Pey V5o4 PROPERTNO I $ 1 7 A RT ES S C IEN T IA V ER ITA S I I I A JAPANESE GRAMMAR HOSSFELD'S SERIES G6i ni itte wa, g6i ni shitagae. (When you enter a country, conform to its customs.) [Jap. Proverb.] HOSSFELD'S JAPANESE GRAMMAR COMPRISING A MANUAL OF THE SPOKEN LANGUAGE IN THE ROMAN CHARACTER TOGETHER WITH DIALOGUES ON SEVERAL SUBJECTS AND TWO VOCABULARIES OF USEFUL WORDS BY H.:I. WEINTZ Author of "The Spanish Principia," etc. PHILADELPHIA PETER REILLY 133 NORTH THIRTEENTH STREET AL PRINTED IN ENGLAND I. PRINTED IN ENG;LAND PREFA CE THE rapidly increasing amount of commerce and social intercourse between this country and Japan has created a pressing demand f or a really practical grammar for the acquisition of the Japanese language by English-speaking people. No apology therefore is needed for the appearance of the present work, which is designed to exhibit in as concise and scientific a form as- possible the main features of J apanese accidence and syntax. Usually, English people who take up the study of an Oriental language are not children, but those of mature years having a competent acquaintance with the mother-tongue, and it is from this point of view that the explanations contained herein have been framed. Every Japanese phrase and sentence in the book is taken from some work by an author of eminence and,published during the last decade, and authority (volume \~nd page) can be adduced in every instance. This has,been regarded as a point of special importance, inasV Vi PREFACE much as it is a guarantee that the work exhibits the language to the student as it is really current in polite social intercourse at the present day. My object during the compilation of the work has been to include everything of practical utility, and to discard everything superfluous. I have endeavoured to make the definitions clear and precise, that they may be easy of comprehension and readily retained. I have further endeavoured to arrange and distribute the matter, so as to embrace within narrow limits much more information than is generally embodied in a book of its pretensions, and I believe that there is not a useful Rule or Observation in the works of any recognised writer of eminence that is not found in this. The native alphabet employed for writing the language has two different forms, one rendered intricate by the addition of numerous variations, known as the " Hiraganam" form of character, and the other, the " Katakana" character, entirely devoid of variation, and therefore much simpler; but a movement has for some time been in active progress in favour of the adoption of the Roman alphabet. according to the system employed in this work, where all the Japanese words are spelt in the native mode, by assigning to each of the native letters a correspond. ing equivalent from the English alphabet, and fixing accurately the sound of each. The acquisition of a knowledge of the Hiragana and Katakana characters iA PREFACE vii therefore entirely unnecessary, and it is quite practicable to obtain a thoroughly intimate acquaintance with Japanese for colloquial purposes through the instrumentality of our own alphabet. Owing to the peculiar structure and composition of the language, it is necessary to become acquainted with the functions and methods of use of all the parts of speech before an attempt can be made by the student to frame sentences of his own, hence the absence of the incidental exercises for translation found in the other grammars of the series. The publishers, however, have under consideration the issue of a small supplementary work as an Appendix to the present volume, comprising, amongst other useful features, a graduated series of Exercises and Examination Papers on the whole of the book, together with Reading Lessons consisting for the most part of excerpts from the works of modern native writers. With this prefatory excursion I submit my work to the candid judgment of its students and of the friends of the Japanese language, trusting that it will be deemed worthy to range with the other publications of the Hossfeld series which has so long and so deservedly held a high position in public favour. H. J. WEINTZ. BRADFORD (Yorks), 1904. r.I CONTENTS. PAGE THE SYLLABARY 1 PRONUNCIATION 3 I. THE VOWELS 3 II. THE CONSONANTS 4 LETTER PERMUTATIONS: THE NIGCORI 6 ARTICULATION A.ND ACcCENT. (I CLASSES OF WORDS: PARTS OF SPEECIH 8 THE NOUN 9 1. NUMBER..... 9 1I. GENDER.... 10 III. CASE 1.... i IV. COMPOUND NOUNS 12 V. CLASSES OF NOUNS.14 1. Abstract Nouns.. 14 2. Concrete Nouns 14 3. Augmentative and Dinmintitive Nouns 15 VI. NOTES ON VARIOUS NOUNS 15.. TiaE PRONOUN...... 16 I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.... 16 II. REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS... 22 III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS... 23 IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS... 27 V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 29 VI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.... 31 P'RSTPOSITIONS.. 32 X CONTENTS PAGE THE VERB.53 First Conjugation 58 Second Conjugation (First Formn) 60 Second Conjugation (Second Form). 62 Formation of the Bases, Moods, and Tenses 68 Irregular Verbs.. 71 Kuru, to come. 71 Surv, to do 73 The Polite Verb "Masm" 75 Uses of the Bases, Moods, and Tenses 78 Auxiliary Verbs. 91 1.A4ru 92 2. Ira 93 3. Oru 93 4. Kuru. 94 5. Shimau 95 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.96 Passive and Potential Verbs. 97 The Verb "1Surie" 103 The Equivalents of "1to be" 105 Causal or Causative Verbs 107 Ambiguous Verb-forms...110 Compound Verbs..113 THE ADJECTIVE., 115 I. PRIMARY INFLECTIONS...116 II. SECONDARY INFLECTIONS..121 III. NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES....122 IV. COMPOUND AND DERIVED ADJECTIVES.1216 V. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 127 (a) Comparative Degree...128' (b) Superlative Degree...129 NUMERALS: METHODS OF COMPUTATION..129 I. CARDINAL NUMERALS....129 II. AUXILIARY NUMERALS...132 III. ORDINAL NUMERALS... 137, IV. FRACTIONAL AND MIULTIPLICATIVE NU.MBERS 137' CONTENTS xi PAGE THE ADVERB, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION.143 I. THE ADVERB.....143 (a) Adverbs of Place.. 144 (b) Adverbs of Time... 145 (c) Adverbs of Quantity. 146 (d) Adverbs of Manner.. 147 II. THE CONJUNCTION. 151 III. THE INTERJECTION 152 HONORIFICS... 154 I. HONORIFIC PREFIXES.. 155 II. HONORIFIC SUFFIXES... 158 III. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE NOUNS 160 IV. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE VERBS..164 SYNTAX.. 167 REPORTED SPEECH: INDIRECT NARRATION..175 CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES ON SUBJECTS OF EVERY-DAY LIFE...... 177 Questions.... 177 About the Way or Road... 177 At a Town.... 178 At an Hotel...... 179 Buying and Selling.. 181 Eating and Drinking.... 182 Visiting...... 182 Travelling..... 183 With a Doctor..... 184 Writing, Letters and Post.... 185 Miscellaneous..... 186 JAPANESE-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.. 188 ENGLISH-JAPANESE VOCABULARY....204 INDEX....221 I GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE. THE SYLLABARY. IN Japanese, an Alphabet, in the sense of the term understood by Western grammarians, does not exist. The various sounds of the language are represented in writing and printing by symbols or " ideographs," termed " syllabics." These are grouped together in what is known as "the Syllabary," which corresponds, in a measure, to the Alphabets of Europe. The Syllabary is divided into Vowel Syllabics and Consonant Syllabics, the former consisting of pure vowel sounds, and the latter, with one exception, of consonantal sounds combined with the vowels, although each consonant syllabic is represented in the native character by a single sign. The following scheme shows the Japanese Syllabary dcioted in the Roman character, and arranged in the orler adopted by most transliterators. I JAPANESE GRAMMAR 1 I 2 INTRODUCTION THE SYLLABARY. VOWEL SYLLABICS. a * e * i - 0 U CONSONANT SYLLABICS. ka ke ki kro ku go. ge gi go gm sa se shi so Su za ze ji zo zu ta te chii to tsu da de It do dzm na ne ni no nu ha he hi ho fu babe bi bo bu pa pe Pi Po pit ma me mi MO mu ya ye i yo YUi ra re ri ro ru wa_- ye wo INTRODUCTION 3 From an examination of the preceding table it will be observed that, when represented by the Roman Alphabet, the Japanese language employs the same letters as English, excepting I, q, v, and x. It will also be noticed that certain irregularities and duplications occur; thus sh is substituted for s before i; t is replaced by ts before u; i does duty for both wi and yi; and so on. These peculiarities owe their appearance to the inability of the Japanese organs of speech to articulate the sounds replaced by the substitutions indicated; and as will be seen subsequently, many apparent anomalies of conjugation are due to them. PRONUNCIATION. I. THE VOWELS. Except when the sign of long quantity is placed over them the vowels are invariably short. a is pronounced approximately like a in mat. a,,,,,, (,, calrm e / prey.,,,,,,,, i,, cigar.,,,,,, i,, police. o0,, o,shore. o,,,, o,, gold. u,,,,,,,, t,, full. u,,,,,,,00,, tool. Great care must be taken not to confuse the short and t e long vowels in pronunciation, as there are many pairs 4 INTRODUCTION of words spelt exactly alike, but which differ in the length of their vowels. Such are: sato, village. sato, sugar. kuki, the stem of a kuki, the atmosphere. plant. toru, to take. toru, to pass through. Under some circumstances i and u are sounded so lightly as to become almost inaudible. This occurs chiefly when they follow f, h, k, s, sh, or ts, as exemplified in the following:shita, beneath, is pronounced almost like shta. takusan, much,,,,, taksan. tsuki, the moon,,,,,,,,,, tski. In such cases these quiescent vowels are distinguished throughout this work by the diacritic sign of short quantity; thus, shta, takuisan, tsuki. In diphthongs (ae, ai, ao, au, ei, oi, ui) each vowel must be distinctly sounded; thus au is not to be pronounced like au in cause, but very nearly like ow in cow; oi is much like oi in going, never as in boil, etc. II. THE CONSONANTS. Those not mentioned below are pronounced approximately as in English. C occurs only in the combination ch, which is pronournced as in charm, couch-never as in chaos or machine. t F. This letter, which is used only in the syllabicfng, is pronounced by means of the lips alone, and not as in Engl eh, where the lower lip is brought into contact with the up er INTRODUCTION 5 teeth. Thus the pronunciation of fu is almost identical with that of the English word who strongly aspirated.!G at the beginning of a word is hard, like g in girl, good; in,all other cases it has the sound of ng in singer..1, which is the only letter that may terminate a syllable, has\ in this position the nasal sound of n in the French bon, enfant, i.e. somewhat like ng in our wing, thing. In other positions it is pronounced as in next, now. t before a, e, o, or u is pronounced as in English, but never with the trill characteristic of the continental languages. In the syllabic ri, however, its exact sound has no counterpart in English, but the student can obtain a just conception of its pronunciation by placing the tip of the tongue at the same point in the roof of the mouth as in pronouncing our letter r, and then articulating the lettier d.* Si has invariably the sound of s in sat, soon-never as in XAise or pleasure. Y is always a consonant, and is pronounced as in yacht, youth-never as in by or myth. When a consonant is repeated, it must be distinctly sounded twice, as many pairs of words are distinguished only by a doubled consonant; thusitai, painful. ittai, altogether. oto, a sound. otto, husband. * Students acquainted with Arabic or Hindustani will recognise this sound as being almost identical with the palatal d of those languages. 6 INTRODUCTION LETTER PERMUTATIONS: THE NIGORI. It will be observed on referring to the Syllabary, that cirtain syllabics are given in italics. These all commence wi/th a soft consonant, and in the native character they ire written with symbols identical with those representing the syllabics beginning with hard consonants in the lines immediately preceding, the distinction between the two being indicated by a small mark termed the "nigoiri" placed by the side of the hard-consonant syllabic. Sa, for example, with the diacritic sign is read za; and so on. Under certain circumstances, to be noted later, words commencing with hard consonants take the nigori, i.e. their initial letters become softened; thus sat5 when uised as the second member of a compound becomes zato; Aine becomes bune; and so on. ARTICULATION AND ACCENT. There is a great and striking distinction between Japanese and English as regards articulation-both in character and degree. Speaking generally, the Japanese pronunciation of both consonants and vowels is lighter and narrower than that of English. There is no tendency to diphthongise vowel-sounds, or to mouth and drawl them as is sometimes the case in some European languages. Japanese articulation is sharp, clear, and forcible; the lips are more vigorously employed, and the mouth is opened more freely. Tonic and rhetorical accent are both very slight, that is to say, the various syllables of a word, and all the words of a sentence, are uttered with almost uniform stress of the INTRODUCTION 7 voice, so that in English ears most Japanese words appear to have no accent, properly speaking. RULE I. In words of two syllables the accent is on the first syllable, as ku'-mo, mu'-ri. Exceptions.-When the first syllable contains i or it, and when the second syllable contains a long vowel, the accent is on the second syllable; as shi-i'; tsu-ka'; mu-si~'; sa-t. RULE II. In words of three syllables the accent is on the second syllable; as Tsu-ga'-ru; O-sa'-ka. Exception.-When the second syllable contains i or t, the accent is on the first syllable unless the last syllable contains a long vowel, when, of course, the accent is placed on the last; as, ka'-shi-ra; a'-tsui-kz. RULE III. In words of more than three syllables the accent is on the last but one; as, a-sa-ma-da'-ki; Shi-mo-nose'-ki. Exception.-When the last syllable but one contains z or U, the accent is removed to the preceding syllable; as, a-tara'-shi-ki; Yo-ko'-su-ka. It must be remembered, as a general rule, that long vowels always bear the accent, and where a word contains two such long vowels, the accent is laid equally upon them, similar to the Spondee in English prosody. The student should carefully bear in mind the remarks made previously on diphthongs, and he must beware, for example, of taking for three syllables a word which really has four; thus in the words Terauchi and Niigata, each vpwel must be pronounced separately; as, Te-ra-u'-chi, Ni-i-ga'-ta. 8 INTRODUCTION CLASSES OF WORDS; PARTS OF SPEECH. In construction and methods of use Japanese differs materially from all European tongues. Language being, however, the vehicle for the communication of thought, and as all human thought is, in its essential characteristics, alike, Japanese must in common with all languages contain, under some guise or other, words denoting persons and things, and also words to indicate certain relations among those persons and things, as well as their qualities and actions. Native grammarians do not, however, classify these words in the same manner as they are classified in Europe, that is as nouns,* pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, etc. They divide them into (a) NA, or name-words proper -i.e. uninflected words which include the noun and pronoun; (b) KOTOBA or HATARAKI - KOTOBA, i.e. inflected words including the verb and adjective; and (c) TENIWOHA, i.e. particles, which are equivalent to our prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. As, however, no violence is done to the language by adopting the European classification, we have retained the familiar words noun, pronoun, etc., to facilitate the progress of the student. * There is no Article in Japanese; thus, hako signifies "box," "the box," and " a box," indifferently. i THE NOUN 9 THE NOUN. In Japanese the Noun is indeclinable, distinctions of gender and number being exhibited by the context, and case relations are indicated, as in English, by separate words or particles. I. NUMBER. (a) Singular. -As a rule, no distinction is made between the singular and plural, but if it is necessary to specify only one thing of a certain kind the numeral for "one "ichi, hitotsu, or hlto-is attached as a prefix or suffix; thus:ichi-nen, one year = a year. tsutsumi-hitotsu, one parcel = a parcel. hito-tstiki, one month = a month. (b) Plural.-When more than one thing is implied, certain particles are agglutinated to the word. These particles are ra, domo, shu (often pronounced ski), tachi and gata thusSingular. Plural. kuruma-ya, 'riksha-man. kuruma-ya-ra, 'riksha-men. onna, woman. onna-domo, women. hyakifsh6, peasant. hyakusho-shu, peasants. shikwan, officer. shikwan-tachi, officers. yakunin, official. yakunin-gata, officials. The order in which the preceding particles and examples are shown is in a gradually increasing degree of politeness, tachi and gata being generally employed for polite speech, whilst among the others ra is familiar and least respectful (se "Honorifics," p. 158). 11* Il 10 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Occasionally, the idea of plurality is conveyed by reduplication, but the forms thus produced serve to render the idea which English idiom expresses by the noun preceded by "every" rather than the ordinary plural; thuskuni, country. kuni-guni, every country, or various countries. iro, a sort, a kind. iro-iro, all kinds. shina, object. shina-jina, all kinds of objects. tokoro, place. tokora - dokoro, different places, many places, here and there. ho, a side. h6-bo, everywhere. As will be gathered from the foregoing examples, the reduplication almost invariably assumes the nigori when commencing with a letter susceptible thereof. II. GENDER. Conformably with the absence of number in the noun, Japanese usually ignores all considerations of gender: thus tori is either cock or hen; ushi, bull or cow; tima, horse or mare. If, however, it be absolutely indispensable to distinguish the sex of an animal, it can be effected by prefixing o or on, male, for the masculine, and me or men, female, for the feminine, the compound thus produced often undergoing a slight change of form for the sake of euphony; thusushi = any bovine animal. o-ushi, bull. me-ushi, cow. tori = fowl, bird. on-dori, cock. mendori, hen. ima = any equine animal. omma, horse. rmemma, mare. THE NOUN 11 The words osu, male; mesu, female; otoko, man; and onna, woman, are also used for the same purpose; thusinn = any canine animal. inun no osu0 (or) osu no inn a d inu no mesua ) tch. (or) mesu no inu J ko = a child. otoko no ko, mam-child, i.e. a male-child, or boy. onna no ko, woman-child, i.e. a female-child, or Osu and mesu are used for (lower) animals only, whilst otoka and onna may be applied indifferently to persons and animals. Difference in gender is indicated in a very few instances, principally the names of the degrees of relationship, by the use of separate words; as — Alasculine. ojisan, grandfather. chichi, father. otottsan, papa. musuko, son, boy. oji, uncle. ani, elder brother. ototo, younger brother. Feminine. obasan, grandmother. haha, mother. okkasan, mamma. musiume, daughter, girl. oba, aunt. ane, elder sister. imoto, younger sister. [. CASE. Although, strictly speaking, nouns have no cases in Japanese, equivalents for the European case-forms can be 12 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR formulated for them by the use of certain particles as suffixes, as exemplified in the following table: Yama, a mountain. -- Nominative, Yama, or yama ga, mountain. Vocative, Yama! or yama yo! mountain! Accusative, Yama, or yama wo, mountain. Genitive, Yama no, or yama ga, of a mountain, or a mountain's. Dative, Yama ni, or yama ye, to a mountain. Ablative, Yama kara, or yama tori, from a mountain. (For further illustrations of the uses and employment of these particles, reference should be made to the section on "Postpositions," p. 32). IV. COMPOUND NOUNS. The Japanese language is very rich in Compound Nouns which are produced for the most part in the following manner:1. From two nouns; asgakumon, science, study; from gaku, learning, hanazono, flower-garde kazaguruma, windmill, tebukuro, glove; 2. From a noun preceded adjective (see p. 120); asto-megame, telescope; yasu-mono, cheap aticle; and mon, a gate. mn; from hana, flower, and sono, garden.; from kaze, wind, and kuruma, wheel. from te, hand, and fukuro, bag. or followed by the stem of an from t6i, far, and meganrie, spectacles. from yasui, cheap, and moio, thng. THE NOUN 13 3. From a noun preceded or followed by the stern of a verb; as nusubltho, thief; kaimono, a purchase; te-nugui, towel; bhIto-goroshi, mitrderer; from nusumu, to steal, and hito, person. fr-om. kau, to bity, and mono, thing9. from te, hand, and nuguu, to w~pe. from h'ito, person?, and korosu, to kill. 4. From two verbalforms; as haki-dame, dust-heap; kigaye, change of dress; hiki-dashi, drawer; froin haku, to sweep, and tameru, to collect. fr-om. kiru, to wear, and kayerti, to change. from hiku, to pull, and dasu, to take out. As will be seen in the precediiig examples, the first letter of the second component in compounds usually takes the nigori, thus hanazono has ~zono for sono; hito-goroshi has goroshi for koroshi, and so on. In some instances, the final vowel of the first nmember in a compound is modified, the substitution of a for e being the change of most frequent recurrence; as saka-ya, grog-shop; from sake, beer, and ya, a house. kaza-deppb, air-gun; from kaze, wind, and teppbi, gun. 14 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR V. CLASSES OF NOUNS. 1. Abstract Nouns. These are frequently derived from adjective stems by adding thereto the syllable sa; assamusa, cold, the degree of coldness; from samui, cold. takasa, height; from takai, high. shirosa, whiteness; from shiroi, white. Equivalents for abstract nouns are also produced by adding to an adjective or verb the word koto, fact, act, (abstract) thing; asshiroi koto, whiteness, thefact that something is white. fukai koto, deep-fact = depth. machigata koto, a mistake. dekinai koto, "cannot-fact," i.e. impossibility. These locutions are frequently heard with an ejaculatory signification; thusTakai koto! What a height Atsui koto! How hot it is! 2. Concrete Nouns. These may be formed in a similar manner to abstract nouns, by adding to an adjective the word mono, thing; asshiroi mono, a white thing, an object which is white. ao mono (aoi, green), green things = vegetables. nui mono, embroidery; from nun, to sew. It must be noted -that mono nearly always signifies a tangible, material object, whilst koto means "a thing of the mind," "an act or fact." THE NOUN 15 3. Augmentative and Diminutive Nouns. (a) Augmentatives. These are formed by prefixing 6, the root of okii, large, to nouns; thusnezumi, rat. 6-nezumi, large rat. fune, boat. o-bune, ship. tera, temple.. o-dera, large temple. shima, island. 6-shima, large island. (b.) Diminutives. To produce these, the word ko, child, little, is employed, prefixed to nouns; thusinu, dog. ko-inu, child-dog, little dog, i.e. puppy. ishi, a stone. ko-ishi, a pebble. tera, temple. ko-dera, small temple. shima, island. ko-jima, small island. As exemplified in the preceding instances, the words to which o and ko are prefixed often assume the nigori. N.B.-Care must be taken to distinguish 6 large, from o, honourable (see p. 155). VI. NOTES ON VARIOUS NouNs. The word, hazu, obligation, necessity, is often employed to render the idea expressed by the English verbs " ought" and "should"; thusMo kuru hazu da* ) He should be here by already comes necessity is J How. Sakujitsu sono kane wo I ought to he been yesterday that moneyat m uketoru hazu deshita. d c, ~ yesterday. receive obligation was. y * For the arrangement of words in the sentence, see "Syntax," p. 167. 16 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Aida, interval, is sometimes used to correspond to our " while " or "whilst"; thusWatakushi wa Tokyo ni me as-for Tokio in Whilst I was in oru aida. Tokio. dwell whilst j So suru aida, Whilst we were doing so do while. ) so. The word toki, time, is frequently employed to translate "when"; thusWataktishi to omaye wa I and you When you and I came kuni kara kita toki from our province. province from, came time Meshi kuu toki. When eating rice rice eat time. =when dining. The locution told ni is sometimes heard at the beginning of a phrase, with the signification "by-the-bye." THE PRONOUN. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The Japanese substitutes for the Personal Pronouns of Western languages are merely nouns which by process of time have become pronominal, and their discussion as separate parts of speech is merely to suit the convenience of the foreign student. They are arranged in several classes expressing the various grades of respect or politeness peculiar to the colloquial idiom, and are somewhat similar to the English expressions "your obedient servant," "your THE PRONOUN 17 lordship," etc., or to the Spanish "vuestra merced" (your honour). (a) Singular. 1st Person. The ordinary word for "I" is watakishi (literally, "selfishness"). The lower classes generally use the contraction watashi or washi. Boku (lit. "servant ") is much used for the first person by soldiers, students, and young men in general, when addressing each other familiarly. Temae (or temaye) is a very humble and therefore respectful equivalent for I, and is in frequent use amongst the lower classes to address their superiors. It possesses the peculiarity of being also employed as a rude equivalent for the pronoun of the second person. Ora, a contraction of ore wa is the word for " I" generally used by coolies to each other. Other equivalents for "I" are sessha; oira (used familiarly); wattchi (used by peasants); shosei, and ore which is a vulgar corruption of ware, the ordinary word for "I" in the classical language. 2nd Person. Anata, a contraction of ano kata, that side, was formerly a pronoun used only for the third person, but it has come to be employed for the second, like the Spanish "Usted" and the German "Sie." Anata is used when addressing equals or superiors, and with the addition of sama ( Mr, Mrs, Miss), it expresses the highest degree of respect. 18 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Omae was originally respectful, but it is now familiar and condescending, and is used to address inferiors, children, and one's own servants. Omae san (san is short for sama) is nearly the same as anata, but more familiar, and it is heard usually from the mouths of women. Kisama and temae are employed in addressing inferiors familiarly. Sensei is used in speaking to learned persons. Students, soldiers, and young men in general use kimi when addressing each other in a familiar way. Danna, danna san, and danna sama are the expressions used by servants to their masters. Other equivalents for the second personal pronoun are sochi (to inferiors); konata; sonata (familiar); sokka (formal); nushi (contemptuous); ware (by peasants); and unu (abusive). Of these numerous equivalents for the second person, anata and omae will usually be found to suffice for the needs of ordinary conversation between Europeans and natives. 3rd Person. Are is often used for "he" or "she," but is frequently replaced by the more polite forms ano hito, ano o kata, ano otoko (" that man "), and ano onna ("that woman"). Muko, literally "the opposite side," is used indiscriminately for "he," "she," or "they." (b) Plural. The so-called pronouns just discussed may assume the THE PRONOUN 1 9 plural suffixes given on page 9, the forms most commonly employed being as follow:1st Person. "We." watakiishi domo. boku ra. sesslia domo. sesslia ra. oira, for ore-r-a (vulgar). 2nd Person You." anata gata. omae (san) gata. sensei gata. omae (san) tachi. danna shu. kimi tachi. danna gata. kisama tachi. temae tachi-ra. 3rd Person. " They."~ ano hito tachi. ano o kata gata. are ra (rude). NOTE.-i. Wataku'sisi dorno is frequently used for the singuilar, and is slightly humbler than watakri~shi. 2. The Japanese never use the equivalents for "Iwe" as in English to signify " you and I. " They only employ them to mean "Iother persons and I. " To render IIwe " meaning " you and I," the locution anata to wataklcshi to may be used, but usually the idea is rendered more idiomatically by means of " Honorifics " (see p. 154). 20 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR The so-called personal pronouns may be followed by the particles (postpositions) exactly as with other nouns, and in this manner the cases may be formed. Thus, exactly as we sayAno hito to kenkwa that man with, quarrel He had a quarrel with wo shita | that man. (ace. sign) did so we may sayWataktishi to kenkwa He had a quarrel with wo shita. J me. In like manner the possessive pronouns are formed simply by the addition of the possessive particle no or ga, and exactly as we sayAno hTto no oya The paret of at man. that man of, parent so we may sayWataktshi no oya, The parent of me = my parent. Mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, are also translated by watakrlshi no, anata no, etc., but they may easily be distinguished from my, your, etc., by the particles used with them, or by the context. From the preceding observations it will be gathered that there is no special declension for pronouns, nor any separate class of possessive pronouns. Examples of Personal Pronouns. Watakushi mo mairimas, I will go too I too will-go THE PRONOUN 2 21 Kimi wa doko ye iku ka? * Wh eve are yoa off to.? You where to go? j Boku wa shibai ye I theatre, to, kaeru tokoro da, return _place amn Anata ni o lianashi you (hon.) talkc rna6shitai koto ga wvish-to thing gozaimastit, there-is Unu uso wo tsuku ze, youi lie stick, Ano hrrto wa daiku carp~enter de gozaimas~i, is Watakfishi iii kwankei mie to, Connection ga nai, (nrom.) is-not Ano h~to no ta wa rice-field yohodo t6i, very-mnuch is-far Omac -no kiukin wa wages ikura? hoto-much }I am retuirning to the theatre. }There is something I wcish to tell you. Y )ot( are telitg a lie. I I I I I le is a caipenter. It has nothing to do with me. His rice-field -is a long way off. flow much are your wuages? * See remarks on " ka," pp. 38 aind 174, 22 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Kore wa anata no kashi this yonr comb this ymr comb Is not this your comb. de wa gozaimasenit ka, is-not? Hei! watakishi no desi,. yes mine it-is mine. The student must note that the use of personal pronouns is much less frequent in Japanese than in English. Except in cases of special emphasis, or where their omission would occasion ambiguity, they are unemployed. Thus, "I am going to Hiogo to-morrow," will be translated Miinichi Hiogo ye mairimas' unless it be doubtful to whom the speaker refers, in which case watak'shi will be added. If there be an emphasis on the pronoun, as in the sentence, "I shall go to Hiogo, but you may please yourself," the pronouns will also then be inserted. The constant repetition of watakishi and anata is one of the commonest errors into which Europeans fall, and a Japanese will often carry on quite a long conversation without employing a single pronoun. II. REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. Jibun or Jishin, self (usually followed by de), is the Reflective Pronoun in most frequent use; thuswatakushi jibun, } myse.,, jishin, go jibun (honorific) omae jibun (not yourself. honorific) J The above are used only when it is desired to emphasize the idea of "self," THE PRONOUN 23 " Self" may also be expressed by onore, which is sometimes heard as an insulting equivalent for "you." Waga, whose real meaning is "my," is frequently used with the signification "one's own," "my own," "our own "; thuswaga ko, ole's own child. waga kuni, my country, one's country (der vaterland, la patrie). waga ki6dai, one's own brothers and sisters. Waga hai, we, is also in use, but is confined chiefly to the public platform. "Each other," "one another," are generally rendered by the adverb tagai ni, whose literal meaning is " mutually "; thusTagai ni tasutkeru, } Tagai ni tast u, } They help one another. they-help Tagai ni mite They looked at each other. orimashite, ) III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. (Substantive) Kore, This (Substantive) Sore, That. (Adjective) Kono, (Adjective) Sono, (near). (Substantive) Are, That. (Adjective) Ano, (remote). The Japanese, like the Latin and Spanish, distinguishes a near "that" (sore; Latin, iste; Spanish, ese) from a remote "that" (are; Latin, ille; Spanish, aquel), the former being used when the object is near or in the possession of the person spoken to, whilst the latter is used when the object is distant, not in the possession of the person spoken to, or has relation to the person spoken of, 24 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR It must be noted, too, that Japanese, like French, distinguishes substantive forms of these pronouns from pronominal adjective forms; thus kore corresponds to the French celui-ci, celle-ci, and stands alone, whilst kono corresponds to ce, celle, and is joined to nouns. Examples. Kore wa ikura destL ka, How much is thi this as-for how-much is (it) o Kore wa teppo de gozaimasu, This is a gun. guln tis Kono nedan, This price. Kono michi, This road. Sore wa, nan desti? What is that (near you, etc.)? that as-for what is-it Sono hako, That box (in your hand, etc.). Are wa, dare no uchi desL? A Whose is that house that as-for, who of house is (it) (yonder)? Anot akai yama, That high mountain (yonder). high mountain J Remarks. 1. Are and ano are sometimes replaced by kare and kano respectively, but the latter forms belong more to the classical language, and are heard only from the lips of cultured speakers. Kano sometimes occurs with the meaning 'a certain." 2. Sore and sono are used in reference to the immediate object of conversation; are and ano are used when a new subject is proposed. Sono boshi, for example, signifies that hat, i.e. the hat you are wearing, or, of which we are speaks ing; ano bophi, the hat you wore yesterday, etc, THE PRONOUN 25 3. Ano is frequently heard at the beginning of a sentence, serving merely to draw attention similarly to our "I say, Mr —." 4. The pronominal adjectives this and that are often rendered by t6 before words derived from the Chinese. To signifies "the one in question," "the actual one," as t6 -nin, this (or that) person, the person in question. The demonstratives in the following list are derived from the same roots as those just discussed. Konna, K6 in, J This sort of; such as this. (ne) Sonna, That sort of; (remote) Anna, That sort of; s(near6 iu, such as that. ( A iu, ssuch as that. N.B.-The remarks on the words in the first list apply equally to the corresponding words in this, and need not be repeated. Examples. Konna nedan, This kind of price. Ko iu rosoku, This sort of candle. Sonna koto, A Sonna koto, That kind of thing. So in koto, } Anna hito ni korarecha, One is perpleed when I One is p7erplexed when that-sort-of person by, gettting-come, s meiwaku 1 shimas? such people come to meiwaku shimasti, I hose trouble does es house. A in hanashi wa mettani such-as-that story seldom One seldom hears a kikimasent, story of that sort. (one) hears j The words in the succeeding list are adverbs from the 26 26 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR same roots as the pronouns just dealt with, and they may be advantageously discussed at this stage. Ko, Koko, Kochi(ra), K6ya, Konnani,7 Kokoera, } ThAus, like this, so. Here, hither. This manner. lin this kind of way. Hereabouts. -Near. 86, Like that, in that way, so. Soko, I There. Sochi(ra), f Say6, That manner. Sonnani, In that kind of way. Sokoera, Thereabouts. Remote. A, Like, that, in that way, so. Asiiko, There. Achi(ra), Annani, In that kind of way. Astikoera, Thereabouts. Examples. Koko ye oite oite kudasai, Pes utiiee here to, putting condescend 3 laepti ee Achira ye mate, Wait there. there in waitj Asilko kara saki wa jiki It is no distance there, from, front as-for immediately from there to the ies- nexvt place. S6 moshimash-thareba, mina so, when-I-said, all They all became angry okorimashita, } when I said so. A! sayi5 deshitakke, A~ AhI that is how it was. ah thus it-was THE PRONOUN 27 Sho sho sokoera de matte ore, ) Stay where you are a-little thereabouts waiting remain a little. Sonnani yasuku wa uranakatta, I did not sell so so cheap (I) did-not-sell cheaply as that. Kochira ye o tori nasai, Please come in here. here to to-pass condescend IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Dare, Wo (bst.) Dore, Whih? Donata (polite), ) (Adj.) Dono, (Subst.) Nani, What? Examples. Dare ga so itta, ) WVho said so thus said ) Donata destl, Who is it? is (it) J Dore ni shimasho, Which shall I take? shall-do Dono fune, Which ship? Nani shi ni kita, ) What hae you come to do do to have-come W Dare no hako, Whose box? who of box Dare ni kane wo yatta,} To whom did he give the to money (ace.) gave J money? Remarks. 1. Donata (for dono kata, which side), is employed as a polite substitute for dare. A still more respectful phrase is donata sama. 2. Nani, what? is applied to inanimate objects only. 28 28 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR There is no adjectival form, nani no, nanno, or d6no being used instead; asNanno go yO5 desti ka,\ What is your business? what (hon.) business is? J The Interrogatives in the following list are derived from the same roots as those last discussed. D6o How? Doko,7 Wee Donna, What kind of? Dochi(ra), ~ ee Do in, What-like.? Donnani, In what hind of way? Dokoera, Whereabouts? Examples. Thi shiy6, ) What shall I do? how shall-doJ Dhis iu wake de, konna~ what-like reason by, such Why do you do such baka na koto wo suru, foolish things? foolish things do J Doko de sono tokei wo where that watch Where did you buy that kai nasatta, fwatch? buy did) Donnani ureshi ka what-way joyful? You don't know how pleased shiremasen-6, I am. cannot-know ) Dochira ye irasshaimasti, Whr r yugig where to deign-to-go, j hr reyugig THE PRONOUN 2 29 V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. The Indefinite Pronouns are formed fromt the Interrogative Pronouins by addition of the particles ka, mo, de mo, and zo; thus Dare ka, Somebody (or other). Dare mo, A nybody, ev~erybody. Dare de mo, An~ybody, everybody, anqyioe whatever. Dore ka, Sonw one thing, on~e or other. Dore mo, Aniy one thing, nothing. Dore de mo, Anything whatever, either one, any one (thing). Nani ka, Anythin~g, nothing, something (or other). Nani mo, Anythin~g, nothin~g. Nan de mo, Anything, Everythin~g. Nani de mo, Nanzo, \Somethin~g, anything, any, somiething or Nani zo, I other. Examnples. iDare ka s - itta, Soeod ai o so said j ysi o Da-re de mo shitte, imasul, Everybody knows it. Dare de mo yoroshtii goodz gozauiiasti, is I Anybody will do. Dore ka hitotsu eh~dai, Please give me one or the other. Dore mo ikeinasen ka, Will not one of'these -suit you?, any-one-thing will-go? 30 30 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Daiku ni nani ka o carpenter to, something 'Give the carpenter something. yari nasare, I give do Nani mo gozaimasentA, There is nothing whatever. Nani de mo, shitte iru, He knows everything. Nan de mo yoroshii, Anything will do. Nanzo omoshiroi ha-nashi ~ amusing story C an youa not tell us somega gozaimasen ka, j hngamusing. Remarks. 1. The polite forms for dare are donata ka, donata mo, and donata de mo; thusiDonata ka o ide ni natte going to having-become Hssmbd oe orimasti ka, jHssmbd oe IDonata mo ikaremasen, Nbdcan go. can-go iDonata de mo ikareru, Anybody can go. can go J 2. Dare MO, dore mo, and nani mo are generally used with negative verbs, and are equivalent to the English nobody " and "'nothing." Indefinite adverbs may be formed from the, interrogative adverbs in like manner to the indefinite pronouns; thusD6ka, Somehow (or other). Dft~lReally, somehow. D6 de mo, Anyhow. Doko ka, dokko, Somewhere (or other). Doko mo, Everywhere. Doko de mo, Anywhere. THE PRONOUN 31 Dochi(ra) ka, mo,,, de mo, These are the same as the last three, and they may also be used for dore ka, dore mo, and dore de mo when two only are spoken of. Examples. Doka nasaimashita ka, Is anything wron0g with you? Sore wa, dochira de mo) Oh! either (of the two) will yoroshii, do. Doko ka de mita yo somewhere seen manner I believe I have seen him ni omoimast, somewhere or other. think Doko ni mo gozaimasen, There are none to be had anywhere. VI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. In the Japanese language there are no Relative Pronouns, and to express reference or relation to another noun or pronoun in the sentence the verb is prefixed to the noun attributively exactly as an adjective might be. Thus, just as we say "a good boy," so also we may say "a runs boy," i.e. "a boy who runs"; "a plays boy," i.e. "a boys who plays," as exemplified in the following phrases:Nigeta hito, } The person who ran away. ran-away person Kuru hito, } The man who comes. comes Kita hto, } The man who came. came Sakujitsu katta hako, The bo I bought yesterday. yesterday bought box A JAPANESE GRAMMAR lhrnf ifto, }A man whom I do not know. Tsunekichi to iu hito 4Temncle snkci that-called hemncle snkci NoTE. — The appearance of ambiguity caused by the use of the active where we should expect the passive, as seen in the last phrase but one, is in most cases dispelled by the context. Thus salcejitsu icatta hako cannot be construed as "the box which bought (something) yesterday," but only "the box which I bought yesterday." Remarks. The words tokoro no (literally, " of place "), are not in frequently heard from the mouths of learned people, with the force of the relative pronouns who, which, and that; thusKuru tokoro no h-ito }The man who comes. (for) Kuru hY~to, Korosh'ita tokoro no' akindo, Th ecat h ild (for) Korosh'ita akindo, Temrhn h ild killed merchantJ Korosareta tokoro no akindo, The merchant who was killed. (for) Korosareta akindo,) POSTPOSITIONS. In Japanese that relationship of words which, in English, is expressed by Prepositions, is indicated by what are termed by Western grammarians " Postpositions " from the fact of their being placed after the words with which they are directly connected. These postpositions, in POSTPOSITIONS 33 addition to fulfilling the prepositional office, are also used as conjunctions, and they serve also, as we have seen, to express those relations of words which Latin, German, and other European languages indicate by the use of caseinflections. The following scheme shows all postpositions in common use, together with their most usual significations, and to facilitate reference they are arranged alphabetically. Dano. Dano is a combination of the verb da, is, and the postposition no. It is employed in enumerating a number of objects when it is desired to particularise each one as fully as possible. It is generally translated "and," and must be repeated after each of the things enumerated; thusDaiku dano, kajiya dano, carpenters blacksmiths [ Carpenters, blacksmiths, yaneya dano, and tilers and such. tilers J The student should note carefully the distinction existing between dano and ni (see p. 41) used in enumerations, for whilst the latter is employed simply to join together the names of a definite number of objects, dano expresses the idea of a group or series of things similar to those enumerated. Thus daiku ni, kajicya ni, yaneya ni signifies "carpenters, blacksmiths and tilers," and no more than these three classes of workmen, but daiku dano, kajiya dano, yaneya dano means "carpenters, blacksmiths, tilers and the like," and may thus include other workmen also. The word dano is considered to be somewhat impolite, and cultured speakers usually substitute its more courteous equivalent de gozaimasu no. JAPANESE GRAMMAR 2 34 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR De. The primary use of this postposition is to convey the meanings expressed by the English "by," "with," "at," "in," "on account of"; asOka de iku, } Togoby land. land to-go Hasami de kiru, To cut with sissors. scissors to cut ) Tokyo de hocho wo kaimasho, I shall buy a knife at Tocio knife shall-buy Tokio. Hiogo de soba wa ikura, What is the price in price how-much Iiogo? Nawa de shibaru,To fasten by means of a rope. rope to-fasten Wakaranai de komaru, \I am troubled on account not-understanding am-troubled of his not understanding. A second use of de is puzzling to the student as it seems to have no meaning and to be superfluous in the sentence. It is then a corruption of nite, the gerund of an obsolete verb. Its real signification in these cases is "being"; thusIma'no bett6 wa, dajaku now of, groom lazy] The groom I have now is de yaku ni tatanai, useless, (as)he s so lazy. being usefulness stands-not J Wataktishi wa isha de me doctor being I am the doctor. gozaimasti, am J The last sentence exemplifies the most common mode of expressing the English verb "to be," that is, by means of POSTPOSITIONS 35 de aru, de arimasit, de gozaimasti. With these various verbs for "to be," de forms a group of contractions, thus de aru is usually contracted to da; de arimasit and de gozaimast to desi; de arimashita to deshita; de atta to datta, etc. (see pp. 78, 92, 106, and 164); thus the last sentence above would commonly be rendered Watakushi wa isha desu. In some cases the postposition wa is added to de, usually in expressions indicative of displeasure, and in interrogative and negative sentences. De wa is generally contracted into ja in conversation; thusKore de wa, oki ni this by greatly 1 am much perplexed with this. komarimast, I am-perplexed J Kore ja (or de wa) nai, It is not this. I ja nai ka, Is it not good? = Are you not satisfied? A substantive with de affixed frequently renders an English nominative, when the substantive verb is accompanied by a qualifying word or expression after de; thus — Kore bakari de tarani a This will not be enough this alone not-enough alone (i.e. something else d'aro, will be required in will-be addition). Hftotsu de yoroshiua one good I gozaimas One will be sufficient. is De is often combined with mo, even, also, and de mo is frequently thus employed in a manner not needing translation into English, although retaining the significa 36 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR tion of "even" in the Japanese sentence, as the following examples show:Sore wa ninsoku de mo that coolie Even a coolie can comprehend wakaru, m that. is-intelligible Ato de mo yoroshi, It will do afterwards. after even is-good Kao de mo, o arai face even to-wash Will yo wash your face, Sir? nasaru ka, condescend? (For de mo with Interrogative Pronouns, see p. 29.) Ga. This particle was originally a genitive sign, and it still possesses the sense expressed by our " of" in the names of certain places and in a few locutions, as: Koma-ga-take, Colt's Peak (a mountain); Hoshi-ga-oka, The Mound of the Stars (a part of Kamukura); ga siaki, liking, fond of; ga kirei, not liking, not fond of; ga hoshii, desirous of: Ga is now, however, employed as the generic nominative sign, though the nominative case is not necessarily associated with ga, as, for instance, when a noun is followed by wa or mo. Examples. Ame ga futte kimashlta, It has commenced to rain. rain falling has-come Fuyu ga kimashta, inter has come winter has-come j Kane ga nai, There is no money; or money is-not I have no money. Kane ga aru ka, Is there any money; or is? Have you any money? POSTPOSITIONS 37 Ga frequently follows a substantive in cases where the accusative is naturally expected; thusTabako ga o suki des ka, Ae you fond of tobacco fond-of is?. Kono imi ga wakarimasenti, I do not understand meaning is-unintelligible J this. In the above sentences "tabako" and "imi" are regarded by native grammarians as the subjects of the sentences. When situated at the end of a clause ga may usually be rendered by "but" or "yet," and this force is frequently conveyed merely by a pause; as Konnichi o taku ye agaru to-day house to go-up no dest ga, ashi ga is leg itamimashlte, being-painful Tori-naoso to olnou ga, take-will-mend think tori-naosenai, take-cannot-mend Kochira de zonjite oreba I here in knowing if-be moshi-agemasu ga, say-will-lift-up but I would go to your house to-day, but my leg is painful (therefore I cannot go). I wish to mend it, but I cannot. I would tell you if I knew, but (I do not know). Tokoro ga, or daga, at the commencement of a sentence, signifies "well then — "; "in this case, then- "; "upon this —"; thus Tokoro ga, sono ban ni that night on Well, then, on that night-. 38 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Ka. Ka serves to ask a question or to express a doubt, and in the English translation of a Japanese sentence where it is used in this connection, it may be replaced by a note of interrogation; thus Arimastt, Arimast ka, Kita ka, There is. Is there? Has he come? When the word, ka is following sentence includes some other interrogative generally omitted, as, for instance, in the Dare dest } Who is it? who is (it) Itsu shinimashita, } When did he die when (he) died J Between two substantives ka corresponds to the English "or," and when repeated in the sentence it has the force of the correlatives "whether-or," "either-or"; as Kore wa atarashii ka this new furui ka, old Otoko ka onna ka, man woman Tama ka ya ni, bullet arrow atatte shinimashita, striking he-died or old? } Whether is it a male or a female? He was killed either by a bullet or by an arrow. (For ka with Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs, see p. 29.) POSTPOSITIONS 39 Kara. Used with nouns kara means "from" and "since," but with verbs it bears the significations "because," "after," " for " (when meaning " because "); thus Shinagawa kara Tokyo made, Shinagawa to Sakujitsu kara, Rusu datta kara, shiranai, absent was not-know. Asa-han wo tabete kara, breakfast having-eaten de naktcha ikimasenu, if-not do-not-go Kutabiremashita kara, choto, have-become-tired a-little yasumimasho, will-probably-rest }From Shinagawa to Tokio. Since yesterday. I do not know because I was absent. I shall not go until after breakfast. Let us rest a little for I am tired. Made. This postposition may be employed to render the ideas conveyed by such English words and locutions as "to," "up to," "as far as," "till," "until," etc., as exemplified in the following:Hiogo made aruite ikimasu, I shall walk as far as Hiogo. Yokohama made donogurai, what-amount aru, is How far is it to Yokohama? Sakuban osoku made, last night late He had not returned up to kayerananda, late last night. not-returned j Komban made machimasu, ) I will wait until to-night will-wait J to-night. 40 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Wataktshi no kuru made me of, to-come matte ite kudasai, waiting being deign } Please wait till my coming, i.e. till I come. Mo. When used alone, mo signifies "also," "too," "even"; thusKono hako mo o kai box buy boa buy Buy this box also. nasare, do J Ore mo iko,1 will too. wil.- I will go too. Aru keredo mo omaye are although even you I have some, but I shall ni wa yaranai, not give you any. to give-not When repeated, in an afirmative sentence, "mo-mo" renders the English "both-and "; as Inu mo neko mo oi dogs cats numerous tokoro desti, place is In a negative sentence, -nor"; asYoku mo, waruku mo good bad nai, is-not It is a place where there are both cats and dogs. "mo-mo " means "neither It is neither good nor bad. N.B.-Mo must not be confoupded with the adverb mo (see p. 145), POSTPOSITIONS 41 Ni. The primary meaning of this particle is " to, in, into "; asKioto ni orimasu, He lives in Kioto. Tera ni hairimashita, } He has gone into the temple. temple has-gone Tokyo ni mairimasu, I go to Tokio. Ni means " and" in enumerating several objects; thusMikan ni buda,} Oranges and grapes. oranges grapes With passive verbs ni means "by," and when preceding a causative verb (see p. 109), it denotes the person who is caused to perform the action; asNeko wa inn ni kamereta, The cat was bitten by cat dog was-bitten the dog. Ame ni furi-komeraremashita, } We were kept in by rain (we)-were-kept-in the rain. Inu ni ye wo kuwasero, Give the dog it food dog by food make-eat Hlto ni sagasasemasho, I will cause the man to man by will-make-seek seek it. When suffixed to the indefinite forms of verbs (see p. 80) ni means "to," " in order to "; thusHana wo mi ni ikimasu, I go to see the flowers. flowers see (I)-go Kimono wo arai ni yatta, He sent the clothes to be clothes wash sent j washed. 2* 42 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Ni is often suffixed to nouns to form adverbs; thus baka, a fool. dai-ichi, number one. daiji, care. heta, one unskilled. ima, the present time. j zu, one who is skilled. makoto, truth. rippa, magnificence. shinsetsu, kindness. tashika, certainty. ue, the top. baka ni, foolishly. dai ichi ni, firstly. daiji ni, carefully. heta ni, unskilfully. ima ni, presently. j6zu ni, skilfully. makoto ni, truly, really. rippa ni, magnificently. shinsetsu ni, kindly. tashika ni, certainly. ue ni, above, on. Care should be taken to distinguish between the uses of de and ni, both of which may sometimes be rendered by " in." De is employed to indicate the place where an action is performed, whilst ni denotes the place where something exists. Compare the two examples following:Kono kawa de, uwo ga river in fish Are there any fish to be tsuremasti ka, caught in this river? are-catchable? Kono kawa ni uwo wa i in Are there no fish in this imasen ka, river are-not J No. No, of, is the ordinary genitive sign, and after a noun it usually indicates possession; thusInu no tsume, a dog's claws. dog of, claws Hako no kagi, The key of the box, box of, key POSTPOSITIONS 43 Kin no kahei, gold of, coins Amerika no Daitoryo, of, President Omaye no kimono, you of, clothes Hari no ana, needle of, hole No is also employed to thusBett6 no Kurokawa, groom Kurokawa Yamato no kuni, Y. province } Gold coins. }The President of America. } Your clothes. ) The eye of the needle. join two nouns in apposition; ) The yroom K. The province of Y. Dokushin no watakfishi, I (ewho am) a bachelor. bachelor I J At times, no is employed attributively after adjectives, with the force of the English "one" or "ones," as shown in the following sentences: Motto yasui no ni shiyo, more cheap one to will-do I ill take a cheaper one. Kore wa ii no da, This is a good one. this good one is Kore! nibui no bakari aru; eseare only blunt these blunt ones only are * -ones; -are there no togatta no ga arimasentu ka,? sharp ones are-not sh ones Ko iu no mo hayarimasti, this-sort ones also are-fashionable kara, goran nasai, as glance deign IThese also are fashionable so kindly look at them, 44 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR When a cardinal numeral precedes a noun qualified by it, the postposition no is generally suffixed to the numeral, thusMitsu no hako, } Three boxes. three boxes instead ofHako mitsu. Hitotsu no tsutsumi, } One parcel one parcel instead ofTsutsumi hYtotsu. A very favourite idiom is the employment of no as an equivalent for koto, act, fact. Most frequently this construction is used in conjunction with the verb da or desu, and is generally translated by " it is that," or " is it that?" Examples. Nani wo suru no desi? } What is that? (you are what (acc.) do fact is doing). Konai no daro, Perhaps hewill not come. will-not-come fact probably is j In sentences like the preceding, the o of the word no is usually elided in conversation, so that the phrases become Nani wo suru n'desi and Konai n'darS. If, however, no is placed at the end of the clause, the o cannot be omitted, as for example inAru no? isAru nofact } Is there? (Is it a fact that there is?) is, fact Shi. This postposition often serves as the copulative "and" with verbs in the Indicative Mood. Care must be taken not to confound it with the Indefinite Form of the verb suru, to do (see p. 73). POSTPOSITIONS 45 Examples. Sawashi hi mo aru shi; busy day and hima na hi mo aru, interval Takai shina mo aru shi, expensive articles and yasui no mo aru, cheap I have busy days and resting days (hima, rest leisure, interval). There are expensive articles J and also cheap ones. Kono tera wa yama mo temple momntain mieru shi, kawa mo mieru is-seen river also shi, One can see the mountain from this tenmple, and the river also is to be seen. To. Used with nouns, to may be taken as an equivalent for the copulative "and." It is usually repeated after each noun, but even when not so repeated it invariably belongs to the word immediately before it and not to the one following; thus — Budo to mizu to wo motte wine water bring - Bring wine and water. o ide, Ano hlto to ikimashlta, I went with him. that m a ad (I) went Anata to, wataktshi to, You and I. Other idiomatic uses of to may be classed under this head; asKono betto to issho ni ike, )o with this groom. this groom and same-place go Kore to wa chigaimast, I is deren from this. this and as-for differs Akindo to kenkwa wo shita, } He and a merchant merchant and quarrel (he) did J had a quarrel. 46 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Rionin to mo, Both of them. two-men and even To has also at times the sense of the conjunction "that," and it is used as the sign of quotation or of indirect statement; thusUso da to omoimasu, I think that it is a lie (literally, lie is, that (I) think J it is a lie," that I think). Honto da to iimasu, )He says that it is true (literally, truth is, that (he) says ) "it is truth," that he says). Koko de awo to wa Koko de awo to wa I did not expect to see you here here will-meet I e w t (literally, "will - meet you omowananda,,,. omown, here," this I did not expect). did-not-expect h ' In phrases like the two first above, "that" is often omitted in English, but to cannot be so dispensed with in the Japanese sentence. Thus we may say in English "I say it is a lie," or "I say that it is a lie "; "he says it is true," or "he says that it is true." The following examples illustrate an important idiomatic use of to with the literal meaning "that," but being untranslatable into English: — 0 namaye wa nan' to iu ka, What is your name? name as-for what that say literally, "as to your name, what (do people) say that it is." Wataktshi wa Hagiwara to me that \ me tht My name is H. mosmhimast, call Maruyama to mosu tokoro, A place called M. (literthat say place ally, a place (of which Jthey say) it is M.). Very frequently in a sentence containing to an ellipsis POSTPOSITIONS 47 occurs with certain parts of the verbs iu, to say; omou, to think; kiku, to hear; and suru, to do; thus:0 gakk6 ni iku tote, school to, (I) go(saying) He went out saying that he demashita. was going to school. that went-out Anata ni kenkwa (sho), you with quarrel (will do) He came intending to to (omotte) kimnashita, quarrel with you. thinking came J To after verbs often means "if" or "when "; asSugu ikanai to, okuremasi, If you do not go at once at-once go-not if are-late you will be too late. Kuru to sugu ni, ImmediA h c come when immediately Yoku-jitsu ni naru to, When the net da a next-day become when Placed at the end of an assertion to has a strongly emphatic form. When thus used it is generally followed by mo; asArimast ka? Arimasit to mo! Are there any? Of course there are! Yo gozaimast to itte mo, ) Certainly I shall I good is that said even Wa. This is a distinctive, separative or isolating postposition corresponding somewhat to the French "quant a" and may be translated by "as for," "with regard to," "so far as... goes (is concerned)," etc. In English the same notion is expressed, not by a separate word, but by an emphasis on the noun. Examples. Kore de wa ikenai, This wont do. this with cannot-go 48 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Atsui koto wa atsui, thick fact is-thick Konda wa sonna wake this-time such reason ja (for de wa) nai, is not Konnichi wa, yoi tenki to-day good weather de gozaimasu, is As far as thickness is concerned, it is thick. This time, there will be nothing of that sort. To-day it is fine (whatever the weather has been). A Now I am at liberty Ima wa te-siiki de gozaimasti, Now am at lib (although I have now hand-empty am I been so busy). Kore wa umai, are wa mazui, his is de licio but that is disthis is-delicious, that is-unpleasantj J agreeable. In interrogative sentences wa often appears to be employed in asking a question, but an ellipsis must always be supplied. For example, ato wa, pronounced interrogatively, signifies "What is the next (thing)?" but literally it is "As for the next (thing), what is it?" Examples. Mr Watanabe, what Watanabe San! tsaben wa?? bt the interabout the interMr interpreter as-for t nu wap Where is the dog? Inu wa? Where is the dog? O atsuraye wa? order What is your order, Sir? From the preceding observations and examples it will be gathered that wa is not, as is advanced by some writers, a sign of the nominative case. Certainly the word which wa follows has often to be rendered, in the English translation, POSTPOSITIONS 49 by a nominative, but in the Japanese sentence it never has the nominative force. Beginners are often puzzled to know when to use wa and when ga, inasmuch as in many cases the same English translation must be rendered to two Japanese sentences, one containing wa and the other ga. This is an important point, and one that must be clearly apprehended by every one endeavouring to express English ideas in the Japanese language. Although an incorrect use of the two words is impossible when the mind is fairly penetrated by Japanese, yet it is impossible to formulate precise rules for their employment. The following explanations will probably suffice to minimise the difficulty and enable the student to recognise the distinction between wa and ga. If the doctor is regularly visiting a patient in my house, the servant will probably announce his arrival by the words, "Isha wa miemashita," "The Doctor has come." In this case the "Doctor" (subject) is uppermost in the servant's mind. If, on the other hand, there be no one ill in the house, the Doctor's visit would be unexpected, and if he came he would be announced by, "Isha ga miemashita," " The Doctor has come!" Here the unexpected arrival of a medical man is predominant in the maid's thoughts. Similarly, if a friend has died suddenly and unexpectedly, a person would inform me of his death by saying, " Seibun San ga shinimashita," "Mr Seibun is dead!" but if he had been ill and his death were expected at any moment, the sentence would be, "Seibun San wa shinimashita," "Mr Seibun is dead." From the preceding observations it will be understood that wa is separative and emphatic, although there will usually be no emphasis on the corresponding part of the English sentence when the English substantive is a 50 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR nominative. Ga, however, has nothing particularly emphatic about it, although in the English translation of a sentence in which it appears, its nearest equivalent is an emphasis on the word which it follows. The rule for two nominatives in antithetical phrases is, that either ga may be employed in each, or else wa may be employed in each; thus, for the example on page 48, Kore wa umai, are wa mazui, This is delicious, that is disagreeable, we might substitute Kore ga umai, are ga mazui, in which case the two subjects would receive a stronger emphasis than the two predicates. Wo. Wo denotes that its associated word is the object in the sentence, and it is the nearest equivalent for the accusative case in Japanese although a noun in this case is not necessarily followed by wo. The accusative may be signified by the employment of other words than wo as well as by the form of the sentence, and the accusative case governed by a preposition does not take wo. It is also rejected before suru and itasu, to do, as well as in various other connections. Examples. Kondate wo misete kudasai, } Please allow me to see bill-of-fare showing condescend the bill-of-fare. Ato kara go aisatsu wo after reply I will send my reply aftermoshimasho, wards. will-say Nani wo suru, What are you doing? what do Hon-yaku suru, } To translate, to make a translation. translation to-do j POSTPOSITIONS 51 Kannin shite kudasare, Please have patience patience having-done give with me. Meshi kun toki, When ining (literally, when rice eat time e eating rice). Wo is not infrequently employed in cases where a preposition appears in the English sentence, as in the following:Kuruma wo orite, Getting out of the 'riksla having-got-down f 'riksha. Hachijiu yen to iu taikin w r d o He was robbed of the eighty called large-money '} large sum of eighty wo torareta, yen. was taken y Omaye no o kage de kinsu 0yo shadow by money Thanks to you, I was not wo torarenai, robbed of my money. not-taken Mise wo demasilnta, A 1. ^, Mise wo demashta He went out of his shop. shop went-out J Ya. This postposition is sometimes expressive of hesitation, doubt, or reflection, and often it is simply an ejaculation. In some contexts it is a conjunction, and should be translated "and " or " or." Examples. Kurokawa ya! Uma ya inu ya buta horses dogs pigs arimast, are Nido ya sando, twice three-times Omocho ya nani ka, toys something I say, Kurokawa (a name) ga There are horses, dogs pigs, and such. } Two or three times. } Toys or something. 52 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Ye.* Ye signifies "to," "into," "towards," "at," and when added to nouns it is an equivalent of the dative case; thus Gakki ye, o ide desti ka, school exit is? Shibai ye iki-gake ni theatre to going-while gakko ye chotto yorimast school at, just will-stop Suteishon ye itte o machi at go wait nasai, condescend } Do you go to school? On the way to the theatre I will just drop in at the school. Kin dly go and wait at the station. Yo. With this particle, an equivalent for the vocative case can be formed for Japanese nouns, although its function extends somewhat beyond that of a mere vocative particle. It is not easy to furnish an exact English counterpart of yo, but a very approximate rendering is —"... I can tell you!" or "... and that's the end of it!" Examples. Yasui yo! } It is cheap, I can tell you is-cheap Shiranai yo! I don't know, and that's an end to it don't-know Arimasen yo! I haven't any, so that's all about it / Okkasan yo! Mother! 0 agari nasai yo! D ome in, please come-up do j * By many speakers the y in ye is omitted entirely in conversation, and even where not dropped entirely most people pronounce it very lightly. THE VERB 53 Yor Yori means " from," " since, Hiogo yori, Ima yori, Sakujitsu yori, Kore yori shichi ri, this from seven ri Omotta yori abunai, though than dangerous Roku-ji yori mo osoku, six-o'clock than late natcha ikemasen, as-for-becoming is- no-go Moshi-agemashita nedan, stated price yori shita de than low with sashi-ageraremasenti, offer-cannot " "than"; thusFrom Hiogo. From now, hence/foth. Since yesterday. Seven ri from here. \It is more dangerous than J I thought. It will not do to be later than six o'clock. I cannot let you have it at a lower price than I stated. THE VERB. The treatment of this most important part of speech in all languages-the Verb-varies considerably from that of Western tongues. For example, the Japanese verb possesses no forms which show distinctions of number or person; thus "I hear," "thou hearest," "he, she, it hears," "we hear," "you hear," "they hear," may all be rendered by the same word, kiku, and similarly with the other tenses. The ultimate element of the verb-the germ out of which spring all inflectional forms-is termed the " root," which in many instances has become obscured and difficult to trace, through (lecay during process of time and other Causes, 54 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Japanese roots are a vexed question with philologists, but a clear and ample insight into the nature and functions of the verb can be obtained by the beginner without entering deeply into the study of verb-roots. It is sufficient for all practical purposes to take as a starting point for verbal inflection, a certain developed form of the verb, termed the "stem," which can be utilised as a primary unit for further development. From the stem by the agglutination of one or more letters, are formed the "bases," which are four in number, and which serve to support certain affixes for the production of all the conjugational forms. The bases are1. The Certain Present. 2. The Indefinite Form. 3. The Conditional Base. 4. The Negative Base. and as their process of formation from the stem, and the subsequent conjugational development are not in all cases identical, the verbal forms differentiate into two distinctly marked groups termed "Conjugations." The following table exhibits the terminations of the bases in the two conjugations:FIRST CONJUGATION. Cert. Pres. Indef. Form. Neg. Base. Condl. Base. -u -i -a -e SECOND CONJUGATION. -eru -e -e -ere or or or or -iru -i -i -ire It will be observed that in the Second Conjugation there are two classes of terminations, one characterised by the vowel e, and the other by the vowel i. Some grammarians treat the latter class as a Third Conjugation, but as the forms of inflection are in other respects precisely the same, this separation is quite unnecessary. THE VERB 55 EXAMPLES OF BASES IN THE TWO CONJUGATIONS. (The termination is italicised.) First Conjugation. Cert. Pres. Indef. Form. Neg. Base. Condl. Base. to write kaku kaki kaka kake, sell uru uri ura ure,, read yomu yomi yoma yome Second Conjugation. to lose makeru make make makere,, eat taberu tabe tabe tabere,, see miru mi m mire,, fear ojir oji oji ojire The student should note that the letter r is always a component of the terminations of the bases of the Second Conjugation, but it never appears in those of the First. Any verb, however, may have it in the stem (e.g. uru, to sell, above). Before proceeding to demonstrate how the various Moods and Tenses are formed by agglutinating suffixes to the bases, it is advisable to append a few remarks with reference to the points of difference between the Moods and Tenses of Japanese and English verbs. Tense.-In Japanese, inflection of the verb to indicate the time of the action or state denoted by the verb, is limited almost entirely to forms expressing present or past time, and this time as either certain, or merely probable. Among the verbal forms present time is not clearly' distinguished from future time as it is with most European languages. Future actions and states are indicated either by using words in conjunction with the present tenses or by employing the Probable Present tense alone. 56 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR In Japanese, then, four tenses only are produced by inflection, and these are1. The Certain Present.* 2. The Probable Present. 3. The Certain Past. 4. The Probable Past. Taking the verbs Naosu, to mend, and Taberu, to eat, as examples of the First and Second Conjugations respectively, the following forms exemplify the method of forming the above tenses by the agglutination of suffixes to the bases. The terminations are marked by a hyphen. Certain Present (or Future). naosu, I mend, or shall mend. taberu, I eat, or shall eat. Probable Present (or Future). naos-6, I probably mend, or tabe-yo, I probably eat, or shall probably mend. shall probably eat. Certain Past. naoshi-ta, I mended, or tabe-ta, I ate, or have have mended. eaten. Probable Past. naoshi-taro, I probably mended, tabe-taro, I probably ate, or probably have or probably mended. have eaten. N.B.-As observed previously, the Japanese verb ignores person and number, so that where the pronoun "I" is used in paradigms any other person would be equally appropriate; thusnaosu-=I mend, thou mendest, he mends, she mends, we mend, etc. * It may here be stated that verbs are entered in Dictionaries and Vocabularies by the Certain Present form. In English the Infinitive is used for this purpose, but the latter form has no exact equivalent in Japanese. THE VERB 57 Another time-inflection, peculiar to the language, is an indefinite tense form termed the "Frequentative" or "Alternative," form. Its primary function is to imply that the action is occasional or to denote the alternation or opposition of two different actions. The equivalent in English varies according to circumstances. Frequentative Form. naoshi-tari, sometimes tabe-tari, sometimes eating, mending, sometimes eats. sometimes mends. Mood.-The mode or manner of the assertion expressed by the verb is denoted by inflected forms intimating simple declaration, contingency or doubt, and command. Thus among Japanese verbs we have (1) Indicative, (2) Subjunctive, and (3) Imperative Mood forms. The Subjunctive Mood consists virtually of two forms (a) the Conditional, and (b) the Concessive, according as the action or state expresses dependence, or involves concession. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. naosu, I mend. taberu, I eat. Past Tense. naoshi-ta, I mended. tabe-ta, I ate. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present Tense. naose-ba, if I mend. tabe-reba, if I eat. Past Tense. naoshi-tara, if I had mended. tabe-tara, if I had eaten. (b) Concessive. Present Tense. naose-do, though I mend. tabe-redo, though I eat. 58 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Past Tense. naoshi-taredo, though I have tabe-taredo, though I have mended. eaten. IMPERATIVE MOOD. naose, mend I tabe-ro, eat I Verbal-Adjective forms.-Two other verb-forms closely allied with adjectives are-(1) the Gerund, and (2) the Desiderative. The formation and uses of these will be explained later. GERUND. naoshi-te, having mended, tabe-te, having eaten, mending. eating. DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE. naoshi-tai, I want to mend. tabe-tai, I want to eat. The student will now be in a position to follow the verbal paradigms now to be given, arranged in accordance with European methods. The formation and uses of the tenses will be discussed fully later (see pp( 68 and 78). FIRST CONJUGATION. Naosu, to mend. Indefinite Form-naoshi. Negative Base-naosa. Certain Present-naosu. Conditional Base-naose. INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. Positive-naosu, I mend, I shall mend. Negative —naosa-nai,* I do not mend, I shall not (or) naosa-n(u), t mend. * Where two forms are given, the first is the one in most common use. t Letters in brackets may be dropped at will, THE VERB 5 59 Pos. naof Probable Present or Future. I-ap I probably mend, I shall probably mend. ma-nakar6, }I probably do not mend., I SU-mai, I shall probably not mend. Neg. naoi naoi Certain Past..Pos. uaoshi-ta, Neg. naosa-nakatta, naosa-nanida, I mended, I have mended. }I did not mend. Probable Past. Pos. naoshi-ta6, I 1probably mended, Iprobably have mended. Neg. naosa-nakattar6, Ipoal ido ed naosa-nandar6, j po al i o e d Frequentative Form. Pos. naoshi-tari, Neg. naosa-nakattari, naosa-nandari, sometimes mending, at times mending. ) sometimes not mending, at I times not mending. Desiderative Adjective. Pos. naoshi-tai, Neg. naoshi-takunai, I want to mend. I do not want to mend. Gerund. Pos. naoshi-te, Neg. naosa-nakithe, naosa-zu, mending, having mended. }not mending, not having mended, 60 60 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pos. naose-ba, Neg. na~osa-nakereba, naosa-neba, t) Conditional.,'resent Tense. if Imend. }f fIdo not mend. Past Tense. Poeu. naoshi-tar&(ba), if I had mended. Neg. nas-aataa ) }f t'I had not men ded. (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. naose-do(mo), though I mend. Neq. iiaosa-nakeredo (mo), thuhId o ed naosa-nedo(mo), thuhIdnome. Past. Poe. naoshi-taredo(mo), though I have mended, thougqh I mended. Neg. naosa-nakattakeredo,} though I have not mended. Pos. naose! Neg. naosu-na I IMPERATIVE MOOD. mend!I do not mend! SECOND CONJUGATION-FiRST FORM. Tabern, to eat. Indefinite Form-tabe. Certain Present-taberu. Negative Base-tabe. Conditional ]iase-tabere. THE VERB 6 6 1 INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. Pos. taberu, I eat, I shall eat. Neg'. tabe-nai, I do not eat, I shall not tabe-n(ui), J eat. Probable Present or Future. Pos. tabe-y6, I probably eat, I shall probably eat. N eg. tabe-nakar6, I probably do not eat, tabe-mai, J I shall probably not eat. Ce Pos. tabe-ta, Neg. tabe-nakatta, tabe-nanda, rtain Past. I ate, I have eaten. }I did not eat. Probable Past. Po s. tabe-tar6, Neg. tabe-nakattarb, tabe-nandar6, Frequenta Pos. tabe-tari, I probably ate, I probably have eaten. } Iprobably did not eat.,tive Form. sometimes eating, at times eating. }sometimes not eating, at times not eating. Neg. tabe-nakattari, tabe-nandari, iDesiderative Adjective. Po s. tabe-tai, Neg. tabe-takunai, Pos. tabe-te, Neg. tabe-nakiite, tabe-zu, I want to eat. I1 do not want to eat. Gerund. eating, having eaten. }not eating, not having eaten. 62 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR FBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present Tense. if I eat. if I do not eat. Pos. tabere-ba, Neg. tabe-nakereba, tabe-neba, Pos. tabe-tara(ba), Neg. tabe-nakattara(l tabe-nandara(ba. Past Tense. if I had eaten. )^ } if I had not eaten. (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. tabere-do(to), Neg. tabe-nakeredo(mo), taob-nedo(mo), though I eat. though I do not eat. Past. Pos. tabe-taredo(mo), though I have eaten, though I ate. Neg. tabe-nakattakeredo, i tabe-naUdaredo, though I have not eaten. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pos. Neg. tabe-ro! taberu-na! eat I do not eat SECOND CONJUGATION.-SECOND FORM. Ojim, tofear. Indefinite Form-oji, Negative Base-oji. Certain Present-ojiru. Conditional Base-ojire, THE VERB 6 63 Pos. Ojir Neg. oji-I 0ji-u(il), Pos. oji-1 INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. a, Ifear, I shall fear. ~ai, }I do not fear, I shall not fear. Probable Present or Future. rd, Iprobably fear, Ishaliprobably fear. nakWr, 1lprobably do not fear, Ishall muai, I probably not fear. Certain Past. Neg. oj i-: oji-] Pos. ojita, Neg. oji-nakatta, oji-nanda, Ifeared, I have feared. }I did not fear. Probable Past. Pos. oji-tar6, Neg. oji-nakattar6, oji-nandar6 I probably feared, Iprobably have feared. }I probably did not fear. Frequentative Form. Pos. Oj i-tari, sometimes fearing, at times fearing. Neg. oji-nakattari, sometimes not fearing, at oji-nandari, I times not fearing. iDesiderative Adjective. Pos. oji-tai, I want to fear. Neg ojii-takunai, I do not want to fear. Gerund. Pos. oji-te, NYeg. oji-naki~te, oji-zu, fearing, having feared. }not fearing, not having feared. 64 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present Tense. Pos. ojire-ba, Neg. oji-nakereba, oji-neba, if Ifear. )if I do not fear. Past Tense. Pos. oji-tara(ba), Neg. oji-nakattara(ba), oji-nandara(ba), if I had feared. } f I had not feared. (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. ojire-do(mo), though Ifear. Neg. oji-nakeredo(mo), A Neg. oji-n edo(mo, though I do not fear. o-nedo(m Past. Past. Pos. oji-taredo(mo), though I have feared, though Ifeared. Neg. oji-nakattakeredo,. oji-na aredo, though I have not feared. oji-nandaredo, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pos. oji-ro! fear! Neg. ojiru-na! do not fear I NOTE.-The student should bear in mind that, as observed before, the two forms of the Second Conjugation are distinguished from each other only by the letters e and i of the bases. A comparison of the two forms will show that the terminations are identical, so that when the first form has been memorised the second one can be at once formed. THE VERB 65 Orthographical Modifications of the Stem.-It will be observed on reference to the preceding paradigms of the regular verbs, that the terminations are in most cases simply added to the bases without any changes taking place, but the Stems of all verbs of the First Conjugation undergo various orthographical modifications, chiefly euphonic, during conjugation, these changes occurring for the most part in the Gerund, in the Past Tenses, and in the Frequentative Form. The nature of these modifications is dependent in every case upon the final letter of the Stem, and they will be readily understood from a careful examination of the numerous exemplifications appearing in the following series - (a) Stems ending in a vowelWarau, Iu, Omou, to laugh. to say. to think. lndef. Form warai ii omoi Neg. Base warawa iwa omowa Gerund waratte itte omotte Cert. Past waratta itta omotta Condl. Past warattara ittara omottara Freq. Formn warattari ittari omottari Here the consonantal element t of the suffixes is doubled. With regard to the w in the negative base of verbs ending in a vowel stem (warawa, iwa, omowa), formerly the stem of all these verbs terminated with an f: as, Present, warafu; Indefinite Form, warafi; Conditional Base, warafe; Negative Base, warafa; but in accordance with a rule governing the entire vocabulary of the modern language, the f has been left out before u, i, and e, and has been changed into w before a, thus producing warau, warai, warae, warawa. JAPANESE GRAMMAR 3 66 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR (b) Stems ending in sNasu, Na~osu, Orosu, to do. to mend. to lower. Indef. Form. nashi naoshi oroshi Neg. Base. nasa naosa orosa Gerund naslifte naoshite orosh~te Cert. Past nash-ita naosh-tha oroshi~ta Condi. Past nashitara naoshltara oroshlitara Freq. Form nashitari naoshitari oroshYtari Here the change of s into sh in the Indefinite Form is caused by the inability of the Japanese to pronounce s before i. (c) Stems ending in tmotsu, Katsu, Butsu, to hold. to win, to beat. Indef. Form mochi kachi buchi Neg. Base mota kata buta Gerund motte katte butte Cert. Past motta katta butta Condi. Pres. mottara kattara buttara Freq. Form nmottari kattari buttari Here the chanjge of t into ek is caused by the inability of the Japanese to pronounce t before i or u. (d) Stems ending in b or mTobu, Manabu, Yomu, Amu, tojfly. to study,. to read. to weave. Indef. Form tobi manabi yomi amni Neg. Base toba manaba yoma ama Gerund tonde ruanande yonde ande THE VERB 6 67 Cert. Past tonda Condi. Past tondara Fr'eq. Form tondari mananda manandara manandari yonda anda yondara andara yondari andari mn are changed into Here, before the suffixes, the b) and n?, and the t of the suffixes becomes d. (e) Stems ending in kKiku, - Lhdej: Form Neg. -Base Gerunid Cert. Past Condi. P'ast Freg. Form to hear. kiki kika kiite kiita kiitara kiitarl Kaku, Nozoku, to write, to pveer k ak-i nozoki kaka nozoka kaite nozoite kaita nozoita kaitara nozoitara kaitari nozoitari Here Ak is dropped before the terminations. Excep~tion. ---Iku, to go (Indefinite Form, iki), formis its Gerund as itte (not iite), its past tenses as itta, etc., and its Frequentative Forin as ittari. (f) Stems endin~g in g Hegu, to peel oji: Inclef Form hegi Neg. -Base hega Gerund heide Cert. Past heida Condi. Past heidara Freq. Form heidari Kagu, to smell. kagi kaga kaide kaida kaidara kaidari Tsugu, to join. tsugi tsuga tsuide tsuida tsuidara tsuidari suffixes is changed Here g is dropped and the t of the to d. 68 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR (g) Stems ending in r:Aru, Shiru, Noboru, to be. to know. to climb. Indef. Form ari shiri nobori Neg. Base ara shira nobora Gerund atte shitte nobotte Cert. Past atta shitta nobotta Condl. Past attara shittara nobottara Freq. Form attari shittari nobottari Here r is dropped, and the t of the suffixes is doubled. The student cannot have failed to observe that the foregoing letter-changes cause ambiguity in verbs whose stems end in b and m, and also those ending in a vowel, in r and in t. Thus the context alone shows whether yonda is to be treated as the Certain Past of yobu, to call, or of yomu, to read; whether utte is the Gerund of utsu, to strike, or of uru, to sell; whether nattara is the Conditional Past of nari, to become, or of nau, to twist; and similarly in other instances. FORMATION OF THE BASES, MOODS, AND TENSES. INDEFINITE FORM.-Affix i to the stem for the First Conjugation, and e or i for the Second. CERTAIN PRESENT OR FUTURE.-(Positive): Affix u to the stem for the First Conjugation, and eru or iru for the Second. (Negative): (a) Affix nai to the Negative Base; (b) affix nt to the Negative Base. NEGATIVE BASE.-For the First Conjugation affix a to the stem. The Negative Base of the Second Conjugation is identical with the Indefinite Form. CONDITIONAL BASE.-Affix e to the stem for the First Conjugation, and ere or ire for the Second. PROBABLE PRESENT OR FUTURE.-(Positive) For the First Conjugation affix u to the Negative Base, producing the THE VERB 69 diphthong au, which must then he contracted to 6; for the Second Conjugation affix y6 to the Negative Base. (Negative): (a) Affix nakar6 to the Negative Base; (b) affix mai to the Certain Present for the First Conjugation, and affix it to the Negative Base for the Second. CERTAIN PAST.-(Positive): Affix ta to the Indefinite Form, noting the phonetic modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et seq.). (Negative): (a) Affix nakatta to the Negative Base; (h) affix nanda to the Negative Base. PROBABLE PAST.-(Positive): Affix tar6 to the Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et seq.). Tare' represents te (ar, literally, "probably shall be having finished." (egattive): (a) Affix nakattar6 to the Negative Base; (b) affix nandaro to the Negative Base. Nandar5 is deduced from the Negative Certain Past on the model of the same tense of the Positive. FREQUENTATIVE FORM.-(Postii'e): Affix tari to the Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et'seq.). Tari represents te an'i, so that its original signification is identical with that of the Past Indicative. (Negative): (a) Affix nakattari to the Negative Base; (b) affix nandari to the Negative Base. 3Nandari is deduced from the Negative Certain Past on the model of the same tense of the Positive. DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE.- (Positive): Affix tai to the Indefinite Form. Tai is an adjective originally identical with itai, " painful," and may be conjugated like other adjectives in accordance with tile paradigms on pages 120, 121, and 123. (Negative): Affix takunai to the Indefinite Form. GERUND. —(Positive): Affix te to the Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et seq.). Te is supposed to be a part of the verb haten'w, " to finish," so that naoshite means, literally, "having finished mending," or "finishing mending." (Negative): (a) Affix 70 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR naktte to the Negative Base; (b) affix zu to the Negative Base. This form often takes the postposition ni after it, without, however, altering its signification. CONDITIONAL PRESENT.-(Positive): Affix ba to the Conditional Base. Ba is really wa under an irregularly nigoried form. (Negative): (a) Affix nakereba to the Negative Base; (b) affix neba to the Negative Base. CONDITIONAL PAST.-(Positive): Affix taraba to the Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et seq.). Taraba represents te araba, literally, "if am having finished," araba being a classical form-the "Hypothetical Mood "-of ara, "to be" (see pp. 87 et seq.). (Negative): (a) Affix nakattaraba to the Negative Base; (b) affix nandaraba to the Negative Base. CONCESSIVE PRESENT.-(Positive): Affix domo to the Conditional Base. Do is the postposition to with the nigori, and mo is also a postposition. (Negative): (a) Affix nakeredomo to the Negative Base; (b) affix nedomo to the Negative Base. CONCESSIVE PAST.-(Positive): Affix taredomo to the Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et seq.). Taredomo represents te aredomo, literally, "though am having finished." Aredomo, the Concessive Present of aru, " to be," is a compound of the Conditional Base. are, with the postpositions to and mo. (Negative): (a) Affix nakattakeredo to the Negative Base; (b) Affix nandaredo to the Negative Base. IMPERATIVE. —(Positive): In the First Conjugation this is the same as the Conditional Base, and in the Second it is produced by affixing ro to the Indefinite Form. Ro is probably a corruption of yo, which is an ejaculation somewhat similar to the English "oh!" In addressing one another the members of a household often use a form obtained by affixing na to the Indefinite Form, as shina! "do!"; yobi-na "call!" (Negative): Affix na to the Certain Present. THE VERB 71 IRREGULAR VERBS. Japanese verbs present very few irregularities in comparison with those of most European languages, and in the small number of those which deviate from the general scheme of conjugation the irregularity is but slight. The three irregular verbs in most common use are kuru, to come; suru, to do; aiid masi, to be. Used as auxiliaries with other verbs kurue and sur't have an extended application in expanding and describing the actions expressed by the principal verb, and the same two verbs serve also-to afford verbal meanings to nouns, etc. The use of mash as a separate word has now become obsolete, and it is only employed in combination with other verbs to form an honorific conjugation which is in constant use to express politeness, respect, or reverence. The following are the paradigms of these irregular verbs, and instead of exhibiting mas/i alone, it is shown combined with the verb naosu, to mend, but it should be observed that the respectful form for nearly every other verb can be deduced by substituting the Indefinite Form of such verb for naoshi- in the paradigm:THE IRREGULAR VERB Kuru, to come. Indefinite Form-ki. Negative Base- ko. Certain Present-kuru. Conditional Base-kure. INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain, Present, or Future. Pos. kuru, I come, I shall come. Neg. ko-nai,* X I do not come, I shall not (or) ko-n(iu) J come. * t See footnotes, p. 58. 72 72 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Probable Present or Future. Pos. ko-y6, I probably come, I shall probably come. Neg. ko-nakar6, I probably do not come, I k~i-mai, J shall probably not come. Certain Past. Pos. ki-ta, I can Neg. ko-nakatta, } I did ko-na~nda, Probable Past. 2e, I have comie. not come. Pos. ki-tar6, Neg. ko-nakattar6, ko-uandar6, I probably came, I probably have come. }I probably did not come. Frequentative Form. Pos. ki-tari, Neg. ko-nakattari, ko-nandari, sometimes coming, at times coming. }sometimes not coming. Pos. ki-tai, Desiderative Adjective. I I want to come.:unai, I do not want to come. Gerund. coming, having come. ~ftte, not coming, not having icome, Pos. ki-te, Neg. ko-nal 1o-zu THE VERB 7 73 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present Tfense. Pos. kure-ba, if I come. ANeg. ko-nakereba, if I do not come. ko-neba, i Pos. ki-tara(ba), Neg. ko-nakattara(ba), ko-nandara(ba),.Tense. if I had come. }if I had not come. (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. kure-do(mo), Neg. ko-nakeredolmo), ko-nedo(mo), though -1 come. }though I do not come. Past. Pos. ki-taredo(mo), though I came. Neg. ko-nakattakeredo, tkuh have not come. ko-nandaredo, jtog Pos. koil Neg. kuru-na! IMPERATIVE MOOD. come! do not come! THE IRREGULAR VERB Suru, to do. -Indefinite Form-shi. Negative Base —se. Certain Present-suru. Conditional Base-sure, 74 74 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. Pos. surm, I do, I shall do. Neg. shi-nai,* I do o o hl o o se-n(ft), tonodoIshlntd. Probable Present or Future. Pos. shl-y6, I probably do, 1 shall probably do. Neg. shi-nakar6, I probably do not do, Iprose-mai, J bably shall not do. Certain Past. Pous. shi-ta, Neg. shi-nakatt.se-nanda, Pos. shf-tar6, Neg. shi-nakatt. se-nandare %J I did, I have done. }I did not do. Probable Past. I probably did, I probably have done. ax6, } Iprobably did not do. Frequentative Form. Pos. shl-tari, sometimes dong, at times doing. Neg. shi-nakattari, sometimes not doing, at se-nandari, J times not doing. Desiderative Adjective. Pos. shi -tai, I want to do. Neg. shi-takunai, I do not want to do. Gerund. Pos. shf-te, Neg. sbhi-nakiite, se-zu, doing, having done. }not doing, not having done. *tSee footnotes, p. 58, THE VERB SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 75 Pos. sure-ba, Neg. shi-nakereba, se-neba, a) Conditional. Present Tense. if I d.O ifl Ido not do. Past Tense. if I had done. Fous. shf-tara(ba), N eg. shi-nakattara(ba), i ';I had not done. se-nandara(ba), J (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. sure-do(mo), Neg. shi-nakeredo(mo), se-nedo(mo), though I do. }thootgh I do not do. -Pos. shf-taredo(mo), Past. though I1 have done, though, I did. Neg. shi-nakattakeredo, }ho g I have not done. se-nandaredo, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Fo-s. shi-ro! Neg. suru-na! do! do not!. THE IRREGULAR POLITE SUFFIX Masi~. (KeY emplified in the Conjugation of the Verb Naoshimasi. to design to mend.) Indefinite Fhwm-mashi. Negative Base —mase. Certain Fresent-masii, or Conditional Base —masure, masuru. 76 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. Pos. naoshi-masut you deign to mend, you will naoshi-masuru, J deign to mend. Neg. naoshi-masen(1i), you do not deign to mend, you will not deign to mend. Probable Present or Future. Pos. naoshi-mash6, you probably deign to mend, you probably will deign to mend. Neg. naoshi-masfimai, you probably do not deign to mend, you probably will not deign to mend. Pos. naoshi-mashita, Neg. naoshi-masen deshita, in Past. you deigned to mend. you did not deign to mend. Probable Past. Pos. naoshi-mashitaro, you probably deigned to mend. Neg. naoshi-masen deshitar6, you probably did not deign to mend. Frequentative Form. Pos. naoshi-mashitari, sometimes deigning to mend. Neg. naoshi-masenakattari, sometimes not deigning to mend. Desiderative Adjective. (wanting) Gerund. Pos. naoshi-mashite, deigning to mend, having deigned to mend. eg. naoshi-masezu, not deigning to mend, not naoshi-masen de, having deigned to mend, THE VERB 7 77 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present Tense. Pos. naoshi-masureba, N~eg. naoshi-masen(a)kereba, if yout deigni to menid. ~f yout do not deign to m~end. Past Tense. Pos. naoshi-mashitara(ba),,ij'yout had deigned to mnend,. Neg. naoshi-masen(a)kattara- if you had n~ot deignied to (ba), menid. (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. naoshi-masuredo(mo), though yout deign? to mnend. Neg. naoslii-masen(a)keredo- though yout do niot deigni to (MO), mend. Past. Po s. naoshi-mashitaredo(MO), Neg. (wanting). th~ough yout deignied tovmenid. IMqPERATIVE MOOD. Pous. naoshi-mashi! naoshi-mase! Neg. naoshi-masiina,! naoshi-masuru-na! Ideign2 to m~end! }do not deign to men~d! Other slightly irregular verbs are the following -- Aru (First Conjugation), to be: Tfhe Negative Voice of this verb is not in use, the negative adjective nai (see p. 122)' being employed in lieu thereof. The Improbable Present or Future, arumai only is found, employed with nakar6. 78 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR The Desiderative Adjective also is wanting. When the postposition de precedes aru the final syllable is discarded, and the combination becomes da instead of darn. Gozaru, to be. With many speakers the r in the final syllable of this verb is rejected when masS is affixed: thus, gozaimasi for gozarimast. This also takes place in the polite verbs irassharu, to go, to come; nasaru, to deign to do; kudasaru, to condescend; and ossharu, to deign to say, and the resulting forms-irasshai, nasai, kudasai, and osshai-are also used as Imperatives; osshaimashi; is, however, much more frequent than osshai. Besides the elimination of the r in gozaimasi, in familiar intercourse several other of the letters in the body of the word are frequently dropped, so that it becomes in the mouths of many speakers gozasai, gasS, or gest, and when gozaimasit is preceded by de the combination de gozaimasi is often contracted to desk; de gozaimashrta to deshita, etc. Shinuru, to die. This verb partakes of the nature of both the First Conjugation and of the Second. Throughout the greater part of its conjugation it is treated as if it belonged to the First Conjugation and had the form shinu (stem, shin). The termination ru, however, causes its Certain Present shinurm, and its Negative Imperative,shinuru-na to be irregular., USES OF THE BASES, MOODS, AND TENSES. (The three regular verbs naosu, taberu, and ojiru given in che paradigms on p. 58, et seq., are used in illustration.) THE INDEFINITE FORM, naoshi; tabe; oji. —As will have been observed in the paradigms, this base is used more extensively than any of the others to support verbal inflections. It is also constantly employed without any modification to produce nouns; thus THE VERB 79 warai, laughter, (from) warau, to laugh. yorokobi, happiness,,, yorokobu, to be happy. hori, moat, canal,,, horu, to dig. nokori, remainder,,, nokoru, to remain over. akinai, commerce,,, akinau, to trade. hikari, lustre,,, hikaru, to shine. The Indefinite Form is also used to form compounds with nouns, adjectives, and other verbs; aste-nugui, a towel; from te, hand, and nuguu, to wipe. kimono, clothes; from kiru, to wear, and mono, thing. wakari-nikui, difficult (to comprehend); from wakaru, to understand, and nikui, distasteJil. kiru-korosu, to cut to death; from kiru, to cut, and korosu, to kill. shi-ageru, to finish; from suru, to do, and ageru, to raise. The negative forms of the verbs suru, or itasu, to do, preceded by the Indefinite Form of other verbs with the postposition wa or mo following, are used for Negative tenses, the forms thus obtained being more emphatic than the corresponding simple tenses. In such cases wa is usually pronounced ya in familiar conversation; thusAri wa shimasen (familiar), r i Ari ya shinai (polite), Kamai ya shinai, don care care? } I don't care. care do-not J Mo ki ya itashiinasen, ) I know he will not come again coming will-not-do f again. A most important rule exists in the classical language, governing the use of the Indefinite Form, and it is also 80 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR frequently observed in set speeches, and by careful and educated speakers. This rule is as follows:"In sentences where two or more consecutive clauses contain verbs characterised by the same tense and mood, all the verbs except the last. are put in the Indefinite Form, the final verb alone taking the termination indicating the tense or mood of the whole sentence." Thus it is necessary to wait till the finish of the final clause before it can be seen whether the present, past, or future, the indicative or conditional, etc., is intended. In the Negative voice the Indefinite Form is replaced by the Negative Gerund. Examples..... ] Dust heaped up becomes Chinri tsumotte, yama to naru, Dust heaped up becomes '. - a mountazn (Jap. dust heaping mountain becomes a mountain (Jap. J Proverb). Miredomeo, miyezu; kikedomo, Though he looks, he though-look cannot-see though-listen cannot see; though kikoyenai, he listens, he cannot cannot-hear hear. CERTAIN PRESENT OR FUTURE: (Positive) naosu; taberu; ojiru: (Negative) naosa-nai, naosa-n(iu); tabe-nai, tabe-n('); oji-nai, oji-n(4). And" PROBABLE PRESENT OR FUTURE: (Positive) naos-5; tabe-yo; oji-yo: (Negative) naosa-nakaro, naosu-mai; tabe-nakaro, tabe-mai; oji-nakaro, oji-mai. As has been observed before, the Japanese verb does not clearly discriminate between present and future time. If an Englishman intends definitely to read a certain book at some future time, and expresses that intention, he decides upon the tense to employ by considering the time when the reading takes place, and thus uses the Future, " I shall read the book." If, however, his mind is not fully made up, he still employs the Future, and intimates the THE VERB 81 uncertainty by the use of some such word as "perhaps," and says, "Perhaps I shall read the book." Similarly, if my servant desires to let me know that some one is reading a newspaper in another room, as the act of reading is proceeding while she is speaking, she says, "He is reading the newspaper;" but if not quite sure whether the man is reading or not, she says, " Perhaps he is reading the newspaper." Now in Japanese, things are different. The verb has one form serving to fulfil the purpose of indicating any certain act or condition be it present, habitual, or future, and another form to indicate any probable act or condition, whether present or. future, and thus it is the certainty or uncertainty that is considered instead of the time. However, since acts and conditions belonging to the present are necessarily more certain than those of the future, the form implying probability is used in most cases for future time, whilst the form which denotes certainty is used for present time. Thus, adverting to the sentences just given-" He is reading the newspaper," and " I shall read the book,"the verbs in both sentences are translated by the Certain Present or Future, whilst in "Perhaps he is," etc., and "Perhaps I shall," etc., both verbs are rendered by the Probable Present or Future. From the foregoing remarks it will be readily understood that when a Japanese says " Mionichi mairimasho," he is not giving a decided promise to come to-morrow, he says merely "I shall very likely come to-morrow." If he intended to promise faithfully he would say, "Mionichi mairimasu." Examples. Hiogo ni honya aru ka, Are there any booksellers in book-shops Hiogo? Arimast to mo, Certainly there are. 82 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Arimasho, Gozarimastimai, Kimasti ka (certainty), Kimash6 ka (probability), Kimastmai, Kimasho, Ame ga furimasu, rain falls Ame ga furimasho, Dare ka, soto de matsti, somebody outside waits Mushi ga tais6 oru, insects many abide Mionichi sono hako wo to-morrow box kaimash6, will-buy Shiranti, I believe there are. I believe not. Will he come? Will he come (do you think)? Is he likely to come? I do not think he will come. He will probably come. It rains, it is raining (or) it will certainly rain. It will probably rain. } Somebody is waiting outside. There are a lot of insects. tI shall probably buy that box to-morrow. I don't know. The dominating idea inherent in the Probable Present or Future being one of uncertainty, with an inclination towards probability, it is frequently employed to translate such conjectural assertions as those in which "may" or " must" appears in English asKoyo mo shireni, ) He may come for anything will-come even cannot-know f I know. Sayo de gozaimasho, ga... t ms b so thus probably-is but It should be carefully borne in mind that where the English " must " implies obligation, the above idiom cannot be employed. In this case, "must" is expressed by a double negative; as THE VERB 83 Ikaneba naranti } It won't do not to go, i.e. if-?wt-go will-not-bc J I must go. N.B.-It is sometimes permissible for naranti to be understood, as Ikaneba, "I must go." CERTAIN PAST: (Positive) naos/lta; tatbe-ta; oji-ta: (Negative) naosa-nakatta, naosa-nanda; t abe-nakatta, tabe-nanda, oji-nakatta, oji-nanda, and PROBABLE PAST: (Positive) naoshi-taro; tabe-tar o; oji-tar (: (Negative) naosa-nakattaro, naosa-(nandaro; tabe-nakatt(ar, tabenan dar5; oji-nakattar5, oji-nanda2r5. The difference between tlhe Certain Past and the Probable Past is precisely similar to that between the Certain Present and the Probable Present (see p. 80). Note that Hiogo ye itta signifies both "iHe went to Hiogo," and " He has gone to Hiogo." When it is necessary to intimate distinctly the Perfect signification, the Gerund with oro or iru must be used, as Hiogo ye itte oru (itte iru or itteru), He has gone to Hiogo (literally, Iaving gone to Hiogo, he remains). The student should also carefully note the difference between itta kara and itte kara. The former signifies "because he has gone," whereas itte kara means "after he has gone." The only difference between the two phrases is the use of the Past Tense in a to convey the sense of "because," and of the Gerund in e when "after" is meant. Certain anomalous uses of the Past Tense are apt to embarrass the beginner. Thus it is sometimes heard where the Present is preferred in English, as Wakarimashita, 1 have understood, i.e. I understand; 0 naka ga sukimashita, I am hungry (literally, inside has become empty). The Certain Past (and Certain Present) construed witl the koto, action, thing, fact, is somewhat equivalent to our Infinitive, a mood for which Japanese has no exact 84 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR counterpart, thus miru koto, to see (in general); mita koto, to have seen. Examples. Kita ka, Kimashltaro ka, Kio kita, Doko ye itte kita, where having-gone has-come Ikimasenanda, Mae ni mo itta t6ri, before in also said way Taigai wakarimashita, mostly have-understood O-warai shimashita, great-laughing (we) did Dare ni kiita, whom from have-heard Amari mita koto ga too-much have-seenfact gozaimasen, is-not Sazo go taikutst de surely tedium gozaimashitaro, will-have-been Has he come? Do you think he has come? He came to-day. } Where has he been? I did not go. As I said before. I understand most of it. } We laughed heartily about it. From whom have you heard it? I have scarcely ever seen any. You must have found the time long. FREQUENTATIVE FORM: (Positive) naoshi-tari; tabe tari; oji-tari: (Negative) naosa-nakcattari, naosa-nandari; tabenakattari, tabe-nandari; oji-nakattari, oji-nandari. The dominating idea of this form is to denote occasional action, or alternation of action. It is commonly used with THE VERB 85 an accompanying word having the same inflection, the second one being generally followed by suru, to do. Examples. ta.r. A Sometimes he comes, Kitari konakattari shimasti, and sometimes he sometimes-coming sometimes-not-coming does J does not. v does not. Kono yuki ga futtari yandari I do not like this weather, this snow falling stopping when it is alternately suru tenki, snowing and being do weather J fine. DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE: (Positive) naoshi-tai; tabetai; oji-tai: (Negative) naoshi- takuhnai; tabe- takunai; oji-takunai. This is deduced from the verb by affixing to the Indefinite Form the termination tai, which means " desirous " or " desirable," the form thus compounded being employed where such verbs as "want," "wish," or "desire" appear in English; asSono mono wo mitai, 1 ish to see that. that thing wish-to-see Mitai mono, A thing I desire to see. desire-to-see thing Ikitaku-nai, I do not wish to go. 0 hanashi wo (or ga) shitai, talk wish-to-do I have been wishing to to omotte imasti, talk to you. thinking remain Either of the postpositions ga or wo may precede the Desiderative, as exemplified in the last sentence. THE GERUND: (Positive) naoshi- te; tabe - tai; oji-te: (Negative) naosa-nakite, naosa-zu; tabe-nakute, tabe-zu; oji-nakute, oji-zu, 86 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR The following sentences show the ordinary uses of the Gerund. Furuki wo tazunete, atarashlki New things are learned old enquiring new I d e by studying the old wo shu, (Proverb). know Kondate wo misete kudasai, I Please show me the menu showing condescend f menu. Ame ga futte kimashlta, t has begun to rain. rain falling has-come..1 Piled-up dust becomes Chiri tsumotte yama to naru, Piled-u dst becoes, a mountain dust heaping mountain becomes a mou (Proverb). Doko ye itte kita? ) kita Where has he been to? where having-gone has-come Motte kite agemasho, I will bring it for having-taken having-come will-offer you. Shio wa irezu to yoroshiu, salt not-putting-in good YoU need not put gozaimaslt, in any salt. is The Gerund very frequently appears in sentences where the word "so " is employed in English; asTe ga hiete tamaranai, My hands are so cold I hands being-cold cannot-bear cannot bear. Construed with miru, to see, the Gerund denotes that an action is to be performed, but without the exercise of much exertion as it were; thusMuzukashiku nakareba, yatte difficult if-not-be sending I will have a try at itf mimasho, if it is not difficult. will see j Kiite miru ga ii, ) You might just enquire about asking to-see is-good ) it, THE VERB 87 Construed with oku, to put, the Gerund denotes a final and decided completion of some state or action; thusMenjo wo katte okimashrta, \ I have got my passpassport having-boughf have-put port all right. Kangaete oite kudasai, Kindly consider the matter reflecting putting condescend very carefully. Kotowatte okimashita, I refused. CONDITIONAL PRESENT: (Positive) naose-ba; tabere-ba; ojire ba: (Negative) naosa-nakereba, naosa-neba; tabenakereba, tabe-neba; oji-nakereba, oji-neba: and CONDITIONAL PAST: (Positive) naoshi-tara(ba); tabe-tara(ba); oji - tara(ba): (Negative) naosa - nakattara(ba), naosanandara(ba); tabe-nlakattara(ba), tabe-nandara(ba); oji nahoattara(ba), oji-nanldara(ba). To understand clearly the uses and formation of these tenses it is advisable to advert briefly to the Classical form of the language. In this form there exists what is termed a " Hypothetical Present and Past"; thusCondl. Pres. naoseba, when I mend, as I mend.,, Past naoshitareba, when I had mended, as I had mended. Hypo. Pres. naosaba, if I mend.,, Past naoshitaraba, if I had mended. It will be observed that the Hypothetical Present is deduced from the Negative Base by adding ba. In the modern Colloquial the distinction between hypothetical and conditional is gradually dying out, and to convey the idea of "when," a periphrasis with the word toki, time, or with the postposition to, is usually employed; thus 88 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR So moshimasu to sugu so said when at-once When I said so, I at once ni shikaremashlta, got scolded. got-scolded Kuru toki, When he comes. The Present Tense of the ancient Conditional and the Past of the Hypothetical have remained, and the single modern mood thus deduced by combining parts of the two ancient forms might more logically be called the Hypothetical since it expresses the signification "if..." The only surviving Present Tense Hypothetical forms are iwaba, from iu, to say, which is used to render the idea of "thus to speak," and naraba, from naru, a Classical verb signifying "to be," which latter must be distinguished from naru, to become. The real signification therefore of naraba is "if it be," but when used with other verbs as an auxiliary its meaning is nearly "if." Some speakers reject the final ba, saying "nara "; thus Dekiru nara, kyo-ju ni forthcomes if by-to-night kore wo utsushlte, this having-copied Nar6 koto naraba, will-become thing if-it-be Fusoku nara, motto not-sufficient if-it-be more toraseyo, will-make-take Ifyou can manage it, please copy this by to-night. If it can be done. I If it is not suficient, I will give you more. Examples (Conditional). Uwasa wo sureba kage gossip if-do shadow ga sasu, strikes If you talk of a man, his shadow will fall upon you (Proverb). THE VERB 8 89 Yuki ga ii kagen nii snow good conddtion yamneba, yoroshi ga, I if-stop is-good but Warui koto sureba, warui bad thing if-do mukui ga amu,I reward is Areba, y6i gozaimasfi ga,V ~f-there-be good isJ ]Dekitara(ba), imotte kite if-has-fo),thcowle carrying coming kudasai, Ittaraba, kay - na koto 4i/-hoid-gone this-sort thingg wa dek-inai hazu not-become wccecssd!/ I dle arimnash-fta, Was If it ceases sniowing in reasonable time, it wlould be a good, thing. Jf You do evil, there is ani evil reward. If there wrere sqome I should be glad. If it is readqI, please bringy it wvith ion. Nothing liZ-c th is wrould have, happ)en~ed 'if he had gonie. CONCESSIVE PRESENT: (Positive) naose-do(mo); taberedo(mo); ojire-do(mo): (Negative) naosa-nalkeredo(mo), naosa-ned~o(mo); tabe-nakevedo(mo), tabe-nedo(mo); ojinalcered~o(mo), oji-nedo(mo): and CONCESSIVE PAST: (Positive) naoshi-taredo(mo); tabe-taredo(mo); oji-taredo(mo): (Negative): naosa-nahattakeredo, naosa-nandaredo; tabenakattakevedo, tabe-nandaredo; oji-nalkattakeredo, ojinandaredo. The signification of these tenses is very similar to "though " in English, but in practice it is usually conveyed more conveniently by commenciug the subsequent clause with "but." rThe forms given in the paradigms are not much used, the substitute more commonly heard being the word keredo 90 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR (to which mo, even, is often affixed) in conjunction with the Present or Past of the Indicative; thus TazunemashYta keredomo, (I) enquired though gozaimasenti, is-not I enquired, but there was not any. Keredo and keredomo are often replaced by to wa iedo(mo), literally "though one say that," and thus the phrases oitaredo(mo), oita keredo(mo) and oita to wa iecdo(mo) all have precisely the same meaning. Examples (Concessive). Tenki naredo samui, weather though-it-is is-cold Aru keredo mo omaye ni are though even you to wa yaranai, not-give Sagashlta keredomo, ' -sought though I shiremasen, cannot-know Yohodo maye ni kane, 1 wo kashYta, keredo, mada kayeshimasenu, J \ Though the weather is J fine, it is cold. I have some, but I will not give you any. have sought it, but cannot find it. sme time ago I lent him some money, but he has not paid it back yet. THE. IMPERATIVE: (Positive) naose; tabe-ro; oji-ro: (Negative) naosu-na; taberu-na; ojiru-na. The ordinary use of this form is, like that in other languages, to express command or direction, but the bare Imperative is seldom used except in military commands, as it sounds, in Japanese ears, decidedly abrupt and dis THE VERB 91 courteous. Even in addressing members of the lowest classes an honorific periphrasis is usually substituted, as will be explained later. Examples. 0 toshi mose, A 0 t-shi ms-e, Show the gentleman in. let-through say To wo shimero, Shut the door. door shut f Stikoshi mate Watit a little. a-little iwait j Tomare! Halt! Yasume! Stand at ease! Sore wo taberuna! Don't eat that! Shochi suruna! Do not conset! A common construction, by means of which the English first person plural of the Imperative (let u.s..) may generally be rendered is given il the following examples:Itte kikimnash Let us go and listen to it. having-gone will-hear Ko shiy ja nai ka Let us do it like this. thus will-do is-not? J (or the future alone without ja na kai). AUXILIARY VERBS. A considerable number of the affixes contributing to the production of the moods and tenses are really auxiliary verbs which were originally independent. For example, in the expression naoshimashita, I have mended, the affix mashi formerly signified "to be," and the terminal ta (for te aru) means "am having finished," and thus the word naoshimashLta when decomposed is shown to mean "am having finished mending." The auxiliaries have also con 92 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR tributed to the production of verbal stems. Thus with the auxiliaries eru, to get, and ar, to be, are formedyameru, to cease. mazaru, to be mixed. kakeru, to hang (trans.) kakaru, to hang (intrans.) The following are the chief auxiliaries in use at present as separate and independent words:1. Ar, to be. As an auxiliary aru is most commonly employed with the particle de to produce compound equivalents for the Probable Present or Future, and also for some of the Negative tenses. De aru is usually abbreviated to da; de ar6 to d'aro or daro; de atta to d'atta or datta, etc.; thus — Iku de aro, iku d' ar, for iko, will probably go. iku dar6, Kasanai de atta, } for kasanakatta, did not lend. kasanai datta, Konai de attar6, for konakattar6, has probably not konai dattar6, come. NOTE.-The postposition no is frequently placed between the verb and da, daro, datta, etc.; thus konai no d'aro, he is probably not coming. When the polite termination masu is preceded by de and the verb aru, a still further abbreviation occurs, which is in frequent use in familiar conversation. Thus de arimasho first becomes de masch and then desho5; and de arimashita contracts to deshtta. It should be observed that the compound future denotes a slightly greater degree of doubt than the simple future, and that the shorter and more abbreviated the phrase, the less courteous it becomes. De gozarimasU is much politer and less familiar than desk. THE VERB 93 Preceded by the Gerund, armc serves to produce another group of compound tenses, as kite gozaimasi, they have comnle. 2. Iru (2nJd Coj.; stem i). 3. Oru (1st Cnj; stem ori). These auxiliaries each mean, literally, "to dwell," hence "to live," " to be " (in a certain place), and combined with the Gerund their various forms compose a group of other tenses which are equivalent to such English compound tenses as are exemplified in the expressions "he is eating," "he was walking," "he has been reading," etc. This combination has therefore in some cases a Progressive signification and in others a Perfect signification. For example, nete orimasiu means he is sleeping, whilst kite orimasu is, not he is coming, but he is having come, i.e. he is come. The simple past kimashita is more obscure, inasmuch as its meaning might be merely that the person had come but had gone away again, whilst the meaning of kite orimasli cannot be other than that he has come and is still here. In some cases the English passive must be employed to render such phrases, the neuter being nearly always preferred in the Japanese construction; thusKirei ni sorotte orimasfl, re ni r prettily being-in-order are a After the Gerund, the initial i is frequently elided, particularly in the Present tense, and thus shitte iru becomes shitteru, I know (literally, having learnt, I remain); kaite iru becomes kaiteru, etc. Irassharu and o ide nasaru are honorific synonyms of iru and of various other verbs, as will be demonstrated later. 94 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Iru and oru as auxiliaries are now frequently used in speaking of inanimate objects, although their original signification appears to restrict their application to living beings. In a few idioms, however, aru is used for inanimates and iru for animates; observe, for example, the distinction between kite orimasi, he has come, and kite arimasuf, it has come, or there is some. Examples. Nani wo shYte imast, ) What is he doing what doing is Dete orimastf, He has gone out. Bakana koto wo itteru, You are talking at foolish thing say-remain random. Mada nete orimasil, } He is still sleeping. still sleeping is Donata ka o ide ni natte someone-or-other exit to having-become Has someone orimast ka, arrived? is 4. Kuru, to come. With this auxiliary, in conjunction with the Gerund, are produced what are sometimes termed " Illative tenses," so called because they contribute a secondary idea of motion towards the speaker or the one spoken to, added to the primary idea; thusMizu wo motte koi Having carried water, come! i.e. Bring some water having-carried come I water. O Yone wo yonde koi Tell 0 Yone to come Yone having-called here. Doko ye itte kita? A where Where has he been toa where having-gone has-come, THE VERB 95 Kitto kuru y6 ni to positively come manner in that so itte koi, so having-said Anata ni sodan sho yolt Lwith consultation will-do to omotte kimashita, thinking came I Go and tell him to be sure to come. I came to consult you. 5. Shimau, to finish. This auxiliary employed with the Gerund, serves to indicate the conclusion of an action, usually in the sense of ending by...; thus — Kashi wo tabete shimatta, cakes eating has-finished does not mean "He has finished eating the cakes," but rather "He has finished by eating the cakes." SimilarlyShisho Sama ni natte shimaimashita, teacher Mr to having-become has-finished does not mean "He has ceased to be a teacher," but "He has ended by becoming a teacher (after trying other professions, etc.)." Examples. Motte itte shimaishta, ) He has gone off having-taken having-gone has-finished i With it. Sukkari gakumon wo quite learning mi-kigatte shimatta, see-having limited finished I have quite given up studying. Ua ni mame wo He went off withhorse beans out giving the tsAkezu ni itte shimatta, horse its beans. hhag-orse ts beansi having~-gone fi~nished 96 96 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. Many verbs are used in English with a difference of signification, sometimes as transitives, sometimes as intransitives, as "he ran away," "he ran a needle into his hand," "the child speaks already," "he can speak several languages." In Japanese, however, the transitive and intransitive applications are nearly always indicated by different verbs containing the same root; thus Transitive. Intransitive. hiraku (1st Conj-) to civilise. kaesu (1st) to return. kakilsu (1 st),,hide. naosu (1st),,cure. nobasu (1st),,stretch. oru (1st), break. orosu (1st),,lower. yaku (1st),,burn. chirasu (1st),,scatter. nekasu (1st),,pat to sleep. dasu (1st),,put out. akeru (2nd),, open. hajimeru (2nd),, begin. soroeru (2nd),, match. tasiftkeru (2nd),, save. tatern (2nd),, set up. susumeru (2nd),, encourage. yameru (2nd),, cease. ireru (2nd),, put in. sageru (2nd),, let down. hirakeru (2nd Conj.) to become civilised. kaeru (1st) to return. kakureru (2nd), hide. naoriu (1 st),,get well. nobiru (2nd), stretch. oreru (2nd), break. oriru (2nd), descend. yakeru (2nd), burn. chiru (1st),,scatter. neru (2nd), sleep. deru (2nd), go out. aku (1 st),,be open. hajimaru (1st),,begin. sorou (1st),,match. tast~karu (1st),,be saved. tatsu (1st),,stand. susumu (1st),,advance. yamu (1st),,cease. iru (1st),,enter. sagaru (Ist),,come down. THE VERB 97 No rule can be framed for forming transitives and intransitives from a common root, and it is only from the dictionary, and by practice, that the student can tell whether a Japanese verb is transitive or not. It may, however, be observed that whilst the ending eru may belong to either form, the termination sit belongs almost exclusively to transitives, a noteworthy exception being dasu which is sometimes intransitive as in the compounds hashiri-dasu, to run out, naki dasu, to begin to cry. The student should also note that a large number of intransitives in the First Conjugation terminate in aru, as sagaru, to come down; todomaru, to stop; kakaru, to hang; etc. These are produced by adding aru, to be, to the stem, hence their intransitive force. Most of them have corresponding transitives in eru of the Second Conjugation, as sageru, to let down; kakeru, to hang; etc. PASSIVE AND POTENTIAL VERBS. In Japanese no special conjugation for the Passive Voice exists, and the paradigms of all the so-called passive verbs are in accordance with the First Form of the Second Conjugation of regular verbs given on p. 60. The change fiom the active to the passive is produced by affixing reru to the Negative Base of the First Conjugation and rareru to the same base of the Second; thusFirst Conjugation. Shiru, to know, (neg.) shira, (pass.) shirareru, to be known. Yobu, to call,,, yoba,,, yobareru, to be called. Korosu, to kill,,, korosa,,, korosareru, to be killed. Warau, to laugh,,, warawa,,, warawareru, to be laughed at. JAPANESE GRAMMAR 4 98 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Second Conjugation. First Form. Taberu, to eat, (neg.) tabe, (pass.) taberareru, to be eaten. Keru, to kick,,, ke,,, kerareru, to be kicked. Erm, to obtain,,, e,,, erareru, to be obtained. Second Form. Miui, to see, (neg.) mi, (pass.) mirareru, to be seen. Omonjiru, to esteem,,, omonji,,, omonjirareru, to be esteemed. Iru, to shoot,,, i,,, irareru, to be shot. Strictly speaking, however, there is no Passive Voice in Japanese, and the so-called passive termination areru is a condensed form of ari, being, blended with eru, to get, thus the literal meaning of shirdreru, for instance, is "to get being knowing," and similarly mirarern is from the stem mi, a euphonic r, and ari eru, i.e. "to get being seeing." Thus it is that all passive verbs belong to the Second Conjugation together with the verb eru, to get, and herein also lies the susceptibility of intransitives to passive forms, as, for example, okorareru, to be got angry, i.e. to be made angry, from okoru, to get angry; shinareru, to have someone die (belonging to one). A sentence illustrative of this idiom is Teishi ni shinaremashita. Here the literal meaning is "she was died by her husband," which at first sight appears to signify that "she was killed by her husband," but the real meaning is "she had her husband die," or "she lost her husband by death." An idiom bearing a near resemblance to the so-called passive, is formed by the verb moray.b to receive (more THE VERB 9 99 politely itadaku, "1to put on the head," referring to the native custom of lifting a gift to the brow) in conjunction with the Gerund; thus Kami wo kitte nioratta, hlair kavhig-ct r-cecivcd I Oshiete itadakitai, feac/l? iig wcish-to-put-oit-the-lhcad f Dare ka Hibgo made havig-gne wisht-recive I'itte moraitai, Kiite itadakit%5, hea ini~g?rish-to-receive Ane no menj6 to yara imo elder-br-othter passport wataktishi made kayeshite Ime, to return moraitai, wvish- to-receive I got iny ha ir cat. 1?risb You i/o id kilidly show flW, how. I wailt so)f2e00Ne to go to Hiogo for m )?e. [ wish you would kbindig eniquire Jr' me. I wcisit may elder brother-'s passp~ort, ~~tthait is what it is called, to be r-etturnied to mie. NOrE.-The foregoing sentences exemplify the method by which wvishing is indicated in the Passive Voice, the Desiderative Adjective of passive verbs not appearing in the spoken forni of the language. The passive forms of the irregular verbs kuru, to com~e, suru, to do, and shinuru, to die, are kor-arern, serar-erat (sometimes abbreviated to sar-eru) and shbiarer-u respectively. AMasi', the polite termination, is not susceptible of the passive form. As has been mentioned before, passive constructions are used much less frequently than in English, and in the majority of instances an intransitive verb or an active but subjectless construction is employed ~to render an English passive.: I 100 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR The following exemplifications will be found useful:Donnani ureshi ka shiremasent, I can't tell you how how-much joyful? cannot-know pleased I am. Hayazo to iu otoko, A man caled Hayazj. say man j Mo shimai ni narimashitaro, It is probably already finished will-have-become finished by now. Sono kusuri wa ichi nichi That medicine is that medicine one day,i taken three times sando dzutsu nomu no desi, 3-times drink is c day. Kore wa nani ni this what for What is this used for? ts-akaimast, use Ate ni narimasen, He is not to be depended reliance to becomes-not upon. Dekinu toki wa shikata not-can-do time do-manner ga nai, is-not Miogonichi made ni day-after-next by deki-ogarimasi, is-finished Kono shina wo naoshi ni this article maend to yarimasho, will-probably-send Sakuban sono kane wo last night that money uketoru hadzu deshita, receive necessity was Naro koto naraba, will-become thiing if-it-be Shiyo kvoi' ga nai, will-do thLirg is-not If it cannot be done, there is no help /br it. It will be finished by the day after to-morrow. I think I will send this article to be mended. I was to have been paid that money last night. If it can be done. } There is nothing which can be done. THE VERB10 101 THE POTENTIAL V016E. Potenitiality, that is haiving powrer to do a cer-tain thing, is indicated by the same verbs as those by which passive significations are rendered, thus m~irar-eru may mean eitber " to be seen," or " to be able to see "; oRm-reru may mean either " to be put," or " to be able to put." NOTE.-The one important deviation from- this rule is the forni owowcerene from. omou, to fhinX-, whose potential signification is not "to be able to think,' but "to venture to think,1~" "to be inclined to think." Examples. Ky6 no atsilsa wa, to-day of heat I cannot endure the koraeraremasen, heat to-day. cannot-bearJ 1kareru do aro- ka? 1Wi1l he he able to go? Mazuktste taberaremasen, \It is to n?as ty to0 cat. beinq-nasty cotnnot-eat ) Moraware ya itashi-masenti, ~ i antaccepit can-occept do-not Ptit Korareru ka kiite mimash6, I will as/c him if he can? come. Anothier frequently recurring method of expressing potentiality is the use of dekiru, a verb formed from the classical de-kuru, to come out. Dekiru bas come to meaii ''4possible,'' ''to take place,'' ''to be ready,'' but frequently it is best translated " cai," "7CCcan do "; thusJku koto ga dekiru, I Cal? go. Iku koto ga dekinai, I cannot go. Mabushikfite, miru koto ga, beiqng-dazzling to-see I cann)ot see; the light dekimasen, is so daz-zling. fort hcontes-notJ 102 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Kaneru, to be unable, cannot, attached to the Indefinite Form of a verb, is constantly used to indicate impossibility or inability, but the use of this construction is almost exclusively confined to persons of culture and refinement. Moshi-kanete orimasu, to-say- tnable am Ika naru dori to mo, how be rationale kai shi kanemasu ga, understand do cannot I can hardly venture to say so but(said when asking a favour). I cannot understand on what principle this could take place. There is an extensive group of verbs which are in practice best translated by passive or potential constructions in English, although, properly speaking, they are intransitives in Japanese. If we take such a sentence as "the bridge is being broken," we observe that the breaking is caused by the intervention of some external influence, whereas in the expression "the bridge is breaking," no such outer influence is implied. In the first case, the verb corresponds to the Japanese orareru, to get broken (passive, from oruto break, transitive); in the second, to oreru, to break, intransitive. Thus from transitives belonging to the First Conjugation, are produced a large number of intransitives of the Second Conjugation, by changing the termination u into eru as exemplified in the following series: Intrans. toreru, from furueru,,, yakeru,,, Trans. toru, to take. furuu, to shake. yaku, to burn. THE VERB 103 oreru, from oru, to break. kireru,,, kiru, to cut. ureru,, uru, to sell. yomeru,,, yomu, to read. Kireru, ureru, yomeru, etc., are employed to render such expressions as "that wood cuts easily," i.e. "is easy to cut"; "this article sells readily," i.e. "is readily sold"; "that poem reads beautifully," i.e. "is beautiful when read." In such constructions it is often convenient to introduce the word "can"; thus, "one can cut that wood easily"; "this article can be sold readily." The student should carefully note the difference between the true potentials in areru and rareru, and the intransitives in eru. The latter forms denote the possession of strength or power to do anything such as is expressed by "can" in English, whilst with the true potentials is associated the notion of permission which is indicated by "may," thus ikaremas' signifies "one can go" (because permission is granted), and ikemasu signifies "one can go " (because one possesses the physical ability, not being lame, etc.) As verbs of the Second Conjugation are not capable of forming intransitives in eru, the passive potentials in rareru have to be utilised. The form mieru, to seem, to be visible, formed irregularly from miru, to see, should be noted. THE VERB Suru. The paradigm of this verb, which is probably the one most frequently heard, has been given on page 73. Its primary signification is "to do," "to make " (French, faire), and it is often used independently in this sense, the noun 104 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR governed by it taking the postposition wo, although the latter is in most cases dropped before suru; thushon-yaku suru, to translate, to make a translation. ch6ai suru, to love, i.e. to make love. eshaku suru wo suru, to make an apology. ban wo suru, to keep watch. jisatsu suru, to commit (do) suicide. saisoku suru, to urge on (literally, to do urgency). Omae do shimasit, What are you doing? So suru to yokatta, ) It would have been better to do so do if was-good J that. At times instead of wo, the particle ga is employed with suru used independently, and the signification of the verb is then "to be"; asZutsu ga suru, There is a headache, i.e. I have a headache. Hansho no oto ga suru! There is thefirebell The most frequent use of suru is, however, that of supplying the place of a suffix to nouns of Chinese origin, and other uninflected words. The following are useful illustrations: shimpai suru, to be anxious, from shimpai, anxiety. kenkwa suru, to quarrel,,, kenkwa, a quarrel. ryok6 suru, to travel,,, ryok6, a journey. t6chaku suru, to arrive,,, t6chaku, arrival. If the noun is monosyllabic and terminates in n, the s of suru in the verb formed with it assumes the nigori, and suru becomes jiru, which is made to conform to the paradigm of verbs with stems in i of the Second Conjugation. Thus from the combination of suru with kin, a word of Chinese origin signifying "prohibition," is produced the verb kinjiru, which is inflected like ojiru and not like suru. THE VERB 105 This sometimes occurs even in cases where the termination is other than n. Examples. sonjiru, to spoil, from son, loss. ronjiru, to argue,,, ron, argument. Ojiru, to correspond,,, 6, correspondence. THE EQUIVALENTS OF "to be." To recognise the distinction between the numerous Japanese equivalents of the English verb "to be," and to employ them correctly, is one of the most bewildering tasks which the student has to encounter, and as it is impossible to attain a thorough knowledge of the language until a familiarity with such locutions is attained, the following suggestions and examples are offered with a view to minimising the difficulty:Aru, atta, ar6, etc. These forms are mostly used with the signification "there is," "there was," "perhaps there will be." In many instances their meaning is conveniently rendered by "I (you, etc.) have, had, shall have," the subject in the Japanese construction being replaced by the object in English; thusMizu ga aru, I have (some) water. water there-is If masu is affixed, as arimaslu, arimashita, arimasho, a politer signification is imparted. Still more respectful but identical in meaning are the forms gozaimasu, gozaimashkta, gozaimasho (cf. p. 78). Used with a Gerund, however, arimasu, gozaimasu mean "to be " only, and not "there is "; asKami ni tsutsunde arimasu, l It is wrapped up in paper in having-wrapped is j paper. 4* 106 106 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR This is also the case when gozaimasi' has an adjective associated with it; asYama ga tak6 gozaimasti, Th onani ih moiunt aim high is j h onani ih The Certain Present of aru and of arimasi' are seldom used in this connection accompanied by adjectives in the u or o form as the notion of " to be " is inheren t in the adjective itself. Thus the last sentence would be, in a less respectful form, "Yama ga takai" (see p. 118). De am, de atta, de ar6, etc. (familiar). De arimas-fl, de arimashita, de arimash6, etc. (politer). De gozaimasit, de gozaimashita, de gozaimash6, etc. (politest). These are forms of th e verb " to be " without " there," anDd their signification is therefore simply "I am, he, she, it is," etc., and similarly throughout the conjugation. Desfi is an abbreviation of de, gozaimasl'; deshita of de gozaimashita, and desh6 of de gozaimashr3. Examples. Kore wa nan de amu (or da)? }What is this? this what is (it) Kore de mina desit ka, ~-Is this all? this with all is?J 0-sawagi deshltha, All was in an uproar. uproar (it) was Hiroi-totte kureta wa d6 What sort of a man pick-up-having-taken gave how was it who picked iu hito de atta, J it up? called man was Mazu sore-kkiri de gozaimasil, Well, that is about well that-only it (Zs) I all. Iru and Orm. The real signification of these verbs is "to dwell," "~4to live," "to be (in a certain place)," but they are vmployed mostly as auxiliaries, as explained on p. 93, THE VERB 107 Naru, to be, appears more frequently in the classical language than in the colloquial, although it is not rare to hear the Conditional Form used as an auxiliary with the Indicative tenses of verbs. Thus iku nareba or iku nara, for "(if he goes," are more common than ikeba, and similarly we may say itta nareba or itta nara, for "if he went" or "had gone," instead of ittareba. N.B.-Naru, to be, should be carefully distinguished from naru, to become, which latter may usually be recognised by its being preceded by the postposition ni or to; asChiri tsumotte, yama to naru, Dust piled-up becomes a dust piling-up nmountain b'comes s moutntain (Proverb). Shindai-kagiri ni natta, He bect me bank, Ipqf. Sumr, to do, is at times employed as an equivalent of "to be " (see p. 104). CAUSAL OR CAUSATIVE VERBS. In Japanese there are large numbers of phrase-verbs denoting causation of action, e.g. "cau t a, causing to eat," "causing to read," etc. These causal verbs, or causative verbs, as they are sometimes termed, are formed by the addition of sern to the Negative Base in verbs of the First Conjugation, and by the addition of saseru to the same base in the Second. Many causals are better translated by different words in English, as shiru, to know, causative shiraseru, to inform, i.e. to cause to know. Examples of Causals. First Conjugation. Neg. Base. Causal. yomu, to read, yoma, yomaseru, to cause to read. shiru, to know, shira, shiraseru, to cause to know. tsukuru, to make, tsukura, tsukuraseru, to cause to make. 108 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR eru, to obtain, taberu, to eat, Second Conjugation. First Form. Neg. Base. Causal. e, esaseru, to cause to obtain, i.e. to give. tabe, tabesaseru, to cause to eat, i.e. to feed. Second Form. miru, to see, mi, misaseru, to cause to see. abiru, to bathe, abi, abisaseru, to cause to bathe. The conjugation of all Causals is in accordance with that of the First Form of the Second Conjugation given on p. 60, and they are, in common with other verbs, susceptible of the passive voice; thusCausal. Passive. shiru, to know, shiraseru, to cause to shiraserareru, to be know. caused to know. eru, to obtain, esaseru, to cause to esaserareru, to be obtain. caused to obtain. miru, to see, misaseru, to cause misaserareru, to be to see. caused to see. It must be noted that although there are passive forms of causals, no causal forms of the passive are employed. Thus such constructions as "to cause to be seen," "to cause to be eaten," are inadmissible; the corresponding active being used instead. A sentence like "I will let some books be brought (i.e. I will cause [somebody] to bring some books)" will therefore be changed before translating into "I will cause some books to come," and similarly with other like phrases. It should also be noted that the causals in seru and the transitives in su (First Conjugation) are used indiscriminately. Thus the same speaker will use matashite (from THE VERB 109 matsu, to wait) at one time, and matasete at another, though the former word is, strictly speaking, the correct one. Causal verbs possess various slight divergencies of signification, and their English translation must therefore vary according to circumstances. For example, naosaseru (from naosu, to mend) may be translated "to cause to mend," "to make... (e.g. a servant) mend," "to allow to mend," or "let... mend." In phrases containing Causals the postposition ni is associated with the substantive which denotes the one caused to perform the action, whilst the postposition wo accompanies the substantive denoting the person or thing acted upon. The Causals of the Irregular verbs kuru, shinuru, and suru are respectively kosaseru, to cause to come; shinaseru, to cause to die; and saseru, to cause to do. Examples. Sugu ni kikashlte kudasai, \ Please let me know at-once causing-to-hear condescend j at once. Inu ni niku kuwaseta ka, Did you give the dlog meat made-eat J dog its meat? Shizuka ni sasenakereba, You must make quiet ikenai, Jthem keep quiet.,... I have kept you Taihen ni o matase moshita, I.a e - waiting a dreaddreadfully made-to-wait fully long tzme. Ima onna ni ii-tsikete heya It will be as well now woman commanding room to get the woman no soji wo saseru ga ii, to come and clean cleaning cause-to-do is-good the room. Hayaku kikasete kudasare, APlease let me quickly having-made-hear give ) hear quickly. 1.10 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR AMBIGUOUS VERB-FORMS. It will be observed that in the First Conjugation a large number of verbs have stems terminating in r, and that the same letter also appears in two of the bases (Certain Present and Conditional) in verbs of the Second Conjugation. Owing to this fact beginners are often at a loss to know to which Conjugation a certain verb, e.g. teru, to shine, belongs. Nothing but a thorough mastery of the rules which have been fully set forth in preceding pages relating to the formation and uses of verb-forms can furnish the student with the ability to at once discriminate with accuracy in such cases, and if the remarks and examples in the preceding sections have been carefully followed he would immediately assign the above-mentioned verb-teru-to the First Conjugation, as the stem is ter, the Indefinite Form teri, and the Negative Base tera. In like manner, the verb makeru, to lose, will be recognised as belonging to the Second Conjugation, because the r in this case is part of the termination and not of the stena. Similarly shir-u, to know, is of the First Conjugation, whilst mi-ru to see, is of the Second. A still further degree of difficulty is presented by such pairs of verbs as kaeru (First Conjugation), to return, and kaeru (Second Conjugation), to change; kiru (First Conjugation), to cut, and kiru (Second), to wear; and until some material progress has been made in the language, it will be found difficult to distinguish readily all the forms of, say, kakaru, to hang (intransitive), from those of kakeru, to hang (transitive). The differences existing between the various verbal forms in instances such as those just referred to are clearly and concisely demonstrated in the paradigms appearing on the opposite page. The three verbs shown are all in common use. They are THE VERB I1I Iru (First Conjugation; stem ir), to enter, to go in. Ireru (Second Conjugation, First Form; stem ir), to insert, to put in. Iru (Second Conjugation, Second Form; stem i), to be, to dwell. Iru, to enter. Ireru, to insert. Iru, to be. Indefinite Form. ire iri i ira ire Negative Base. ire Conditional Base. *irere i ire INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. Pos. iru ireru iru VNe iranai irenai inai iran(u) iren(t) in(u) Probable Present or Future. Pos. iro Neg. irumai irey6 iremai iy6 imai Pos. itta Aeg iranakatta. irananda Certain Past. irete irenakatta irenanda ita inakatta inanda Pos. ittaro Neg. i iranakattarc ( iranandar6 Probable Past. iretar6 ) irenakattaro irenandaro itar6 inakattaro inandar6 112 112 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Pos. ittari Neg{ iranakattari g. nndr equentative Form. iretari irenakattari irenandari itari inakattari inandari Desiderative Adjective. Pos. iritai iretai Gerund. Pos. itte irete Neg{ iranakdthe irenakfite g irazu irezu itai ito inakftte izu SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present. Pos. ireba Xe-Iiranakereba Ke. iraneba irereba irenakereba ireneba ireba inakereba ineba Past. Pos. ittara(ba) iretara(ba) itara(ba) Keg. iranakattara(ba) irenakattara(ba) inakattara(ba) ~iranandara(ba) irenandara(ba) inandara(ba) (b) Concessive. Present. Pos. iredo(mo) ireredo(mo) iredo(mo) Ne.~iranakeredo(mo) irenakeredo(mo) inakeredo(mo) iranedo(mo) irenedo(mo) inedo(mo) Past. Pos. ittaredo(mo) iretaredo(ino) itaredo(mo) THE VERB 113 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pos. ire irero l iro Neg. iru-na! ireru-na! iru-na COMPOUND VERBS. The Japanese language is very rich in verbal combinations which partake more or less of a compound character, and these verbal compounds serve in many cases as equivalents for English prepositional verbs, but in others they replace complete phrases; thusbuchi-korosu, to kill by beating (from butsu, to beat, and korosu, to kill.) mi-tstkeru, to fix by seeing, i.e. to notice (from miru, to see, and tsukeru, to fix. In the majority of instances such compounds are formed by using certain verbs as affixes to other verbs and the meaning of the verb employed as an auxiliary is frequently lost, the basal verb receiving merely an increase of force from the association. In compounds consisting of two verbs in juxtaposition, the first component is put in the Indefinite Form, which remains unchanged, whilst the second component is inflected throughout the Conjugation. Usually the second component is modified adverbially by the first, as in kiri-korosu, to kill by cutting, where kiri (from kiru, to cut) denotes the mode of action of korosu, to kill. In some cases, however, each member of the compound contributes its own particular meaning as in wake-ataeru, to give in shares, from "to divide" and "to give." The verbs of most frequent recurrence as second members of compounds are 114 114 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR 1. Dasu. This usually denotes the action of commencing, coming out or taking out; asokoru, to get angry, naku, to cry, furu, to fall (of rain, snow, etc.), hashiru, to run, tsilikuru, to compose, to grow, omou, to think, tomi, to take, okori-dasu, to begin to get angry. naki-dasu, to begin to cry. furi-dasu, to begin to rain. hashiri-dasu, to run oat. tsiikuri-dasu, to produce, to bring forth. omoi-dasu, to recall to mind. tori-dasu, to take out. 2. Kiru. The literal meaning of this verb is " to cut," but as the second member of a compound it usually denotes completeness or totality; as kariru, to hire, kau, to buy, shimeru, to shut up, OMOU, to think, kXLari-kiru, to hire the whole (of a building, etc.). kai-kiru, to buy up the lot (of goods, etc.). shime-kiru, to shut up completely (a shop for alterations, etc.). omoi-kiru, to decide finally. 3. Komu. This verb has the sense of the English " in " or " into "; thus tobu, to jump, furu, to fall, kiru, to cut, agaru, to rise, tobi-komu, to jump in. furi-komu, to come in (said of rain, snow, etc., coming into a house). kiri-komu, to cut into. agari-komu, tojforce a way up into. THLE ADJECTIVE15 115 4. Sokonau. This implies failing to do something, or just escaping something; thuskiku, to hear-, miru, to see, kaku, to write, shinuru, to die, kiki-sokonau, to fail in, hearing, i.e. to hear,) wrongly. mi-sokonau, to fail in seein~g, i.e. to see wrongly. kaki-sokonau, to fatil in wmriting, i.e. to miake an? err-or (in writing). shini-sokonau, to fatil in dying, i.e. to barely escape death. 5. Tsiiikeru. Tfs~ikerll means literally " to fix, " " to affix" henceiu, to say, ii-tstikeru, to fix byt sayiing, i.e. to command. kaku, to write, kaki-tsfikeru, to fix by writing, i.e. to jot do wn. kiku, to hear-, kiki-tsfikeru, to fix by hearing, i.e. to happen to hear. miri, to see, mi-tstdkeru, to fix by seeing, i.e. to notice. tataku, to knock, tataki-tsfikeru, to fix by knocking, i.e. to knock on. THE ADJECTIVE. In Japanese, the words and locutions employed to describe, limit or define the significations of substantives differ coiisiderably in construction and modes of use from those fulfilling similar functions and termed " Adjectives " in Western languages. Thus Japanese adjectives ignore all distinctions of number and gender, as well as the ideas 116 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR denoted in English by the degrees of comparison. They have, however, inflectional forms, which, so far as they extend, are almost identical with those of verbs. I. PRIMARY INFLECTIONS. The crudest and most elementary form of the adjective is what may be termed the "Stem." From the Stem by the agglutination of affixes are produced the various adjectival words and phrases which are used as simple adjectives, adverbial adjectives, and verbal adjectives; thus(a). By adding i to the Stem, the simple adjective is produced, and this form is both attributive and predicative, being employed either attached directly to a substantive or else at the end of a phrase, with the English verb "to be " understood. For example, from the Stems fika and atsu are formed the simple adjectives fdfkai, deep, and atsui, thick, which may be used thus:Attributive. Predicative. Frkai kawa, a deep river. Kawa ga ftikai, the river is J deep. stsui kami, thick paper. Kami ga atsui, the paper is thick. N.B.-In predicative phrases like the two above, ga must not be regarded as corresponding to the word "is." It is a particle serving approximately to indicate the nominative case (see p. 36). The terminal i of the adjective in the attributive relation is a contraction of a somewhat obsolete form in ki. The complete syllable is still retained in formal speeches and in some proverbs, as for instance in Furuki wo tazunete, atarashiki, w t Old (things) studying new (things) leaned by st wo shi, learned by studywo shiru, n the old kIows gl the old. ~nows v THE ADJECTIVE 117 The attribute form in ki is also used in the words gotoki, similar, like, and in the termination beki. The terminal i of the adjective in the predicative relation is a contraction of an archaic form in ski. In some phrases the complete syllable is still in use; thusYoshi! Yoshi I All riaqht! (literally. is good. Kurasa wa kurashi! darkness (it is) dark Kizukai nashi, is-not _ _ v \ I/ O is good). ) It is dar~k (and no mistake) I -} T7e^e is no case or alarm. When employed attributively the adjective is sometimes accompanied by the postposition no which serves to convey the idea of the English indefinite pronoun "one." In this connection no is probably an abbreviation of mono, thing; thusWarui no, A bad one. Akai no, A red one. Akai n o bakari aru, ' There are only red ones. red only is j Examples of the Attributive and Predicate uses of Adjectives. Awoi kao, face Yoi onna, Warui no da, bad one is Samui koto! cold thing Tenki wa yoroshi, weather is-good Nawa ga nagai, rope is-long ) A paleface. } ) A good woman. It is a bad one. How cold it is! The weather is fine. } The rope is long. J I 118 118 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR (b). By adding km to the Stem there is produced a form which is employed in cases where a verb other than gozaimasi' follows. This form is also used as an adverb corresponding very often, thongh not invariably, to an English adverb in " ly.", When adverbial it is followed by the verb which it modifies. Examples. Yoku dekita, I smd el well I smd el Kawa ga fiikakn mi emasu, T he river looks deep. river deep looks J Yasuku dekimashYta, It is made cheaply. Hayaku kite kudasai, }Please come quickly. quickly (c). When gozaimas%'- is used a form of the adjective in o or u is employed, this form being deduced from that in kmt by first discarding k and then combining into one syllable the final vowel of the stem and the it remaining from km. In cases where the adverbial form of an adjective terminates in iku the k is rejected, but no further change is made. Examples. nagaku (from nagai, long) becomes nagau, and then nage3 yoroshiku (,yoroslhi, good),, yoroshi i,, yoroshiii. hlroku (,hiroi, wide),, hirou,, hirJ. yasuku (,yasui, cheap),, ycsuu., asii. Kawa ga fauk go~zaimasti, The river is deep. Kono hon wa goku takb very deter This book is very dear. gozaimasti, Kami ga ats-ti gozaimash65, The paper is probably thick. Mada hayod gozaimasentL ka, Isinoeal et yet earlyIsinoeal t THE ADJECTIVE 119 The student should note that the verb "to be" is affected equally with other verbs by the rule by which a verb must be preceded by the form in itz, so that it is quite allowable to say, for example: Ano kawa ga fukaku thot river deep That river is deep. gozaimasu, J Kami ga atsuku T The paper will probably be gozaimashi, thin. The use of the adverbial form is governed by a Rule somewhat analogous to that given for the employment of the Indefinite Form of verbs (p. 80). This rule is generally followed only in set speeches, and by pedantic speakers, and is as follows: "Where in English two or more adjectives are coupled together by the conjunction 'and' (expressed or understood), all but the last assume the adverbial form in a'u;" thusAno utsukushiku chisai pretty little } That pretty little child. kodomo, child Kami no ke ga kuroku, j head of hair black A man with black hair me ga akai otoko, f and brown eyes. eyes brown man j It should be observed, however, that the foregoing rule is now rarely heeded in conversation, the sentence generally receiving some other construction; thusHako mo yoroshikereba, also whereas-is-good The box is good and nedan mo yasui, cheap, price also (is) cheap 120 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR It will have been observed that the adjectival inflections are all affixed to stems terminating in one of the vowels a, i, o or u, no stems in e being found in modern Colloquial. In a few instances this stem is used alone, as, for example, Shiro, White (a dog's name), and in one or two phrases such asMakkuro ni natta, It has become perfectly black. Naga no toshi tstki, Long months and years. The stem is used most frequently in helping to form compounds; asAka-gane, copper, from akai, red, and kane (nigoried), metal. Shiro-kane, silver,,, shiroi,white,, kane. Hoso-nagai, slender,,, hosoi, narrow,, nagai, long. Nagasaki, "long-cape" (the name of a place) from nagai, and saki, a cape. From a consideration of the foregoing principles it is now possible to formulate a table of the primary adjectival inflections in modern colloquial use, and as illustrations we have chosen the adjectives nagai, long; yoroshii, good; hiroi, wide; and furui, old, i.e. one for each of the four vowels a, i, o, u with which, as has been mentioned before, adjective stems terminate. Stem. Simple Adverbial Predicate Adj. Form. with "to be." long, naga, nagai, nagaku, nag6. good, yoroshi, yoroshii, yoroshiku, yoroshiu. wide, hiro, hiroi, hiroku, hiro. old, furu, funi, furuku, furu, THE ADJECTIVE 121 II. SECONDARY INFLECTIONS. In addition to the primary inflections just discussed, the adjective has tense and mood inflections like true verbs. These secondary inflections are produced in most cases by affixing various forms of aru, to be, to the adverbial form in ku, certain orthographical modifications, chiefly phonetic, occurring as will be observed from a comparison of the following table with the paradigm of the First Conjugation, to which aro belongs. The Imperative forms are not inserted, as they are never heard in practice. Furui, old. INDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. furui, \ is old, or will be old. (Polite jorm), furf, gozaimasau, Probable Present or Future. furukar, i probably is old, prob(Polite), furi gozaimash6, ably will be old. Certain Past. furukatta, tw (Polite), furf gozaimashita, Probable Past. furukattaro, ) furukattar, rwas probably old. (Polite), furu gozaimashitar6, w Frequentative Form. furukattari, being sometimes old. Gerund. furukAte, being old, 122 122 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (a) Conditional. Present. furukereba, Past. furukattara(ba), if (it) is old. if (it) had been old. (b) Concessive. furukeredo(mo), though (it) is old. III. NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES. A highly important and frequently used adjective is that termed "the negative adjective nai" whose real signification is " non-existent." It is generally employed as an equivalent for the negative conjugation of aru, to be, and also at times to render the notion of the English preposition "without." The inflections of nai are shown in the following'table. Primary. A ttributive: nai. Predicate: nai (rarely nashi). Adverbial: naku. N.B.-The contracted form no is not in ordinary use. Secondary. INDICATIVE MOOD. nai, Certain Present or Future. is not, or will not be. Improbable Present or Future. nakar6, nakar6, probably is not or will not 6e, THE ADJECTIVE 123 Certain Past. nakatta, was not. Improbable Past. nakattar6, probably was not. (And so on, through all the forms shown in the paradigm of adjectives on p. 121.) Affixed to the adverbial form of adjectives, nai serves to produce their negative conjugation; thusINDICATIVE MOOD. Certain Present or Future. furuku nai, is not old, will not be old. Improbable Present or Future. furuku nakar6, probably is not, or will not be old. Certain Past. furuku nakatta, was not old. Improbable Past. furuku nakattaro, probably was not old. (And so on through the remaining tenses and moods.) In polite intercourse, however, for the negative conjugation in nai there is usually substituted another with the verb gozaimasen, not to be; thusCertain Present or Future. furi gozaimasen, is or will not be old. Improbable Present or Future. furt gozaimastmai, probably is not or will not be old. (And so on through the remaining tenses and moods.) 124 124 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR N.B. Care must be taken to distinguish adjectives in the negative form from positive adjectives like, e.g., abunai, dangerous, which happens to terminate in nai. The negative of abunai is abunaku nai which follows the paradigm in the preceding table, and similarly with s~flkuuai, scarce; kitanai, dirty; etc. Examples of Adjectival Inflections. Amari muzukash-i, }It is too difficult. too i8-difjicult Go tsug6 ga o warukereba, convenience if-is-bad o yoshi nasaimashY, cease condescend Wakarailai, }If it is not convenient, please don't do it. I don't understand. Kuroktite yoroshi, Its being black is convenient. being-black~ is-goodJ Mi~nichi tenki ga, to-morrow weather If it is fine to-morrow, I yorosh-ikereba mairimasti, will come. if-good will-come J Shiraiiakereba sensaku if-not-know shiniashui, will-do enquiry Abunakeredo shikata though-dangerous ga nai, Samuk-fte tamarimasen-q, being-cold (cannot) endure Sugu iii kawanaktite at -once not-buying narimase-nti, does-not-do }If he does not know, Iwill make enquiries. IThough dangerous, it cannot be helped. It is so cold I cannot enidure it. I Some must be bought at once. THE ADJECTIVE12 125 IV. COMPOUND AND IDERIVED ADJECTIVES. T[his class is very numerous. Trhey are formed mostly upon definite principles and as their meanings can be easily obtained from the dictionary a few only of their leading characteristics need be discussed here. I. A number of derived adjectives are produced by affixing to substantives the terminiation rashii (literally, " like " or " apjpearance ") which corresponds to the Elnglishl terminations -is/c and -ly; as otoko, man?, hont6, truth, baka, fiool, II. Substantives as adjectives; as otoko-rashii, li/ke a m2anl, i.e. manly. honto-rashii, like the truth, i.e. truth- seeming. baka-rashii, fooish. followed by the postposition no serve kin, gold, makoto, truth, gwaikoku, foreign parts, konaida, a short while ago, Fftiransu, France, kin no, of gold, i.e. golden. makoto no, of' truth, i.e. truthful, true. gwaikoku no, foreign. konaida no, recent. Thiransu no, q/ France, i.e. French. IlI. Some adjectives are produced from nouns by affixing to thme latter the syllable na, which is all abbreviation of naru, to be, and which must be distinguished from naru, to become; thus muda, uselessness, baka, fool, shizuka, quiet (noun), akiraka, bright muda na, useless. baka na, fool-being, i.e. foolish. Shizuka na, quiet (adj.). akiraka na, bright 126 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Belonging to this class are a large number of words which are produced by agglutinating s6, appearance, to the stems of simple adjectives or to the Indefinite Form of verbs; thus oishii, nice to eat, omoshiroi, interesting, aru, to be, ochiru, to fall, oishis6 na tasty. omoshiroso na, interesting-looking. ariso na, likely to be, in existence probably. ochis6 na, likely to fall. IV. Many locutions are in use, consisting chiefly of substantives (and indefinite verbal forms used as such) followed by no, of, and a simple adjective, as ashi no hayai (literally, "quick of foot"), swift. Examples of these areishi no 6i, abounding of stone, i.e. stony. me no chikai, near of eye, i.e. short-sighted. iji no warui, bad of spirit, i.e. ill-tempered. mimi no toi, distant of ear, i.e. deaf. wakari no hayai, quick of understanding, i.e. quickwitted. V. Not infrequently present and past forms of verbs are in practice employed adjectivally. Thus dekiru and dekinai signifying "able to do" and "not able to do," when employed as adjectives, serve to render the English "possible" and "impossible." The following are exemplifications: mieru, to appear, yomeru, reads (intrans.), shireta, was knowable futotta, has become fat choito shita, did slightly, hence 5,, visible. legible. self-evident. fat. slight. THE ADJECTIVE 127 tsumi no ar, is of guilt hence guilty. aita, has become open,,, open. tai shita, did great,,, important. nakereba naranai (lit. if it is not, won't do), hence, indispensable. ki no kiita (lit. spirit of, was efficacious), hence, sharpwitted. These examples are all attributive in form, but most of them may be used predicatively at the end of a phrase. In such connections, however, ga must be substituted for no, and the simple past tense in ta must be replaced by the compound present in.. te iru (p. 93); thusKono daiku wa, ki ga, A carpenter spirit This carpenter is sharpkiite iru, f witted. being-efficacious J Sono hito wa, fAtotte iru, ) That person is /t. that fat Needless to mention, the polite inflection in mast may always be substituted for the simple verb. Except when addressing inferiors, this substitution invariably takes place; thus the preceding examples would become, in polite conversation: Kono daiku wa, ki ga kiite imasu (or orimasu), and Sono hito wa futotte imasu (or orimasa). N.B.-Adjectives of this class terminating in shita (as choito shita) are never employed predicatively. V. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. In English the degrees of comparison are expressed by the terminals in -er and -est, or by a succession of auxiliaries of relation-"more," and "most," but in Japanese the 128 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR adjective undergoes no change of form for this purpose, the idea being conveyed in the following ways:(a) Comparative Degree.-Two things only, being compared, that with which the comparison is made is marked by the postposition yori, than; thusYou are WataktLshi yori, anata o oku gozaimast,,gYer I than, you big arean I. ] than I. Iku yori wa ikanai, going than not-going It is better not to go than ho ga yoroshi, } to go. side is-good J Frequently in sentences similar to the first quoted above, the first part is discarded if no ambiguity is occasioned thereby; thus, anata wa o 6kfu gozaimasft, you are the bigger, or anato no ho ga o okA gozaimast, your side is big. In negative sentences hodo (literally, "quantity," "amount") is substituted for yori; thusMustiko hodo okiku wa nai, ) He is not so tall as son tall is-not his son. The fact that a certain thing possesses a given quality or attribute in a greater degree than another thing is sometimes expressed by such adverbs as motto, more, or nao, yet, still, as motto nagai, more long, i.e. longer, still longer; nao takai, yet dear, i.e. dearer, still dearer. Examples. Sore wa nao yoroshiu that still good that still good That is still better. gozaimasu, is Motto o make nasai, } Please make it a little more cheapen deign J cheaper. NUMERALS 129 To express "the " with a repetition of the comparative, the word hodo is employed; asMijikai hodo wa, yoros The shorter the better. short amount is-good (b). Superlative Degree. To denote the extreme degree of quality, such words as ichi-ban, number one, and dai ichi, first, principal, are employed; asKore wa ichi-ban nagai, Thsiss the longest. this no. 1 is-long Kore ga ichi-ban siki da, I like this best. Various other locutions are used to convey the idea of the Superlative among which are those with the words uchi and naka (literally, among, in); asYotsu no uchi ni kore wa, four among this This is the prettiest of ichiban kirei de, the four. no. 1 pretty gozaimast, Naka ni sore wa takai, Tht is the highest. among that is high Very frequently, however, the first part of sentences similar to the above, is discarded, thus when making an enquiry as to prices, a Japanese will not say "which is the cheapest," but "which is cheap" (dochira ga yasui), meaning "which is cheap as compared with all the others." NUMERALS. METHODS OF COMPUTATION. I. CARDINAL NUMERALS. In Japanese the methods of enumeration and computation are much more complicated and lengthy than in most European languages. Usually in grammars of the latter JAPANESE GRAMMAR 5 130 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR tongues the treatment of numbers is discussed in connection with the adjective, but in Japanese, numerals are rather substantival in character although owing to various characteristics peculiar to themselves they are generally regarded as forming a separate part of speech. Two series of numerals are in use, one of Japanese origin and the other borrowed from the Chinese. Except in a few compound words the Japanese group are now obsolete for the numerals above ten. Those remaining in common use are: 1. HItotsu. 2. ffitatsu. 3. mitsu. 4. yotsu. 5. itsUtsu. 6. mutsu. 7. nanatsu. 8. yatsu. 9. kokonotsu. 10. t6. These ten numbers may be used (a) quite independently; (b) following a noun; or (c) followed by the postposition no preceding a noun. They are seldom placed before a noun without no being inserted between. ThusIkutsu gozaimasti ka, How many are there? how-many are (there) J Mitsu, Three. Mono fttatsut, Two things (or) Futatsti no mono, J Yotsu bakari, kudasai, l Please let me have four four about condescend J or so. The termination tsi is rejected before nouns of Japanese origin and in compounds; thusMi-hako, Three boxfuls. Yo-hako, Four boxes. Fita-ban, Two nights. Mi-tsutumi, Three parcels, NUMERALS13 131 The Chinese group of' numerals is: 1.- ichi. 5. go. 2. ni. 6. roku. 3. san. 7. shichi. 4. shi. 8. hachi. 9. ku. 10. iii. 1 00. hyaku. 1,000. sen. 10,000 man or ban. Icid is also used to signify " whole, all," as ichi-ni onie day; all day lon~g. Ni is often replaced by ryb, both, as ry6 san nin, two or three people. The higher numbers are expressed by combinations of the first ten Chinese numerals; thus 12. juL-ni. 13. jfit-sani. 14. jili-shi. 15. jfi-go. 16. jfit-roku. 18. jfil-hachi. 19. jili-ku. 20. nii-jUt. 21. ni-jili-ichi. 22. m-uni-U]R. 23. ni -jil-san. 24. ni-j a —shi. 25. nij-jl-go. 26. ni-jft-roku. 27. ini-jili-sh'ichi. 28. ni-jii-hachi. 29. ni-jfi-ku. W0 san-DjnU. 31. san-jili-ichi, etc. 40. shi-jilt. 50. goJ-ju. 60. roku-jill. 70. sh-ichi-jat 80. hachi-jil. 90. k u-jilt. 100. ip-pyaku (for ichi hyaku). 200. ni-hyaku. 300. sam-byaku (for san hyaku). 400. shi-hyaku. 500. go-hyaku. 600. rop-pyaku (for roku hyaku). 700. shichi-hyaku. 800. hap-pyaku (for hachi hyaku). 900. ktu-byaku. 10,000. ichi-man. 100,000. jfi-man. 1,000,000. hyaku-maD, 132 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR 105 is hyaku go. 473 is shi-hyaku shlchi-jui-san. 1898 is is-sen hap-pyaku ku-jui hachi. The first ten of the Chinese numbers are only used independently, and to precede uncompounded or monosyllabic nouns derived from the Chinese; as ichi-nen, one year; san-gin (for san-kin) three pounds; sam-byaku (for san-hyaku) three hundred. The orthographical modifications which occur will be best understood from the examples on p. 133 et seq. In many contexts the Japanese numeral yo, four, is substituted for the Chinese shi as the latter is regarded as unlucky because it also means " death "; asyo-nin, four persons (instead of shi-nin, which means "dead person," i.e. "corpse"). ni-ju yo-ban, number 24. Similarly the Japanese nana, seven, is sometimes substituted for the Chinese shichi as the latter is easily confounded with shi, four; thusnana-jis-sen, seventy cents. II. AUXILIARY NUMERALS. We have seen that in some cases the numeral is joined directly to the noun, e.g. futa hako, two boxes; ichi-nichi, one day. It is, however, very seldom that the numbers are thus used, and in enumerating objects the Japanese generally reckon them as so many things of a certain species or class, the substantive being placed first, the number and class following. For example, the word "pencil" will come under the category of the cylindrical NUMERALS 133 class of objects which includes pencils, pens, poles, and the like, and for this group the class-name or "auxiliary numeral," as it is termned, is "lion." Thus in rendering "five pencils" we should say "pencil five cylindrical class," and translate by fude go hon. pencil five cylindrical-class. Similarly, the auxiliary numeral for.fiat, broad things such as sheets oJ' p)aper, plates, coins, etc., being " mai " we shall translate " one sheet of paper " by kami ichi nIai. paper one flat -ciass. This peculiarity is somnewhat analogous to the English idiom illustrated in such expressions as "three pairs of shoes," "a hundred head of cattle," "two brace of pheasants," " one yoke of oxen," etc. The following scheeme shows the priicipal auxiliary numerals now in use, with the phonetic modifications which occur when they are combined with the numbers. ChM, for things wvith handles, such as tools, gun1s, jin rik ishas: i. it-cU 4cl. shi-clico 7. shiehi-clic ) 2. ni-cho 5. go-cho 8. hat-ch i( 3. san.-chc5 6. roku-ch6 9. ku-chc) 10. jit-cho Hai, for cupfuls, glassfuls, and bow~1Ads of any liquid: 1. ip-pai 4. shi-hai 7. shichi-hai 2. ni-hai 5. go-hai 8. hachi-hai 3. sam-bai 6. roku-hai 9. kn-hai 10. jip-hai 134 134 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Hiki, for most animals (excepting human beings and birds); also for certain quantities of textile, materials and sums of money: 1. ip-piki 4. shi-hiki 7. shichi-hiki 2. ni-hiki 5. go-hiki 8. hachi-hiki 3. sam-biki 6. rop-piki 9. ku-hiki 10. jip-piki Hon, for cylindrical things such as p posts, masts 1.- ip-pon 4. shi-hon 7. 2. ni-hon 5. go-hon 8. 3. sam-hon 6. rop-pon 9. 10. jip-pon Ken, for houses, and buildings in general: 1. ik-ken 4. shi-ken 7. 2. ni-ken 5. go-ken 8. 3. san-gen 6. rok-ken 9. 10. jik-ken,encils, Pillars, shichi-hion hachi-hon ku-hon shichi-ken hachi-ken ku-ken Mai, for fiat coins, clothing: 1. ichi-mai 2. ni-mai 3. sam-mai objects such as sheets of paper-, plates, 4. yo-mai 7. shichi-mai 5. go-mai 8. hachi-mai 6. roku-mai 9. ku-mai 10. J ui-mai Nim, for human beings 1. ichi-nin 2. ni-nmn 3. san-nin 4. yo-nin* 5. go-nmn 6. roku-nin 10. j ut-nin 7. shichi-nin 8. hachi-mni 9. ku-nim * See p. 132. NUMERALS 135 So for boats, and vessels generally: 1. is-so 4. shi-so 7. shichi-so 2. ni-so 5. go-so 8. hachi-so 3. san-zd 6. roku-so 9. ku-so 10. jis-so Soku, for pairs of boots, sandals, clogs, socks: 1. is-soku 4. shi-soku 7. shichi-soku 2. ni-soku 5. go-soku 8. hachi-soku 2. san-zoku 6. roku-soku 9. ku-soku 10. jis-soku Wa, for birds, and bundles (of wood, etc.): 1. ichi-wa 4. shi-wa 7. shlchi-wa 2. ni-wa 5. go-wa 8. hachi-wa 3. sam-ba 6. rop-pa 9. ku-wa 10. jip-pa NOTE.-Roku-wa is sometimes used for rop-pa. For "volumes" of a book the auxiliary is satsu, but for complete copies of a work, regardless of the number of volumes in it, it is bu. It will be observed that all the foregoing examples of auxiliary numerals are Chinese, with the exception of wa which has been inserted because it invariably has associated with it the Chinese numerals ichi, ni, etc. The native auxiliary numerals are comparatively few in number, the only ones calling for notice being: Hashira, for Shinto deities. Kabu, for shrubs. Kumi, for sets of things like toys and clothes. Ma, for rooms. Mune, for ridge-like things such as houses, haystacks. Suji, for line-like things such as rivers, roads. Soroe, for suits of clothes, armour. 136 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR The Japanese numbers below eleven are used to precede the above native auxiliaries; thus fuita-hashira; hito-soroe; mi-ma. From eleven upwards the Chinese numbers are used, without any phonetic modifications taking place; thus ji-ni-hashira; ni-ju-soroe; shi-jA-ma. The Japanese forms hitotsu, fitatsu, etc., are employed to enumerate objects to which no special auxiliary numeral has been assigned. In the Classical form of the language the Japanese numbers are employed to enumerate rational beings, and when thus used, the numbers have affixed to them the syllable tari, the origin of which is unknown. In the Colloquial, of these words only the following are retained: hitori (for hito-tari) one person. filtari (for futta-tari) two persons. yottari, (for yo-tari) four persons. The Chinese synonyms of these (i.e. ichi-nin, etc.,) are also used, but less frequently. Examples (Auxiliary Numbers). Ko-gatana ni-cho, Two pen-knives. Suzume ni-wa, Two sparrows. Maki sam-ba, Three bundles of wood. Hon go-satsu, Five volumes (of a book). Gunkan jis-so, Ten men-of-war. Mizu ip-pai kudasai, Give me a glass of water. Kuruma it-cho wo kaitai, I wish to buy a 'riksha. Kutsu is-soku utte kudasai, Sell me a pair of boots. Mekura sen-nin, me-aki For every thousand blind, sen-nin, onther e are a thosand 1000-persons are) who can see (Proverb). NUMERALS 137 III. ORDINAL NUMERALS. The Ordinals are formed by adding me to the Japanese, or ban(bamme) to the Chinese cardinal numbers. The word dai may also be prefixed and bamme added, or dai may be prefixed with no addition, to the Chinese numerals. When preceding a noun, all these forms assume the postposition no; ashitotsu-me, ichi-ban, ichi-bamme, _h'irst. dai-ichi, dai-ichi-ban, dai-ichi-bamme, futatsu-me, ni-ban, ni-bamme, econd. Second. dai-ni, dai-ni-ban, dai-ni-bamme, dai-ichi no isha, the first (chief) doctor. ni-ban no kisha, the second train. sam-ban no fune, the third ship. Frequently dai-ichi-ban or ichi-ban alone, is used to render " number one," and similarly with the other numbers. IV. FRACTIONAL AND MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS. Fractional and Multiplicative quantities are expressed with the aid of the word bu or bun, "a part," and bai, "double"; thussam-bun no ichi, } one-third. sam-bai, treble threesam-bu no ichi, fold. shi-bun no ichi, A one quarter. shi- bai, quadruple, shi-bu no ichi, four-fold. 5* 138 138 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR jii-bun no ichi, }one-tenth, jft-ba, ten-fold. jVL-bu no iohi, sam-bun no ni, \two-thirds. sam-bu no ni, shi-bun no san, ~-three-quarters. shi-bu no san, - hyak bu no i ~twenty-one hundredths. ju ichi, "One-half" is han, or, when employed substantively, ham-bun; as liambun wo ch~dai, Han-ne, Please give me half. Half-price. Sometimes mitsAi ichi is used for "cone-third," and yotsii ichi for " one-fourth," but these are exceptions which have the sanction of custom, such combinations of Japanese and Chinese numerals not being allowed generally. The time of the day and night is expressed by the use of the Chinese word ii, time, hour, with the Chinese numerals prefixed; thus ichi-ji, one o'clock. mi-ji, two san-ji, three 1 yo-ji, four ) go-ui, five roku-ji, sixa' shichi-ji, seven o'clock. hachi-ji, eight ku-ji, nine 3 Ju-ji, ten jui-ichi-ji, eleven JU-ni1-ji, twelve ) A.M. is indicated by prefixing the word gozen, and P.m. by go-go; thusgozen-ku-ji, 9 A.M. go-go jii-ichi-ji, 11 Pm.. To express the minutes the word fun is employed, but DAYS OF THE MONTH 139 the initial f is changed to p in the following combinations: ip-pun, one minute. rop-pun, six minutes. sam-pun, three minutes. jip-pun, ten minutes. San-ji ni-jip-pun, yo-ji jit-go-fun, hachi-ji-han, Examples. twenty m i7utes past three. a quarter (literally, fiftee2n in utes) past four. half-past eiglt. It is not usual to say "ten minutes to three," "a quarter to four," etc., the general practice being to state the number of minutes past the hour; thusni-ji go-jip-pun, 2.50, i.e. ten miSnutes to three. san-ji shi-jIt-go fun, 3.45, i.e. a quarter to fJor. The counting of the days of the month is effected by a mixture of native and Chinese words. In the following table the Japanese words are given in italics and the Chinese in ordinary Roman type: ichi-nichi, tsuitachi, futsutka, mikka, yokka, itsuika, muika, nanuka, y5ka, kokonoka, toka, the first of the month. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th. 8th. 9th. 10th. juf-ichi-nichi, ju-ni-nichi, ju-san-nichi, j u-yokka, j1u-go-nichi, ju-roku-nichi, ju-shichi-nichi, ju-hachi-nichi, ju-ku-nichi, hatsuka, ni-ju-ichi-nichi, 11th. 12th. 13th. 14th. 15th. 16th. 17th. 18th. 19th. 20th. 21st. 140 140 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR nai-ju-ni-nichi, 22nd. ni-jut-shYchi-nichi, 27th. ni-ju-san-nichi, 23rd. ni -jit-hachi-nichi, 28th. ni-ju-yokka, 24th. ni-jfi-ku-nichi, 29th. n'-ju-go-iiichi, 25th. san-juL-nichi, 30th. ni-ju-roku-nichi, 26th. san-jui-ichi-nichi, 31st. gwanjitsu, first day of the year. 5-misoka, last day of the year. misoka, last day of the month (whether the 30th or the 31st). The preceding forms, which are really cardinals, are also used for such phrases as "three days," "fifteen days," etc. For "one day," however, we must say ichi nichi, not tsuitacki, as the latter is derived from tsiiki tachi, the moon rising, i.e. the first day of the moon. Nor can misoka be employed for " thirty days " or " thirty-one, days," although it is derived from miso, thirty, and ka, days, both components being ancient native forms. "tJanuary " is termed sh-gwatsu, literally " chief month," sometimes also ichi-getsir&, literally " one month." The remainder are formed by prefixing the Chinese numbers to the word gwatsu; thusichi-getsuL, Jnay sh-khi-gwatsu, July. shb-gwatsu J hachi-gwatsu, August. ni-gwatsu, February.Y ku-gwatsu, September. san-gwatsu, March. jia-gwatsu, October. shi-gwatsu, April. jti-ichi-gwatsu, November. go-gwatsu, Mlay. jtt-ni-gwatsu, }December. roku-gwatsu, June. shiwastA, "One month," "Cctwo months,") etc. are expressed by prefixing the Japanese numbers to the native word tsi'ki (month); thuis hitotstiki, one month; fifitatsfi~ki, two months; etc. NUMERICAL INTERROGATIONS 14 141 Years are usually reckoned by what are termed " Yearnames " (neng5), i.e. arbitrary periods distinguished with -names arbitrarily chosen. The present period is known as Meiji, which commenced on the 25th January 1868, but the Japanese government adopted the Gregorian Calendar as from 1st January 1873, so that the Japanese year now coincides with the English, and thus begins on the 1st January. 1890, 3i1eiji Ni-i~t-sai?-nen. 1891,,, i-) i-yo-nen. 1892,,, A7 —go-nen.1893,,,iA-jit-rokcu-neni. 1895,, Ai-jii-shachi-nen?. 1897,, San-Ji~-nen. 1898,, Sa n-jFt- ichi- nen. 1899,,, an-jii-ni-nen. 1900,, San-jii-san-nen. Etc. Etc. Thus, to express, for instance, 8th September 1900, in Japanese, we miust say: Mleiji San-jit-san, ku-gwatsut, y~ka, in which it will be observed that the arrangement of the words is exactly the reverse of that in English. Foreign dates are expressed as follows, prefixing the word " Sei-reki " (literally, Foreign Calendar) 8th February 1890 = Seire/ci Issen-happyaku ku-jut-nen, Ni-gwatsu, y~3ka. Interrogations relating to number and quantity are asked by means of the word iku, which, however, is 142 142 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR never employed independently but always in combination; thus JkutsA? Ikura? Ika-hodo {0 Iku-sats-4i? Iku-s6? Jku-tabi? Iku-nin? Iku-tari?J How many? How muck? How many (books)? How many (vessels)? How often? How many (persons)? and so on with all the auxiliary numerals, no phonetic modifications taking place in the latter. The word nani (usually contracted to nan) may be employed in place of iku; thusNan-nin? How many (persons)? Nan-gen? How many (houses)? "How much " is often translated also by dore-hodo? or dono-kurai? as — Dore-hodo hairi masti ka? How muck will it contain? Dono kurai irimasti ka? How muck do you require? The Collective numbers are: Ichi-do, (or) Hito-tabi, Ni-do, Futa-tabi, San-do, Mi-tabi, Yo-tabi, Go-tabi, Itsu-tabi, }Once. }Twice. }Thrice. Four times. }Five times. Roku-tabi, Si ims M u-tabi, ~ Sxtm s Sh~chi-tabi, See tms Nana-tabi, ~ S v ntm s ilachi-tabi, - Ya-tabi, J- Eight times. Ku-tabi, Xietms Kokono-tabi,j Nietm s Jit-tabi, Te ims To-tabi, ~ T n tm s THE ADVERB 143 The following miscellaneous phrases should be noticed:Ftitatsu zutsu, } To t a time. (or) Ni-mai-zutsu, mitsu zutsu, } Three at a time. sam-mai zutsu, ni-do-me, the second time. san-do-me, the third time. dai ni ni, secondly, in the second place. dai san ni, thirdly, in the third place. hitotsu oki, every other one (lit. one omitting). fitatsu mitsu, two or three. go bu, five per cent. ichi-wari, ten per cent. ni-wari, twenty per cent. ni-wari go-bu, 25~L per cent. go-rin, THE ADVERB, CONJUNCTION AND INTERJECTION. NOTE.-The Preposition has been dealt with previously under the head of "Postpositions." I. THE ADVERB. The Japanese language is almost devoid of true adverbs, but the deficiency is amply replaced by numerous words and locutions with functions equivalent to them. Most of these equivalents are nouns, adjectives or verbs, which, by the aid of postpositions and combinatives serve to denote the conditions which limit or distinguish an action or attribute. The following lists contain the principal words performing the office fulfilled by European adverbs, in addition to those mentioned later. 144 144 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR (a). ADVERBS OF PLACE. achir, there, thither. asuko, }there. atode, behind. doko, }where. dokonai, dochir, where, whither. kochir, kochir, here, hither. koko, kokoni, sakini, shitani, sochi, sochira, soko, soko-ni, Soto, uyeni, Iyokoni, }here. before. below. }there, thither. }there. outside. above. across. Examples. Omaye koko iii matte ore, }You wait here. you here waiting remain Danna wa kochira de, master here gozaimasti ka, Doko de sono hako wo o,where that box kai nasatta? buy did Dare ka soto de matsili, someone outside waits Dochira ye o ide de, where go gozaimastl ka, is Y6 ga aru kara, kochi business is because here Q ide, }Is the master (anywhere) here? } Where did you buy that boxv? } Smeone is waiting outside. I Where are you going? } Come here, IHave something for you to do, THE ADVERB14 145 (b) ADVERBS OF TIME. ashita, to-morrow. ima, now. itsu? when? itsudemo, always (with a negative, " never") j ikini, soon. kesa, this morning. k~itsu,} yesterday. kid,5tody konnichi, tody mata, again. mada, still (with a neg. verb, not yet). mettani (with seldom. a negative), rnidnichi, to-morrow". MO, already (with ileg. verb, "4no more"). mdhaya, already. nochihodo, by-and-by. sendatte, some days ago. sudeni, already. SUgu, at once, immediately. tabi tabi, several times. tadaima, presently, immediately. toki, when (relative). yube, last night. A iu hanashi wa called story kikimasen-q, hear M O o kayeri ni na already return ha, Mada ki ya shimasi yet come will-notSakujitsu kita, Examples. metta-ni seldom It is seldom we hear a J story of that kind.,tta, ~ He has already gone s-becote J away.!Mal, }He cannot have come yet. He camze yesterday. Kesa tabemash'ta ringo, The apples I ate this this-maorning ate apples j morning. Midniehi made naorimassifmai, He will not be well by to-morrow till recover-will- not ) to -moi row. Mada haycd gozaimasenil ka, ) Is itnoyeeay yet early is-not no yt ary 146 146 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR S-ugu ni kawa-naktite at-one not-buyi-ng narimasent~, does-not-do Jtsu iku d'ar6? when go will-be Ytibe ame ga futta, last-night rain fell I ome must be bought at once. }When is he likely to go? }It rained last night. (c) ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. amari, }too much. yokeini, bakari, about, only. chitto, choito, ~-a little, slightly. chotto,) donokurai? how much? iku bun ka, more or less, rather. ikura? how, much.? ikutsti? how many? jiubun, enough. motto, more. sappari, wholly. tais6, much, very, taktisan, J enough. zuibuni, a good deal, pretty (as in pretty well). Examples. Sono kasa wa ikura? umbrella how-much Hidgo made donogurai to what-quantity aru? is Amari takai, too-much is-dear Yftbe wa taisa atstikatta, last-night very Jkutsti gozaimasu? Sore de taki-isan, Motto arimnasfi ka, -i How much is that fumbrella? How far is it to Hiogo,? }It is~too much (in price). }Itiwas very hot last night. How many are there? That is enough. Have you any more? THE ADVERB14 147 Chitto 0 kake nasaimashY, }Please sit down a little. a-little _place deign~ Taisd5 nigiyaka de gozaimash-ita, ~-It was very lively. very lively wasJ Kore bakari de taramA d'arc), This alone will not this not-suffice wvill-be J be sufficient. Tais6 iii o kawari -nasatta How very m)uch changed very change done } nie!you are. (d) ADVERBS OF MANNER. d6, howv. damo, howlsoever. goku, vey hanahada, fvri ikaga? how? kyiin this wtay. kitto, positively. makoto, truly, indeed. ma, quite (always combined with the following adjective, of which the initial consonant is doubled, as nialcka (for ma-alca). naze, why? sayomi, }in that way, so. sakasama, upside down. sormami, so. tokoro ga, nevertheless, still. tokoro de, thereupon, and so. yahari, }lo yappari, (emph.)alo yohodo, }very. yoppodo, yokn, well. zehi, positively. Examples. Dare ga so- iimash'ita? Naze hayaku konai? why quickly not-come Sonnani yasuku wa, so cheap uranakatta, did-vot-sell Who said so? }Why don't you come quickly? Ij did not sell it so cheaply as that. 148 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Kono kasa wa goku, this umbrella very 7 is umbrella very This umbrella is very dear. tako gozaimasu, dear is Kona shina ga makoto, } article truly This article is truly cheap. m yasul, is cheap Shinsetsu wa arigatai ga, You kindness thanks very kind, zehi ikaneba naranai, but I must positively positively if-not-go does-not-becomeJ be going. Makka na kao,} A very redface. quite-red face j It will no doubt have been observed that in the preceding tables there are no equivalents for the adverbs of affirmation and negation "yes" and "no." This is owing to the fact that answers to questions in Japanese have not yet been reduced to the simple "yes" or "no" in English. The words he! hei or hai it is true, may mean yes! but they are most frequently employed as ejaculations to signify that the speaker has heard and understood, or that he is paying attention to what is being addressed to him. Thus, when a waiter is summoned he will exclaim hei I merely to notify that he has heard and will come. The word iye (or ie) signifies no! but it is rarely employed except when the speaker desires to emphasise his denial. The simple affirmative yes / is usually rendered by so da, so des% (more respectful), or sayo de gozaimasA (most respectful), all of which mean, literally, "that is so." In familiar intercourse, these are often contracted to the one word sayo. Similarly the counterpart of the simple negative no THE ADVERB 149 is found in so ja nai, and say5 de gozaimasen (more respectful), which mean " that is not so." The same ideas are also conveyed by repeating the verb of the question either affirmatively or negatively; thusMo kimashlta ka, Has he come yet? Sayo de gozaimasti, Yes. () wakari ni narimashita ) understanding has-become Do yotu tuderstan$ d? ka, J Wakarimashita, Yes (I)-have-understood } Wakarimasen, ATo (I) -understand-not The indefinite forms in kit of adjectives are employed adverbially and form counterparts (though not exclusively) for the English adverbs in -ly; as, yasuku, cheaply, easily; hayaku, quickly. Nouns which are rendered adjectival by the addition of no or na, are made to serve as adverbs by substituting ni for no or na; asdaiji ni, carefully. teinei ni, politely. makoto ni, truthfully, really. shinsetsu ni, kindly. shizuka ni, quietly, gently. An adverbial signification is imparted to some words merely by reduplication; thustokoro-dokoro, here and there (tokoro, a place). dan-dan, gradually (dan, a step). ho-bo, everywhere (ho, side, direction). iro-iro, various kinds (iro, sort, kind). toki-doki, sometimes (toki, time). tabi-tabi, often (tabe, a time [French, fois]). nichi-nichi, daily (nichi, day). naka-naka, very, more than one might imagine (naka, inside). 150 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR In numerous instances words which have to be rendered by adverbs or adverbial phrases in English, are the gerunds of verbs, which have passed into use as adverbs; thusdamatte, silently (damaru, to keep silence). hajimete, for the first time (hajimeru, to begin). yorokonde, gladly (yorokobu, to rejoice). kaette, on the contrary (kaeru, to return). machigatte, wrongly (machigau, to err). sadamete, probably (sadameru, to confirm). kesshite (used with a negative verb), never (kesshiru, to determine). The particles de, mo and to are in some cases employed to produce adverbial phrases; thus maru de, quite. waza to, on purpose. tonto mo (with neg. verb), not in the least. don to, with a bang. Onomatopoetic compounds like the English ding-dong, slap-bang, higgledy-piggledy, etc. exist extensively in Japanese, and are usually classed as adverbs. Examples of these are: pon-pon, the sound of a gun. para-para, sound of rain. pisshari, slamming of doors. goro-goro, rolling of thunder. bon-yari, expressive of listlessness. domburi to, falling with a flop. patchiri, sudden breaking. guzu-guzu, complainingly. pika-pika, glitteringly. butsu-butsu, grumblingly. kyan-kyan, yelping like a dog. gata-gata, with a rattling noise. soro-soro, slow or laboured movement. katchiri, with a click. burra-burra, saunteringly. THE CONJUNCTION 151 II. THE CONJUNCTION. In Japanese, conjunctions can scarcely be regarded as a separate part of speech, the service they render in English being performed partly by postpositions, partly by nouns, and partly by conjugational forms of the verb, as has been abundantly demonstrated previously. The most frequently recurring conjunction in most languages-" and" —is sometimes rendered by ni or to as shown on pp. 41 and 45, but in most cases its signification is imparted by merely placing the nouns in juxtaposition, as sake sakana, sake-beer and fish. The necessity for "and" between verbs or clauses is very nearly obviated by the construction with the Indefinite Form or Gerund shown on pp. 79 and 80. "But" at the beginning of a phrase may be translated by shikashi, shikashi nagara, datte, or demo; asIt has begun to rain Hidoi furi ni natte kimashlta; hard; but as it is only shikashi, yudachi desu kara, f a thunder-shower,perjiki agarimasho, haps it will soon clear again. "Or" may be rendered by nari, or by ya, or it may be omitted entirely; thusToka nari, hatstlka nari, Ten or twenty days. Nido ya sando, Two or three times. Go roku nen, Five or six years. "As," used with the signification "in the same manner as " is translated by tori (literally, "way, road "); thusGo zonji no tori, As you know, WatakAshi no iu tori ni nasai, Kindly do as I say. Mae ni mo moshita tori, As Ihave already said. 152 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR III. THE INTERJECTION. The Japanese language is abundantly supplied with words which are used to express some emotion of the mind, but as in other languages the interjection is a nondescript kind of word not entering into-the construction of sentences so that it can hardly be considered as having any grammar. The following are the interjections most frequently heard:A! shows attention, and often assent on the part of a listener. Aa! may express either admiration or grief, and when long drawn out, usually tells of weariness. Aita! a cry of pain. Ara! tells of either joy or fear. Spoken quickly by women it shows surprise. Ai! often answers a call. Dokkoi! or Dokkoisho! is a signal for encouragement like the English, " Now then, altogether!" or " Up with it!" when lifting heavy weights. It is also a sigh of relief when the weight is safely lifted into its place. Domo! shows the speaker to be puzzled, not knowing just what to do. It also expresses astonishment, corresponding somewhat to "Well I never," "Indeed," and "Really." Hate na! equivalent to our "Well I never." Koso! an emphatic particle used to strengthen the word which precedes it. Ma! betokens surprise and wonder like " Oh!" and also entreaty like " Do! do please!" It is used chiefly by women. Naruhodo! has no exact counterpart in English. It stands for attention, surprise, sympathetic wonderment in conversation, and corresponds pretty nearly to "Who THE INTERJECTION 153 would have thought it!" "You don't say so!" Sometimes, when pronounced in an assenting tone of voice it means "Yes, I see," "Oh, indeed," "Really." When someone is telling a long story it is common for listeners to insert a naruhodo! when he pauses for breath. Instead of naruhodo we may say so desu ka? literally, "is that so?" or, less politely, "so ka." Ne! serves to draw attention to a preceding word or clause, something like the English "you know," or the French "n'est-ce-pas?" Oi! is an exclamation used to call the attention of people. Oya! is an expression of astonishment heard chiefly from the mouths of women. Sa! is an exclamation used to urge or hurry anyone. It is often used with say5; thus, sayo sa! "of course," " yes." Yo! indicates address to some one. It is also often used at the end of a sentence to show emphasis. Yai! betokens terror. Y! an expletive accompanying expressions of profound contempt. Ya! shows pleasurable excitement over what is being witnessed. It is often heard in theatres as an expression of applause. Zo! at the end of a sentence gives it a strong emphasis. Examples. Oi! Kurumaya! michi ga I say, jinriksha-man! are I-say 'rikesha-man road you not going the wrong chigai wa shinai ka, way mistake not do? J Hiogo to iu tokoro wa to place distant Is Hiigo far from here? gozaimast ka, 154 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Say6 sa! Hate na! Kino no asa Tokyo ye dashita henji ga mo kuru waka da ga, Ikaga de gozaimasi? Kitsuenjo de ip-puku itashimasho ka, Sa o tomo itashimasho, Ma! Y6 gozaimasen ka, Oya! kwaji to miete, hansha conflagration fire-bell wo utteru ga, M6 ku-ji sugi da, Naruhodo! Aa! sappari shimashita! Oi! kyuji, hi wo o-kure, waiter light J That it is! Of course it is! I can't make it outt I There should be a reply to the letter I sent to Tokio yesterday morning. Suppose we go and have a pipe in the smokeroom? All right, come along! Oh! why hurry so? IHalloo! there appears to be a fire; they are ringing the fire-bell. It's past nine o'clock. You don't say so! Ah! Ifeel quite refreshed. Waiter! oblige me with a light. } } HONORIFICS. Probably the most perplexing task which the student of Japanese finds in his path is the attainment of a correct use of the honorific and humble forms of expression which permeate the entire language. In social intercourse, whether between servant and master, host and guest, men and women, or parents and children, various alternatives are provided in the grammar and vocabulary to indicate the relations of superior and inferior, real or formal, and although the subject of honorifics has been incidentally referred to in many places previously, it has been considered desirable to defer until now the full and detailed explication of their leading characteristics. HONORIFICS 155 Although it is impossible to formulate precise rules for the employment of honorific idioms, the following main principles may be said to underlie their Japanese usage. I. In speaking to equals, or to any persons except intimate friends or one's own servants, the honorific forms are used. II. In speaking of oneself or one's own possessions the honorific forms are never employed. III. In speaking of absent persons (the third person in English) custom varies. Should the person spoken about be decidedly superior in rank to the person spoken to, or should he be present and at least an equal, then honorifics are used. Speaking generally, the beginner in the study of the language should avoid the forms of address set apart for the speech of superiors to inferiors, and even in conversation with his own servants he would do well to employ at least polite verbal forms, that is, the forms inflected with the verb mas/i. He should not, of course, employ honorific forms in intercourse with decided inferiors, but for all relationships, except those of his immediate family and of intimate friends polite verbal forms are appropriate. Respect and humility are denoted in the following ways: 1. By honorific prefixes. 2.,, suffixes. 3.,, special honorific and humble nouns, pronouns, and verbs. I. HONORIFIC PREFIXES. The prefixes o and go are employed with nouns, adjectives and verbs to indicate respect. Usually, though not invariably, these prefixes denote that the words with 156 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR which they are associated are in the Second Person, or refer to something connected with the person addressed, and thus by their use, the necessity for the employment of pronouns of the Second Person is largely obviated. Thus o taku and go shochi will generally signify respectively "your house" and "your consent," without the intervention of a pronoun. 0 being a word of Japanese origin is usually prefixed to native words, whilst go, a Chinese importation, is generally used before words borrowed from the Chinese, although neither of these rules is without exceptions. Subject to the restrictions laid down on page 155, o and go may be applied to the third person, thus o rusui may signify either "your absence," or "his absence"; go son, "your loss," or "his loss"; etc. Sometimes, in order to render the phrase still more respectful, the word sama, Mr, is superadded; thus Maido go yakkai sama each-time (hon.) help Mr desi, is 0 kage sama, sukkari shade Mr quite naoimashlte gozaimasu, recovered amr Go taikutsu sama, } It tedium Mr } 0 kinodoku sama de poison-of-spirit gozaimasti, is I I am much obliged to you for your continual help. I have quite recovered; thanks for your kind enquiries (more literally, "thanks for your influence "). must be tedious for you. I am sorry for it on your account. NOTE.-Zannen is substituted for kinodoku to express regret on one's own account. HONORIFICS 157 In such sentences as the following beginners are often at a loss to account for the use of o and go, which at first sight seem to be employed in contravention of Rule II. on page 155. 0 itoma moshimasho, l I think I must now take (Iwn.) leave will-probably-say i my leave. 0 tomo itashimash6, | I should like to go with (hon.) companion will-probably-do J yoult. 0 jama wo itashimashita, iExcuse mefor having (hon.) interference did interrupted you. Ato kara go aisatsu wo' afterwards (hon.) answer I will sened my answier moshimasho, afterwards. will-say Go shiu wa ikaga de (hon.) sake how lMay I ofier you some sakegozaimasu, { beer? is In constructions such as the above, one might naturally infer that the honorifics are being applied by the speaker to himself, but this is not the case. He intends by their use to convey the idea that his answer, his refreshment, his companionship, and even his interference are dignified by their being associated with the person to whom lie is speaking. In some cases the honorifics are used, especially by women and members of the lower classes, not as a token of respect for the person addressed, but with honorific intent for the things to which they are applied. This usage originates probably in the ancient deification of the objects represented, or from the use of the words in connection with deified objects, 158 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR The following are examples:tea, o cha. the sun, o tento sama. hot water, o yu. the moon, o tsiki sama. cold water, o hiya. the weather, o tenki. soup, o tsuyu. cash, o ashi. food, go zen. money, o kane. a tray, o bon. a funeral, o tomurai. 0 is also frequently associated with adjectives; thusDanna wa, o isogashifu Master (hon.) busy My master is busy. gozaimasti, is Yohodo o kirei destk, It is very pretty. very (hon.) pretty is 0 wak6 gozaimasu, You are young. The locution o saki (or o saki ye) is employed with two distinct meanings. It may be an apology for going on in front of a person, like our "please excuse me for going first (upstairs, etc.)," or it may mean "you go first, please." II. HONORIFIC SUFFIXES. Gata and tachi, the plural suffixes, are employed to convey a moderate degree of respect, whilst shiu expresses still less. Ra and domo have no honorific meaning. Sama (more commonly san) corresponds to the English Mr and Sir, and is placed after the name, description or title in addressing, or speaking about, superiors; thusIkeda san, Mr Ikeda. Koshi sama, The Minister (plenipotentiary). )anna san, Sir (used by servants, to or of, masters, or a tradesman to a customer, HONORIFICS 159 At times the Chinese word Kun (literally, Prince) is substituted for sama and san; thus Kanda Kun, Mr Kanda. Members of Parliament, and students generally, employ it in referring to each other. Very recently San has passed into common use indifferently for Air, MIrs or Miss in cases where no misconception can arise, although our words Alrs and Miss are generally rendered by such periphrases asKanda, san no okisama, ) as Kanda. Kandda Mr of, lady Kanda san no ojosan } MissKanda. young-lady The personal names of women (corresponding to European Christian names) are preceded by the honorific o and followed by san, but in familiar intercourse the latter word is generally omitted. In the majority of instances these feminine names are taken from natural objects, preferably those of an elegant or pleasing nature; thus0 Hana San, Miss Blossom. 0 Tsuyu San,,, Dew. 0 Matsu San,,, Pine-tree. 0 Yone San,,, Rice. Usually, feminine names of more than two syllables are used without the honorific o, which is also discarded before surnames and men's personal names. San, however, may be affixed either to personal names or to surnames. NOTE.-In Japanese the surname precedes the personal name just as if we should say " Smith John " instead of "John Smith." To one's own wife or servant the personal name with or without o is used, 160 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR In speaking of her husband a wife usually says yado or teishiu (generally pronounced teishi). San is not used to the servants of one's friends, and to the servants of strangers it is replaced by don. One's own male servants are addressed by their personal names which are usually abbreviated, as Tsune for Tsunekichi. Between themselves children employ the first part of the personal name with or without san. San is in frequent use after names of trades and professions, as kajiya san, the blacksmith; isha san, the Doctor, both in the second and in the third person. "Madame" is rendered by oku san, or more familiarly o kami san, and Mademoiselle is o jo san, or o musume go. III. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE NOUNS. The gradual infiltration of Chinese words into the Japanese language for over a thousand years has tended to develop a contempt for the native equivalents, and consequently Chinese words are usually considered more elegant than their Japanese synonyms. Thus in polite speech go shiu is usually preferred to o sake (sake-beer); the general term for "head" is atama, the polite one, o tsumi; for oki na ki the Japanese for "a large tree," the Chinese tai-boku is preferred; and so on. It is, however, principally in speaking of the relatives of oneself and of others that humble and honorific nouns are employed, of which the following are the chief:One's own. Another's. sofu, go sofu sama. randfiither, go sofu. o ji sama. to children, Q ji san. J HONORIFICS 161 One's own. Grand- (sobo, mother, lbaba, Ioyaji, Father, chichi, Another's. go sobo. o ba san (to children). go shimpu. go sompu. ototsu san (to children). otottsan. ~haha, go boko. | haha sama. okka (by children) okka san (to children)., go rob6 (when aged). ani, o ani san (elder). go sonkei(,, ). Brothers, o toto, go shatei sama (younger). go shatei (,, ot6to go (,, ). anle, o ane san (elder). Sister, f ane san. iimoto, imimto go (younger). (tsure-ai (lower class), danna. danna or teishiu, teishi (fimiliar). iHusband, * yado go teishi. uchi literally, "house." taki niobo, o kami san (lower class). sai, saikun middle cl(ss. go shinzo) kanai, oku san t oku sama, (upper class. go naishitsuj * In general, the husband's surname is employed both to a wife and also by her in mentioning her husband, in the former case with san added, in the latter case without san. JAPANESE GRAMMAR 6 162 162 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR One's own. segare, musilko, kodomo (i Son, sorio, jinan,,sannan, (musiume, Daughter,j Uncle, ji Another's. go sh-isoku. O mustiko san. and for daughters). go sbri6 (eldest). go jinan (second). go sannan (third). g4 sokujo. o mustime go. o jo san. oji san. oj i sama. oba san. oba sama. o go sama. o mei go sama. Ito, shiuto go. Ltome, shiutome go. ko, o muko san. oe yome go. 0o,0 o mago. Aunt, {oba, Nephew, i Niece, mei Father-in-law, shii: lMlother-in-law, slur Son-in-law, MU'. Daughter-in-law, yon Grand-child, maI Remarks. 1.- In speaking of their elder relatives, children (and to a certain extent, women), add san, saying, for example, otottsan, "Cmy father "; ane san, " my elder sister." 2. For the nominative particle ga, de wa is usually substituted, with the humble terms for " husband " (yado, uchi, taki); thusTaku de wa, tabi ye dete Miy husband is away; journey to having-gone he has gone on a rusu de gosaimasti, journey. absent is) TIONORI1FICS16 163 3. The terms applied to one's own relatives may also be employed for those of absent persons when no special respect is intended to be paid to the latter, and even for the relatives of the person spoken to, if hie is decidedly inferior in rank to the speaker. Segare, however, should only be employed for one's own son. 4. Little boys up to six or seven years of age are called botchan. Examples. Go shimpu wa, ikaga de How is your frtther irasshaimasATi? J to-day? Ano Daiku san wa o kami ' Has that cam1pelter a san ga arimasti ka, ) wi/~ Sore ra no koto wo segare that (pla.) thing SoA I heard about thse things kara kikimashitha, J fjrom my sonl. from heard Yome go san no go bic~ki daughter-in-law ilngess ( lo w is your (sick) wva ikaga de gozaimasfP, daughter-in-law? howv is Kono ko wa, anata no go '~Is this little frilow your sh-Isokii de gozaimasiA ka, J son? He!watak-fshi no siri de ~Ysh gozaimasti, koo,3 i is my eldest. Sa, botchan 1 ooye o hake ilere, my little man, sit nasai, ) down here. Ane hodo ikiku wa nai, She is not so tall as her big is not I eider sister-. WVaha ga naku narimashita not became I~ mte sdas kara ni san nichi o itoma Ib mouthe gisvead so because two three day leave I e o t iem wo negaimasti, two or three days' leave. 164 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR IV. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE VERBS. Verbs are rendered polite by substituting the paradigms of mass (p. 75) for the ordinary forms given on pp. 58, 60, and 62. Formerly masii was exclusively honorific, but modern usage sanctions its employment as a respectful termination which may be used indiscriminately with any person of the verb. The student should bear in mind that masai is a constituent of the abbreviations desk, deshzta and deso5, which are therefore more respectful than da, datta and dar). It should also be noted that the use of an abbreviation including an honorific or polite form always shows less respect than does the unabbreviated form. It must be observed, however, that the forms in masm are not honorifics, strictly speaking, being employed in most cases merely as indications of a courteous manner rather than of any special respect granted to the person addressed. When respect is intended to be shown it is usual to employ a periphrasis with the word o, "honorable," the Indefinite Form of the verb, and mosu, I say, if the first person is meant, or nasaru (less commonly, i niaru) for the second or third person. Nasaru signifies "to deign"; ni naru, "to become." Examples. 0 tanomi mosu, I ask. o tanomi nasaru, You ask. o tanomi ni naru, 0 kashi nasatte kudasare, Please be kind enough to lend me Alasi may be superadded; thus0 negai moshimast, I ask a ftvour of you. HONORIFICS16 165 Another method of rendering a verb honorific is by substituting the Causal or Potential (passive) verb for the simple verb, on the principle that it is more polite to suggest that a person is able to do a thing or cautses it to be done rather than to state that he does it. A yet further method is the employment of a separate verb according as the phrase is intended to be honorific or humble. The following are those in most general use: Neutral. Humble. To be, irti; or inn; or- oru; oru. bo1 —0rro kariru, haishaku sumu;,,come, kurn, maimu.; agaru.; makaru, do, sumu, suru, eat taberu, itadaku; chodai sumu, give, yaru, ageru; sbinjc) suru, IIgo, iku, maimu; agaru; makaru, hear, kiku, uketamawarn, meet, an, o me ni kakarn, receive, ukerii, itadaku; chodai SUM, say, in, moshi-ageru, see mIru 1aiken suru, Holnor-ifie. o ide nasarun; or irassharu. o kari nasarn. o ide nasaru; irassharn. niasarn; asobasu. (meshi-) sagern. kudasarn; kureru (less polite). o ide nasaru; irassharu. o kiki nasaru. o ai nasarn. o uke nasaru. ossharu. goran niasaru. 5 show, miseru, o me ni kakeru, o miise nasarn. Examples. Donata de irasshaimasti ka, '~May I ask whto you are, who are I(Sir)? M~ishi-kanete orimasti, I can? hardly say it (said to-say-unable am Jin asking a favour). 166 166 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR iDoko ye irassharu? where to deign-to-go Iko) to omou, will-go think Nan'to osshaimashltal, what say Sore de nan'to itta? Jts-tl o ide nasaru ka, Mata imairimas-6, }Where are you going (Sir)? )I am thinking of going. }What did you say (Sir)? What did he say then? When will you come? I will come again. The Imperatives of the Honorific verbs in the preceding list are used thus deign to be (come or go)!{ be pleased to do! deign to eat! condescend to give! deign to say! deign to do! deign to look! irasshai! or irasshaimash-1! o ide nasai! asobase! meshi-agare! kudasai l osshaimash-Y! nasai goran nasai! NOTE.-O ide nasai is often familiarly contracted to o ide; goran nasai to goran. The Imperatives of other verbs are very seldom used except when addressing one's own servants or coolies, as such modes of address -,sound, in Japanese ears, too blunt and abrupt. Thus the common verb naosu, to mend, when employed in a command would not be naose!1 mend! but rather naoshite kudasai, mending condescend =please mend, or o naoshi nasai mase, honorably mend deign =please mend. In like manner kalke, the Imperative of kaku, to write, would be replaced by o kaki nasai, or o kaki kudasai, or kaite kudasai. Speaking generally, it may be held that the difference SYNTAX 167 between nasai and kudasai is one of degree, the former being usually a very polite command, whilst kudasai is a request and would be employed, for instance when one asked a friend to do something for one. Examples. Kondate wo misete kudasai, y Please show me the bill-of-fare showing condescend ) bill-of-fare. Mata irasshai, Please come again. again deign-to-come Itte mite koi! Go and look! (to a servant). Itte goran nasai,,,, (to an equal). Mo ippen osshatte Please say it again. kudas Please say it again. kudasai, Dozo o mise nasai, Dzo o mise nasa, } Please show it to me. (or) Misete kudasai, SYNTAX. The normal arrangement of the Japanese sentence isFirst, the nominative case. Second, the indirect object of the verb, or a noun followed by a postposition. Third, the direct object of the verb (accusative case). Fourth, the verb, or the verbal form of an adjective. Examples. Watakishi wa tabako ga, I (nom.) tobacco of dai-suki desit, very-fond am Natsu ga kimashlta, summer (nom.) has-come O-cha ga dekimashita, tea (nom.) is-made I am very fond oJ tobacco. } Summer has come. } The tea is ready. 168 A, JAPANESE GRAMMAR Watakftshi wa zeikan no am a custom-house 1 (nom.) custom-house of ff oficer. yakunin de gozaimast, o Ano hito wa junsa de he (nom.) policeman He is a policeman. gozaimast, J Watakishi ga ashi wa itande iru, = I have a pain my foot (nom.) painful is in my foot. An exception to the above normal order occurs in comparisons, where the object with which the comparison is made is usually placed first; asWataktishi yori, anata o Than I you are young(er), I than, you I * rr.-, tha, you i.e. You are younger than wako gozaimasu, I young are Kono yama yori are Than this mountain, that is this mountain than that wa takai, wa takai, | hgh(er), L.e. That moun(n) i h tain is higher than this. (nom) is-high The relative sequence of the direct and indirect objects is sometimes varied. As a rule whichever of the two it is meant to emphasise comes first. Thus in rendering into Japanese the sentence " He went away without giving the horse its fodder," if it is meant, for instance, that he had fed the other animals but not the horse, we should, in English, render the word horse emphatic by placing stress of the voice on it, but to render the same idea in Japanese the word would simply be placed first; thusMtma ni kaiba wo horse to fodder (ace.) tstkezu ni itte He went away without giving giving-not having-gone the horse its fodder. shimatta, finished SYNTAX 169 If, however, it is meant that the person had given the horse his water, etc., but not his fodder we should, in English, stress "fodder," and put it first in Japanese; thusKaiba wo mAma ni, etc. When a subject to the verb is expressed it is generally placed at the beginning as already stated, but usually verbs are subjectless, and instead of expressing an act as performed by some person they intimate rather a "coming-to-be" on his part. Where no subject is named, the word on which it is desired to lay most stress is frequently placed at the head of the sentence and followed by the isolating postposition wa (see remarks on this particle, p. 47). Examples. Sonna koto wa, ii ya such thing as-for saying as-for itashimasen, do-not-do I should never think of saying such a thing. Ky6 no atstsa wa to-day of heat a-fr The heat to-day is intolerable. koraeraremasen, cannot-bear Kore wa, nan de dekite this as-for what by eventuating What is this made orimast, o0? is Kono hen wa, ka ga It is quite tiresome, the this vicinity as-for mosquito number ofmosquitoes okite urus6 gozaimasu, in this neighbourbeing-many tiresome is hood. 170 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Kono mono wa, Nihon-go de this thing as-for Jap.-language by nan to moshimast ka what that say? J What is this called in Japanese (literally, "As for this thing, what do (people) say that it is? ") Qualifying words or phrases precede the words which they qualify; thus(a) the adjective and the verb in the attributive form precede the word to which they refer, as atsuil kami,2 thick' paper2; kuru hito, the person who comes (literally, "the comes person "). (b) the adverb precedes the verb, adjective or other adverb which it modifies; as Hayaku o ide nasare, } quickly come do J Kono mUma wa goku,. Come quickly! This horse is very dear. this horse (nom.) very tako gozaimast, dear is Amari mutsukashi, too is-difficult Taiso nigiyaka de very lively gozaimashita, (it) was 1 It is too difficult. } It was very lively. (c) the noun followed by the possessive particle no or ga precedes the noun to which it is joined; asNeko no tsume, The claws of a cat; a cat's cat of claws ) claws. Kin no kahei, gold of coins Jiu-nen ga aida, ten-years of space ) Coins of gold; gold coins. For the space of ten years. SYNTAX 171 Particles denoting number and case, with wa, ya, ga, mo and to follow the noun; asOktsama gata, ladies. onna shu, )women. onna domo, yakunin-tachi, officers. tori ni, to a bird. When two or more verbs or adjectives are co-ordinated in a sentence, only the one placed last assumes the inflection or particle belonging to all, the others taking the Indefinite Form. This rule has been given previously, and a rule somewhat analogous governs the use of nouns and pronouns, by which particles belonging to several nouns or pronouns are not placed with each of them, but only with the last of the series;* thusWataktishi to omaye wa Yoroppa I and you Europe When you and I came kare toki, fromn Europe. fromt came J Kori to mizu wo motte koi, I Bing ice and ice and water (ace.) having-carried come J water. Ya ka tama ni atatte ] arrow or bullet by striking I He died either by an arro or shinimashita, a bullet. died Taisetsu na tegami hon ni kane Besides impo)rtant important letter' book money letters and ooks it mo haitte imashita, contained money. having-enteered was Hone to kawa to ni natta, He has become skin and bone bone skin * See, however, " Dano " p. 33, 172 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Mo (with any other particle preceding it), however, accompanies each substantive in a series; thusFfiransu ni mo, Doitsu France in also Germany Both in France and in Germany. ni mo, in also J Expressions of time are usually put before expressions of place; asTonen mo T6ky6 ni hakurankwai s there to be an exI Is there to be an exthis-year at exhibition h n at hibition at Tokio ga arimasho ka? h will-be? ths yar? Kionen no natsu wataktishi no The an who came to last-year summer my..,, r my place in the tokoro ni kita hito,ce in the plce summer of last year. place came man Toshi ni nido gurai dzutsu year twice amount each T twie. uu e ac Would it not bepossible Hiogo ye dete kuru wake ni t to out come reason to g to H e wa ikumai ka, each year? will-not-go? Explanatory or dependent clauses precede the principal clause; asMi6nichi tenki gayoroshikereba, heweather fi to-morrow weather if-good sI wtlb come tomairimasti, come morrow. Sono tegami wo yonde nan' that letter (ace.) having-read what What did he say when to itta, he read that letter? said SYNTAX 173 Nikko wo minai uchi w (ace.) see-not within a, "kekko" to iu-na, magnificent that say-not Te ga hiete tamaranai, hands belig-cold cannot-bear ra Do not use the word s-for "magntficent" until you have seen Nikko (a saying). I don't know what to J do, my bands are so J cold. Final verbs and adjectives are frequently omitted in cases where no misconception or ambiguity can arise, especially in short idiomatic sentences; as0 hay6 (gozaimnasti), Good orning hon. early (is) d I)Oz kannin shite please patience having-done Please ha e patience with me. (kudasare) This example of ellipsis is the one of most frequent recurrence, but it is by no means the only one. A feature of speech much in vogue is the breaking-off of a phrase in the middle, leaving the rest to be inferred; thusKochira de zonjite oreba, here in knowing if-be ] I would tell you if I knew moshi-agemasu ga (but I don't knzow). say-will-lift-up although) Cha wo irete (o kun nasai),} Make some tea. tea (ace.) putting-i~n Ikitai mono dest keredo like-to-go is although Say6 demo gozaimasho ga, thus even will-probably-be but I should like to go, but (I am afraid I cannot). That is perhaps so, but (it does not affect the ) question, etc.). 174 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Conjunctions are usually placed at the end of the sentence or clause to which they belong; asIi keredo, ne ga takai, t Though it is good, the it-is-good though, price is-high f price is high. Uso da to iimasu, ) He says that it is a lie. lie (it) is that (he) says A *,. A T~Please lend it to me if Aite iru nara, kashite kudasai, Please lend it to me open it-is if lending condescend not require ) it at present. Kutabiremashita kara, chotto have-become-tired because a-little Let its rest a little yasumimash6, because I am tired. will-probably-rest In Englislh, interrogation is indicated by an inversion of the normal construction of the sentence, but in Japanese no alteration is made, the interrogation being denoted merely by placing the postposition ka at the end of the phrase; asKimashita, He has come. Kimashfta ka, Has he come? As in English, two negatives make an affirmative, and thus destroy each other; thusShiranti koto wa gozaimasent,) He certainly knows. not-know thing is-not Mo ikanakereba narimasen, I really must go now. already if-do-not-go is-not j Ko shinakereba narimasen, It must be done in thus if-not-do is-not { this way. In Japanese, the personification of inanimate objects is almost entirely unknown. Thus we find no counterparts REPORTED SPEECH, ETC. 175 for such expressions as "the flight of Time," "Smiling Morn," " the sting of Death," etc., and even the employment of the name of an inanimate thing as the subject of a transitive verb is repugnant to the matter-of-fact Fareastern mind. For example a Japanese will not say, "This heat knocks me up," but ratherKono atsusa ni domo yowatta, this heat on-account-of have-become-weak, i.e. "I am knocked up on account of this heat." Similarly, where we should say " His not-understanding annoys me," he would embody the notion in the wordsWakarani de komaru, (his) not-understanding at (I) am-annoyed J i.e. " I am annoyed at his not-understanding." REPORTED SPEECH; INDIRECT NARRATION. In English, a sentence when reported by another person is usually reconstructed; thus, if I say "I shall come," another person, in reporting my intention uses the words " He said he would come." In Japanese, however, the sentence is repeated exactly as spoken and the particle to, that, is placed after it to denote that it is a quotation; thus Mairu to iimashfta. "I-will-come," that (he) said. Examples. Sore wo Komuro San kikaremashite, Hearing of that Hearing of that, that Mr having-heard - ~Mr Komuro said "so omou mono mo aro," to so think people may-be iwaremashta, J some people who (he) said thought so. 176 176 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Enzetsu ga mb shimai ni lecture, already finish He said that the lecture natta to fimash-ita, was over. became (he) said) Iku, to fimashlta, He said he would go. 1-will-go that he-said J Haha ga sono koto wo mother that thing im~shimiashlthara, ko-toshi when-she-spok-e-of this-year wa ayaniku shirabe,-niono unfortunately investigation ga aru kara yenkai wa is because entertainment gozaimasenti to is-not that kotayenmasl-ita, he-answered Tais6 ni kirei desti to lifto greatly pretty is that people ga fimasu,} (nomn.) say When my mother asked him about it, he said that unfortunately he would be prevented from giving an entertainment this year, by an investigation which he, had in hand. It is said to be exvtremely pretty. Conversational Phrases on Subjects of Every-day Life. NOTE.-The words used in the following phrases will be found in the Vocabularies at the end of the book. The construction of the respective sentences will be readily understood if the grammatical portion of this work has been diligently studied. In many cases the English phrases are given in a brief and abrupt furm, but the Japanese equivalents are uniformly polite and may be addressed to all classes. Questions. Do you speak English? What do you call it in Japanese? How do you say it in Japanese? What is this used for? What is that? (which you have in your hand, etc.) What is that-(e.g. ship) called? What do you want? What do you say? Who is it? What do you think of it? Which do you prefer? Where are you going? Where have you been? Where is it? Is it so? Isn't it so? What are you doing? Where has he gone? Ei-go wo go-zonji desil ka. Nihon-go de nan to moshimasu ka. Nihon-go de, d6 ii ffi ni iimasii ka. Kore wa nani ni tsukaimasu ka. Sore wa nan desu? Sono - wa nan' to in? Nan desui ka. Nani wo osshaimasit ka. Dare desu ka. Do omoimasul ka. Dochira ga yo gozaimastl ka. Dochira ye irassharu ka. Doko ye oide deshita ka. Doko ni aru ka. So desui ka. So ja nai~ka. Nani wo shite iru no desi ka. Doko ye mairimashita? About the Way or Road. Where does this road lead to? Please tell me the way to —. Which way shall I go? Shall I turn to the right (left)? Turn to the right (left). Must I keep straight on? Keep straight on. Is not this the - road? Kore wa doko ye iku michi da? made no iku michi wo oshiete kudasai. Dono michi wo ikimasho ka. Migi (hidari) ye magarimasho ka. Migi (hidari) ye magare. Massugu ni ikimasii ka. Massugu ni itte o-kure. Kore wa - michi ja nai ka. 177 178 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Kindly direct me to --. Is this the right way? No, Sir, that is the way. I do not know or I would tell you. What is the distance to -? What place is this,.please? Chotto ukagaimasu ga, -ye iku ni wa dochira ye mairimashite yoroshif gozaimasu ka. Kore wa hom-michi desi ka. Iiye, hom-michi ja gozaimascn; ano michi ga honm-michi de gozaimasi. Kochira de zonjite orcba, m6shiagemasu ga. - ye dono kurai arimasui ka. Moshi, koko wa nan to ifi tokoro d'ar6? At a Town. Here, bring me a jinrikisha. What is the charge (or fare)? Can I engage you by the hour? How much do you charge per hour? What will you take me to for? Take me to - as quickly as you can. I will increase your fare if you go quickly. Run quicker! I am not in a hurry so you can take your time. Put these things under the scat. I want to go to - to stay somle hours and then return. Take me back to-. Wait for me. I wish to see the streets, so you may go slowly. I wish to purchase some -; is there a good shop? There is a good one at -. Here is your fare. The heat is unbearable to-day. It is terribly cold. It is most disagreeeble weather. It is very hard walking the roads are so bad. Oi, jinrikisha it-cho motte koi. Ikura desuf ka. Jikan-gime de ore wo noseru ka. Ichi-ji-kan wa ikura? made dono-kurai de noseru ka. O-isogi de - made yatte kure. Hayaku ittara chinsen wo mashite yaro. Motto hayaku hashire! Isoganal kara, soro-soro to itte mo ii. Kono mono wo kekomi ye irete o-kure. - ye itte, ni-san-jikan ite, sore kara kaeru tsumori da. Kore kara - made modose. Matte kure. Machi wo mi-nagara yu-kitai kara, shidzuka ni yatte o-kure. - kaitai ga, ii mise ga aru ka. ni ii mise ga gozaimasii. Sa, kore wa chinsen da. Ky6 no atsusa wa, koraeraremlasen. Osoroshlku samui. Komarimashita o tenki da. Michi ga warukite, aruku n hone ga oremasu. CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES19 179 Here is a card of my hotel. I ami much olbliged to you for the trouble you have taken. Good morning Good evening! Good night!(said to one retiring to bed). Good-bye! How do you do? Thank you, I am verv well. How is your family'? Thank you, all very well. Please lprese1nt My Compliments to your family. What production is this place noted for? This place is noted for - Where is the Post Office (Railway Station) It is on that side of the street. Is there not a person of the name of - living about here? You will find him on the right (left) side of this street. He lives in the next street to this. The next door is the house for which you are asking. I will. show you where hie lives. Order a jinrikisha for me. I will go in a jilirikisha. is the jinrikisha ready? You have overcharged me. Kore wa watakiishi no yadoya no na-fuda de gozainuasni. Oki nii o hione-oni. Ohiay6 gozaimiasul K ombaii NAa O yasumi nasai Say6niara! Go kigen yoroshiiii gozainasu ka. Arigat6, tasshia de gozairnasii. O taku de wa mina-saii o kawari wa gozaimasen ka. Arigat6, kawari de gozaiilnasen. D~zo, o uchi ye yoroshiku, oshiatte kudasai. Kono hien no iiieibutsu wa nian dar6? Kono hien no nmeibutsu wa, madzu de gozaimasen. Yfibin - kyoku ( Suteishion ) wa dochira de gozairnasil ka. Sore wa miuk-6-gawa de gozaimiasii. Kono hen nii - to iii na no hito ga sunde imasen ka. Kono tflri-michi no hidari-gawa (miigi-gawa) ni gozaimiasii. Sore wa, tsugi no ch - - nai de gozaimiasii. Tonari ga o-tadzune niasarn uchi desii. Ano hito no tokoro wo oshiete agemiash16. Kururna wo tanonde o-kure. Kurunia iii notte ik6. Kuruma no shitaku. ga dekita ka. Omae wa tais6 kake iie wo tsuketa. At an Hotel. Can I have a suite of roomis Have you. a room with a good view'? How will this room suit you? This will do very nicely. Mitsu yotsu. no tsudzuita zashiki ga aite iinasii ka. Mihiarashi rio ii heya ga amu ka. Kono heya wa ikaga de gozahimas~i ka. Kore wa kekk6 da. 180 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR What do you charge for a night's lodging? I will engage these rooms. Please send the landlord up. Please send the chambermaid here. I want something to eat. Waitress, please let us have something or other to eat. I want to have a wash. Please give me some water. Lend me another towel. Have you a newspaper? Have you foreign newspapers? Where can I dine? At the table d'hote. Where shall I sit? Can I have this seat? Take this seat, please. What do you charge per head at the table d'hote? Is wine included in that? Kindly take your seats, gentlemen. Please show me the wine-list. Let me have a cigar, please. Please get me a cigarette. Please pass the matches. Where is the smoke-room? Is my bed ready? Give me another pillow. Is the bath ready? Please let me know when it is ready. The bath is now ready, Sir. Please lend me a sponge. Call me early, please. I shall leave at seven o'clock to-morrow morning. I wish to catch the first train to - to-morrow. What time will you get up, Sir? Call me at six, please. Send me up some hot water in the morning. Hito-ban no tomari-ry6 wa ikura? Kono heya wo karimasho. Teishiui wo yokoshite o-kure. Jochu wo kochira ye, yokoshite o-kure. Watakushi wa nani ka mono wo tabetai. Oi! nedan, nanika mitsukurotte dashite kun na. Chodzu wo tsukaitai. Midzu wo o-kure. Tenugui wo mz hitotsui kashite o-kure. Shimbun wo motte orimasui ka. Yoko-moji no shimbun wo motte orimasu ka. Shoku-ji wa doko de shimasu ka. Shokud6 de gozaimasu. Doko ni koshi-kakemasho ka. Kono tokoro wa ii ka? Dozo, koko ni o kake nasaimashi. Shokud6 nara, ichi-nin-mae ikura desu ka. Sake-rui mo sono uchi ni haitte orimasu ka. Dozo, mina-san, o kake nasaimashi. Sake-rui no mokuroku wo misete o-kure. Ha-maki-tabako ippon o-kure. Kami-maki-tabako ippon o-kure. Machi wo o-kure. Kitsuenjo wa doko desu ka. Toko ga shikemashita ka. Makura wo mo hitotsu o-kure. Furo ga waite iru ka. Waitara shirashite o-kure. Tadaima, o-yu ga wakimashita. Kaimen wo kashite o-kure. Hayaku okoshite o-kure. My6-asa shichi-ji ni shuttatsu shimasu. Myo-asa -- yuki no ichi-ban kisha no noritai. Nan-ji ni o oki nasaimasu ka. Roku-ji ni okoshite kure. Asu no asa yu wo motasete yokoshite o-kure. CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES 181 Good-night and sleep well. Please put out the light. I shall be down to breakfast in five minutes. Tell the waiter to let me have some breakfast. Have you cleaned my boots? Please clean my boots. Please let these things be sent to the wash. Has the laundress returned my washing? Let my linen be well-aired. Please let me have my bill. How much is my bill? Good-bye, Sir, and please come again soon. Good-bye; I thank you for your kind attention. Go kigen yo o yasumi nasaimashi. Akari wo kesbite o-kure. Mo go-fun de asahan ni mairimasu. Asahan wo koshiraeru yo5 ni kyuji ni iitsukete o-kure. Kutsu wo migaitaka. Kutsfi wo migaite o-kure. Kono mono wo sentaku ni yatte o-kure. Sentaku mono wo motte kitaka. Kanakin-rui no sentaku mono wo yoku kawakashite kure. Kanjo o-kure. Kanjo wa ikura? Sayonara; dozo o-chikai uchi ni negaimasil. Sayonara; Oki ni o sewa ni narimashita. Buying and Selling. Have you any silk like this? What is the price? Please show me that. Have you no better? Have you any cheaper ones 2 How much do you require? Which is the cheapest? Show me something better. What is the lowest price you will take? Well, I will buy it at that figure. I will buy this -- if you will take - yen. The lowest I can sell at is - yen. I can sell it at -. Won't you reduce the price a little? How do you like this -? How much do you ask? I will buy this also, Kono yo na kinu ga arimasui ka. Ikura desu ka. Dozo are wo misete kudasai. Motto yoi no wa arimasen ka. Motto yasui no ga arimasil ka. Dono gurai yoroshiil? Dochira ga yasui? Motto yoi mono wo misete kudasai. Ketchaku no tokoro wa, ikura made makarimasu ka. Ma, sono nedan naraba kaimasho. Kono wo - yen nara kaimasho. Goku makete - yen. - de sashi-agemasu. Nedan wo sukoshi wa makete kurenai ka? Kono - wa, ikaga de gozaimasi? Ikura desui ka. Kore more I aimasho, 182 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR This is quite enough. Kore de takusan. How much are they altogether? Minna issho ni ikura? Send the things to No. - Nimotsu wo - ban ye yatte kure. I am leaving on --, so please -- ni shuppan suru kara sore have the things packed by made ni mono wo nidzukuri then. shinakereba narimasen. Eating and Drinking. I am very hungry. I am very thirsty. Are you hungry? Are you thirsty? Please show me the menu. Give me some - please. What will you take to eat? Please give me some more. May I offer you a cup of tea? Please bring me a cup of coffee. Will you take some soup? I will take a little. May I trouble you for the. What fish is that on the dish? It is cod-fish. This fish is well-cooked and delicious. Is it sea or fresh-water fish? Give that gentleman something to drink. Have you a wine-list? Give me a glass of. Show ne some liquors. Give me a glass of this. Visi Is Mrs - at home? Is your master at howme? Tais5 hara ga herimashita. Taiso nodo ga kawakimashita. Anata wa kfifuku de wa gozaimasen ka. Anata wa nodo ga kawakimashita ka. Kondate wo misete. Dozo - o-kure. Nani wo meshi-agarimasu ka. Motto o-kure. O cha ippai sashi-agemasho ka. Kohi wo ippai motte kite o-kure. Soppu wo agarimasu ka. Sukoshi moraimasho. wo o-kure. Naga-zara ni notte iru sakana wa nan de gozaimasi ka. Tara de gozaimasu. Kono sakana mo yoroshii, ryori mo yoku dekite imasiu. Umi-uwo desii ka kawa-uwo desu ka. Ano o-kata ni nani-ka sake wo agete o-kure. Sake-rui no mokuroku ga motte orimasu ka. -- wo ippai o-kure. Rikazu iro-iro misete o-ukure. Kore wo ippai o-kure. iting. Okusama wa, o uchi de gozaimasu ka. Go shujin wa, o taku de gozaimasu ka. CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES 183 No, Sir, he is out. When will he return 2 Please tell him (or her) I am waiting. Please come in. Show him (or her) in. Pray take a seat. Excuse me for keeping you waiting so lon". Are you quite well? I am quite well, thank you. I must now say good-bye; or, I must now take my leave. I have been wearisome to you (said on taking leare after a visit). Please make my compliments to-. Kindly remember me to Mr -- I regret that I cannot avail myself of your kind invitation for to-day. At what time will you come 2 Tadaima rusu de gozaimasli. Itsfi kaerimasii ka. Watakushi ga matte iru to moshite o-kure. O agari nasai. O toshi mose. Dozo o kake nasai-mashi. O machido sama. Go kigen yo gozaimasil ka. Arigato, tassha de gozaimasiu. O itoma itashimasho. O yakamashiti gozaimasu. - san ni yoroshiku negaimasu. san ye yoroshiku o tanonimoshimasu. Sekkaku no o sasoi de gozaimasu ga, konnichi wa mairikanemasu. Nan-ji goro ni oide nasaimasi ka. Travelling. Is my luggage packed? Bring my luggage, please. Put the luggage into the jinrikisha. I will start when all is ready. I shall go to Yokohama to-morrow if it is fine. When will you start? I shall go to-morrow. Has my luggage come? Have you brought my luggage? Shall we catch the train. What time does the train leave for -? It leaves at half-past nine. What is the fare? Please give me a first-class (secondclass) ticket for -. Please give me a return ticket. Nimotsui wa nidzukuri shite aru ka. Nimotsi wo motte kite o-kure. Nimotsii wo kuruma ni nosete kure. Shitaku shidai, de kake-masho. Myonichi tenki ga yokereba, Yokohama ye iko. Itsui goro o tachi nasaru ka. Ashita yukimasho. Nimotsf wa kita ka. Nimotsu wo motte kita ka. Kisha ni ma-ni-awase-masho ka. - yuki no kisha wa nan-ji ni demasui ka. Ku-ji-han ni demasu. Ikura deSbu ka. -- made joto (chuto) no kippu ichi-mai kudasai. Ofuku kippu wo kudasai. 184 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR Follow me, please. I will leave my luggage in your care. What time does the train start? The train will be here directly. Put these things in a first-class (second-class) carriage in the train for-. This seat is engaged. How long does the train wait here? What is the name of this station? Which is the best hotel? Is it far off? Take me to a good hotel. We shall sail in a few minutes. Shall we have a good passage 2 What time shall we reach? How long will it take us? Shall we breakfast on board? Please let me see your passport. There is the way out. Watakushi no ato ni tsuite kite kudasai. Nimotsi wa omae ni adzukeru. Kisha wa nan-ji ni deru ka. Kisha wa m6 hodonaku tsukimasi. - ye yuku kisha no joto (chuto) shitsu ye kono nimotsi wo irete o-kure. Kono tokoro wa fusagatte imasu. Kisha wa dore hodo koko ni tomaru ka. Kono tei-sha-ba no na wa nan to moshimasu ka? Yado wa, nani-ya ga yoroshii ka. Toi desui ka. Yoi yadoya made nosete kure. Jiki ni shuppan shimasu. Odayaka na kokai ga dekimasho ka. -- ye nanji-goro ni tochaku shimasu ka. Dore hodo nagaku kakarimash6 ka. Fune de asahan wo tabemasho ka. Menjo wo chotto haiken. De-guchi wa asuko de gozaimasui. With a Doctor. Who is the best doctor here? Where does he live? Please send for a doctor. I have come to consult with you. I have taken the liberty of sending for you, Doctor, as I am greatly in need of your advice. Show me your tongue. What is the matter with you? Have you any appetite? I have no appetite. Does your head ache? My head aches fearfully, Koko de ichi-ban jodzu na isha wa dare desu ka. Ano o-kata no sumai wa doko desu ka. Isha wo yobi ni yatte kudasai. Anata ni s6dan to kimashita. 0 mukai ni agete, shitsurei wo itashimashita. Sensei no go shinsatsu wo zehi negawaneba narimasen. Shita wo haiken. Do nasaimashita? Shok-ki wa gozaimasu ka. Shok-ki wa sukoshi mo gozaimasen. Dzutsu ga nasaimasii ka. Osoroshiku dzutsi ga itashimasu, CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES 185 Where do you feel pain -now? I have a bad cold. I cannot sleep at night. How long have you felt unwell? I have been unwell for several days. Do you cough at all2 Where do you feel it? Is my illness dangerous? There is nothing to be alarmed at. You must take a little medicine. Here is the lirescriptioll. I will send you some medicine to take. When -must I call again? (said by 'patient). I will see you again to-morrow (said by doctor). I feel a little better. Ima, itami wa doko ni gozaimsuia ka. Warui kaze wo hikimashita. Yoru wa nemurarenai de komnarimasil. Itsii-goro kara go-byt5ki deshita ka. Watakiishi wa shi-go nichi ato kara kokoromichii ga wardi gozaimashita. Seki ga demasdi ka. Doko ga itande orimasf k-a. Abunai to a kangae nasaimasdi ka. Taishita koto wa gozaimasen. Kusuri wo sukoshi o nomi. Yakunh6-gaki wa kore de gozaimas~i. Nani - ka kusuri wo saslhi - age - mashii. Kondo, itsii miairimashil ka. My~nichi mnata o -mima - moshimasti. Sh~sh6 yoku. narimiashita; kokoromochi wa sukoshi yoku narimashita. Writing, Letters and Post. Please give me a sheet of paper. Please post this letter. Are there any letters for me? The mail has not arrived yet. Has a telegram come for mec? What is your address? My name and address is Please give me his address. Please write the address in Japanese. To what address shall I send it? Kindly forward my letters to Please sign your nlame, Kami ichi-mai kudasai. Kono tegami wo 0yfibin ni dashite kudasai. Watakilshi ni ateta tegamni ga gozaimasti ka. Yiiibin wa mada hairanai. Watakilshi ni ateta dempol ga kimiashita ka. Anata no tokoro wa doko desd' ka. Watakishi no seimel oyobi shukusho wa -. Ano Ihito no tokoro -gaki wo kudasai. Dd5ka, Nihon no mnoji de tokoro wo kaite kudasai. Doko ye o todoke-moshimash6 ka. Watakishi ni ateta tegami wa — ye s~tatsu sasete kudasai. 0 namae wo o kaki nasai. 186 A JAPANESE' GRAMMAR How much is the postage on this Kono tegami no yfibin-zei wa letter? ikura kakarimasui ka. I want to cash this money order, Kono kawase -kin wo negaito please. gozaimasu. Thc name and address of the Sashi-dashi-nin no seimei, shukusender is -. sho wa -. Please dispatch this telegram. Kono demp6 wo dashite kudasai. Miscellaneous. Do you understand? I don't quite understand. I understand quite well. Indeed! or, Really! Wait a moment. Don't do that! Do as you please. I will enquire about it. Please give it to me. You are right. I am very pleased. I don't think so. It does not matter. It is a nuisance; or, How annoying. I am sorry to trouble you but Oh, there's no difficulty about that; or, That's easy enough. I don't understand it at all. Excuse me for having troubled you. Don't trouble yourself about me (or it). I am very busy just now. I am too busy now. I beg to congratulate you (on any occasion). It is very interesting. I am very tired. I am very sleepy. Has anyone come during my absence? Has anything happened 'during my absence? May I have the loan of this -- please? Wakarimasu ka. Yoku wakarimasen. Yoku wakarimasu. Ika-sama! Sukoshi mate. So shicha ikenai! Anata no ii yo ni nasai. Kiite mimasho. Dozo watakushi ni kudasai. Go mottomo de gozaimasu. Taiso yorokobimasu. So ja nai to omou. Kamaimasen. Komatta koto da. Go mendo nagara -. Zosa ga nai. Ikko (or sappari) wakarimasen. 0 jama itashimashita. 0 kamai kudasaru na. Ima wa taihen ni isogashii. Ima wa isogashii de ikimasen. O-medet6 gozaimasu. Yohodo omoshiroi de gozaimasu. Watakushi wa tais5 kutabireta. Watakushi wa taiso nemuku natta. Rusu-chi ni dare ka miemashita ka. Rusu ni nani ka y6 ga atta ka. Kono - wo haishaku suru wake ni wa mairimasen ka, CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES 187 Shut (open) the door. I have never seen it. It is very good; or, It will do nicely; or, It is delicious; or, It is splendid. I am studying Japanese. I can speak Japanese a little. I am going to study Japanese. Thanks for your assistance. There is plenty of time. I will be back in a short time. What time is it? You had better wait. I will wait for you. Shall I wait? I cannot wait. If anyone should enquire for me, say I have gone to To wo shimete (akete) o-kure. Mlta koto ga gozainasen. Kekk6 de gozaimasu. Nihon-go wo mlanande orimasui. Nihon-go wo sukoshi dekimasu. Nihon-go wo manabu tsumori da. O sewa sama. Mada yohodo jikan ga arimasui. Jiki ni kaerimasii. Nanji desu ka. Mateba yokaro. O machi-moshisho. Machimasho ka. Matte irarenai. Dare ka taznnete kitara, - ye itta to so ie. * VOCABULARIES OF USEFUL AND NECESSARY WORDS USED IN EVERYDAY LIFE ABBRUEYIATioNs-trans. =transitive; intrans.=intransitive; subst. =substantive; ad~j. = adjective. I. JAPANESE-ENGLISH. A abunai, unsafe, dangerous. abura, oil, grease, fat. aehi; achira, there. agaru, to rise, to get up; to clear (of the weather). ageku nti finally, as a final result. ago, chin. ahiru, duckc. at, dark blue, aida, interval, time, while, during. aida-gara, connection, relationship. at-kawarazu, as before, unaltered. aisatsu, response, reply, ack-nowledgment. aisatsu suru, to reply, to ack-nowledge. alsuru, to love. aite, antagonist (at a game); party (to a transaction); coqn_panion. aite iru, to be open, to be unoccupied. ajiwal4 taste, flavour. 188 akagane, copper. akai, brown, red. akambO, baby. akarui, light (not dark). akeru, to open (trans.). aki, autumn. akinai, business, commerce. akiuau, to do business. akiudo, dealer, merchant. akiraka (na), clear, intelligible. akiraka (ni), clearly. akke ni toraxeru, to be amazed. aku, to open (intrans.); to become em~pty. amai, sweet. amari, too much, too; (with a negative), not very. amaru, to remain over, to exceed. ambai, way, manner. ame, rain. ame ga furu, to rain. an, bill, datopinion. ana, hole, cavern, tunnel. anadoru, to abuse, to jeer. ane, elder sister. ani, elder brother. anjiru, to be anxious. JAPANESE-ENGLISH 189 azna0 that kind of, like that. ano, that (adj.). ano hito, he, she. anshin suru, to be fiec b-om anxiety. anzen ni, safely. anan, apricot. aoi, green, blue. aoru, to slane (intrans.); (of a door). arai, rouigh, sharp, severle. arappoi, harsh, strict. arare, hail (from sky). arasoi, a dispute,. arasou, to dispute. aratamaru, to be rectified, to be re-adjusted. aratameru, to re-adjust, to rectlfyf. a~rau, to wash. arawareru, to appear, tlo show oneself. arawasu, to showr, to disclose. are, that (subst.). are hodo, (is muech as that, that much. are kara, after that. arigatai, thankful. arisama, condition, state. aris6 mo nai, unlikely. aru, to be. aruji, host, head of house. aruku, to walk. asa, morning. asa-han, breakfast. asai, shallow. asatte, the day aftery to-morrowc. ase, perspiration. ase ga deru, to perspire. ashi, leg, foot. ashiki, wicked. ashi no yubi, the toes. ash'ita, to-morrow. ashita no asa, to-morrow morning. asobi, a game. asubu; asobu, to play, to amnuse oneself. as~ko, there. as~ko kara, thence. as~ko ye, thither. asflkoera, thereabouts, in that place. aterau, to grant, to give. atai, cost, price, valuee. atama, head (of body). atarashii, new, fresh. atari, neighbour)hood. atarimnae, generally, ordinari-y1. atari-mae no, proper, usutal, tonvenient. ataru, to hit the mnark. atatakai, Vnarns. atatameru, to u-arm. ate, trutst, reliance. ate ni naru, to be reliable. ate ni suru, to rely on - ate-hameru, to assign, to allot. ato, effects, traces. ato de, afterwards. ato no tsl~ki, last month. ato saki, circu~mstances, context. atsui, thick (of solids);hot. atsfikau, to undertake, to m)anage. atsusa, heat, thickness. atsumaru, to collect together(intrans.). atsumeru, to collect (trans.). atsuraeru, to order (e.g., at a shop). an, to sutit, to agree, to sneet hidoi me ni au, to be treated cruelly; hidoi me ni awaserul, to treat cruelly. awaseru, to add, to join. awatadaslili, flurried, excited. awateru, to be, excited, to be flurried. ayamachi, snistake, error. ayamatsu, to snake a mistake. B ba, a place (only in compounds, as fnro-ba, a bath-place). lbab&, old woman. bai, double. baishQf, something purchased, a purchase. baishift sumu, to pieschase. baka, folt, dolt. bakarashii, absurd, foolish. 190 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR baka iii su~ru, to make a fool of anybody. bakari, about, only, somewhere near. bam-meshi, late dinuer, sapper. ban, evening, night. banchi, house-number (in a street). bane,ssprings (of a vehicle). banzuke, programme. baxi, insulting language, abuse. bari suru, to revile, to abuse. basha, carriage (vehicle). bassuru, to punish. bata, butter. bemmei, explanation, demonstration. bemmei suru, to demonstrate clearly. benjiru, to discuss, to talk over. benkd, eloquence. benk6 no yoi, eloquent, benky6, industry, diligence& benri, convenience. benri na; benri no yoi, coavenient. benri no warui, inconvenient. betau, a diflference. betau ni, differently, specially. betsu no, different, other, separate. betsudan (no), special. betM, groom, horseman. bWmu beer. bikko, lame. bimnb6, want, poverty. bimb6 na, poor, indigent. bin, bottle. bir6do, velvet. b6, stick, cudgel. bWeld, commerce, trade. bon, tray, salver. bon-yari shita, dull, stupid, dazed. boro, rags. b~shi, hat. botan, button. botan-hame, button-hook. botan no ana, button-hole. botan wo kakeru, to button. botchan, a little boy, urchin. b6yekil, trade. brikki, tin. buch~h6, awkwardness; clumsiness. bucb6h6 na, awkward. bud6-shu, wine. buji, safe, without danger. buji ni, safely. bukiy6 na, awkward, clumsy. bukku, book (European). bumpai suru, to distribute. bun, a part. burra-burra, loiteringly. burei, rudeness, impertinence. burei na, rude, impertinent. bush6 (n1a), indolent, idle, lazy, slovenly. buta, pig. butsu, to strike, to thrash. buchi-taosu, to knock down, to prostrate. buttsukeru, to bump. byO, tack (nail). by6in, hospital. by6ki (na), sick, ill. by6nin, invalid, sick person. C cia, tea. cha-iro, brown. cha-nomi-jawan, tea-cup. cha wo ireru, to brew tea. chakllsumu, to arrive. cha-saji, teaspoon. chanto, quietly. chanto shita, quiet. chawan, bowl, teacup. chi, blood. chi ga deru, to bleed (intrans). chichi, father; milk. chigai, a difference, an error. chigatta, unlike. chigau, to differ, to be in error. chiisai, small. chikagoro, lately, recently. chikai near. chikai uchi, Soon. chikara, strength, force. JAPANESE-ENGLISH 191 chikara wo tst~.ksu, to strive earnestly, to do to the best of one's ability. chikazuki, an in~thnate friend, friendship. chikuba no tomo, a friend fromn youth sepwards. chikuten suru, to srun aiway. chirasu, to scatter. chirn, du~st. cbhfru, to drop (as leaves from a tree). claitto, a small amount, a trifle. chifljiki, lunch. chizu, mnap. ch6, butterfly; a mneasure of distance (about 120 Eng. yards). -ch6ai, love, affection. Ch~ai surm, to love. ch6batsu, pnishment. ch6batsu suru, to punishb. ehdohin, lantern. chWd, just, exactly. ch6hb, convenience, usefulness. ch~h6 na, convenient, useful. choi-choi (to), little by little. choito; choto; chotto, a small amount, a trifle. choito shIta, trifling, slight. choklki, waistcoat. ch6-tsugai, a hinge. ch~zu, water (for washing the hands). chfzu-darai, wash-hand bowl. chfti, care, attention. chili suru, to pay attention, to heed. chfi~mon, order (at a shop, etc.). chftshin, middle, centre. chMt, middling, second-hand. D dai, table (furniture). daibu, a large portion, a good deal. daichi, the ground. dai-dokoro, kitchen. daiji, importance. daiji na, important. daiji n~i suru, to take great care of. daijfbu, safe. daiku, carpenter. daJaku (na), lazy. dama~ru, to be silent. damasu, to cheat. dan, a pace, a step. dan-dan, gradually. dangi, advrice; a speech. danjiru, to consselt. danki, heat, scarmth. dare? who? dare demo, anybody. dasu, to take out, to put aside. de-au, to mneet scith, to sneet writh out-of-doors. de-guchi, way out, exit. de-iri, entrance to a house. de-kakeru, to set out, to start off. deki, workmanship, produce. dekinai, impossible. dekiru, to take place, to eventuate, to come out. delci-agaru, to be comtpleted, to be, ready. demp6, telegramn. denshin-kyoku, telegraph-office. denwa, telephone. deru, to go out, to issue forth. de-shabaru, to project, to stick out. do? how? dobin, teapot. d6butsu-gaku, zoology. d6 de mo, anyhow. dO ilft? what kind of? d~butsu, an animal. dochi? dochira? where? d6gu, a utensil; furniture; a second-hand shop; dealer in second-hand goods. doko? wh ere? doko demo, anywhere. doko kara? whence? doko made? how far? dokoera? whereabouts? doku, poison. doku ni naru, to be unwholesome. dok-flshin (-mono), a bachelor. donata? scho? 192 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR donna? what kind of? dono? which? dono kurai? how much? dore? which? (subst.). dore-dake? how much? what amount? dbri, reason. doro-darake, covered with nmud. doro-michi, a muddy road. dote, embankment, bank, declivity. doybbi, Saturday. E e, picture; handle of a tool. eda, branch (of tree, road, etc.). egaku, to paint (as an artist). ekaki, painter. eki-fu, railway-porter. empitsti, pencil. empo, far distant, a great way off. empO na, distant, afar off. endO mame, peas. enslio, gunpowder. ensoku, picnic, excursion. enzetsu, lecture, speech. enzetsu suru, to lecture, to make a speech. erabu, to choose, to select. erai, wonderful. eri, collar. eru, to get; to select, to pick out. eshaku, apology, bow. eshaku wo suru, to bow, to apologise. F fu-annai, ignorant of, not conversant with. fuben, inconvenience. faben na, inconvenient. fit-bun, report, rumrour. fuchi, edge, border. fudan not common, usual. fude, pen. fueru, to increase (intrans). fuhai, putrefaction. fuhai suru, to putrefy. fui to, accidentally. fujiytl, discomfort, inconvenience. fujiyu na, inconvenient. fakai, deep. fu-kOhei, unjust. fflku, to blow (as the wind, etc.), to wipe. filkumu, to include, to contain. fiAkurasu, to cause to swell up, to inflate. fAkuro, a bag. fukwai, illness. fumu, to tread, to tread on. fumi-hazusu, to stumble. fumi-shimeru, to tread firmly. fune, ship, boat. funinjO, cruelty, unkindness, severity. fureru, to touch. furi, afall (of snow, etc.). furo, bath. furo-ba, bath-room. furu, to fall (only of rain, snow, etc.). furi-dasu, to begin to rain, etc. furueru, to tremble, to quiver. fqrui, old (of things only). furukusai, stale. furuu, to shake. fieseru, to lie, to go to bed. flsetsu, report, rumour. fti-shi-awase na, miserable, un-, happy. fitshigi, a marvellous thing, a miraculous circumstance. fiLshigi na, marvellous, curious. fiishin, doubt. fiAshin ni omou, to doubt, to consider suspicious. fi-shinsetsu (na), harsh, unkind. fAshochi, objection, dissent. fitshochi, wo iu, to object. fisuru, to submit (trans.), to deliver up. ftta, a lid. ftttatsu, two. fitto, accidentally, suddenly. ffaton, bed-cover. fittoru, to become fat. JAPANESE-ENGLISH 193 ftitotta, fat, stout. fitsu (no), general, ordinlary, usual. futsugo, inconvenience. futsugo na, inconvenient. fuyasu, to increase (trans.). fuyu, winter. fuzai, absent, not at home. G gach6, goose (tame). ga deru, to cough. gaitan, groaning, lamentation. gakko, school, college. gaku, science, learning. gakumon, study, learning. gakumon suru, to study. gaktitai, band (of music). gaman, patience. gaman suru, to be patient. gan, wild goose. gaten, acquiescence, comprehension. gaten no ikanu, incomprehensible. gaten suru, to acquiesce, to comprehend. gehin (na), vulgar, ill-bred. gejo, maid-servant. gekkyu, salary, wages. genan, man-servant. genkin, ready-money, cash. genkotsu, the knuckles. genkwa(n), entrance to a house, porch. genzai, the present moment, now. gesubatta, low, vulgar. getsuy6bi, Monday. gimon, question. gimu, duty, obligation. gin, silver. ginen, doubt, suspicion. gink6, bank (establishment). ginko-sha, banker. giyaman, glass (the substance). go, five; after; sono go, since that time. gogo, afternoon. go-gwatsu, May, (the month). gohan, rice; food. goke, widow. goku, very, extremely, gomakasu, to deceive. gomi, dust (on furniture, etc.). gotaki, like, such as. gozen, forenoon; boiled rice; a meal. gu, dull, stupid. gujin, ignoramus, dull person. gurai, somewhere near (approximately). gururi, around. gutto, suddenly, tightly. gwaiken, appearance. gwaikoku, abroad, foreign countries. gwaikoku-jin, a foreigner. gwaikoku no, foreign. gyosha, driver (of a vehicle). gya (-aiku), beef. H ha, tooth; leaf (of tree). haba, wzdth. haba no hiroi, wide. habakaru, to fear; to be ashamed. habikoru, to spread out (intrans.). ha-burashi, toothbrush. hachi, bee, wasp; a pot; eight. hachi-gwatsu, August (the month). hachi-ja, eighty. hadaka (na), naked. haeru, to grow (intrans). hagaki, post-card. hagane, steel. haha, mother. hai, fly (insect); ashes. hairi-kichi, entrance, way in. hairu, to enter, to go in. ha-isha, dentist. haishaku suru, to borrow. haitatsu-nin, postman. hajimari; hajime, the beginning, commencement. hajimaru, to begin (intrans.). hajimeru, to begin (trans.). haji wo kaku, to be ashamed, 7 JAPANESE GRAMMAR 194 A;JAPANESE GRAMMAR hakarazu, unintentionally. hakaru, to weigh. hakkiri (to), clearly. hako, box. hakobn, to convey, to transpot haku, to sweep. hamabe, shore, beach. hambun, half. han, a meal; rice. hana, a flower, blossom; the nose. hana-fftki, handkerchief. hanahada, very. hanahadashii, excessive, extreme. hanashi, tale, story. hanasu, to tell, to speak. hana-tate, flower-vase, hane, wing, feather. hank6 suru, to print. hara ga heru, to be hungry. hara wo tateru, to become angry. hari, needle, pin. haru, to stick (trans). haruka, afar. hasami, scissors. hashi, chopsticks, bridge. hashigo, laddter. hashira, post, pillar. hashigo-dan, staircase. hashiru, to run. hatake, vegetable-garden. hataraki, work. hataraku, to work. hateru, to finish, to conclude (trans.). hato, pigeon. hau, to creep. hayai, quick; early. hayari, fashion. hayari no, fashionable. haya-tstikegi, lucifer-match. hazukashii, bashful. hazukashisa, bashjfulness. he-datari, distance. hei, fence, hedge. heizei (no), usual, ordinary. hen, a change; neighbourhood. hen na, queer, curious. henji, an answer. henji suru, to answer. henk~wa, a change. hents, an answer, hento suru, to answer. herasu, to diminmsh, (trans.). heru, to diminish (intrans.); to pass through. heya, a room, a chamber. hi, the sun; fire; a day. hibashi, fire-tongs. hibi ni, daily. hidoi, cruel, unkind. hidoi me ni au, to receive cruel treatment. hidoi me ni awaseru, to treat cruielly. hidarui, hungry. hieru, to be cold. higasa, parasol. higashi, east. hiji, elbow. hijO (na), extraordinary, unusual. hlkaru, to glitter, to shine. hiki-dashi, a drawer. hikkuri-kaesu, to upset. hiku, to draw, to pull. hlkui, low (not high). Ilimo, bootlace. himo-ji, hungry. hineru, to twist (intrans). hlnk'O, conduct, behaviour. hink6 no ii, well-behaved, moral. hinshitsti, quality. hirattai, flat. hiroi, broad. hiromaru, to sspread (intrans.). hiromeru, to spread (trans). hirou, to find; to pick up. himu, to dry (intrans.); day-time; noon. himu (-gozen), luncheon, mid-day meal. hiru-sugi, the afternoon. hisashii, long (of time). hisuru, to compare. hitai, forehead, brow. hito, person, human being. hito-tarashi, drop (of water, etc.). hitori, alone. hlitotsu old, alternate, every other one. hitsuji-no-niku, mutton. hitsuyo (na), indispensable, 7necessary. JAPANESE-ENGLISH 195 hiya, cold. hiyori, the weather. hiza., the knee. h6, the cheeks. h6b6, in every direction; everywhere. h~ch6, a knife. hoeru, to bark. h6go suru, to protect. hoka, besides, except. home, praise. homeru, to p)raise. hion, a book. hont6, truth. hont6 no, trite, real. hon-ya, bookseller, book-shop. horeru, to be in love. horu, to excavate, to dig; to carre. h6ru, to throw. hoshi, star. hosoi, nzarrow. hoso-nagai, slender. hossuru, to wish. hosu, to dry (trans.). hotondo, almost; (with a negative), hardly. h~-t friend. hbzu, limit, boundary, end. hyakftsh6, farmer, pertscnt. hy6, bale, package,. hy~ban, rumour, report. hyorotstku, to stagger. I ichi-ban, number one, fiest. ichi-gai, altogether. ichigo, strawber, y. ichijiku, fig. ichi-6, once, once for all. ie, house. ie no uchi, indoors. iedomo, though, even. igo, henceforth. ii-kakeru, to address (in speakiing). ijiru, to tease, to initeifere. ikaga? how? ikahodo? how ranch? Utan? or ikani? why? ika na koto? what? what kind of? iki-gake, while on the, road to, whilst going. ikioi, strengtle, force. ikiru, to live. iku? how many? Mkutsu? how many? iku, to go. ikura? how mnuch? ima, nzow, at present. ima-imashii, disagreeable. ima no itatte, by now, by this time. imashimeru, to warni, to reprove. imo, pVotato. inabakari, lightning. inaka, the comntry (as opposed. to tolN n1). inochi, life. inor, prayer. inor wo suru, to pray. inu, dog. ippai nii suru, to fill1. irai, since, after; henceforth. ireru, to insert, to put in. iriy6 (na), requisite, needed. iri-kunda, intricate, complicated. iro, colour. iro-iro (no), all sorts. iru, to enter; to be; to shoot. irui, clothing, dress. isha, doctor, physician. ishi, a sf one. isogashii, busy, occupied. isogu, to make haste, to hurry. issakujitsu, the day before yesterday. issho ni, together. isu, chairg, seat. ital, painful, smarting. itameru, to Ihert (trans.). itami, pain. itamu, to pain (intranls.). itatte, very. ito, string, thread. itou, to shun, to avoid. itsu, wlhen? itsuwari, a lie, a fabrication, iu, to say. iwa, rock, stone, 196 196 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR jyagarn, to dislike. iyo-iyo, more and more. izumi, fountain, spring. J ji, ground, earth. jibun, self. jihaku suru, to confess, to own. jiki (ni), immediately. jin, human being, person,. Jinryoku suru, to do one's best, to endeavour jisatsu, suicide. jisatsua suru, to commit suicide. Jishin, self. jisuru, to refuse. Jitsu, truth. jitsu no, true. Jiyfl, freedom, liberty. JiyII na, free. j~bu (na), firm, sturdy, solid, strong. j ochfl, chambermaid. j~dan, joke. j~dan wo in, to joke. j Oki steam. jfklsha, a railway. jnbun, ample, plenty, quite. jin-go, fifteen. jnt-gwatsu, October. jnf-haehi, eighteen. jnl-iohi-gwatsu, November. Jin-inf, repeatedly, over and over again. iumoku, tree. Jnf-ni-gwatsu, December. Junjo, turn, order, sequence. junsa, policeman. jurai, till now, hitherto. K kabe, mud wall. kabu, turnip. kado, gate; corner. kaeru, frog. kaeru, to return (intrans.); to change (trans.) kaesu, to send back, to give back-, to return (trans.) kaesu-gaesu, over and over again. kagaini, looking-glass. ka~ge, shadow, reflection. kagi, key. kai, shell. kaiken, beach, shore. kakaru, to hang (intrans.). kakato, the heel. kake-au, to arrange about, to discuss, to bargain. kakeru, to run; to hang (trans.); to put. kaki, oyster. kaki-tsnke, note, memorandum. kaku, to write, to scratch. kakureru, to hide (intrans.). kakflshi, pocket. kami, the hair (on head); paper. kami, above, upper. kaminari, thunder. ka mo shiran, perhaps. kamu, to bite. kanarazu, certainly, positively. kane, bell. kane, money; metal. kane-ire, a purse. kangaeru, to think over, to consider. kani, crab. kanjiru, to feel. kani6, account, bill. kannin, patience. kannin suru, to be patient. kanshaku-mochi, quick-tempered. kanshin, amazement; admiration. kanshin suru, to be amazed at; to admire. kantei, criticism. kao, the face. kara (n&), empty. karada, the body (of a living creature). karakane, bronze. karashi, 'mustard. kariru, to hire; to borrow. kasa, quantity, amount. Rasanete, again, several times. JAPANESE-ENGLISH 197 kashi (Wa), oak-tree. kasu, to let (a house, etc.); to lend. kata, shoulder. kataohi, shape, configurationi. katsu, to vanquish, to win. kau, to buy. kawa, skin, rind, peel, bark, leather. kawaru, to chanigc (intians.). kaze, the wind. kozeru, to count. keisatsflsho, police-stactioni. keisatsi~wan, police-officer. kekk6 (na), splendid. kemuri, smoke. kenkwa, a quarrel. kenkwa suru, to quarrel. keredo (mo), though, btd. kesa, this morning. kesshits, certainly, positirely; (with a negative), never. ki, a tree; wood (the substance). kibun ga warui, to feel ill. ki-iroi, yellow. kikaseru, to inform. kiku, to hear; to listen. kin, gold, money. kinchaku, purse. kinjiru, to forbid. kinki, joy, pleasure. kin6, yesterday. kinu, silk-. kin-yobi, Friday. ki-6 (no), former, past. kippu, ticket. kirau, to dislike. kirei (na), nreat, clean, pretty. kiru, to cut; to kill; to wear. kita, north. kitai (na), strange, queer. kitanai, dirty. kitto, without fail, positively. ki-y6 (na), handy, skilful, clever. k6, thus, in this way, like this. k6 iui, such as this, this kind of. kobosu, to spill. kochi, here. k6dai, huge, immense. koe, the voice. koe wo kakeru, to cry oset. kogoto wo iu, to scold. k6hei (na), just, fair. kojiki, a beggar. koko, here. kokoera, hereabouts. k6man, pride, conceit. k6mnan na, conceited, proud. komban, to-night. konaida, a short time ago, lately. konna, this kind of such as this. konnichi, to-day. kono, this (adj.) konomu, to like,. koraeru, to bear, to enidure. kore, this (subst.). kore kara, henceforth. kore miade, hitherto, up till nowe. korosu, to kill. koshiraeru, to prepare. kosuru, to rub. kotae, a reply. kotaeru, to reply. kotogotoku, all, conipletely. kotoshi, this yeeer. kotowari, an excase, a refutsal. kotowaru, to ref ise, to make an ecrcuse. kowagaru, to be frightened. kowai, frightened. kowareru, to break (intrans.). kowasu, to breaek (intrans.). ko-y6ji, toothpick.. kubi, the neck, the head. ktichi, the mouth, ant openingf. k~fchi-bue wo fuku, to wchistle. kuchibiru, the lips. kuchi-nuki, corkscrew. kudakeru, to break to pieces. kudaru, to descend. kugi, a nail (to fasten with). ku-gwatsu, September. kVWk, air, atmosphere. kunt6, instruction. kunt6 suru, to snstruct. kurai, dark. kurasa, darkness. kureru, to give. kur6, trouble, pains. kuroi, black. kuru, to come. kftsuri, medicine. ktitabireru, to get tired. 198 A JAPAXESE GRAMMAR ktitabirete iru, to be tired. kutsu, boot, shoe. kutsu-ya, bootmaker, bootmacker's shop. kuu, to eat. kwairaku, joy, pleasure, kwaiwa, talk, converscetion. kway~bi, Tuesday. kyaku, guest, customer. ky 6, to-day. kyonen, last year. kyft (na), sudden. kytlji, waiter. kyt~kin, wages, salary. kyflto, last year. M ma, quite. mabushii, dazzling. machi, a street. maclil-naka, the whole street or town. machigai, an error, mistake. machigai naku, without fail. machigau, to comnnit an error, to err. madta, still; (with a negative), not yet. macto, window. macto-kake, window-curtain. mae, in advance, infrout, before. mae kara, beforehand. magaru, to bend (intrans.). mageru, to bend (trans.). Mai, each (as in mai-ichi, each day). majiwaru, to mix with, to associate. makeru, to lower in price; to yield, to be beaten (in a battle or in a game). mald, fire-wood. makoto, truth. makoto ni, really, truly. makoto no, true. makura, pillow. mamoru, to watch, to keep guard. mane, imitation. mane wo suru, to imitate. maneku, to invite. manzoku, contentment, scatisfaction. manzoku suru, to be satisfied. mari, ball (for playing with, etc.) maru cte, quite. marui, ro und. masaka (with a negative), hardly, surely not. massugu (na), straight. masu, to increase (trans.). mata, again; (with a negative), no more. Matsu, to wait. mattaku, quite. mawamn, to turn (intrans.). mawasu, to turn (trans.). mazeru, to mix (trans.). meigen suru, to state with clearness. meijiru, to order, to command. meiwaku, trouble, perplexity. meiwaku suru, to be perplexed, to be iv trouble. mekata, weight. mekura, blind (adj.). menct6, trouble. mendtO na, troublesomne. mess6 (na), extravagant. mezurashii, marvellous, iniracuIOUs. michi, road, way. mieru, to be in sight, to appear. migota (na), beautiful. migurushii, ugly (to look at). mijikal, short. Mimi, the ears. Mina, all. minami, south. mini, to look-, to see. mise, shop. mise-saki, shop-window. miseru, to show. mizu, or mictzu, water. mo, still, yet, more; (with negative), no more. mochiiru, to employ. mocbhi-nushi, 'possessor, owner. mochiron, certainly, of course. make, gain, profit. JAPANESE-ENGLISH19 199 Mokuyfbi, Thursday. momen, cotton. momm6 (na), ignorant. moppara, principally. m6su, to say. motomeru, to look-fior, to ask-for. motsu, to hold, to possess. motto, still, more. mottomo, very, quite. mudo (na), useless. mugaku, ignorance. mugaku (na), ignorant. mime, the chest. mustiko, son, boy. musiime, daughter, girl. muzukashii, hard, difficult. my&ch, to-morrow morning. myO (na), curious, marvellous. my6nichi, to-morrow. N nabe, saucepan. nadakai, renowned. nagai, long. nagareru, to flow. nagasa, length. nageru, to throw. naguru, to thrash, to beat, naisho (no), private, secret. naku, to cry, to sing. naku naru, to die. nan? (abbreviation of nani) what? nan de mo, anything. nani? what? nani-hodo? what anroant? naoru, to mend, to cure, to rectify to get well, to recover (intrans.). narasu, to ring (trans.). narau, to learn. naru, to ring (intrans.); to be, to become, to ripen. nasu, to do. natsu, summer. naze? why? nedan, price, cost. negai, desire, request. negau, to beg, to request. nejiru, to twist (trans.). nema, bedroom. nemui, sleepy. neru, to lie down, to go to bed. nichiy~bi, Sunday. nigai, better. nigiru, to grasp. ni-gwatsu, February. niku, flesh, 2meat. nikfl-sashi, fork-. niru, to boil (food, not water). niwa, garden. nobasu, to stretch (trans.); to put off. noboru, to go up, to climb. nochi, after, afterw-ards. nochi-hodo, by and by. nodo, throat, neck. nodo ga kawaku, to be thirsty. nokorazu, all, without erception. nomu, to drink. noru, to ride (on a horse, in coniveyance, in a boat, etc.). nuguu, to wipe. nusumu, to steal. nuu, to sew. 0 oba, aunt. obi, sash, belt. oboeru, to remnember, to learn, to,feel. ochiru, to fall. odayaka (na), calm, tranquil. odoroku, to be afraid, to be amazed. odoru, to leap, to dance. oishii, nice to the taste, tasty. oji, uncle. okiru, to rise, to get up. okkakreru, to chase. okoru, to become angry. oku, to put. okuru, to accompany, to send, to give. omoi, thought, affection. omoi-dasu, to recall to mind. omnoi-kiru, to make up one'sumind. omnoi-tatau, to resolve. omoi-yaru, to sympathise. 200 A JAPANESE G3RAMMAR omoshiroi, amusing, interesting. omotat, heavy. pmou, to think. om&I, woman. oreru, to break (trans.). ortru, to descend. oshieru, to teach., to instruct. osoi, late. osoreru, to fear. osu, to push. oto, a noise, a sound. otol~o, a man. otosu, to let fall. owalru, to terminate (trans. and intrans.). P pan, bread. pefli, paint. pika-plka, glitteringly, with a flash. raida (at), lazy, idle. ramu~ie, lemonade. rasha, woollen cloth. resslia, railway train. retta~su, lettuce. rieki, advantage, profit. rikW (na), intelligent, 'cute. rlngo, apple. rippa (at), magnificent. 4ppuku, temper, anger. rippuku sura, to get angry. r~ka, passage, corridor. roku-gwatsu, June. roujirn, to discuss, to argue. r~soku, candle. rustu, absent, absence. ryoko, journey. ryok6 surts, to travel. ryari, copkng. ryari-nits, cook. ryari wo, to coqk. ry~fl-yA, eating-house. S Stbishii, dull, lonely. sagasts, to search for, to seek. sageru, to let down, to hang down.(trans.). saji, Spoon. sakasama, inverted, upside down. sa~ku, to rend,, to tear. samasts, to cool (trans.). samattagera, to prevent. samerts, to fade; to cool (intrans.). samnui, cold. sau-gwatsu, March (the month). sappari, quite; (with a negative), not at all. sasayalru, to whisper. sasehira, to guess. sassoku, immediately. sat6, sugar. setryolcaU, strength. seld, a cough. geki ga derts, to cough. sekitan, coal. sema~i, narrow, small. senpka, the back (of body). sentaku suits, to wash, (clothes). ssntaku-ya, laundress. setsuZuei, an explanation. setsumei auru, to explain. shabon, soap, sh kkn, a debt. shashin, photograph. shasbin-ya, photographer. shatats, shirt. abiba, turf, grass. s~bibau, to tis. sblpl4-gwatsU, Jul1y. shiga, the teeth. shigokut, very, extremely. shi-gwttsu, April. hlte, maushrooms. shijfl, constantly. Bhlkarts, to find fault with. sikr, firm, tight. shikkel, rudeness, impertinence. shikkei at, rdipertinent. shtmnau, to finish. ab m u,new ~s. s m ts sl, newspaper. sh m pp l m oist. JAPANESE-ENGLISH 201 shinmeru, to fasten, to close. shimpai, aenxiety, trouble. shlimpai suru, to be troubled or anxious. shimpo, progrcss. shimpo suru, to progress. shin (no), real, true. shin ni, truly, really. shinjiru, to believe. shinki (na), neil'. shink6, belief. sbhink6 suru, to believe. shinr, truth. shinsetsu, kind0ness. shinsetsu na, kind (adj.). shinuru, to dir. shiraberu, to Citquiie into, to examine. shirase, onaceuovnuce~ncic, inti)i ation. shiraseru, to informn. shiroi, white. shiru, to knowr. shita, the bottom or, iunder port of antything. shita, the tonIgue. shitaku, preparations, making ready. shitaku wo suru, to lilepare. sh'itashii, friendly, intimate. shitsurei, insolence, impertinence. shitsurei na, insolent, impertinent. shizuka (na), calm, qiciet. sh~chi, consent, assent. sh6chi suru, to consent, to assent. sh-gwatsu, January. shoji suru, to possess. sh6jiki, honesty. sh6nin, dealer, merchant. shosen, finally, at last. sh6sh6, a little. shui, meaning, purport. shtlsen, help, aid. shftsen wo suru, to help, to aid. shushi, intention, aim. shuttatsu, setting-out, departure. shuttatsu suru, to depart. soba, alongside. sochi, or sochira, there. sedan, consultation. s6dan suru, to consult. s~ken (na), healthy, vigorous. soko, there. sokoera, thereabouts. sokonau, to -spoil, to fail. sonaeru, to provide. sonjiru, to spoil (trans. and intrans.). sono, that (adj.). sora, the sky. sore, that (subst.). soroeru, to arrange, to put in Order. sorou, to be arranged, to be in order. soro-soro, leisurely, sloucly. soshiru, to blame, to frevile. s6tai (no), ie-hole. soto, the exterior, out qf doors. s6tr) (na), convenienet, proper. sf6zshff, noisy. suberu, to slide, to slip. subete, altogether, all. sude ni, already. sue, end or tip of anything. sugi, past, (efter. sugiru, to exceed. sugu (ni);sugu (to), immediectely. suiry6, a conjeeture. suiryo suru, to conjecture. suiy~bi, Wednesday. sukkari, completely, wholly; (with neg.), not at all. sft~koshi, a small amount, a bit. sfiku, to be empty. slikunai, few, scarce. sumau, to dwell, to live. sumasu, to finish (trans.). sumu, to reside, to conclude. suppai, sour. suru, to rub, to make, to do. surudoi, sharp. susumeru, to recommend, to offer, to urge. Susumu, to go forward, to progress. suteishon, railway-station. sttteru, to throw away. suu, to suck. suzu, tin (the metal). suzume, sparrow. suzushii, fresh, cool. 7* 202 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR T tabako, tobacco. ta~beru, to eat. tabemono, food, nourishinent. tabi, journey. tabi-bito, traveller. tada, simply, merely, only. tadaima, presently, immediately. tadashii, exact, just. taira (na), flat, level. taisetsu, consequence, importance. taisetsu na, of conseqscencc, of importance. tais, greatly, very, much. taiy6, the sun. takai, dear, expensive, hiqh. takara, treasure. takaxu, to collect (intrans.). takgsan, plenty, much, many. tamago, egg. tamotsu, to keep (trans.). tana, shelf. tanoshimi, satisfactwn, pleasure. tansu, chest of drawers, cabinet. tara, cod-fish. tariru, to be saflicient, to be enosegh. taru, cask. tasbIka (na), positive, sure. tashika ni, positively, certainly. tasshiru, to attain to, to reach. tataku, to knock. tatami, mat. tatomu, to pile up. tateru, to set up, to buzld. tatoerut, to compare. tatsu, to rise, to get up, to start oatt. tazuneru, to enquire, to ask. te, hand, arm. te-aral, violent, roagh. tebukuro, glove. teburu..kake, tablecloth. tegami, letter (correspondence). teinei (no.), polite, courteous. tekit6 (no.), suitable, fit, proper. tenki, weather. tenugui, towel. tepp6, gun. teru, to shine. totsu, iron (the metal). tetsubin, kettle. tetsudd, railuway. to, door. tobu, to j ump, to fly. t6chaku, arrival. t~chaku suru, to arrive. todana, cupboard. todomaru, to stop, to stay. todomeru, to stop (trans.). toga, fault, blame. togameru, to find fault with, to blame. t~i, far, distant. tokei, clock, watch. tokeru, to m)elt (intrans.). toki, time. toki-ori now and then, somtetimes. tokkuri, bottle. toku, to explain, to unfasten. tomeru, to stop (trans.). tomodachi, companion, friend. toru, to take. t~ru, to pass throiegh, to pass by. WMt, at last. tou, to ask. tsugi (no), the next. tsugu, to join, (trans.); to follow. tsui (ni), at last. tsflkamaeru, to catch. tsfikasadoru, to control, to direct. tsukau, to employ, to use. tsukemono, pickles. tstikeru, to fix, to affix. tstiku, to push, to shove. tsumari, at last, in the long ron. tsumb6 (no), deaf. tsunagu, to tie up, to fasten. tsutsumi (mono), parcel. tsutsumu, to wrap up. tsuyoi, strong. U uchi, the inside; a house; home; no uchi iii, inside, in; sono uchi, meanwhile, soon; o uchi de, at home. ude, the arm. Ue, the top of anything; no ue ni, above, on, after. ugokasu, to move (trans.). JAPANESE-ENGLISH 203 ugoku, to move (intrans.). ukagau, to visit, to listent to, to enquire, to ask-. ukeru, to receive. fkmai nice to the taste, tasty. Un, heck-. un no yoi, lutcky. un no waxui, unluck-y. uru, to sell. uruwashii, splentdid, maya ificcat. ushi, cow, ball, beef. ushinau, to lose. ushiro, the back of anything; iio uishiro nii, at the back- of, beli md. USO, lie, ~falsehood. uso wo iu, to tell a lie. usu-gurai, dusk. usui, light, thin (in colour or consistence). Utsu, to hit, to strike. utsusu, to remove (traiis.). uwo, a fish. w wakai, young ~~. wakari, mulerstading. wakari-nikui, di/jialt, to undlerstand. wakari no hayai, sharp, intelligent wakaru, to understand. wakeri-yakui, easy to understand. wakeru, to divide, to shiare oit. waku, to boil (intrans.). warai, laughter warau, to laughi. warui, bad. wasureru, to forget. watakfshi, L. waza, to (prep.). waza-waza, on purpose. y yabuku, to rend, to tear. yabuku, to tear (intrans.). yachin, house-rent. yahari, also. yakedo, a burn, a scald. yakimochi, jealousy. yaki-pan, toast (to eat). yaku, to toast, to bake, to roast, to barn. yak~soku, prom ise, agreemenit. yak~soku suru, to agree, to promise. yama, mountain, hill. yameru, to pat ant end to. yaru, to send, to give. yasui, easy, cheap. yasumu, to rest, to retire to bed. yatou, to engage, to hire. yatte shimau, to give away. yobi-dasu, to umnmon. yobi-kaesu, to (all back-. yobu, to call. yahodo, plenty, a lot, Very. yoi, good. yb-i (ua), eusy. y~ki, weather. yoku, nell, (ftent. yomu, to read. yorokobi, plea6sure, joy. yoroshii, good. yoso, elsewhere. yowai, wecak, feeble. yf~be, yesterday evening,. yubi, fingfer, toe. yftbin-lryoku, post-office. yue ni, therefore. yuge, steam. yuki, sntow. yukkuri, slowly, lcisuricy. yureru, to shakec (intrans.), to qmeiver. yurui, loose. yurusu, to grantt, to allow. z zashiki, a room. zenry6 (na), virtuoses, uipright. zoku, commuonplace, vulgarity. zoku na, vulgar, low. zonjiru, to know. zonji-yori, opinion. suibun, very, pretty (adv.); a good deal. zuts-ft, headache. zuts~ft ga suru, to have a headache. II. ENGLISH-JAPANESE. A abate (cheapen), makerts. able, to be, dekiru. about (around), no mawar2 ni; (approximately) gurai; (here and there), achi-kochi. above (on the top); ue, no ue ni. absence, rusu. absent, rusu, orimasen. absent, to be, rusa da, inai. abundance, takisan, dossari. accept, to ukerm; (to accede to), shochi suru. accident, fai no koto, ihen; (calamity) soinan; (hurt), kega. accidentally, futo;fui to, soso de. according to, ni yotte. account (narrative), hanashi; (bill), kanjo, ache, to, itamu. acknowledge (to receive), uketoru; (to admit), shochi suru; (to confess), hakujo suru. acquire (to obtain), eru; (to gain), mokeru; (to purchase), motomeru. across, yoko ni, no muko ni. act (deed), sho-i, shiwaza. act, to, sura, nasa; (on the stage), yaku wo suru. add, to, yoseru, kuwaeru, awaseru. address, tokoro; (written) tokorogaki; (on a letter), uwa-gakz. admire, to, kanshin suru. admit, to (grant entrance), irere nyujo-saseru. advance to (go forward), ssusmu, shimpo saru. 204 advantage, toku, ri-eki. advertisement, kokoku. advertise, to, kokoku saru afraid, osoreru, kowagaru. after (later on), ato nochi; (behind), ushiro, ura. afternoon, hiru-sugi. afterwards, no'chi ni. ago, mae, izen; (long-), mukashi; (a short time-), senkoku. air, kiki, kaze. alive, to be, ikite suru. all, nokorazu, mina. allow, to, yurusu. almost, hotondo. alone, hitori. already, sude ni nohaya. also, mo, yahari. always, itsudemo, tsune ni. among, no uchi ni. amount, ta/ka. amusing, omoshiroi. animal, kedamono, dobutsu. another (different one), hoka no, betsu no. answer, henji, hento. answer, to, henji suru, hento suru. any, demo. anybody, dare demo. anyhow, d6 demo. anything, nan demo. anytime, itsudemo. anywhere, doko demo. appear, to, mzeru; (become visible), arawareru. appearance, gwaiken, mie, mikake; (shape), katachi; sugata. appetite, shok-ki. apple, ringo. apply, to (ask), tanomu, negau. ENGLISH-JAPANESE 205 apricot, anzu. April, shi-gqcatsu. arm, te, ude; (weapon) buki. around, no mawari ni. arrive, to, t6chlku sumru, fsvk(. army, rikugun. article, shinamlioo. artisan, shloke-e in. as (like), tori, y6 'li. ashamed, to be, haji 'wo kokcu. ashes, ati. ask, to (enquire), kik/7, ftON/n7co a. assist, to, tetsludw. assistance, shliUsen. astonish, to, odorokasu. at, ni, de; (at first), hajivlete, hajlne gWa; (at last), yoya(7; (at least), semetce; (at all), i/tl6, sappari. attend, to, ki wo ts/ker't. auction, seri-t'ri. August, hachi-gqa tsu. aunt, oba. autumn, aki, s7iii. awkward (clumsy), blukiyo na. B baby, aklamzbo. back (of body), senaka; (behind something), qshiro. back, to go, ncaeru, modoru. bad, warui. bag, fikuro; (hand-), te-kalan. bake, to, yaku. baker, pan-ya. ball (sphere), tama, ma ~i; (dancing), odori, but6. bamboo, take. band (music), gaklctai. bank (for money, etc.), glnko.. banker, ginko-sha. bank-note, ginko-shihlei. barber, toko-ya, kami-yzui. bargain, to, negiru. bark, to, hoeru, naktu. bark (of tree), kawa. barometer, sei-u-kei. barrel (cask), tarn; (of gun), teppo no tsutsu. basin, dolbur'i; (wash-). tarai. basket, kago, zaru. bath, y?, fituro. bath-room, furo-ba. beach (shore), hasnabe, wnmibc. bear, to, koraeru. beans, omamne. beat, to, butsu, qdtsa. beautiful, itsutkus ii, k/i ei ql. because, kara, y?,ec. become, to, nvay. bed (Japanese), toko, nedoko; (foreign), nedai. bed-clothes, yagz, ifIton. bed-room, neCma, nebeya. beef, ushi-lo-nlk a, g1yf-n i'?. before (in place), st(].i; (in time), Mac, izent,. beggar, kojilki. begin, to, io'ni'erv (trans.) hajimarut (intrans.). behind, sura, vshiro n i. believe, to, om(oo, sliltjir.?. bell, Lkane. below, shfta. belt, obi. bend, to, m ager (trans.); ~magarlt (intrans.). beneath, no shitla zi. berry, ichigo. besides, hoka ni, son0o ec, betsu ni. between, no aida ni, beyond, no sak i ni, no mukN nli. big, okii, oki cna; (bigger), motto okii; (biggest), ichiban okii no. bill (account), kacnjo; (of Exchange), kawase-tegaca; (of fare), kondate. bird, tori. bit (little), kire, kak-e sPkoshi. bite, to, kaniu; (as a dog), kzitsi/keru. bitter, nigai. black, k/uroi. blind (sightless), mnekura no. blood, chi. blow, to, f/cku. blue, aoi; (dark), ai, kon-iro; (light), midzu-asagi. body, karada, shintai. boil, to, niru, uderu. 206 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR book, hon, shonmotsu. bookseller, hon-yet. boot, lcutsii. borrow, to, har-irue, hetishakc' surm, sha/cny3 sueru. both, ry~hIi, dochira mno, futatsti naqara. bottle, to/-c/cnn, bin, bottom, so/co; (uinderneath), shite. bow, to, o jigi wo summ. box, ha/co. boy, otoko no ho, musti/co. branch, eda. brass, shinchit bread, pan. break, to, orern, howvarerte (intranls.); orn, kowasit (trans.). breakfast, asa han. breath, ilci. breathe, to, ilci suern, ko/cyit sU2'U brick, rengct. bridge, hashi. bridle, tazuna. bring, to, motte /curu. broad, hiroi. bronze, kicetrt/cene. brother, lcyidai; (elder), etni; (younger), ototo. brown, tobi-iro, c/ca-io. building, ie uchi, tatemono. build, to, fttshin wvo suru, it wo tatter. burn, to, mnoeru (intrans.); yakhert (trans.). business, y6, y~znu/i, sh6bai. busy, isogashii. but, heredomo, shi/cashi, get. butcher, ni/cu-yet. butter, bata. butterfly, ch6ch6. button, botan. button-hole, botan no ana. button, to, botan wo ha/cern. buy, to, han. by, ni, de. C cabbage, h-abeji. cabinet (furniture), tansn. cake, hwashi. calculate, to, /canbjo snru. call, to, yobn; (rouse), ohosn. can (able), de/cirn. canal, hori. candle, r,5sohn. card (visiting-), nafuda, mneishi. carpenter, dai/cn. carpet, shi/ci-mono. carry, to, mochi-hahobu. cat, ne/co. catch, to, tsn/camaeru. catch cold, to, h-aze wvo hi/cm. cause, gen-in, wa/ce. certain, tashih-a net. certainly (of course), mnochiron, atarimete. ceiling, tenji. chair, isa, hoshi -hae/. chambermaid, joehfi. change (balance of mioney), tsmri. change, to, hawvarni (intrans); tori -heernt (tranls.). character (nature), seishitsn. cheap, yasni. cheat, to, darnaset. cheeks, h6, h6peta. cheque, hogitte. chest (bosoml), m-une; (box), ha/co. chicken, niwva-tori. child, hodorno; (infant), ahamnbo. chin, ago. choose,to, yorn, erabn, yori-datsu. cigar, ha-mahi-tabtako. cigarette, hcami-ma/ci-tabet/o. clean, h-irei net. clean, to, so-ji sumu. clever, ri/c' net. climb, to, noborn. clock, to/cei. close, to, shirnern. cloth, hire; (cotton), mornen; (woollen), rasha. clothing, kimono, ifii/ci. cloud, humo. coal, se/citan. coat, uwagi. coffee, /c~hi, /czhe. cold (to the touch), tsnne tai; (of the weather), samni. collar, eni. ENGLISH-JAPANESE20 207 collect, to, yoseru, atsumeru. college, gakk&. colour, iro. comb, NcISHi. come, to, hcur, mairu. come back, to, kaeru. commence, to, hajivinerut. common (ordinary), nami no. company (firm), /cwaisha, shok/wai; (visitors) o-/cyaku. consent, to, sh~hi surat. consider, to, /cangaeru. consult, to, so~dan sarat. contain, to, haira. convenient, benri 2o yoi. cook, ry~ri-nin. cook, to, ry~ri suru. cool, suzushii. cool, to, samnasu. copper, a/cagane. copy, to, Utsusu. corn (wheat), mugi, ico-mugi. corner (exterior), icado; (interior), sWJihZ. cotton, rnomena, wata. cough, se/ci. cough, to, sekci ga dernu. count, to, /caaj6 sura. country (not town), ia/cae. cousin, ito/co. cover, to, futa u'o SIOa cow, me-ushi. cream, kuriim'a. cruel, hidoi, zan/co/ca na. cruet, yakcurni-tate. cry, to, na/cu. cup, wan. cupboard, todana. cupful, ippai. curious, /citai na, myti na. curtain, mado-/ca/ce. cushion, za but on. cut, to, Ncru. D daily, hibi-ni, mainichi. damp, shimep~poi. dangerous, abunai, /cennon na. dark, k-urai; (of colour), lcoi. date (the day), hidzu/ce. daughter, 'nztisume. day, niehi, jitsii hi. day-time, himu. deaf, tsunbo, rnimi-ga-toi. dear (in price), ta/cai; (beloved), /cawaii. debt, shak/cin, kcari. debtor, icari-nushi. deceive, to, damasa, gomnakcasu. December, j-ni-ga n decide, to, k-igneru, /cettei aurau. deep, f/ik/ai. delicious, umai. deliver, to, todolcera. dentist, ha-isha. depth, fulcasa. descend, to, kcudaru. desire, to, hoshii, nozornut. dew, tSUYU. die, to, shinuru. difference, chigai, kcubetsu. different, betsan no, ho/ca no, chigatta. difficult, mnudzu/cashii. dig, to, hora. dinner, yii-han, yasho/ca. directly, (at once) sugu ni; (without intervention), ji/ca ni. dirty, /ctanai, lcitanarashii. disappear, to, miena/cu naru. discount, wari-bi/ce. dish, naga-zara, ti-zara. dishonest, fu-sh~jilc. dislike, to, /cirau. dismiss, to, hirna wo yarn. distance, inwhi-nori, he-datari, h-yori. distant, toi, empd (na). do, to, suru. nasu, itasu. doctor, isha. dog, mnu. door, to. doubt, utagas, ginen. doubt, to, utagaat, f/ishin ni orno. down (below), shita. draught (wind), su/cima-lcaze. drawer, hi/ci-dashi. dreadful, osoroshii, 208 208 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR dream, to, yume wo miru. dress, kimono. dress, to, kimono wo suru. drink, to, nomu1. drive, to, m~ima wo gyo-suru. driver, gyosha. drop (of water, etc.), hito-tarctshi. drop, to, ochiru (intrans.); otosu (trans.). dry, kawaitca. dry, to, kawakasu. duck, ahirn. durable, mochi ga yo~i. during, aida. duster, z~k-in. dusty, hokori ga tak-atta. duty (obligation), gimu; (tariff), zei. dye, to, somerie. E each, ono-ono, mei-mei. ear, mimi. early, hayaku, hayai. east, higqashi. easy, ycasashii, yasui. eat, to, taberu. edge (border), fuchi; (of knife), ha. eel, unagi. egg, tamago. egg-cup, tamago tate. either, dochirce demo. elbow, hiji. elegant, k-irei na, rippae na. elsewhere, yoso, hoka. empty, kara, karappo5. end, shimai, owari. England, Igirisu, Eikoku. enough, fj2 bun, takigsan. enquire, to, tcezuneru, kiku, tou. enter, to, hairn. envelope, jd3bukuro. Europe, Seiy6, Yoroppa. even (level), tceira; (equal), ichiyj na. evening, ban, yugata; (this), komban; (yesterday), sakuban; (to-morrow), my6ban. every, goto ni, mai. everybody, daredemo. every day, mainichi. every time, maido. everywhere, dok-o demo, hWb3. exactly, chVd6. examine, to, shirabern, kensa surm. excellent, yoi, ii, kekk-i. except, no hoka ni. exchange, to, tori -kaeru. excuse, to, kamben suru,, uunsu. expense, nyfzhi, nyrtyd. expensive, takai. explain, to, toki-akasu. extinguish, to, kesu. eye, me; (of needle), medo. F face, kao. fact, jijitsu, koto. fail, to (in a scheme), hadzureru; (in sense of mistake), machigaeru. faint, to, me, wo mawasu, kizetsu sum. fair (pretty), kirei na; Ojust), k~h~ei na; (of weather), yoi. fall, to, ochiru; (of rain, etc.), furu. false, uso no. famous, nadakai. far, toi, empn3 na. fare (charge), chinsen. farmer, hyakush6. fashion, hayari, ryftk,5. fast (quick), hayai. fat, futotta. father, ototsan, chichi. fear, to, osoreru. feather, hane. feel, to, kanjiru, oboern. fern, shida. fetch, to, totte, kurn. field, hatake. fig, ichijiku. fight, kenkwa. fight, to, kenkwa suru, tatakceu, sens3 suru, ENGLISH-JAPANESE 209 figure (number), /cazu-Ji; (form), katachi. fill, to, ippai ni sura. find, to, midasa, mi-ataru, mitsui/kern. flue (slight). hosoi; (minute), komakcai; (pretty), /cirei no (of weather), yoi. finger, yubi. finish, to (end), shimau.; (complete), shiagery. fire (flamne), hi; (conflagration), kcwaji. fire-wood, ma/ci, ta/ci-gi. first, hajime no, saisho no, daiic/ti. fish, sce/ana. fit, to (of keys, etc.), ant. fit (suitable), tek-it 9ac. flag, hbata. fiat, hiratctai, taira na. flesh, nikcu. floor, ya/ca. flour, kona, udon/co. flow, to, na~qareru. flower, hana. fly, (insect) hai. fly, to, Wou. follow, to, tsuite i/cu. food, taebe-mono, sho/cu-mnotsti, /cUilnOaO. foolish, ba/carashii, tsumaranai. foot (of body), ashi; (measure) sha/cu. for, tame ni; (because), kara. forbid, to, kinjirm. forehead, hit ai. foreign, ywai/co/cz no. forget, to, wasureru. forgive, to, yurusu, ca'mben srum, /cannin suru. fork (table-), ni/cu-scashi. fortunate (lucky), un no yoi. fowl, torb, niwcatori. free,,jiyjl. frequently, tabi-tabi. fresh (riew, just gathered, etc.), atarashii; (of eggs), umi-tate. friend, tomodachi, hdyft7. frog, kaeru. from, kara, yori. front, omote; (in - of) no mae vi'. fruit, ni(dzu-C/2caishi, 1-?tdam oio. fullI, i)ppali. funeral, tomn oai. fur, Ice, lca7ra. furniture, Icazo 1, d~qu. G gain, md/ce, 9niyeki. gain, to, molcer-u. garden, viwo, hceoz-ovo; (vegetable-), Woak-e. gardener, vyecki-yoa. gate, mon. gateway, icado guchbi. general (usual), ippan no,fidtst no. generally (usually), ts'firez, taigai. gentleman (well - bred man), shins/ti. get, to (obtain), emu; (receive), mnoran. get out, to, deru. get up, to (rise), o/ira. girl, m2l't Suome. give, to, yarnt, ogeru. glad, otreshii. glad, to be, yorokcoba. glove, febukoro. go, to, yu/cu, ikcu. go back, to, /caeru. go down, to (an incline), oriru, /cudaru. go forward, to, mnae ye susnmu. go in, to, hairn. go out, to, deru. go through, to, t~hru. go up, to, agarn. go with, to, issho ni i/cu. gold, /cin. good, yoroshii, yoi, ii; (to the taste), umai. goods, shina-mono. goose (tame), gachd5; (wild-), gan. gradually, dan-dan. grand, rippa. grand-child, mago. grandfather, sofa-jiji. 210 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR grandmother, sobo, baba. grass, kcusa; (turf) ski ba. gravel, jani. gray, nedzumi-iro. grease, abura. green, aoi, midori-iro; (light), moyegi-iro. greengrocer, yaoya. grocer, kambuts't-ya, tobutsu~-ya. groom, WMt~ grow, to (increase), seich5 suru. grumble, to, guzu-guzu, ii?, guzutsuku. guard, to, mamoru. g un, t epp i. H habit (custom), narai, narawashi, fiasok-t. hail, Aij6, arare. hair, Ice. hairbrush, ke-harai. hairdresser, kami-yui, rihatsui-?fln. half, hambun, han. hammer, hanadzuehi. hammer, to, kanadzuchi de utsu. hand, te; (right-) migi no te; (left-) hidari no te. handkerchief, hanafulci, hanleechi. handle (of tools), e; (of baskets, teapots, etc.), te; (of drawer), totte. h~andsome, lcirei na. hang, to, lkakaru (intrans.); kakeru (trans.). happy, to be, yorok-obut, tanoshimu. hard (not soft), lcatai; (difficult), mudzulcashii. hare, usagi. hat, bishi, shtappo. have, to (possess), motsii, motte?,ru. head (of body), atama, headache, zutsC. healthy, tassha na. hear, to, ki/cu. heart, kolcoro. heat, at'?sa, neicki. heavy, omoi, omotai. height, takasa. help, to, tetsudau, tasukeru, sewva wo suru, te wo kasu. hen, mendori. here, Icok-o, kochira. here and there, achi-koohi. hide, to, kakureru (intrans.); lcakusu (trans.). high, takai. hill, ko-ycama, ok-a. binge, ch~-tsugaihire, to (a house, etc.), kcariru; (an employ6), yatou. hit, to, butsii. hitherto, kore made, ima made. hold, to, motsu, te ni motsu. hole, ana. holiday, yasumi-bi, kyf-jitsti. home, tahu, ji-tahu, uchi. honest, s/h~jiki na. horse, mgima, i4ma. hospital, by6-in. host, aruji. hot, atsui. hotel (native), yadoya; (European style), hoteru. hour, tohi, jikan. house, ie, uchi, tak-u. how, ihaga, d~shite. how long? itsu made? how many? ikutsu? iku-mai? how often? ikcu tabi? hungry, hidarui, himo-ji, hara ga hetta. hurry, to, isogu. I I, watakgishi, watakrishi-domo. ice, khri. idle, to be, namahete iru. if, moshi, nama, naraba. ill (sick), by~ki. Illness, fuhwai, by~ki, yamai. ENGLISH-JAPANESE 211 himediately, sugu ni, sassoku, su~gu-Ssama. impertinence, burei, shitsurei. impossible, delcinci. improve, to, kairy63 suru. in, ni, uchi, nite. inconvenient, fuben nec. incorrect, inachi gatta. indeed, jitsu ni. indeed! naruhodo!I inform, to, shiraseru. ink, ink i. isnkstand, ink-i-tsitbo. inn, yadoyat. insect, mushi. inside, no na/ca, ni. instead, icawvari ni. interesting, omoshiroi. interfere, to, jama suru. interpret, to, tsibm'o sara. interpreter, tsfiji, tsiiben. into, ni,,no nakca ye. iron (material), teots/; (of laundress), hinoshi. island, sh ima. jam, jcami. January, sk6-guwatsut, lchi-getsN'. Japan, Nihon, Nippon. Japanese (person), Nippon-jim; (adj.), Nihon no. jealous, yalcimochi. jealous, to be, yakcimtochi wo yak-u. jealousy, netamni, yakcimochi. join, to, tsugu, iss/co ni maru. joiner (trade), sashimono-ya. joke, j~dam. journey, ryokcJ. journey, to, ryok-5 surm. judge, to, saiban sutru. jug, Mizu-tsugi. July, shichi-gwatsu. June, rolcu-gwatsu just (fair), lc5hei na, elco-hiilci no nai, tadashii; (scarcely), chWd6, y~yaku. K keep, to, mnotsrl. keep back, to, nokosm. kettle, teti-bn, yut-walashi. key, icagi. kick, to, k-eru. kill, to, kor-osu. kind (sort), shurui, tagui; (adj.), shin-setsu na. knee, hiza. knife (kitchen-), (leba-bo5cho; (pocket-), kogatana. knock, to, tatalcu. know, to, shi2re wakcarit. L lace (boot-), himo; (needlework), reisq't. lady (well-bred woman), fujin. lamb, ko-hitsaji. lame, bi/cio, chimba. landlord (of building), iye-nnshi; (of inn, etc.), teishitt. language, icotoba. lantern, clhochim. large, 5kii, olci ma; (wide and ex - tensive), hiroi; (thick), futoi. last, ato no, seal, sak-u. last night, salcuban. last month, ato no tshl'ti, sen-gets. last year, salcumem. late, osoi. lately, chilcagoro, icono aida. laugh, to, warau. lazy, bushd3 ma. lead (metal), namari. learn, to, maanabu, maram, keik6 SUM, osowarn. least (smallest), whi ban chiisai no. least, at, silkunakute mo. leather, icawa. left, hidari. leg, ashi. lemon, yuzu, remon. lend, to, Icasu. length, nagasa; (at —) tsui no, yd yaleu. 212 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR less (in quantity), sukunai. let, to (allow), saseru; (hire out), kasu. letter, teqami; (-paper), tegami no-kcami. level, tairaka na. library, shomotsui-beya. lid, fita. lie, uso; itsuwari. lie, to (tell falsehoods), uso wo tsuku. lie down, to, nerufuseru. lift, to, mochi-ageru. light (not heavy), karui; (colour), usui-iro; (flame), akari. light, to, hi wo tsukceru. like (similar), nita, ni-yotta. like, to, suku, konomu. lip, kuchi-biru. listen, to, kik/u. little (small), chiisai. live, to, ikiru; (dwell), sumau. long, nagai. look, to, miru. look for, to, sagasu. loose (not tight), yurui. lose, to, nackusu, ushinau, son surz; (be beaten), makeru. loud (in sound), 6ki na oto. love, to, suk/u, horeru. low (in height), hikui; (vulgar), gesubatta. luggage, nimotsu. lunch, chiitjikci, hiru-meshi. M make, to, koshiraeru. man, hito, jin, otoko. many, oi, takisan, yohodo, oku no. manufacture, to, seizo-suru. mark, shirushi. market, ichi-ba. marry, to, konrei suru. map, chizu. March, san-gwatsu. master, danna, shujin. mat, tatami. match (lucifer), haya-tsuilegi. meaning, imi, wake. meanwhile, sono aida ni. measure (dimensions), sumpo; (instrument) mono-sashi. measure, to, sumpo wo toru. meat, niku. medicine, kisuri. melon, uri. mend, to, naosu, tsNkurou. merchant, akindo, shonin. merely, tada. message, kotozuke. messenger, ts/kai no mono. middle, chi, naka, mannaka. milk, chichi. mine (of me), watak'ishi no. minute (time), fun. mirror, kagami. mist, moya, kiri. mistake (error), nachiqai, aya machi. mistake, to, machiqaeru. mix, to, mazeru. Monday, getsu-yobi. money, kane, kinsu. month, tsgki. monthly, mai-tsuki, tsuki-dzuki. moon, ts/ki. more, mo, motto. more and more, rasu-masu. more or less, tash6, ikura-ka. morning, asa; (this-), kesa; (to-morrow-), myo-asa. mountain, yama. mouth, kchi. mother, haha, okkasan. move, to, ugoku (intrans.); ugokasu (trans.); change residence), tentaku suru. much, takusan. mushroom, shiitake, mats'itake. mutton, hitsuji-no-niku. mustard, karashi. N nail (finger-), tsume; (metal, etc.), kugi. naked, hadaka. ENGLISH-JAPANESE21 213 name, na. narrow, senrai. nasty (to taste), inazui. near, chilcai. nearly, hotowdo, mno siiloshi de. necessary, hitsuye3 na. neck, kubi, modo. needle, hari. neighbour, tomari-bito. neighbourhood, kiajo, kitipen.never, kesshite mai. new, atarashii. news, shimzbaa. newspaper, shimabumshi. next, tsagi 76o. nice (pretty), kirei ma; (dainty and sweet), itinai. niece, gnei. night, yor?6; (to-night), loinbaa; (last-), salcabaa. nobody, dare muo nat. noise, oto. noisy, yalka~nashii, sizdshii. none, nai. noon, hirm. north, kilo. nose, hana. nothing, mami mo mai. notwithstanding, mc lea22awa~?. November, Jft-ichi-getskt. now, irna; (- and then), ornorn, tolki-dokli. number, k-azm. nurse (child's), ito-mori; (sick-), lkamby5-nia. 0 oak, kashiwa, mbarat. obedient, swmao ma. object (aim), mokatelci. object, to, lcoshd Wvo ia. observe, to (see), mi-tomaena, miukeru; (be careful about), chfe-i-sara; (incidentally), kiga tsukm. October, Jft-gwatsm. of, no, offer, to, sasamnar. official (officer), shikwan, yakunin. often, tabi-tabi. oil, abutra. old (of things), /rci (of persons), toshiyori. omit, to, otosi&; (in writing), 1-akiotosa. on, me mi; ml. once, ichido; (at -), stgmum. onion, megi. only, tatta, bak-ari, tar/a. open, to, ak-erat. opinion, kamgae, ryokew. opposite, wa/co SWo. or, 22n010 wa, kha. orange, mikam. order (sequence), jan go, shidai; (for goodls), clhiiwooa; (to servants, etc.), meinci, ii-lstkce. order, to (command), ii-tsikerii, mecijna. ordinary, tsilrCi, atarimae. other, hok-a mo, ato mc). our, watalcl'Ishi-dom)o no. out, outside, soto. out, to go, dekcakcenat, derat. over (on top), uC Wt. overcoat, qwaito. owner, mnochi-nashi. P package, lsatsamni; (bale), hyJ9; (case), hako. pain, da~ai. pain, to, itasma. painful, itai. paint, p2emlci. paint, to, pemlci 200 mrar, ero/al. painter, pemnti-ya; (artist), ekcaki, gwak-6. pale, aoi, aozame 2W, ao-zameta. paper (wall -), kabc-gagmi; (writing-), lcakm-k-ami. paper-knife, kami-cNri. parasol, higasa. parcel, tsutsumi. parent, oya. 214 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR part, bun. part, to (of an object), wakeru; (of friends), hanareru. particular (special), kakubesA na; (strict), yakagmashii, yen]j, ko-mudzukashii. partner (business), shain. pass, to (through or along), toru. passage (corridor), roka. passenger, nori-kiyask. passport, menjo, ryok6-menjo. pattern (model), te-hon; (sample), mi-hon; (figure), myo6. pay (salary), kyi/in. pay, to, harau. payment, harai. pea (in pod), saya-end6; (shelled), erndo-mame. pear, washi. pear-tree, nashi no ki. peasant, hyakush6, n6min. peculiar, kitai na, hen nea. pen, fude, seiy6 no fude. pencil, empitsiu. penknife, ko-gatana. pepper, kosho; (red), togarashi. perfect, kwanzen na. perfectly, mattaku. perhaps, tabun. permit, to, yurusu, shochi suru. person, hito, jin. perspiration, ase. perspire, to, ase ga ders. persuade, to, kudoku, susumeru. photograph, shash/n. photographer, shashin-ya. pick, to (fruit), toru, nogu; (flowers), hana wo oru; (select), erabu. pickles, k-no-mono, tsukemono. picture, e; (hanging), kakemono; (ftamed), gaku. pierce, to, tsWki-tosu. pig, buta. pigeon, hato. pillow, makura. pOi, tome-bari, hari. pink, momo-iro no. pipe, kuda; (tobacco-), k/seru. plaoe, tokoro, basho, ace, to, oku. plain (level ground), hira-c, ' heichi; (clear), akiraka na. plant, uzeki, kusa-ki. plant, to, iteru. plate, sara. play (game), asobi; (drama), kyogen. play, to, asobu. pleasure, tanoshimi. plenty, takesan, juibun. plum, unme; (-tree), Ame-no-ki. pocket, kak/shi, fittokoro. pointed (sharp), togatta. police-station, keisatsi-sho. policeman, keisatsiu-kwan-junsa. polite, teinei na. pond, ike. poor (indigent), bimbo na. pork, buta no niku. porter (railway-), eki-fu; (light-), karuko. portmanteau, kaban. portrait, shozo, nitarukatachi. post (pillar), hashira; (letters, etc.), yubin. postage-stamp, yubin-kitte, inshi. postcard, yibin-hagaki. postman, yibin-haitatst-nin. post-office, yibin-kyoku. post-office-order, yifbin.kawase. potato, imo; (sweet.), Satsunma imo. pour, to, tsugu. powder (gun.), ensho, kwayakit; (medicinal), kogusuri. praise, to, homeru. present (gift), shijo-mono. presently, jiki ni. pretty, kirei nta; (beautiful), utsikushii. prevent, to, samatageru, sasenair price, nedan, ne, atai. print, to, hankO stru, insatsl suru. prisofi, roya. probably, tabinn. proper (appropriate), so-o 6 teit6, so6t na. protect, to, mamoru, hOgo sum, proud, k6oma na. proeyde, to, swoaeru. ENGLISH-JAPANESE 215 public, 6yake no; (people in general), k6shiu. pudding, kwashi. pull, to, hiku. punish, to, bassurlt, tsumi sL'ra. pupil (scholar), deshi. pure, suzmi-kitta, junsai na. purse, saifu, kainc-ire. push, to, osa. put, to, okli; ( - aside), totte okn. Q quality, hinshitsi; (superior-), johin; (inferior -), gehin. quantity, taka. quarrel, kenkwa. quarrel, to, kenk'wa slru. quarter (j), shibun no ichi. queer, kitai na, qmy6 na. question, toi. quick, hayai. quiet, shidzcka. quietly, shidzukani. quite, mattakez, jubun. R rabbit, usagi. rags, boro. railway, tetsudo. railway carriage, kisha. rain, ame. raise, to, ageru. raisi4, hoshi-budo. rare, medzurashii, mare na. rarely, mare ni. rat, nezumi. rather (on the contrary), kaette; (somewhat), zuibun. raw, nama. read, to, yomu. ready, to be, shitaku shite oru. ready, to get, shitaku wo suru. real, honto no, makoto no. reason, dori, wake. receipt, uketori. receive, to, ziketoru. recently, konaida. recollect, to, omoii-dasi. recommend, to, susmewera. recover, to, tori-modosa; (from sickness), zenkwai suru. red, akai. refuse, to, kotowara, jitai surat. relate to (tell), nobern. remainder, owkori. remember, to, oboeru. repair, to, naosu, tsukiirou. report (rumour), fisetsri, fi-ban. request, negai. request, to, negau, tanonu. require, to, yo-suru. reside, to, jukyo sur2. resolve, to, sadameru, ketchaku suMr. rest (after work, etc.), yasamii; (remainder), nokori. rest, to, yasumzu. restaurant, ryorz-ya. result, kekkwa. return, to, kaera (intrans.); 'aesu (trans.). rich, kanemochi. ride, to, noru. right (not left), migz; (just, proper), tadashii. ring (for finger), yubi-wa. ring, to, narasu (trans.); naru (intrans.). ripe (of fruit), juku shita. river, kawa. road, michi; (highway), orai, kaid6. roast, to, yaku. rock, iwa. rob, to, nusuZu. roof, yane. room, heya, zashiki. rope, nawa, tsuna. rough, arai, zarakkoi; (rude), burei, sokotsu na; (harsh), arappoi. round, marui. rub, to, kosuru. rub out, to, kesu. run, to, kashiru; (- away), chikuten suru. 2t6 216 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR S sad, to be, kanashimu. safe, buji, daijdbu. safely, buji ni, anzen ni. salary, kyftkin, gekkyit. salmon, sake. salt, shiwo; (- cellar), shiwoire. same, onavi. sand, skna. satin, shusa. Saturday, doy~bz. sauce, shi~ya. saucepan, nabe. saucer, sara, shita-zara. say, to, hanasse, iii scarce, ssekanai. school, gakklc. scissors, hasami. scratch, to, kalca. scream, to, salcebat. screw, neji. season, jisetsuk. seat (chair), isa leoshi -1w ie. see, to, miru. seed, tane. seem, to, raiera. seldom, mare ni. select, to, erabse. selflsh, tamae-gatte ata. sell, to, urit, ari-sabakit. send, to, yara, oleurse. separate, betsa no, betsat-betsit no. separate, to, waleerie. September, kes-gwatsa. servant (male), lkodz ielai; (female), gejo. sew, to, nfz. shadow, lkage-b6shi. shape, katachi. sharp (of knife, etc.), yokse keirern. shave, to, higqe wo snum. shelf, tana. shell, leai. shine, to, tern. ship, fune. shirt, jiban, shats/i. shoe, leatsiui. shoemaker, leutsqi-yca. shoot, to (with weapon), tepp6 Wo ntsse. shop, mise. shopkeeper, aleindo. short (not long), mijileai. shoulder, leata. show, to, misern. shower (of rain), yfidachi. shut, to, shimeru. sick, byjki. side, h6, leata. sight (something seen), moiruIcoto. sign, to, kienne surse, namae wo leak-u. silence, damatte orat loto. silent, shidz/Iklea. silent, to be, deagarse. silk, leinue. silver, gin. since, leara. sing, to, uetaa. sister, onna-leyadai; (elder), ane; (younger), inidto. sit, to, leoshi wo leokeru. size, jk1isa. skin, leawa, hadae. sky, sora. sleep, to, nera. sleepy, nemui. sleeve, sode. slow, noroi, osoi. slowly, shidznlea ni. small, chiisai. smoke, keemuri. smoke, to (tobacco), tabalco wvo nomnn. smooth, ssebeleloi. sneeze, to, le//shavi wo sura. snow, yalci. soap, shabon, seleken. soft, yawarakai. soil (earth), tsnchi. solid, leatai. some, arm. somebody, dare, lea, amn hito. somehow, dtdea. something, nani lea. sometimes, amu tolki, tolci-ori. somewhere, dole/a de, doleo lea. ENGLISH-JAPANESE21 217 son, mmsUico. song, uta. soon, jiki-mi. sound (heard), oto. soup, suimomo, tsatyl, stippi'. sour, suppai. south, minmail. sparrow, sUZameW. speak, to, ift, hamas, mc~su. spectacles, 2megceme. splendid, rippa ma. spoil, to, sonjira. spoon, saji; (tea-), cha-saji. spring (season), harn. spring (of vehicle), bane. square (shape), shi/ca/a. stable, hnta-ya. staircase, hashigo-dan. stale, fura/cusai. stand, to, tAt/. star, hoshi. -start, to (set out), shattatsui sara. state (condition), y~sa, arisamna. station (railway), suteishon, teisha-ba. steal, to, nusumu. steam, yuge, jilci. steamer, j3/clsen. steel, ha6 ame. stick, to (adhere), /catts/i/ca. still (u-ntil now), irna made; (tranquil), shidzu/ca ma. stocking, /cutsii-shita, tabi. stone, ishi. stop, to, tornaru (intrans.); tomeru (trans.). stove, sutoba. straight, massugu na. strange, f/cshigi, medza rashii. strap, kawa-himno. straw, wara. stream, nagare. street, miehi, tori. strength, chikcara. string, ito. strong,.j~bu na; (physically), ehikcara no. stupid, ba/ca ma. sudden, miwa/ca ma. sufficient, jitbun ma. sugar, satd. suitable, te/cit3 ma. sum (total), shim cia/ca, summer, natsrt. sun, taiy35, hi. Sunday, niehiy~bi. supper, yfaneshi. sure, tashi/ca. surely, tashikca ni. sweep, to, ha/cat. sweet, amai, urnai. swim, to, oyoga. T table, dai, taberit. table-cloth, tebera-/ca/e, dai-/ca/ce. tail, shippo. tailor, shitate-ya. take, to, torat. talk, to, hanasu. tall, sei-mo-ta/cai. taste, ajiwai. tea, eha. tea-cup, cta wan. tea-kettle, tetsil-bin. tea-pot, dobim, /cibi-sho. teaspoon, eha-saji. teach, to, oshiera. teacher, sensei. tear, to, yaburu. telegram, dempnY. telegraph-office, deashim-/cyo/ca. telephone, denwa. tell, to, hamasa. than, yori. thimble, yubi- nu/c. thing (ahstract), /coto; (concrete), sm'omo. think, to, omom, /camgaerm. thirsty, nwdo ga /cawaita. this, kore, k-omo. though, /ceredomo. thread, ito. throat, modo. through, t~ru, tishite, t,3tte. throw, to, hdru, mageru; ( away), Mteru. Thursday, mo/cmy6bi. ticket (railway-), /cppu; (for theatre, etc.), fuada. 218 218 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR tie, to, shibaru, yuwaeru. tight, kcatai. till (until), made. tin, brik-ki, suzu. to, ye, ni. toast (bread), yak-i-pan. to-day, konnichi, k-yd. together, issho no. to-morrow, mny~nichi; (-morning), 'imygchc; (- evening), my6-ban. tongue, shita. to-night, k-omban, lcon-ya. too (also), yahari; (excess), amari. tooth, ha. toothache, ha itai. tooth-brush, y6ji. touch, to, ni farera; (meddle with), ijirne. towards, no hd ye. towel, tenugui. town, machi. toy, omiocha. trade, akinai, shr~bai, b~3yeki. train (railway-), ressha, kisha. translate, to, hon-yaku suru. travel, to, rydkd surm, tabi suern. traveller, tabi-hito, ryok-6ja. tray, bon. tread, to, fumn. tree, ki, jumoku. tremble, to, furi~t; (with fear), kowakute furu; (with cold), samakutefuru. trouble (bother), mend&; (in. convenience), tekazue; (anxiety), shimpai. trouble, to be in, koma'ru. troublesome (of persons), urusai; (of things), mendh3 na. trousers, momohilci. true, hont6, mak-oto. truly, mak-oto ni, hon ni. truth, mako-to, jitsk. truthfully, aritei ni. Tuesday, koway~bi. tumble, to (over), korobu; (dlown), oehiru, taoreru. turnip, kabte. twist, to, hineru, nejirte. U ugly, mi-nikui, migura~shii, fukiry6 ma. umbrella, kasa, kara-kasa. unable, to be, dekinai. unavoidable, shikata-ga-nai, yondokoronai. uncertain, tashika de nai. uncle, oji-san. uncomfortable (inconvenient), fuji~yit ma. uncommon, medznrashii. under (underneath). shita. understand, to, wakaru. undress oneself, to, kimono wo nugu. unfortunate, fn-shiawase na. ungrateful, on wo shiran&ii unhappy, fu-shiawase na. unhealthy (of persons), byishin, ma; (of places), y4A3' no tame ni yoku nai. unjust, fu-lc~hei. unikind, fu-shinsetsu' ma, nasakenai. unlike, chigatte. unlikely, arisd mo nai. unpleasant, omoshiroku nai. unsafe, abunai. unsatisfactory, zombun, de nai. unsightly, mi-mikiti. unskilful, heta ma, bukiy(5 ma. unsuitable, fu-sa-o-na, fu-tekitO ma. untrue, jitsui de mai, aso no. untruth, uso, itsawari. unusual, hifi3 ma, rei no nai. unwise, kamgae ga nai. up, ue ni. up, to get, okiru. upon, ue ni. upright (honest), jitchoku ma, tadashii; (erect), massugu. upside-down, sakasama, abe-kobe, sakasa. upstairs, nikai. us, watakrishi-domo. use, to, tsukau, moehi-isru. useful, chuhh3 ma. useless, yakun si tatanti. EXGLISH-JAPANESE 219 uselessly, itadzura ni. usual, atarinare no. usually, tarttei, fadan ni. V valuable, tattoi, ne-uchi, no anra. value (cost), atai, nte-aechi. various, iro-iro no, somna-zama no. vase, hama- ike. vegetable, yasaimono. velvet, bir~do. venture, to, yatt(' miru. verandah, enynwva. very, tais5, haaahi ado, ittat(',!/oklf, shigoku, nakca-nakca. vex, to, ijimnerat. view (prospect), ke-sluli, wilharashi, chbb6. view, to, inira, ke an s -. vigorous, j~bat no, Isuyoi, 35k-eana. village, qmrae. vinegar, Sit. violent, te-arni. violet, sam?-ire. visit, to, tadzunera, alcoeiycr. visitor, kcyaka~. voice, koe. voyage, kraij,5. voyage, to take a, fane de f51eai vulgar, gehin inn. w wages, Icyiilcin. waist, koshi. waistcoat, cholcki. waggon, knramna, ni-gamuma. wait, to, mnatsA; (at table), ky Wj wo sura. waiter, 7Cyitji. walk, to, arukat. wall, kabe. want to (desire), iru, iriy5, hoshii. warehouse, kuam, doz5. warm, atatak-ai. warn, to, iunashimera. wash, to. earat; ( -- clothes), sed,taka sara.. waste, to, tsaeyaa-a, lnuyami C 1i tsukau. watch, klfriChUt-dok-Ci. watch-maker, tok-eiya, water (cold), mnidz-a; (hot), yat. way (road), mtichi; (manner), y6, sh~wtat. we, icatakhishi-domo, cvare-ra. weak, yownai. wealth, zaih5, shiadn, take ra. wear, to, (clothes), icira. weather, tenki. Wednesday, sai-y~bi. week, iss~hakan. weigh, to, hak-aru, hakeari ni, kakete mnira. weight, mnekata. well (in health), suk-oyaka( no, tasshe nn. wet, namete. wheat, kornuqi. wheel, qva, kiarama. when? itun? where? doko? dochirn? which? doehirn dore? while, aida. whip, machi. white, shiroi. who? dare? donata whole, maino, ntokorzav. wholesale, oroshi. whose? dare mo0? why? naze? wicked, warai, ashik-7. wide, hiroi. widow, yok-e, yamone. width, hirosa, haba. wife, tsanma. wind (which blows), haze, fsie. wind, to (a watch, etc.), iaakme. window, mado. window-shutters, mado no to. wine, bnd~slhu. wine-glass, sakazueki. wing (of bird), tsubasn. winter, fuyu. 220 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR wipe to, fuic~. wire, hatrigcane. wise, rik-6 na. woman, onna, fujin. wonderful, kimyd na, kitai na, fushigi. wood, Hi; (forest), hctyasht, mori. wool, hoe, rcsha. word, hotoba. work, shigoto. work, to, hatarakhu. workman, shohunin. worthless, tsumaranai, yahu ni tatanai. wound, hega, hcizu. wrap, to, tsutsumu. wrist, te-hcubi. write, to, hcahu. wrestle, to, sumti wo toru. wrong, machigatta (adj.); (evil), ivarui. y year, toshi, nen, sai. yearly, qnai-nen. yellow, hi-iroi. yesterday, kino. yesterday evening, saukaban. yesterday morning, hin6 no asa. yet, mada. young, wvakai, toshi no ihanai. zeal, nesshin. zealous, nesshin naru, fumpatsli nara. zig-zag, une-huane, tsuzu-ra-ori natte oru. zinc, totan, INDEX A Accent, Articulation and, Accusative. Active constructions (preference for) Adjectives. (adverbial form) (attributive form) (comparison of) (compound) (derived). (desiderative) (form in i) (form in ki). (form in ku). (f orm in o or u) (formn in shi) (gerund of) (in nai). (in rctshii) (in tai).. (inflection). (negative) (paradigms of) (predicative form) (primary inflections) (secondary inflections) (stems). (tense and mood ia) PAGE *.. 50 *.. 99, 108 *.. 115, 167 *118, 119, 120, 121 *. 116, 117, 127 *.. 116, 127 *.. 125 *.. 125 * *.69, 85, 99 *. 116, 117, 120 116, 117 118, 119, 120, 121, 149 *. 106, 118 8120 * * * 117 *. * 86, 121 *77, 122, 123, 124 * *. 125 *.. 69, 85 116, 121 *. 122, 123, 124 *120, 121, 122, 123 *116, 117,1 120, 127 *. * 116, 120 * * * 121 * *. 118, 120 * *. 121 222 222 INDEX Adverbial Phrases Adverbs Apposition Article (absence of) " As" (how rendered) Attributive constructions Augmentatives Auxiliary Numerals )I Verbs (see Verbs) PAGE *. 149, 150 *16, 42, 118, 143, 170 * *.43 * 8 * 151 * 31, 116, 117, 127 * 15 132, 142 B Bases of Verbs * 54-56, "Because" (how rendered) "Become" (how rendered) ~6But " (how rendered) 64, 65, 68-71, 73, 78, 97, 107, 110 * 39 * 88 * 89,5 151 C " clan " (how rendered) Cannot " (bow rendered) Causals or Causatives Certain Past Tense Certain Present or Future Tense * 101, 103 *..101-102 107 *.. 699,83 * 54-57, 68, 80, 106 Chinese words. 25, 130-132, 135-140, 156, 159, 160 Comparison....... 116, 127, 168 Compound (Adjectives)..... 125,, (Nouns). *. * * 12,, (Tenses). *.. *. 93,, (Verbs). *. *. 113 Concessive Mood *. *... * * 70, 89 Conditional Base.* *... 54, 55, 68, 70 (Mood).. * * * 70, 87, 88 Conjugation *.. * * *. 54-64, 121 (First) * 54, 55, 58, 65-68, 96, 97, 102, 107, 108, 110 (of Adjectives).121-123 Conjugations (of Verbs).... 54-64,, (Second) 54, 55, 60, 60-64, 97, 98, 102, 103, 107, 108, 1 10, 111 Conjunctions *. *. * 16, 151 INDEX23 223 D Days of Month (how counted) Dependent Clauses (where placed) Desiderative Adjective Diminutives. PAGE 139 * 172 * 58, 69, 85, 99 I 15 B "Either. or " (lhow rendered).38, 51 Elision 4, 88, 93 Ellipsis 48, 173 Emphasis 6, 49, 50, 152, 153, 168 Enumeration 33, 41, 129 F Frequentative Form Future Tense 57, 58-64, 69, 84, 121 68, 80, 92 G Genitive Gerund 36, 42, 170 6.9, 85, 93, 94, 95, 99 H Honorifics 91, 154 "1If " (how rendered) Imperative Mood Impossibility (how expressed) "In order to" (how expressed) Indefinite Form Indicative Mood Infinitive,, Interjections Interrogation Irregular Verbs ( see Verbs). Isolating Particle I *... 47, 87, 88 * * 70, 90, 121, 166 102 *... 41 54, 55, 68, 78, 113, 1206, 164, 171 * * *.58-64, 68, 78 56, 83 *.... 148, 152 * 27, 28, 38,48, 141, 142, 174 47 224 INDEX L PAGE 91, 109. 6, 65-68, 69, 92, 132, 133-135 "L Let " (how rendered) Letter-changes M "1 May " (how rendered) Months (names of the) Mood Mr, Mrs, Miss "1 Must "1 (how rendered) 82, 103 - 140 * 57, 58-64, 68, 78, 83. 158, 159 82 N Negative (syntax of) (adjective ncai) (base) (conjugations) Neither... nor" (how rendered) Nominative Nouns (abstract) (compound) (used as Adjectives) (,, Adverbs) (verbal) Number Numerals 174. 77, 122-124 54, 55, 68, 97, 107 122 40 12, 36, 48 9, 130, 167, 171 14, 83 12 125, 126 16, 149 13, 15, 79 9, 53, 115 129-143 0 "Or" (how rendered) " Ought" (how rendered) 38, 51, 151 15 P Particles (see Postpositions). Past Tenses * Person * Plural. Postpositions (Particles) 69, 70, 83, 87, 89, 127 16, 53, 154 9, 19 * 9, 19, 62, 167, 171 INDEX Potential Verbs (see Verbs). Prefixes... Present Tense (see Certaini Present). Probable Past.,, Present or Future Pronouns.. (demonstrative) (indefinite) (interrogative) (personal) (possessive) (reflective) (relative) 225 PAGE *. 9,10, 15 *. 69, 83 *. 68, 80 * 16, 155, 156 *. 23 * 29, 43 * 27 *. 16, 22 * 20 *. 22 *.. 31 R Reduplication of Consonants. 11.(of words) 5 10, 149 S " Should " (how rendered).. 15 " Since " (how rendered)..39, 53 Stems (of Adjectives)..116, 118, 120, 126,,(of Verbs).. 54, 55, 65-68, 92, 97, 110 Subject (of Sentence) * *. 36, 48, 50, 167, 169, 175 Suffixes...9, 14, 19, 91, 97, 104, 113-115, 116-120, 125 T Tense (in Adjectives),,(in Verbs). Th an " (how rendered) Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. *. *. 121 * * 53, 68, 78, 92 53, 128 *... 96, 110 Verbs..,,(ambiguous forms),,(auxiliary),,(bases of) JAPANESE GRAMMAR V *. 53, 167, 170, 171 * * *... 110 * *.. 91, 106 *. 54-56, 68-70, 78-91 8 226 INDEX PAGE Verbs —(continued).,(causal). 41, 107, 108,, (compound)... 113,, (final, omitted).. 173,, (honorific).. 71, 75, 91, 105, 164,, (in aru).. 92, 97,(in eru)... 92, 97,(in jiru). 104,,(in surn)... 104,, (intransitive).. 6, 98, 103,(irregular).... 71-78, 99, 109,, (passive). 41, 93, 97-100, 102-103, 108,, (potential).. 101-103, 165,, ("to be"). 34, 35, 92-94, 105, 116, 119, 121, 122, 125,,("to do")..... 99, 103-105,,(" to have").... 105, (transitive). 96-97, 175,, (used as adjectives)..126, 127,(used as nouns)... 12, 13, 79,, (with so affixed). 126 W "-TVhen" (how rendered) " TWIhether" (how rendered) " W7hile" (how rendered) 16, 87-88 38 16 Printed at the Edinburgh Press FRANK and EDWARD MURRAY (Printers) 9 and 11 Young Street MAY 14 1920 TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESS-"HIRSCHFELD, LONDON." TELEPHONE-No. 2757 CENTRAL. CODE-"A.B.C." FOURTH EDITION. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED, Publishers 13 Furnival Street, Holborn, London, E.C. HOSSFELD'S CONVERSATIONAL METHOD FOR THE Study of Modern Languages (FOR SCHOOLS OR SELF-TUITION) THE Publishers of this now World-renowned Method for thle study of foreign languages respectfully submit the following Reviews and Letters to the notice of their readers, as convincing and indisputable evidence of the remarkable popularity it has attained, and this solely through its intrinsic value as a medium for acquiring languages in the easiest and most attractive manner, and in an incredibly short time. "The increasing intercourse between nations, and development of international trade, with its keen rivalry between the competitors, have in our time considerably increased the importance of a Working Knowledge of Modern Languages," and this is exactly what may be acquired by a student of the Hossfeld Method. The difficulty of the study of a foreigni language may be easily overcome by a little attention on the part of the student if he uses the Hossfeld Method, which, to assist hilm in the accomplishment of this object, lays down,.. 2 Hossfeld's Conversational Method such rules for his guidance as will place him in a position to master the same with comparative ease and satisfaction. The publishers have given many years' earnest attention to the subject, and it has been their aim to make their books really trustworthy and reliable guides from which any student of ordinary intelligence may, with a modicum of industry and perseverance, obtain a thorough and practical knowledge of the language he is studying. The Hossfeld Method is planned on a perfectly rational and scientific basis, the books are divided into 62 lessons, and each sub-divided into four parts, comprising from the first lesson:Conversations. Translations. Readings. Grammar. It will thus be seen that, as one of our correspondents states, this one Method embraces the four recognised up-to-date modes of teaching and learning, carefully avoiding those extremes which are so unsatisfactory and disappointing in their results. The plan of the lessons is very fascinating, and one in which the student himself becomes greatly interested, hence he makes that rapid progress which is so marked in all students of the Hossfeld Method, and which is, happily, fast doing away with the stigma cast upon our young men and women for their deplorable ignorance of foreign tongues. This was, however, not attributable to any incapacity or lack of intelligence in themselves, but entirely owing to the inadequate and false means of instruction. The Hossfeld Method, unlike others which promise so much and perform so little, gives from the very beginning ample proof of its efficiency, and the publishers urge you to give it a trial without delay and judge its merits for yourself. They would also call your attention to the cheapness of these volumes in comparison with others. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED, 13 FURNIVAL STREET, LONDON, E.C. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED for the Study of Modern Languages 3 A SELECTION OF UNSOLICITED TESTIMONIALS H.M.S. CLEOPATRA, CO,()NIA, URUGUAY. DEAR SIR, "The Grammar in French, of Hossfeld's, having been mainly instrumental in my having gained the quality of Interpreter, R.N., in that language in six months, I take the earliest opportunity of acknowledgment, and also of suggesting the propriety and immense advantage to the public service should every library in H.M. ships of war be supplied with your Grammars in, say, French, German, Italian, and Spanish, etc. I may mention that our libraries are supplied free to us, and at the public expense, and that the addition would represent a merely trifling cost, and that I believe that should you represent the advisability, their Lordships would acquiesce, in the interests of the public service. "You are at liberty to make what use you please of my views, as I was the first to elect the present regulations, granting four months' study on the Continent, and therefore I need lose no time in consultation."-[ am, STR, Yours sincerely, L. B. DENMAN (Lieutelat), 11.M.l. S. (leopatra, S.E. Coast, Amerci(a ( Ml tevideo ). CHARTER HOUSE, GODALMING. DEAR SIRS, "I thank you for a copy of your Italian Grammar [Hossfeld's System], with which I have been for some time well acquainted. The system is excellent and the book is admirably arranged. My experience of the Italian Grammar was so satisfactory that I recommended a pupil of mine, who wished to learn Spanish, to get your Spanish Grammar in the same series. He made rapid progress, and required very little help beyond that which the book gave him."-Yours faithfully, W. HAIG BROWN (Principal). POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, REGENT STREET. GENTLEMEN, "I use Hossfeld's German Grammar for our large day and evening classes at this Institute, and I appreciate the work highly. In proof of the good results attending its introduction to the classes, I may mention that out of 98 students presented for examination by the Society of Arts, 18 gained first class Certificates, 4 second class, and 72 third class, and only 4 failed; a student also gained the prize for German given by the Chamber of Commerce, value ~5, and Certificates."-Yours truly, M. SEIFERT. 13 Furnival Street, London, E.C. 4 Hossfeld's Conversational Method MANCHESTER, 3rd October 1903. "For many years I have used your Spanish Grammar, Hossfeld's Method, at the Central Commercial Schools in this city, and also at various other institutions and with private pupils, and I may say that I consider this Method the most interesting, satisfactory, and complete of all the text-books of a similar kind which have come under my notice. It contains all the necessary matter for a student of languages, Grammar with examples, Exercises for translation to and from Spanish, Questions on the Grammatical Rules already given, and a Reading Lesson in Spanish, preceded by conversation in Spanish and English on the whole of latter, and on every-day topics What more could be desired even by the method-ridden modern student? Some say 'Grammar is useless,' some say ' Translation only is necessary,' some, ' Conversational Phrases, in question and answer form, only are needed,' and finally, some say 'only connected ideas (as shown in your reading lessons) are of any avail,' and they evolve phrase after phrase in successive order on all the ordinary topics of life. Now, what do we find in your Hossfeld's Method of all these four up-to-date modes of teaching and learning? Everyone: Grammar, Conversation, Translation, and Reading, and that right from the very beginning, from the first lesson in the book. - "If proof be needed of the efficiency of the Hossfeld Method, any one can find it for himself by consulting the Result Sheets of the ' Lancashire and Cheshire Union of Institutes' and of the 'Society of Arts' Examinations each year, where he will find that the Spanish students of the Central Commercial Evening Schools, Manchester, invariably stand at the head, and often with one or more prize-winners and medallists. This year's Society of Arts' results includes first and second prize-winners from these schools, where all the students use Hossfeld's Method for Spanish. It is well to state that I have had occasion to use your other Grammars in French and German, and have found them always equally satisfactory. " You are quite at liberty to make any use you think fit of this letter, as I do not hesitate to confirm to everybody what I have written above." ALFRED CALVERT, Lecturer on Modern Languages at the Manchester Central Comnlmercial Evening Schools and Manchester Athenoaem. TECHNICAL SCHOOL, BLACKBURN, 25th July 1904. "I have used your French, German, Spanish, and Italian Grammars for many years. I selected them for my Classes and private students after a careful perusal of every system published in English, both here and in U.S.A. My students always figure conspicuously in Exam. results, and several times have earned medals and been first in lists of results. "The Grammars are the nearest to my ideal of what a Grammar should be, and because the rules are so well explained and exemplified, I am able to spend nearly all the one poor hour per week we evening class teachers can get in per language to the ' spoken' and ' dictation' aspects, instead of being compelled to spend the all-too-short time in wearisome explaining of the Grammar sections that should be (as they are in your Grammars) clearly enough set forth in easily comprehensible English in the book itself. "As ' imitation is the sincerest form of flattery,' I have imitated your system for the most part in my Portuguese Conversational Grammar published by your firm." FRANK THOMAS, Professor of Modern Languages at Blackburn Technical Schools, and Blackburn Grammar School. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED for the Study of Modern Languages 5 SHIPLEY, YORKSHIRE, 20th June 1904. "It is, of course, superfluous to add that I am practically acquainted with your Grammars. 1 have used thenl for many years with most gratifying results." TH. J. WE[NTZ. ALLEYN'S SCHOOL, LEWISHAM. "I have gone through your Hossfeld Grammars very carefully, and like them very much indeed. The Method is clear and lucid, the task is not made too irksome for the student, and the happy medium is nowhere missing in the arrangement of matter. The hand of experienced teachers is clearly perceptible in the disposition of the books, and I shall be glad to use them whenever opportunity occurs." L. HIRSCH, Ph.D. BitRKIECK CO()LEGE, BREA1M' BUILDINGS. )EAR SIRS, "The success of my pupils has been phenomenal since I adopted Hossfeld's Spanish and Italian Methods in my classes for teaching these languages. I have examined every Grammar for teaching languages that exists, and do not find one so admirably adapted for classes and private tuition as Hossfeld's. These books are marvellously clear and in every way fitted for teaching a language in the simplest and easiest way." —Yours very truly, RAFAEL DEFFERARI MONTEVERDE, B.A., Teaceher at above Institute anld Kiag's College, Il/mebledon, Skerry's College, etc., Su'orn Ilterpreter by Royal Authority. THE COLLEGE, EAST ACTON. DEAR SIRS, "Early last autumn you sent me a specimen copy of your Hossfeld's Spanish Grammar, which I am pleased to say I decided to adopt as a text-book. The result has proved most satisfactory. All the pupils I sent in for examination were successful-one took premier position out of several hundred candidates. Having lately been appointed an Examiner to one of our great Examining Bodies, I shall certainly recommend your works to other teachers."-Yours truly, W. RADFORD, P'rincipal. COJMMERCIAL SCHOOL, QUEEN'S ROAD, DALSTON, 1903. "It is satisfactory to note that in our German, Russian, and Spanish Classes where the Hossfeld Grammars are exclusively used, we have during the last two sessions won four Society of Arts' bronze medals and ~16 in prizes." J. SINCLAIR, M.A 13 Furnival Street, London, E,Q. 6 Hossfeld's Conversational Method LONDON, 16th March 1903. "I have had great pleasure in introducing your 'Hossfeld's' German Grammar into my Gernmn Classes both at Kennington Road and Balham Commercial Schools, and it has met with the greatest approbation. I admire the method and arrangement of the Grammar greatly." E. BROOKS. COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, CHAUMERT ROAD, 1904. "The German and Spanish books of the Hossfeld Method are being used in above school, and are giving every possible satisfaction." A. A. KEMP. LEIPSIC ROAD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, 1904. I have thoroughly examined your French Method, and find that the completeness of the Grammar, combined with well-selected Conversations and Readings, make it a most useful and attractive book to students of French. I am introducing it into the Classes here." THOMAS LEA. KENNINGTON ROAD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, 1904. "We are using your books in Italian and Spanish, and are very pleased with them." F. W. BULL. CAVENDISH ROAD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, 1904. "I have had great pleasure in introducing your Hossfeld German Grammar into my Classes both at above school and Konnington Road." F. BROOKS. EVENING COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, BROCKLEY ROAD, 31st August 1903. "I have your Spanish and German books in use at my school, and am introducing the French this Session." A. J. WREN, Responsible Teacher. CRAWFORD STREET EVENING SCHOOL, June 1904. 'I think Hossfeld's Method is capital. I recommended it to the master who takes the Intermediate County Council Scholarship work, and he is now using it in his Class. I have your smaller book in use in the Evening Classes." C. E. PANNELL. EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOL, FIRCROFT ROAD, BALHAM, July 1904. "We used your French Books all through last session, and our Class was large and successful." JOHN G. GRAY. HIR$GHFEL6D BROTHERS LIMITED for the Study of Modern Languages 7 EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOL, RAYWOOD STREET, 27th June 1904. "Please send me a copy of your Hossfeld Method. My French Instructor has already spoken of it to me in terms of praise." E. B. LING. EVENING COMMERCIAL CENTRE, GOSPEL OAK, 1904. " I shall certainly recommend your Italian Method. I think it to be admirably adapted to the needs of our students." J. H. GARSIDE. SCIENCE AND ART SCHOOL, BRIXTON, July 1904. "My teacher of German is anxious to introduce next session Hossfeld's System." W. C. EDWARDS. LONDON, 5th February 1903. "I have been using 'Hossfeld's German Grammar' at the Goldsmith Polytechnic Evening Classes for the last two years, and find it the most suited for the purpose of the rapid study of German." J. FORTSCHUNK. ARCHBISHOP TENISON'S SCHOOL, LEICESTER SQUARE, LONDON. "Last term I introduced your large French and German Grammars and Exercises into the Upper Form of this school, and we like them very much." J. F. ARNOLD. LAUREL HOUSE, BRYMBO, N. WALES. "I shall recommend your 'Hossfeld' French Grammar very strongly to my pupils, and will extend the sale of that valuable book." FERNAND DELETTRES. GEORGE HERIOT'S SCHOOL, EDINBURGH, 26th October 1903. "I am using your ' Hossfeld's' German Grammar in all of my German Classes, and think it an excellent book. Your German Exercises and Idioms by Prof. Mengel also gives good results." D. LOWE TURNBULL, M.A., LL.D. ST GEORGE'S CLASSES, EDINBURGH, 13th October 1903. "Your ' Hossfeld' Italian Grammar seems to me excellent, and I am sorry not to have known of it before. I shall be very glad to adopt it with my pupils." S. ALBEGGIANI. 13 Furnival Street, London, E.O. 8 Hossfeld's Conversational Method SHARP'S INSTITUTION, PERTH. "I have formed a very high opinion of your German Grammar, and have decided to introduce it here next session. Kindly let me have the name of your agent in this town." A. WATSON BAIN, MlIodern Language Master. CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, DUNDEE, 22nd June 1904. "I brought to the notice of the examiner for Spanish on the Commercial Education Examinations of this Chamber, the copy of the Hossfeld Method received from you, and was informed that he already used it in his Classes." G. C. KEILLER. EDINBURGH, 20th May 1904. "I greatly approve of Hossfeld's System, and I have already introduced it into my French, Italian, and German Classes with much success." H. CANROBERT. C(RAIGHOLME, GLASGOW, September 1903. "I have gone through your 'Hossfeld's' French Grammar with my French teacher, and we both think it a very useful book, combining theory and practice and introducing a large and serviceable vocabulary." J. MURDOCH, Principal. "I have already introduced your book into my German Classes at the Manchester Athenaeum, and in future intend'to use it everywhere." G. ALBERS. MANCHESTER, 26th June 1904. "All my private pupils are using Hossfeld's Method and like it very much. I am determined to introduce it everywhere I can." B. GAUME. MANCHESTER, 4th April 1904. "For many years now I have used various of your publications for the study of modern languages with great numbers of my pupils for University and other important examinations." ARTHUR HORSFALL. PRESENTATION BROTHERS' COLLEGE, MARDYKE, CORK. DEAR SIRS, " T have been successful in introducing Hossfeld's German and Italian Methods and also the French and German Correspondents, of which you sent me specimens, and I must say that I am really astonished at the remarkable progress made by my pupils since they got your books into their hands. I shall do all in my power to make your publications known to and appreciated by my colleagues in other schools." Yours faithfully, J. L. THEODORE GETZ, Bach. es Lett. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED for the Study of Modern Languages 9 ST. FAUGHNAN'S COLLEGE, Ross CARBERRY, CORK. "The two Grammars on the ' Hossfeld ' system are just the thing we want, and I shall do my best to promote their introduction into this and other Irish schools. The German Grammar could positively not be better; it is unique." Rev. PAUL A. PESCHEL. COLLEGIATE SCHOOL, CORK. "I think that the Hossfeld French Grammar is the best that I have seen, and I trust that I shall be able to introduce it into my school at no distant date." H. WILLIAMS, M.A., T.C.D. ST. PETER'S COLLEGE, WEXFORD. "Your 'Hossfeld's' French Grammar seems to be excellent in every way, and the praises bestowed upon it by teachers who have introduced it into their schools shows that the Method must l)e well adapted for pupils. I shall recommend it here." O. KING. Li VERPOOL, S30th iSepf/her ] 903. "Having found your Hossfeld's German Grammar a sensible and useful book, I have already introduced it into my German Classes held at the Y.M.C.A., also at the Balfour Institute and Wallasey Grammar School." C. 0. WICKERT. en ior Germal( Master. HOLY CROSS SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL, J?/l 1904. "I have tried many Spanish Grammars with my pupils, and think Hossfeld's is undoubtedly the best published." L. CONWAY. EGREMONT COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, J1ly 1904. I am very pleased with the style and the matter contained in your Spanish Grammar. When convenient I will use it in my Classes, as I consider the Method an intelligent and pleasant way of acquiring a knowledge of a language." T. B. GERAGHTY. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, LINCOLN, 1904. "I am pleased to say I am using your Hossfeld Method, French and German, in a private class at present. Now that I have proved the excellence of the books I shall, in all probability, adopt them for my Classes at School the next session. Pupils using these books make splendid progress in a short time." C. PHILLIPSON. BIRMINGHAM, November 1903. "I am pleased to say that I am using your Spanish and Italian Grammars at the Birmingham and Midland Institute; and your Spanish and French Grammars at the Walsall Science and Art Institute, and find them very satisfactory." E. EDMONDS. 13 Furnival Street, London, E.C. 10 WHossfeld's Oonversational Method SOUTHAMPTON, 17th July 1904. "Some of my students have begun their studies on Pitman's and Hugo's Methods, but these have given such unsatisfactory results that I wish to substitute Hossfeld's and gradually make use of the other works published by you. Pitman's Method was chosen owing to its special commercial character, but on examination I think it is plagiarized from Hossfeld." C. E. L. WRIGHT. LEICESTER, 19th A egust 1902. "Your German Course has met with great success here. It is the finest work I have seen." E. CUNLIFFE, Teacher of Languages at the Y.M.C.A. and Union Street College. RATCLIFFE COLLEGE, LEICESTER, January 1904. "We are using your German and Italian books and are much pleased with the German especially." J. CREMONINI. WAREHAM TECHNICAL INSTITUTE. "I find ' Hozsfeld's Method' a most practical one; the conversations, reading lessons, questions and exercises, all comprised in a neat form, display much judgment and care. The conversations and remarks embrace all topics, and are worded in the most elegant French of to-day. It is a practical System which will prove very useful to those who are anxious to speak French with fluency and correctness. The book in fact is a model of the way in which French should be taught." I. WALTER, B.A. COLLEGIATE SCHOOL, SLEAFORD. " I have carefully tested your German Grammar and have now decided to adopt it for general use. The graduation of the lessons and the combination of theory, exercise, questions, conversation and reading make it a model lesson book." E. R. DIBBEN. TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, COVENTRY, September 1903. "I have introduced 'Hossfeld's Grammar' this winter at the Technical Institute French Class, and if I am as well satisfied with same as with the German Grammar, intend introducing it later into the Advanced French Class as well, giving up other books." J. F. RUEGER. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, HULL, September 1903. Your French, German, and Spanish Grammars on the 'Hossfeld Method' are being used in this school through my recommendation." C. KESSLER, M.A., Lecturer on Modern Languages. BRITISH EVENING CLASSES, NORTHAMPTON, 27th June 1904. "An earnest student with a good teacher for pronunciation should have no difficulty in rapidly acquiring a sound and extensive knowledge of a language by your methods." E. PARNELL. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED for the Study of Modern Languages 11 SPRACH-U, UEBERSETZUNGS-INSTITUT, LEIPZIG, GERMANY, 1903. "I take great pleasure in telling you that I have used 'Hossfeld's' German Grammar with my pupils for the past three months and find it a most excellent book. It has the great advantage over all other Grammars I know that all dullness has been avoided, the scholar soon takes a liking to his German studies, and all rules being explained very lucidly, speaks and writes German correctly in a short time." M. MULLER-BONJOUR. AMERICAN TESTIMONIALS UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER. OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT. DEAR SIRS, "I have examined with great care and much gratification your Italian, German, and Spanish Grammars in the Hossfeld Series. I find them quite equal to the French Grammar, of which I sent you a notice. The method seems to me in all respects admirable, combining with a wonderful skill grammatical and conversational exercises so as to convert theory immediately into practice. I shall bring them to the attention of our Professors in these Departments with a strong commendation."Respectfully yours, D. J. HILL, President. ST FRANCIS SERAPHICUS COLLEGE, CINCINNATI, OtlIO. "I am happy to state that the Professor of French at our College is highly pleased with your Hossfeld Grammar, and wishes to have it introduced at once in place of the text-book we have hitherto been using. Please send six copies at once." REv. P. BERNARD NURRE, O.S.F. TEMPLETON, IOWA. "Your Spanish Grammar is eminently what is claimed for it-a Practical Method for learning the Spanish Language. The lessons in conversation arc taken from life, and introduce the realities of life in a familiar and natural way so as to make the scholar feel at home and help himself. The reading exercises are likewise ingeniously devised and practically arranged so as to afford many opportunities of readily recognising the idiomatic peculiarities of the language, and gradually becoming familiarised with the same. Therefore I say, to whom it concern, take and read and reap its manifold benefits, as the best proof of its excellence." REv. B. A. SCHUKTE. 13 Furnival Street, London, E.C. 12 Hossfeld's Conversational Method COLLEGE OF ST THOMAS, MERRIAM PARK, ST PAUL, MINN. "I was so pleased with the copy of your French Grammar that I immediately ordered thirty copies." J. C. BYRNE. CHURCH OF IMMACULATE CONCEPTION,i ALLENTOWN. "I received your Hossfeld's French Grammar, and am impressed that it meets the wants of the times, and, in my opiniion, is the best I have seen." REV. P. F. DONEGAN. HENRYVILLES COLLEGE, CANADA. "I think that your German Grammar is one of the best I ever saw." BROTHER JOSEPH. NEWARK, N.J. "I am a teacher of Modern Languages, and all my pupils are using the Hossfeld Grammar. It is, in my opinion, the best teaching method I know. Its clear, easy, and methodical arrangement renders the study of modern language pleasant and easy. The sub-division of each lesson.gives the pupil from the start an idea of the language he is studying. Since I have used Hossfeld's Method the success has been beyond expectation." ALBERT J. FREICHILER. NEW YORK. "After careful examination of your French and Spanish Grammars, I am pleased to say that the Hossfeld Method is in every way one of the best I have ever seen. I cannot show my appreciation better than by saying I shall place your books in the hands of my pupils with the greatest confidence as to results." EUGINIE RIVARDE. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, WASHINGTON, D.C. "I take much pleasure in informing you that I think the Hossfeld Method most excellent. I deem it peculiarly well suited for private or self instruction, and for this purpose I shall heartily recommend it to our students." B. J. LAUTERBACH, S.J., Professor of German. CATHEDRAL OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, BURLINGTON. "After a careful examination of your French Grammar I am happy to, concur with those who have already extolled its merits. I find its Method remarkably clear and well adapted to the wants of those who cannot conveniently procure the assistance of experienced teachers." C. C. DELANEY, B.A. HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED for the Study of Modern Languages 13 CHARTER OAK, IOWA. "We use your German Grammar, and consider it ahead of anything we have yet seen. It seems to embrace the happy combination necessary to make the study of the language interesting and easy." PROFEssoi( A. J. BAUMAN. CHRISTIAN BROTHEI1S' COLLEGE, ST Louis. "I am much pleased with your Hossfeld Method. It is one of the best that has come-under my notice, and I will give it a practical test." BROTHER FELIX. ST MARY'a COLLEGE, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS. "The perusal of Hossfeld's Spanish Grammar forces upon me the admission that it is an admirable work tending towards the acquisition of the musical Castillan tongue. The varied reading exercises presented in such a novel, and at the same time attractive form for the beginner, I consider as one of the characteristic features of the production in question." BRo. CHARLES AUL, Teather of TSpatish. PRESS OPINIONS The Schoolmaster says: " Hossfeld's French Grammar is a book of more than average merit. It is a thoroughly practical work, combining rules, illustrations and practice in a very judicious manner. Grammar, Conversations, Reading Exercises follow each other so rapidly and are interspersed in such continual variety, that if the Student finds the work dull the fault must be in himself and not in the book. We are glad to find so much use made of the double column system, by which very rapid progress may be made by a diligent student." The School Guardian says: "This Method of teaching possesses many advantages and is well worked out in the Grammars before us." Life says: " Hossfeld's Grammar is almost entirely free from the tiresome repetition of the same words and sentences, indeed one of the aims has been to make it a vehicle of teaching as many words as possible. This, however, is only one of the number of recommendations which this work possesses. The work, in short, strikes us as being a sound and highly meritorious performance. It has the additional advantage ot being excellently printed and remarkably cheap." The Oldhami Ch/roticle says: " Messrs Hlrschfeld Bros. did a splendid work in issuing the various text-books in Hossfeld's New Method ot studying languages. It is quite free from all those irksome methods which have made the study of foreign languages so repulsive to the average Englishman. All the definitions are crisp, clear, discriminating, and all the exercises are developed on the soundest principles, hence the works are 13 Furnival Street, London, E.C. 14 Hossftld's Conversational Method the handiest and most interesting in our language. No one can blunder through the Grammar, they are made to understand it line for line as they go on. The books will prove a boon to the private student as well as to those who study in a class-room; they are accurate, comprehensive and captivating, and cannot be too widely known amongst those desirous of mastering languages. Governesses, private pupils, teachers and schoolmasters will find these volumes all that they could desire." The London Press Co. says: " Learners cannot do better than to obtain the interesting and extremely cheap series of Grammars, Readers, etc., written and compiled on the ' Hossfeld' System. These manuals are all that can be desired and are the best guides extant for learning languages. Everything is set forth in a plain and concise manner, rendering the task an easy one and making the student soon proficient in the languages. The Readers form a collection of the most interesting prose and poetry of each country." The Birmingham Daily Post says: "The plan of the Hossfeld Grammars is rational, and we think the acquisition of a foreign language by means of them is likely to prove pleasant and rapid." The Bristol Times says: "' Hossfeld's Method' offers the easiest and quickest way of learning the French language. The progressive exercises are arranged with skill and care, and the extracts of prose and poetry are well chosen. No better book than this could be recommended to the student of French." Civil Service Review says: " These volumes, we should say, require only to be mentioned to be bought far and wide, and only to be bought to be appreciated." The Standard says: " The diligent student of French may obtain a very serviceable mastery of the language in a comparatively short time by means of these excellent guides." The Nonconformist says: "The Grammars and the Commercial Correspondent are marvels of cheapness, of compression, and of fullness of information. The Dictionaries are also very cheap, yet they are accurately compiled." The Publishers' Circular says: "The excellence of ' Hossfeld's Series' is now so well known that additional volumes come before the public with the hall-mark of assured ability, and require little comment at our hands." Daily News says: "We heartily commend these books to all wishing to master these languages with ease and small outlay." Daily Post says: "These books are as remarkable for their cheapness as they are for their usefulness; the type is large and clear." Mercury says: " They are marvels of cheapness and brought within the reach of all classes of persons." HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED I THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DATE DUE CL 1L LLLIKAAAA-CLhlLhi JUL2 9 1982. \ I I v_z 1*~f s.?a- a* -a ' - _.^ is H r Ch. C A.i^ I' t- i a m IC\ S —/ DO NOT REMOVE OR MUTILATE CARD Y~3v4*':u'l irli4L 2 44,"" Id""'1''4 t 14 -Bo iVI I, Ir~$I I.tr~p,~,~a~ ~*, 'Wo 'Zor~F~r li*6~I "YrvrFg~i~;Iy mo11;v,~iy~~. ~~~tk Y'~'Ot~