tdnningen, neither were they
in America, but in England. They then set sail, and after fourteen days had
elapsed the captain informed them that they would get nothing to eat' except
bread and meat. After this each person received two biscuits, one pint of water,




APPENDIX.                           185
and the eighth part of a pound of meat per day. This regulation continued for
two or three weeks, when they one and all declared they could not any longer
exist on the small allowance they received; that they must, without doubt, perish. The hunger and thirst being at this time'so great, and the children continually crying out for bread and drink, some of the men, resolved, at all events,
to procure bread, broke open the apartment wherein it was kept, and took some.
This was discovered by the captain, as were also those who did the same, when
each of them was ordered to, and actually did, receive, after being first tied, a
number of lashes on their bare backs well laid on. The whole of the passengers were also punished for this offence. The men received no bread, the
women but one biscuit. This continued for nine days, when the men were
again allowed one biscuit per day; however, the captain would at least make or
proclaim a fast day. In this situation their condition became dreadful, so much
so that five and twenty men, women, and children actually perished for the
wvant of the common necessaries of life, in short, for the want of bread. The
latter were ten in number, all at the time at the breasts of their mothers. The
hunger was so great on board that all the bones about the ship were hunted up
by them, pounded with a hammer and eaten; and what is more lamentable,
some of the deceased persons, not many hours before their death, crawled on
their hands and feet to the captain, and begged him, for God's sake, to give
them a mouthful of bread or a drop of water to keep them from perishing, but
their supplications were in vain; he most obstinately refused, and thus did they
perish. The cry of the children for bread was, as I am informed, so great that
it would be impossible for man to describe it, nor can the passengers believe
that any other person excepting Captain Conklin would be found whose heart
would not have melted with compassion to hear those little inoffensive ones cry
for bread. The number of passengers, when the ship arrived at Amboy,
amounted to one hundred and thirty-two. Fifty-one remain there still; the
others have been disposed of.
The passengers further state that they did not receive the tobacco, the fish,
nor the potatoes, as they ought to have received, and which they were entitled
to as by their contract with the captain, neither did they receive their dram but
four or five times during their passage, and no butter after they left the British
port until within three or four days ago.
The foregoing are the principal causes of complaint, and indeed they appear
very serious ones too to me. However, I having heard those complaints, and
understanding from a number of citizens of Amboy that the captain's intention
was to take the ship to New York, leave her, as also the State of New York,
and go to his native State, Rhode Island, I was at a loss to know how to act or
what to do, as my instructions were not for iNew York. However, after reflection I determined to push on for New York, and there inform the German Society of his conduct. I did so, and on Sunday arrived there, when, after some little enquiry, I found the President of the society, Mr. Philip I. Arcularius. To
him I communicated the whole of this disagreeable affair. His feelings can be
more easily conceived than described. He, however, gave directions to have
the officers of the society summoned to meet the next day, which was done, and
they all attended, excepting one of the assistants, and, after hearing the circum



186                          APPENDIX.
stances relative to those unfortunate people, they appointed three of their
members, officers, to act in such way as they should, after taking legal advice,
think best to bring the captain to that punishment which his conduct should
merit.
THE IRISH EXODUS.
From Maguire's "Irish in America."
I IAVE more than once referred to the unfavorable circumstances under
which the vast majority of the Irish arrived in America, and the difficulties
with which, in a special degree, they had to contend; but the picture would be
most imperfect were-not some reference made to the disastrous emigration of
the years 1847 and 1848-to that blind and desperate rush across the Atlantic
known and described, and to be recognized for time to come, as the Irish
Exodus. We shall confine our present reference to the emigration to Canada,
and track its course up the waters of the St. Lawrence. A glance even at a
single quarantine-that of Grosse Isle, in the St. Lawrence, about thirty miles
below Quebec-while affording a faint idea of the horrors crowded into a few
months, may enable the reader to understand with what alarm the advent of
the Irish was regarded by the well-to-do colonists of British America; and how
the natural terror they inspired, through the terrible disease brought with
the'm across the ocean, deepened the prejudice against them, notwithstanding
that their sufferings and misery appealed to the best sympathies of the human
heart.
On the 8th of May, 1847, the Urania, from Cork, with several hundred immigrants on board, a large proportion of them sick and dying of the ship-fever,
was put into quarantine at Grosse Isle. This was the first of the plague-smitten ships from Ireland which that year sailed up the St. Lawrence. But before
the first week of June as many as eighty-four ships of various tonnage were
driven in by an easterly wind; and of that enormous number of vessels there
was not one free from the taint of malignant typhus, the offspring of famine
and of the foul ship-hold. This fleet of vessels literally reeked with pestilence.
All sailing-vessels-the merciful speed of the well-appointed steamer being
unknown to the emigrant of those days-a tolerably quick passage occupied
from six to eight weeks; while passages of ten or twelve weeks, and even a
longer time, were not considered at all extraordinary at a period when craft of
every kind, the most unsuited as well as the least seaworthy, were pressed into
the service of human deportation.
Who can imagine the horrors of even the shortest passage in an emigrant
ship crowded beyond its utmost capability of stowage with unhappy beings of
all ages, with fever raging in their midst? Under the most favorable circumstances it is impossible to maintain perfect purity of atmosphere between decks,




APPENDIX.                            187
even when ports are open, and every device is adopted to secure the greatest
amount of ventilation. But a crowded emigrant sailing-ship of twenty years
since, with fever on board!-the crew sullen or brutal from very desperation,
or paralyzed with terror of the plague-the miserable passengers unable to
help themselves, or afford the least relief to each other; one-fourth, or onethird, or one-half of the entire number in different stages of the disease; many
dying, some dead; the fatal poison intensified by the indescribable foulness of
the air breathed and rebreathed by the gasping sufferers-the wails of children, the ravings of the delirious, the cries and groans of those in mortal
agony! Of the eighty-four emigrant ships that anchored at Grosse Isle in the
summer of 1847, there was not a single one to which this description might not
rightly apply.
The authorities were taken by surprise, owing to the sudden arrival of this
plague-smitten fleet, and, save the sheds that remained since 1832, there was no
accommodation of any kind on the island. These sheds were rapidly filled
with the miserable people, the sick and the dying, and round their walls lay
groups of half-naked men, women, and children, in the same condition-sick or
dying. Hundreds were literally flung on the beach, left amid the mud and
stones, to crawl on the dry land as they could. "I have seen," says the priest
who was then chaplain of the quarantine, and who had been but one year on
the mission, "I have one clay seen thirty-seven people lying on the beach,
crawling on the mud, and dying like fish out of water." Many of these, and
many more besides, gasped out their last breath on that fatal shore, not able to
drag themselves from the slime in which they lay. Death was doing its work
everywhere-in the sheds, around the sheds, where the victims lay in hundreds
under the canopy of heaven, and in the poisonous holds of the plague-ships, all
of which were declared to be and treated as hospitals.
From ship to ship the young Irish priest carried the consolations of religion
to the dying. Amidst shrieks, and groans, and wild ravings, and heart-rending
lamentations-over prostrate sufferers in every stage of the sickness-from
loathsome berth to loathsome berth, he pursued his holy task. So noxious was
the pent-up atmosphere of these floating pest-houses, that he had frequently to
rush on deck, to breathe the pure air or to relieve his overtaxed stomach;:
then he would again plunge into the foul den, and resume his interrupted
labors.
There being, at first, no organization, no staff, no available resources, it maybe imagined why the mortality rose to a prodigious rate, and how at one time:
as many as 150 bodies, most of them in a half-naked state, would be piled up,
in the dead-house, awaiting such sepulture as a huge pit could afford. Poor,
creatures would crawl out of the sheds, and, being too exhausted to return,.
would be found lying in the open air, not a few of them rigid in death. When
the authorities were enabled to erect sheds sufficient for the reception of the
sick, and provide a staff of physicians and nurses, and the Archbishop of Quebec had appointed a number of priests, who took the hospital duty in turn,
there was of course more order and regularity; but the mortality was for a
time scarcely diminished. The deaths were as many as 100 and 150 and even
200 a day, and this for a considerable period during the summer. The masters




188                          APPENDIX.
of the quarantine-bound ships were naturally desirous of getting rid as speedily as possible of their dangerous and unprofitable freight; and the manner in
which the helpless people were landed or thrown on the island aggravated
their sufferings, and in a vast number of instances precipitated their fate.
Then the hunger and thirst from which they suffered in the badly found ships,
between whose crowded and stifling decks they had been so long pent up, had
so far destroyed their vital energy that they had but little chance of life when
once struck down.
About the middle of June the young chaplain was attacked by the pestilence. For ten days he had not taken off his clothes, and his boots, which he
constantly wore for all that time, had to be cut from his feet. A couple of
months elapsed before he resumed his duties; but when he returned to his
post of danger the- mortality was still of fearful magnitude. Several priests, a
few Irish, the majority French Canadians, caught the infection; and of the
twenty-five who were attacked, seven paid with their lives-the penalty of their
devotion. Not a few of these men were professors in colleges; but at the
appeal of the Archbishop they left their classes and their studies for the horrors
and perils of the fever sheds.
It was not until the 1st of November that the quarantine of Grosse Isle was
closed. Upon that barren isle as many as 10,000 of the Irish race were consigned to the grave-pit. By some the estimate is made much higher, and:12,000 is considered nearer the actual number. A register was kept, and is
still in existence, but it does not commence earlier than June 16, when the
mortality wyas nearly at its height. According to this death-roll, there were
buried; between the 16th and 30th of June, 487 Irish immigrants "whose
names could not be ascertained."  In July, 941 were thrown into nameless
graves; and in August, 918 were entered in the register under the comprehensive description-" unknown." There were interred, from the 16th of June to
the closing of the quarantine for that year, 2,905 of a Christian people, whose
names could not be discovered amidst the confusion and carnage of that fatal
summer. In the following year 2,000 additional victims were entered in the
same register, without name or trace of any kind to tell who they were or
whence they had come. Thus 5,000 out of the total number of victims were
simply described as " unknown."
REPORT ON THE CONDITION OF THE SHIP LEIBNITZ,
OF SLOMAN'S HAMBURG LINE.
EMIGRANT LANDING DEPOT, AND OFFICES OF THE 
COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION, OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK.
CASTLE GARDEN, NEW YORK, Jan. 22, 1868.
At a regular meeting of the Board of Commissioners of Emigration, held
Wednesday, the 22d day of January, 1868, the Vice-President, Frederick S.




APPENDIX.                            189
Winston, Esq., in the chair, and a quorum being present, the following resolutions were, on motion, adopted:
Resolved, That the Report of Commissioners Kapp and Bissinger, in relation
to the mortality on the sailing-ship Leibnitz, be accepted and adopted, and- be
referred to the Special Committee, Messrs. Kapp, O'Gorman, and Bissinger, and
said Committee be requested to draft a bill, subject to the approval of this
Board, to be presented to Congress for adoption.
Resolved, That official copies of the Report be transmitted to the Honorables
the Secretaries of State and of the Treasury of the United States, Baron Von
Gerolt, as the Diplomatic Representative of the North German Confederation,
to the Consul-Generals of Prussia and Mecklenburg, and to the daily press of
this city.
Resolved, That one thousand copies of the above Report be printed for circulation.
The following is the Report of Messrs. Kapp and Bissinger, referred to in
the foregoing resolutions:
To the Board of Commissioners of Emigration:
GENTLEMEN: Although not expressly authorized, yet, because the emergency arose since your last meeting, the undersigned deemed it their duty to
go on board the ill-fated ship Leibnitz, and to enquire into the condition of her
passengers transferred to the hospital-ship Illinois, in the Lower Bay.
Dr. Swinburne, the Health Officer, kindly placed the steamer Fletch7er at
our disposal. On Wednesday, Jan. 15, we went down the bay, accompanied,
among others, by the physicians of the German Society, Drs. Pieper, Schwarzenberg, and Krause, who volunteered their services for the examination of the
cause of the sickness.
The Leibnitz, originally the cVan (Couver, is a large and fine vessel, built at
Boston for the China trade, and formerly plying between that port and China.
She was sold some years ago to the house of Robert MI. Sloman, and has since
sailed under her present name.
WVe were informed that her last trip was her second with emigrants on
board. Last summer, she went to Quebec with about seven hundred passengers,
of whom she lost only a few on her passage; this time, she left Hamburg,
Nov. 2, 1867, Capt. H. F. Bornhold, lay at Cuxhaven, on account of head-winds,
until the 11th, whereupon she took the southern course to NTew York. She
went by the way of Madeira, down to the Tropics, 20th degree, and arrived in
the Lower Bay on Jan. 11, 1868, after a passage of 61 days, or rather 70 daysat least, as far as the passengers are concerned, who were confined to the
densely crowded steerage for that length of time.
The heat, for the period that they were in the lower latitudes, very often
reached 24 degrees of Reaumur, or 94 degrees of Fahrenheit. Her passengers
544 in all-of whom 395 were adults, 103 children, and 46 infants-came principally fromr  Mecklenburg, and proposed to settle as farmers and laborers in
Illinois and Wisconsin; besides them, there were about 40 Prussians from
Pomerania and Posen, and a few Saxons and Thuringians.




190                          APPENDIx. X.
It is not proven by any fact, that the cholera (as has been alleged) raged or
had raged in or near their homes when or before they left them.  This
statement appears to have been made by or in behalf of those who have an
interest in throwing the origin of the sickness on its poor victims. Of these
544 German passengers, 105 died on the voyage, and three in port, making in
all 108 deaths-leaving 436 surviving.
The first death occurred on Nov. 25th. On some days, as for instance on
Dec. 1, nine passengers died, and on Dec. 17, eight. The sickness did not abate
until toward the end of December, and no new cases happened when the ship
had again reached the northern latitudes; five children were born; during the
voyage some families had died out entirely; of others, the fathers or mothers
are gone; here, a'husband had left a poor widow, with small children; and
there, a husband had lost his wife. We spoke to some little boys and girls,
who, when asked where were their parents, pointed to the ocean with sobs and
tears, and cried, " Dowon there i"
Prior to our arrival on board, the ship had been cleansed and fumigated
several times, but not sufficiently so to remove the dirt, which, in some places,
covered the walls. Mr. Frederick Kassner, our able and experienced Boarding
Officer, reports that he found the ship and the passengers in a most filthy condition, and that when boarding the Leibnitz he hardly discovered a clean spot
on the ladder, or on the ropes, where he could put his hands and feet. IHe
does not remember to have seen anything like it within the last five years.
Captain True, who likewise boarded the ship immediately after her arrival, corroborates the statement of Mr. Kassner.
As to the interior of the vessel, the upper steerage is high and wide. All
the spars, beams, and planks which were used for the construction of temporary
berths had been removed. Except through two hatchways and two very small
ventilators, it had no ventilation, and not a single window or bull's-eye was
open during the voyage. In general, however, it was not worse than the average of the steerages of other emigrant, ships; but the lower steerage, the socalled orlop-deck, is a perfect pest-hole, calculated to kill the healthiest man.
It had been made a temporary room for the voyage by laying a tier of planks
over the lower beams of the vessel, and they were so little supported that they
shook when walking on them. The little light this orlop-deck received came
through one of the hatchways of the upper-deck. Although the latter was open
when we were on board, and although the ship was lying in the open sea, free
from all sides, it was impossible to see anything at a distance of two or three
feet. On our enquiring how this hole had been lighted during the voyage, we
were told that some lanterns had been up there, but that on account of the
foulness of the air, they could scarcely burn. It had, of course, much less than
the upper-deck draft or ventilation, and was immediately over the keel, where
the bilge-water collects, and adjoining part of the cargo, which consisted of
wool and hides. And in this place about 120 passengers were crowded for 70 days,
and for a greater part of the voyage in a tropical heat, with scanty rations and
a very inadequate supply of water, and worse than all, suffering from the
miasma below, above, and beside them, which of itself must create fever and
pestilence!




APPENDIX.                            191
The captain himself stated to us that the passengers refused to carry the
excrements on deck, and that "the urine and ordure of the upper-steerage
flowed down to the lower." As the main-deck was very difficult of access from
the orlop-deck, the inmates of the latter often failed to go on deck even to
attend to the calls of nature. There were only six water-closets for the accoinmodation of all the passengers. They have been cleansed, of course; but the
smell that emanated from them was still very intense, and corroborates the
statement of the above-namled officers-that they must have been in all extraordinary frightful condition.
When the ship Lolrd IBrouggam, belonging to the same line, arrived on the
Gth of December last, from Hamburg, and had lost 75 out of 383 passengers,
we personally examined the majority of the survivors, and found them not
only healthy and in good spirits, but, at the same time, in every respect satisfied with the treatment they had received on board.
The present case, however, is different. There was not a single emigrant
who did not complain of the captain, as well as of the short allowance of provisions and water on board. As we know, from a long experience, that the
passengers of emigrant ships, with a very few exceptions, are in the habit of
claiming more than they are entitled to, we are far from putting implicit faith
in all their statements. There is as much falsehood and exaggeration among
this class of people as among any other body of nneducated men. We have,
therefore, taken their complaints with due allowance, and report only so much
thereof as we believe to be well founded.
All the passengers concur in the complaint that their provisions were short,
partly rotten, and that, especially, the supply of water was insufficient, until
they were approaching port. We examined the provisions on board, and found
that the water was clear and pure. If the whole supply during the voyage
was such as the samples handed to us, there was no reason for complaint as to
quality. But, in quantity, the complaints of the passengers are too well founded; for they unanimously state, and are not effectually contradicted by the
captain, that they never received more than half a pint of drinkable water per
day, while by the laws of the United States they were entitled to receive three
quarts. Some of the biscuit handed to us were rotten and old, and hardly eatable; other pieces were better. We ordered the steward to open a cask of cornbeef, and found it of ordinary good quality. The butter, however, was rancid.
Once a week herrings were cooked instead of meat. The beans and sauerkraut
were often badly cooked, and, in spite of hunger, thrown overboard.
The treatment of the passengers was heartless in the extreme. The sick
passengers received the same food with the healthy, and high prices were exacted for all extras and comforts. A regular traffic in wine, beer, and liquors
was carried on between the passengers on the one side and the steward and
crew on the other.  A man by the name of Frederick Hildebrand, from
Wirsitz, in Posen, who lost two children, paid 35 Prussian thalers extra for
beer and wine to sustain himself and his sick wife. A bottle of rum cost him
one dollar; a bottle of bad wine even more. " This extortion, at such a time,
cannot be too strongly condemned," says Captain True, in his report, which
confirms the information received by us from the passengers.




192-                          APPENDIX.
When the first deaths occurred, the corpses were often suffered to remain in
the steerage for full twenty-four hours. In some cases the bodies were covered
with vermin before they were removed.
There was no physician on board. Although we found a large medicinechest, it was not large enough for the many cases of sickness, and was, in fact,
emptied after the first two weeks of the voyage.
The captain seems to have been sadly deficient in energy and authority in
matters of moment, while he punished severely small offences; as, for instance,
he handcuffed a passenger for tlie use of insulting words; but he did not enforce the plainest rules for the health and welfare of his passengers. Instead
of compelling them, from the first, to come on deck and remove the dirt, he
allowed them to remain below, and to perish among their own excrements.
Of the whole crew, the cook alone fell sick and died, as he slept in the steerage. Three passenger girls who were employed in the kitchen, and lived on
deck, enjoyed excellent health, during the whole voyage.
The physicians above mentioned, to whose report we refer for particulars, most positively declare that it was not the Asiatic cholera, but intestinal and
stomach catarrh (catarrh vent'riculi et intestinosium), more or less severe, and
contagious typhus, which killed the passengers.  From what we saw and
learned from the passengers, we likewise arrive at the conclusion that the
shocking mortality on board the Leibnitz arose from want of good ventilation,
cleanliness, suitable medical care, sufficient water, and wholesome food.
The present case is another instance of the mortality on board the Hamburg
sailing-vessels, and increases their bad reputation.  Of 917 passengers on
board of two ships of the Sloman line, not less than 183 died within one
month! As often as complaint has been made here, it has not induced them to
make any improvement. It appears that the Hamburg authorities either did
not care to examine the merits of the charges brought against their shipo or
that they were imposed upon by their officials. On the other hand, local interests, friendly feelings, family connections, and other personal considerations,
usually prevailing in small political communities, seem to stand in the way of
energetic administration of the police of emigrant ships, and of the removal
of the several grievances. While the average deaths that take place in the
Bremen sailing-vessels amount to one-eighth or one-fourth of the total number
of emigrants forwarded, the proportion on board the Hamburg sailing-vessels
is mnore than two per cent.!!
Thus, of 11,264 steerage-passengers who arrived, in 1865, in our port, from
Hamburg, 128 died on the passage; of 14,335 who arrived in 1866, 387; and
of 8,788, in 1867, not less than 199.
In our opinion, it is of great importance for the interest of humanity, in
which both Europe and this country are concerned, and as a matter of political economy, that the transportation of emigrants across the Atlantic to this
port should be confined to steam-vessels, as they not only convey the passengers more comfortably and land them in better health, but, in consequence of
the regularity and rapidity of the passage, save an immense amount of labor
for their own benefit and that of this country.'We are sorry to say that our laws afford very inadequate relief for the pun



APPENDIX.                          193
ishment of these crimes against humanity, and that, in the majority of cases,
the institution of legal proceedings for redress, and the prosecution of the guilty
parties, is almost an impossibility.
Much of the suffering, disease, and death on board of emigrant ships could
have been prevented, and a recurrence of such abhorrent scenes might hereafter
be avoided, by proper enactments of Congress, enforced by suitable penalties.
We would therefore propose to petition Congress for an amendment of the
Emigrant Passengers' Act, of March 3, 1855, enacted by Congress on the representation of the Commissioners of Emigration of this State, incorporating into
the same the following provisions:
I. THE APPOINTMENT OF A PHYSICIAN OR SURGEON ON BOARD OF ALL
EMIGRANT VESSELS WVITHI IMORE THAN FIFTY PASSENGERS.-Thus far there is
no law requiring it in the statute-book of the United States. The failure to
have on board a physician, whose skill and good character should be fully
vouched for by unquestionable evidence, should be punished by the infliction of
a penalty of at least $5,000, one-half of such penalty to be paid over to the passengers pro rata, and the other half to the Collector of the Customs at the port
of New York for the benefit of the Emigrant Fund.
II. THE DOING AWAY WITH THE ORLOP-DECK ON BOARD OF EMIGRANT
srHIPS. —In case of contravention, the penalty should be at least $5,000; and, in
addition, passengers roomed in the orlop-deck should have double the amount
of their passage money refunded.
III. A MORE STRINGENT RULE FOR' ENFORCING THE PAYMENT OF THE PENALTY FOR THE DEAD PASSENGERS.-Vith a view to protecting emigrants
against the rapacity of ship-owners, the 14th section of the present law requires
the payment of $10, as a penalty, for every passenger, other than cabin passengers, and over the age of eight years, who shall have died on the voyage from
natural disease; for the non-payment of which penalty within twenty-four hours
after arrival, a further penalty of $50 is imposed, to be recovered by the United
States in any Circuit or District Court. Under this wording of the law, no particular officer of the United States appears to be authorized to prosecute or
enforce the collection, and consequently many of the penalties are not paid, and
the law, to some extent, becomes a dead letter. We would, therefore, suggest
that the section be amended for this port by authorizing and directing a prosecution by the District Attorney of the Southern District, on complaint being
made by the Commissioners of Emigration of the State, and making such penalties a lien on the ship or vessel, and the owner or consignee liable therefor.
IV. THE POWVER OF OBTAINING REDRESS TO BE LODGED IN THE HANDS OF
THE PARTIES INJURED-THE EMIGRANTS THEMSELVES.
V. SUM-MARY PROCEEDINGS FOR THE RECOVERY OF DAMAGES.
As to the two latter provisions, we would state that the efforts which have
been made by legislation at Washington and at Albany to protect the lives and
health of emigrant passengers from the rapacity of ship-owners have been




194:                          APPENDIX.
attended with but a very limited share of success. The regulation to which the
owners of ships are required to conform are, with some exceptions, precisely
those called for by the exigency of the case, as is best proved by the fact that
the accidents and disasters which continue to happen are almost always traceable to the disregard of some of these provisions; but the fact that they are disregarded proves, in its turn, that the law must remain a dead letter until more
effective remedies are provided against its violation.
The Act of 1855 provides that, if some of its provisions are violated, the master shall be guilty of a misdemeanor; and that, if others of its directions are not
complied with, the master or the owners, or both, shall forfeit money penalties
against the ship by the authorities of the United States.
It is found that indictments are not feared, and that suits for the recovery of
penalties are never instituted.
To make the law effective, the power of obtaining redress must be lodged in
the hands of the emigrants themselves.
The law gives theni an action against the ship for marine torts and for
breaches of marine contracts; but this action must be prosecuted through the
dilatory form of admiralty practice. The ship is bonded, and goes on her way.
The emigrant, poor, friendless, and often emaciated by disease, is kept loitering
in a crowded city, dancing attendance on the delays of litigation, while the
Western fields, which le came to till, lie fallow. The loss falls immediately on
himself, but indirectly likewise on the entire country, which receives and detains a languishing pauper, when it needs industrious and able-bodied laborers.
It is absolutely necessary to authorize a summary proceeding, simple and expeditious, such as the case of the emigrant requires. A commissioner should be
appointed for the especial purpose of hearing and passing upon these complaints. He might be appointed by the Chief Justice of the United States, under
the precedent established in the case of the Register in Bankruptcy. His authority, however, must be to hear and determine. An appeal from his decision
should not operate to supersede execution upon his judgment; but the losing
party should be cast upon his chances of obtaining restitution.
It will also be necessary to-establish certain principles of remedial law, not
now considered established.
The owner of a ship should be made responsible in damages to the natural
representatives of persons dying in the course of a voyage from causes produced
by misconduct of such owner, or his agent. Such claims must be declared liens
on the ship, recoverable by action in remn in the admiralty form.
The contracts to convey passengers must be declared contracts of absolute
insurance, not to be qualified by written or printed stipulations dictated by the
ship owner.
The ship-owner must be prevented from pleading that the emigrants, having
seen the ship when they came on board, had assumed their pwn risks, and precluded themselves against bringing suit for damages occasioned by its imperfections.
Damages merely compensatory will not suffice to recompense sufferers for
the annoyance arising from insufficient food or air, or other ill treatment, not
causing definite pecuniary loss.




APPENDIX.                           195
A stated minimum of the damages should be fixed by law in such cases, such
as the amount of the passage money, or of double or treble that amount.
We do not think that any of the legislators of the nation will object to the
passage of such a bill. One of the greatest sources of the nation's income in
wealth and population has been the vast emigration from Europe, and it should
therefore be protected by appropriate national legislation. Every principle of
public policy, looking to the welfare of the country, as well as every sentiment
of humanity, demands this at the hands of Congress.
Under the present system, the emigrants are treated more like beasts of burden than like human beings, starved and crowded together in ill-ventilated, illfitted, ill-supplied, and ill-manned vessels.
The arrival of an emigrant ship in our ports, if it does not bring disease and
pestilence among us, often occasions great apprehension and alarm, disturbing
the regular business of our city, and creating an indefinable prejudice against
the worthy emigrant, instead of extending to him, as he truly deserves, a kind
and hearty welcome.
The Commissioners of Emigration are the trustees as well of the emigrant as
of the State of New York and of the United States in general. Although appointed by the State authority for State purposes, their line of duty is not confined to the boundaries of the State, but extends over the whole country, inasmuch as they have to encourage and protect the emigrant until he reaches his
new home. It would betray a narrow-mindedness, of which no member of this
Board is guilty, if they did not look at emigration from this national point of
view. Whenever they succeed in doing away with a grievance, or achieving a
result favorable to the emigrants, it is a national gain, and an advantage won
for the whole country.
Hence, every consideration in relation to the comfort and protection of the
emigrant is of a national character, and demands the serious attention of a good
and enlightened statesmanship.
FRIEDRICH KAPP,
PHILIP BISSINGER,
NEW YORK, January 21, 1868.                        Comnmissioners.




II. PROTECTION OF EMIGRANTS AND CARE TAKEN OF THEM.
REPORT  OF  THE  GRAND   JURY   ON  THE  MODE  OF  DOING
BUSINESS  AT  CASTLE  GARDEN.
GRAND JURY RooM, September 9, 1856.
THE Grand Inquest of the county of New York, in the discharge of their
duty, have been called upon to investigate certain complaints which have been
preferred against certain employees of the railroad companies doing business
with the emigrants landing at Castle Garden. In the discharge of this duty
they have felt called upon to visit the Landing Depot itself, with a view to give a
personal inspection to the mode of doing business within its enclosures. The
landing and despatching of a cargo of upwards of 400 passengers, taking place at
the time of their visit, afforded a favorable opportunity to watch the whole proceeding. The passengers were brought from the ship on a barge, towed by a
steamboat, persons and property sheltered from the rain by the upper deck of
the barge. They landed in an orderly manner, having evidently been instructed by the officers from Castle Garden as to the nature of the Landing Depot and its arrangements. They passed over the deck, answered the enquiries
of the examining physician, whose duty is to note cases whose age or condition
requires special bonds from the ship for their support in case of need, and to detect cases of sickness which may have escaped the notice of the Health Officer at
Quarantine. On entering the large rotunda of Castle Garden, they were registered by a clerk of the Commissioners of Emigration, who took down the names
of the heads of families and single persons, whence they came, the State of
their destination, their cash means, and the relatives (if any) they were going
to join. The annual statistics of the current of emigration are made up from
these notes. The passengers then passed on to the next desk, where clerks of
the Transportation Companies ascertained the places of destination they wished
to go, laid maps of the various routes of travel before them, explained the difference in time and price of travel by the various routes; and, after a selection
was made by the passengers, provided them with an order on the cashier, setting forth the number of tickets required, the route selected, and the price of
passage and of over-freight per one hundred pounds by such route. The cashier, on receiving this order, issued the class of tickets it called for, and received
the price therefor. The passengers were then shown by a different way from
that by which they had entered the rotunda back to the dock, and there produced to the weigh-master the checks they held for baggage, which they had




APPENDIX.                          197
received on board of the vessel which brought them into port previous to passing their trunks into the hands of the officers from Castle Garden. The property having the corresponding checks was then taken from the barge and
weighed, each piece being labelled with a conspicuous label, having a certain
number and the place of destination printed thereon, the passenger receiving a
baggage ticket with the corresponding number, and on which were inserted the
number of pieces of baggage delivered, the route it had to be transported, the -
gross weight, and the amount of freight to be collected thereon after deducting
the amount to which each passenger is entitled. This freight was then paid to
the collector, having his office at the scales, who copied the whole ticket into a
book kept for reference, and then receipted for the money at the foot of the
baggage ticket. The baggage was then taken on board of a steamboat employed to transport the passengers and their property, free of charge, from Castle Garden to the starting-places of the various railroads and steamboat lines;
and the passengers, having now fully prepared themselves at the usual hour of
the day, had ample time to enjoy themselves in the depot by taking their
meals, cleansing themselves in the spacious bath-rooms, or promenading on the
galleries or on the dock. The utmost order prevailed throughout; every requisite information was given passengers by officials conversing in different languages; letters from friends were transmitted to landing passengers, bringing
them money or directions how to proceed, etc.
The Grand Inquest, having thus personally witnessed the whole mode of
doing business at the Landing Depot of Castle Garden, and having become satisfied that every care was taken of the emigrant that philanthropy could suggest, and devotion to a good cause, realized by perseverance and daily care,
made further enquiries about the arrangements made for special cases which
might not then have arisen or been witnessed by them. They learned that it
is a frequent occurrence that passengers land expecting to find the means to
pursue their route into the interior of the country without delay, but are disappointed. In such cases advances are made on the luggage of passengers, who,
being thus enabled to escape the necessity of waiting in expensive boardinghouses for communications from their friends, leave immediately for their destination, and after a short while send the amount advanced to them, without
interest or charge for storage, and have their trunks sent after them. The
amount of money saved to emigrant families by this beneficial arrangement, in
keeping them out of boarding-houses, is immense; for it embraces not only the
reasonable board for a few days. - Before the establishment of Castle Garden,
emigrants in such difficulties would go to a boarding-house, and write to their
friends for "money," not specifying, amounts; the friends would send what
they thought would pay for the passage, which was then swallowed up by the
boarding-house bill, leaving the emigrant still without means to travel. The
boarding-house keeper would probably extend a new credit on the security of
the luggage (but not a cash advance thereon), and when thus all the means of
the emigrant had been exhausted, he would be turned into the street a pauper,
and a fit subject for the charities of the public institutions. This is proved by
the statistics of WVard's Island Emigrant Refuge, which, at the time of the establishment of Castle Garden, had 3,000 inmates, whose number has, in one




198                         APPENDIX.
year, been reduced to about 1,000-the protection afforded by Castle Garden
having cut off the supply of paupers.
Another admirable feature, to which the attention of the Grand Inquest was
called, is the special arrangement of a large, airy, and well-ventilated room for
the accommodation of lying-in women, or such as have been confined so recently
before the arrival of the ship as to require rest before travelling. They have
all the necessary care of medical attendance and nursing, at the expense of the
Commissioners of Emigration, and are not under any necessity of going to
boarding-houses and expending money which will take them to their destination as soon as their strength is sufficiently established to bear the fatigues of a
journey.
On enquiring into the causes of certain published attacks on the Emigrant
Landing Depot, the Grand Inquest have become satisfied that they emanate, in
the first instance, from the very interested parties against whose depredations
Castle Garden affords protection to the emigrant, and who are chiefly runners,
in the employ of booking-agents, boarding-house keepers, and others, who have
lost custom by the establishment of a central depot, where the railroad companies have their own business done by their own clerks, and without the extensive intervention of passage brokers, etc.
This class has thrown great difficulties in the way of the proper development of affairs in Castle Garden, by constituting a noisy crowd around the
gates, whose behavior is utterly lawless, and endangers the personal safety not
only of the passengers who have to leave Castle Garden to transact business in
the city, but also the employees of the Landing Depot, and of individual Commissioners of Emigration, who are continually insulted in the public grounds
surrounding the depot, and have been obliged to carry loaded fire-arms in selfdefence against the violence which has frequently been offered to them.
This same class will swarm in boats around the ships in the bay, and bias
the minds of passengers against the Landing Depot, and, when driven off by
the police officers stationed by the Commissioners of Emigration on such ships,
will abuse these officers in the most violent manner, and will lodge complaints
against such officers in the Mayor's office, and such complaints will be listened
to as though they emanated from respectable citizens.
The Grand Inquest witnessed a crowd of this class hovering around the
gates of Castle Garden, and they learned with regret that, in spite of repeated
representations to the municipal authorities, the police utterly ignore the disturbances caused by this mob, who will pounce upon every person leaving the
enclosures of Castle Garden, and, if they do not rob them of their money, valuables, tickets, baggage-checks, or the like, or commit gross assault and battery
upon such as will not enter into conversation with them, will induce them, by
force or argument, to go with them to places where they will be required to
spend part or all of their money before they can find a chance to escape.
With a proper attention to their obvious duty on the part of the police, there
can be no doubt that this motley, noisy, and dangerous crowd could be entirely
broken up, and prevented from reassembling.
The Grand Inquest have learned with regret that this obvious duty of the
police is absolutely neglected, to the great detriment of the emigrants, and to




APPENDIX.                           199
the great annoyance of the Commissioners of Emigration, who superintend the
business of the Emigrant Landing Depot.
The Grand Inquest, having become satisfied that the latter in all its operations is a blessing, not only to the emigrants, but to the community at large,
would feel remiss in the performance of a sacred duty if they failed to recommend this important philanthropic establishment to the fostering care of the
municipal authorities; and they have dismissed the complaints preferred
against certain employees of the Castle Garden, satisfied that they are not sustained by law, and have their origin in a design to disturb, rather than to further, the good work for which the establishment has been called into life by
an act of Legislature of April, 1855.
HOWELL HOPPOCK, Foreman of Grand Jury.




III. THE INLAND VOYAGE,
AND BOOKING OF PASSENGERS IN EUROPE.
OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION
OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK,
- New York, November, 1848.
THE Legislature of the State of New York, admonished by the rapid increase of immigration at the port of New York, and considering the important
interests connected therewith, has established a Board of Commissioners, acting
under the authority of the State, and entrusted with the general care and
supervision of the subject. The protection of the emigrant against the tricks
and dishonesty of persons with whom he must necessarily come in contact
immediately on his arrival, is one of the principal objects of the Commission;
and, in furtherance of this object, the undersigned have been appointed a committee to notice a great and frequent abuse, which is practised upon the emigrant even before he leaves the Old World.
The number of passengers arrived at this port since the beginning of this
year is nearly 160,000; and it may be assumed that at least 130,000 thereof
have proceeded to the distant parts of the country at the West, and that the
money paid here for their passage amounts to more than half a million of
dollars. As may be supposed, there are many people engaged in the business
of forwarding these emigrants, and the individuals or companies thus engaged
employ a host of clerks or servants, called "runners," who try to meet the
new-comer on board the ship that brings him, or immediately after he puts his
foot on shore, for the purpose of carrying him to the forwarding offices for
which they respectively act. The tricks resorted to, in order to forestall a
competitor and secure the emigrant, would be amusing, if they were not at the
cost of the inexperienced and unsuspecting stranger; and it is but too true
that an enormous sum of money is annually lost to the emigrants by the wiles
and false statements of the emigrant runners, many of them originally from
their own country, and speaking their native language.
Of late the field of operation of these " emigrant runners " is no longer confined to this city; it extends to Europe. Some have appeared there sent from
here by forwarding offices, others have been engaged on the spot, and again
others have commenced and are carrying on the business on their own account
and responsibility; but all have the same object in view, namely, to make
money out of the emigrant. They generally call themselves agents of some
transportation or forwarding bureau, and endeavor to impress the emigrant
who intends going farther than New York with the belief that it is for his
benefit, and in the highest degree desirable, to secure his passage hence to the
place of his destination before he leaves Europe.




APPENDIX.                            201
It is well known that emigrants frequently arrive at the seaports in Europe,
without having engaged their passage across the ocean, and not finding a
vessel ready to take them on board, they are compelled to stop, at a considerable expense, until an opportunity offers to proceed on their voyage; and it
also happens that, even when they have secured a passage before going to the
port of embarkation, they are delayed, and subject to perplexities and charges
which they did not anticipate. This circumstance is taken advantage of by
the so-called agents of New York transportation and forwarding houses, to
induce the emigrant to take his passage from this port to his ulterior destination, before leaving Europe. IHe is told that, unless he does so, he runs great
risk of being detained, or having to pay exorbitant prices.
These statements, and all similar ones which may be used for the purpose,
are not true, and whoever believes them, and acts upon such belief, is sure to
be deceived.
There are but two routes hence to the West; the one is by way of Albany
and Buffalo, the other by way of Philadelphia and Pittsburg, and to these
places there is no more than one conveyance daily, all the year through.
There is never any difficulty in getting away from New York, and so numerous are the establishments engaged in the business of forwarding passengers,
that exorbitant or high prices of passage are entirely prevented by the competition among said establishments, and the traveller will never be exposed to
them, if he will only be careful not to make an arrangement with the first
comer, but will take some pains to find out which is the safest and cheapest
office to apply to.
It is invariably the case, that those who in Europe take passage tickets for
inland places in America pay more, generally considerably more, than others,
who wait until they are here. The agents in Europe who sell such tickets
must have a compensation therefor, and this compensation, be it much or little,
is added to the regular price of passage, and the emigrant has to pay it. Instances have come to the knowledge of the Commissioners, where the difference
amounted to three dollars a person i But this is not all. The cases are by no
means rare in which the tickets prove entirely worthless. They bear the name
of offices which never existed, and then, of course are nowhere respected; or
the offices whose name they bear will be found shut up, and are not likely ever
to reopen; or the emigrants are directed to parties refusing to acknowledge
the agent who issued the tickets, and in all these cases the emigrant loses the
money paid for them.
It is to be hoped that this publication will receive the attention it deserves.
It would be gratifying to the Commissioners, and entirely for the interest of
the emigrants, if the respective Governments in Europe would prohibit the
business alluded to; in any event, the Commissioners trust that emigrants will
heed this warning, and henceforward will not pay or arrange for passage to the
interior of America until they are here.
On their arrival here, they should not give ear to any representations, nor
enter into any engagements, without obtaining first the advice and counsel of
either the Commissioners of Emigration, or the Emigrant Society of the nation
to which they belong, or its consul; and in enquiring for the office of the




202                          APPENDIX.
society, or consul, or the commissioners, they should be careful not to be carried
to the wrong place. There are many individuals sufficiently unscrupulous intentionally to mislead the stranger. If the latter, for instance, enquire after the
agency of the German Society, the person applied to will say that he is the
agent, or that he will take the stranger to the office of the German Society,
but, instead of doing so, will take him to a place where he is almost sure to be
defrauded. As a general rule, if the emigrant is urged to take passage, or has
to pay for the advice he asks, he may take it for granted that he is not at the
place where he wishes to be; and he should bear in mind to look for the
names of the persons or office he is in search of, at the door of the houses into
which he is shown. All the foreign consuls, and the emigrant societies, as
well as the Commissioners of Emigration, have signs over the doors of their
offices. The office of the German Society is No. 95 Greenwich Street, of the
Irish Emigrant Society at 22 Spruce Street, and of the Commissioners of Emigration in one of the public edifices of the city, in the Park.
Finally, we would remark that, if the emigrant be so situated as to render
his immediate departure hence necessary, without having an opportunity to
apply for advice to any of the places indicated, he should be careful not to take
his passage for the whole distance he has to go, but should do so only to the
first station of the route, say to Albany or Philadelphia. He should bear in
mind that the passage hence to Albany is fifty cents, and to Philadelphia two
dollars and twenty-five cents a person, and no more.
The Commissioners trust that this advice will be received and acted upon
with that confidence to which it is entitled, from being given by persons who
have no interest but that, of the welfare of the emigrant, whose duties make
them perfectly familiar with the subject, and who act not as private citizens,
hbut under the authority and supervision of the Government of the State.
In behalf of the Commissioners of Emigration,
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK,
President of the Board.
LEOPOLD BIERWIRTH,
President of the German Society.      tee.
JOHN H. GRISCOM,                   I
General Agent. J
-New York, November 2, 1848.
Hon. JnrIEs BUChiANAN, Secretary of State:
SIR: I have the honor to address you on behalf of the Board of Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York.
This Board (as you may perhaps be already informed) is a commission
appointed by the authorities of this State, for the assistance and protection of
foreign emigrants arriving in this State, by providing for the sick and destitute, and protecting all from imposition while here, and aiding them to their
ultimate destination. We have lately learned from unquestionable authority




APPENDIX.                            203
(among others from the United States Consul at Havre) that an organized
system of imposition exists at the principal points of emigration from Europe,
in the ports of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as those of the Continent, by
which great and frequent frauds are committed in relation to the passages of
emigrants to the interior of the United States. A circular has been accordingly
prepared, under the authority of this Board, with the design of exposing these
frauds, thus setting the emigrants on their guard against them. (A printed
copy is herewith enclosed.) It has occurred to the Commissioners that this
communication would be far more likely to promote its objects if it received
the aid and sanction of the Government of the United States.
This being a subject strictly relating to our intercourse with foreign
nations, and in which other States must feel as much interest as that which
first receives the emigrant; it appears to be legitimately within the constitutional sphere of the General Government. It is, therefore, respectfully suggested that copies of the enclosed circular should be transmitted to the several
consuls of the United States, at all the points of great emigration to this
country, with a note from the Department of State, recommending the subject
to their especial attention, and requesting them to give publicity to the information and advice of the Commissioners.
Should this suggestion meet your approval, printed copies of the circular
will be furnished and forwarded as the Department may direct.
I am, with great respect, your obedient servant,
G. C. VERPLANCK, Pres't of Commn'rs of Emigration.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE,
Washington, Xovember 6, 1848.
Hon. G. C. VERPLANCCK, New York:
SIR: I have received your letter of the 2d inst., addressed to me on behalf
of the Board of Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York, referring to the existence of " an organized system of imposition at the principal
points of emigration from Europe, in the ports of Great Britain and Ireland, as
well as those of the Continent, by which great and frequent frauds are committed in relation to the passages of emigrants to the interior of the United
States, together with a printed copy of a circular, prepared under the authority
of the Board, with the design of exposing these frauds, thus setting the emigrants on their guard against them."
In the promotion of an object so honorable and benevolent, your Board
may fully rely upon all the aid and support which this Department can
properly afford.
In reply to your suggestion that copies of this circular be transmitted to
the several consuls of the United States, at all the points of great emigration to
this country, and your offer to furnish them for that purpose, I have to state
that I will, with great pleasure, cause them to be so addressed, with such instructions as may be best calculated to ensure the results you have in view.
I am, sir, respectfully, your obt. servant,
JAMES BUCHANAN.




204                          APPENDIX.
M E  M  ORI AL.
TnE present respectful address to the august Governments of those European states from which a regular annual emigration takes place purposes to
invoke their powerful assistance in the philanthropic work of protecting emi-i
grants landing upon these shores, for which the memorializing Commission
was constituted by a law passed by the Legislature of the State of New York,
in the year 1847.
This law creates a fund by the payment of $1 50 a head (since raised to
$2 50), in lieu of special bonds for the support of persons likely to become a
public charge, on all passengers landing at the port of New York, such fund
to be applied for the relief of immigrants who should become unable to support themselves within the first five years after landing, by sickness, want of
employment, or other causes, and to be administered by a board of Commissioners of Emigration, consisting of six Commissioners appointed by the Governor of the State, of the Mayors, of the cities of New York and Brooklyn,
and of the. Presidents of the Irish and German Societies of the city of New
York.
Under this law the memorialists have erected extensive hospitals and
houses of refuge, and disbursed vast sums of money for temporary relief, during a period of eight years, securing the immigrant against distress, and the
State at large against the charge of a great number of paupers, by healing the
sick, sheltering the houseless, and finding employment for thousands of people
able to earn their living, but unable to find employment for themselves, by
means of extensive and well organized intelligence offices, where labor is provided without charge to the seeker.
But the efforts of the Commissioners of Emigration have not been limited
to the work of relief alone.. Their attention has also, from the beginning of
their activity, been directed towards the prevention of sdffering among immigrants, and they have from time to time suggested the passage of laws by the
Legislature for the protection of immigrants against systematic fraud, to
which they were exposed, from persons profiting by their ignorance of the
condition of things in this country, or of its laws or language, and subjecting
them to heavy losses of money or property, thereby reducing them to a condition calling for relief.
The most fruitful source of misery among immigrants has ever been the
lawless action of a numerous class of people engaged directly or indirectly in
the business of forwarding immigrants landing at this port to their destination
in the interior. The schemes resorted to by this class for practising fraud and
extortion upon the newly arrived immigrant beggar the liveliest imagination,
and a variety of remedies for this evil, tried by this Commission and various
benevolent societies, invariably called forth renewed efforts of invention on the
part of the offenders, which again baffled the intentions and exertions of the
friend of the immigrant for his protection.
The growing evil has finally led to the adoption of means for a radical
cure, by placing the landing of the entire immigration under the direct supervision of the Commissioners of Emigration. A law was passed by the Legis



APPENDIX.                            205
lature of the State, in April, 1855, compelling all vessels bringing emigrant
passengers to this port to land them at one wharf, to be designated by the
Commissioners of Emigration, and imposing a heavy fine for any deviation
from the rule thus established.
The object of this law is to break up the system of barter and sale of passengers which prevailed to a large extent, by rendering it impossible for captains of vessels to sell their cargo of passengers to one or other gang of passenger brokers, known as runners, who were employed at an enormous expense by hotel-keepers, forwarding agents, and railroad and steamboat companies, for the purpose of securing to them respectively the largest possible
share of the profits to be made out of the unsuspecting immigrant.
Under this law, the memorialists selected and designated as the only landing place for emigrants the wharf adjoining the extensive old fort situated at
the Battery, on the southern part of the city, and known as Castle Gasrden, and
fitted up the fort itself as an " Emigrant Landing Depot," affording ample accommodations for landing and forwarding several thousand emigrants in a
day, and for the safe-keeping of their baggage until forwarded. They surrounded the whole ground with a high and strong fence, shutting out effectually the class of persons whose depredations against the property of emigrants
had, for years, been a source of a great deal of misery among emigrants landing in New York.
They also induced the directors of the principal railroad and steamboat lines
to the West to organize at Castle Garden a central and joint ticket office for the
sale-at the regular published prices-of passage tickets for emigrants to their
several places of destination in the interior, and to place such office, and the
entire business of forwarding persons or property, under their own immediate
supervision.
Under this arrangement the passenger is landed with his baggage, as
security for which checks are issued acknowledging responsibility for its safety.
He finds in Castle Garden a vast hall, well ventilated and comfortably warmed,
when the season requires it, in which he can rest and refresh himself; large
batli-rooms, whose use is free of charge; frugal meals at cost price; responsible and disinterested officials, speaking his own language, to give him advice
as to the best mode of travelling, or the easiest and quickest way of finding
employment; he can there buy his ticket for the line of travel by railroad or
steamboat which he may choose, and have his baggage labelled and numbered,
receiving therefore a receipted check which calls for the baggage therein described at the place of destination, and he is finally transported with his baggage by water, free of charge, to the starting place of the line he has chosen.
He is thus entirely guarded against the necessity of going into the streets of
the city, and of exposing himself to the dangerous snares which the runner
has in readiness for him, as soon as he comes in contact with him. Even the
collection of his bills of exchange on merchants in the city may, if he choses,
be done for him through the cashier's office, and the money is then paid over
to him under the supervision of one of the Commissioners of Emigration. He
can thus proceed to his Western destination without being exposed to the least
danger of loss from imposition.




206                          APPENDIX.
Desperate efforts are being made by the runners and their backers to break
down this beneficent institution. No calumny is left untried in order to excite
public opinion against it. But all this has proved of no avail, for the immense
benefit which the immigrant derives from the protection afforded him by this
institution is too clearly demonstrable to admit of a doubt in any observing
and unbiassed mind.
The clamorers finding themselves unable to prove the Emigrant Landing
Depot at at Castle Garden a nuisance, endangering the health and prosperity of
the city, and equally unable to make their usual iniquitous profits out of the
emigrants protected by its walls, have resorted to a means which threatens in
a measure to paralyze the beneficial action of this institution, by circumventing
its protective operation.
The means alluded to is the system of contracting with emigrantsin Europe
for their inland passage from YNew York to their places of destination in the
interior of the United States or in Canada. This system has been lately revived to a considerable extent. Runners and forwarding agents of this city,
finding their occupation gone by the establishment of the Emigrant Landing
Depot of Castle Garden, have removed to European ports, and even inland
towns, or have there revived or established agencies for booking passengers to
places in the interior previous to their leaving the European ports, or even their
inland homes, and for receiving part or the whole of the price of such inland
tickets in advance.
It is self-evident that these agencies, carried on at considerable expense, are
not content to charge a legitimate commission on the net prices of tickets
merely. Overcharges on the personal tickets are the rule, pretty generally
varying from 25 to 50 per cent. above the established rates of transportation
companies, and very often being fully double the proper charge; whilst full
and unlimited facilities are left open for the consignees in this country, their
runners and baggagemen, to defraud the passenger on the charges for his baggage after he arrives here. False representations, amounting almost to coercion, are not unfrequently resorted to, in order to induce emigrants to contract
for inland passage before leaving Europe. Assertions of the most absurd description are made to the emigrant, such for instance as that it would be —impossible to travel inland unless on tickets issued by the agent making the
assertion, and such assertions are conveyed in such language, and with such a
show of apparently corroborative evidence, as to inspire confidence, and to mislead the inexperienced emigrant. Some of these agencies, more especially in
England, have gone so far as to represent themselves as agents for the Commissioners of Emigration, and have grossly defrauded passengers under the
shelter of the name of the memorialists, thus endeavoring indirectly to shake
public faith in the Commissioners of Emigration.
The effect of this system is calculated to destroy the protection which Castle
Garden throws around the immigrant, for the passenger landing with a contract in his pocket, on which he has made payment, in part or in full, at once
leaves Castle Garden for the city, to find the consignee who is to fulfil the contract made in Europe. lie thus passes by the institution planned and arranged
by the Legislature of the State for his protection, and falls into the very hands




APPENDIX.                           207
against whom he would have been effectually protected. He has to pay heavy
cartage for the transportation of his baggage, for whose safety, moreover, his
own vigilance will be the only guarantee. He will again be detained, on various pretences, in the taverns until his last dollar is expended, and a small debt
incurred, which furnishes a pretext for seizing part or the whole of his luggage, and, thus plucked, he will again be turned heartlessly into the street, to
become a charge to benevolence, instead of going directly into an independent
and useful activity, as he would if he had proceeded at once from the Landing
Depot to his final place of destination, without being robbed of his means
and of his property by useless and fraudulent delays, caused by interested parties taking advantage of his ignorance.
It is to prevent this dangerous system of " booking in Eur-ope," that the memorialists most respectfully ask for the assistance and co-operation of the Governments of Europe. The care which the European Governments have evinced
for the protection of their individual subjects, by stringent laws regulating,
superintending, or forbidding every species of business, calculated to offer
scope to the swindler, inspires the memorialists with the hope that their representations will be favorably considered, and that the Governments addressed
will be pleased to assist them in their efforts to protect the landing emigrants,
by adopting such measures as will render it impossible for the reckless speculator upon the property of the emigrant to frustrate, in the manner indicated,
the desire of the Legislature of the State of New York to extend to him,
through the memorialists, a complete protection against fraud and imposition
when he lands in this port.
The memorialists, being aware of the accomplished business-tact, and of the
easy, insinuating, and gentlemanly address of the more prominent among the
passenger agents who have gone to Europe, and are now travelling or residing
there, engaged in forwarding the interests of the concerns of this city with
which they are connected, would respectfully caution the Governments of
Europe against the plausible statements which such men are in the habit of
making to further their own ends, and would respectfully solicit a thorough
investigation of the protective establishment under the charge of the memorialists, by the representatives in this country of the European Governments,
envoys, ministers, consuls, or commercial agents.
Recommending their memorial to the favorable consideration of the august
Governments, the undersigned have the honor to subscribe themselves most
respectfully,
NEW YORE, November, 1855.
THE BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF EilIGRATION,
GULIAN C. VERPLANCE, President.
JOHN A. KENNEDY, JAMES KELLY,
ELIJAH F. PURDY, E. D. MORGAN, Commissioners.
JOHN P. CUBIrIING,
FERNANDO PWOOD, Mayor of New York.
GEO. HALL, Mayor of Brooklyn.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Society.
RUD. GARRIGUE, President German Society.




208                          APPENDIX.
OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONERS OF EMIGRATION,
New York, January 23, 1857.
Hon. WM. L. MARCY, Secretary of State, Washington City:
SIR: At the last meeting of the Commissioners of Emigration of the State
of New York, I was instructed to communicate to you their request that another effort should be made to induce the Governments of those countries of
Europe whence emigration to this port chiefly flows, to prohibit altogether the
booking of passengers for inland passages or transportation in the United
States, or selling abroad passage tickets or contracts for passage tickets to be
used on this side of the Atlantic.
On this subject, permit me to refer you to a letter from a Committee of this
Board to yourself, of October 12, 1855, to your reply thereto, and to the printed
circulars issued in consequence thereof, and circulated abroad through the
facilities afforded by the Department of State.
The apprehensions expressed in the letter of the Committee, that the seat
of depredation on the emigrant would be changed from this port to the port of
embarkation, have been more than realized.
The chief operators in this system of fraud have not only opened offices in
the several seaports where emigrants to this country usually embark, but have
also established agencies in towns in the interior'of those countries, and in the
very villages whence families are likely to emigrate.
The effect of these agencies has been to renew, and even increase, the evils
which have been checked by the establishment of an exclusive landing-place
for emigrants at Castle Garden.
The more remote the place where the emigrant is induced to purchase a
ticket for inland transportation in this country, the greater is the opportunity
for imposition and fraud, and this is seldom suffered to pass unused.
The efforts made by our Government heretofore for protecting emigrants
from such frauds abroad, have hitherto had little effect on the European
Governments, with the exception only of Hamburg and Bremen. Not only is
the privilege of booking passengers for distant inland points in the United
States continued, but in some places it has been aided (it is hoped not intentionally) by means of government licenses, giving an official character to the
business, well calculated' to mislead the ignorant. These are grossly overcharged for real tickets, or as often imposed on by fraudulent ones. After
which, they are consigned to continued depredations by other confederates in
this city and elsewhere in the United States.
These are facts of daily occurrence, which our official position brings constantly to our notice, but seldom enables us to arrest or remedy.
There is a marked contrast in passengers coming by way of Hamburg and
Bremen and those by other European ports. It rarely occurs that passengers
from either Hamburg or Bremen are unable, on their arrival here, to pay their
way to.their destination in the interior, or to secure all proper comforts and
conveniences on the way. Very many of those from other ports are first defrauded of their means, by being induced to purchase tickets for railroad and




APPENDIX.                            209
water travel in this country, at high prices, which, when presented here, are
found to be either quite worthless, or to carry the holders only to some point
in the interior far short of their destination, where they are left destitute.
Other tickets are genuine, but are found to have been paid for at prices very
far above the actual cost at the offices here.
It appears to us that the claims of humanity and justice and the comity of
nations require and authorize our Government to invoke the aid of other
Governments in protecting their own subjects during their pilgrimage from an
overcrowded home to a region where vacant acres invite and reward the hand
of industry.
To show the manner in which the business of the emigrant landing-place at
Castle Garden, New York, under the exclusive control of this Commission, and
established in pursuance of a special enactment of our Legislature, has been
conducted, I enclose copies of a presentment* by a recent grand jury of this
county. It will probably speak for us better than we can for ourselves on one
of the most important points of our administration of the trust confided to us
by the State of New York.
am, with much respect, your obedient servant,
G. C. VERPLANCK, President.
DEPARTMENT OF.STATE,
Washington, January 31, 1857.
Hon. G. C. VERPLANCK, President Board of Commissioners of Emigration:
SIR: I have received your communication of the 23d inst., with its enclosures, calling the attention of this department to the impositions practised upon
emigrants to the United States in the countries from which they depart, and
suggesting that the aid of those Governments should be invoked to protect
their subjects from the arts of designing and unprincipled individuals.
The motives which led to the establishment of the Board of Commissioners
by the State of New York are in the highest degree philanthropic and praise.
worthy, and, accordingly, to further the objects which you have in view, I
have addressed a circular letter, of which a copy is herewith enclosed, to the
diplomatic and consular agents of the United States in those countries of
Europe from which emigrants chiefly proceed, and instructed them to bring
the subject of your communication to the notice of the Governments to which
they are respectively accredited, or of the authorities of the places where they
reside, and to ask for the adoption of such measures on their part as may be
required by the claims of humanity and the comity of nations.
I have likewise had the pleasure of conferring with Mr. Murray, the agent
of the Board, and have furnished him with facilities for the accomplishment of
the purposes of the Commissioners in his proposed visit to Europe.
I am, sir, respectfully, your obedient servant,
W. L. MARCY.
* For presentment, see page 196.




210                          APPENDIX.
C I RCU LA R.
No. 17.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE,
Washington, January 31, 1857.
SiR: The attention of this department having been recently called to the
abuses to which emigrants are subjected in the countries from which they proceed, and on their arrival at certain seaports in the United States, it has been
deemed advisable to bring the subject to your notice. I accordingly herewith
transmit, in a printed form, a copy of a communication addressed to this department, on the 23d instant, by the President of the Board of Commissioners of
Emigration at New York, in which a mode of correcting the existing evils is
suggested.
You are instructed to bring this subject, which is fully set forth in the
annexed letter of Mr. Verplanck and its accompaniment, to the notice of the
Government to which you are accredited, or of the authorities of the place where
you reside, and to ask for the adoption of such measures on their part as may
be considered necessary for the protection of those intending to emigrate to this
country. A step in this direction would no doubt be of service in correcting
the evils complained of, and a regard for the interests of humanity demands
that it should be taken.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WV. L. MARCY.




IV. RULES AND REGULATIONS.
EMIGRANT LANDING DEPOT, CASTLE GARDEN.
I.-EMIGRANTS.
i. ALL emigrant passengers arriving at the Port of New York, and their luggage, after being checked, must be landed at the Emigrant Landing Depot,
Castle Garden, free of expense. Passengers are earnestly requested to take
personal charge of all their property not checked.
2. After landing, the passengers will be examined for the purpose of ascertaining if any are liable to be bonded, or in such condition of health as to require hospital care, and will then be assembled in the enclosure, and the name,
occupation, age, birthplace, and destination of each, with other necessary particulars, recorded.
3. Emigrants desiring to take any Railroad or Steamboat route for which
tickets are sold in this Depot, will communicate with the officers of the Railroad Agency, and select such route as they prefer. The agent of said route
shall be required to transport such emigrants and their luggage to the Railroad Depot or Steamboat Lauiding, by water conveyance when feasible, by
land when not, but in either case free of charge.
4. Before the removal of luggage of emigrants having bought tickets of the
Railroad Agency, the same shall be weighed, and each piece labelled and
checked to its place of destination, with a common number for all the pieces of
luggage of any one passenger, and a proper check given to the owner, setting
forth, i? ink, the number of his luggage ticket, the number of pieces of luggage, the gross weight, the overweight, and the charge he is liable to for its
transportation to the point of destination; which check shall be signed in ink
as a receipt for the luggage by an authorized representative of the Railroad
Agency.
5. The names of all emigrants expected by friends and relatives will be announced, and all answering to their name will be transferred to such friends
and relatives as may be waiting for them.
6. The galleries and floor of the Depot will be open for the free use of recently arrived emigrants, until ready to take their departure; and they are requested to make use of the wash-rooms before leaving the premises.
7. Emigrants desiring board and lodging are advised to communicate with
the keepers of boarding-houses having permission in this Depot, and who will
be allowed on the floor for this purpose. Every boarding-house keeper, when
soliciting an emigrant for his house, must hand such emigrant a card, setting




212                          APPENDIX.
forth his name and residence, the prices, in gold and paper money, of board
and lodging, by the day and week, and for single meals and night's lodging.
8. Emigrants wishing to buy food can purchase at the bread stands and
restaurant in the Depot at prescribed rates, as stated on cards at such stands.
9. Emigrants remaining in the city of New York or vicinity must defray
the expense of removing their luggage from the Depot, and are informed that
for this purpose a Baggage Express is admitted to the Depot.
10. Emigrants seeking employment are requested to apply to the Superintendent of Labor, and to make use of the Labor Exchange attached to the
Depot.
11. Emigrants desiring to deposit money or valuables over night are advised to do so in the office of the General Agent and Superintendent, who will
give a receipt therefor. Employees are forbidden to take charge of such money
or valuables of emigrants, unless the same be handed them after business
hours; in which case report shall be made as soon as possible to the General
Agent.
II.-BOARDING-HOUSE KEEPERS.
Boarding-house Keepers, having permission to enter the Landing Depot to solicit
Boarders, must observe the following Rules:
12. Every Boarding-house Keeper must wear his badge in a conspicuous
place on his breast when entering the Depot, and keep it so exposed while in
the premises.
13. Every Boarding-house Keeper must present to passengers, when soliciting such passengers for his house, a card setting forth his name and residence,
and the prices in gold and paper money charged for board and lodging by the
day and week, and for each meal and night's lodging; and he must also furnish emigrants with a bill setting forth all charges incurred for board, etc., before receiving pay therefor; and must make to this department a daily return
of all passengers taken out of the Depot.
14. Boarding-house Keepers are required to direct to this Depot emigrants
wishing to communicate with their friends, or seeking employment, or desiring
advances on luggage.
15. Every Boarding-house Keeper having permission in this Depot must
post in Castle Garden and in his house, in a conspicuous place, where the same
may be seen at all times by emigrants, a card containing a list of prices for
board and lodging by the day and week, and for single meals and night's
lodging, and setting forth whether such prices are in gold or paper money.
Prices charged to emigrants must conform with the prices set forth on said
lists, and on the card handed to the emigrant, as required in Rule 13.
10. Boarding-house Keepers must behave in an orderly manner while in
the Depot, and remain seated in the place assigned them until admitted on the
floor.




APPENDIX.                           213
III.-MISSIONARIES
And Representatives of Religious Bodies and Societies, admitted to the Landing
-Depot, are to observe the following Rules:
17. They may distribute religious books and papers among the emigrants,
and give them all necessary advice of a spiritual nature; and shall report to
the officers of the Commissioners of Emigration any wants of emigrants other
than of a religious nature, coming under their notice; and shall not interfere
in the secular requirements of the emigrants, or the secular matters of the Department, but shall direct all such emigrants to the proper officers of the Commissioners of Emigration.
18. They may visit any sick emigrants in the Hospital as often as their presence is required by such emigrant, and when called by the nurse or other officer
of this Department.
IV.- GENERAL RULES
For the Government of the Landing -Depot:
19. The business of the Depot will commence at 7 o'clock A.M. from May 1
to Nov. 1, and at 8 o'clock A.M. from Nov. 1 to May 1; and the clerks of the
Letter Department shall also be present at all times, after the landing and registering of passengers, to write to friends of emigrants desiring to acquaint
them of their arrival, and request funds for their inland journey, or for any,
purpose.
20. No person shall be admitted within the enclosure except the officers
and employees of this Department and the officers and employees of the Railroad Agency, except on permission of the Superintendent.
21. No person shall be employed by any party occupying an office within
the enclosure as clerk, ticket-seller, interpreter, or in any other capacity, unless
first approved by the Castle Garden Committee; and no employee or other
person having privilege in this Depot shall, under any pretence whatever,
receive from emigrants or others any recompense for any service rendered.
22. Every employee of this Department will be furnished with a badge setting forth his position, which he shall wear and exhibit while on duty.
V.-RULES AND REGULATIONS
_For the Government of the Information Office, for Friends of arriving Emigrants.
23. This office will be open for business from May 1 to November 1 at 7
o'clock A.M., and from November 1 to May 1 at 8 o'clock A.M., and remain
open as long as the Superintendent may direct. All persons having relations
or friends whom they wish to receive, are requested to report to the clerk the
names of the passengers expected by them, and the vessel on which they
arrived, with their own names and residences. They will then remain seated
until such passengers are brought, and on receiving them they are requested
to leave the premises, so as to avoid obstructing the business.




214                          APPENDIX.
24. Emigrants wishing to have their baggage transported by the Express
Company at the Depot (referred to Rule 9) are requested to leave the proper
directions at the Express Office before leaving the premises. Those desiring to
take away their baggage can receive it on the day after landing, and are
requested to apply for it themselves, for the purpose of identifying their property.
25. All services rendered by the officers and employees are without charge
or expense to emigrants or their friends, or to any person having business with
the office.
VI. -RULES AND REGULATIONS
For the Government of the Labor Ecchange and Intelligence Office.
206. This office will be open for business from May 1 to November 1 at 7
o'clock A.M., and from November 1 to May 1 at 8 o'clock A.M., and remain
open as long as the Superintendent may direct; and shall be free for the use of
employers and of emigrants seeking employment.
27. Emigrants and their employers are requested, after making their contracts and before leaving the office, to leave on record in the Office Register the
particulars of such contract, the emigrant's name, age, and date of arrival, and
the employer's name and residence.
VII.-RAILROAD DEPARTMENT.
28. It shall be the duty of the clerks and employees of the Railroad Agency.
to be at their respective stations on the landing of passengers, and so long
thereafter as their services may be required, to attend to the wants of emigrants
desiring to leave the city by any of the routes for which tickets are sold in the
Depot; and in every way to conform to all rules regarding them heretofore or
hereafter adopted.
29. It shall further be the duty of the clerks and employees of the Railroad
Agency to refer all emigrants desiring information other than regarding the
purchase of tickets to the proper officers of the Commissioners of Emigration.
30. The Railroad Agency and its officers are permitted to accept in payment
for Railroad tickets and for overweight of luggage gold and silver, allowing
for such gold and silver in current funds within one per cent. of the market
rate, and furnishing to the emigrant a printed slip, setting forth the number
and denomination of the coins purchased, the respective rates paid therefor,
and whole amount paid.
31. The Railroad Agency will be required to report monthly to the Castle
Garden Committee the number of emigrants transported each month over the
several Railroads represented by said Agency and their connecting lines to the
chief points to which emigrants go, together with the routes by which such
emigrants are sent.
32. No person shall be employed by the Railroad Agency in any capacity
whatever, except by and with the consent and approval of the Castle Garden
Committee.




APPENDIX.                          215
VIII.-EXCHANGE BROKERS.
33. Every Exchange Broker admitted to this Depot shall be required to be
at his desk while emigrants are landing, in order to attend to the wants of
such emigrants as wish to have money exchanged.
34. They shall post in a conspicuous place every day the current market
rates of gold and silver, and the prices paid by them for gold and silver of
every denomination, domestic and foreign, and shall pay in current funds for
all gold and silver bought by them from the emigrants within one per cent. of
the current market rates of such gold and silver.
35. They shall furnish to every emigrant, from whom they purchase gold
or silver, a printed slip setting forth the name of the broker and the number
and denominations of the coins purchased, the respective rates paid therefor,
and the whole amount paid.
IX. RESTAURANT AND BREAD-STANDS.
36. The Keepers of the Restaurant for the use of emigrants within the:
Depot shall be required to open the same at 6 A.M. in the summer and 7 A.M.
in the winter, and to keep open as long as the emigrants require their services;
and shall expose in a conspicuous place a list of prices charged by them for all
articles supplied, which list of prices must be submitted to the Castle Gardeni
Committee for examination and approval monthly.:X.- WASH-ROOMS.
37. The Wash-rooms shall be open from 6 A.M. to such an hour in the
night as emigrants need their use.
XI.-HOSPITALS.
38. The Hospital Rooms are for the use of the sick alone.
39. When any emigrant becomes sick in or is brought sick to the Depot
during the night, it shall be the duty of the Night Watchman to have such
patient transferred to the Hospital and put in charge of the nurse, and to procure the attendance of the Medical Officer of the establishment without delay.
N. B.-It is earnestly requested that immediate complaint be made to the
General Agent and Superintendent of any violation of these Rules.
Adopted by the Board of Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New
York.
EMIGRANT LANDING DEPOT, CASTLE GARDEN,
New York,.May 18, 1867.




216                            APPENDIX.
STATE  EMIGRANT  REFUGE  AND  HOSPITAL, WARD'S  ISLAND.*
[The Establishment at WVard's Island, under the control of the Commissioners,
shall be known as and styled THE STATE EMIIGRANT REFUGE AND HOSPITAL.]
I.-THE SUPERINTENDENT.
THE SUPERINTENDENT shall have charge of the Emigrant Refuge and Hospital at Ward's Island, all the buildings and grounds connected therewith, the
control of the inmates, and of all subordinate officers; he shall be held responsible for the cleanliness, good order, and proper management of the Establishment; and he shall have a general supervision of all the property of every
description belonging to the Commissioners at Ward's Island.
2. He shall receive all persons to whom permits have been given for admission into the Refuge or Hospital, by the Vice-President, or his Deputy for
that purpose, or by any Commissioner. No other person will be admitted as an
inxmate. It shall be his duty to see that all persons having permits for the
Hospital are at once transferred to that department.  He shall cause the transportation of sick persons in the Refuge to the Hospital; but no person shall be
continued or allowed to remain in the Hospital after they cease to need Medical
treatment.
3. He shall take charge of all money or other valuable articles, except religious books and emblems, belonging to inmates, and shall cause a receipt for
the same to be given to the person from whom they may be taken, and enter
the name of the owner, a description of the articles, the date when, and the circumstances under which they were taken, shall be entered in a book kept for
that purpose.
4. He shall cause to be kept a Register of all admissions into and discharges from the Establishment, distinguishing the Hospital and Refuge, under
their several dates, and shall make a weekly return to the Commissioners of
each day's admissions and discharges, and also of the births and deaths,
accompanied by such remarks as may be called for by any case of admission,
discharge, birth, or death. Every Monday he shall make a return to the
Commissioners of the whole number of persons in all the departments of the
Establishment, designating by actual count the number in each; the number
of children under twelve years of age, and a summary of the births and deaths
for the preceding week; also, of the number of orphan children of each sex,
their ages, etc.
5. He shall give to every adult inmate applying for it a discharge in writing, except insane persons, or those he may consider unable to earn a living
* These rules were adopted by the Commissioners of Emigration, June 16, 1858. It is
sufficient for our purpose to give only those portions of them which have reference to the
Superintendent and the Hospital. The duties of the subordinate employees, such as clerks,
watchmen, stewards, policemen, matrons, teachers, cockswain, apothecary, nurses, and orderlies do not differ from the ordinary duties performed by such persons.




APPENDIX.                            217
or take care of themselves, or such as may be retained for disorderly conduct.
He shall take care that no person employed in the Establishment, and no
inmate, leaves the Island without his permissioi.
6. He shall make to the Commissioners monthly reports of all inmates
who ought to be or wish to be discharged, and who desire to be sent to any
place out of the city of New York, but who have not sufficient means for their
transportation, and of such children (orphans or others) who should be indentured as apprentices, or placed at general service. These reports must be accompanied by a statement of the age and condition of each party named in
them, and his opinion of the best disposition to be made of each; and any decision by the Board as to the disposition of the parties named in the reports,
the Superintendent must see carried into effect without delay.
7. The Superintendent shall make weekly written requisitions for the supplies of every description required for the use of the Hospital and Refuge; and
these requisitions, countersigned by the Steward, together with the Apothe.
cary's requisition, countersigned by the Physician, must be delivered at the
office of the Commissioners every Monday.
8. He must see that an exact account is taken of all goods and supplies
furnished for the use of the Establishment, and proper receipts given for the
same; that the goods and supplies are properly taken care of; and should any
deficiency in quality or quantity occur, forthwith to report the same to the
Board.
9. He shall see that proper facilities are afforded the inmates for writing
to their friends; or, when necessary, that letters are written for them, and that
all letters for inmates are promptly delivered to them. When notified that
any inmate of the Hospital, or is aware that any inmate of the Refuge, is
desirous of conversing with a religious person other than the Chaplains, he
shall invite such person of such denomination as the said inmate shall require,
to visit the inmate; and while such person is present he shall see that due decorum is observed by the other inmates of the Ward.
10. With the exception of the Chaplains and Physicians, he shall select
and appoint all officers, nurses, and employees necessary for the various departments of the Refuge and Hospital, to hold their respective places during
the pleasure of the Superintendent, who shall report to the Board all appointments and discharges when made.
11. He shall have the control and direction of all the officers and persons
employed in and about the Refuge and Hospital, except the Chief Physician
and Chief Surgeon; and all officers and other persons so employed must conform to his directions, and must be governed by his decisions in any difficulties
which may arise in the discharge of their respective duties.
12. He shall endeavor at all times to find employment for such of the inmates as are able to work; and all inmates who are capable of working shall
be employed, as well to inure them to labor as to contribute to their support.
At stated hours, they shall repair to their proper apartments, or places on the
ground allotted for them, where they shall work in an orderly manner, and at
such labor and as many hours as the Superintendent may direct. And in case
any inmate able to labor shall refuse to comply with the directions of the




218                          APPENDIX.
Superintendent, he may confine such inmate in the " Lock-up," or discharge
such inmate from the Island.
13. When notified by any person of any theft within the Hospital or
Refuge, or the grounds connected therewith, he shall immediately take the
necessary steps for the recovery of the stolen property, and to secure the offender and bring him to justice; and he must at all times maintain a strict
police throughout the Establishment. He shall make out a monthly pay-roll
of every person employed, including Physicians and Surgeons, with the name,
occupations, salary or wages, amount due, etc., and deliver the same to the
Commissioners at the close of every month for approval.
DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT.
It shall be the duty of the Superintendent to select and employ one person,
who shall be styled "Deputy Superintendent," who shall be his Principal
Assistant, and, in the absence of the Superintendent, clothed with and exercise
all his power. He shall reside on the Island, and examine daily into the state
of the Institutions; visit every apartment, and see every person therein, as
often as good order and necessity require. He shall exercise a general supervision and direction in regard to the discipline and police of the Island, and to
the business concerns thereof; and shall superintend all the business carried on,
and labor done, in and upon the buildings, or land belonging to or connected
with the Island. He must spend the whole day in a general supervision of the
Assistants and inmates, direct them in their duties and labors, and report to
the Superintendent all neglect of duty on the part of any of the Assistants; receive reports from the Assistants of all disobedience or violation of the ]Rules,
and report the same to the Superintendent, and see that his orders and directions are strictly and promptly observed; and to this end he must be always
present on the Island, by day and by night, that he may be able, during the
evening and night, to see that all is safe.
It shall be his duty, generally, to see that the whole Establishment exhibits
throughout neatness, good order, and cleanliness.
It shall be his duty to see that all the dead deposited in the Dead-house are
carefully removed for burial as speedily as may be proper, and that the proper
certificates of death are signed by a Physician of the Establishment.
II.-THE HOSPITAL.
1. There shall be appointed by the Commissioners of Emigration, a Chief
Physician and a Chief Surgeon, who shall have charge of the Medical and Surgical treatment of inmates in their respective departments, and shall be held
responsible by the Superintendent and the Commissioners of Emigration for the
proper performance of their duties.
2. The Chief Physician and Assistant Physicians and Surgeons shall reside
on the Island, in a residence or rooms to be designated by the Superintendent
or the Commissioners of Emigration.
3. The Chief Surgeon shall visit the Island at least every other day, prescribe for the patients under his care, and perform such operations as may be




APPENDIX.                             219
deemed necessary at the request of the patient; but no surgical operation shall
be undertaken without the consent of the patient; and all capital operations,
endangering the life or the limb of the patient, shall be decided on by consultations with the Chief Physician and the Superintendent. In surgical cases
requiring immediate treatment, the Superintendent is required to send for the
Chief Surgeon, and, when unable to obtain his services, the Superintendent is
authorized to call in Doctors Valentine Mott, Willard Parker, Gurdon Buck,
Alfred C. Post, John Watson, or W. H. Van Buren, any of whom may perform
such surgical operations as he may deem necessary.
4. All persons afflicted with diseases requiring Medical or Surgical treatment, shall be sent to their respective departments by the Examining Physician,
and no patients shall be transferred from the Surgical or Medical Wards until
cured of the malady for which they were admitted into it, unless subsequently
attacked with a strictly pestilential disease; but no person shall be kept or retained in the Hospital Wards who does not require Medical or Surgical treatment,
without the consent of the Superintendent.
5. The Chief Physician and Chief Surgeon shall appoint, with the approval
of the Commissioners of Emigration, such number of Assistant Physicians and
Surgeons as may be deemed necessary for the proper care, and Medical and
Surgical treatment of the inmates of the Institution.
6. The Chief Physician and Chief Surgeon shall make such regulations for
the sanitary treatment of the patients and inmates as may be found necessary,
and prescribe and regulate the duties of the Assistant Physicians and Surgeons.
7. The Assistant Physicians and Surgeons shall be subject to the Rules and
Regulations of the Institution, and shall perform all duties in the line of their
profession that shall be required of them by their superiors.
8. They may be suspended by the Superintendent, Chief Physician or
Chief Surgeon, and be removed from office by the Board of Commissioners of
Emigration, and no assistant removed for cause shall be reappointed.
9. The Physicians and Assistant Surgeons shall make one regular daily
morning visit to each patient in the wards under their charge, and shall also
visit those afflicted with acute diseases as often as may be necessary. They shall
report to the Superintendent, in writing, or to his Deputy, every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, the names of all convalescent, or partially insane, who are
able to work, and, in case they neglect this duty, the Superintendent may use
his own j udgment in setting those to work whom he may consider able. They
shall make an afternoon visit to all patients received during the day. In no case
shall an Assistant Physician or Surgeon absent himself from the Island, without
the consent of the Chief Physician and the knowledge of the Superintendent.
Non-observance of this rule will be considered equivalent to a resignation.
10. The Chief Physician and Chief Surgeon shall regulate the diet of the
patients in the Hospital, as well as the hours of eating, and the mode of cooking
the food; for this purpose, a regular diet table shall be prepared, which shall
be revised as occasion may require, to be signed by the Superintendent.




220                         APPENDIX.
11. No post-mortem examination shall be held without the assent of the
Chief Medical or Surgical Officer of the department to which the patient belonged, and the Superintendent.
12. The Physicians and Surgeons shall make weekly report to the Superintendent of all admissions and discharges, elopements, births, and deaths during
the preceding week; and in all cases of smallpox, or other contagious diseases,
they shall report such cases at the Superintendent's office immediately, that
they may be removed without delay to the Marine Hospital.
REVISED  RULES FOR THE STATE AGENCIES AND COUNTIES.
(Adopted in January, 1870.)
To ALL ALMSHOUSE COMMISSIONERS, SUPERINTENDENTS, AND OVERSEERS
OF THE POOR OF THE SEVERAL COUNTIES, CITIES, AND TOWNS OF THE
STATE OF NEW YORE:
Notice is hereby given, that the Commissioners of Emigration, by virtue of
the several Acts passed by the Legislature of this State on and since May 5,
1847, concerning passengers on vessels coming to the City of New York, and
all other Acts passed by said Legislature of the State of New York in relation
to the Commissioners of Emigration, have established the following Revised
" Rules and Regulations," for the purpose of ascertaining the right, and the
amount of the claim, of any city, town, or county, to indemnity from the fund
created by the provisions of the aforesaid Acts, for the support of any persons,
not citizens of the United States, who may have landed at the City of New York
within the last five years.
RULE I.
Applications from the Superintendents or Overseers of the Poor of any city,
town, or county, to the Commissioners of Emigration for indemnity for expenses
incurred, can be received only in cases of persons who have arrived at the Port
of New York within five years previous to the date of their application for
relief, and who have not been absent from this State for twelve consecutive
months, and for whom commutation money was paid or bonds given.
RULE II.
Applications to the Commissioners of Emigration must be accompanied by a
statement of the name of the person in reference to whom it is made, his or her
age, occupation, last place of residence before he or she came to this country,
the name of the ship or vessel by which he or she arrived, the name of the
Master or Commander of such ship or vessel, the foreign port at which he or




APPENDIX.                           221
she embarked, and the date of his or her arrival at New York; all of which
must be verified by the oath of the party in whose behalf it is made, or, in case
of his or her disability, by the oath of any other person cognizant of the facts;
and no claim for indemnity will be allowed, unless the name of the person in
respect to whom indemnity is sought shall be found in the "Report" of the
Master of the vessel in which such person is said to have arrived, such " Re_
port " having been sworn to by said Master before the Mayor of the City of New
York, and on file in the Office of the Commissioners of Emigration.
RULE III.
Every application for indemnity must be accompanied by a statement, signed
by the Relieving Officer: that the person in reference to whom it is made is
unable to support himself or herself; from what cause his or her inability proceeds; whether such inability is likely to be temporary or permanent, and that
he or she has no relations in this country able, at their own charge, to support
him or her.
RULE IV.
Persons, in respect to whom applications for indemnity may be properly
made, must be sent to and maintained in the poor-house of the city, town, or
county; they must be required to work under the same circumstances and to
the same extent as other inmates of such poor-houses; the account for their
support must be rendered at the cost of their subsistence, after deducting the
value of the work which they may be able to do and have performed-stating
these particulars-and the account must be verified by the oath of the Superintendent or Overseer of the Poor that it is accurate and just.
RULE V.
No temporary or out-door relief, beyond one night's board and lodging, will
be allowed, except on the affidavit of the Attending Physician that the person
for whose relief indemnity is sought could not with safety be removed to the
County House. A similar affidavit to accompany every bill containing similar
charges.
RULE VI.
Superintendents of Poor, having claims against this Commission for medical
attendance, must state, under oath, the whole amount paid for such attendance
outside the County House during the year, the entire number who received
that attendance, and how many of them were emigrants chargeable to the
Commissioners of Emigration, and they will be allowed for, pro rata.
RULE VII.
The Commissioners of Emigration will reimburse the counties, etc., etc., the
actual cost of support of emigrants under the foregoing "Rules," but will not
pay for the services of Superintendents or Overseers of the Poor, or of any other
officer not appointed by said Commissioners of Emigration.




222                         APPENDIX.
RULE VIII.
Within ten days after the first day of every month a report must be made
by the Superintendent or Overseer of the Poor of each city, town, or county, and
be submitted to the Commissioners of Emigration, containing a statement of
the emigrants who have been admitted and discharged during the previous
month; the date of these admissions and discharges, with an account of their
present condition and the expense incurred in their behalf; and unless this rule
is strictly complied with, no expense incurred for emigrants previous to the time
herein mentioned will be allowed.




V. AN ACT
FOR THE MORE EFFECTUAL PROTECTION OF EMIGRANTS ARRIVING
AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK.
CHAPTER 857.
[Passed June 5, 1868, three-fifths being present.]
The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do
enact as follows:
SEC. 1. Each Commissioner of Emilgration shall have power to administer
an oath to, and examine under oath, any witness respecting any complaint made
by any person relative to the ship in which any passenger was brought to the
United States, or the treatment of any passenger during the voyage, or the
food br drink furnished to any passenger on the voyage, or the death on
the voyage of any passenger; but to entitle the same to be read upon the trial
of any person accused of any crime or offence, such examination shall be made
in the presence of the person complained of, who shall have a right to crossexamine every such witness.
SEC. 2. Such Commissioner shall cause such testimony to be reduced
to writing before him, and shall sign and certify the same, and shall deliver
such depositions, so signed and certified, to the Clerk of the County of New
York, who shall file the same of record in his office, and shall enter a docket or
minute of such filing, on payment of a fee of one dollar.
SEC. 3. The said clerk shall deliver a certified copy of such deposition to
any person applying for the same, upon payment of a fee of twenty-five cents
for such certificate, and of five cents for every folio of one hundred words
therein contained.
SEC. 4. Such deposition and certified copies thereof shall be evidence in
any action then or thereafter pending, between any of the passengers on such
voyages, and the said ship, or her owners, master or charterers, victualling,
manning, and navigating her for such voyage, upon any claim involving the
facts therein testified to.
SEC. 5. Before taking such testimony, such Commissioners shall cause at
least six hours' written notice thereof to the said vessel, her owners, master, or
charterers, to be served on the owners personally, or on the master personally,
or by handing a true copy thereof to the person found in charge of such vessel.
The said notice, with an affidavit of service, which may be made before such
Commissioner, shall be attached to the deposition; but such notice need not
name the owner, master, or charterer, and such owner, master, or charterer, or
their agent, may cross-examine said witness; but no examination shall be
adjourned for more than twenty-four hours, unless by reason of sickness of such
witness.




VI. MEMBERS OF THE COMMISSION
FROMI ITS ORGANIZATION, 1847, TO  1870.
1847.                    ABRAM R. LAWRENCE, appointed vice
David C. Colden, died April, 1850.
WM. F. HAVEMEYER, President, elected   JOHN E. DEVELIN, appointed vice Andrew
June 15, 1847.                            Carrigan, resigned Dec., 1849.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK.                      ADOLPH RODEWALD, Pres't German Soc'y.
JAMES BOORMAN.                            GREGORY DILLON, Pres't Irish Em. Soc'y.
JACOB HARVEY,. died May 10, 1848.         CALEB S. WOODHULL, Mayor City of New
ROBERT B. MINTURN.                          York.
DAVID C. COLDEN.                          SAMUEL SMITH, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
LEOPOLD BIERWIRTH, ex officio, Pres't
German Society.
GREGORY DILLON, ex officio, Pres't Irish                   1 85 1.
Em. Society.
WILLIAM V. BRADY, ex officio, Mayor City   GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
of New York.                            JOHN E. DEVELIN, resigned Dec., 1851.
FRANCIS B. STRYKER, ex officio, Mayor  CYRUS CURTISS.
City of Brooklyn.                       ABRAM R. LAWRENCE, resigned Dec., 1851.
CHARLES H. MARSHALL, vice William
1 848.                     McArdle, term expired.
ELIAS HICKS, vice Robert B. Minturn, reGULIAN C. ERPLANCK, President, elected    signed May, 1851.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President, elected   FERDINAND KIARCK, Pres't German Soc'y.
March 1, 1848, vice Win. F. Havemeyer, re-    ER, Pres't rm  Socy.
signed.                                 GREGORY DILLON, Pres't Irish Em. Soc'y.
JAMES dBOORMAN, termexpired May 5,1849.  A. C. KINGSLAND, Mayor City of New York.
JAMES BVID   N,  term expired May 5,COLDE1849.N.  CONKLIN BRUSH, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
ROBERT B. MINTURN.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, vice Wm. F. Have-                         1852
meyer, resigned February 9, 1848.
WILLIAM  McARDLE, vice Jacob Harvey,   GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
died May 10, 1848.                       CYRUS CURTISS.
LEOPOLD BIERWIRTH, ex officio, Pres't  CHARLES. MARSHALL.
GREGORY DILLON, ex officio, Pres't Irish   JAMES KELLY, appointed vice Abram R.
Em. Society.                              Lawrence, resigned Dec., 1851.
WM.. F. HAVEMEYER, ex officio, Mayor   GEORGE W. BLUNT, appointed vice John
W1..         849. HAVEMGREGORY DILLON, Pres't Irish Em. Soc'y, 
CityA. C. KINGSLAND, ayor City of New York.C R
FRANCIS B. STRYKER, ex officio, Mayor                             City of Brooklyn.
CYRUS CURTISS, appointed June, 1849, vice
JamesCity of Boormaklyn.                  Hicks, resignedNov., 1852.
J.OHN C. ZIMMERMANN, Sen., Pres't German Society.
1849,,                    GREGORY DILLON, Pres't Irish Em. Soc'y.
A. C. INGSLAND, Mayor City of New Yorkge W.
GULIAT C. VERPLANCK, President.           CONKLIN BRUSH, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
CYRUS CURTISS, appointed June, 1849, vice
James Boorman. term expired.s't Ger
DAVID C. COLDEN.
ROBERT B. MINTURN.                        JACOB A. WESTERVELT, Mayor City of
ANDREW CARRIGAN, resigned Dec., 1849.   CULEAN  C. MERPLANCK, President.
GEO. E. KUNHARDT, Pres't German Soc'y. THOMAS DUNLAP, appointed vice Caleb
GREGORY DILLON, Pres't Irish Em. Socy.    Barstow, term expired May 1853.
DWD. cARDLE term expired  ayLAND          EW    A       BE, Mayor City of  Br'klyn.rklyn    JAMES  ELLY.
JOHN A. KENNEDY, vice Cyrus Curtiss, resigned Oct., 1853.! 85B30.                  JOHN C. ZIMMERMANN, Sen., Pres't German Society.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.           GREGORY DILLON, Pres't Irish Em. Soc'y.
ROBERT B. MINTURN.                        JACOB A. WESTERVELT, Mayor City of
CYRUS CURTISS.                              New York.
WM. McARDLE, term expired May, 1851.      EDWD. A. LAMBERT, Mayor City of Br'klyn.




APPENDIX.                                225
1 854,                   WM. JELLINGHIAUS, Pres't German Soc'y.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.           Society.
CHARLES H. MARSHALL.                    DANIEL F. TIEMANN, Mayor City of New
JAMES KELLY.                              York.
JOHN A. KENNEDY.                        SAM. S. POWELL, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
THOMAS DUNLAP.
ELIJAH F. PURDY, vice Terence Donnelly,                 859.
resigned May, 1853.
R. A. WITTIHAUS, Pres't German Society.    GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.  ELIJAH F. PURDY.
Society.                               CYRUS CURTISS.
JACOB A. WESTERVELT, Mayor City of  JOHN P. CUMMING.
New York.                              WILSON G. HUNT.
EDWD. A. LAMBERT, Mayor City of Br'klyn.  A. A. LOW, appointed vice E. D. Morgan, resiyned Dec., 1858.
185 5.                   WMl. JELLINGHAUS, Pres't German Soc'y.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.           Society.
JAMES KELLY.                            GEORGE OPDYKE, Mayor City of N. York.
ELIJAH F. PURDY.                        SAM. S. POWELL, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
E. D. MORGAN. appointed May 7, 1855, vice
Chas. HI. Marshall, resi ned.
JOHN A. KENNEDY.                                        1860.
JOHN P. CUMMIING, appointed April 25,
1855, vice Thos. Dunlap, nomination with-  GULIAN C. PVERPLANCK, President.
drawn.                                ELIJAH  F. PURDY.
GUSTAV SCHW:AB.                         CYRUS CURTISS.
RUDOLPH GARRIGUE, President German  JOHN P. CUIMING.
~ociety, vice Gustav Schwab, resigned in   WILSON G- HUNT.
March.                                 A. A. LOW.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish hEm.  WM. JELLINGHAUS, Pres't German Soc'y.
Society.                               ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.
FERNANDO VOOID, Mayor City of N. York.    Society.
FERN ANDO WOOD, Mayor City of Brooklyn.  GEORGE OPDYKE, Mayor City of N. York.
SAM. S. POWELL, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
1 856.
1861.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
ELIJAH F. PURDY.                        GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
JOHN P. CUMMING.                        CYRUS CURTISS.
E. D. MORGAN.                           A. A. LOW.
CYRUS CURTISS, appointed March, 1816,  WILSON G. HUNT.
vice James Kelly, resigned.           JOHN P. CUMMING.
WILSON G. HUNT, appointed May, 1856,  ELIJAH F. PURDY.
vice John A. Kennedy, resigned.        WM. JELLINGHAUS, Pres't German Soc'y.
RUDOLPH GARRIGUE, President German   ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.
Society.                                Society.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.  GEORGE OPDYKE, Mayor City of N. York.
Society.                              SAM. S. POWELL, Mayor City of Brooklyn.
FERNANDO WOOD, Mayor City of N. York.
GEORGE HALL, Mayor City of Brooklyn.                    I 862.
1 85 7.                  GULIA.N C. VERPLANCK, President.
CYRUS CURTISS.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.         ELIJAH F. PURDY.
ELIJAH F. PURDY.                        JOHN P. CUMMING.
CYRUS CURTISS.                          WILSON G. HUNT.
JOHN P. CUMMING.                        A. A. LOW.
E. D. MORGAN.                           E. VON DER HEYDT, President German
WILSON G. IIUNT.                          Society.
RUDOLPH GARRIGUE, President German   ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.
Society.                                Society.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.  GEORGE OPDYKE, Mayor City of N. York.
Society.                              MARTIN KALBFLEISCH, Mayor City of
DANIEL F. TIEMANN, Mayor City of New      Brooklyn.
York.
S. S. POWELL, Mayor City of Brooklyn.                   1863.
1858.                   GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
CYRUS CURTISS.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.         ELIJAH F. PURDY.
ELIJAH F. PURDY.                        JOHN P. CUMMING.
CYRUS CURTISS.                          WILSON G. HUNT.
JOHN P. CUMMING.                        A. A. LOW.
WILSON G. HUNT.                         E. VON DER HIEYDT, President German
EDWIN D. MORGAN.                          Society.




226                             APPENDIX.
ANDREW, CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.  CYRUS H. LOUTREL.
Society.                             ISAAC T. SMITH.
C. GODFREY GUNTHER, Mayor City of   FRIEDRICH KAPP, vice John P. Culnming,
New York.                              resigned Jan., 1867.
-  -- Mayor City of Brooklyn.          P. McELROY, vice Wilson G. IIunt, term expired June. 1867.
I 864.                  PHILIP BISSINGER, Pres't German Society.
RICHARD O'GORMAN, President Irish Erm.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.          Society.
CYRUS CURTISS.                         JOHN T. HOFFMAN, Mayor City of New
JOHN P. CUMMING.                         York.
WILSON G. HUNT.                        WILLIAM BOOTH, Mayor City of Broqklyn.
A. A. LOW.
ELIJAH F. PURDY.                                       1868.
A. SCHNIEWIND, Pres't German Society.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.  GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
Society.                              F S WINSTON, Vice-President.
C. GODFREY GUNTHER, Mayor City of  CYRUS H. LOUTREL.
New York.                             ISAAC T. SMITII
ALFRED M. WOOD, Mayor City of Brooklyn.  FRIEDRICH KAPP.
P. McELROY.
I 865.                  PHILIP BISSINGER, Pres't German Society.
IICHARD O'GORMAN, President Irish Em.
GULTIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.         Society.
CYRUS CURTISS.                         JOHN T. HIOFFMAN, Mayor City of New
JOHN P. CUMMING.                         York.
WILSON G. HUNT.                        MARTIN KALBFLEISCH,'Mayor City of
A. A. LOW.                               Brooklyn.
ELIJAH F. PURDY.
PHILIP BISSINGER, Pres't German Society.               1 69.
ANDREW CARRIGAN, President Irish Em.
Society.
C. GODFREY GUNTHER, Mayor City of  GULIAN C. VERPLANCKI, President.
New York.                             F. S. WVINSTON, Vice-President.
ALFRED M1. WOOD, Mayor City of Brooklyn.  CYRUS H. LOUTREL.
ISAAC T. SMITH.
8:FRIEDRICH KAPP.!866.                   P. McELROY.
PHILIP BISSINGER. Pres't German Society.
XWILSON G. HUNT, Vice-President.       RICHARD O'GORMIAN, President Irish Em.
F. S. WINSTON, vice Cyrus Curtiss, resigned    Society.
April, 1866.                          A. OAKEY HALL, Mayor City of New York.
CYRUS H. LOUTREL, vice A. A. Low, re-  MARTIN KALBFLEISCH, Mayor City of
signed April. 1866.                    Brooklyn.
ISAAC T. SMITH, vice Elijah F. Purdy, died
January, 1866.                                       1870,
JOHN P. CUMMING.
PHILIP BISSINGER, Pres't German Society.  GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.
RICHARD O'GORMAN, President Irish Em.  F. S. WINSTON, Vice-President.
Society.                              CYRU.S H. LOUTREL.
JOHN T. HOFFMAN, Mayor City of New   ISAAC T. SMITH.
York.                                 FRIEDRICH KAPP.
WILLIAM BOOTH, Mayor City of Brooklyn.  P. McELROY.
PHILIP BISSINGER, Pres't German Society.
1 86;7.                JAMES LYNCHI, President Irish Em. Society.
A. OAKEY HALL, Mayor City of New York.
GULIAN C. VERPLANCK, President.        MARTIN KALBFLEISCI, Mayor City of
F. S. WINSTON, Vice-President.           Brooklyn.




VII. STATISTICAL TABLES.
Statement of the number of Alien Passengers arriving in the United States by sea
ftromforeign countries, from September 30, 1819, to December 31, 1860.
Sex
Year.               Males.    Females. not stated.    Total.
Year ending Sept. 30, 1820,      4,871      2,393       1,121      8,385
1821,     4,651      1,636      2,840       9,127
1822,     3,816      1,013       2,082      6,911
1823,     3,598        848       1,908      6,354
1824,     4,706      1,393       1,813      7,912
1825,     6,917      2,959        323      10,199
1826,     7,702      3,078         57      10,837
1827,    11,803      5,939  1   1,133      18,875
1828,    17,261     10,060         61      27,382
1829,    11,303      5,112       6,105     22,520
1830,     6,439      3,135      13,748     23,322
1831,    14,909      7,724                 2..  22,633
1832,    34,596     18,583'..     53,179
Quarter ending Dec. 31, 1832,    4,691      2,512  |     100       7,303
Year ending Dec. 31, 1833,    41,546       17,094                 58,640
1834,    38,796     22,540      4,029      65,365
1835,    28,196     17,027        151      45,374
1836,    47,865     27,553        824      76,242
1837,    48,837     27,653      2,850      79,340
1838,    23,474     13,685      1,755      38,914
1839,    42,932     25,125         12      68,069
1840,    52,883     31,132         51      84,066
1841,    48,082     32,031        176      80,289
1842,    62,277     41,907        381    104,565
First three quarters of 1843,    30,069    22,424          3      52,496
Year ending Sept. 30, 1844,    44,431      34,184                 78,615
1845,    65,015     48,115       1,241    114,371
1846,    87,777     65,742        897    154,416
1847,   136,086     97,917        965    234,968
1848,   133,906     92,149        472    226,527
1849,   177,232    119,280        512    297,024
Year ending Sept. 30, 1850,   196,331    112,635        1,038    310,004
Quarter ending Dec. 31, 1850,    32,990    26,805        181      59,976
Year ending Dec. 31, 1851,   217,181    162,219           66    379,466
1852,   212,469    157,696       1,438    371,603
1853,   207,958    160,615         72    368,645
1854,   256,177    171,656..        427,833
1855,   115,307     85,567          3    200,877
1856,   115,846     84,590..        200,436
1857,   146,215    105,091..        251,306
1858,    72,824     50,002        300    123,126
1859,    69,161     51,640        481    121,282
1860,    88,477     65,077         86    153,640
Total,          2,977,603   2,035,536     49,275   5,062,414




228                              APPENDIX.
The following aggregates also exhibit the number of arrivals of passengers
from foreign countries during periods of nearly ten years each, and thus indicate the accelerated progress of immigration:
Periods.                       Passengers of American and
Foreign Birth.   Foreign.
In the 10 years ending September 30, 1829,..    128,502         151,636
In the 104 years ending December 31, 1839,..    538,381          572,716
In the 934 years ending September 30, 1849,..  1,427,337       1,479,478
In the 11}4 years ending December 31, 1860,..  2,968,194        3,255,591
In the 414/ years ending December 31, 1860,..   5,062,414       5,459,421
Adjusting the returns to the periods of the decennial census, by the aid of
the quarterly reports, we find very nearly the following numbers:
Three Census Periods.                      Passengers of
Foreign Birth.
In the 10 years previous to June 1, 1840.552,000
Do.    do.    do.   1850,.1,558,300
Do.    do.    do.   1860,.2,707,624
Distribution of Ages on Arrival.
Number of Ages stated from 1820 to 1860.  Proportions.
Ages.
Males.    Females.    Total.    Males. IFemales.   Total.
Under 5,..  218,417    200,676    419,093    4'143    3'806    7'949
5 and under 10,   199,704    180,606    380,310    3'788    3-425 78213
10 andunder 15,   194,580    166,833    361,413    3'691  3'164    6'855
15 and under 20,   404,338    349,755    754,093    7'669    6'633   14'302
20 and under 25,   669,853    428,974  1,098,827   12-706 8'136   20'842
25 and under 30,   576,822    269,554    846,376   10'940    5'112   16'052
30 and under 35,   352,619    163,778    516,397    6'688    3'106    9'794
35 and under 40,   239,468    114,165    353,633    4'542    2'165    6'707
40 and upwards,   342,022    200,322    542,344    6'487    3'799   10'286
Total,. 3,197,823  2,074,663  5,272,486   60.654   39'346  100'000




APPENDIX.                               229
l otal  Proportions for Different Periods.
Ages.       1820 to 1830. 1830 to 1840. 1840 to 1850. 1850 to 1860. 1820 to 1860.
Under 5,.         6 904      8-511      8284       7'674       7'949
5 and under 10,         5 763      7-552      7'434       7-077      7'213
10 and under 15,.    4-568       7-817      7'564       6'328      6'855
15 and under 20,.         11052  11-830    13-059      15'762     14-302
20 and under 25,.   22070       19-705     21-518      20-617     20-842
25 and under 30,        19-574     16-661     15'722      15-944     16'052
30 and under 35,.   10-194      10-215      9-914       9'609      9-794
35 and under 40,         8-171      7-875       6-563      6-466      6'707
40 and upwards,.   11-704        9'834      9'942      10'523     10'286
Total,..    100 000    100'000    100'000    100'000    100'000
Occupation of Passengers arriving in the United States from foreign countries
during theforty-one years ending with 1860.
Occupation.     1820 to 1830. 1831 to 1840. 1841 to 1850. 1851 to 1860. 1820 to 1860.
Merchants,..   19,434      41,881      46,388    124,1'49    231,852
Farmers,..      15,005     88,240     256,880    404,712    764,837
Mechanics,..    6,805       56,582      164,411    179,726    407,524
Mariners,...    4,995        8,004        6,398     10,087     29,484
Miners,...        341        368        1,735     37,523     39,967
Laborers,...   10,280       53,169     281,229    527,639    872,317
Shoemakers,..    1,109         1,966          63        336       3,474
Tailors,.               983      2,252          65        334       3,634
Seamstresses  and i        413      1,672       2,096       1,065      5,246
Milliners,
Actors,.                183         87         233         85        588
Weavers and Spin-t       2,937      6,600       1,303        717      11,557
ners,
Clergymen,..         415        932       1,559       1,420      4,326
Clerks,...        882      1,143        1,065       792       3,882
Lawyers,...         244        461         831       1,1-40     2,676
Physicians,..       805      1,959        2,116      2,229      7,109
Engineers,..        226        311         654        825       2,016
Artists,... 139              513        1,223       615       2,490
Teachers,..      275        267         832        154       1,528
Musicians,.                140        165         236        188        729
Printers,...        179        472          14         40        705
Painters,...        232        369           8         38        647
Masons,...         793      1,435          24         58       2,310
Hatters,.           137        114           1          4        256
Manufacturers,.           175        107       1,833       1,005      3,120
Millers,.           199        189          33        210        631
Butchers...         329        432          76        108        945
Bakers,.           583        569          28         92       1,272
Servants,..    1,327       2,571      24,538     21,058      49,494
Other Occupations,.    5,466       4,004       2,892      13,844     26,206
Not stated,..  101,442    363,252      969,411  1,544,494  2,978,599
Total,..  176,473    640,086   1,768,175  2,874,687  5,459,421




Country where born.
Countries.     1820 to 1830. 1831 to 1840. 1841 to 1850. 1851 to 1860. 1820 to 1860.
England,.        15,837      7,611     32,092    247,125    302,665
Ireland,.            27,106    29,188     162,332    748,740    967,366
Scotland,...    3,180      2,667       3,712     38,331    47,890
Wales,.     170        185       1,261      6,319     7,935
Gt. Britain and Irel'd,   35,534    243,540  848,366    297,578  1,425,018
Total U. Kingdom,   81,827    283,191   1,047,763  1,338,093  2,750,874
France,..          8,868    45,575      77,262     76,358    208,063
Spain,.              2,616     2,125       2,209      9,298    16,248
Portugal,..            180        829        550       1,055     2,614
Belgium,..         28         22       5,074     4,788      9,862
Prussia,..        146      4,250      12,149     43,887    60,432
Germany...    7,583    148,204   422,477    907,780  1,486,044
Holland,            I  1,127      1,412       8,251     10,789    21,579
Denmark,..           189      1,063         539      3,749     5,540
Norway and Sweden,        94      1,201      13,903     20,931    36,129
Poland,                   21        369         105      1,164     1,659
Russia,. I     89        277        551 -      457      1,374
Turkey,                   21          7         59         83        170
Switzerland,.         3,257     4,821       4,644    25,011     37,733
Italy,                  389      2,211       1,590      7,012    11,202
Greece,.           20-        49         16         31        116
Sicily,                   17         35         79        429        560
Sardinia,..         32          7        201       1,790     2,030
Corsica,     2.                         5.       2.. I           9
Malta,.                 1         35  78                 5        119
Iceland,.....                                            10         10
Europe,                    2                    51        473        526
British America,.    2,486    13,624      41,723    59,309    117,142
South America,.      542        856       3,579     1,224      6,201
Central America,.      107         44        368        449        968
Mexico,..       4,818      6,599      3,271      3,078    17,766
West Indies,            3,998    12,301      13,528     10,660    40,487
China,..          3          8         35      41,397    41,443
East Indies,.          9         39         36         43        127
Persia,.......             7        15         22
Asia,..       3          1           4        19         27
Liberia,                   1          8          5          5         19
Egypt,.                                                             4
Morocco,...            4           1                    5
Algiers,.                                      2..             2
Barbary States,.       4.....                     4
Cape of Good Hope,.       2....  2
Africa,...       10         36         47        186        279
Azores,..         13         29        327       2,873     3,242
Canary Islands,.     271          6           1         8        286
Madeira Islands,.      70         52          3        189        314
Cape Verd Islands,.       4         15          3          7         29
Sandwich Islands,.        1          6         28         44         79
Society Islands,.....            1          6          7
Australia,...         2       3..          104        109
St. Helena,....            I          3         13         17
Isle of France,...2                      1..             3
South Sea Islands,.      79.....             79
New Zealand,....                     4          4
Not stated,..   32,892    69,799      52,725     25,438    180,854
Total Aliens,.  151,824    599,125   1,713,251  2,598,214  5,062,414
United States,..   24,649    40,961      54,924   276,473    397,007
Total,...  176,473    640,086   1,768,175  2,874,687  5,459,421




STATEMENT, BY  OCCUPATIONS, of the Passengers arrived in the United States during the Thirteen  Years, from  1856 to 1868
inclusive.
85.  8 6.' 
Laborers..  _,1
OCCUJPATIONS.    1856.    1 8!iT. |1858. |1859. |1860. |1861.'   1862-                  1 863-    1864-    1865-     1866-    1867-    1868-    Total.
Laborers.. 37,019    43,249    22,317    21,696    31,268    19,413    17,752    46,198    48,041   45,245    58,629    55,443    68,947    515,217
Farmers..   24,722    34,702    20,506    16,323    21,742    11,668       9,265    12,349    13,837'20,012    30,302    29,717    19,804    264,949
Mechanics..    9 805    18,074    11,995    13,092    13,033       7,575     6.934    14 418    14'156   20,218    23,939    25,966    17,298    196,503
Merchants..   11,101    12,114    10,217    12,495: 11,207       7,523     7'763      I 7582   - 9468:12,676    15,834    11,841    8,393    138,214
Miners...    6,136  5,660  4,254  9.510     3,834: 2,337    1,732     4,314     61093     7,631     8.010     7,205     4,698     71,414
Servants..    1,748       1,322 J1,142 J1,281 J 1,415 J'770 J3,704               9,088    15,629     9,236     8,905 j6,367        8,021     68,628
Mariners..        906       990     1,109      826      1,007      734     1,624     2,088     2,106    2,518      2,687     2,501     1,892     20,988
Clerks...        1:35      271      259       194       200       122       658     1,277     1,574     2,775     2,731     2 a17     1,351     13,864
Bakers...          19        51        74       46       104        28       183       520       647     1,003       966'988       751      5,380
Butchers..         54        22        38       38        58        27       194: 403      545       842       840       974       623      4,658
S'mstr's & mil'nrs      215       258       261      250       273        49       182'      347       640       304       373       336       282      3,770
Physicians..        163       147       178       253      221       216       236       284       315       399       521       438       365      3,736
Artists...         37        69        45        97       80        31        88       377'      340       606       662       661       468J     3,561
Clergymen.. 118                 173       132       157      183       213       274       231                 37258 4 374   4302                     3,322
W~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 Jg 45 a                                1302' 143229
Weavers & spin'rs[   1 255        189        80       114      141        43        57       347       115                                      76      2,866 
Tailors..        25       108       156       137      204        41        66'       75       147       366       322       299       205      2,151
Shoemakers.          22        86       117      141 [    156        383        85        73       148.      209       272       250       186      2,128
Lawyers..          90        78       113       166      116       106       108       156:132      249       359       25         17      1,942
Manufacturers.         22       187        74        62       50       218        94        66       107J    181         254       198       183      1,696
Engineers..        105        72       165       118      132        98        97        95        86       100       142 [ll              24      1,345
Teachers..         35        28        46       86J       57        22        19        16        29'       59       142        33       237        809
Masons..          10        16        68       40        59        22:  21         31        37        77       132       184       102        799
Plillers..        73        26        39        37       48        29        21         5        24        40        54        65        36        491
Musicians                15        31       115        45      108        26        14         7        12        10        21        32        14        450
Actors...           4       44        33        54        27         5        17        15        20        18        47        94.378
Ppinters.                   ~             3 15               29        11         3        27        29        43        65        60:          18   363
Printers        5        12        21        19         8       14        12        22        15        19        20        44        22        19        247
Hatters..            2..           3....          1         1..1                    1        12         4         1         26
All other occup'ns      602       2~46      451       tiO218 19                              360       308       455       648       437       426      5,984
Occup' s not spec.- 130,045   153,717    70,869    77,619    93,090    60,761    62,860    99,047   106,657  161,589   202,442   192,222  1919,493  1,602,411
Aggregate..224496   271,982   144,906   155,509   179,691   112,702   114463   199,811   221,535  287,399   359,943   339,627   326,232  2,938,296
HattersI




TArLg showing the 2lumbers and Xativities of Alien Emigra~ts who arrived at the Port of Xew York from Yay 5, 1847, to t~
January 1, 1870. ~v
NATIONALITY. 1847. 1.850.: ~ — ~' __ _ __'
1848. [ 18.49.
1857. 1858.
I 1856.
52,94,                                                               I  1853.
~ 1854. i
1855.
___
Ireland.... 98 061    112~59:    117 038    163,306 118,131    113 i64 82'302 43 043 I 44,276 i7,119 25.075
Germany. [  1851. i-1852... 53,181 511973 [ 55,70~ 45',535 [ 69,919 118,611 [ 119'644 [  176,986 [ 52'892                                        [ 56,113 ]0,974 31,874
England... 8,86,                         23,062  [  28,32:       28,163 [  28,553 31.551 ]  ~7'126 {  30,578 I  22',938 I  23,787 ~
~,622 12,39.~
Scotland... 2,35~ 6,415 [ 8,84~ 6772  [   7,302                                             7~694 [   6',456 [ 4,909 ] 4,240 [ 4,723 5,170 9,718
France... 3,33(                           2734  I   2,68~ 3',462I 5,964 8,8;68  I   7470 7,986 I 4,174'1   2.984 3,069 1,786
Switzerland.. 1,94~                        11622  [ 1,401          2,380[ 4,499 6,4:71 ]   4'604 ] 8,883 [ 3,273:[   91559 2,454 1,315
//oiland... [ 3,61:                        1560 I   2,44' 1 174 I   1,798 1,~23  I 1'085  [   1,466 I 822  I   1,666 1,734 348
Wales... 47~                              1',054 [ 1,78', 1'520['2,189'2,531 [   1'182 [ 1,~88  [ 1,118'[   1,376 887 566
Norway... 88~                             1,207 ] 3,301           3',150 ['2,112        1,8;89 ]:'377  ] 81  ['203:[ 4:~8 6'2
Sweden ]3!                                                                                      ~08 [   1.630 ]   1,859 [           304 [ 918 619 237... 165 I 1,00'                                         1 110 [      872'2,~
Italy.... 19" 321 ]                                     60','476 [ 618;59 ] 553 ]                           785 ] 667 [ 690 596 669
Belgium.... 55:.. [                                       11t        230 [ 475 82  [ 34 [ 398 ]   1 201 [ 850 444 253
Spain.... 10:                                 253 [       21~         257 [ 278:71  [ 659 [ 646 ['457 [                               ~63 146
West Indies.. 29! 392  [ 44! 554 [                                                575                                                         330
165 [.. [ 11 [ 19 ]                           ~25 330 344
~
Denmark... 9! 52  [                                      15! 90 [                229 57 [ 94 [                       102  ]      174 ]
Poland... 2~                                 79 [        13~ 188  [ 422
469 453 ~84
]88 [       ~86  [      169 t       346 [       142         245 88
~
Sardinia..
South America. "31    [ 17i
165 [ 98 69 [                        72  [      148 [        67 [ 426 405 ] 324 ~
104 I       121 120 I               175 I       111  I      112  I      163 66 92
Portugal... "~                                57 t      28' 65 I'26 37 [               237 [       205 [        24 [        30 93 27
31ova~cotia.... I 15:                                                  164[ 81 73[ 6]                                  128 [ 9[ 30 40 18
Russia....' 1(                                 28 I 38 18 I                        23 33 [ 39 [ 55 [                               20 [ 56 42                           19
Canad~... [ 61  [                                                                 50 48 [.. I`2  [      64 [.. 59 57 30                                                                                                               17
Mexico... 12                                              23 41 [ 42                          23 [        51  [ 34 [              20 [        19 11 13
Sicily..... 21                                                         28[          12 42[                  37[         58[         18[         10 26
14 I        53 [ 20 [               18 [ 11
3
11'
[       1   [       7   [
"
32                                                                                        i
East Inclies.... 1                                                          [ 10 18.... 5
3[
~ Greece.''
I
Turkey..,
6 4 1
Arabia.... i; 8 [ ".Africa...
A usralia...
Unknown... "95
i i
[
AnnualTotals..,6~-2 —- 1 —~17(-~- -~,6~ —~3 9-6 — 0 —1- 9-2 —- 4-5 —- 3-3 —--
3 —-~?~2-3 — 4~-2 — 7;-3'- ~,-~




TxnL~ showing the Xumbers. and Xativities of Alien Emigrants, etc. —continued.
Ireland.~ ~ ~ 3.2,652  ['47330 25,784I 32,217 91,15"  [ 89,399 { ~7046~:[  6 65,134 ['Germany.., ~8,270 [ 37'899 27,139 [ 27,740 35,00~  ] 57,446 ]  83'.45:  ] 10                                                 117,591 ] 1: 66,204 11,664,009
~ ~ 99,605 ]1,636,254
~Eng]and... 10,375 [ 11'361 5,632  [' 7,975 18,75~
i
]  23,710 ]  27128~  I  3 33,712  ] 41,090 I'539,668
Scotland.:~.. 2,325 [   1',617                      659 ] 692              1,93"  I   1,126  I   396~ { 6,315  I                                   10,643 j  111,~38;France... 1,532  [   1'549 ],200 [   1,187 1,30~  I   1,804 I   2'05!  [ 3,204 I                                                                [      2,795 [: 77200
Switzerland.. 791  I   ]'422                            1,398  [   1,254 1,19~  [   1,652  I   2'51~  [ 3,985:l                               ~ )~
2,999 [ 651607
Iqolland... 261' ]'440 331 [ 456 40~  ]                            615 ['72!  [:               2,156 ]                  1,247 [   28,347
Wales L.. ~ 500 ] 811 697I   1,062                                                1,14' J       659 ]       501  ] 142I                                    1,111;Norway.. ~ i                                                                                                                                                    ]   ~3,834. 36 ]                    53 93 I                 22         23~   [ 88 ]             15t   ]. 309'[ 3,465 [ 19,757
Sweden... 318  [ 361 382  [ 663 1,37( [ 1,516 ]   233'  [ 4,843 [
~
Italy.... ~
399 I 542               750  I 487
4&   I 475['59: I                             1,032  I
23,453 ] 64,538
~Belgium. }.. 57 ]                       76 165 [ 195
45(   [     186:  [ 9~-[
1,623 [ 9 1,548 14,712
~
Spare. i. ~ 234 {                              228 190 ]               124
20;  [ 196 ]            22~  [                  203 [
146 [    7943
~d
}    ~  210] 6:411
West Indies.. 416  [ 523 165 I                                        156         25(  I      236  J      28~                      214  [
/                             12
378 / 6507:Denmark. 2,600'/~ 15:104.. 493[ 495 61'2 [ 1689 1,58(  I                                              565/        7~;
/                             0
268 [                   598 /    4;622
Sardinia. I.. 164 t                      89 67 ]                  39
~.. / 2,306
~
Portugal.. 45  [                               19 14 ]                 13
3 /        34 ~ 42 ~ 60 [    ~'530;Nova~cotia,: 81 [                             23 11 [                 67 77 ]                 40 I         77 40'                                        119 ]
1:309:Russia.., 69 ]                               61 36 ] 46 47 [ 37 [ 93 154 185 [
1 i         3~6 ]    1630
Canada... 25 ]                                25 19 ] 33 17 [ 35 [                                        43 28                                            27 ['715
~exico 42  ]... 13 ]                           22 45 [                 13 38
[ 92  ]            70 56                    28 I] 90 ]                          790
Sicily... I 4 I  [ 9 I [ 3  ]
3 I                                  I. 36 26 15 [                                                                                                                                        414
~
ZEast Indies.. 3
[! 7 15
Greece... "6 I                                 2 1 6
2
[                               8
8 5 I
2 5 7 / 112
1~
25 |        193
TuYkey.., 3} 3 5 3 55                                                                                                                          10
22
11~
Arabia..,
Africa...
~ "37 "10 "17 [ 87
Australia..
"6 "15, 442                                                                                                                       ~6          12          11'2
Japan. I..
Central America::                                                                             ~ i "18 "1~ 8~ 8 4 101..... 21                                                           I
38 78
~==~ Tot~                                                                                                                                              ]. — ~o,~ — ~,a0~ -iE~%W- q~,~
-~,~T]~,~, —~...... ~,~




CIO
Avowed Destination of Passengers landed at Castle Garden, from  August 1st, 1855, to January lst,1870.
DEiSTINATION.          1855.  1856.  1857.  1858.  1869.  1860.  1861.  1562.  1863.  1864.  1865.  1866.  1867.  1868.  1869.   Total.
New York.............  19,489 55,055  78,585 34,296  40,923 56,131  32,783  38,312  84,105  92,409 99,438  97,607 91,610  65,714 85,810  972,267
Pennsylvania..............    4,469 11,749 16,800  6,708  7,370   9,512  5,114  6,116 15,395  18,212 22,276 24,874 27,424 16,926 32,135  224,880
Illinois....................  3,444 11,064 15,750  6,690  3,940  4,077  4,010  5,009  8,435  11,531 17,177 22,386 26,964 34,625 38,213  213,315
isconin.................  4,667 13,327 12,704  4,953  2,441  2,589  3,217  4,574   5,075   4,365  6,127  9,160 14,921  16,537 17,003  121,660
Ohio......................   3,250  7,085 10,054  6,176  4,668  5,195  3,863  3,942   6,574   9,257 10,316 12,923 13,812 11,133 12,180  120,428
Massachusetts.............  2,037  6,494  6,904  3,212  5,119  6,371  3,433  4,453 11,734  14,129  8,957 11,874 10,424  7,604  8,384  111,129
Canada..                     3,346  8,526   9,673  4,218  2,212  1,877  1,554  2,830  3,089   2,644  1,367  1,741  2,333  2,723  2,695   50,828
New Jersey................  1,119  3,242  3806  1,922  2,621  3,414  1,892  1,483   3,744   5,306  5,395   7,877  7,271  5,916  8,101   63,109
Unknown..................   1,354  6,300  6,469  1,967  2,029  3,542....  2,457                          11      96      10.22,035
Michigan.....          1,648  3,296  4,108  1,697  1,305  1,478  1,520  1,900   3,062   3,167  3,178   4,185   7,119  7,324   7,218   52,205
Connecticut........;.......   829  2,292  2,974  1,227  1,929  2,579  1,416   1,248   3,339   3,603  2,323  3,711   4,209  3,458  4,032   39,169
Iowa.......................   795  2,380  3,775   1,724    664    776  1,289   1,082  1,094  1,948  3,400   4,493  5,610   7,040   8,216   44,286
Missouri..................   434  1,064  2,366  1,690  1,598  1,614    900    850  2,188   3,379  5,016  4,918  7,361  6,517  4,414   44,309
Indiana..............           881  1,388  2,474  1,271  1,122   1,206    906    938  1,357   1,826  2,730  3,201  3,240   3,852  3,184   29,576
Rhode Island......         551  1,354  1.389    510  1,001  1,291    530    481  1,696   1,848  1,353  2,392  2,470  2,279  2,285   21,430
Maryland............    485  1,164   1;535    907    902  1,014    434    401  1,012  1,580  1,888  1,818   1,704  1,604   1,585   18,033
California................   447    778    877  1,084  1,108  1,141  1,028  1,423  1,149   1,459    877  1,678  1,979  3,989  3,806   22,823
Minnesota................   127    427  1,253    828    542    466    760    942  1,433   1,109  1,514  3,459   3,783  5,891  6,826   29,360
Utah.'.........    250  1,579           14      3    740    905  1,441  3,418   3,561   1,694  1,092  3,082    514  3,115  2,327   23,'735
Virginia....................   292    567    702    548    575    452    481    102    187    334    560  1,006    913    131    785    8,235
Kentucky.................   183    460    660    520    546    650    301    215    593    910  1,060  1,636   1,670  1,392    881   11,657
District of Columbia.......   202    407    232    336    308    301    168    585  1,054   1,026  1,229    890    817    873    401    9,129
Vermont.....               168    250    297    172    198    270    135    153    297    362    263    238    559    533    510    4,405
Loui siana....            17    0413I53
Loui siana...60    171    206    240    255    321    180                50    240    327    268    550    66 9    567    249    4,353
South Carolina...........    80    178    157    168    185    296            45       2              6     77    171    192    148    149    1,854
Maine.............            143    148    186    210    122    142    176    121    340    609    413    330 {550    293    230    4,013
Tennessee..................    72    178    127    165    147    269         62      56    190    398    393    566    489    549    510    4,171
Georgia................    70    147    167    62    193    178       35       2      4             22    225    264    127    127    1,623
New iIampshire...........    71    177    179'69:131'   123           89      63    110    562: 202    189    311    411    172    2,859
Delaware..................    40       81    113      65    117       42     16      55    110    143    149    238    281    409    152    2,011
New Brunswick............       2              97     75      82     63      98      43     99      89     50      60      98    113      59    1,028
Texas..................          5     76      55     43      52     92      38       3i     6       2     41    124    427    266    292    1,522




Avowed Destination of Passengers landed at Castle Garden, Sc. —Continued.
DESTINATION.        1855.  1856.   1857.   1858.  1859.   1860.   1861.  1862.   1863.   1864.   1865.   1866.   1867.   1868.   1869.   Total.
Kansas...............  I          1t       25      88     77       43     25      63      122      281     388      468      706   1,085    1,669      5.052
North Carolina......    11        66      241      5      48       15     52...........                 87      140       83     114      118        784
Mississippi..               6      14       62      21     50       45     12...........          1      52       65       73      84      118        603
Alabama..          7      30       21     24      89       21     11                7..        27       96       75     114      105        577
New Dominion               30       2       42     56      17       47     22    149        65       43      45       57       77     150       49        816
Nebraska................         2       27     42      81       18      3               89       13     116      119      640   1,410   1,653       4,198
South America.......    25          50      18     14      86       29     13       7       28       15      34       27       32     185       91        556
Cuba.............         25     32      46       21     20      17       29       29      50       11       21      14        6        349
Arkansas........8..0                        9      10     16       17      3       6.....                 4      32       71      78       38        302
Florida..............      13     12        5     11      82        9      6       6        1        4       5       10       29      34       22        199
Mexico.......                     12        1       5      7       13      4       3       18       10      71       19       26      14,7        210
Oregon.17.......                6       6        9      6                2       23      18       38       19      30      24         1
West Indies.......         2      11...           6      5        1      4       7                1       1        15       18               26        141
N'ew Mexico.S......  23  8  3....                                                                     5  6   50
Central America.................        3      9       23     10       5.2                           21        2        113
Vancouver's Isle.                                           1        3      1.........................                            1          6
WashingtonTerritory......              3                                                                                    8          6
Australia.1                                                          1.........                                                                 1         13
Bermuda.1    1...2....................                                                 2
sandwich leles.......         1......1
Rhissian America.......1....1
British Columbia.........................    295          8       22               11       39      66.....         466
Nevada.....................                                                                                4   17  18  41   80
Colorado...............               30   22   38   80   170
Idaho.........................           I.7......                    1                  15    9             32
Dakotab..............................         2      38        9         49
West Virginia.....22..................  r.........................                         2      150        172
Montana..........................................................               14       19         33
Japan g.  erritory........................  1.........................      5 
China..................................................; ~I.. ~    ~..         6     
Choina.    6ertr.
Totals............. 51,114 141,525 185,076 84,226 85,602  108,682 68,311  81,458 1161,648  184,700 200,031 228,851  241,985 i216,222 j 257,188  2,296,619
CA




GENERAL TABLE,
Showing the number of Aliens arrived and landed at the Port of New  York for whom  bonds were demanded or Commutation                                           c
and Hospital moneys were paid, as also the total number treated, cared for, forwarded, &c., classified under the different heads,
together with the total amount of Receipts from  all sources, and the whole amount of expenditures, from  the organization of the
Commissioners of Emigration,.May 5, 1847, to December 31st, 1869.
Tj          0                                                   "E  A
~~~~dgtid~~~~~~~~~ "'" 0  0                                                           0,  0
-C"            a'0a'E AR~:o~.                                   I.5 Io:. 
~7' \..o~ i~tj       ~~    ~,    C   **o                                             >0''
Z Z         wz       Zi W                                       0a 
1847....   129,062      1,629     6,474       503..............         798      1,190                   10,594    $193,292 10    $148,147 31
1848...    189,176      4,057     8,661      6,640...          2,102        694        5, 369     27,523      301,901 99     274,833 49
1849...    220,603      8,320      6,159    16,854.....                  999      1,360        5,566      41,258      318,608 29     378,817 34
1850...    212,796    10,156     3,411    27,314                 8,000     2,301        267        5,937      57,386      358,010 36     369,461 39
1851....   289,601    14,939      6,343    23,941                18,204     7',391     1,658       12,550      85,026      469,538 27     463,654 00
1852....   300,992    15,182     8,887   117,568                14,971     4,601      1,364      18, 432     181,005      572,329 26     569,516 74
1853....   284,945    14,365      4,796    44,514......    14,334       3,262      1,152        9,351      91,774  [591,651 92        586,859 19
1854....   319,223    15,950     4,762    69,085......    13,964       4,608      2,021       10,504     120,894      688,802 98     635,215 77
1855....    136,233    12,901    2,402    93,925                15,151     4,996        807       12,175     142,357      365,966 24     490,189 77
1856....   142,342      7,610     1,648     11,172.           9,378       589      1,081        1,346      36,824      311,244 34     257.416 02
1857....    183,773     8,539     1,856      5,411               10,933       529        864        4,253      32,385      392,270 43     350,911 79
1858....    78,589     6,906     1,204      6,144.....      9,346       515        245        4,200      26,560     191,368 64      217,868 25
1859....    79,322      4,361       274      4,582                7,150       176        4835       2,407      19,435     182,566 34      199,875 78
1860....   105,162      4,729.         5,237                7,717       401        527       2,104       20,715     289,467 92      210,359 66
1861'...    65,539      5,079.           3,186     1,389      4,807       950        340        5,123      20,874      175,434 56     178,401 77
1862....    76, 306     3,247......        835     1,098      5,261       278        132       5,707       16,558     174,454 29      138,524 56
1863....   156,844      4,911......      1,743     3,019    11,817        365        138        8,563      30,556     341,027 00      333,105 71
1864....   182,296     7,363......      1,737      2,904     9,993       266        287        6,407      28,957     420,366 17      373,763 39
1865....   196,352      7,425..            975     4,243      8,681       361  [     379        7-516      29,580     471,034 85      447,580 20
1866....   233,418    10,306.....           3,158      3,343     8,494       521        203       12,943      38,968      544,056 16     545,983 21
1867....   242,731     13,237                1,905     7,284    10,325        613        235       11,367      44,966      583,154 40     534,362 22
1868....   213,686    14,250......      2.396    14,569    31,143        902       277        8,394       71,931     577,349 36      662,958 12
1869....   258,989     13,911......      1,103    13,799    34,955        917      1,801        6, 01      73,187     695,499 59      606,158 58
Total,  4,297,980   201,373    56877   447,928    51,648   254,624    40,441    17,507          170,915    1,249,333   $9,209.395 46  | $8,973,964 26




APPENDIX.                             237
STATEMENT
Showing Amount Reimbursed by the Commissioners of Emigration to the City
and County of New York, and the several other Cities and Counties in the
State of New York, and to various Charitable Institutions and Hospitals in
the State, for Care and Support of Emigrants, from Mcay 5, 1847, to December
31, 1869, inclusive.
Year.  City of New York.   Institutions.   Counties.         Total.
1847     $2,333 36         $280 00        $2,270 68         $4,884 04
1848       2,540 00        1,487 93       18,421 95         22,449 88
1849       6,306 98        1,857 59       37,400 95         45,565 52
1850      10,832 75        2,650 71       26,736 40         40,219 86
1851     13,042 94         8,784 40       67,781 17         89,608 51
1852     10,912 97        12,755 08       64,763 90         88,431 95
1853      20,000 00        9,737 01      122,135 16        151,872 17
1854      27,525 36        9,117 50       78,532 85        115,175 71
1855..             8,645 56       43,181 17        51,826 73
1856..            10,528 07       13,439 97         23,968 04
1857..             6,680 16       85,563 85         92,244 01
1858        -              8,002 73       16,893 16         24,895 89
1859        206 29         6,173 92       23,555 75         29,935 96
1860        753 81         7,001 68       51,113 59         58,869 08
1861      2,237 94         6,373 36       11,244 63         19,855 93
1862      1,051 11         4,545 83       10,419 12         16,016 06
1863        810 76         5,402 96        9,578 50         15,792 22
1864       2,453 62        5,207 09       11,689 00         19,349 71
1865      5,370 36         8,950 38       17,944 05         32,264 79
1866      2,814 10         9,201 70       22,980 39         34,996 19
1867      1,689 59        10,095 99       22,160 29         33,945 87
1868     63,976 08        12,920 72       24,840 40        101,737 20
1869     18,986 76        11,971 59       17,788 31         48,746 66
$193,844 78     $168,371 96     $800,435 24     $1,162,651 98




238                              APPENDIX.
WAGES.*
I.-The Average Wages paid at the Labor Exchange for Unskilled Labor during
the Years 1868 and 1869.
Males, per Month.    Females, per Month.
1868.     1869.      1868.    1869.
January                           $10 00    $9 00       $8 00    $9 00
February.                         10 50 11 50   8 50  9 25
March.. 12 50    11 50                                  8 50    10 00
April..            15 00    18 50        9 00    10 00
May..18 00 19 25  9 00 10 00
June.20 00 23 75   9 00  10 00
July.                             24 00 24 00  9 50 10 00
August.                          16 00 17 25  9 00 10 00
September..                     14 00  14 25   9 00  10 00
October.. 12 00  14 50   9 50  10 00
November....          12 00    13 25        9 00      9 50
December..    10 00 10 00   8 50  9 00
The wages for common laborers varied from $1 75 to $2 per day, without
board.
* The following circular letter is from time to time published by the Chief Clerk of the
Labor Exchange, for the information of all employers who would avail themselves of the advantages of this institution:
" 1. The'Labor Exchange,' lately organized by the Commissioners of Emigration of the
State of New York, is a free market for emigrant labor, open to all employers from all parts of
the United States. While prcouring prompt and remunerative employment to emigrants, it
offers to employers superior opportunities to choose suitable employees out of the large and
varied supply of applicants for work daily resorting to this office.
"2. This office charges no fees, commissions, nor any other remuneration from employer
or employee.
"It furnishes to employers not only domestic help, agricultural or unskilled labor, but also
all kind of skilled laborers, mechanics, artisans, etc.
" 3. Land speculators are excluded from the privileges of this office; and all propositions
contemplating the sale or leasing of land to emigrants will be rejected.
" 4. Employers applying at this office must be either known to the Superintendent, or produce satisfactory references.
"Agents must be duly authorized by their principals, and well recommended.
"5. This office does not make contracts for emigrants with the employer; it does not fix
the amount of wages nor the term of service, nor prescribe any other condition of the contract;
it leaves all these matters to be settled by the voluntary agreement of the parties immediately
interested, and assists them only by giving all needful information and advice.
"6. Employers must provide for and take care of the transportation for their employees to
the respective places of destination. If means sufficient to cover travelling expenses are remitted to this office, with the request to send hired help to the applicant, we shall see to it that
the employee is properly started on his voyage. The expenses and risk of transportation to
distant places will be greatly reduced, if employers residing in the country, and desiring emigrant help, would club together, and appoint one of their number employing and forwarding
agent for all the members of the club."




APPENDIX.                           239
II.- Wages paid for Skilled Labor in New York City during the Year 1869.
Apprentices.                           $4 to $5 per week; no board.
Bakers...       $6 to $14 per month, and board.
Barbers.                                $9 to $15 per week; no board.
Brushmakers.                            $2 to $2 50 per day; no board.
Barkeepers..... $10 to $30 per month, and board.
Basketmakers.                           $8 to $15 per week; no board.
Blacksmiths.. -.    $2 to $3 50 per day; no board.
Bookbinders...                $7 to $18 per week; no board.
Bricklayers.                           $5 per day; no board.
Brewers.                               $15 to $25 per month, and board.
Brassfinishers.. $10 to $20 per week; no board.
Butchers...                     $10 to $20 per month, and board.
Cabinetmakers..  $1 50 to $3 per day; no board.
Cooks...                          $25 to $100 per month, and board.
Capmakers.$. $8 to $12 per week, and board.
Chemists..            $10 to $12 per week; no board.
Carpenters.                             $3 to $3 50 per day; no board.
Carriagemakers..                      $2 50 to $3 per day; no board.
Cheesemakers..                         $20 per month, and board.
Cigarmakers.                            $8 to $15 per week; no board.
Confectioners..                      $30 to $50 per month, and board.
Cutlers.                              $12 to $15 per week; no board.
Coopers...                            $18 to $20 per week; no board.
Dyers..                   $20 to $25 per month, and board.
Deckhands.                            $25 to $30 per month, and board
Druggists.                            $18 to $25 per month, and board
Engravers.                             $15 to $35 per week; no board.
Engineers.                            $15 to $18 per week; no board.
Florists.                             $15 to $25 per month, and board
Filecutters.$. 12 to $18 per week; no board.
Furriers.                               $9 to $14 per week; no board.
Frescoe-painters.... $15 to $35 per week; no board.
Gilders.$10 to $18 per week; no board.
Gardeners..                           $15 to $25 per month, and board.
Glaziers.                               $8 to $12 per week; no board.
Gasfitters...... $12 to $18 per week; no board.
Goldsmiths..                          $10 to $30 per week; no board.
Gunsmiths..   $10 to $18 per week; no board.
Hatters...     $15 to $20 per week; no board.
Heaters.... $25 to $30 per month, and board.
Harnessmakers..$10 to $15 per week; no board.
Ironmoulders..              $15 to $18 per week; no board.
Locksmiths.                            $8 to $15 per week; no board.
Lithographers..                     $12 to $25 per week; no board.
Machinists..... $15 to $18 per week; no board.




240                         APPENDIX.
Masons...$5 per day; no board.
Miners..              90 cents and $1 per ton; no board.
Millers.. $12 to $18 per month, and board.
Polishers.. $10 to $15 per week; no board.
Paperhangers.                        $10 to $15 per week; no board.
Puddlers.                               $2 per day; no board.
Plasterers.......  $5 per day; no board.
Plumbers.......  $2 50 to $3 per day; no board.
Printers..                           $12 to $18 per week; no board.
Porters.                               $8 to $15 per week; no board.
Painters..            $10 to $15 per week; no board.
Ropemakers.. $12 per week; no board.
Slate-roofers.......  $2 50 to $3 per day; no board.
Saddlers.. $12 to $15 per week; no board.
Shoemakers.                            $9 to $15 per week; no board.
Soapmakers.. $10 to $12 per week; no board.
Spinners.                               $9 to $12 per week; no board.
Stonecutters..  $5 per day; no board.
Tailors..                             $10 to $30 per week; no board.
Tanners.                              $15 per month, and board.
Tinsmiths.                            $10 to $15 per week; no board.
Turners.                               $10 to $18 per week; no board.
Upholsterers.                        $12 to $18 per week; no board.
Varnishers.                             $9 to $12 per week; no board.
Waiters.                               $30 per month, and board.
Watchmakers.. $15 to $20 per week; no board.
Weavers.$9 to $12 per week; no board.
Wheelwrights.                         $10 to $12 per week; no board.
Woodcarvers.                         $12 to $18 per week; no board.
Winecoopers.                          $30 per month, and board.
Wagonsmiths.                          $10 to $18 per week; no board.




TABLE
Showing the Number of Passengers brought to New York by Sailing and Steam Vessels, and the Comparative Mortality and Births on the
Voyage, from the Years 1864 to 1869 inclusive.
STEAMSHIPS.                        SAILING-VESSELS.                         TOTAL.
i6.  4;t o. o.
1864 196  9,729  78,200  46  74 00946  349 773 102,070 186 750 207345 546 Q10,502 180,270 232   824 0'451
1865 220 14,621 112,701  52 118 01047 302 661  83,770 186 581 06943  522 15,282 196,471 238   699 03558
1866 1401 127,507l 156,931  83 816 105200  349 636  74,898 162 851 81113631 750 28,143 1231,8291 245 1,667 10'7190
1867 1464 29,187 193,445  99 255 0'1318 282 543  48,495 127 494 10186  746 29,730 241,940 226   749 0'3096
1868 451 27,937 180,449  96 200 101108 2001241  31,953 102 393 172299 651 28,178 212,402 198   593 0o2792
1869 504 29,471 229,190 110 210 0'0913 209 273  28,333  76 138 0'4871 713 29,744 257,523 186   348  0'1351